Introduction

One could argue that one of the most significant developments of the late twentieth century, particularly from an African perspective, pertains to the emergence of collaborative relationships between African states and the People’s Republic of China. This cooperation can be traced back as early as the 1950s (Gonondo 2017). According to analysts, this multifaceted cooperation, primarily established through bilateral agreements between individual African nations and China, represents the culmination of unofficial collaborative endeavors between these states while they were subjected to colonization by Western powers. This assertion is supported, for instance, by Yazini April and Garth Shelton (2014, 1), who assert the following in relation to South Africa:

The basis for South Africa’s relations with China rests on four pillars: China’s contribution to the defeat of colonisation in the rest of Africa, and particularly apartheid in South Africa; China and South Africa’s shared strategic approach to global issues and international relations; China’s support of Africa’s development efforts, coinciding with South Africa’s foreign policy commitment to the African agenda; and the Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa alliance. (BRICS)

At an individual level, numerous African nations have embarked on cooperative endeavors with China across various domains. Extensive research conducted by scholars such as Paul Zeleza (2014) and Deborah Brautigam (2011, 2015) illuminates the potential of this bilateral cooperation to foster remarkable economic growth in the countries involved, particularly when accompanied by well-defined development policies. The empirical evidence presented underscores the substantial investments made by African countries in the mining sector, reaching magnitudes that can be deemed considerable. Notably, based on data sourced from Standard and Poor’s Global Market Intelligence Database, experts estimate that China’s collaboration with Africa in the mining industry ranks second globally, following the Asia Pacific region, and accounts for 25% of Chinese investments in this domain (Xiaoliang Wang et al. 2021, 2). Through a comprehensive examination of the economic cooperation between the African continent and China, researchers have arrived at the following conclusion:

China and Africa are a community of shared benefits. China has realized the interests of African countries while realizing its own interests. In seeking its own development and transformation, China has helped African countries achieve economic development. This is an important value advocated by the concept of a community with shared future for mankind [sic]. It shows that sustainable development can be achieved through sharing, cooperation, win-win, and tolerance. With the emergence of global problems such as the financial crisis, climate warming, and the refugee problem, the interests of various countries are blended with each other. (Xiaoqin Ding et al. 2020, 228)

In addition to the economic exchanges between African countries and China that some consider mutually beneficial, cultural exchange also plays a significant role. As economic exchange inherently involves interactions between different people, the potential for cultural exchange between states has proven to be equally vital. For instance, studies conducted by Claude-Hélène Mayer and her team (2019) provide analyses of cultural exchange scenarios within small and medium-sized companies where Chinese individuals work alongside Africans. Papers such as “Cultural Insights into Chinese-African Management” (Mayer 2019), “Chinese Cultural Concepts and Their Influence on Management” (Zhaoyi Liu 2019), “African Cultural Concepts and Influence on Management” (Hadebe and Nkomo 2019), and “Language, Culture and Power in the Chinese-South African Telecommunications Sector” (Sun 2018), among others, demonstrate that economic exchange between Africans and Chinese is underpinned by cultural values. Understanding these values facilitates collaboration among people from diverse backgrounds who are called upon to work together in the economic sector. Furthermore, in addition to broader cultural understandings, cultural studies focusing on specific countries contribute to the understanding of Sino-African relations. These studies have been conducted on countries such as South Africa (Chigwendere 2019), Namibia (Haiyan Zhang et al. 2019), Rwanda (Boness 2019), Mozambique (Louw et al. 2019), Angola (Boness et al. 2019), Uganda (Muhangi 2019), Cameroon (Kenne 2019), and others.

If we consider all these cultural case studies conducted in various companies to demonstrate the significance of cultural exchange in terms of professional management, it is crucial to emphasize that cultural exchange between Africa and China extends to the education sector in Africa. These studies indeed exist, and among them, the work of Kathryn Batchelor and Xiaoling Zhang (2017) deserves mention. However, the primary question of this study pertains to the cooperation between Africa and China in the field of education. This paper examines the nature of this cooperation, the progress achieved thus far, and the challenges encountered in this regard. The primary focus of the investigation will be directed toward South Africa.

