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Longman Dictionary of
Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
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Longman Dictionary of
LANGUAGE TEACHING AND
APPLIED LINGUISTICS
Jack C. Richards and Richard Schmidt
With Heidi Kendricks and Youngkyu Kim
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PEARSON EDUCATION LIMITED
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______________________________
First edition published 1985
Second edition published 1992
Third edition published 2002
© Longman Group UK Limited 1992 (Second Edition)
© Pearson Education Limited 2002 (Third Edition)
The right of Jack C. Richards and Richard Schmidt to be identified as Authors
of this Work has been asserted by them in accordance
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PRONUNCIATION TABLE
Consonants Vowels
Symbol Key word Symbol Key word
b back ì bad
d day ëN calm
ù then í pot British English
dÔ jump a∂ bite
f few aÁ now
g gay a∂° tire
h hot aÁ° tower
j yet …N caught
k key …∂ boy
l led …∂° employer
m sum e bed
n sun e° there
√ sung e∂ make
p pen e∂° player
r red ° about
s soon °Á note
‹ fishing °Á° lower
t tea §N bird
t‹ cheer i pretty
thing iN sheep
v view ∂ ship
w wet ∂° here
z zero i° alien
Ô pleasure uN boot
u actuality
Á put
Á° poor
î cut
/ `/ shows main stress
/ˇ / shows secondary stress
/r/ at the end of a word means that /r/ is usually pronounced in American
English and is pronounced in British English when the next word
begins with a vowel sound
/°∂ / means that some speakers use /∂ / and others use /° /
/ Á° / means that some speakers use /Á/ and others use /°/
/ i/ means many American speakers use /iN/ but many British speakers use
/∂ /
/u/ represents a sound somewhere between /uN/ and /Á/
// means that /°/ may or may not be used
// shows stress shift
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GUIDE TO THE DICTIONARY
related word part of speech
aphasia n aphasic adj
also dysphasia n
loss of the ability to use and understand language, usually caused
less common by damage to the brain. The loss may be total or partial, and may
alternative affect spoken and/or written language ability.
There are different types of aphasia: agraphia is difficulty in writing; terms
alexia is difficulty in reading; anomia is difficulty in using proper explained
nouns; and agrammatism is difficulty in using grammatical words within the
like prepositions, articles, etc. entry
Aphasia can be studied in order to discover how the brain
processes language.
other related
entries it see also BRAIN, NEUROLINGUISTICS
may be
useful to
look up computer assisted language learning
also CALL
the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or
abbreviation
foreign language. CALL may take the form of
for term
a activities which parallel learning through other media but which
use the facilities of the computer (e.g. using the computer to
present a reading text) term
b activities which are extensions or adaptations of print-based or explained at
classroom based activities (e.g. computer programs that teach its own
writing skills by helping the student develop a topic and THESIS alphabetical
STATEMENT and by checking a composition for vocabulary, entry
grammar, and topic development), and
c activities which are unique to CALL.
See also INTERACTIVE VIDEO
entry for a
less dysphasia n
common another term for APHASIA
alternative
entry for an CALL n
abbreviation an abbreviation for COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING
entry for a
word agrammatism n
explained see APHASIA
elsewhere
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INTRODUCTION
Who is this dictionary for?
This dictionary is intended for:
• students taking undergraduate or graduate courses in language teach-
ing or applied linguistics, particularly those planning to take up a
career in the teaching of English as a Second or Foreign Language or in
foreign language teaching
• language teachers doing in-service or pre-service courses, such as the
UCLES Diploma in Teaching English to Adults
• students doing introductory courses in linguistics and related areas
• teachers and others interested in the practical applications of language
study
Why this dictionary?
Language teaching and applied linguistics are fields which have their own
core subject matter and which also draw on a number of complementary
fields of study. Among the core subject matter disciplines are second lan-
guage acquisition, methodology, testing, and syllabus design. The comp-
lementary fields of study include both the language based disciplines such
as linguistics, sociolinguistics, and psycholinguistics, as well as the edu-
cation based disciplines such as curriculum development, teacher edu-
cation, and evaluation. The result is that students taking courses in
language teaching and applied linguistics encounter a large number of
specialized terms which frequently occur in articles, books and lectures.
This dictionary attempts to clarify the meanings and uses of these terms.
The scope of the dictionary
The dictionary was written for those with little or no background in lan-
guage teaching or applied linguistics.
We have given special attention to English, and the majority of the
examples in the dictionary are from English, but the dictionary will also
be helpful to those interested in other languages. Although the dictionary
is not intended primarily for those who already have a specialized train-
ing in language teaching or applied linguistics, it will serve as a reference
book in areas with which they are less familiar. It should also be useful to
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Introduction
general readers who need further information about the terms which
occur in the fields of language teaching and applied linguistics.
Language teaching and applied linguistics
This dictionary includes the core vocabulary of both language teaching
and applied linguistics. The field of language teaching is concerned with
the development of language programmes and courses, teaching method-
ology, materials development, second language acquisition theory, test-
ing, teacher training and related areas. The dictionary includes terms from
the following areas of study in the field of language teaching:
• teaching methods and approaches in language teaching
• curriculum development and syllabus design
• second language acquisition
• the teaching of listening, speaking, reading and writing
• computer assisted language learning
• teacher education in language teaching
• English grammar and pronunciation
• language testing, research methods, and basic statistics
The dictionary also includes terms from the field of applied linguistics.
For the purposes of this book, “applied linguistics” refers to the practical
applications of linguistics and language theory and includes terms from
the following areas of study:
• introductory linguistics, including phonology, phonetics, syntax,
semantics and morphology
• discourse analysis
• sociolinguistics, including the sociology of language and communica-
tive competence
• psycholinguistics, including learning theories
What the dictionary contains
This dictionary contains 2800 entries which define, in as simple and pre-
cise a way as possible, the most frequently occurring terms found in the
areas listed above. Many of these terms were included in the second
edition of this dictionary, but the third edition includes some 800 terms
not included in the second edition as well as revisions of many of the
entries in the second edition. Each term has been selected on the basis of
its importance within an area and reflects the fact that the term has a par-
ticular meaning when used within that area, a meaning unlikely to be
listed in other dictionaries.
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Introduction
Our aim has been to produce clear and simple definitions which commu-
nicate the basic and essential meanings of a term in non-technical lan-
guage. Definitions are self-contained as far as possible, but cross
references show links to other terms and concepts.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank those colleagues from institutions around the
world who contributed to the preparation of the first and second editions
of this dictionary, giving advice on items for inclusion and providing
comments on individual entries.
This edition of the dictionary has been prepared by Jack C. Richards and
Richard Schmidt. We would like to thank the following for their assist-
ance in the preparation of this edition:
Youngkyu Kim for assistance in the area of testing, research design, and
statistics.
Ken Hyland and Stephen Jacques for suggestions for items for inclusion.
Graham Crookes for comments on entries.
We would also like to thank those who contributed to earlier editions of
this dictionary, particularly Heidi Kendricks, who contributed to the first
and second editions, the late John Platt, who contributed to the first and
second editions, and to the following who gave valuable suggestions to
earlier editions: Christopher Candlin, John W. Oller (Jr), Lyle Bachman.
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A
AAE n
another term for AFRICAN AMERICAN ENGLISH
AAVE n
an abbreviation for AFRICAN AMERICAN VERNACULAR ENGLISH
see AFRICAN AMERICAN ENGLISH
ability grouping n
in teaching, the placement of students in groups or classes according to
their ability in a skill or subject, e.g. based on their language proficiency.
Groups containing students of different ability levels are known as mixed
ability groups or heterogeneous groups, while groups composed of stu-
dents with similar abilities, achievement, etc., are known as homogeneous
groups. See GROUPING
ablaut n
a process by which an inflected form of a word is formed by changes in
the vowel of the stem. For example, the past tense of sing is sang and the
plural of goose is geese.
absolute n
an adjective or adverb that cannot have a comparative or superlative
form. For example perfectly and unique already express the idea of “to a
maximum degree” and cannot therefore be used with comparative forms
as in *most perfectly, or *more unique.
absolute clause (phrase, construction) n
a non-finite adverbial clause or other adverbial construction that is not
linked syntactically to the main clause, e.g.
As far as I can tell, she is not having any problems with the course.
abstract noun n
see CONCRETE NOUN
ABX discrimination n
in PSYCHOLINGUISTICS, a task in which three stimuli are presented in a
trial. A and B are different (for example, the words ramp and lamp) and
the subject’s task is to choose which of them is matched by the final
stimulus.
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academic language
academic language n
the special registers and genres of language used in the learning of aca-
demic subject matter in formal schooling contexts. Mastery of aca-
demic language is associated with literacy and academic achievement
and involves learning specific terms, text types, discourse features and
speech registers in different fields of study (e.g. history, maths).
Learning academic language is essential for mainstreaming for second
language learners and for students studying English for Academic
Purposes.
academic vocabulary n
the most frequently occurring vocabulary in academic texts. In English a
core academic vocabulary of some 600 words (e.g. words such as evi-
dence, estimate, feature, impact, method, release,) is common to a wide
range of academic fields and accounts for around 10% of the words in
any academic text. Students need to be familiar with this vocabulary if
they are to complete academic courses successfully. The teaching of aca-
demic vocabulary is an aspect of English for Academic Purposes.
Academic vocabulary is determined from analysis of a corpus of academic
English. Academic Vocabulary may be compared with Technical
Vocabulary, which refers to words specific to a particular topic, field or
discipline.
accent1 n
greater emphasis on a syllable so that it stands out from the other
syllables in a word. For example, in English the noun `import has the
accent on the first syllable im- while the verb im`port has the accent on the
second syllable -port:
This car is a foreign import.
We import all our coffee.
see also PROMINENCE, STRESS
accent2 n
in the written form of some languages, particularly in French, a mark
which is placed over a vowel. An accent may show:
a a difference in pronunciation (see DIACRITIC).
For example, in the French word prés “meadows”, the acute accent on
the e indicates a different vowel sound from that in près “near” with a
grave accent.
b a difference in meaning without any change in pronunciation, e.g.
French ou “or” and où “where”.
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acceptable
accent3 n
a particular way of speaking which tells the listener something about the
speaker’s background.
A person’s pronunciation may show:
a the region or country they come from, e.g.
a northern accent
an American accent
b what social class they belong to, e.g.
a lower middle class accent
c whether or not the speaker is a native speaker of the language, e.g.
She speaks English with an accent/with a German accent.
see also DIALECT, SOCIOLECT
accent4 n
another term for STRESS
accent discrimination
discrimination or bias against speakers with foreign, regional, or social
class ACCENTS3, for example in employment or in legal proceedings.
see also FORENSIC LINGUISTICS
accent reduction n
programmes designed to help second language speakers speak a
second or foreign language without showing evidence of a
foreign accent. Such programmes reflect the fact that many second
language speakers experience discrimination based on their
accent. There is no evidence however that reduction in a
foreign accent necessarily entails an increase in intelligibility.
Hence many educators argue for a greater tolerance of foreign accents.
