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Mozart and the Tromlitz flute
© 2000 Ardal Powell
Author's note: this is an English version of 'Mozart
und die Tromlitz-Fl�te', as it appeared in Tibia
26.3 (2001)1
ABSTRACT: W.A. Mozart, J.J. Quantz, J.G. Tromlitz
and other educated musicians of the 18th century relied
on a tuning theory more complex and more accurate
than today's equal temperament. This article briefly
describes a flute announced by Tromlitz in 1785 that
allowed strict adherence to this system in all 24
keys. Quotations from Mozart's flute music illustrate
how using the intonation practice he advocated can
dramatically alter the expressive effect of his music.
In 1785 the Leipzig flute virtuoso, teacher, author,
and flute maker Johann
George Tromlitz (1725-1805) announced the development
of a new kind of flute. After a lifetime's experience
of playing and making flutes, and a few years of experiment
on improving the design of his instruments, he had developed
a type he could rightfully claim as the most technically
advanced flute of his time.
The Tromlitz
flute appeared at the beginning of a period of rapid
and energetic experimentation in flute design that culminated
in the modern flute, and until very recently it attracted
notice only as a stage in that evolution. As such it
made a notable gain: Tromlitz's flute of 1785 provided
the first practical model in which each of the twelve
semitones of the chromatic scale was produced by a separate
tonehole not shared by any other note. No more significant
acoustical advance was made in flute design until, in
1832, Theobald Boehm, who with his friend Carl von Schafhäutl
(1803-1890) indiscriminately called all the keyed flutes
of the time 'Tromlitz' flutes, employed elaborate keywork
to assign more acoustically correct positions to the
toneholes than those the unaided fingers could reach.
Yet today's interest in the historical performance
of classical music invites our closer attention to the
musical properties of the instrument itself. Tromlitz
developed his flute in pursuit of certain particular
ideas about tone and intonation,2 ideas
he also expressed in writing,3 as well
as in performances that attracted comments from his
contemporaries.4 Thus Tromlitz's flutes,
publications, and playing provide a rich store of information
from several different perspectives not only about how
he himself played, but also about what his contemporaries
heard in his playing, and about his reasons for playing
the way he did.
Tone and performance style
In 1754 Tromlitz joined the Grosses Konzert,
a private music club formed in Leipzig in 1743 from
the Collegium Musicum that had been founded by Telemann
and directed for a time by J. S. Bach. Over the next
20 years he appeared with the orchestra, as well as
in solo billing with stars such as the singer Gertrud
Elisabeth Schmeling and the keyboard player Johann Wilhelm
Hässler, not only in Leipzig but also on tours
as far afield as St Petersburg. These performances made
him famous for a soloistic style of playing the flute
that at that time was considered new, at least for the
flute. Tromlitz's obituary in the Allgemeine Musikalische
Zeitung recalled that,
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As a virtuoso he was distinguished by perfection,
but still more by complete purity of intonation
and security of tone, as by precision in performance.
He was also one of the first, and in respect of
the influence he had, the first, to introduce
the now usual bravura- and concerto-style way
of playing the flute, and especially the strong,
cutting tone best suited to it. . .
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Als Virtuos war er durch Fertigkeit, noch mehr
aber durch vollkommene Reinheit und Sicherheit
des Tones, wie durch Genauigkeit im Spiel ausgezeichnet.
Er war auch einer der Ersten, und in Absicht der
Einfluss der Erste, die die jetzt gewöhnliche
bravour- und konzertmässige Behandlung der
Flöte und vornemlich den dazu am besten geeigneten
starken, scharfen Ton . . . einfuhrten . . . hat.5
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A still more evocative description of Tromlitz's tone
is given by an anonymous reviewer of his book of 1800
about the new keyed flute, Über
die Flöten mit mehrern Klappen:
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Anyone who still remembers the author's public
appearances as a flute-player knows . . . that
he melted the tone of the flute and the oboe into
one another.
