ROUTLEDGE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF TRANSLATION STUDIES Page intentionally left blank ROUTLEDGE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF TRANSLATION STUDIES Edited by MONA BAKER assisted by KIRSTEN MALMKJlER London and New York First published 1998 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York NY 10016 Reprinted 2000 Transferred to Digital Printing 2005 First published in paperback 2001 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group © 1998,2001 Mona Baker Typeset in 9 I 11 pt Times by Mathematical Composition Setters Ltd, Salisbury, Wilts. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies I edited by Mona Baker. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Translating and interpreting-Encyclopedias.!. Baker, Mona. P306.E57 418'.02'03-dc21 96-44586 CIP ISBN 0-415-09380-5 (hbk) ISBN 0-415-25517-1 (pbk) Contents viii List offigures and tables List of consultant editors List of contributors Introduction Permissions acknowledgements Part 1: General Action (theory of 'translatorial action') Adaptation Analytical philosophy and translation Anthologies of translation Association intemationale des interpretes de conference (AIIC) Auto-translation Babel, tower of Bible translation Communicative/ functional approaches Community interpreting Compensation Conference and simultaneous interpreting Contrastive analysis and translation Corpora in translation studies Court interpreting Decision making in translation Didactics of translation Direction of translation (directionality) Discourse analysis and translation Drama translation Dubbing Equivalence Explicitation Federation intemationale des traducteurs (FIT) Free translation Game theory and translation Gender metaphorics in translation Hermeneutic motion lX X Xlll xix Christina Schiiffner Georges L Bastin Kirsten Malmkjrer Armin Paul Frank 3 5 8 13 Janet Altman Rainier Grutman Douglas Robinson Eugene A. Nida Jan Mason Cecilia Wadensj6 Keith Harvey Daniel Gile Michael Hoey and Diane Houghton Dorothy Kenny Muhammad Gamal Wolfram Wilss Hans J. Vermeer Allison Beeby Lonsdale Basil Hatim Gunilla Anderman Mona Baker and Brano Hochel Dorothy Kenny Kinga Klaudy Jean-Fran�ois Joly Douglas Robinson Michael Cronin Lori Chamberlain Douglas Robinson 16 17 21 22 29 33 37 40 45 50 53 57 60 63 67 71 74 77 80 85 87 91 93 97 vi History of translation Ideology and translation Imitation Interpretive approach Intertemporal translation Language teaching, use of translation in Linguistic approaches Literal approaches Literary translation, practices Literary translation, research issues Machine-aided translation Machine translation, applications Machine translation, history Machine translation, methodology Metaphor of translation Metaphrase Models of translation Multilingualism and translation Normative model Norms Paraphrase Poetics of translation Poetry translation Polysystem theory Pragmatics and translation Pseudotranslation Psycholinguistic/ cognitive approaches Publishing strategies Pure language Quality of translation Qur'lin (Koran) translation Reviewing and criticism Script in translation Semiotic approaches Shakespeare translation Shifts of translation Signed language interpreting Skopos theory Speculative approaches Strategies of translation Subtitling Term banks Terminology, applications Terminology, standardization Terminology, theory Text linguistics and translation Think-aloud protocols Translatability Torah translation Translator-training institutions Translation studies Contents Judith Woodsworth Peter Fawcett Douglas Robinson Myriam Salama-Carr Douglas Robinson Guy Cook Peter Fawcett Douglas Robinson Peter Bush Jose Lambert Karl-Heinz Freigang Harold L. Somers Harold L. Somers Harold L. Somers Ruth Evans Douglas Robinson Thea Hermans Rainier Grutman Douglas Robinson Mona Baker Douglas Robinson Edwin Gentzler DavidConnolly Mark Shuttleworth Basil Hatim Douglas Robinson Roger T. Bell Terry Hale Peter Bush Juliane House lfassan Mustapha Carol Maier Gordon Brotherston Umberto Eco and Siri Nergaard Dirk Delabastita Matthijs Bakker, Cees Koster and Kitty van Leuven-Zwart William P.Isham Christina Schaffner Marilyn Gaddis Rose Lawrence Venuti Henrik Gottlieb Blaise Nkwenti-Azeh JuanC. Sager JuanC. Sager JuanC. Sager BasilHatim Riitta Jiiiiskeliiinen MichaelAlpert Anthony Pym and Horst Turk Monique Caminade and Anthony Pym Mona Baker 100 106 111 112 114 117 120 125 127 130 134 136 140 143 149 153 154 157 161 163 166 167 170 176 179 183 185 190 194 197 200 205 211 218 222 226 231 235 238 240 244 249 251 255 258 262 265 269 273 277 280 vii Contents Unit of translation Universals of translation Kirsten MalmkjtZr Sara Laviosa- Braithwaite 286 288 Paul Bandia Lawrence Venuti Mona Baker Heloisa Gon{alves Barbosa and Lia Wyler Roger Ellis and Liz Oakley- Brown Anna Lilova Jean Delisle EvaHung and David Pollard Zlata Kufnerova and Ewald Osers ViggoHjf)rnager Pedersen and Per Qvale TheoHermans AndrewChesterman Myriam Salama-Carr Harald Kittel andAndreas Poltermann DavidConnolly andAliki Bacopoulou-Halls Gideon Toury Gyorgy Rad6 Keneva Kunz Ramesh Krishnamurthy Riccardo Duranti Masaomi Kondo and Judy Wakabayashi Louis G. Kelly Georges L. Bastin Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak Elibieta Tabakowska Janos Kohn Vilen N. Komissarov Zlata Kufnerovt:l, Ewald Osers and BrafwHochel Anthony Pym Lars Wollin Saliha Paker 295 305 3 16 Part II: History and Traditions African tradition American tradition Arabic tradition Brazilian tradition British tradition Bulgarian tradition Canadian tradition Chinese tradition Czech tradition Danish and Norwegian traditions Dutch tradition Finnish tradition French tradition Gennan tradition Greek tradition Hebrew tradition Hungarian tradition Icelandic tradition Indian tradition Italian tradition Japanese