*k   

*ka₁ conjunctive particle, and

3146 PAN     *ka₁ conjunctive particle, and Formosan Basai ka and Kavalan ka and (conjunctive) Siraya ka and WMP Maguindanao ka and Mori ka and Kulisusu ka and OC Manam ʔa and Vano ŋga and Buma ka and   ka and Paamese ka and   ka and Nengone ka and Wayan ŋga and Fijian ka conjunction, "and", but used to connect sentences, adjectives, and verbs (between nouns and pronouns kei is used instead)

Note:   PAn *ka is less well-supported than PAn *maS ‘conjunction: and’, but given the restricted syntax of both forms in various languages it is possible that PAn and other early Austronesian proto-languages had more than one conjunction that can be translated as ‘and’. Alternatively, since words for ‘and’ are monosyllables in most languages regardless of genetic affiliation, this comparison may be product of convergence due to limited possibilities.

*ka₂ conditional, if

3147 PAN     *ka₂ conditional, if Formosan Paiwan u ka if ... were to   ka na i-ka if not ... then WMP Tboli ke if Lawangan a-kaʔ if Gayō ka if OC Makatea ka if Samoan ʔa-na if

*ka₃ oblique case marker for plural personal names

8800 PAN     *ka₃ oblique case marker for plural personal names Formosan Saisiyat ka¹ nominative and accusative case marker for common nouns Atayal kaʔ nominative case marker for common nouns Pazeh ka topic marker Bunun ka nominative case marker (no personal/common distinction) Rukai (Budai) ka oblique case marker for common nouns Proto-Rukai *ka nominative case marker for common nouns (Ross 2006:529) WMP Isneg ka objective and locative case marker for common nouns (McFarland 1977) Itawis ka-n objective, locative and oblique case marker for common nouns (McFarland 1977)   ka-n-i oblique case marker for the singular of personal names (Tharp and Natividad 1976)   ka-n-da oblique case marker for the plural of personal names (Tharp and Natividad 1976) Malaweg ka objective and locative case marker for common nouns (McFarland 1977) Itneg (Binongan) ka-n possessive (Yamada and Tsuchida 1983) Kapampangan ka-ŋ possessive (Yamada and Tsuchida 1983) Tagalog ka-y oblique case marker for personal nouns Bikol ka possessive plural of personal names (Yamada and Tsuchida 1983) Bikol (Camarines Sur) ka-n agentive, genitive and oblique case marker for common nouns (Yamada and Tsuchida 1983) Kinaray-a ka-ŋ agentive, genitive and oblique case marker for common nouns (Yamada and Tsuchida 1983) Waray-Waray ka-n possessive (Yamada and Tsuchida 1983) Cebuano ka-ŋ possessive (Yamada and Tsuchida 1983) Tausug ka-n possessive plural of personal names (Yamada and Tsuchida 1983) Malay ka- a locative prefix corresponding to “ward” (upward, downward, inward, outward, Northward, etc.) Mentawai ka in, at, to, towards, from here, among, out of Rejang ka- to, towards Sundanese ka to, towards Madurese ka to Balinese ka to; go to; at Mongondow ko preposition: at, on, to, towards, between, from Note:   ¹ Ross (2006:529) gives Saisiyat ka as marking both NOM and ACC, but according to Li (1978:600), and Zeitoun (to appear) it marks only the ACC.

*ka₄ 2sg. subject pronoun

9941 PMP     *ka₄ 2sg. subject pronoun WMP Yami ka 2sg. nominative Itbayaten ka you (sg.) Ibatan ka 2sg. nominative Ilokano -ka 2sg. (familiar) absolutive enclitic pronoun Isneg ka you; nominative and accusative of the abbreviated form of the personal pronoun of the second person singular: ikáw Itawis ka you, 2sg nominative pronoun Bontok ka 2nd person minimal pronoun; you (sg.) Kankanaey ka thou, thee; you Casiguran Dumagat ta 2sg. topic pronoun Ibaloy ka you, 2sg. topic set Pangasinan ka you, sg., familiar, topic pronoun Ayta Abellan ka 2sg. subject pronoun, you Kapampangan (-)ka you (sg.); ing-case, non-emphasized Tagalog ka pronoun, the postpositive form of ikáw, you (singular) Bikol ka you; si-class second person singular pronoun Hanunóo ká you (singular); occurs mainly in certain set phrases; in all of them, however, ká may be replaced by the more frequently used káwu Romblomanon ka you (sg.); occurs as sentence topic following the predicate; for the topic pronoun preceding the predicate see íkaw Masbatenyo ka 2sg topic pronoun; this pronoun occurs only as a clitic to verbs and particles Aklanon ka you singular (contraction of ikáw) Waray-Waray ka you (used in postpositive form) Hiligaynon ka you (short form of ikáw) Palawano ka 2sg. subject pronoun, you Cebuano ka short for ikáw used in constructions requiring the nominative except the predicate Central Tagbanwa ka 2sg nominative pronoun, used as focused participant in verbal clauses, you Maranao ka you -- primary Binukid ka 2sg topic pronoun: you Manobo (Western Bukidnon) ka 2sg topic pronoun Molbog ko 2sg nominative pronoun, short form (long form = aka) Rungus Dusun ko 2sg nominative pronoun, short form (long form = ikow) Lingkabau kə 2sg nominative pronoun, short form (long form = ikaw) Abai Sembuak ko 2sg nominative pronoun, short form (long form = oko) Bisaya (Sabah) ko 2sg nominative pronoun, short form (long form = ikow) Bulungan ka 2sg nominative pronoun, short form (long form = ika) CMP Buruese ka thou OC Mota ka 2sg, subject pronoun

Note:   The exact function of this pronoun remains unclear. It seems to correspond to *=ka(hu) ‘2sg., NOM2’ in Ross (2006:542), although that by itself does not advance our understanding. In at least Proto-Philippines *ka evidently was a post-predicate clitic that corresponded in function to the free-standing *i-kahu in pre-predicate position. This raises the question whether the occurence of free-standing and clitic pronouns in syntactic complementation was unique to the second person singular, or was a feature of the pronoun system in general. Since there is little comparative evidence to support the latter alternative, it seems likely that the 2sg. pronoun allowed this option, while other persons and numbers did not.

*ka₅ (human) member of a category

10232 POC     *ka₅ (human) member of a category     [doublet: *kai] OC Tabar ka man Mendak ka-dioŋ stranger, foreigner Bulu ka-ka tara person (tara = ‘mature’) Ormu ka-ru person Manam ka-leti foreigner, white man

Note:   A longer version of this comparison was first proposed by Pawley (1985), and more recently by Ross and Osmond (2016:49-50).

*ka-₁ marker of past time in temporal expressions

3145 PAN     *ka-₁ marker of past time in temporal expressions Formosan Paiwan tiaw day before or after today   nu-tiaw tomorrow   ka-tiaw yesterday   nu-ŋida when (future)?   ka-ŋida when (past)? WMP Ivatan ka- past, in temporal expressions   ka-koyab yesterday (cp. ma-koyab ‘afternoon’) Itneg (Binongan) ka-gídaŋ yesterday (cp. gídaŋ ‘afternoon’) Tagalog ka-gabí yesterday (cp. gabí ‘night, evening’) Mansaka kagabi yesterday Tausug kahapun yesterday Kadazan Dusun koniap yesterday Minangkabau ka-pataŋ yesterday (cp. pataŋ ‘evening’) Sangir ka-hebi yesterday (cp. hebi ‘night’) Bantik kanehabaʔ yesterday Mongondow ko-gobii the previous night (cp. gobii ‘night’)

Note:   The Kadazan Dusun and Bantik words contain a reflex of *niRab, *neRab ‘yesterday’. All other extra-Formosan forms are based on the word for ‘afternoon, evening’ (PMP *Rabiqi, PPh *hapun). Cf. Zorc (n.d.) PPh *ka- ‘perfective verb prefix’.