See also English as an International Language
acceptable adj
(in linguistics) the judgement by the native speakers/users of a speech var-
iety that a certain linguistic item is possible in their variety. The linguistic
item could be a written sentence, a spoken utterance, a particular syntac-
tic structure, a word or a way of pronouncing a certain sound. The speech
community where such an item is considered acceptable could be all the
speakers of a particular region or social class or, alternatively, just the
members of an in-group, for example teenagers belonging to a rock club
who have created their own in-language. A linguistic item which is
acceptable to one group or variety need not be acceptable to another, for
example, speakers of some varieties of English accept such expressions as:
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acceptable alternative method
I want for him to come.
and
We were visiting with (meaning “calling on”) Aunt Lizzie. but speak-
ers of other varieties would not accept these expressions and use instead:
I want him to come.
and
We were visiting Aunt Lizzie.
Sometimes linguistic items are acceptable in certain situations and not in
others. For example a teenager may tell a friend:
I nearly freaked out when I saw that jerk. and in that situation it would
be acceptable. It would usually be unacceptable if the utterance was used
in a formal address at a special function (except, of course, if it was said
jokingly).
The terms acceptable and unacceptable are different from grammatical
(see GRAMMATICAL1) as they cover a wider range of linguistic units and
situations. And because they do not have prescriptive overtones (see
PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR) they are also preferred to expressions such as
CORRECT/INCORRECT, SUBSTANDARD, right/wrong.
see also APPROPRIATENESS, CONVERSATIONAL RULES
acceptable alternative method n
see CLOZE TEST
acceptable word method n
see CLOZE TEST
acceptability judgement task n
one of several types of tasks (or tests) that require subjects to judge
whether particular sentences are possible or not in either their native lan-
guage or a language they are learning. If the task instructions specify that
subjects are to judge whether or not a sentence is acceptable, the task is
called an acceptability judgement task; if they are asked to judge whether
a particular sentence is grammatical, the task is usually called a gram-
maticality judgement task (or test).
access n, v
in COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING, locating or obtaining infor-
mation or data. Sequential access means locating information in
sequence, for example by fast forwarding an audio cassette. Direct access
or random access means locating information directly, in such a way that
access time is not dependent on its location.
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accredited interpreter
accidental gap n
in WORD FORMATION, a non-occurring but possible form, for example
unsad as an ANTONYM of sad. When learners produce such forms, these
are considered to be examples of OVER-GENERALIZATION.
accommodation1 n
a theory that seeks to explain shifts in the style of speaking people make such
as when a person changes their way of speaking to make it sound more like
or less like the speech of the person they are talking to. For example, a teacher
may use simpler words and sentence structures when he/she is talking to a
class of young children. This is called convergence. Alternatively a person
may exaggerate their rural accent because they are annoyed by the attitude
of someone from the city. This is called divergence. Convergence is a strat-
egy in which people adapt to each other’s speech by adjusting such things as
speech rate, pauses, length of utterance, and pronunciation. Divergence
involves emphasizing speech and non-verbal differences between the
speaker and other interlocutors. In communication between native and non-
native speakers or between second language speakers with different levels of
proficiency, accommodation may serve to promote intelligibility.
see also ACCENT3
accommodation2 n
see ADAPTATION2
accomplishments n
see ASPECT
accountability n
the answerability of all those involved in applied linguistics for the qual-
ity of their work. For example, test developers need to be able to explain
the rationale behind the assessment techniques they use and their results
to test takers and test users; language programme administrators are
accountable to clients who pay for special courses, as well as to students
for the quality of instruction; and public school programme administra-
tors are accountable to parents and other members of the public.
Accountability includes the documentation and reporting of procedures
used to develop curriculum and courses and of practices used in the hiring
of teachers, selection of materials, evaluation of teachers and courses and
the assessment of learners and learning outcomes.
accredited interpreter n
see INTERPRETATION
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accredited translator
accredited translator n
see TRANSLATION
acculturation n
a process in which changes in the language, culture, and system of values of
a group happen through interaction with another group with a different lan-
guage, culture, and system of values. For example, in second language learn-
ing, acculturation may affect how well one group (e.g. a group of immigrants
in a country) learn the language of another (e.g. the dominant group).
see also ACCULTURATION MODEL ASSIMILATION2, SOCIAL DISTANCE
acculturation model n
in second language acquisition, the theory that the rate and level of ulti-
mate success of second language acquisition in naturalistic settings (with-
out instruction) is a function of the degree to which learners acculturate
to the target language community. Acculturation may involve a large
number of social and psychological variables, but is generally considered
to be the process through which an individual takes on the beliefs, values
and culture of a new group.
accuracy n
see FLUENCY
accuracy order n
also difficulty order
some linguistic items, forms, and rules seem to be consistently produced
with higher accuracy than others by language learners, permitting such
items to be ordered with respect to their relative difficulty. Accuracy
orders based on CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH are sometimes taken as evi-
dence for an order of acquisition, although such claims need to be rein-
forced through LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH.
accusative case n
the form of a noun or noun phrase which shows that it functions as the
direct object of the verb in a sentence. For example, in the German sen-
tence:
Ursula kaufte einen neuen Tisch.
Ursula bought a new table.
in the noun phrase einen neuen Tisch, the article ein and the adjective
neu have the inflectional ending -en to show that the noun phrase is in
the accusative case because it is the direct object of the verb.
see also CASE1
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acquisition order
achievement test n
a test designed to measure how much of a language learners have suc-
cessfully learned with specific reference to a particular course, textbook,
or programme of instruction, thus a type of CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST.
An achievement test is typically given at the end of a course, whereas
when administered periodically throughout a course of instruction to
measure language learning up to that point, it is alternatively called a
PROGRESS TEST. Its results are often used to make advancement or gradu-
ation decisions regarding learners or judge the effectiveness of a
programme, which may lead to curricular changes.
The difference between this and a more general type of test called a PRO-
FICIENCY TEST is that the latter is not linked to any particular course of
instruction and is thus a type of NORM-REFERENCED TEST. For example, an
achievement test might be a listening comprehension test if all of its items
are based on a particular set of dialogues in a textbook. In contrast, a pro-
ficiency test might use similar test items but would not be linked to any
particular textbook or language SYLLABUS.
achievements n
see ASPECT
acoustic cue n
an aspect of the acoustic signal in speech which is used to distinguish
between phonetic features. For example VOICE ONSET TIME is an acoustic
cue which is used to distinguish between the sounds /t/ and /d/
acoustic filtering n
(in listening comprehension) the ability to hear and identify only some of
the sounds that are being spoken. For example, when someone is learn-
ing a foreign language, the speech sounds of their native language may act
as a filter, making it difficult for them to hear and identify new or unfa-
miliar sounds in the foreign language.
acoustic phonetics n
see PHONETICS
acquisition n
see FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, SECOND LAN-
GUAGE ACQUISITION
acquisition order n
another term for ORDER OF ACQUISITION
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acrolect
acrolect n
see POST-CREOLE CONTINUUM, SPEECH CONTINUUM
acronym n
a word made from the initials of the phrase it stands for, for example
“IPA” for International Phonetics Association or International Phonetics
Alphabet.
ACT* (pronounced “act-star”)
see ADAPTIVE CONTROL OF THOUGHT
ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines n
proficiency descriptions developed under the auspices of the American
Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL). Since their latest
revision in 1996, the guidelines consist of descriptions of ten proficiency
levels: Novice Low, Novice Mid, Novice High, Intermediate Low,
Intermediate Mid, Intermediate High, Advanced Low, Advanced Mid,
Advanced High, and Superior.
ACTFL Oral Proficiency Interview n
also OPI
a structured interview carried out to assess a learner’s ability to use the
target language in terms of the levels described by the ACTFL PROFICIENCY
GUIDELINES, used as an assessment of speaking proficiency.
action research n
1 research that has the primary goal of finding ways of solving problems,
bringing about social change or practical action, in comparison with
research that seeks to discover scientific principles or develop general
laws and theories.
2 (in teacher education) teacher-initiated classroom research that seeks
to increase the teacher’s understanding of classroom teaching and
learning and to bring about improvements in classroom practices.
Action research typically involves small-scale investigative projects in
the teacher’s own classroom, and consists of the following cycle of
activities:
a The teacher (or a group of teachers) selects an aspect of classroom
behaviour to examine in more detail (e.g. the teacher’s use of ques-
tions)
b selects a suitable research technique (e.g. recording classroom lessons)
c collects data and analyzes them
d develops an action plan to help bring about a change in classroom
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adaptation
behaviour (e.g. to reduce the frequency of questions that the teacher
answers himself or herself)
e acts to implement the plan
f observes the effects of the action plan on behaviour
active/passive language knowledge n
also productive receptive language knowledge
the ability of a person to actively produce their own speech and writing is
called their active language knowledge. This is compared to their ability
to understand the speech and writing of other people, their passive lan-
guage knowledge.
Native speakers of a language can understand many more words than
they actively use. Some people have a passive vocabulary (i.e. words they
understand) of up to 100,000 words, but an active vocabulary (i.e. words
they use) of between 10,000 and 20,000 words.
In foreign language learning, an active vocabulary of about 3000 to 5000
words, and a passive vocabulary of about 5000 to 10,000 words is
regarded as the intermediate to upper intermediate level of proficiency.
active teaching n
another term for DIRECT TEACHING
active vocabulary n
see ACTIVE/PASSIVE LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE
active voice n
see voice1
activities n
see ASPECT
acute accent n
the accent`, e.g. on French prés “meadows”.
see also ACCENT2
ad hoc interpreting n
informal translation of spoken interaction, for example during social
events or business meetings
see also INTERPRETATION
adaptation1 n
changes made in the use of published teaching materials in order to make
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adaptation
them more suitable for particular groups of learners, e.g. by supplement-
ing, modifying or deleting parts of a textbook.
adaptation2 n
also equilibration
in Piagetian theory, a cover term for two ways in which a child adapts to
his or her environment: assimilation3, interpreting new information in
terms of the child’s current knowledge, and accommodation2, changing
the child’s cognitive structure to understand new information.
adaptive control of thought n
also ACT*
a model of skill learning, involving a progression from a controlled
stage based on DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE to an autonomous stage based
on PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE. Processes involved in this development
include proceduralization (the translation of propositional knowledge
into behavioural sequences, chunking (the binding together of com-
monly occurring units, which allows more information to be main-
tained in WORKING MEMORY), GENERALIZATION, rule narrowing, and rule
strengthening. Language acquisition is seen in this model as a type of
skill learning.
adaptive testing n
a form of individually tailored testing in which test items are selected
from an ITEM BANK where test items are stored in rank order with respect
to their ITEM DIFFICULTY and presented to test takers during the test on the
basis of their responses to previous test items, until it is determined that
sufficient information regarding test takers’ abilities has been collected.
For example, when a multiple-choice adaptive vocabulary test is adminis-
tered, a test taker is initially presented with an item of medium difficulty.
If he or she answers it correctly, then a slightly more difficult item is pre-
sented, whereas if the item is answered incorrectly, then a slightly easier
item is presented. An ORAL PROFICIENCY INTERVIEW can be viewed as a type
of adaptive testing in the sense that an interviewer (i.e. tester) adjusts the
difficulty level of language on the basis of an evolving assessment of the
interviewee’s (i.e. test taker’s) language ability. Adaptive testing finds its
most promising application in COMPUTER ADAPTIVE TESTING.
additive bilingual education n
also additive bilingualism
a form of BILINGUAL EDUCATION in which the language of instruction is not
the mother tongue or home language of the children, and is not intended
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adjacency pair
to replace it. In an additive bilingual education programme the first lan-
guage is maintained and supported.