tradition Latin tradition Latin American tradition Persian tradition Polish tradition Romanian tradition Russian tradition Slovak tradition Spanish tradition Swedish tradition Turkish tradition Bibliography Index 326 333 347 356 365 376 384 392 401 409 418 428 439 448 456 464 474 485 495 505 5 13 523 533 54 1 550 552 563 57 1 583 639 List of figures and tables Figures Figure 1 : Informal graph showing the history of machine translation 143 Figure 2: The pyramid diagram, probably first used by Vauquois ( 1968) 145 Figure 3: 'A framework for mechanical translation' from Yngve (1957) 146 Figure 4: Two possible linguistic representations for the sentence The machine should be turned on 146 Figure 5: Hieroglyphic forms of humans and animals on Stela D at Copan , Honduras 2 14 Figure 6: 'La Colombe poignardee et le jet d'eau' by Guillaume Apollinaire 2 16 Figure 7: ' ll pleut' by Guillaume Apollinaire 2 17 Figure 8: Terminology 259 Figure 9: Holmes' map of translation studies 278 Figure 10: Toury's map of the relation between translation studies and its applied extensions 278 Figure 11 : Translator-training institutions: frequency of creation over five-year periods 284 Tables Table 1: Typology of translation 246 Table 2: Translated works published in Iceland 461 Consultant editors Eugene A. Nida Consultant to American Bible Society, Pennsylvania, USA Marilyn Gaddis Rose Distinguished Service Professor, Centre for Research in Translation, State University of New York at Binghamton, USA Douglas Robinson University of Mississippi, USA Peter Fawcett Department of Modern Languages, University of Bradford, UK Michael Hoey Professor of English, University of Liverpool, UK Gideon Toury M. Bernstein Chair of Translation Theory, Tel Aviv University, Israel Susan Bassnett Professor, Graduate School of Comparative Literary Theory and Literary Translation, University of Warwick, UK Contributors Michael Alpert Lori Chamberlain University of Westminster, London, UK California, USA Janet Altman Conference interpreter; UK Gunilla Anderman University of Surrey, UK Andrew Chesterman University of Helsinki, Finland David Connolly Ionian University, Corfu, Greece Aliki Bacopoulou-Halls Guy Cook University of Athens, Greece Institute of Education, Mona Baker UMIST, Manchester, UK Matthijs Bakker Universiteit van Amsterdam, The Netherlands PauiBandia Martinique Heloisa Gon��tlves Barbosa Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Georges L. Bastin Universite de Montreal, Quebec, Canada Allison Beeby Lonsdale Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona Roger I. Bell University of London, UK Michael Cronin Dublin City University, Ireland Dirk Delabastita Facultes Universitaires Notre-Dame de Ia Paix, Namur, Belgium Jean Delisle Universite d'Ottawa, Canada Riccardo Duranti Universita di Roma 'La Sapienza', Italy Umberto Eco University of Bologna, Italy Roger Ellis University of Lancaster, UK University of Wales Cardiff, UK Gordon Brotherston University of Wales Cardiff, UK University of Essex, UK, and Indiana University, Bloomington, USA Peter Bush Middlesex University, UK Ruth Evans Peter Fawcett University of Bradford, UK Monique Caminade Georg-August-Universitiit Gottingen, Calaceite, Spain Germany Armin Paul Frank Contributors xi Karl-Heinz Freigang Riitta JWiskeUiinen Universitat des Saarlandes, Saarbriicken, University of Joensuu, Finland Germany Jean-Fran�is Joly Marilyn Gaddis Rose Quebec, Canada State University of New York at Binghamton, USA Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak University of Washington, USA Muhammad Gamal CLTR, University of Queensland, Australia Louis G. Kelly Darwin College, Cambridge Edwin Gentzler University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA Dorothy Kenny Dublin City University, Dublin Daniel Gile Universite Lurniere Lyon II, France Harald Kittel Georg-August-Universitiit Gottingen, Germany Henrik Gottlieb University of Copenhagen, Denmark Rainier Grutman University of Ottawa, Canada Terry Hale British Centre for Literary Translation at the University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK Keith Harvey University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK Basil Hatim Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK Theo Hermans University College London, UK Brailo Hochel Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia Michael Hoey University of Liverpool, UK Diane Houghton University of Birmingham, UK Juliane House Universitiit Hamburg, Germany Eva Hung The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Kinga Klaudy University of Budapest, Hungary Janos Kohn Teacher Training College, Szombathely, Hungary Vilen N. Komissarov Moscow State Linguistic University, Russia Masaomi Kondo Daito Bunka University, Japan Cees Koster Universiteit van Amsterdam, The Netherlands Ramesh Krishnamurthy COBUILD, University of Birmingham, UK Zlata Kufnerova Literary translator, Prague, Czech Republic Keneva Kunz University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland Jose Lambert Katholieke Universiteit, Leuven, Belgium Sara Laviosa-Braithwaite University of Birmingham and UMIST, UK William P. Isham Anna Lilova University of New Mexico, USA Literary translator, Bulgaria xii Contributors Carol Maier Juan C. Sager Kent State University, USA UMIST, Manchester, UK Kirsten Malmkjrer Myriam Salama-Carr University of Cambridge, UK University of Salford, UK Ian Mason Christina Schaffner Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK Aston University, UK l:lassan Mustapha Mark Shuttleworth Sultan Qaboos University, Oman and University of Salford, UK University of Leeds, UK Siri Nergaard UMIST, Manchester, UK Harold L. Somers Bologna, Italy Elzbieta Tabakowska Eugene A. Nida Krakow, Poland American Bible Society, Pennsylvania, USA Gideon Toury Blaise