Cooperation Between South Africa and China in the Education Sector

The year 2023 represented a significant milestone in relations between South Africa and China, as it marked the twenty-fifth anniversary of their cooperative partnership, which was formally established in 1998. Notably, substantial economic advances have been observed since the initiation of this collaboration, as substantiated by scholarly research conducted by Jonathan Munemo (2013), Yazini and Garth (2014), and other scholars. Within the education sector, it is important to highlight that bilateral exchange occurs across two primary domains, namely primary and secondary education, as well as university education and scientific research.

At the Basic Education Level

Basic education in South Africa encompasses both the primary and secondary levels. The collaboration between South Africa and China witnessed significant expansion in 2014, marked by the signing of an agreement that introduced the teaching of the Chinese language within the South African education system. This agreement encompassed primary schools as well as high schools, where the Chinese language would be taught as a “Second Additional Language” (SAL). In her research, Maria De Man provides valuable insights, stating this agreement resulted “in the release of the first curriculum for Mandarin Chinese in South Africa, which was published by the Department of Basic Education in the same year, under the title Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) Grades 4–12: Mandarin Second Additional Language” (De Man 2017, ii). Furthermore, De Man’s study also highlights the difference between a policy and a strategy with regard to approaching South African languages; as per scholarly analysis, the aforementioned agreement confers upon the Chinese language an equivalent status as that of South African languages. This assessment considers the transformation of the policy originally intended to elevate South African languages to the status of First Additional Languages, which has now transitioned from being a policy to a strategic approach; consequently, according to scholars, this transition implies that South African languages have become Second Additional Languages, sharing a similar status as Mandarin (De Man 2017).

During the period when this agreement was implemented, some critics expressed concern regarding the elevation of the Chinese language to the status of Second Additional Language. These critics believed that the move would result in direct competition between the Chinese language and South African local languages, which seemed to lack comparable support from the South African government in comparison with the support that would be provided for Mandarin by the Chinese government. These critics articulated various reservations, including the following arguments:

Mandarin is not a priority. So are we suggesting that Mandarin has no place in South Africa’s education system? Not at all. In fact, it’s already here – at our universities. […] Is this worth the effort? No, it is not. South Africa must fix its existing system first. Once it has achieved its educational aims through appropriate research-based and empirically sound language-in-education policy implementation, then it can consider adding other world languages to its educational repertoire. For now, let Mandarin be taught at South Africa’s universities as is presently the case. (Maseko et al. 2015)

Enock Shishenge (2018) presented a highly critical perspective, concurring with the notion that “Africans are for sale again, as Mandarin takes over.” Shishenge highlighted the widespread teaching of Mandarin in South Africa, citing its presence in forty-four schools within the country. However, despite the negative criticism put forth by scholars such as Maseko and Shishenge, the South African government maintained a distinct viewpoint on the matter. From the South African government’s point of view, the inclusion of Mandarin as a Second Additional Language within the educational framework is expected to be of a non-compulsory nature, with its implementation varying across schools and not extending to every learner; this non-compulsory nature implies that schools that possess the necessary resources and capabilities to provide Mandarin as a subject will be allowed to do so, helping their learners to gain exposure to this new language (De Man 2017).

From this perspective, it is worth highlighting that currently, a limited number of schools across the entirety of South Africa incorporate the teaching of the Chinese language. Students attending these schools participate in state examinations based on the curriculum approved by the South African government. Through this collaborative endeavor, the Chinese government extends support to the schools in terms of materials and teaching personnel. It is noteworthy that, as part of this cooperation, certain teachers may receive compensation from the Chinese government. Furthermore, upon completion of their secondary education, these students may, under specific circumstances and criteria, become eligible for scholarships provided by Chinese universities to international students, allowing them to undertake or pursue their studies in various universities across the People’s Republic of China.

Chinese Schools in South Africa

One crucial aspect of the Chinese education sector is the emphasis that the People’s Republic of China places on the fundamental and strategic supporting role of education, science, technology, and skills. This is evident in their commitment to promoting the computerization and digitalization of education, as stated in the China Smart Education Bluebook: Digital Transformation of Chinese Education towards Smart Education 2022 (2022, 61).