For example, the bilingual programmes in French for English-speaking
Canadians are intended to give the children a second language, not to
replace English with French.
When the language of instruction is likely to replace the children’s first
language, this is called subtractive bilingualism.
see also IMMERSION PROGRAMME
address form n
also address term, form/term of address
the word or words used to address somebody in speech or writing. The
way in which people address one another usually depends on their age,
sex, social group, and personal relationship.
For example, many languages have different second person pronoun
forms which are used according to whether the speaker wants to address
someone politely or more informally, e.g. in German Sie – du, in French
vous – tu, in Spanish usted – tu and in Mandarin Chinese nín – nı̌ (you).
If a language has only one second person pronoun form, e.g. English you,
other address forms are used to show formality or informality, e.g. Sir, Mr
Brown, Brown, Bill. In some languages, such as Chinese dialects and
Japanese, words expressing relationship, e.g. father, mother, aunt, or pos-
ition, e.g. teacher, lecturer, are used as address forms to show respect
and/or signal the formality of the situation, for example:
Mandarin Chinese: bàba qı̌ng c̄hı̌
father please eat!
Japanese: sensei dozo! (a polite request)
teacher/sir please!
The address forms of a language are arranged into a complex address
system with its own rules which need to be acquired if a person wants
to communicate appropriately.
see also COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
address system n
see ADDRESS FORM
address term n
see ADDRESS FORM
adjacency pair n
a sequence of two related utterances by two different speakers. The
second utterance is always a response to the first.
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adjacency parameter
In the following example, speaker A makes a complaint, and speaker B
replies with a denial:
A: You left the light on.
B: It wasn’t me!
The sequence of complaint – denial is an adjacency pair. Other examples
of adjacency pairs are greeting – greeting, question – answer, invitation –
acceptance/non-acceptance, offer – acceptance/non-acceptance, com-
plaint – apology.
Adjacency pairs are part of the structure of conversation and are studied
in CONVERSATIONAL ANALYSIS.
adjacency parameter n
(in GOVERNMENT/BINDING THEORY) one of the conditions (PARAMETERS)
which may vary from one language to another.
For example, English requires that the element in the sentence which
“assigns” the case (see CASE ASSIGNER) has to be next (adjacent) to the
noun phrase that receives the case, e.g.:
She liked him very much.
verb noun phrase
(case assigner) (object case)
but not:
*She liked very much him.
Other languages, such as French, do not have this restriction:
J’aime beaucoup la France.
In second language acquisition research, investigations have been made
into this variation of the adjacency condition. For example, how do
native speakers of French, which has a [-adjacency] parameter, deal with
a language which has a [+adjacency] parameter, such as English? Do they
transfer their native [-adjacency] condition into English or not?
see also PRO-DROP PARAMETER
adjacency principle n
in some linguistic theories, the concept that two syntactic constituents
must be next (adjacent) to each other and cannot be separated by other
constituents.
For example, in English, a noun phrase (NP) complement must be adjacent
to its verb, e.g.:
She threw the parcel into the car
verb NP complement
but not:
*She threw into the car the parcel
verb NP complement
see also ADJACENCY PARAMETER
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adjunct
adjectival noun n
an adjective used as a noun, e.g. the poor, the rich, the sick, the old.
see also SUBSTANTIVE
adjective n
a word that describes the thing, quality, state, or action which a noun
refers to. For example black in a black hat is an adjective. In English,
adjectives usually have the following properties:
a they can be used before a noun, e.g. a heavy bag
b they can be used after be, become, seem, etc. as complements, e.g. the
bag is heavy
c they can be used after a noun as a complement, e.g. these books make
the bag heavy
d they can be modified by an adverb, e.g. a very heavy bag
e they can be used in a comparative or superlative form, e.g. the bag
seems heavier now
see also COMPLEMENT, COMPARATIVE, ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE
adjective complement n
see COMPLEMENT
adjective phrase n
a phrase that functions as an adjective. For example,
The woman in the corner is from Italy.
adjunct n
ADVERBIALS may be classified as adjuncts, conjuncts, or disjuncts. An
adjunct is part of the basic structure of the clause or sentence in which it
occurs, and modifies the verb. Adverbs of time, place, frequency, degree,
and manner, are examples of adjuncts.
He died in England.
I have almost finished.
Conjuncts are not part of the basic structure of a clause or sentence. They
show how what is said in the sentence containing the conjunct connects
with what is said in another sentence or sentences.
Altogether it was a happy week.
However the weather was not good.
Disjuncts (also called sentential adverbs) are adverbs which show the
speaker’s attitude to or evaluation of what is said in the rest of the sentence.
Naturally, I paid for my own meal.
I had to pay for my own meal, unfortunately
see also ADVERB
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adjunct course
adjunct course n
in teaching language for academic purposes, an approach to Content
Based Instruction in which a language course is linked with a content
course in an academic area, such as an English course that is linked to a
course in economics. The adjunct course is designed to give students the
language skills necessary for success in the content course.
adjunction n
(in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR) a process by which one CONSTITUENT, such as
a word or phrase is adjoined or attached to another to form an extended
constituent.
For example, in the sentence He shouldn’t do that, we can say that the
negative not (in contracted form) has been adjoined to the auxiliary
should to form the extended auxiliary shouldn’t.
Adjunction is governed by rules that may vary from language to language.
admissions test n
also screening test
a test designed to provide information about a test taker’s likely suc-
cess in a particular programme before entry into the programme in
order to decide whether to admit the applicant or not, thus also called
a screening test.
adnominal adj
a word or phrase which occurs next to a noun and which gives further
information about it.
For example, an adnominal may be:
a an adjective,
e.g. blue in the blue sea
b another noun,
e.g. jade in the jade statue
c a phrase,
e.g. at the corner in the shop at the corner
An adnominal is a type of MODIFIER.
adposition n
a cover term for PREPOSITION and postposition.
advance organizer n
(in teaching) an activity which helps students organize their thoughts and
ideas as a preparation for learning or studying something. For example, a
discussion which takes place before students listen to a lecture and which
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advocacy
is intended to help them follow the lecture more easily, or a preview of
the main ideas covered in a reading passage before reading it.
adverb n
a word that describes or adds to the meaning of a verb, an adjective,
another adverb, or a sentence, and which answers such questions as
how?, where?, or when?. In English many adverbs have an -ly ending.
For example, adverbs of manner e.g. carefully, slowly, adverbs of place
e.g. here, there, locally, and adverbs of time e.g. now, hourly, yesterday.
A phrase or clause which functions as an adverb is called an adverb
phrase/adverb clause.
see also ADVERBIAL, ADVERB PARTICLE, ADVERBIAL CLAUSE, ADJUNCT
adverb particle n
also prepositional adverb
a word such as in, on, back, when it modifies a verb rather than a noun.
Words like in, out, up, down, on, may belong grammatically with both
nouns (e.g. in the box, on the wall) and verbs (e.g. come in, eat up, wake
up, die away). When they are linked with nouns they are known as PREPO-
SITIONs and when they are linked with verbs they are known as adverb
particles. The combination of verb+adverb particle is known as a PHRASAL
VERB.
adverbial adj
any word, phrase, or clause that functions like an ADVERB. An adverb is a
single-word adverbial.
adverbial clause n
a clause which functions as an adverb.
For example:
When I arrived I went straight to my room. (adverbial clause of time)
Wherever we looked there was dust. (adverbial clause of place)
We painted the walls yellow to brighten the room. (adverbial clause of
purpose)
see also ADVERB, PREPOSITION
adverbial phrase n
a phrase that functions as an adverb. For example,
After dinner we went to the movies.
advocacy n
in education, the process of promoting change through demonstrating to
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affect
others that proposed changes are desirable, feasible, affordable, and
appropriate. In planning or implementing curriculum and other kinds of
educational changes it is often necessary to gain the support of influential
people or groups who have resources, power, or authority to facilitate
proposed changes. Advocacy may include political action and lobbying
but also involves understanding the attitudes and positions of key
decision-makers and stakeholders and informing them of information and
arguments to persuade them of the educational, social, economic and
other benefits of proposed changes. See also situational analysis
affect n
a term referring to a number of emotional factors that may influence lan-
guage learning and use. These include basic personality traits such as shy-
ness, long-term but changeable factors such as positive and negative
LANGUAGE ATTITUDES, and constantly fluctuating states such as enthusi-
asm, ANXIETY, boredom, apathy, or elation. One theory suggests that
affective states are largely determined by the balance between the subjec-
tively assessed level of challenge in an activity and the subjectively
assessed level of skill that one brings to that activity. For example, when
faced with classroom tasks that are much higher than their level of skill,
language learners feel anxious and frustrated; when given tasks that are
well below their ability level, they feel bored; giving learners interesting
tasks that are challenging but within their ability is most likely to elicit a
positive affective response.
affected object n
see OBJECT OF RESULT
affective domain n
see DOMAIN3
affective filter hypothesis n
a hypothesis proposed by Krashen and associated with his monitor model
of second language development (see MONITOR HYPOTHESIS). The hypoth-
esis is based on the theory of an affective filter, which states that success-
ful second language acquisition depends on the learner’s feelings.
Negative attitudes (including a lack of motivation or self-confidence and
anxiety) are said to act as a filter, preventing the learner from making use
of INPUT, and thus hindering success in language learning.
affective filtering n
the selection of one variety of speech as a model for learning the language
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African American English
in preference to other possible models because of affective factors. For
example, second language learners might hear English spoken by many
different groups (e.g. parents, teachers, different social and ethnic groups)
but model their own speech on only one of these, such as the speech of
their friends of the same group (= their PEER GROUP).
affective meaning n
another term for CONNOTATION
affective variable n
see COGNITIVE VARIABLE
affix n
a letter or sound, or group of letters or sounds (= a MORPHEME),
which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function
of the word.
Affixes are BOUND FORMS that can be added:
a to the beginning of a word (= a prefix), e.g. English un- which
usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite: kind – unkind
b to the end of a word (= a suffix), e.g. English -ness which usually
changes an adjective into a noun: kind – kindness
c within a word (= an infix), e.g. Tagalog -um- which shows that a verb
is in the past tense: sulat “to write” – sumulat “wrote”
see also COMBINING FORM
affricate n affricated adj
a speech sound (a CONSONANT) which is produced by stopping the
airstream from the lungs, and then slowly releasing it with friction. The
first part of an affricate is similar to a STOP, the second part is similar to
a FRICATIVE.
For example, in English the /t‹/ in /t‹aIld/ child, and the /dÔ/ in /dÔìm/
jam are affricates.
see also MANNER OF ARTICULATION, PLACE OF ARTICULATION
African American English n
also AAE, African American Vernacular English (AAVE), Black English
(BE), Black English Vernacular (BEV), Ebonics
a variety of English spoken by some African Americans, particularly those
living in concentrated urban areas. There are conflicting views on the
origin of African American English. Some claim that is similar to varieties
of English spoken by whites in the southern states (therefore, clearly a
dialect of English), while others consider it to be a CREOLE, independently
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African American Vernacular English
developed from Standard English and more deserving of the word
LANGUAGE than that of DIALECT.