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Wer sich noch daran errinert, wie der Verfasser
als Flötenspieler öffentlich auftrat,
der weiß . . ., daß er der Ton derl
Föte und der Oboe ineinander Verschmolz.6
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Tromlitz spoke for himself about tone in his pamphlet
of 1786 on flute-playing, in Chapter 6 of his
tutor for the two-keyed flute, published in 1791,
and in an essay of 1800 in the Allgemeine Musikalische
Zeitung. In the latest of these works he described
his ideal flute tone as "bright, metallic, firm,
well focused, strong and brilliant" [hell, von
viel Metall, voll, singend, sanft und beigsam], and
in the earliest wrote that:
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a good flutist must have a strong low register
and a weak high one. . . The high register of
the flute carries much more than the low, therefore
one must certainly seek to soften the high so
that it does not shriek like a fife, but at the
same time the tone must not be made too repressed
and fearful; the low register must be more penetrating
and fuller, but still so that both, high and low,
stand in an equal relation.
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. . . man sagt: 'ein guter Flötenist muß
eine starke Tiefe und schwache Höhe haben.'.
. . Die Höhe auf der Flöte sticht weit
mehr durch, als die Tiefe, daheo muß man
zwar die Höhe zu mildern suchen, daß
sie nicht wie eine Querpfeife schreyt, aber den
Ton muß auch nicht zu sehr gedrückt
und ängstlich gemacht werden; die Tiefe muß
schärfer und vller werden, aber doch so,
daß beydes, Höhe und Tiefe, in einem
gleichen Verhältnisse stehen.
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In Saxony during the 1760s and 70s this style of playing
may have been unusual enough to attract special notice,
but by the 1790s it had become widespread, certainly
among professional players and traveling soloists. In
a flute tutor published in London in 1793, John Gunn
wrote that by that time "every public performer"
played with
. . . a bold and warlike expression of those full
and loud tones, which seem to emulate the notes
of the trumpet. . .
The increase in the frequency and size of public performance
of concertos and solos, both by traveling virtuosos
and in groups of amateur musicians, seems to have been
linked with this growing taste for a harder, more brilliant
tone, as well as with the emergence of keyed flutes
with their more penetrating and even low register. The
new style stood in direct opposition to the more relaxed
style of playing popular earlier in the eighteenth century,
and still cultivated by amateurs, perhaps especially
in England.7 Gunn describes the older
manner of playing, still typical of amateurs and dilettantes
". . . the character of which . . . is softness, grace,
and tender expression."
Intonation
The other of Tromlitz's chief concerns was intonation.
Although equal temperament had long been used in keyboard
tuning and was making itself felt in the theory of melody
instrument design,8 'the bases then
[i.e. during Quantz's lifetime] accepted for tuning
often differed fundamentally from modern views', as
Edward R. Reilly noted in 1997. 9
Throughout his writings Tromlitz emphatically and repeatedly
insisted that intervals, either between melodic steps
in the flute part, or between the flute and its accompanying
bass part, should be played 'pure', and that tempering
intervals on melody instruments was both impractical
and undesirable. Today pure intervals are a rarity in
instrumental music except among the finest orchestral
woodwind sections: the out-of-tuneness of an equal-tempered
keyboard no longer strikes us as horrid, and many flutists
are in thrall to the mistaken idea that playing "in
tune" means matching the notes to the same pitches
on the piano or harpsichord. Yet a keyboard with only
12 divisions to the octave can manage to be only approximately
in tune if it is to be usable in 12 major and minor
keys, and there is a world of difference between this
approximation and the sound of pure intervals. Tromlitz
wrote that wind instruments have the option of playing
better in tune in 24 keys than any keyboard can do in
half that number:
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It is possible for [the flute] to be more perfectly
in tune than the keyboard, on which no interval
except the octave can be quite pure, so that it
cannot agree in tuning all the time with a good
flute-player who scrupulously observes everything
that has been said above, or with a good violinist
who plays in tune.