However, it is interesting to note the near absence of Chinese international schools in South Africa. In contrast, countries such as France, England, Germany, Belgium, and the USA often have schools in host countries where the education system remains aligned with the respective country of origin. These international schools typically adopt teaching manuals and didactic materials from their country of origin, enabling students to participate in examinations and tests organized in accordance with the system of that country. As a result, students who complete their secondary education in these schools gain access to tertiary education in these overseas countries.

Nevertheless, such schools have yet to be established within the Chinese system, at least in South Africa. What could be the reasons behind this absence? Now, it is difficult to ascertain; however, some Chinese teachers in South Africa have provided possible explanations. These include, among others, challenges related to adapting to the Chinese academic calendar and the rapid advances regarding the integration of educational technology in Chinese schools. The establishment of Chinese international schools in a country of slower technological progress may pose difficulties for these schools:

China attaches great attention to the integration of Information Technology into education and teaching, which promotes education reform and innovation, and supports the construction of a high-quality education system. China sufficiently taps the multiplication and spillover effect of digital resources, adopts an application-driven approach in development of teaching content, serves the needs of teachers and students, and popularises informatised teaching. (China National Academy of Educational Sciences 2022a, 96–97)

The relentless pursuit of educational quality and innovation positions the People’s Republic of China as a country that continually adapts its education sector to keep up with technological and scientific advances that permeate all facets of national life. Notably, these innovative endeavors, deeply ingrained in the very principles of Chinese education, enabled China to successfully address the challenges of distance education during the Covid-19 pandemic, much earlier than many other nations in the world. It is crucial to emphasize that these innovation efforts undergo constant evaluation and monitoring through rigorous annual index reports. These reports aim to “assess the impact of technology on teaching and learning, school management, and student development, while revealing the level of digital transformation and its future trajectory” (China National Academy of Educational Sciences 2022b, 40).

While such advances in information technology within the education sector are considered a significant breakthrough, it is important to note that the rapid pace of this progress may hinder schools located outside of China from keeping up with the accelerated rhythm. This could be one of the reasons justifying the absence of Chinese schools in South Africa.

Despite the lack of Chinese international schools in South Africa, it is noteworthy that South African students are not deprived of access to Chinese universities, as their qualifications are recognized in China. The only requirement is for students to have participated in the language proficiency tests known as the HSK. There are six levels of HSK tests, namely HSK 1 to 6. Successfully passing the HSK Test for Chinese as a foreign language with a minimum of HSK level 3 allows South African students to pursue studies in China, similar to how students from German or French international schools would do within their respective systems. It is important to highlight that the HSK level 3 test assesses candidates’ ability to utilize the Chinese language to fulfil basic communication tasks in various aspects of life, study, and work. The HSK level 3 test primarily targets beginners with basic listening, reading, and writing skills in Chinese. The test focuses on Chinese listening, reading, and writing abilities, as well as related topics, tasks, grammar, and a vocabulary of around one thousand Chinese words. In terms of language proficiency comparison, achieving HSK level 3 would correspond to the B1 level of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR).

South African Schools that Cooperate with the Chinese Ministry of National Education

In the absence of Chinese schools in South Africa, certain schools receive support from Chinese institutions such as the Confucius Institute. These schools benefit from various forms of assistance, including the provision of teaching staff and school resources.

In terms of teaching staff, these schools receive support from teachers who are directly employed and paid by the Chinese government. The majority of these teachers are locally recruited and their primary responsibility is to teach Mandarin. They diligently prepare students to successfully participate in the examinations administered by the South African Department of Basic Education. It should be noted that these schools are predominantly private institutions, operating under the umbrella of the Independent Examinations Board. However, South African public schools that offer Mandarin programs also partake in state examinations concurrently with private schools. Each year, approximately one hundred students from both the private and public sectors sit for these examinations. In addition to Mandarin language instruction, the curriculum also includes elements of Chinese culture, encompassing topics such as history, philosophy, cuisine, and the contemporary lifestyle of Chinese society. It is important to mention that students from the public sector who participate in these examinations are obligated to write them simultaneously and under the same conditions as their counterparts in the private sector.