*ka-₂ stative marker in irrealis constructions, counterpart to *ma- in realis constructions

9727 PAN     *ka-₂ stative marker in irrealis constructions, counterpart to *ma- in realis constructions Formosan Kavalan qa- immediate future: qa-patay ‘will die’ (cp m-patay ‘to die, be dead’) Amis ka- connective in negative word combinations where ma- would be used in a positive statement (Fey 1986:370): caay ka-fanaɁ kako ‘I don’t know’ (cp. ma-fanaɁ kako ‘I know’) Thao ka- prefix of uncertain function: k-acay ‘Drop dead!’ (a curse expressed in anger; cp. m-acay ‘die, be dead’) WMP Bontok ka- a stative prefix occurring only on verbs preceded by the auxiliary daan (‘yet, still’): daan ka-loto ‘not yet cooked’ (cp. loto ‘to cook’) Kankanaey ka- stative marker in negative constructions: adi ka-atéy ‘not to die, etc.’ (cp. m-atéy ‘dead’)

Note:   For further details on this prefix cf. Blust (2003b).

*ka-₃ stative prefix marking high degree of some quality; extremely; superlative marker

9728 PPh     *ka-₃ stative prefix marking high degree of some quality; extremely; superlative marker WMP Yami ka- ‘very’ (in comparative constructions): ka-tava-tava ‘very fat’ (cp. ma-tava ‘fat’) Ilokano ka- with the particle idí, the ka- prefix with an adjectival root translates that the quality of the adjective is at the highest level: idí ka-pintás-na ‘at the highest level of his/her/its beauty’ (cp. pintás ‘beauty’) Kapampangan ka- prefix with descriptive bases; produces emphatic descriptives Aklanon ka- very productive adjective prefix, indicating a high degree (when standing alone), or the superlative (when with the -an suffix) ka-gwápo ‘very good looking’ (cp. gwápo ‘handsome’) Hiligaynon ka- adjective formative affix designating comparative and superlative degrees of comparison: ka-tahúm sa ímu ‘How beautiful you are!’ (cp. ma-tahúm ‘beautiful, pretty’) Cebuano ka- prefix added to adjectives in exclamations: ka-gwápu sa ímu-ŋ baláy ‘What a beautiful house you have!’ (cp. gwápu ‘beautiful, good-looking’); ka-dákuɁ ‘How big it is!’ (cp. dákuɁ ‘big, great’)

*ka-₄ mate, partner, cohort

9729 PPh     *ka-₄ mate, partner, cohort WMP Yami ka- company, co-: ka-kteh ‘fellow brothers and sisters, siblings’ (cp. mi-keteh ‘sibling relationship’) Itbayaten ka- corresponding one, mate: ka-yvan ‘companion, escort’ (cp. ivan-an ‘to accompany, escort’); ka-kovot ‘spouse’ (cp. mi-chovot ‘to become spouses to one another’) Ilokano ka- transitive verbal prefix indicating companionship of the action expressed by the root (ka-sala ‘to dance with someone’, ka-sao ‘to speak with someone’) Ilongot ka- mate, partner: ka-duwa ‘companion’ (cp. duwa ‘two’) Pangasinan ka- person or thing proximate to oneself: ka-aráp ‘one who is in front’ (cp. aráp ‘front’) Bikol ka- prefix that creates nouns of accompanied action: ka-úlay ‘the person one is talking to’ (cp. maki-úlay ‘to converse with’) Cebuano ka- affix forming nouns which mean ‘one’co-[noun]’: aku-ŋ ka-klási ‘my classmate’ (cf. klási ‘class, kind’), aku-ŋ ka-áway ‘my opponent’ (cp. áway ‘to quarrel, fight’) Tondano ka- derives animate nouns indicating a person who shares the thing expressed by the stem: ka-Ɂawu ‘spouse’ (cp. awu ‘kitchen, hearth’); ka-wanua ‘fellow villager’ (cp. wanua ‘village’)

*ka-₅ formative for abstract nouns of quality

9730 PAN     *ka-₅ formative for abstract nouns of quality Formosan Amis ka- active verbal particle: ka-tayal ‘work as an activity not necessarily in process’ (cp. ma-tayal ‘refers to the activity of working’) WMP Itbayaten ka- creates abstract nouns of quality: ka-vayah ‘redness’ (cp. vayah ‘red color’) Bontok ka- derivational prefix forming an abstract noun: ka-dalem ‘depth’ (cp. ‘deep’) Ifugaw ka- creates abstract nouns: ka-tagu ‘manhood’ (cp. tagu ‘man, human being’) Aklanon ka- noun prefix: ka-támɁis ‘sweetness’ (cp. ma-támɁis ‘sweet’) Cebuano ka- affix added to adjectives to form nouns which mean ‘the state of being [so-and-so]’: ka-súbuɁ sadness’ (cp. súbuɁ ‘sad’) Manobo (Sarangani) ke- certain nouns are derived from adjective or verb roots by using the prefix ke-: ke-init ‘heat, warmth’ (cp. init ‘hot, warm’); ke-okit ‘passage’ (cp. okit ‘travel’) Malagasy ha- formative added to adjectives to make them into abstract nouns: ha-tsara ‘goodness’ (cp. tsara ‘good’) Sasak kə- formative for abstract nouns: kə-bəleɁ ‘size, magnitude’ (cp. bəleɁ ‘big, large’); kə-kodeɁ ‘smallness’ (cp. kodeɁ ‘small’) Mongondow ko- marker of abstract nouns: ko-loben ‘size, magnitude’ (cp. mo-loben ‘large’) Banggai ka- formative of abstract nouns from adjectival bases: ka-lanak ‘greasiness’ (cp. ma-lanak ‘greasy’) Wolio ka- formative for deverbal nouns: ka-bari ‘number, quantity’ (cp. bari ‘be many, much); ka-pii ‘illness’ (cp ma-pii ‘ill’) Muna ka- deverbal noun denoting the abstraction of the verbal quality’: ka-tehi ‘fear’ (cp. tehi ‘afraid’); ka-ghosa ‘strength, hardness, health’ (cp. ghosa ‘strong, hard’)

*ka-₆ manner in which an action is carried out

9731 PWMP     *ka-₆ manner in which an action is carried out WMP Mapun ka- nominalizer with adjectives or stative verbs indicating the manner of doing an action Tausug ka- nominalizer indicating the manner of doing an action: ka-kadtu ‘his getting there’ (cp. kadtu ‘go or take something to a place’) Toba Batak ha- the time at which, place whence, or even the particular way in which the content of the verb takes place: ha-pogos ‘suffering poverty, being poor’ (cp. pogos ‘poor’)