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Eine dergleichen Stimung is weit schwerer, als
die auf dem Claviere, und dennoch ist es möglich,
daß dieses instrument . . . reiner gestimmet
werden kann, als das Clavier, auf welchem kein
Intervall, als die Octaven, ganz rein seyn kann,
dahero kann es auch nicht überall zu einem
guten Flötenspieler, der alles Vorhergesagte
genau beobachtet, oder zu einem guten Geiger,
der rein spielet, passen.10
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He advised the student, in his 1791 tutor for the two-keyed
flute, to train his ear to hear the intervals correctly,
and although he mentions 5ths and 3rds,
he most frequently reminds us how important it is to
learn the "semitones and whole tones in particular",
"and how they are supposed to sound".
J.J.
Quantz had explained the proportions of the semitones
in 1752:
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The motive which induced me to add yet another
key, not previously used, to the flute, stems
from the difference between large and small semitones.
When a note on the same line or space as another
note is raised with a sharp, or lowered with a
flat, the difference between the altered note
and the principal note consists of a small semitone.
When, on the other hand, one note stands on the
line while the other stands a step higher, and
is lowered with a flat; or if one note stands
on the line, and is raised with a sharp, while
the other stnads on the space a step higher, and
remains natural, the difference amounts to a large
semitone. The large semitone has five commas,
the small one only four.
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Die Ursache, welche mich veranlasset hat,
der Flöte noch eine Klappe, welche vorhin
nicht gewesen ist, hinzufügen, rühet
von dem Unterschiede der großen und kleinen
halben Ton her. Wenn eine Note auf eben derselben
Linie, order auf eben demselben Zwischenraume
durch ein Kreuz erhöhet . . . oder durch
ein b erniedriget wird . . . so bestehet
der Unterschied zwischen dieser und dem Haupttone,
aus einem kleinen halben Tone. Wenn hingegen eine
Note auf der Linie, die andere aber eine Stufe
höher steht, und durch ein b erniedriget
wird . . . oder wenn eine Note auf der Linie steht,
und durch ein Kreuz erhöhet wird; die andere
aber auf dem Zwischenraume, eine Stufe höher
ist, und natürlich belibt . . . : so beträgt
der Unterschied zwischen diesen beyden Noten,
einen großen halben Ton. Der große
halbe Ton hat fünf Kommata, der kleine aber
hat deren vier.11
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Thus in Quantz's tuning system, whichTromlitz, like
other educated musicians of his period, espoused, the
octave contained not twelve but twenty-four notes, with
distinct fingerings for every enharmonic pair.12
The disappearance of these major and minor semitones
is perhaps the most notable of many shifts to have occured
over the past 200 years in the way music sounds.13
The Tromlitz flute
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Three views of Tromllitz's flute of 1796, showing
(left)keys for G#, long and short F, and D#; (middle)
keys for C, long and short B flat, G#, long and
short F, D# and E flat; (right) keys for C, long
and short B flat, the short F touchpiece just
visible, E flat and D#.
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In the late 18th century, this shift
had not yet taken place. During the period when
Tromlitz was making his reputation as a performer,
in the 1760s and 70s, he, like Quantz, was playing
on a two-keyed flute of his own design. Despite
the extreme limitations of this type of flute
for realizing his precise notions of intonation,
but perhaps in deference to Quantz's example,
it was the two-keyed flute he recommended in his
tutor of 1791. He looked back on this unsatisfactory
situation in 1800:
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For a long time now, discerning flautists
have been remarking on deficiencies of various
sorts in this instrument, which have been
the cause of many impediments and imperfections
in playing; but no means have been presented
of alleviating these deficiencies. In fact
it has even been maintained that they were
natural faults of the instrument which could
not be eliminated. So people did not concern
themselves with them, and just let them
pass.