African American English has been the focus of national attention in the
US beginning with the onset of the civil rights movement in the 1960s.
AAE has sometimes been erroneously linked with inferior genetic intelli-
gence, cultural deprivation, or laziness and viewed as an educational
problem. However, researchers have shown that AAE has a structure and
system of its own, no less complex than other language varieties. Some of
the differences between AAE and Standard American English (SAE) are:
In phonology, AAE makes use of an l-deletion rule, creating identical
pairs such as toll and toe, and a consonant cluster simplification rule that
creates identical pairs such as pass and passed.
In syntax, AAE speakers can delete the verb to be in the same environments
in which SAE permits to be contracted, for example the verb is in He is nice
can be contracted to He’s nice in SAE and deleted (He nice) in AAE.
In semantics, AAE speakers can make distinctions that are not easily
made in SAE. For example, the invariant form be in John be happy con-
veys the idea that John is always happy (a different meaning from John is
happy or John happy), and the sentence John BEEN married (with stress
on been) conveys the idea that John has been married for a long time (not
that he has been married but perhaps is not now).
African American Vernacular English (AAVE) n
another term for AFRICAN AMERICAN ENGLISH
agent n
(in some grammars) the noun or noun phrase which refers to the person
or animal which performs the action of the verb.
For example, in the English sentences:
Anthea cut the grass.
The grass was cut by Anthea.
Anthea is the agent.
The term agent is sometimes used only for the noun or noun phrase which
follows by in passive sentences, even if it does not refer to the performer
of an action, e.g. everyone in She was admired by everyone.
see also SUBJECT, AGENTIVE CASE, AGENTIVE OBJECT
agent q-role n
see under -THEORY/THETA THEORY
agentive case n
(in CASE GRAMMAR) the noun or noun phrase that refers to the person or
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agraphia
animal who performs or initiates the action of the verb is in the agentive
case.
For example, in:
Tom pruned the roses.
Tom is in the agentive case.
But the subject of the verb is not necessarily always in the agentive case.
In the sentence:
Tom loves roses.
Tom does not perform an action, but his attitude to roses is mentioned.
Tom in this sentence is therefore not agentive but dative (see DATIVE
CASE2).
see also CASE GRAMMAR
agentive object n
the object of a verb which itself performs the action of the verb.
For example, in the sentence:
Fred galloped the horse.
Fred initiates the action, but it is the horse which actually gallops.
see also AGENT, AGENTIVE CASE
agglutinating language n
also agglutinative language
a language in which various AFFIXES may be added to the stem of a word
to add to its meaning or to show its grammatical function.
For example, in Swahili wametulipa “they have paid us” consists of:
wa me tu lipa
they perfective marker us pay
Languages which are highly agglutinating include Finnish, Hungarian,
Swahili, and Turkish, although there is no clear-cut distinction between
agglutinating languages, INFLECTING LANGUAGES, and ISOLATING LAN-
GUAGES.
Sometimes agglutinating languages and inflecting languages are called
synthetic languages.
AGR
see AGREEMENT
agrammatism n
see APHASIA
agraphia n
see APHASIA
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agreement
agreement1 n
in general, two elements agree if they have at least one feature in
common. For example, in English the third person singular subject John
in the sentence John goes to work early must be followed by the form of
the verb go that is also marked for third person singular. In some lan-
guages, such as Spanish and Arabic, adjectives must agree in both gender
and number with the nouns they modify. A traditional term for agree-
ment is CONCORD.
In GOVERNMENT/BINDING THEORY, agreement is considered to be the
relation between a specifier head (AGR) and its specifier. Agreement in
this sense includes both subject-verb agreement and assignment of struc-
tural case.
agreement2 n
another term for CONCORD
AI
an abbreviation for ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE.
aim n
see OBJECTIVE
alertness n
see ATTENTION
alexia n
see APHASIA
algorithm n
an explicit set of instructions that specify in detail the steps to go through
in order to perform some operation. For example, changing a declarative
sentence such as She went to the store into an interrogative sentence
Where did she go? according to a series of steps as a classroom exercise
is an example of applying an algorithm.
alienable possession n
see INALIENABLE POSSESSION
alliteration n
the repetition of an initial sound, usually a consonant, in two or more
words that occur close together. For example:
Down the drive dashed dashing Dan.
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alphabetic method
allomorph n
any of the different forms of a MORPHEME.
For example, in English the plural morpheme is often shown in writing by
adding -s to the end of a word, e.g. cat /kæt/ – cats /kæts/. Sometimes this
plural morpheme is pronounced /z/, e.g. dog /díg/ – dogs /dígz/, and
sometimes it is pronounced /Iz/, e.g. class /klëNs/ – classes /`klëNsız/.
/s/, /z/, and /Iz/ all have the same grammatical function in these examples,
they all show plural; they are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.
allophone n allophonic adj
any of the different variants of a phoneme. The different allophones of a
phoneme are perceptibly different but similar to each other, do not
change the meaning of a word, and occur in different phonetic environ-
ments that can be stated in terms of phonological rules. For example, the
English phoneme /p/ is aspirated (see ASPIRATION) when it occurs at the
beginning of a syllable (as in pot) but unaspirated when it is preceded by
/s/ (as in spot) and may be unreleased when it occurs at the end of an
utterance (as in “he’s not her type”). These aspirated, unaspirated, and
unreleased sounds are all heard and identified as the phoneme /p/ and not
as /b/; they are all allophones of /p/.
alpha (a) n
another term for SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL
alpha (a) error n
see TYPE I ERROR
alphabet n alphabetic adj
a set of letters which are used to write a language.
The English alphabet uses roman script and consists of 26 letters – a, b,
c, etc.
The Russian alphabet uses cyrillic script and consists of 31 letters – a, ï,
B, etc.
The Arabic alphabet uses arabic script and consists of 29 letters – ,
, , etc.
see also ALPHABETIC WRITING
alphabetic method n
a method of teaching children to read. It is used in teaching reading in
the mother tongue.
Children are taught the names of the letters of the alphabet – a “ay”,
b “bee”, c “see”, etc. – and when they see a new or unfamiliar word,
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alphabetic writing
e.g. bag, they repeat the letter names – “bee ay gee”. It is thought that
this “spelling” of the word helps the child to recognize it.
see also PHONICS
alphabetic writing n
a writing system made up of separate letters which represent sounds (see
ALPHABET).
Some examples of alphabetic writing systems are:
a Roman (or Latin) script, used for many European languages
including English. It has also been adopted for many non-European
languages, e.g. Swahili, Indonesian and Turkish.
b Arabic script, used for Arabic and languages such as Persian, Urdu
and Malay, which also uses roman script.
c Cyrillic script, used for Russian and languages such as Ukrainian and
Bulgarian.
see also IDIOGRAPHIC WRITING, SYLLABIC WRITING
alternate form reliability n
also equivalent form reliability, parallel form reliability
one approach to estimate the RELIABILITY of a test. In this approach, two
or more forms of a test that are different but equivalent in content and
difficulty are administered to the same group of test takers. Then a
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT between the total scores of the alternate forms
of the test is calculated. The resulting correlation coefficient is interpreted
as a numerical index of the extent to which the alternate forms are equiv-
alent to each other or consistent in measuring test takers’ abilities. For
practical reasons, however, this method of assessing test reliability is used
less frequently than an INTERNAL CONSISTENCY RELIABILITY approach.
alternate forms n
also equivalent forms, parallel forms
two or more different forms of a test designed to measure exactly the
same skills or abilities, which use the same methods of testing, and which
are of equal length and difficulty.
In general, if test takers receive similar scores on alternate forms of a test,
this suggests that the test is reliable (see RELIABILITY).
alternate response item n
see TEST ITEM
alternation n alternant n
the relationship between the different forms of a linguistic unit is called
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alveolar ridge
alternation. The term is used especially in MORPHOLOGY and in PHONOL-
OGY.
For example, the related vowels /iN/ and /e/ in:
deceive /d∂`siNv/ deception /d∂`sep‹°n/
receive /r∂`siNv/ reception /r∂`sep‹°n/
are in alternation.
The ALLOPHONES of a PHONEME and the ALLOMORPHS of a MORPHEME are
also in alternation, or alternants.
alternation rules n
see SPEECH STYLES
alternative n
see MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEM
alternative assessment n
various types of assessment procedures that are seen as alternatives or
complements to traditional standardized testing. Traditional modes of
assessment are thought not to capture important information about test
takers’ abilities in a L2 and are also not thought to reflect real-life con-
ditions. Procedures used in alternative assessment include self-assessment,
peer assessment, portfolios, learner diaries or journals, student–teacher
conferences, interviews, and observation.
see AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT, PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
alternative hypothesis n
see HYPOTHESIS
alveolar adj
describes a speech sound (a CONSONANT) which is produced by the front
of the tongue touching or nearly touching the gum ridge behind the
upper teeth (the alveolar ridge).
For example, in English the /t/ in /tIn/ tin, and the /d/ in /dIn/ din are
alveolar STOPS.
In English alveolar stops are made with the tip of the tongue, but alve-
olar FRICATIVES – the /s/ in /sıp/ sip, and the /z/ in /zuN/ zoo – are made
with the part of the tongue which is just behind the tip, the blade.
see also LAMINAL, PLACE OF ARTICULATION, MANNER OF ARTICULATION
alveolar ridge n
also alveolum
see PLACE OF ARTICULATION
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ambi-bilingualism
ambi-bilingualism n
the ability to function equally well in two or more languages across a
wide range of domains.
ambiguous adj ambiguity n
a word, phrase, or sentence which has more than one meaning is said to
be ambiguous.
An example of grammatical ambiguity is the sentence:
The lamb is too hot to eat.
which can mean either:
a the lamb is so hot that it cannot eat anything
or:
b the cooked lamb is too hot for someone to eat it
There are several types of lexical ambiguity:
a a word can have several meanings, e.g. face meaning “human face”,
“face of a clock”, “cliff face” (see also POLYSEMY)
b two or more words can sound the same but have different meanings,
e.g. bank in to put money in a bank, the bank of a river (see also
HOMONYMS3)
Usually, additional information either from the speaker or writer or from
the situation indicates which meaning is intended.
Ambiguity is used extensively in creative writing, especially in poetry.
see also DISAMBIGUATION
Ameslan n
an acronym for American Sign Language
see SIGN LANGUAGE
amygdala n
a part of the brain believed to be important in directing ATTENTION and
attaching emotional value to stimuli
analogy n
also OVERGENERALIZATION
in language learning, a process by which unknown forms are constructed
according to the pattern of other forms that the learner knows. For
example, knowing that the past tense of sing is sang, a learner might guess
by analogy that the past tense of fling is flang.
analysis of covariance n
a statistical procedure (similar to ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE) used to statisti-
cally equate groups in order to control the effects of one or more
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anaphora
variables, called COVARIATES in this type of analysis. For example, if we
were comparing the effect of a teaching method on three groups of par-
ticipants, and one group had a higher MEAN IQ than the others, analysis
of covariance could be used to make the groups equivalent by adjusting
the effects of IQ.
see also ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
analysis of variance n
a statistical procedure for testing whether the difference among the MEANs
of two or more groups is significant, for example, to compare the effec-
tiveness of a teaching method on three different age groups.
see also ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE
analytic approach n
see SYNTHETIC APPROACH
analytic induction n
(in QUALITATIVE RESEARCH), the process of taking one case of data, devel-
oping a working hypothesis to explain it, examining additional cases to
see if the hypothesis explains them, revising the hypothesis as appropri-
ate, and searching for negative cases to disprove the hypothesis. Although
not all qualitative research follows this approach, this inductive cyclical
approach to data analysis and theory building has been highly influential.
analytic language n
another term for ISOLATING LANGUAGE
analytic scoring n
in testing, a method of scoring that separates and weights different fea-
tures of the test taker’s performance on a writing or speaking task and
assigns separate scores to each feature. The commonly analyzed features
in writing tasks include content, organization, cohesion, style, register,
vocabulary, grammar, spelling, and mechanics, whereas those in speaking
tasks include pronunciation, fluency, accuracy, and appropriateness.
see also HOLISTIC SCORING
analytic style n
see GLOBAL LEARNING
anaphora n anaphor n anaphoric adj
a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to another word
or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.