Nkwenti-Azeh Tel Aviv University, Israel UMIST, Manchester, UK Horst Turk Liz Oakley-Brown Georg-August-Universitiit Gottingen, Germany University of Wales Cardiff, UK Kitty van Leuven-Zwart Ewald Osers Universiteit van Amsterdam, The Netherlands Literary translator, Reading, UK Lawrence Venuti Saliba Paker Temple University, Philadelphia, USA Bogazi�i University, Istanbul, Turkey Hans Viggo Hjf.lrnager Pedersen University of Copenhagen, Denmark J. Vermeer Institut fur Dbersetzen und Dolmetschen, Heidelberg, Germany David Pollard Cecilia Wadensjo The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Linkoping University, Sweden Andreas Poltermann The University of Queensland, Australia Judy Wakabayashi Georg-August-Universitiit Gottingen, Germany Wolfram Wilss AnthonyPym Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain Universitiit des Saarlandes, Saarbrilcken, Germany PerQvale Lars Wollin Literary translator, Norway Institutionen fOr nordiska spnik, Uppsala, Sweden tGyorgy Rad6 Concordia University, Montreal, Canada Hungary Judith Woodsworth Douglas Robinson Lia Wyler University of Mississippi, USA Universidade de Sio Paulo, Brazil Introduction In May 1991, I received a phone call from Simon Bell, former Language Reference Editor at Routledge, who wanted to know if I had any suggestions for a reference work on translation studies, possibly a dictionary. Simon, among many others, had begun to see translation studies as an exciting new discip­ line, perhaps the discipline of the 1990s. And indeed translation studies has not only fulftlled our expectations but greatly exceeded them. We need only think of one area in which translation studies has flourished beyond anyone's expectations, namely the academiciz­ ation of translator and interpreter training, to appreciate the phenomenal speed with which the discipline as a whole has established itself in the 1990s. The entry on Translator-training institutions by Caminade and Pym (this volume) documents the dramatic rise in the number of university-level institutions which offer degrees in translation and/or interpret­ ing: 'From 49 in 1960 then 108 in 1980, the global number had risen to at least 250 in 1994'. New disciplines, disciplines 'in the making' as it were, are particularly exciting for the rich research potential they hold and the sheer intellectual energy they are capable of generat­ ing. This intellectual energy can attract - as it has done in the case of translation studies - the interest of scholars working within more traditional disciplines, because it can revitalize a staid framework with new challenges, new avenues of enquiry, and new perspectives on pursuing such enquiry. Hence the current interest in translation across a variety of dis­ ciplines, from linguistics to ethnography and from cultural studies to psychology, to name only a few. The vivacity and diversity that we fmd so attractive in new disciplines are a consequence of the fact that their potential is as yet unreal­ ized, or is in the process of being realized. And this is precisely why the 'state of the art' of an emerging discipline such as translation studies is notoriously difficult to capture in a work of reference. All encyclopedias, this one included, are inevitably out of date before they hit the press - such is the nature and speed of intellectual progress in any field of study. A pioneering work of reference which sets out to chart a territory that has hitherto not been charted, to capture the core concerns of a discipline in a state of flux, cannot hope to be totally comprehensive. But it can and should aim to offer a balanced, non-partisan view of the discipline. Translation studies is at a stage of its development when the plurality of approaches that inform it or are capable of informing it can be overwhelming, and the temptation for many has been to promote one approach with which they feel particularly comfortable and dismiss the rest. Throughout the editing of this Ency­ clopedia, I have tried to keep an open mind on what constitutes a viable perspective on the study of translation and what might legiti­ mately be seen as a relevant area of concern or method of research in translation studies. An encyclopedia of a scholarly subject has a duty to open up rather than unduly restrict the scope of the discipline it sets out to describe. Thus, in addition to traditional issues such as EQUIVALENCE, SHIFI'S OF TRANSLATION and TRANSLATABll.ITY, the reader will also find substantial entries which discuss less traditional but increasingly popular issues, including translation as a metaphor for xiv relations which exist between objects outside language (METAPHOR OF TRANSLATION) , the metaphorics of gender and sexuality in discus­ sions of translation (GENDER METAPHORICS IN TRANSLATION) , the application of model theory to the study of translation (MODELS OF TRANSLATION) , the process by which book s are chosen to be translated and published in other languages (PUBUSHING STRATEGIES) , and the use of computerized corpora in study­ ing universals of translation (CORPORA IN TRANSLATION STUDIES ) . So much for Part I. Part II of this Encyclo­ pedia offers a very brief overview of national histories of translation and interpreting in some thirty linguistic and cultural communities. These entries are inevitably restricted in terms of space and can only offer a glimpse of what a full-scale history of each tradition might have to offer. When the plan for the Encyclopedia was first drawn in 1991, no significant initia­ tives had been announced in terms of a general history of translation; nothing had then appeared on the FIT History of Translation (Delisle and Woodsworth 1995) nor on the forthcoming de Gruyter Encyclopedia, and I was not aware at that stage that these projects were being planned. The rationale for includ­ ing a historical section and for covering as many traditions as possible, albeit very briefly, was to stimulate interest in what I then felt was a seriously neglected area of translation studies. Inevitably for a relatively short section of this type, not all traditions could be repre­ sented, and the divisions in terms of linguistic and/or geographical communities are inher­ ently arbitrary to a large extent. Irrespective of possible methodological weaknesses and unavoidable brevity of treatment, a reading of these histories can lead to interesting insights on such issues as the overall profile of transla­ tors and interpreters during different historical periods, the role of the translator and/or inter­ preter as it has been conceived by different communities, the range of incentives that have led to periods of intensive translation activity across the ages, the amazing variety of activi­ ties that have been subsumed at different times under the general heading of 'translation', and the kinds of contexts in which translators and interpreters have sometimes had to operate. These 'global' insights would be difficult if Introduction not impossible to draw from a small number of more detailed histories. A brief outline of a number of these global patterns may be useful at this point. Profile of translators and interpreters One of the most interesting and potentially productive areas of research to emerge from the historical section of this encyclopedia concerns the kind of social or ethnic groups that translators and interpreters have typically belonged to during various periods. Translators and interpreters, on the whole, seem to have historically belonged to minority groups of one type or another. For example, many interpreters in the New World, during the early expeditions, were native indians, often servants and the like: a minority group not in terms of numbers at this stage but in terms of political and economic power. In fact, the first generation of interpreters in the New World were largely natives who were captured and trained as interpreters by explorers such as Jacques Cartier in Canada and Christopher Columbus in Latin America. In the United States, Squanto - a prominent indian interpreter - was initially captured by an English captain and taken to England. A similar pattern exists outside the New World, in both European and non-European countries. In Turkey during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, translators and interpreters were chosen from Greek, Italian, German, Hungarian and Polish converts to Islam. In Egypt in the early nineteenth century, the best-known literary translators were Christians, of one denomination or another (Protestant, Orthodox, Maronite), and often of Lebanese or Syrian origin. In the 1940s and 1950s in Czechoslovakia, simultaneous inter­ preting was provided by wartime emigres (in the case of English), by Jewish survivors of concentration camps (in the case of German), and by second-generation Russian emigres (in the case of Russian). These are all minority groups and migrants. It is quite possible that a similar profile exists for community and court interpreters today in countries such as Britain, Sweden, the US and Australia: the majority may well prove to be second-generation immigrants belonging to ethnic minority groups. XV Introduction The pattern is not totally consistent of course, but then patterns never are. In Africa, for instance, in very early times, interpreting was a hereditary and highly revered profession, performed by 'wise men' born to other 'wise men'. In China, the most active and prominent translators in early times were mainly Buddhist monks. These groups cannot be thought of as minorities in the political or economic sense, nor in terms of power. And of course being members of minority groups does not neces­ sarily mean that translators and interpreters did not achieve a high status. In Turkey, for instance, 'dragomans' were held in high esteem and earned very high incomes between the fifteenth and nineteeth centuries; there was even a Translators' Mosque built in Istanbul in the sixteenth century, which is surely a sign of respect for the profession. Also, translators and interpreters who belonged to religious minori­ ties enjoyed great privileges: they were exempt from the capitation tax levied on non-Muslims in the Islamic world in general and were allowed a wide range of privileges that could normally only be enjoyed by Muslims; for example a non-Muslim translator was allowed to grow a beard and ride a horse. There are also patterns within patterns. As far as interpreters in the colonial context are concerned for instance, the profile is mixed: there are essentially two groups. One group consists of native interpreters and another consists of members of the colonial culture in Latin America, Canada and the United States, both are prominent. The role of native interpreters is of course socially and psy­ chologically more complex and many were often branded as traitors by their people. Malinchista is a term of abuse in Mexico and among the Chicano community in America: it is used to refer to someone who sells out or betrays a cause, because Malinche (Dofia Marina), who interpreted for Heman Cortes in the early sixteenth century, was heavily impli­ cated in his colonial schemes, acting as his informant and warning him of ambushes by her people. The status of native interpreters in these contexts was not particularly high, unlike their colonial counterparts, and we see in Africa for instance a distinct deterioration in status with the arrival of colonialism. Women, an important minority group, were often not allowed to work as translators; for example, the profession of sworn translator in Brazil was regulated by Royal Decree in 1851, and women were explicitly