*ka-₇ past participle/achieved state

9732 PMP     *ka-₇ past participle/achieved state WMP Murut (Timugon) ka- marker of achieved states: ka-aguy ‘tired’ (cp. (ma-aguy ‘is tired’) Ma'anyan ka- marker of past participle or achieved states: ka-reŋey ‘heard’ (cp. reŋey ‘to hear’); ka-ituŋ ‘remembered’ (cp. ituŋ ‘to remember’) Old Javanese ka- passive prefix: the ka- passive refers more to the state achieved, in contrast to the -in- passive, which refers more to the action: ka-bebed ‘bound, entwined’ (cp. bebed ‘band, tie, bandage’); ka-dawut ‘uprooted’ (cp. dawut ‘pull out, uproot’) Makassarese ka- prefix that forms adjectives carrying a sense of being caused or brought about: ka-mallaɁ-mallaɁ ‘struck with fear’ (cp. mallaɁ ‘afraid’) OC Nggela ka- prefix forming past participles: ka-mbihu ‘broken off’ (cp. mbihu ‘to separate, break apart’) Fijian ka- marker of achieved states: ka-basu ‘torn open’ (cp. basu ‘break open a person’s eyes or mouth’)

*ka- -an₁ marker of the adversative passive

9736 PAN     *ka- -an₁ marker of the adversative passive Formosan Pazeh ka- -an marker of the adversative passive; ka-udan-an ‘be soaked with rain, be caught in the rain’ (cf. udan ‘rain’); ka-akux-an ‘heatstroke; be overcome by heat’ (cf. paka-akux ‘to warm up, to heat’); ka-bari-an ‘be blown about by the wind’ (cf. bari ‘wind’) Paiwan ka- -an marker of the adversative passive; ka-sulem-an ‘be caught by darkness’ (cp.sulem ‘darkness, twilight’) WMP Yami ka- -an marker of the adversative passive; ka-cimoy-an ‘be rained on (as something left outside)’ (cf. cimoy ‘rain’) Itbayaten ka- -an marker of the adversative passive; ka-timoy-an ‘to be caught by rain’ (cf. timoy ‘rain’); k-aɁxep-an ‘be caught by night, benighted’ (cf.aɁxep ‘night’) Mapun ka- -an marker of the adversative passive; ka-lasuh-an ‘to be angry (at s.o. or about s.t.); (cf. lasu ‘anger’); ka-saŋom-am ‘be overtaken by the night (i.e. for night to come while one is doing something) (cf. saŋom ‘night, the period from about 6:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m.); ka-uwan-an ‘to be rained on’ (cf. uwan ‘rain’) Bahasa Indonesia kə- -an marker of the adversative passive; kə-hujan-an ‘be caught in the rain, be caught in a downpour’ (cf. hujan ‘rain’); kə-siaŋ-an ‘to oversleep’ (cf. siaŋ ‘bright daylight’); kə-tidur-an ‘to fall asleep inadvertently (as when needing to stay awake)’ (cf. tidur ‘sleep’); kə-panas-an ‘be overcome by the heat of the sun’ (cf. panas ‘hot’) Toba Batak ha- -an marker of the adversative passive; ha-udan-an ‘caught in the rain’ (cf. udan ‘rain’); ha-borŋin-an ‘to be overaken by nightfall’ (cf. borŋin ‘night’) Sundanese ka- -an marker of the adversative passive; ka-hujan-an ‘stand or walk in the rain; be rained on, be caught in the rain’ (cp. hujan ‘rain’) Old Javanese ka- -an marker of the adversative passive; ka-turw-an ‘overcome by sleep, falling asleep, dropping off’ (cf. turū ‘to sleep’); k-āŋin-an ‘moved (driven) by the wind; in the wind’; ka-panas-an ‘suffering from the heat; angry’ Javanese kə- -an marker of the adversative passive; k-odan-an ‘to get rained on’ (cf. udan ‘rain’); kə-turo-n ‘to drop off to sleep accidentally, to doze’ (cf. turu ‘to sleep’) Sangir ka- -aŋ ka-hebi—aŋ ‘overcome by darkness, benighted’ (cp. hebi ‘night’) Tae' ka- -an marker of the adversative passive; ka-uran-an ‘caught in the rain’ (cf. uran ‘rain’)

Note:   In some languages the adversative passive is expressed by the suffix *-an alone, as with Tausug ulan-an ‘to be rained on’, from ulan ‘rain’, or with the suffix *-an and some other prefix, as with Ilokano ma-tudú-an ‘to be caught in the rain’, from túdo ‘rain’. In a more limited set of languages in western Indonesia it is expressed by the circumfix *ka- -en, as with Karo Batak k-udan-en ‘timid, as goats that run to their stall when the rain begins’.

*ka- -an₂ formative for nouns of location

9737 PAN     *ka- -an₂ formative for nouns of location Formosan Saisiyat ka- -an formative for nouns of location; ka-Ɂælop-an ‘hunting ground’ (cp. Ɂælop ‘to hunt’) Amis ka- -an formative for nouns of location; ka-tayal-an ‘place of business’ (cp. tayal ‘work’) Thao ka- -an formative for nouns of location; ka-kalhus-an ‘sleeping place’ (cp. kalhus ‘to sleep’) Paiwan ka- -an formative for nouns of location; ka-ki-tjalav-an ‘athletic field’ (cp. ki-tjala-tjalaw ‘fight over something; to contest’); ka-tsasav-an ‘courtyard in front of house’ (cp. tsasaw ‘outdoors, outside’) WMP Ifugaw ka- -an formative for nouns of location; ka-kayu-an ‘place where there is firewood’ (cp. kayu ‘tree, wood’) Pangasinan ka- -an formative for nouns of location; ka-aboŋ-an ‘houses, group of houses’ (cp. aboŋ ‘house’) Bikol ka- -an formative for nouns of location; ka-umah-an ‘an expanse of farmland’ (cp. uma ‘farm’) Mapun ka- -an formative for nouns of location; ka-batuh-an ‘a rocky area’ (cp. batu ‘stone, rock’) Toba Batak ha- -an formative for nouns of location; ha-mate-an ‘place where one has died’ (cp. mate ‘die’) Javanese ka- -an formative for nouns of location; ka-lurah-an ‘residence of the top village official’ (cp. lurah ‘top village official’)

*ka- -an₃ formative for abstract nouns (often deverbal)

9738 PAN     *ka- -an₃ formative for abstract nouns (often deverbal) Formosan Paiwan (Western) ka- -an formative for abstract nouns; ka-vavaian-an ‘womanhood, femininity, value as a woman’ (cp. vavaian ‘woman, female person’ WMP Tagalog ka- -an formative for abstract nouns; ka-takút-an ‘fear’ (cp. ma-tákot ‘to be afraid’) Bikol ka- -an formative for abstract nouns; ka-asgad-án ‘saltiness’ (cp. ma-asgád ‘salty, saline’) Malay kə- -an formative for abstract nouns; kə-ada-an ‘existence’ (cp. ada ‘be, exist’) Toba Batak ha- -an formative for abstract nouns; ha-mate-an ‘death’ (cp. mate ‘die’) Javanese ka- -an formative for abstract nouns; ka-urip-an ‘life, existence’ (cp. urip ‘living, alive’) Tae' ka- -an formative for abstract nouns; ka-mate-an ‘time of death’ (cp. mate ‘die, dead’)

Note:   Possibly the same circumfix as *ka- -an₂, but none of the nouns formed by this process have a clear locative sense. It is worth noting that some languages use the same affixed form in both locative and general abstract senses, as with Toba Batak ha-mate-an ‘place where one has died’ (cf. *ka- -an₂), and ha-mate-an ‘death’ (*ka- -an₃).

*kabá anxious, nervous

9745 PPh     *kabá anxious, nervous WMP Ilokano ag-kabá-kabá to be anxious, perplexed Tagalog kabá palpitation of the heart or pulse; twitter; an excited condition; to feel nervous; to have a premonition of something Bikol kabá fright   ma-kaba-án to get a fright; to be startled,   mag-kabá-kabá to throb (as the heart); to palpitate

Note:   Possibly a Tagalog loan in Ilokano.

