Relationships and ancient contacts of Celtic
The question of the relationship of Common Celtic to the other Indo-European languages remains open. For some time, it was held that Celtic stood in an especially close relation to the Italic branch; some scholars even spoke of a period when an Italo-Celtic “nation” existed, toward the end of the 2nd millennium bc. The existence of a q–p relationship (see above) inside Italic too (e.g., Latin quattuor “four,” but Oscan petora) was thought by some to support this view. Much of this argument is, however, based on accidental resemblances (e.g., the Irish future tense in f- and the Latin future in b-) or on formations such as the deponent and passive verb forms ending in -r, which at one time were known mainly in Italic and Celtic but have since been found in the Hittite and Tocharian languages as well. The undeniable common features between Celtic and Italic, such as the superlative endings of adjectives (Latin -issimus; Celtic *-samos, *-isamos), are hardly sufficient to justify the assumption of a special relationship, and the whole concept of an Italo-Celtic unity has been powerfully criticized by the linguists Carl J.S. Marstrander and Calvert Watkins.
The original home of the Celts cannot be located precisely, but, on the whole, the evidence points to the eastern part of central Europe. There is more evidence for their contacts with other Indo-European peoples. One group of Celts, at least, found themselves neighbours of the Germanic peoples and were often confused with them by classical writers. It can be inferred that the Celts had attained a higher standard of social organization than the Germanic peoples from the existence of words such as Gothic reiki and andbahts (modern German Reich, Amt), apparently borrowed from Celtic *rīgion “kingdom” and *ambactos “officer.” To the Greeks and Romans, on the other hand, the Celts were inferior in culture; Celtic words in Greek are restricted to those describing Celtic institutions, such as bardoi “poets.” The borrowings from Celtic into Latin, which derive mainly from the period before the expansion of Roman power, belong to a few restricted categories, such as war (lancea “lance”), transport (carrus “baggage wagon” and carpentum “light carriage”), and agricultural products (cervesia “beer”). When the Romans finally conquered Gaul and imposed their language, a number of Celtic words came into Latin, but the Celtic terms were mainly concerned with rural life. These are more common in French dialects than in standard French, which preserves a mere handful, such as mouton “sheep,” ruche “beehive,” and arpent “land measure.”
Early records of Celtic
Continental Celtic
Celtic died out very quickly in eastern Europe. In its farthest outpost in Asia Minor, it may be assumed that the Letter of Paul to the Galatians was addressed to a people whose culture was already Greek but whose Celtic origins are clear from names preserved by classical authors; e.g., Drunemeton “the very sacred place,” formed from two distinctively Celtic elements. When commenting on that Letter, St. Jerome (died ad 419/420) said that the Galatians still spoke a language almost the same as that of the people of Trier. As he had been in both places, his evidence cannot be dismissed offhand, and it may be that a few speakers of Celtic still existed in both areas. Since St. Jerome did not claim to know any Celtic dialect, however, his statement cannot be accepted with certainty. Speaking generally, the history of Continental Celtic comes to an end as that of Insular Celtic begins.
Insular Celtic
The earliest evidence for Insular Celtic consists, like that for Continental Celtic, mainly of names recorded by Greek and Latin authors. In the case of Ireland, these were entirely by hearsay, and many of the Irish place-names recorded by Ptolemy in the 2nd century ad have not yet been identified. From perhaps the 4th century, ogham inscriptions (see alphabet) are found in Ireland, consisting almost entirely of personal names. From the 5th century onward, British names in Latin inscriptions are recorded in Wales, as well as Irish names in both Latin and ogham alphabets in areas of Irish settlement. These scanty records are of value above all in establishing that, up to very nearly the time at which written documents become available, British and Irish had remained similar in structure to Gaulish. Thus, in Britain is found the genitive (possessive form) Catotigirni, which in Old Welsh gives Cattegirn, and in Ireland the genitive Dovatuci exists, which in Old Irish gives Dubthaich. These changes—loss of final syllables and connecting vowels, weakening of consonants between vowels, and so on—are very similar to what was happening to Latin in France at the same time; e.g., Latin avicellus and aqua finally became oiseau and eau. There is no satisfactory explanation of why these profound changes should have occurred at this time, nor can the period at which they occurred be fixed precisely, for the engravers of the inscriptions clearly went on using traditional forms long after the sound had changed.