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Lange schon sind von einsichtsvollen Flötenisten
Mängel verschiedener Art an diesem
Instrumente bemerket worden, welche viele
Hindernisse und viele Unvolkommenheiten
im Spielen verursachten; aber kein Mittel
wollte sich darbieten, diese Mängel
zu heben. Ja man glaubte gar, es wären
Naturfehler dieses Instruments, die nicht
gehoben werden könnten. Man bekümmerte
sich also nicht weiter darum, und ließ
es so gehen.14
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However by the early 1780s, a decade before he
published his tutor for the two-keyed flute, Tromlitz
had begun adding keys to his flutes, as London
flutemakers had already been doing for about 30
years.15 His quest for a "superlative
instrument" led him after only a few years
of experiment to the design of 1785, in which
for the first time all 24 notes in an octave could
be played with accurate intonation and equal tone.
For Tromlitz, this was an achievement literally
twice as important as the one he is credited with
by later writers.
By 1796, his most advanced instruments were being
made with keys for D#, Eb, double F, G#,
double Bb and C, and four years later Tromlitz
published a tutor for this instrument. He wrote
that, though the maker could tune the notes produced
by the keys so as to be usable as both sharps
and flats, they could more usefully be tuned as
flats and a different fingering used for the lower-sounding
sharps. The detailed fingering tables in the 1800
work listed all the large and small semitones,
as well as exhaustive examples of how to play�perfectly
in tune, with pure intervals�in all keys. In his
Foreword he noted that by no means all flutists
were in a position to appreciate the importance
of this development:
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In general people think that anyone who from
much practice has acquired a certain facility
in the usual keys and commonplace passage-work
is a Virtuoso. But, dear reader, he is not; he
is only someone who makes a living from this instrument,
not a Virtuoso; since for this is required a thorough
knowledge of music, which he must possess and
be able to apply, so that he does not just parrot
other people's conventional ideas, but can produce
new and artful idioms even in the remotest keys.
This has a marvellous and exquisite effect, especially
on the flute. However it is seldom if ever to
be heard on this instrument, because on a one-keyed
flute it cannot be done.
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Überhaupt glaubt man, daß der,
der sich durch vieles Üben einige Fertigkeit
in den gewöhnlichen Tonarten und alltäglichen
Passagen erworben hat, eine Virtuose sey. Allein,
mein Lieber, das ist er nicht, er is nur einer,
der Profession von diesem Instrumente macht, aber
kein Virtuos; denn dazu gehöret eine weitläufige
Kenntniß in der Music, die er besitzen und
anwenden können muß, damit er nicht
nur andern ihre alltägliche Gedanken nachbeten
darf, sondern neue und kïnstliche Wendungen
auch in den entfernsten Tonarten hervorbringen
könne. Dieß macht vorzüglich auf
der Flöte eine herrliche und vorterffliche
Wirkung. Allein man höret es auf diesem Instrumente
selten oder gar nicht, weil es auf einer Flöte
mit einer Klappe nicht möglich zu machen
ist.
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Mozart and intonation
At the same time as Tromlitz was developing a flute
that made Quantz's tuning system so much more practically
achievable, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) was
teaching the same theoretical framework to an English
composition pupil in Vienna. Thomas Attwood's lessons
in theory and thorough-bass took place from 1785 to
about the beginning of 1787. Among the details in Attwood's
notes that are written in Mozart's hand are chromatic
scales with enharmonic equivalents showing large and
small semitones, and the sizes of intervals as the sum
of whole tones and differently-sized semitones. Mozart
himself made corrections to other material that appears
in Attwood's hand, which John Hind Chesnut discussed
in an important article in 1977.16
Chesnut concluded that Mozart taught Attwood the same
rules of tonality and intonation as the ones in practical
manuals for performance by Tosi, Quantz, Leopold Mozart,
Tromlitz, and others. He concluded: "Modern intonation
practice is not appropriate if our goal is to play Mozart's
music as he himself wanted it played."