*kábag gas pains

10107 PPh     *kábag gas pains WMP Ilokano kábag gas pain; flatulence   kabág-an to have gas pains Casiguran Dumagat kábag flatulence, gas pain Tagalog kábag gas pain; flatulence Aklanon kábag to have gas pains (in stomach), suffer from hyperacidity or indigestion Agutaynen ag-kabag-an for someone to have gas pains, bloating Cebuano kábag to have gas pains; gas pains

*kabal₁ clothing

9746 PAN     *kabal₁ clothing     [disjunct: *kabaR] Formosan Kavalan qabar clothes, bag or coverlet made from hemp fibre WMP Itbayaten kavax clothing, garment Agutaynen kabal the thin, cellophane-like membrane that sometimes covers a newborn infant when it is born

*kabal₂ invulnerable, invulnerability

10151 PWMP     *kabal₂ invulnerable, invulnerability     [doublet: *kebel] WMP Ilokano kabál breastplate; armor; bulletproof vest   kab-kabal-an surgeonfish: Acanthurus triostegus Tagalog kabál a potion, charm or talisman supposed to render one invulnerable against knives, daggers, bullets, etc.   kabál sa sakít immunity; reistance to disease, poison, etc Bikol kabál an amulet which has the power of making its possessor invulnerable to the bolo and the spear, rendering these weapons dull, or suspending them in air upon attack; generally a circular piece of copper with a hole in the center, or a bit of shell roughly carved into the shape of an aníto (ancestral spirit) noted for particularly admired exploits (Bikol mythology) Hanunóo kabál defensive power believed to make the owner virtually invulnerable, i.e., indestructible by ordinary weapons Ngaju Dayak kabal ~ gabal thick-skinned so that one is not harmed by blows Javanese ŋawal to guard, escort Bare'e kaba invulnerable Tae' kaban invulnerable, possessing a magical charm that makes one invulnerable so that the point of a lance or a bullet cannot penetrate the body

Note:   Some of these forms may be loans from Malay, but this seems unlikely for the lot.

*kaban₁ companion, member of a group (of animals or people); friend

9700 PWMP     *kaban₁ companion, member of a group (of animals or people); friend WMP Hanunóo kabán togetherness, companionship Ngaju Dayak kawan herd (of animals), flock (of birds), school (of fish); throng, crowd, multitude; species, kind; relationship   ha-kawan stay together in herds   ma-ŋa-ŋawan be together in little bands Malagasy hávana a relation, an alliance, a friend   haván-ina to be entered into relationship with; to be consorted with Iban kaban kinsman, relation; companion, follower, supporter; group, band, herd, member of group Malay kawan company; party; herd; comrade; companion; friend; follower (refers to any group of living things, as a herd of elephants, flock of goats, swarm of bees, or band of robbers)   me-ŋawan to couple; to pair (of animals) Acehnese kawan herd, flock, crowd; friend, comrade, companion, mate; follower; assistant; adherent Toba Batak haban a herd, as of cattle Rejang kabeun group, party, crowd Old Javanese kawan companion; group   sa-kawan a group (belonging together)   sama-kawan together, in a group   sa-kawan-an in groups

9701 PMP     *maR-kaban to be friends with, to be a companion of WMP Hanunóo mag-kabán go together as companions Malagasy mi-hávana to be in a state of friendship with, to be on friendly terms with, to show friendship towards

Note:   Also Tagalog káwan ‘herd; a number of animals together; flock; a group of animals or birds of one kind; swarm; a group of bees that fly off together to start a new colony; a large group of insects flying or moving about together; a school (of fish); multitude; a large number’; mag-káwan ‘to form a flock, aherd, a group or a school’.

*kaban₂ storage chest

9760 PWMP     *kaban₂ storage chest WMP Isneg kabān chest, trunk, box Itawis kabán large chest, trunk Ifugaw (Batad) kaban a miniature house sepulchre for the dead, of traditional design (used only for a rich person) Casiguran Dumagat kaban wooden chest Pangasinan kabán a trunk for storing clothes, etc. Tagalog kabán chest or trunk, esp. one for clothes Bikol kabán chest, trunk, coffer   mag-kabán to place something into a chest Hanunóo kabán trunk, chest for storage; seen by Hanunóo in Christian barrios Aklanon kabán footlocker, trunk (for clothes) Agutaynen kaban a wooden box or trunk used like a bag or suitcase (these boxes were used in the past and are rarely used today) Cebuano kabán trunk, chest; to store in a trunk   kabán-kabán kind of bivalve, so called because it opens and closes like a trunk Maranao kaban chest, case, box Manobo (Western Bukidnon) kavan a trunk; a large wooden box Tausug kaban a closed coffin Lun Dayeh (Kemaloh) kaban small wooden box

Note:   Also Malay kəban ‘a four-cornered matwork bag’, Toba Batak hobon ‘very large round rice container made of bamboo strips’. Possibly a loan, but if so the source is yet to be determined.

*kabáŋ spotted, dappled

9747 PPh     *kabáŋ spotted, dappled WMP Casiguran Dumagat kabáŋ term for a spotted domestic pig Ibaloy kabaŋ animals with white spots, mixed with color, on its fur Tagalog kabáŋ multi-colored; varicolored; spotted; white patch of skin on face or arms (used in some areas) Bikol kabáŋ two-toned; half and half (color, contents) Cebuano kabáŋ spotted, splotched; unevenly painted or cut Maranao kabaŋ spotted Mansaka kábaŋ to be spotted or striped (as an animal); to be nonuniform; to be variegated Tboli kabaŋ to make something spotted, speckled black and white Tausug kabaŋ spotted, piebald (of animals, fish, material, etc.) Mongondow kabaŋ white spots on the skin; also scar

Note:   Also Tiruray kabaŋ ‘of mixed color; (of animals only) spotted’.

*kabasi kind of marine fish, probably gizzard shad: Anodontostoma spp.

8541 PWMP     *kabasi kind of marine fish, probably gizzard shad: Anodontostoma spp. WMP Ilokano kabási kind of large marine fish, gizzard shad: Anodontostoma spp. Casiguran Dumagat kabáse small-mouthed threadfin fish: Polynemus microstoma Aklanon kabási kind of fish   k<in>abási bolo (having shape of kabási) Cebuano kabási gizzard shad: Nematalosa nasus, and Anodontostoma chacunda Maranao kabasi fish --- herring Malay ikan kebasi bony bream or hairback, Dorosoma spp. (name on east coast of Malay peninsula)

Note:   Also Tagalog kabásiʔ ‘species of fish: gizzard shad’.

*kabat₁ wrap, bundle up

9781 PWMP     *kabat₁ wrap, bundle up WMP Ilokano kabát-en to package, bundle, pack up Maranao baŋkat <M to pack, to tie; band Minangkabau kabat binding round; band; wrapper; circlet

Note:   Also Malay kəbat ‘binding round; band; wrapper; circlet’. This form suggests that Minangkabau kabat may reflect a form with penultimate schwa, thus invalidating this comparison on the PWMP level and leaving it weak on the PPh level.

*kabat₂ canoes joined together side-by-side (?)

9915 POC     *kabat₂ canoes joined together lengthwise (?) OC Gedaged kapat a raft; several logs thrown over a ditch or stream Motu kapa-kapa small canoes joined together without space between

Note:   Possibly a chance resemnblance. Gedaged clearly loses original final consonants in most forms, but has apparent retentions in enough cases to leave open the question whether in any given comparison it may preserve a final consonant that was lost in most Oceanic languages.