barred from the profession. Role and status of translators and i nterpreters In the colonial context, we ftnd translators and interpreters, but particularly interpreters, taking on an amazing range of responsibilities which go far beyond linguistic mediation. Interpreters in the colonial context acted as guides, explorers, brokers, diplomats, ambas­ sadors and advisers on indian or local affairs· that is why they were sometimes branded � traitors, because they were indispensable to the colonial authorities. In other contexts, too, translators and interpreters were expected to perform a wide variety of tasks. Translators, or more specifically interpreters, in oral traditions such as the African tradition were expected to act as spokesmen for their communities, not just as linguistic mediators. In the eighteenth century in Turkey, the duty of the Naval Dragoman included the supervision of the collection of taxes from non-Muslim subjects, though later on the 1839 Tanzimat limited his responsibility to interpreting again, i.e. strictly linguistic mediation. In terms of status, the highest status attained by translators and interpreters seems to have been linked to the profession being hereditary, as in the case of the 'wise men' in the oral tradition of Africa, who passed on their skills to their sons. Other examples include the tsujiis in Japan, who exercised family monopolies on interpreting in this area from the seventeenth century until the end of Japan's isolation in the second half of the nineteenth century. There are also the Greek Phanariots in Turkey in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, who similarly had sole control of the profession. All these groups were highly regarded by their communities and earned a very respectable living. Working contexts Another interesting area worth investigating xvi Introduction concerns the use of interpreters in contexts translation movement, often sponsored by the where we very rarely see them used today. The government, lasting for some nine centuries. role of interpreters in educational contexts is of Other incentives include the massive campaigns particular interest here. This seems to have to translate the Bible in most of Europe, as well been fairly common at various periods, though as Greek classics and learning in general in the it is hardly ever discussed in the literature, Islamic World and later in Europe. The Qur'iin, except perhaps with reference to sign language unlike the Bible, has never supported a serious interpreting for deaf children. translation movement anywhere in the world, In the early Byzantine period the Greek because of the belief in its untranslatability antikinsores (professors of law) used to make (see QUR'AN Latin texts accessible to their students in class has supported a tradition of commentary, which (KORAN) TRANSLATION), but it by first providing a detailed introduction in very often included long stretches of word-for­ Greek to the particular Latin section of a given word translation. law. This was not a word-for-word translation Most of us tend to take such incentives for but a general explanation of the law. Then the granted, because they are often too close to students would be asked to attempt a translation home for us to realize that they are culture­ of the Latin text, and if they ran into difficulty and period-specific. So we might not think that the antikinsores would provide them with the there is anything special about saying that the translations Bible has provided the main impetus for trans­ of particular terms. This was known as interpreting kata poda (lit. 'on foot'). lation activity in much of Europe since the AD, inter­ birth of Christianity. It is only by comparison preters played an important role in Buddhist with what was happening in other parts of the In China in the early centuries translation forums, which were both intensive world, and at different periods of time, that we seminars on Buddhist sutras and also meant to can see what is specific about this pattern. For produce Buddhist texts in Chinese translation. instance, when we come to look at the history Interpreters acted as intermediaries between a of translation in Greece, we fmd that there is 'Chief Translator', who often knew no Chinese an almost total lack of interest in translation but who was a Buddhist monk and provided from the early days until fairly recent times, explanations of the Buddhist texts, and a and this is precisely because the two main person incentives to early thinking about translation in responsible for producing a translation on the other countries - namely, the translation of basis of the monk's explanation. ancient Greek texts and of the New Testament Chinese 'Recorder', who was the In Turkey, dragomans were used in institu­ - were not present in Greece, since the orig­ tions such as the School of Military Engineer­ inal texts remained relatively accessible to ing in the eighteenth century to interpret for Greek readers for a long time. foreign instructors who did not speak Turkish. Another major incentive for massive trans­ And the same happened in Egypt around the lation activity, more typical of the nineteenth mid-nineteenth and twentieth centuries, is the establishment of century, when the various schools set up by Muhammed Ali relied on official foreign instructors who had to have interpre­ Canada, Finland and Belgium, which tends to bilingualism in countries such as ters in the classroom to communicate with support large-scale programmes of administra­ their students. tive Incentives for translation activity and legal translation (rather than translation of religious or academic texts), and of course simultaneous interpreting in such contexts as parliamentary sessions. And linked The incentives which gave rise to periods of to this type