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ANCOVA
For example, in:
Tom likes ice cream but Bill can’t eat it
the word it refers back to ice cream: it is a substitute for ice cream, which
is called the ANTECEDENT of it.
Some verbs may be anaphoric, for example the verb do in:
Mary works hard and so does Doris
does is anaphoric and is a substitute for works.
In BINDING THEORY the term anaphor refers to a somewhat different
concept and is subject to certain restrictions (see under BINDING PRIN-
CIPLE).
ANCOVA
an abbreviation for ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE
animate noun n
a noun which refers to a living being, for example persons, animals, fish,
etc.
For example, the English nouns woman and fish are animate nouns.
Nouns like stone and water are called inanimate nouns.
see also SEMANTIC FEATURES
anomia n
see APHASIA
anomie n
also anomy n
feelings of social uncertainty or dissatisfaction which people who do
not have strong attachments to a particular social group may have.
Anomie has been studied as an affective variable (see COGNITIVE VARI-
ABLE) in second/foreign language learning. In learning a new language
people may begin to move away from their own language and culture,
and have feelings of insecurity. At the same time they may not be sure
about their feelings towards the new language group. Feelings of
anomie may be highest when a high level of language ability is
reached. This may lead a person to look for chances to speak their
own language as a relief
ANOVA
an abbreviation for ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
antecedent n
see ANAPHORA
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apex
anthropological linguistics n
a branch of linguistics which studies the relationship between language
and culture in a community, e.g. its traditions, beliefs, and family struc-
ture. For example, anthropological linguists have studied the ways in
which relationships within the family are expressed in different cultures
(kinship terminology), and they have studied how people communicate
with one another at certain social and cultural events, e.g. ceremonies, rit-
uals, and meetings, and then related this to the overall structure of the
particular community.
Some areas of anthropological linguistics are closely related to areas of
SOCIOLINGUISTICS and the ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION.
anticipation error n
see SPEECH ERRORS
anticipatory coarticulation n
see ASSIMILATION
anticipatory subject n
see EXTRAPOSITION
antonym n antonymy n
a word which is opposite in meaning to another word. For example, in
English dead and alive, and big and small are antonyms.
A distinction is sometimes made between pairs like dead and alive, and
pairs like big and small, according to whether or not the words are grad-
able (see GRADABLE).
A person who is not dead must be alive, but something which is not big
is not necessarily small, it may be somewhere between the two sizes. Dead
and alive are called complementaries (or ungradable antonyms); big and
small are called gradable antonyms or a gradable pair.
Some linguists use the term antonym to mean only gradable pairs.
see also SYNONYM
anxiety n
see LANGUAGE ANXIETY
a-parameter n
see ITEM RESPONSE THEORY
apex n
the tip of the tongue
see also APICAL, PLACE OF ARTICULATION
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aphasia
aphasia n aphasic adj
also dysphasia n
loss of the ability to use and understand language, usually caused by
damage to the brain. The loss may be total or partial, and may affect
spoken and/or written language ability.
There are different types of aphasia: agraphia is difficulty in writing;
alexia is difficulty in reading; anomia is difficulty in using proper nouns;
and agrammatism is difficulty in using grammatical words like preposi-
tions, articles, etc.
Aphasia can be studied in order to discover how the brain processes lan-
guage.
see also BRAIN, NEUROLINGUISTICS
apical adj
describes a speech sound (a CONSONANT) which is produced by the tip of
the tongue (the apex) touching some part of the mouth.
For example, in English the /t/ in /t∂n / tin is an apical STOP.
If the tongue touches the upper teeth, the sounds are sometimes called
apico-dental, e.g. French and German /t/ and /d/. If the tongue touches the
gum ridge behind the upper teeth (the alveolar ridge), the sounds are
sometimes called apico-alveolar, e.g. English /t/ and /d/.
see also PLACE OF ARTICULATION, MANNER OF ARTICULATION
a posteriori syllabus n
see A PRIORI SYLLABUS
apostrophe s n
the ending ‘s which is added to nouns in English to indicate possession.
For example:
Michael’s son
The director’s car
applied linguistics n
1 the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching.
2 the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems,
such as LEXICOGRAPHY, TRANSLATION, SPEECH PATHOLOGY, etc. Applied
linguistics uses information from sociology, psychology, anthropology,
and INFORMATION THEORY as well as from linguistics in order to develop
its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses
this information and theory in practical areas such as syllabus design,
SPEECH THERAPY, LANGUAGE PLANNING, STYLISTICS, etc.
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approach
applied research n
research designed to produce practical applications, contrasted with basic
research, i.e. research that is designed to generate knowledge or validate
theories that may not have any direct application. ACTION RESEARCH is a
form of applied research. Second language acquisition is considered a
type of applied research by some and basic research by others.
apposition n appositive n, adj
When two words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence have the same REFER-
ENCE, they are said to be in apposition. For example, in the sentence:
My sister, Helen Wilson, will travel with me.
My sister and Helen Wilson refer to the same person, and are called
appositives.
The sentence can be rewritten with either of the two appositives missing,
and still make sense:
My sister will travel with me.
Helen Wilson will travel with me.
appraisal system n
1 in language teaching, procedures that an institution, school or organiz-
ation has in place to provide for regular review and assessment of
teachers’ performance. Appraisal may include appraisal by a supervi-
sor, by a colleague, by students, or self-appraisal.
2 in NEUROLINGUISTICS, a brain-system that evaluates stimuli (such as a
target language) in terms of such criteria as novelty, relevance, coping
ability, and self- and social- image.
appraisal theory n
a developing area within discourse analysis and conversational analysis
and associated with Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics. Appraisal
theory is concerned with the way speakers convey attitudinal meaning
during conversation. It deals with the way speakers communicate such
attitudes as certainty, emotional response, social evaluation, and inten-
sity. Appraisal is mainly realized lexically, although it can also be realized
by whole clauses
appreciative comprehension n
see READING
approach n
in language teaching, the theory, philosophy and principles underlying a
particular set of teaching practices.
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appropriate word method
Language teaching is sometimes discussed in terms of three related
aspects: approach, METHOD, and technique.
Different theories about the nature of language and how languages are
learned (the approach) imply different ways of teaching language (the
method), and different methods make use of different kinds of classroom
activity (the technique).
Examples of different approaches are the aural–oral approach (see AUDIO-
LINGUAL METHOD), the COGNITIVE CODE APPROACH, the COMMUNICATIVE
APPROACH, etc. Examples of different methods which are based on a par-
ticular approach are the AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD, the DIRECT METHOD, etc.
Examples of techniques used in particular methods are DRILLS, DIALOGUES,
ROLE-PLAYS, sentence completion, etc.
appropriate word method n
see CLOZE TEST
appropriateness n appropriate adj
the extent to which a use of language matches the linguistic and sociolin-
guistic expectations and practices of native speakers of the language.
When producing an utterance, a speaker needs to know that it is gram-
matical, and also that it is suitable (appropriate) for the particular situ-
ation.
For example:
Give me a glass of water!
is grammatical, but it would not be appropriate if the speaker wanted
to be polite. A request such as:
May I have a glass of water, please?
would be more appropriate. see also GRAMMATICAL1,2, CORRECT, COM-
MUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
appropriation n
in second language learning, the processes by which language learners
make the characteristics of one language and culture their own by adapt-
ing it to their own needs and interests. For example the ways in which
speakers of Singapore and Malaysian English have made this variety of
English distinctive and unique through incorporating features from
Chinese, as with the use of a final sentence particle “lah” in informal
speech, as in “ My turn to pay for lunch today lah!”.
approximant n
a sound produced by the approach of one articulator towards another but
without the vocal tract being narrowed so much that a turbulent
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areal linguistics
airstream is produced. English /r, l, y, w/ are approximants and can be
further subdivided into SEMIVOWELS or GLIDES (/y/ and /w/) and LIQUIDS (/l/
and /r/).
approximative system n
see INTERLANGUAGE
a priori syllabus n
in language teaching, a distinction is sometimes made between two kinds
of syllabuses. A syllabus prepared in advance of a course, and used as a
basis for developing classroom activities, may be referred to as an a
priori syllabus. This may be contrasted with a syllabus which is not
developed in advance but which is prepared after a course is taught, as
a “record” of the language and activities used in the course (an a
posteriori syllabus). An a posteriori syllabus is sometimes called a
retrospective syllabus.
see also SYLLABUS
aptitude n
see LANGUAGE APTITUDE
aptitude test n
see LANGUAGE APTITUDE TEST
aptitude-treatment interaction n
the relationship between a learner’s personal strengths and weaknesses in
learning and the learning situation, including the type of programme one
is enrolled in. The study of such interactions is motivated by the idea that
learners will learn best in a situation in which the demands of the class-
room or other learning context match their areas of aptitude. For
example, a learner with high ORAL MIMICRY ABILITY may learn better in
one type of language programme, while one high in GRAMMATICAL SENSI-
TIVITY may learn better in another.
areal linguistics n
the study of the languages or dialects which are spoken in a particular
area.
An example is a study of two neighbouring languages to see how they
influence each other in terms of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc.
see also DIALECTOLOGY
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argument
argument n
in LOGIC, the thing talked about (see PROPOSITION).
in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR, the thematic role of a noun in relation to a verb
(see CASE THEORY, THETA THEORY).
argumentation n
see ESSAY
argumentative writing n
See MODES OF WRITING
article n
a word which is used with a noun, and which shows whether the noun
refers to something definite or something indefnite.
For example, English has two articles: the definite article the, and the
indefinite article a or an.
The main use of the definite article in English is to show that the noun
refers to a particular example of something, e.g.:
a by referring to something which is known to both the speaker and
the hearer:
She is in the garden.
He is at the post office.
b by referring backwards to something already mentioned:
There is a man waiting outside. Who, the man in the brown coat?
c by referring forward to something:
The chair in the living room is broken.
d by referring to something as a group or class:
The lion is a dangerous animal.
The main use of the indefinite article in English is to show that the
noun refers to something general or to something which has not been
identified by the speaker, e.g.:
a by referring to one example of a group or class:
Pass me a pencil, please.
b by referring to something as an example of a group or class:
A dog is a friendly animal.
When nouns are used without an article in English, this is sometimes
called zero article. For example:
Cats like sleeping.