*kabatíti a vine with gourd or cucumber-like fruit, probably Luffa sp.

10233 PPh     *kabatíti a vine with gourd or cucumber-like fruit, probably Luffa sp. WMP Ivatan kabatiti a vine with edible, long cylindrical fruits: Luffa cylindrica (Rubino 2000) Ibatan kabatiti a kind of luffa Ilokano kabatíti a vine with edible, long cylindrical fruits: Luffa cylindrica Isneg kabatíti a scandent, cucurbitaceous, herbaceous vine with large leaves, yellow flowers and oblong, cylindric, green, ribbed or smooth fruits that are used for vegetables; taboo to trappers that have come home after having constructed a balét trap (bow or spear trap for deer or wild boars) Kankanaey kabatíti a cucurbitaceous vine with yellow flowers, cultivated for its edible fruit: Luffa sp. Casiguran Dumagat kabatíti variety of uncultivated plant (leaves are boiled with fish as a vegetable) Tagalog kabatéte the Javan cucumber, a gourd-bearing liana belonging to the pumpkin family: Alsomitra macrocarpa Roem. Cucurbitaceae Bagobo kabatiti a shrub: Callicarpa caudata Maxim., Verbenaceae

Note:   Possibly a Tagalog loan, although this appears unlikely both because of the wide and scattered distribution from the Batanes Islands to southern Mindanao, with an apparent near-absence of the form throughout the central Philippines, and because of the manner in which beliefs about this plant are deeply embedded in some of the cultures of northern Luzon, as the Isneg gloss shows.

*kabe₁ a jointed creeper which yields fiber used to make cordage and fishnets

6977 POC     *kabe₁ a jointed creeper which yields fiber used to make cordage and fishnets OC Lou kam kind of fiber from a jointed vine, used to make cordage for nets Loniu kap string made of vine fiber Nali kap fishing line Lakalai la abe vine used for cordage Nggela gambe species of creeper used for twine of fishing nets Arosi ʔabe a creeping, jointed plant, from whose strands string is made; a woman’s string girdle Fijian kabe the skin covering the coconut leaf stalk, and used for tying

*kabe₂ wing

7662 POC     *kabe₂ wing OC Motu ape wing Vartavo γaβe-n wing Rerep xambe-n wing

Note:   Possibly a chance resemblance.

*kabég large fruit bat

9770 PPh     *kabég large fruit bat WMP Kapampangan kabág a kind of bat (mammal)   má-kabág bat-infested Aklanon kabóg fruit bat Cebuano kabúg kind of large fruit bat with a dark brown color, growing to a five or even seven foot wingspan; the flesh is highly esteemed Maranao kabeg bat Binukid kabeg kind of large fruit bat Manobo (Western Bukidnon) kaveg giant fruit bat Mansaka kabug large kind of bat, measuring 30 cm. in length Tboli kebeg Greater Philippine short-nosed or dog-faced fruit bat: Ptenochirus jagorii

Note:   Also Tagalog kabág ‘a species of fruit bat; a large bat’, Binukid kabal ‘kind of large bat’, Tiruray kabeg ‘a giant fruit bat: Pteropus vampyrus lenensis Mearns.’ (Danaw loan). The semantic distinction between this term and reflexes of PMP *paniki ‘fruit bat, flying fox’, both of which are reflected in a number of Philippine languages, remains unclear.

*kabej tie up, tie by wrapping around

9916 PWMP     *kabej tie up, tie by wrapping around WMP Cebuano kabúd tie ropes, strings, wires around something large Minangkabau kabat binding round; band; wrapper; circlet

Note:   Also Malay kəbat ‘binding round; band; wrapper; circlet’. With root *-bej ‘wind around repeatedly’.

*kab(e)liŋ kind of aromatic herb: Pogostemon cablin

10234 PPh     *kab(e)liŋ kind of aromatic herb: Pogostemon cablin WMP Ilokano kablíŋ species of aromatic herb with pink-purple flowers: Pogostemon cablin Tagalog kablíŋ a species of aromatic herb

Note:   Possibly a Tagalog loan in Ilokano.

*kab(e)lít touch someone lightly, as to get attention

9773 PPh     *kab(e)lít touch someone lightly, as to get attention WMP Isneg kabbít to touch Pangasinan káblit to touch lightly Bikol mag-kablít to touch someone on the arm or touch someone’s clothing to get his attention Aklanon káblit to touch lightly with one’s finger Cebuano kablít to touch, move something by curling the fingers; ask a favor readily from a close acquaintance or friend   gi-k<in>ablit to play a guitar Binukid kablit to touch, move (something) by curling the fingers; to pluck (guitar strings) Mansaka kablit to touch lightly (so as to get attention) Tausug kablit to touch (something) with a flicking motion of the finger, to strum (a guitar)

Note:   Also Bikol mag-kiblít ‘to touch someone on the arm or touch someone’s clothing to get his attention’. Mapun mag-kabbit ‘to pluck or play a guitar or stringed instrument; to flick someone with one’s fingers in a manner one would pluck an instrument and immediately withdraw the hand (usually in order to get someone’s attention)’ is assumed to be a loan from a Greater Central Philippines source.

*kab(e)lit to touch lightly

12346 PPh     *kab(e)lit to touch lightly WMP Ibaloy kabdit trigger of a gun and other similar devices   kabdit-en to pull such a trigger Pangasinan káblit to touch lightly Aklanon káblit to touch lightly with one’s finger Binukid kablit to touch, move (something) by curling the fingers; to pluck, as guitar strings Mansaka kablit to touch lightly (so as to get attention)

*kabi to catch, as in a trap

10097 POC     *kabi to catch, as in a trap OC Tolai kap ~ kapi to catch, take, as a bird in a trap Gedaged abi to take hold of, grab, seize, grasp, clutch, take Motu abi-a to have, hold 'Āre'āre kapi a trap

Note:   Apparently distinct from PAn *kapit ‘fasten together by sewing or tying’.

*kábig to turn around, as a boat

9771 PPh     *kábig to turn around, as a boat WMP Ilokano kábig to turn (a steering wheel) Bikol mag-kábig to set a boat back on course by turning it with an oar

9772 PPh     *kabíg-en to turn around, as a boat WMP Ilokano kabíg-en to turn (a steering wheel) Bikol kabíg-on to set a boat back on course by turning it with an oar

*kabiR draw toward oneself; annex, make subject

3065 PWMP     *kabiR draw toward oneself; annex, make subject WMP Casiguran Dumagat kábig to draw or pull something towards oneself (as to hug a person, to scoop up the money in gambling, to scrape dirt into a pile with a shovel; to paddle a canoe drawing the paddle towards you so that the boat will turn) Tagalog kábig act of drawing or pulling towards oneself; vassal, subject, follower Bikol mag-kábig to rake in with the hand (as chips in the game of roulette) Cebuano kábig make something move toward one; to convert Tiruray kabig the extent (geographical or social) of a leader's following, jurisdiction or authority Malay kabir drawing towards oneself. In two senses: 1. (MIN) scooping in, annexing, 2. (MAL) side-paddling Balinese kabih be supported Tae' kabeʔ draw toward oneself; reach for something; grasp at something; stretch the hand out toward

Note:   Zorc (1981) proposes Proto-Southern Philippines *kábig ‘take for oneself’.