Youth Chinese Test (YCT) 1 to 4

In addition to the examinations administered by the South African Independent Examinations Board at the basic education level, students following the Chinese curriculum, which is often a minor component, receive support to participate in the Youth Chinese Test (YCT), a language proficiency test organized by the Chinese Ministry of Education. The YCT is designed to assess the acquisition of Chinese as a foreign language and is available at four proficiency levels (YCT 1, 2, 3, and 4), encompassing basic, intermediate, and advanced stages. This test serves as a means to evaluate the language skills of Chinese learners from around the world, similar to how the DELF examination is administered by the Alliances françaises in the French education system. The difference between the YCT and the HSK resides in their different spheres of administration, with the HSK primarily administered at the university level, and the YCT specifically tailored for primary and secondary school learners.

At the Level of Higher Education and Scientific Research

The relationship between China and South Africa in the field of education continues to expand, with a particular focus on university education and scientific research. Scholars such as Xia Zhu and Gladson Chikwa, among others, have highlighted the shared understanding between China and Africa regarding the significant role of education in fostering growth, reducing poverty, and promoting shared prosperity for all (Zhu and Chikwa 2021). While their study primarily examines Sino-African cooperation in the context of distance education, it nevertheless sheds light on the considerable progress made in Africa as a whole.

However, the current paper will specifically explore the non-distance tertiary education exchange between South Africa and China. Notably, branches of the Confucius Institute in South Africa serve not only as centers for cultural exchange, similar to the Alliance française and Goethe Institute, but also as educational and collaborative hubs that facilitate fruitful exchanges between South African and Chinese universities. These Confucius Institutes can be seen as catalysts for tertiary education between the two countries. Through these institutes, several South African universities have established partnership agreements with Chinese universities (Li 2021). These agreements primarily focus on the exchange of teaching staff, logistical support, teaching materials, and scholarships for students. Confucius Institutes are present in various South African universities, including the University of Cape Town, University of Stellenbosch, University of the Western Cape, University of Johannesburg, Durban University of Technology, and Rhodes University. These South African universities collaborate with specific Chinese universities, such as Rhodes University (South Africa) partnering with Jinan University in Guangzhou (China) and the University of Johannesburg (South Africa) collaborating with Nanjing Tech University in Jiangsu (China).

Regarding the exchange of teaching staff, the South African universities involved in the partnership benefit from qualified Chinese personnel who teach Chinese language and modules related to Chinese studies. These staff members, assigned to departments of Chinese studies where they exist, may also engage in scientific and cultural research activities. The partner universities are encouraged to develop joint research projects aligned with UNESCO objectives. It is important to note that these exchanges extend beyond the realm of the Chinese language, encompassing various disciplines. For instance, the Confucius Institute at the University of the Western Cape focuses on traditional Chinese medicine, while the Confucius Institute at the University of Johannesburg is primarily dedicated to engineering and scientific research laboratories.

Logistical assistance is provided to some South African universities through donations from their Chinese partner universities. These donations include, but are not limited to, teaching infrastructure and research laboratories, which contribute to an enhanced educational environment. It is worth noting that such facilities are available to all students and not limited to those enrolled in Chinese studies. Teaching materials are also provided through various donations, including textbooks, recordings, videos, computers, and software that students utilize for learning and research purposes.

Furthermore, the Chinese language is offered at South African universities as both a module and a program. For example, Rhodes University offers a master’s program in Chinese studies, making it the only South African, or even African, university to provide this program at the master’s level. Intensive exchanges at this level take place between Rhodes University and its partner Jinan University in China. Thus, Confucius Institutes foster collaboration in all scientific disciplines offered by the universities where they are established.