of incentive is the official recogni­ intensive translation activity in different parts tion of the rights of linguistic and ethnic of the world have varied a great deal over the minorities to be provided with interpreters in centuries. One such incentive was the spread of Buddhism in China; the need to translate Bud­ courts and similar situations, as well as official dhist sutras into Chinese, starting around the would seem, the main impetus for translation mid-second is no longer specific religious movements or century, supported a massive documents in their own languages. Today, it Introduction interest in xvii official lingual translation, and I do not believe we policies which recognize and support linguistic the classics but rather have any theories that can account for this type heterogeneity, including official bilingualism, of practice either. recognition of minority rights, the establish­ What the historical research done for the ment of political and economic unions (such as Encyclopedia seems to suggest is that we still EU), and so on. Again, this kind of state­ know very little about the history of our own ment seems rather banal until one places it profession, that what we know of it indicates the against the backdrop of other incentives during that its profile has varied tremendously from different historical periods. one era to another, and - equally important­ Types of translation/interpreting ing have taken such a wide variety of forms that the activities of translation and interpret­ One of the most fascinating things about and have occurred in such a multitude of contexts over the years that we are obliged to exploring the history of translation is that it look at the historical facts before we can even reveals how narrow and restrictive we have begin to develop theoretical accounts for this been in defining our object of study, even with complex phenomenon. the most flexible of definitions. When we read about how African interpreters regularly translated African drum language into actual Acknowledgements words, for instance, we begin to realize that This Encyclopedia has been six years in the the current literature on translation has hardly making, during which time a great many started to scratch the surface of this multi­ people have worked hard to ensure that the end faceted result is as representative of the discipline and and all-pervasive phenomenon. Similarly, intralingual translation is not such a as error-free as is humanly possible. In addi­ minor issue as the existing literature on trans­ tion to the ninety-four contributors who made lation might suggest. Intralingual translation it figures far more prominently in the Greek together in the first place and the seven con­ tradition sultant editors who patiently checked every than interlingual translation: the possible to put this substantial volume major preoccupation in Greece has been with entry after I edited it to weed out some of the translating ancient Greek texts into the modem remaining errors and infelicities, I must thank idiom. the staff at Routledge for their support over an I know of no research that looks specifically at the phenomena of intralingual extended or intersemiotic translation. We do have clas­ Louisa Semlyen in particular have been excep­ period of time. Simon Bell and sifications such as Jakobson's, which alert us tionally patient and supportive. Helen Coward, to the possibility of such things as intersemi­ Alison Foyle, Helen McCurdy, Claire Trocme, otic and intralingual translation, but we do not Sarah Foulkes and Sarah Hall all helped at make any genuine use of such classifications various stages of the project and have been a in our research. pleasure to work with. An ingenious annotation system was used I am grateful to a number of colleagues in Japan around the ninth century; this was for valuable advice on known as kambun kundoku, or interpretive 'traditional' topics that reading of Chinese. The system was used to included in Part I and for putting me in touch some of were the less eventually enable the Japanese to read Chinese texts with suitable contributors for entries in both without Part 'translation'. Special marks were placed alongside the characters of Chinese I and Part ll; in particular, I wish to acknowledge my debt to Lawrence Venuti, texts to indicate how they can be read in accor­ Douglas Robinson, Anthony Pym, Dirk Dela­ dance with Japanese word order, and a system bastita, Theo Hermans, Marilyn Gaddis Rose of grammatical indicators was used to show and Susan Bassnett. Dirk Delabastita kindly inflections. This directly converted the Chinese spent many hours checking the bibliography unnatural, for missing accents and other errors. Theo Japanese. But was it translation? It seems to be Hermans, Clive Holes, Myriam Salama-Carr, something in between intralingual and inter- Maeve texts into understandable, if Olohan, Peter Fawcett and Paul xviii I ntroduction Bennett took o n the difficult task of 'editing entries when I started to run out of energy in the editor', providing detailed comments on the summer of my own contributions to this volume and stepped in later that summer to give the editing saving me some potential embarrassment in a final push. 1996, and Kirsten Malmkjrer Even with so much good will and generous the process. Kinga Klaudy revised the final section of assistance from a large number of people, there the entry on the Hungarian tradition to bring it are bound to be some errors and infelicities left up to date, following the unfortunate death of Dr Gyorgy Rad6 in 1994. Sara Laviosa­ Braithwaite provided invaluable support as my Research Assistant for practically the whole of 1995. Juan Sager helped me edit a number of in this volume, given the scope of the enterprise. For these I have to take full