*kabit₁ hook

7239 PAN     *kabit₁ hook     [doublet: *kawit] Formosan Pazeh kabit hook   mu-kabit to hook   saa-kabit a hook Amis kafit attached to, stuck to; to hang WMP Kankanaey kábit to hook Pangasinan kabít attach; joint; share a part Kapampangan kabít put, fix, attach Tagalog kabít connected; attached; fastened; united Bikol kabít to attach, fasten, to clamp Maranao kabit hang onto a vehicle Kadazan Dusun kavit to hook, pluck with a hook Bintulu sə-kabit hook at the end of a fruiting pole Iban kabit hang or hook on (as in hooking coins onto the hem of a skirt, or hanging a basket on a branch) Wolio kabi barb on fishhook

Note:   Also Ilokano kabʔít ‘hook’, Cebuano kabɁít ‘hook, crook; hook around something, for a crook to catch onto something; cause it to do so’. With root *-bit₁ ‘hook, clasp; grasp with fingers’.

*kabít₂ to lead, support (as a feeble person)

10135 PPh     *kabít₂ to lead, support (as a feeble person) WMP Casiguran Dumagat kabít to lead someone by the hand; to walk hand in hand Bikol mag-kabít to support, hold up (as a weak person) Aklanon kabít to cling to, hang on to; franchise, collaborate; mistress, paramour Cebuano kabít cling to, hang on to; join in on a transportation franchise on a minor basis; hook up to a telephone with another line; take a paramour or lover

Note:   With root *-bit₁ ‘hook, clasp; grasp with fingers’.

*kabit₃ a vine: Caesalpinia bonduc

12434 PPh     *kabit₃ a vine: Caesalpinia bonduc WMP Ilokano kabit a vine: Caesalpinia bonduc Tagalog kabit-kabag a vine: Caesalpinia bonduc

Note:   This comparison is taken from Madulid (2001), and could not be confirmed from independent sources.

*kabkáb dig a hole, hollow something out

9782 PPh     *kabkáb dig a hole, hollow something out     [doublet: *kadkad] WMP Bontok kabkáb to dig a hole; to hollow a piece of wood, as in making a wooden dish or bucket Cebuano kabkáb dig a hole by scooping out dirt Sangir kəɁkabəɁ a pit, a hollowing out   ma-kəɁkabəɁ become hollowed out, become a pit (after digging)   ma-ŋəɁkabəɁ go into the depths (of a fish that dives, etc.

*kaboRa catfish

10182 POC     *kaboRa catfish OC Loniu kopow <A catfish or catfish eel Misima kaboiya striped catfish: Plotosus lineatus Lewo kapwo catfish Fijian kaboa small black fish that goes about in shoals: catfish, Siluridae

Note:   A much extended version of this comparison with many irregular forms was first proposed by Osmond (2011:42). The evidence for *R in the present comparison is confined to Misima. Osmond also includes Nggela i-gabola, which she glosses as ‘catfish sp.’ (with ga- reanalyzed as iga ‘fish’). However, Fox (1955) gives igambola ‘butterfish’.

*kabu-kabu the kapok tree: Ceiba pentandra

3066 PMP     *kabu-kabu the kapok tree: Ceiba pentandra     [doublet: *kapuk] WMP Malay kabu-kabu tree-cotton, kapok Karo Batak kabu-kabu kapok tree and fiber Toba Batak habu-habu tree which yields a kind of worthless cotton Bare'e ka-kawu kapok tree: Eriodendrum anfractuosum Ampana kawu-kawu kapok tree: Eriodendrum anfractuosum Makassarese kau-kau kapok tree: Eriodendrum anfractuosum Wolio kawu-kawu the kapok tree: Ceiba pentandra CMP Manggarai kawu kapok tree: Ceiba pentandra Rembong kawu kapok tree: Ceiba pentandra Rembong (Wangka) kawu-kawu kapok tree: Ceiba pentandra

Note:   Also Kamarian kabus ‘the silk cotton, or kapok tree: Ceiba pentandra’. This comparison was first noted in print by Verheijen (1967-70). Mills (1981:64) proposes Proto-South Sulawesi or Proto-Toraja *ka[bw]u ‘kapok tree and fibre’, "Proto-Indonesian’ *ka[bw]u or ? *kabuk, but he cites no evidence from languages outside the southern half of Sulawesi.

*kabuq ladle, dipper, scoop, cup

9959 PMP     *kabuq ladle, dipper, scoop, cup WMP Cebuano kabuʔ dip water, scoop solids out of a container; fetch water; make, use as a water dipper; something used as a dipper or scoop   kab-an-an container for fetching water Maranao kaboʔ dipper, container to get water from wells; fetch water 9960 POC     *kapuq ladle, dipper, scoop, cup OC Tongan kapu form into a cup-like shape, esp. a banana leaf Hawaiian ʔapu coconut shell cup

*kabuR to be agitated, of water, as when fish swarm

9749 PPh     *kabuR to be agitated, of water, as when fish swarm WMP Ilokano ag-kábur to boil (water agitated by fish); to worsen, intensify (anger)   ag-kábur to boil (water agitated by fish); to worsen, intensify (anger) Bikol mag-kabóg to agitate water with the hand Maranao kambog to stir   kambog-aw driving fish into net, trapping fish

Note:   Also Malay kəbur ‘driving before one, as beaters drive game; also of driving fish (cf. kəbar); disturbing water to stir up the mud; churning liquid or sand’.

*kabuRaw kind of wild lemon tree, possibly Citrus hystrix

9750 PPh     *kabuRaw kind of wild lemon tree, possibly Citrus hystrix WMP Yami kavovoyaw tree with orange fruit: Tabernaemontana subglobosa Itbayaten kavoyaw a tree that grows on the edge of the forest, with green to yellow-orange fruit that is eaten mostly by goats: Pittosporum oporatum Merr. Ilokano kabúraw a variety of the kabugaw lemon Cebuano kabúgaw kind of astringently sour citrus used for hair rinse and seasoning: Citrus hystrix

Note:   Also Amis kamoraw ‘pomelo tree (in some areas)’, Itbayaten kavoogaw ‘kind of orange’, Ilokano kabúgaw ‘a kind of seedy lemon, larger than the daláyap (Citrus lima), kamúyaw ‘kind of wild lemon’, Tagalog kabuyaw ‘a species of citrus tree and its fruit’. Tagalog kabuyaw is best regarded as a Kapampangan loan, and Ilokano kabúgaw as a loan from a still undetermined source. This form appears to have a heavy history of borrowing, but the three forms cited in the main comparison are problem-free, and point unambiguously to *kabuRaw. Note that various species of Pittosporum are called ‘lemon wood’ from the lemony odor of their wood, which seems to be the unifying thread in this comparison.

*kabus₁ run out, come to an end, of supplies; be poor

9733 PMP     *kabus₁ run out, come to an end, of supplies; be poor WMP Itbayaten kavos idea of ending   ka-kavos act of concluding or finishing   om-kavos to terminate, to finish Aklanon kabós to be short, run short of, not have enough of Cebuano kabús very poor, indigent; to run out of something Binukid kabus (for food, etc.) to be insufficient, run short Mansaka kabos to do completely (as a flood wiping out all the people, someone completely eating all the rice given to him, etc.) Mapun kabus for someone to have run out of something (as money, or provisions when housebound during a typhoon) Tausug kabus lacking, incomplete, deficient, premature   kabus-un to be lacking in, be short of, run out (of something)   kabus-kabus (of a person) abnormal, mentally handicapped Sangir kawusəɁ a spot that remains uncovered, where the covering doesn’t extend; hiatus, opening; insufficient, inadequate Tondano kawus to finish, use up Balantak kabus finished Banggai kabus all gone, finished, consumed, used up   maŋa-kabus to spend, squander   po-kabus-on til it is all gone, totally CMP Rembong kabus gone, used up

Note:   Also Binukid kulabus ‘(for food, etc.) to beinsufficient, run short’. With root *-bus ‘finish, end’.