Scholarships for South African Students

The government of the People’s Republic of China provides numerous scholarships each year to South African students who intend to undertake or continue their studies at Chinese universities. These annual scholarships are announced by the Chinese Embassy, which takes on the responsibility of informing potential applicants through South African universities and high schools throughout the year. As the tertiary education sector is not in isolation, one could argue that these scholarships are the culmination of joint efforts between the two countries, both at the basic education level and in tertiary education. It is important to note that these scholarships cover a wide range of fields of study, with strict age limits for applicants. The age requirements vary, with a maximum age of 25 years for undergraduate studies, 35 years for master’s programs, and 40 years for doctoral studies.

In addition to the thirty government scholarships, prospective applicants may also apply for provincial scholarships offered by specific provinces in China, subject to certain conditions. Furthermore, the Chinese government extends “China-Africa Friendship” scholarships to South African students, enabling them to undertake short stays of up to six months in China.

The South African government should not only encourage its students to apply for these scholarships, but also establish similar scholarships for Chinese students who wish to pursue tertiary education in South Africa. This reciprocity is crucial for fostering bilateral cooperation. Statistical data reveals that South Africa may not be the preferred destination for Chinese students, as only 200 Chinese students enrolled individually in South African universities in 2022. In contrast, by comparison, a majority of Chinese students tend to enroll massively in European and American universities, with over 300,000 students in the USA alone in 2022.

Conversations with Chinese students indicate that this lack of interest in South African universities is primarily due to the negative portrayal of South Africa in the global media, often focusing on criminal activities within South African society. However, South Africa possesses modern universities that offer excellent teaching and highly competitive research facilities. Perhaps the promotion of the higher education and research sector in South Africa should be carried out in a more effective manner, emphasizing the myriad advantages that South African universities currently provide to the global academic community in terms of quality university education and scientific research.

Conclusion

Despite the disparity in student recruitment between the two education systems, the exchanges between China and Africa are founded on the mutual benefits gained by both parties involved. It is essential to view the future of Africa and China as a collaborative endeavor, wherein the prosperity of one is not achieved at the expense of the other, and vice versa (King 2020). Each party finds their own advantage while earnestly committing to coexistence. When examining the collaboration between China and Africa, scholars have consistently asserted that it is a joint venture driven by shared interests. As stated by scholars, “all of mankind [sic] is interconnected through a chain of common interests. The zero-sum game approach of shifting crises and causing harm to other nations can no longer address international disputes or safeguard national interests. Respecting and trusting one another, cooperating and providing mutual assistance are fundamental approaches to resolving these issues” (Xiaoqin Ding et al. 2020, 229). The remarkable accomplishments in the economic and trade cooperation between China and Africa will serve as a successful model of “South-South cooperation,” enticing more countries to participate in the building of a community that yields shared benefits. This statement holds true when considering the exchange between South Africa and China within the education sector. We hold the belief that the partnership between the two nations, which share a common history of mutual assistance rooted in their past struggle against colonialism, has the potential to serve as a prominent source of inspiration for other African nations as well as the international community. While researchers may hold divergent perspectives and conclusions regarding the benefits derived from these bilateral relations, it is noteworthy that a majority of researchers who argue that China is exploiting Africa and its resources to the detriment of Africans often focus on limited contexts, neglecting the broader considerations on the ground. Nonetheless, as we have referenced in this article, there is also research demonstrating that the African continent significantly benefits from its cooperation with the People’s Republic of China. Such a conclusion further bolsters the efforts undertaken by both parties to enhance this cooperation for a better future between the nations.

It is intriguing to observe that African nations themselves are the ones selecting their economic and educational partners. By viewing the choices made by these nations as a means of self-definition—rejecting the colonial or neo-colonial frameworks that have hindered their development for decades—we can interpret this as a resolute refusal of Western hegemony. Clearly, the future of Africa appears inseparable from its cooperation with China, as the present demonstrates a conscientious coexistence that lays a sturdy foundation for a promising future. These foundations are primarily built upon the education of the youth, which Africa regards as the vanguard of the continent’s survival. Whether Africa adopts Chinese or any other alternative methodologies within the education sector to redefine itself and support its indigenous education systems, it would epitomize a spirit of independence that Africa presently requires to redefine itself and embark on a fresh path of global cooperation.