Silver is a precious metal,
see also DETERMINER
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artificial language
articulation n articulate v
the production of speech sounds in the mouth and throat (see VOCAL
TRACT). In describing and analyzing speech sounds a distinction is made
between the MANNER OF ARTICULATION and the PLACE OF ARTICULATION.
articulator n
a part of the mouth, nose, or throat which is used in producing speech,
e.g. the tongue, lips, alveolar ridge, etc.
see also PLACE OF ARTICULATION
articulatory loop n
see WORKING MEMORY
articulatory setting n
the overall posture, position or characteristic movements of the organs of
speech typical of a particular language or dialect. For example, speakers
of English make much more active use of both lip and tongue movements
than speakers of some languages (Japanese, for example), while Arabic
has many consonants formed towards the back of the oral cavity, pro-
ducing an overall “heavier” velarized or pharyngealized sound (see
VELARIZATION, PHARYNGEALIZATION).
articulatory phonetics n
see PHONETICS
artificial intelligence n
also AI
the ability of machines to carry out functions that are normally
associated with human intelligence, such as reasoning, correcting,
making self-improvements and learning through experience. Computer
programmers try to create programs which have this capacity.
artificial language1 n
also auxiliary language
a language which has been invented for a particular purpose, and
which has no NATIVE SPEAKERS.
For example, Esperanto was invented by L. L. Zamenhof and was
intended to be learned as a second language and used for international
communication.
Artificial languages are also invented for experiments on aspects of
natural language use.
see also NATURAL LANGUAGE
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artificial language
artificial language2
in computer programming, a code system made up of symbols, numbers
or signs, such as the programming language COBOL.
aspect n
a term used to denote the activity, event, or state described by a verb, for
example whether the activity is ongoing or completed. Two types of
aspect are commonly recognized:
lexical aspect (or inherent lexical aspect) refers to the internal semantics
of verbs, which can be grouped into a number of categories:
1 states, verbs that refer to unchanging conditions (see STATIVE VERB), for
example be, have, want
2 activities, verbs referring to processes with no inherent beginning or
end point, for example play, walk, breathe
3 accomplishments, which are durative (last for a period of time) but
have an inherent end point, for example read a book, write a novel
4 achievements, which are nondurative and have an inherent end point,
for example finish, realize, arrive
grammatical aspect, on the other hand, refers to the resources provided by
a language (such as verbal auxiliaries, prefixes and suffixes) to encode dif-
ferent perspectives taken by a speaker towards activities, events, and states.
Languages make available different options for realizing aspect grammat-
ically. English has two grammatical aspects: PROGRESSIVE and PERFECT.
see also TENSE1
aspect hypothesis
see LEXICAL ASPECT HYPOTHESIS
Aspects Model n
see GENERATIVE THEORY
aspirated adj
see ASPIRATION
aspiration n
a puff of air (acoustically, a period of voicelessness) after the release of an
articulation. For example, in English the stop consonants /p, t, k/ are aspi-
rated when they are syllable initial, as in initial sounds of pie, tie, kite.
When these phonemes are preceded by /s/, e.g. in span, stairs, and skate,
there is no puff of air and these sounds are unaspirated.
Aspiration increases when a word or syllable is stressed. For example, in
the phrase a piece of pie, aspiration is more noticeable in the word pie
than in the word piece.
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assimilation
aspirate v aspirated adj
the very small puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.
For example, in English the /p/ is aspirated at the beginning of the word
/pæn/ pan, but when it is preceded by an /s/, e.g. in /spæn/ span there is
no puff of air. The /p/ in span is unaspirated.
In phonetic notation, aspiration is shown by the symbol [≠] or [`], e.g.
[p≠In] or [p`In] pin.
Aspiration increases when a word or syllable is stressed, e.g.:
Ouch! I stepped on a PIN.
assessment n
a systematic approach to collecting information and making inferences
about the ability of a student or the quality or success of a teaching
course on the basis of various sources of evidence. Assessment may be
done by test, interview, questionnaire, observation, etc. For example,
assessment of the comprehension ability of an immigrant student may be
necessary to discover if the student is able to follow a course of study in
a school, or whether extra language teaching is needed. Students may be
tested at the beginning and again at the end of a course to assess the qual-
ity of the teaching on the course. The term “testing” is often associated
with large-scale standardized tests, whereas the term “assessment” is used
in a much wider sense to mean a variety of approaches in testing and
assessment.
see also TESTING
assimilation1 n
a phonological process in which a speech sound changes and becomes
more like or identical to another sound that precedes or follows it. For
example, in English the negative PREFIX appears as im- before words
beginning with a bilabial stop (e.g. possible:impossible) but as in- before
words beginning with an alveolar stop (e.g. tolerant:intolerant).
Assimilation in which a following sound brings about a change in a pre-
ceding one is called regressive assimilation or anticipatory coarticulation.
For example, the rounding of the lips during /s/ in swim is due to the
anticipation of the lip action required for /w/.
Assimilation in which a preceding sound brings about a change in a fol-
lowing one is called progressive or perseverative assimilation. For
example, the difference between the /s/ in words like cats and the /z/ in
dogs and the difference between the final /t/ in dropped and the final /d/
in praised are examples of progressive assimilation because the final
sound (/s/ or /z/, /t/ or /d/) depends on whether the preceding consonant is
voiced or not.
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assimilation
A third type of assimilation, coalescent assimilation takes place when two
sounds in a sequence come together to produce a sound with features
from both original sounds. For example, the final alveolar stop /d/ of
could and the initial palatal /y/ of you may coalesce to become a palatal
AFFRICATE [dÔ] in a phrase like could you? This process is commonly
referred to as palatalization.
assimilation2 n
a process in which a group gradually gives up its own language, culture,
and system of values and takes on those of another group with a different
language, culture, and system of values, through a period of interaction.
see also ACCULTURATION, SOCIAL DISTANCE
assimilation3 n
see ADAPTATION2
associative learning n
learning which happens when a connection or association is made,
usually between two things.
For example:
a When someone hears the word table, they may think of the word
food, because this word is often used with or near table. This is called
association by contiguity.
b When someone hears the word delicate, they may think of the word
fragile, because it has a similar meaning. This is called association by
similarity.
c When someone hears the word happy, they may think of the word sad,
because it has the opposite meaning. This is called association by
contrast.
Associative learning theory has been used in studies of memory, learning,
and verbal learning.
see also VERBAL LEARNING, WORD ASSOCIATION, PAIRED-ASSOCIATE LEARNING
associative meaning n
the associative meaning of a word is the total of all the meanings a person
thinks of when they hear the word.
For example, in a word association test a person might be given a word
(a stimulus) and then asked to list all the things they think of (the
response).
For example:
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attitude
stimulus response
Puppy warm
young
furry
lively
kitten
warm, young, furry, lively, kitten make up the associative meaning of
puppy for that person.
Associative meaning has been used in studies of memory and thought.
see also WORD ASSOCIATION, STIMULUS-RESPONSE THEORY
associative memory n
a memory system that stores mappings of specific representations to
inputs, outputs, and other representations. In CONNECTIONISM, a memory
system that learns to reproduce input patterns as output patterns is called
autoassociative.
asyllabic adj
see SYLLABLE
asynchronous communication n
in COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING, communication that is not
instantaneous and can be accessed and read by the recipient at a later
time. Language classes often use this type of communication in the form
of bulletin boards or discussion lists.
see also SYNCHRONOUS COMMUNICATION
attention n
the ability a person has to concentrate on some things while ignoring
others. Subsystems of attention that have been identified include alertness
(an overall readiness to deal with incoming stimuli), orientation (the direc-
tion of attentional resources to certain types of stimuli), detection (cogni-
tive registration of a particular stimulus), and inhibition (deliberately
ignoring some stimuli). In SLA theory, it has been proposed that nothing
can be learned from input without it being the object of some level of atten-
tion and detected; whether such detection must be conscious is controver-
sial. Sustained attention, the ability to direct and focus cognitive activity
on specific stimuli for a period of time, is necessary for such language tasks
as reading a newspaper article or any complex sequenced action.
attitude n
see LANGUAGE ATTITUDES
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attitude scale
attitude scale n
a technique for measuring a person’s reaction to something. A common
scale is the Likert scale. With this a statement of belief or attitude is
shown to someone, and he or she is asked to show how strongly he or
she agrees or disagrees with the statement by marking a scale like the
one shown below:
Foreign languages are important for all educated adults.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
strongly disagree agree strongly
disagree agree
attribution theory n
the theory that the causes people attribute to perceived successes and fail-
ures in their lives play a significant role in their subsequent level of MOTIV-
ATION and behaviour. For example, learners may attribute their relative
success or failure in language learning to such factors as ability, the class-
room environment, good or poor teaching, interest, strategy use, support
from others, etc. Attributions can be classified on the basis of locus of
control (internal factors such as effort vs. external factors such as the text-
book or teaching method), stability (stable factors such as personality vs.
unstable factors such as mood), and controllability (controllable factors
such as effort vs. uncontrollable factors such as language aptitude).
Although there may be a self-serving bias that leads to ascribing success
to internal factors and failures to external ones, it is generally believed
that learners who attribute both success and failure to internal factors
such as effort are most likely to maintain their motivation at a high level.
attributive adjective n
an adjective which is used before a noun.
For example, good in a good book is an attributive adjective.
An adjective which is used after a verb, especially after the verbs be,
become, seem, etc. is called a predicative adjective. For example, good in
The book was very good.
Many adjectives in English are like good, and can be used both attribu-
tively and predicatively, but some, like main and utter, can only be used
attributively, e.g. a busy main road, an utter fool, and some, like afraid
and asleep, can only be used predicatively e.g. The boy was asleep, The
dog seems afraid.
Many nouns in English can also be used attributively, e.g. paper in a
paper cup. Languages differ in the extent to which they use adjectives
attributively, predicatively, or in both positions.
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audiolingual method
see also ADJECTIVE
attriters n
see LANGUAGE ATTRITION
attriting language n
see LANGUAGE ATTRITION
attrition n
see LANGUAGE ATTRITION
audience n
when writing any type of text, the writer’s understanding of the readers
for whom the text is intended. The writer’s understanding of the readers’
beliefs, values and understandings can have an influence on how the
writer structures the text and the features the writer includes in it. Good
writing is said to reflect the writer’s consideration of the audience.
audio journal n also tape journal n
a technique for giving feedback on a student’s spoken language in which
the student receives personalized feedback on his or her performance
based on short student recordings, done individually at home or out of
class. Audio journals may be regarded as the spoken equivalent of a
writing journal.
audiolingual method n
also aural–oral method, mim–mem method
a method of foreign or second language teaching which (a) emphasizes
the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing (b) uses
DIALOGUEs and DRILLs (c) discourages use of the mother tongue in the
classroom (d) often makes use of CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS. The audiolingual
method was prominent in the 1950s and 1960s, especially in the United
States, and has been widely used in many other parts of the world.