responsibility. MONA BAKER APRIL 1997 Permissions acknowled gements Extract on p. 243 from 'A Knight Was with His Lady Fondly Lying', trans. Norman R. Shapiro, from the Modern Library collection AnAnthology of Medieval Lyrics, ed. A. Flores, New York Random House, 1962. ©Norman R. Shapiro 1962. Extract on p. 243 from Paul Blackburn's translation of 'Us cavaliers si jazia', from Proensa: An Anthology of Troubadour Poetry, ed. and trans. P. Blackburn, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ©Joan Blackburn 1978. Page intentionally left blank PART 1: GENERAL Page intentionally left blank A Action (theory of 'translatorial action') The theory of 'translatorial action' (trans­ latorisches Handeln ) , which represents a function-oriented approach to the theory and practice of translation, was developed by Justa Holz-Miinttii.ri (1984). Translation is here conceived primarily as a process of intercultural communication, whose end prod­ uct is a text which is capable of functioning appropriately in specific situations and con­ texts of use. In this conception, neither source­ and target-text comparison, nor linguistics, has any significant role to play, and translation is situated within the wider context of cooperat­ ive interaction between professionals (experts) and clients. Holz-Miinttii.ri's aim is to provide a theoreti­ cal basis and conceptual framework from which guidelines for professional translators may be drawn; and in developing her appro­ ach, she draws on communication theory and on action theory. Communication theory enables her to highlight the components involved in a process of communication across cultural barriers, while action theory provides the basis for a delineation of the specific characteristics of translatorial action. The primary purpose of translatorial action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. This involves a good deal more than what is traditionally conceived as the transla­ tion of texts, and in order to set her theory apart from more traditional approaches, Holz­ Miinttii.ri develops, in German, a distinctive and highly abstract terminology, at times eschewing even the term 'translation' (Ubersetzung), in order to avoid the connotations and expectations traditionally attached to that term. She argues that because the verb 'translate' ( ubersetzen) requires a grammatical object, it tends to direct attention back towards the text that is to be translated, to the detriment of the text that is to be produced, an orientation which she finds particularly unhelpful (Holz-Miinttii.ri 1986: 355). In her model, source-text analysis is reduced to an 'analysis of construction and function' (1984: 139ff.), in which the actual part played by the source text is extremely limited. The source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative func­ tions; it is totally subordinate to its purpose, is afforded no intrinsic value, and may undergo radical modification in the interest of the target reader. The translator is unilaterally committed to the target situation because it is primarily the message and the commission, rather than the text itself, that have to be rendered for the client. It is mainly because the source text may be thus 'dethroned' (Newmark 1991b: 106) that Holz-Miinttii.ri's theory has met with objections or reservations, even by theorists who them­ selves apply a functional approach to translation (see for example Nord 199la: 28). Newmark also finds fault with the 'modernistic abstract jargon of contemporary Public Rela­ tions' and the 'businesslike manner of writing' which, he believes, obscure 'the real issues in translation' (1991b: 106). However, in Holz­ Miinttii.ri's model, translation and other forms of (foreign language) text production are conceived as part of, rather than constitutive of, translatorial action. One purpose of the translatorial text operations is to establish whether the content and form components of the source text are functionally suitable for the target text. In making this decision, the transla­ tor cannot be guided by the source text alone, but must research, in addition, the target cul­ ture's conception of the subject matter, of text Action (theory of 'translatorial action') 4 classes and of genres. The textual profile of the society organized by a division of labour. The target text is determined by its function, and main roles in a translation process are played whether this is or is not similar to the textual by one or more persons or institutions. The profile of the source text can only be estab­ roles include the initiator, the commissioner, lished through systematic translatorial analysis. the text producer, the translator, the target-text The translator, as an expert communicator, is at 'applicator' and the receptor, and each role is the crucial centre of a long chain of communi­ highly complex. cation from the original initiator to the ultimate The translator is the expert whose task it is receiver of a message, and is thus situated to produce message transmitters for use in within the wider social context. The model transcultural message transfer. To do this, the takes account of the relationship between trans­ translator must, at a particular place and at a lator and client as well as the relationship particular time, produce a particular product between translator and original writer, and for between The ethical actions must be informed by suitable data, and responsibility of the translator is seen to derive must be carried out according to specifically translator and reader. a particular purpose. The translator's from his or her status as an expert in the field negotiated of transcultural message transfer, because only must be completed by a deadline. Translatorial translators with expertise can action therefore involves not only the