With the Tromlitz flute in hand, we can put Chesnut's
conclusion to the test. A chromatic scale played with
Tromlitz's fingerings sounds very different from the
smooth, homogenized sequence of intervals we are accustomed
to hearing. And passages containing the kind of chromaticism
Mozart uses to paint melodies and enhance their features
seems much stronger and more challenging when interpreted
as Mozart imagined them compared to the comparitively
bland effect when played with equal-sized semitones.
In ensemble music the contrast between concords that
sound perfectly in tune and discords that sound jarring
greatly increases the tonal pull of the music as well
as its dramatic power. W.A. Mathieu wrote that even
when listening to Mozart on a good day, the ear gets
tired and restless in twelve-tone equal temperament.
Indeed, playing Mozart's music according to his own
specifications as to intonation practice can have a
dramatic result on its expressive quality.
Example 1
Mozart's flute music provides abundant examples of
his expressive use of these intonation features, but
only four brief excerpts must suffice here. In the first
subject of the Andante ma non troppo of Mozart's
D major concerto K. 314 (see example 1 above), chromatic
appogiaturas play a structural role. On the first beat
of bars 12, 13, and 14, the G#s and A# should sound
a large semitone below their upper neighbors. All the
notes marked with an asterisk, in fact, sound much lower
than they would in equal temperament, in direct opposition
to the tendency of conservatoire-trained musicians since
the mid-nineteenth century to sharpen leading
notes.
Example 2
The Adagio of Mozart's Quartett in D KV 285
for flute and strings (example 2 above) employs appogiaturas
in a similar manner. For a one- or two-keyed flutist
to execute the E#s in bars 2, 3 and 5 of the example
so that they sound low enough is already difficult,
owing to the fact that a separate fingering for E# does
not exist, and that for F (a comma sharper than E#)
already has a tendency to be sharp on most flutes. Tromlitz's
flute provides an appropriately low fingering for this
note, as well as for the D# in bar 7.
Example 3
Another of Mozart's flute quartets, KV 298 in A major,
appears to have been composed a year or so after Tromlitz
announced his new flute in 1785. The key of A major
fits well on most German keyed flutes of the period,
which tend to have D# and G# tuned lower than their
equal-tempered pitches. The Tromlitz flute, however,
provides the added advantage of correct fingerings for
A# and E#. On a one-keyed flute the Rondeau of
KV 298 (example 3 above) comes across with far less
success, especially in a large room.
Example 4
A passage from the Allegro of quartet in D KV
285 (example 4 above) illustrates the unsettling effect
of chromaticism in the Mozartian tuning system. Rather
than slipping gently from one key to another, the listener
feels the tonal ground shifting beneath his feet at
such moments. The 'harmonic experience', to use W.A.
Mathieu's expression, of the key of D major when it
reappears, feels like the solid footing of the dock
after a trip on a sailing vessel. 17
Performing Mozart's music today
Though our picture of Tromlitz's manner of playing
and of the instrument he developed to facilitate it
is clear enough to reveal much about 18th-century
musical taste and practice, it would be a mistake to
conclude that that everybody played the same way as
he did�the contemporary reports of his excellence are
testimony to that, and after all he produced his exceptional
instruments one at a time in his one-man workshop, not
in a factory that sold to the trade. Indeed it is tempting
to speculate that when Mozart referred to the flute
as "an instrument I cannot bear" it was because
few of his contemporaries observed the distinctions
in intonation Tromlitz was so careful to make. That
Mozart shared Tromlitz's concern for correct intonation
is clear from his words of praise for his friend the
Mannheim flutist Johann Baptist Wendling:
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It's another thing with your brother, you
know. In the first place he's not just a tootler,
and then you don;t have to worry in his case when
you know there's such and such a note coming up
that he'll be much too flat or too sharp--see,
it's always right and he has his heart and ears
and the tip of his tongue in the right place and
doesn't think his job is done just by blowing
and fingering, and then he also knows what Adagio
means.