The theory behind the audiolingual method is the aural–oral approach to
language teaching, which contains the following beliefs about language
and language learning: (a) speaking and listening are the most basic lan-
guage skills (b) each language has its own unique structure and rule
system (c) a language is learned through forming habits. These ideas were
based partly on the theory of STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS and partly on
BEHAVIOURISM. Criticism of the audiolingual method is based on criticism
of its theory and its techniques (see COGNITIVE CODE APPROACH, COMMU-
NICATIVE APPROACH) see also APPROACH, MIM–MEM METHOD)
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audiology
audiology n
the study of hearing and hearing disorders, particularly the nature
of hearing loss and the treatment of people suffering from hearing
disorders.
audio-visual aid n
an audio or visual device used by a teacher to help learning. For example,
pictures, charts, and flashcards are visual aids; radio, records, and
tape-recorders are auditory aids. Film, television, and video are
audio-visual aids.
audio-visual method n
also structural global method
a method of foreign language teaching which was developed in France in
the 1950s and which
a teaches speaking and listening before reading and writing
b does not use the mother tongue in the classroom
c uses recorded dialogues with film-strip picture sequences to present lan-
guage items
d uses drills to teach basic grammar and vocabulary.
The audio-visual method is based on the belief that
a language is learned through communication
b translation can be avoided if new language items are taught in situ-
ations
c choice of items for teaching should be based on a careful analysis of the
language being taught.
see also AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD
auditing n
see DEPENDABILITY
auditory adj
of or related to hearing
auditory discrimination n
the ability to hear and recognize the different sounds in a language. In
particular the ability to recognize the different PHONEMES, and the differ-
ent STRESS and INTONATION patterns.
see also PERCEPTION
auditory feedback n
when a person speaks, they can hear what they are saying, and can use
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authentic assessment
this information to monitor their speech and to correct any mistakes. This
is called auditory feedback.
For example, in the following utterance the speaker uses auditory feed-
back to correct his/her pronunciation:
Would you like a cup of cea or toffee – I mean tea or coffee?
see also FEEDBACK, DELAYED AUDITORY FEEDBACK, KINESTHETIC
FEEDBACK
auditory/oral method n
a method for educating deaf or HEARING-IMPAIRED children which relies on
using their remaining or residual hearing and hearing aids. Best results are
achieved through early diagnosis of the hearing loss and the use of normal
language input. This is said to allow children to acquire normal language
rules, and to maximize the opportunity for the learning of PROSODIC and
SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES of speech.
auditory perception n
see PERCEPTION
auditory phonetics n
see PHONETICS
auditory processing n
the mental processing of auditory information or input particularly
speech sounds, as compared to those processes involved in processing vis-
ible messages (VISUAL PROCESSING).
aural language n
also oral language
language that has been spoken, as compared to written language.
aural-oral approach n
see AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD
aural-oral method n
another term for AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD
Australian Second Language Proficiency Ratings
see INTERNATIONAL SECOND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY RATINGS
authentic assessment n
various types of assessment procedures for evaluating test takers’
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authentic materials
achievement or performance using test tasks that resemble real-life
language use as closely as possible.
see ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT, PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
authentic materials n
in language teaching, the use of materials that were not originally devel-
oped for pedagogical purposes, such as the use of magazines, newspapers,
advertisements, news reports, or songs. Such materials are often thought
to contain more realistic and natural examples of language use than those
found in textbooks and other specially developed teaching materials.
authenticity n authentic adj
(in teaching)
the degree to which language teaching materials have the qualities of
natural speech or writing. In language teaching a distinction is made
between materials that have been specially prepared to illustrate or practise
specific teaching points (such as reading passages, listening texts, or model
conversations) and those that have been taken from real-world sources.
Texts which are taken from newspapers, magazines, etc., and tapes of
natural speech taken from ordinary radio or television programmes, etc.,
are called authentic materials.
It is argued that these are preferred classroom resources since they
illustrate authentic language use.
(in testing) the extent to which test tasks correspond to language use in a
non-test (i.e. target language use) situation.
authoring system n
(in COMPUTER ASSISTED LEARNING) a computer program which is designed
to allow teachers and materials designers to write a computer lesson with-
out requiring them to learn how to write a PROGRAM. The teacher con-
centrates on creating the lesson material, while the authoring system
handles such things as the exercise format and the processing of answers.
autoassociative adj
see ASSOCIATIVE MEMORY
automatic processing n
the performance of a task without conscious or deliberate processing.
In cognitive psychology, two different kinds of processing employed in
carrying out tasks are distinguished. Controlled processing is involved
when conscious effort and attention is required to perform a task. This
places demands on short-term memory (see MEMORY). For example a
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auxiliary
learner driver may operate a car using controlled processing, con-
sciously thinking about many of the decisions and operations involved
while driving. Automatic processing is involved when the learner
carries out the task without awareness or attention, making more use
of information in long-term memory (see MEMORY). Many skills are
considered to be ‘learned’ when they can be performed with automatic
processing.
In language learning, the distinction between controlled and automatic
processing has been used to explain why learners sometimes perform
differently under different conditions. For example, a learner may
speak a foreign language with relatively few grammatical errors in
situations where automatic processing is being used (e.g. when talking
in relaxed situations among friends). The same learner may speak less
fluently and make more grammatical errors when controlled process-
ing is being used (e.g. when speaking in public before an audience).
The presence of the audience distracts the speaker, who uses more
controlled processing and this interferes with his or her accuracy and
fluency.
automatic translation n
see under COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS
automaticity n
the ability to carry out an activity or to process information without
effort or attention.
see AUTOMATIC PROCESSING
autonomous learning n
see LEARNER AUTONOMY
autonomy principle n
the idea that grammatical notions cannot be reduced to nonlinguistic con-
cepts.
autosegmental phonology n
a theory of phonology that does not view representations as merely a
linear string of segments but in terms of tiers, each of which is
autonomous. Autosegmental phonology has been shown to be especially
relevant for the treatment of phonological TONE1.
auxiliary n
another term for AUXILIARY VERB
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auxiliary language
auxiliary language n
another term for LINGUA FRANCA and ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE
auxiliary verb n
also auxiliary
a verb which is used with another verb in a sentence, and which shows
grammatical functions such as ASPECT, VOICE1, MOOD, TENSE1, and PERSON.
In English be, do, and have and the MODAL verbs like may, can, and will
are all auxiliaries. For example:
She is working.
He didn’t come.
They have finished.
You may go now.
Can you manage?
They will arrive tomorrow.
The verbs working, come, finished, go, manage, and arrive in these sen-
tences are called lexical verbs, or full verbs. Lexical verbs can be used as
the only verb in a sentence, e.g. She works at the factory. Be, do, and have
can also be used as lexical verbs, e.g. He is happy, She does computer
studies at university, and They have three children.
availability n available adj
when people are asked to think of the words that can be used to talk
about a particular topic, they will be able to think of some words immedi-
ately. Those words which they remember first and most easily are said to
have a high availability.
For example, when a group of secondary school children were asked to
list words for parts of the body, they included leg, hand, eye, nose, and
ears. These were the five most available words.
Available words are not always the most frequently occurring words in a
language. Availability has been used as a criterion for selecting vocabu-
lary for language teaching.
See SYLLABUS DESIGN
avoidance strategy n
when speaking or writing a second/foreign language, a speaker will often
try to avoid using a difficult word or structure, and will use a simpler
word or structure instead. This is called an avoidance strategy. For
example, a student who is not sure of the use of the relative clause in
English may avoid using it and use two simpler sentences instead:
That’s my building. I live there.
instead of
That’s the building where I live.
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B
babbling n
speech-like sounds produced by very young children.
Babies begin to produce babbling sounds like /dæ/, /mæ/, /næ/, /bæ/, at the
age of about three or four months. At around 9–12 months, real words
begin to be produced.
baby talk n
another term for CARETAKER SPEECH
backchaining n
another term for BACKWARD BUILD-UP
back channel cue n back channelling n
see FEEDBACK
back formation n
in MORPHOLOGY, a type of WORD FORMATION through the removal of an
AFFIX from an existing word. For example, speakers of English have
formed the verbs televise, peddle, and babysit from television, peddler,
and babysitter, respectively.
New words are more commonly formed by adding affixes to existing
words.
background n
see FUNCTIONAL SENTENCE PERSPECTIVE
background information1 n
see GROUNDING
background information2
in TRANSLATION and INTERPRETATION, information about the content of the
source text that facilitates the translator’s or interpreter’s task by provid-
ing definitions of terms and contextual information.
back propagation n
see LEARNING RULE
back-shift n
see DIRECT SPEECH
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backsliding
backsliding n
(in second language acquisition) the regular reappearance of features of a
learner’s INTERLANGUAGE which were thought to have disappeared.
Sometimes a learner who appears to have control of an area of grammar
or phonology will have difficulty with particular linguistic features in situ-
ations which are stressful or which present the learner with some kind of
communicative difficulty. Errors may then temporarily reappear.
Research into backsliding suggests that such errors are not random but
reflect the linguistic system the learner had learned at an earlier stage of
his or her language development.
back vowel n
see VOWEL
backward build-up n
also backchaining
a language teaching technique associated with audiolingualism in which
an utterance is divided into parts, and then the students are taught to say
it by repeating the last part, and then the last two parts, etc., until they
can repeat the whole utterance.
For example:
Teacher Students
some letters some letters
to post some letters to post some letters
to the post office to post some to the post office to post some
letters letters
I’m going to the post office to I’m going to the post office to
post some letters. post some letters.
backwash effect n
see WASHBACK n
balanced bilingual n
see BILINGUAL
band n
(in testing) a level of performance in a rating scale that describes what a
test taker has achieved in a test.
see also LEVEL
bandscales n
see STANDARDS n
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baseline data
bar notation n
(in some linguistic theories) a device used to give a more detailed and con-
sistent analysis of constituents.
For example, the noun phrase:
the mayor of Casterbridge
can be shown as:
N – mayor
N` (called N-bar) – mayor of Casterbridge
N`` (called N-double-bar) – the mayor of Casterbridge
In a diagrammatic representation it would be:
N``
D (determiner) N`
N PP (prepositional
the phrase)
mayor of Casterbridge
see also X-BAR THEORY
bare infinitive n
see INFINITIVE
basal adj
when a course to teach reading has a number of graded parts, the first or
most basic part is called the basal reading programme, and uses basic
reading textbooks called basal readers.
base component n
see GENERATIVE THEORY
base form n
another term for ROOT OR STEM1.
For example, the English word helpful has the base form help.
baseline data n
in research, data to which other data can be compared.
For example, when examining the performance of non native speakers on
a particular task, it is often important to have baseline data from native
speakers for comparison, not simply to assume that native speakers
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Basic English
would perform perfectly according to the researcher’s idea of what is cor-
rect or normal.
Basic English n
a simplified type of English developed by C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards
in 1929. It was intended to be used as a second language for international
communication. Basic English used only 850 words and fewer grammat-
ical rules than normal English, but it was claimed that anything that could
be said in ordinary English can also be said in Basic English.
see also LINGUA FRANCA
basic interpersonal communication skills n
see COGNITIVE ACADEMIC LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY
basic research n
see APPLIED RESEARCH
basic skills n
(in education) skills which are considered to be an essential basis for fur-
ther learning and for learning other school subjects. Reading, writing and
arithmetic are often considered the basic skills in mother tongue edu-
cation.
basic writing n
a subfield of composition studies in the US that deals with the teaching of
writing to students at college or university level who have not mastered
the genre of academic writing. Basic writing courses are often directed to
assisting students who have been traditionally excluded from higher
education, such as urban immigrant and refugee adults in college and
pre-college settings.
basilect n
see POST-CREOLE CONTINUUM, SPEECH CONTINUUM
battery of tests n
also test battery
a group of tests that are given together to a test taker or group of test
takers.
behavioural objective n
also performance objective, instructional objective
(in developing a CURRICULUM) a statement of what a learner is expected to
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benchmark
know or be able to do after completing all or part of an educational pro-
gramme. A behavioural objective has three characteristics:
a it clearly describes the goals of learning in terms of observable behav-
iour
b it describes the conditions under which the behaviour will be expected
to occur
c it states an acceptable standard of performance (the criterion).