*kabut fog, haze, mist; indistinct, blurry

9734 PMP     *kabut fog, haze, mist; indistinct, blurry WMP Tombonuwo kawut white cloud Iban kabut (of weather) continually bad, stormy Malay kabut anything that blurs or render indistinct   anjiŋ kabut a dog with clouded markings   kabut mata dim-sightedness   napas bər-kabut steamy breath Toba Batak habut fog, haze, mist; turbid; opaque, of a dim lamp, dirty window glass, or something obscure in the distance Rejang kabuet fog, mist, low-lying cloud 9735 POC     *kaput₂ fog, haze, mist OC Hula kovu mist Motu ǥahu mist, fog at sea, haze Eddystone/Mandegusu ŋgabu mist; dust, dirt; rain-cloud, nimbus Nggela ŋgavu haze, mist; hazy, misty Lau gafu indistinct, blurred, of writing or distant object; mist Arosi gahu mist, to be misty, dim Fijian kabu fog, mist, haze

*kacaw disturb

6841 PWMP     *kacaw disturb WMP Cebuano kásaw make noise by splashing in the water (so as, for example, to disturb someone who is fishing) Iban kacaw disturbed, in disorder, confused, troubled, in a stir, annoyed   kacaw-kacaw stirring, moving, moved (as leaves stirred by a troupe of monkeys) Malay kacaw jumbled up, mixed indiscriminately Bahasa Indonesia kacaw mixed indiscriminately; tangled, disordered; disturbed, not at peace

*kaCu bring, carry

3067 PAN     *kaCu bring, carry Formosan Thao kacu bring Paiwan katsu carry 7156 PMP     *katu send WMP Kayan katoʔ to send Totoli pa-katu to send Balaesang pa-katu to send Bare'e katu consignment, what is sent; a gift that is sent Sa'dan Toraja pa-katu to send Proto-South Sulawesi *katu to send Makassarese pi-katu to send CMP Bimanese ŋgadu send Manggarai katu send Proto-Ambon *katu send

6605 PAN     *k<in>aCu was brought; what was brought Formosan Thao k<in>acu was brought Paiwan k<in>atsu something which has been carried

6606 PAN     *k<um>aCu to bring, to carry along Formosan Thao k<m>acu to bring Paiwan k<m>atsu to carry

6607 PAN     *pa-kaCu to send Formosan Thao pa-kacu to send Paiwan pa-katsu cause something to be carried WMP Kayan pe-katoʔ to send to Banggai ka-patu <M send Tae' pa-katu send Makassarese pi-katu send

Note:   Also Puyuma kasu ‘take along, bring’, probably a borrowing of Paiwan katsu. A number of the forms in languages of Sulawesi appear to contain a fossilized causative prefix.

*kada stalk or cluster of fruit

10075 POC     *kada stalk or cluster of fruit OC Motu ada stalk (pedicel) of one banana; stalk of various fruits; body of penis; the stalk (pedicel) of a bunch of bananas is kwasi Roviana kata-na bunch or cluster of fruit

*kadadak colic, choleric diarrhoea

9917 PWMP     *kadadak colic, choleric diarrhoea     [doublet: *kadaqdaq] WMP Maranao kadadak violent diarrhoea Malay kədadak violent colic; choleric diarrohea

Note:   Possibly a Malay loanword in Maranao, although the doublet *kadaqdaq makes this appear less likely.

*kadapuR rain cloud

10183 POC     *kadapuR rain cloud OC Nauna cipan kalah rain cloud (lit. ‘piece of cloud’) Penchal kalap rain cloud Lenkau kalap rain cloud Loniu kaʔah rain cloud Papitalai kandrah cloud, sky Lindrou asi kandrah rain cloud Bulu kadavuj rain Piva garavu rain Banoni garau rain Gilbertese karau rain, rainwater; to rain

Note:   A somewhat different version of this comparison was proposed by Ross (2003b:142), who cited Loniu kaɁæh ‘cloud’ with a vowel that does not occur in this language (cf. Hamel 1994:15). The form and gloss cited here are drawn from my 1975 fieldnotes.

*kadaqdaq colic, choleric diarrhoea

9918 PWMP     *kadaqdaq colic, choleric diarrhoea     [doublet: *kadadak] WMP Tiruray kadaʔdaʔ a sickness involving vomiting and diarrhea, believed to be caused by sorcery Malay kədadah violent colic; choleric diarrohea

*kad(e)rit sound of grating

3068 PWMP     *kad(e)rit sound of grating WMP Cebuano kadlít strike a match Ngaju Dayak karit crunching, gnashing of the teeth

Note:   With root *-riC₁ ‘sound of ripping, etc.’.

*kadik large black ant with painful sting, probably bulldog ant

10184 POC     *kadik large black ant with painful sting, probably bulldog ant OC Bulu kadi stinging black ant Nehan kadik red ant that builds nest in trees: Hymenoptera, family Formicidae   kadik kurum large black ant found on the ground (has a bad sting which can last for several hours) Simbo kadiki black ant Nggela gandi a species of black ant, bulldog ant Kwaio kaa-kadi stinging black ant Lau kadi ~ ka-kadi bulldog ant Toqabaqita kaa-kadi species of black ant that stings Fijian kadi a large kind of black ant that stings   kadi damu a similar kind of red ant that destroys wood

Note:   A variant of this comparison was first proposed by Osmond (2011a:391).

*kadkad dig a hole

9783 PPh     *kadkad dig a hole     [doublet: *kabkáb] WMP Bikol kadkad-ón to dig a hole with the hand or a stick   kadkad-án to dig a hole in Mansaka kadkad to dig Sangir kəɁkadəɁ pit, hole in the ground, in which for example one sets a housepost

*kadro neck

10235 POC     *kadro neck OC Mussau alo- neck Patpatar kado- neck Roinji aro-tua- neck Motu gado- throat, voice, speech, language Roro ako- throat, neck

Note:   A longer version of this comparison was first proposed by Pawley (1985), and more recently by Osmond and Ross (2016:140).