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Ja wissens das ist was anders beim Herrn Bruder.
Der ist erstens kein so Dudler, und dann braucht
man bei ihm nicht jedesmal Angst zu haben, wenn
man weiss, jetzt soll der eine Ton kommen, ist
er wohl so viel zu tief oder zu hoch�schauens,
da ists immer recht, er hat's Herz und die Ohren
und das Zungenzpitzl am rechten Ort und glaubt
nicht, dass mit dem blossen Blasen und Gabelmachen
schon was ausgerichtet sei, und dann weiss er
auch, was Adagio heisst.18
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Although Tromlitz's executive skill, likeWendling's,
was surely exceptional, his ideas on intonation were
clearly in the mainstream of educated musical practice
in the 18th century. And even the brief examples
here should indicate that their effect in the performance
of Mozart's music amounts to more than a minor quibble.
Yet it must be noted that while most of today's historical-instrument
flutists have cultivated the 'soft and tender' style
Gunn referred to, only one or two notable exceptions
have made any attempt to play classical music in a style
that resembles that of the period's professional players.
Still less have today's interpreters of the classical
repertoire on 'original' flutes absorbed the intonation
practice spelled out by Mozart, Tromlitz, Quantz, and
others, though interestingly oboists and even clarinetists
tend to play with more attention and sensitivity to
such matters. Of course, how to apply what we learn
of contemporary ideas and performance practice in our
own interpretations of late 18th-century
music is a difficult question: clearly, our conditions
are quite different from those of 200 years ago. But
the parallels between Tromlitz's ideas of intonation
and those of Mozart, and the dramatic expressive effect
of putting them into practice in place of an unthinking
adherence to modern convention, makes experiencing these
ideas an indispensable study for anyone who wishes to
understand the true nature of Mozart's musical feeling
and bring it alive today.
Notes
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1. Parts of this essay were read at the 1995 meeting
of the American Musical Instrument Society, and published
in 'The Tromlitz Flute', Journal of the Americal
Musical Instrument Society XXII (1996), 89-109.
Other material is taken from Ardal Powell, trans. and
ed., The
Keyed Flute by Johann George Tromlitz (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1996) (hereafter The Keyed Flute),
in which further detail and documentation on the points
covered in this article may be found. 'Powerful tone
and perfect intonation: Tromlitz and his "superlative
instrument"', a paper read at the Convention of
the National Flute Association, Phoenix AZ, 13 August
1999, gave a practical demonstration of the effects
of using appropriate intonation practices in Mozart's
music. Research on the Tromlitz flute was funded by
a 1993-94 Fellowship from the National Endowment for
the Humanities' program for College Teachers and Independent
Scholars.
2. Tromlitz described his motivation
as a flute maker in the pamphlet An das musikalische
Publikum, Leipzig;[Author], 1796; R/1982; translated
in The Keyed Flute, Appendix II.
3. Tromlitz's didactic writings are:
Johann George Tromlitz, Kurze Abhandlung vom Flötenspielen,
Leipzig: Breitkopf, 1786
-----Ausführlicher
und Gründlicher Unterricht die Flöte zu Spielen
Leipzig: Böhme, 1791, trans. and ed. Ardal Powell,
The Virtuoso Flute-player by Johann George Tromlitz
(Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press,
1991)
-----Über
die Flöten mit mehrern Klappen, Leipzig: Böhme,
1800, trans. and ed. Ardal Powell, The Keyed Flute
by Johann George Tromlitz (Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1996)
-----"Abhandlung über den Schönen Ton auf
der Flöte", Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung
2 (January 1800), 301-04 and 316-20.