transla­ succeed in producing a functionally adequate tor as translation expert, but also the client/ the requisite conditions. Finally, the process text (professional profiles are discussed in commissioner with whom the translator must Holz-Manttari 1986: 363ff.). This has clear negotiate cooperatively. consequences for the training of translators. Holz-Manttiiri's main aim is to specify the factors that guide translatorial action, conceived as professional text production. An So, translation is embedded in the purpose­ ful configuration of actions which is trans­ latorial action, and this, in turn, is embedded in a hierarchy of complex actions and sub­ aim action is determined by its function and pur­ ordinate to the global pose, and its outcome, too, must be judged by communication. these criteria. The purpose of the translatorial translation cannot be based purely on a con­ action process is to produce a message trans­ figuration of elements such as UNIT OF TRANSLATION, source text, or genre. Rather, a mitter ( Botschaftstriiger) that can be utilized Therefore, of transcultural a definition of in superordinate configurations of actions theoretically sound definition of translatorial (Handlungsgefuge) whose function is to guide action must take account of all the elements and coordinate communicative, cooperative action (Holz-Manttari 1984: 17). In the process of translatorial action, texts act as message-transmitter compounds involved in human communicative action across cultures; in particular, it must take into consideration the client's culture, the process of text production in its widest sense, and the ( Botschaftstriiger im Verbund) of content ( Tektonik), structured according to function and represented by formal elements ( Textur). ventions, A source text is a text to which a translation require substitution of elements of the source initiator, a client, has assigned, primarily or text by elements judged more appropriate to secondarily, the function of serving as source the function the target text is to serve. This concept of expert action. Because cultures may have different con­ transcultural text production may material for translatorial action. A target text, function is determined by the purpose of the to be used either by the translation initiator or communicative action in which the text is to by some other user, is the outcome of a trans­ play a part as a message transmitter. lation expert's translatorial action. On the one hand, it forces the transla­ The notion of function is central in two respects. On the Text production is the purpose of transla­ torial action, and the texts produced will be used by clients as message transmitters in tor to embed the product of translatorial action combination in a complex situation of human needs. message transfer. The purpose of the message with others for transcultural other hand, it forces the translator to embed transfer is the coordination of action-oriented, translatorial action in the social order, i.e. in a communicative cooperation. The purpose of References Contents Index Kirsten MalmkjtZr Sara LaviosaBraithwaite 286 288 Paul Bandia 295 Lawrence Venuti 305 Mona Baker 3 16 Heloisa Gon{alves Barbosa and Lia Wyler 326 Roger Ellis and Liz OakleyBrown 333 Anna Lilova 347 Jean Delisle 356 Eva Hung and David Pollard 365 Zlata Kufnerova and Ewald Osers 376 Viggo Hjf)rnager Pedersen and Per Qvale 384 Theo Hermans 392 AndrewChesterman 401 Myriam Salama-Carr 409 Harald Kittel and Andreas Poltermann 418 David Connolly and Aliki Bacopoulou-Halls 428 Gideon Toury 439 Gyorgy Rad6 448 Keneva Kunz 456 Ramesh Krishnamurthy 464 Riccardo Duranti 474 Masaomi Kondo and Judy Wakabayashi 485 Louis G. Kelly 495 Georges L. Bastin 505 Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak 513 Elibieta Tabakowska 523 Janos Kohn 533 Vilen N. Komissarov 541 Zlata Kufnerovt:l, Ewald Osers and Brafw Hochel 550 Anthony Pym 552 Lars Wollin 563 Saliha Paker 571 583 639 Adaptation adapting modes Linguistic approaches of accounting for the translation process. Machine translation, methodology remains to be seen whether solid theory will Metaphor of translation be surfacing in areas of translation studies Poetics of translation lation is gaining momentum in the field and is Shakespeare translation tives they are usually made out to be: the truth is Translator-training institutions MONIQUE CAMINADE AND ANTHONY PYM American tradition critic , and translator. Born in Idaho and Arabic tradition MONA BAKER Brazilian tradition born in Budapest, Hungary, on 13 April 190 7. British tradition ford. As Vicar of Berkeley, he produced, for Canadian tradition English, Erasmus spoke Cree, Ojibway and Chinese tradition 618) Xuan Zang travelled through several Danish and Norwegian traditions minor Romantic poet. Wilster is best known Dutch tradition THEO HERMANS Finnish tradition reviser for the Bible translation committee German tradition prepared the way for Romanticism in Germany Icelandic tradition quently headmaster of the Latin school in Indian tradition but led to him being elected to honorary Italian tradition RICCARDO DURANTI Japanese tradition AND JUDY WAKABAYASH I Latin tradition of Rhetoric at the College du Plessis in 1 683 Persian tradition stoy's biographies, as well as selected essays Spanish tradition option might be seen as an advance on Swedish tradition LARS WOLliN Turkish tradition SALIHA PAKER Biblio graphy Aaltonen, H . ( 1 986) 'Suomentarnisen varhais­ vaiheita' [Early Stages of Translation into Finnish] , in J. Peteri et al. (eds) 10-vuotisjuhla­ julkaisu [ 1Oth Anniversary Festschrift for the Turku Branch of the Finnish Association of Translators and Interpreters ] , Turku: Suomen ldiiintiijien ja tulkkien liino, Turun paikallisosasto. Aaltonen, S. 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