*kaen eat

8008 PAN     *kaen eat Formosan Kavalan qan eat Amis kaen pertaining to food Thao kan eat!, lets eat! Bunun (Takituduh) kaʔun eat Kanakanabu kaənə food Proto-Rukai *kanə to eat Puyuma əkan eat Paiwan kan to eat WMP Yami kan ~ akan eat Itbayaten kan idea of eating Isneg kān to eat Itawis na-kán eaten Bontok ʔək-əkan feast   pan-ʔəkan meal time; time for eating Kankanaey kaén to eat, to eat up   siŋ-ka-kaén one meal, one repast Ifugaw kan wordbase conveying the meaning of “eating”, especially cooked rice or sweet potatoes Ifugaw (Batad) an the taste of food; to eat; for a fire to consume something combustible; for a saw to cut into iron, wood   a-ʔan the taste of a staple or snack food, such as rice, sweet potato, bread or pastries, fermented rice grains, and fruit Ibaloy kan eat   ke-ken food; will eat Ilongot kan to eat Pangasinan na-kán food Sambal (Botolan) əkan to eat Tagalog káʔin consumption of food; consumption of any supply, e.g. fuel   mag-káʔin to eat frequently   pa-kaʔín food Bikol mag-ka-kán to eat Hanunóo káʔun eating; food   pag-káʔun food Romblomanon kāʔun someone or something eats something Masbatenyo pag-káʔon food Aklanon káon to eat; to take (in chess), jump (in checkers)   pag-káon food Waray-Waray kaon the act of eating   pag-kaon the act of eating Hiligaynon kaʔún eat, devour Cebuano káʔun eat; destroy by fire; consume, use up; take a man in games of chess, checkers and the like; for a man to have sexual relations with a blood relative; for a girl to be old enough to be had for sexual intercourse; for a fish to bite on one’s line   hi-ŋáʔun fond of eating Maranao kan eat, feed on Binukid kaen to eat (something) Manobo (Western Bukidnon) kaʔan to eat Mansaka kaan to eat something   pag-kaan food Kalagan ka:n to eat Yakan mag-ka-kan to eat Tboli ken food; to eat; to swallow up; to consume, as by fire, debt; to beat an opponent, as in a game Tausug kaun eat   ka-kaun food, meal   pag-kaun food, meal Kadazan Dusun a-kan to eat, consume, wear away; (in such games as chess) take a piece, destroy (as if by eating) Tombonuwo moŋ-o-kan to eat Ida'an Begak kkan cooked rice (< əkkan < əkan)   məŋ-əkkan to eat Lun Dayeh a-kan a meal, food supply Kayan kan food eaten with rice   mə-kan to eat vegetables, meat or fish with rice; to always have vegetables or meat for food Sundanese ha-kan to eat, eat up; food Sangir kaəŋ food Tonsawang kan food; to eat Ponosakan kaʔan to eat Totoli kaan to eat Boano kaʔan to eat Balantak kaan to eat Banggai poo-kaan to eat together Proto-Bungku-Tolaki *kaaN eat Moronene moŋ-kaa to eat CMP Manggarai haŋ to eat, to swallow; eaten by, consumed by (as fire); food; cooked rice Ngadha ka to eat Li'o ka to eat Solorese kan to eat Kédang ka to eat, bite Kola -ka to eat Bobot kan to eat Masiwang ken to eat Kamarian aa to eat Alune kane to eat Hitu a to eat Tifu kan to eat Soboyo kañ to eat SHWNG Buli ān food; to eat Minyaifuin -anan to eat Numfor ān to eat Woi -aŋ to eat OC Vitu hani to eat; get infected   hani-ŋa food Sobei kin to eat Kis an to eat Watut gan to eat Wampar ān to eat Rotuman ʔā to eat; to use up, go through, consume

8010 PAN     *ma-kaen will eat (?) Formosan Pazeh me-ken to eat Amis ma-kaen to have eaten Thao ma-kan will eat; eat (irrealis) Puyuma mə-kan to eat Paiwan ma-kán be eaten WMP Itawis ma-kan that which is edible Bontok ma-kan cooked rice Kankanaey ma-kán cooked rice; in tales, however, it may mean any rice Ifugaw ma-kán it is edible Ifugaw (Batad) ma-ʔan a main-dish food, either a staple food, normally eaten with a side dish, or a snack food, as fruits of various varieties, bread or pastries Casiguran Dumagat ma-kan edible Ibaloy me-kan food; will eat Tagalog má-káʔin to be eaten; to have something to eat; to happen to eat something Romblomanon ma-kāʔun will eat Masbatenyo ma-kaʔun-káʔun very edible Kadazan Dusun ma-kan to eat Bisaya (Limbang) ma-kan to eat Narum ma-han to feed Kayan ma-kan to feed animals, etc. (and also used of people) Kayan (Uma Juman) ma-kan to feed (humans) Malagasy mamáhana to feed, to tend, to treat hospitably Iban ma-kai to eat Malay ma-kan to eat; to consume; to wear away; (in chess) to take a pawn or piece; (of weapons) to take effect (e.g. di-makan peluru ‘killed by a bullet’)   ma-kan-an food Acehnese ma-kan-an to eat; all food other than rice Karo Batak ma-kan-i to feed, give food to Toba Batak ma-ma-han to feed animals Old Javanese a-ma-kan-i to feed, give someone something to eat Javanese ma-kan to feed an animal Sangir ma-kaəŋ eaten by accident; edible OC Kis an to eat

8011 PPh     *maka-kaen edible, able to be eaten; able to eat WMP Yami máka-ka-kan able to eat Isneg mak-kān to be able to eat; edible stuff Bontok mak-ma-kan edible Tagalog maká-káʔin edible, can be eaten Bikol maka-kán edible Romblomanon maka-kāʔun able to eat Note:   In contemporary standard Bikol makakán evidently is ma-kakán, but comparative evidence shows that this almost certainly is a reanalysis of earlier maka-kan.

8012 PPh     *maki-kaen to eat together, join others in eating WMP Yami maci-akan eat together with someone Ibaloy meki-kan to eat with someone, join in a meal, esp. of going to a feast Tagalog maká-káʔin to join others at a meal

8013 PMP     *ma-ŋaen to eat WMP Ilokano ma-ŋán to eat Isneg ma-ŋān to eat Itawis ma-ŋán to eat Bontok maŋ-an to eat   maŋ-an-an any pot or jar in which rice is usually cooked Kankanaey ma-ŋán to eat; to take one’s meals; to feed Ifugaw ma-ŋán to eat   ma-ma-ŋán person who gives to eat (feeds) Ifugaw (Batad) ma-ŋan for someone to engage in eating, especially a scheduled meal (regular meals are eaten in the morning and at night; a noon meal is more casual and irregular); for someone to eat with someone else Casiguran Dumagat mə-ŋan to eat Ibaloy me-ŋan to eat; to bite, cut into (as auger bit cuts into wood) Pangasinan ma-ŋan to eat Sambal (Botolan) ma-ŋan to eat Kapampangan ma-ŋan to eat Tagalog ma-ŋáʔin to eat small things or pieces of things one after another Hanunóo ma-ŋáʔun to eat Masbatenyo ma-ŋáʔon to eat (refers to eating a variety of things) Agutaynen pala-ma-ŋan-an dining room Mapun ma-ŋan to eat something, consume something; to bite into something (as sandpaper into wood)   ma-ŋan-an utensils for eating, such as spoons, glasses, plates, etc.   ma-ŋan ma-ŋan to have a picnic Samal maŋan eat Gayō ma-ŋan to eat Simalur ma-ŋan to eat; to bite (of a fish taking the bait)   ma-ŋan ma-ŋan to eat on and on, to go on eating Karo Batak ma-ŋan-i eat from something; eaten up by animals; consumed by fire Toba Batak ma-ŋan to eat, consume Old Javanese u-ma-ŋan to eat, swallow, devour   a-ma-ŋan-i to hurt, wound Javanese maŋan eat [Ngoko speech level]   ma-ŋan to eat, to consume Balinese ma-ŋan to eat Sasak ma-ŋan to eat Banggai maŋ-kaan to eat Mori Bawah moŋ-kaa to eat Padoe mo-ŋaa to eat Bungku moŋ-kaa to eat Bonerate ma-ŋa to eat Note:   Also Gaddang, Yogad me-ŋŋan, Lampung me-ŋan ‘to eat’. 12569 POC     *maŋan to eat OC Arosi maŋa bits of food in the crevices of the teeth after eating   maŋa(-maŋa) to eat

8014 PPh     *maR-kaen to eat WMP Agta (Dupaningan) mag-kan to eat, especially rice or a meal containing rice Casiguran Dumagat məg-kan to eat casually Bikol mag-ka-kán to eat; to dine on; to devour; to jump (as in checkers) Romblomanon mag-kāʔun to eat Masbatenyo mag-káʔon to eat Hiligaynon mag-kaʔún to eat, to devour Tausug mag-kaun to eat