He wrote about his flute making activities in a series
of articles and pamphlets:
Johann George Tromlitz, "Nachricht von Tromlitz Flöten",
in Johann Georg Meusel, ed., Miscellaneen artistischen
Inhaltes 8 (1781), 115-21
-----"Nachricht von Tromlitz'schen Flöten",in
C. F. Cramer ed., Magazin der Muzik, 1. 2 (Hamburg,
1783), 1013-21, trans. Ardal Powell, "Information on
Tromlitz flutes", Traverso 6. 1 (January 1994),
1-2
-----"Neuerfundene Vortheile zur bessern Einrichtung
der Flöte", in Johann Georg Meusel, ed., Miscellaneen
artistischen Inhaltes 26 (1785), 104-09
-----"An das musikalische Publikum", Musikalische
Korrespondenz der teutschen filarmonischen Gesellschaft,
32-4 (10-24 Aug. 1791) 252-69
-----An das musikalische Publikum Leipzig, 1796
R/1982
-----`Replik auf die Anfrage,"Sollten nicht undere
Flöten durch die vielen Klappen sehr verloren haben;
und hat jemand beweisen, daß die nöthig waren"',
Kaiserlich-privilegierter Reichszanzeiger,
Gotha, 1800, No. 98, 1271-72.
4. Most of the relevant reviews of
Tromlitz's playing are quoted in Fritz
Demmler, Johann George Tromlitz (1725-1805): Ein
Beitrag zur Entwicklung der Flöte und des Flötenspiels,
Ph. D. dissertation, Freie Universität, Berlin,
1961; R/1985.
5. 'Nachricht über das Ableben
von Tromlitz', Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung
7 (1805), 337-38.
6. Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung
II (1800), 600 ff., quoted in Demmler.
7. On ideals of flute tone in the late
eighteenth century, see section 2 of the Introduction
to The Keyed Flute.
8. The first to actually suggest that
wind instruments should be tuned with equal-sized semitones
sems to have been Anon. [H. W. T. Pottgiesser], 'Über
die Fehler der bisherigen Flöten, besonders der
Klappenflöten, nebst einem Vorschlage zur Besseren
Einrichtung derselben', Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung
5, (1803), 609-16, 625-38, 644-54, 673-83.
9. Edward R. Reilly, 'Quantz and the
transverse flute: Some aspects of his practice and thought
regarding the instrument', Early Music 25 (1997),
429-38
10. Unterricht, 3.22
11. Versuch 3.8
12. For further discussion of vocal
and instrumental intonation practice, see Bruce Haynes,
'Beyond Temperament: Non-Keyboard Intonation in the
17th and 18th Centuries', Early Music 19 (August
1991), 357-81
13. Mary Oleskiewicz makes a strong
argument for the importance of intonation in Bach's
flute music in "The Trio Sonate in Bach's Musical Offering:
A Salute to Frederick's Tastes and Quantz's Flutes?"
in Bach Perspectives, vol. 4: The Music of J.S. Bach,
Analysis and Interpretation (Lincoln: University
of Nebraska Press, 1999), 79-110.
14. Über die Flöten
mit mehrern Klappen, 1.1
15. For details of Tromlitz's work
on his flute, and a comparison with the activities of
other instrument makers in Germany, France, Austria,
Italy, and England, see the Introduction to The Keyed
Flute, and 'The Tromlitz Flute'.
16. John Hind Chesnut, 'Mozart's Teaching
of Intonation', Journal of the American Musicological
Society 30 (1977), 254-71
17. W.A. Mathieu, Harmonic Experience
(Rochester VT: Inner Traditions International, 1997)
18. Jane Bowers, 'Mozart and the Flute',
Early Music 20.1 (Feb 1992), 32, citing H. Abert,
W.A. Mozart: Neubearbeitete und erweiterte Ausgabe
von Otto Jahns Mozart, 2 Vols, (Leipzig, 7/1955-6),
i, 473, who in turn cites Wolzogen, Recensionen
1865, No. 6, 82.
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