For example one of the behavioural objectives for a conversation course
might be:
“Given an oral request, the learner will say his/her name, address and
telephone number to a native speaker of English and spell his/her name,
street, city, so that an interviewer can write down the data with 100 per
cent accuracy.”
“Given an oral request” and “to a native speaker?” describe the con-
ditions, and “with 100 per cent accuracy” describes the criterion, in this
objective.
see also OBJECTIVE
behaviourism n
a theory of psychology which states that human and animal behaviour
can and should be studied only in terms of physical processes, without
reference to mind. It led to theories of learning which explained how an
external event (a stimulus) caused a change in the behaviour of an indi-
vidual (a response), based on a history of reinforcement. Behaviourism
was used by psychologists like Skinner, Osgood, and Staats to explain
first language learning, but these explanations were rejected by adherents
of GENERATIVE GRAMMAR and many others.
see also STIMULUS-RESPONSE THEORY, COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
behaviourist psychology n
another term for BEHAVIOURISM
behaviourist theory n
another term for BEHAVIOURISM
belief systems n
in language teaching, ideas and theories that teachers and learners hold
about themselves, teaching, language, learning and their students.
see TEACHER BELIEF SYSTEMS LEARNER BELIEF SYSTEMS, LEARNER BELIEFS
benchmark n
a detailed description of a specific level of performance expected of a
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benefactive case
second learner in a particular area at a certain proficiency level in the lan-
guage. The purpose of establishing the benchmark is to have a point of
reference that can be used to compare the learner’s performance at a later
point in time.
Benchmarks are often defined by samples of L2 learner performance.
For example, in L2 writing assessment, a benchmark L2 learner’s paper is
used in representing exemplary performance on a specific level of a
SCORING RUBRIC.
see STANDARDS, STANDARDS MOVEMENT
benefactive case n
(in CASE GRAMMAR) the noun or noun phrase that refers to the person or
animal who benefits, or is meant to benefit, from the action of the verb is
in the benefactive case. For example, in the sentences:
Joan baked a cake for Louise.
Joan baked Louise a cake.
Louise is in the benefactive case.
best practice n
a term used particularly in the UK and Australia to describe an example
of practice in a particular area that is regarded as exemplary and a
standard against which others may be compared. It suggests thoughtful,
principled behavior informed by research or by a concern to maintain
quality. E.g. “best practice in teacher education programmes”, “Best
practice in on-arrival programmes for immigrants”.
beta (ß) error n
see TYPE II ERROR
between-groups design n
another term for BETWEEN-SUBJECTS DESIGN
between-subjects design n
or between-groups design
an experimental design where each participant serves in only one experi-
mental condition.
bias n
also test bias
a test or a single test item is biased if its scores are consistently too high
or too low for an individual test taker or a group of test takers, which is
a systematic error in the measurement process of the test. Test bias can be
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bilingual
minimized through sensitivity review where reviewers review every test
item to identify offensive language or biased content or through DIFFER-
ENTIAL ITEM FUNCTIONING analysis.
bicultural adj biculturalism n
a person who knows the social habits, beliefs, customs, etc. of two dif-
ferent social groups can be described as bicultural.
A distinction is made between biculturalism and BILINGUALISM. For
example, a person may be able to speak two languages, but may not know
how to act according to the social patterns of the second or foreign language
community. This person can be described as bilingual, but not as bicultural.
bidialectal adj bidialectalism n
a person who knows and can use two different DIALECTS can be described
as bidialectal. The two dialects are often a prestige dialect, which may be
used at school or at work and is often the STANDARD VARIETY, and a
non-prestige dialect, which may be used only at home or with friends.
see also BILINGUAL, BILINGUAL EDUCATION, DIGLOSSIA
bidialectal education n
see BILINGUAL EDUCATION
bilabial adj
a sound articulated by bringing together the upper and lower lips, for
example English /m/, /p/ and /b/ in the words my, pet, bird.
see PLACE OF ARTICULATION
bilingual adj
a person who uses at least two languages with some degree of proficiency.
In everyday use bilingual usually means a person who speaks, reads or
understands two languages equally well (a balanced bilingual), but a
bilingual person usually has a better knowledge of one language than
another.
For example, he/she may:
a be able to read and write in only one language
b use each language in different types of situation or DOMAINS, e.g. one
language at home and another at work
c use each language for talking about school life and the other for talk-
ing about personal feelings
The ability to read and write a second or foreign language does not
necessarily imply a degree of bilingualism.
see also COMPOUND BILINGUALISM, DIGLOSSIA, MULTILINGUALISM
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bilingual education
bilingual education n
the use of a second or foreign language in school for the teaching of con-
tent subjects. Bilingual education programmes may be of different types
and include:
a the use of a single school language which is not the child’s home
language. This is sometimes called an IMMERSION PROGRAMME.
b the use of the child’s home language when the child enters school but
later a gradual change to the use of the school language for teaching
some subjects and the home language for teaching others. This is some-
times called maintenance bilingual education.
c the partial or total use of the child’s home language when the child
enters school, and a later change to the use of the school language only.
This is sometimes called transitional bilingual education or early exit
bilingual education.
When the school language is a STANDARD DIALECT and the child’s home
language a different dialect (e.g. Hawaiian Creole, Black English) this is
sometimes called bidialectal or biloquial education.
see also BILINGUALISM, ADDITIVE BILINGUAL EDUCATION
bilingualism n
the use of at least two languages either by an individual (see
BILINGUAL) or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a
particular region or a nation. Bilingualism is the norm in the majority of
the countries of the world.
see also COMPOUND BILINGUALISM, DIGLOSSIA, MULTILINGUALISM
biliterate adj
see LITERACY
bimodal distribution n
see MODE
bi-modal input n
see SUBTITLES
binary feature n
a property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the
phoneme or word.
A binary feature is either present or absent.
For example, in English a /t/ sounds different from a /d/ because a /d/ is
pronounced with the vocal cords vibrating (is voiced), and a /t/ is pro-
nounced with the vocal cords not vibrating (is voiceless). VOICE is there-
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bioprogram hypothesis
fore one of the features which describe /d/ and /t/. This is usually shown
like this:
/d/ [+voice] (= voice present)
/t/ [–voice] (= voice absent)
When a binary feature can be used to distinguish between two phonemes,
like voice with /d/ and /t/, the phonemes are in binary opposition (see also
DISTINCTIVE FEATURE.)
Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of
words (see also SEMANTIC FEATURES).
binary opposition n
see BINARY FEATURE
binding principle n
(in Government/Binding Theory) a principle which states whether or not
expressions in a sentence refer to someone or something outside their
clause or sentence or whether they are ‘bound’ within it.
For example, in:
Ann hurt herself.
Ann is a REFERRING EXPRESSION referring to someone in the real world and
herself is an ANAPHOR referring to Ann. It is said to be ‘bound’ to Ann.
In the sentence:
Ann hurt her.
the her is a pronominal (see PRONOUN) which refers to another person in
the real world who may or may not have been mentioned in a previous
sentence or utterance. It is not ‘bound’ to Ann.
In second language research, investigations have been made into the
Binding Principle in languages other than English, e.g. Korean, and how
this may affect the acquisition of English.
see also BOUNDING THEORY
binding theory n
part of the GOVERNMENT/BINDING THEORY. It examines connections
between noun phrases in sentences and explores the way they relate and
refer to each other (see BINDING PRINCIPLE)
biolinguistics n
a branch of linguistics that studies language in relation to the biological
characteristics of humans, particularly features of anatomy and physiology.
bioprogram hypothesis n
the hypothesis that children are born with inborn abilities to make basic
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bi-polar adjective
semantic distinctions that lead to particular types of grammar. According
to the bioprogram hypothesis, some creole languages show the underly-
ing structures of the bioprogram, as do some of the early features used by
children when they acquire their first language.
bi-polar adjective n
see SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL
biscriptualism n
competence in reading and writing two scripts of the same language such
as the ability of a speaker of standard Chinese to be able to read roman-
ized Chinese as well as Chinese written in Chinese characters.
biserial correlation (rb) n
see CORRELATION
bi-uniqueness n
see NATURAL MORPHOLOGY
black box model n
a term derived from physics and used to refer to a system that can be rep-
resented in terms of observable inputs to the system and observable out-
puts from it, although precisely what the system is and how it works
cannot be observed. The system is thus contained in a “black box”.
Language learning is sometimes described as a black box problem because
although we can observe the language which learners hear and see and the
sentences they produce, we cannot observe what goes on inside the black
box, i.e. how they actually learn language.
Black English (BE) n
another term for AFRICAN AMERICAN ENGLISH
Black English Vernacular (BEV) n
another term for AFRICAN AMERICAN ENGLISH
blank slate n
see INITIAL STATE
bleeding order n
in PHONOLOGY, when rules are ordered so that the application of one rule
destroys the input of another rule, this is called a bleeding order. For
example, in French there is a rule that nasalizes a vowel before a nasal
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Bloom’s taxonomy
consonant and another rule that deletes a syllable final nasal consonant,
producing words like [bõ] from underlying /bon/. If the nasal deletion rule
were applied before the vowel nasalization rule, this would destroy the input
to the second rule and [bõ] could not be derived. Bleeding order is contrasted
with a feeding order, in which the output from one rule becomes the input
to another. For example, English has both a plural formation rule that pro-
duce consonant clusters in words like tests and dogs, and consonant cluster
simplification rules that apply somewhat differently in different varieties. If
a speaker pronounces a word such as tests as if it were “tess”, this suggests
that plural formation has applied first and has fed (created the environment
for) the consonant simplification rule. However, if a speaker pronounces
tests as if it were “tesses”, this suggests that consonant cluster simplification
applied first and fed (created the environment for) the plural formation rule.
blend n
another term for PORTMANTEAU WORD
blending n
also portmanteau word
in MORPHOLOGY, a relatively unproductive process of WORD FORMATION
by which new words are formed from the beginning (usually the first
phoneme or syllable) of one word and the ending (often the RHYME) of
another. Examples of blends formed this way are English smog (formed
from smoke and fog), vog (volcano and fog), brunch (breakfast and
lunch), and Singlish, Taglish, and Japlish from Singapore English,
Tagalog English, and Japanese English, respectively.
Blending is usually not considered part of I-LANGUAGE.
blocking n
in MORPHOLOGY, a process that blocks the application of an unproductive
word formation rule, if it would produce a word with the same semantics
as an already existing word. For example, the English suffixes –ness
(productive) and –ity (unproductive) are very similar (compare
curious/curiosity and furious/furiousness). Since words such as gracious-
ness and gloriousness exist, new words graciocity and gloriocity cannot
be created.
see also ACCIDENTAL GAP
Bloom’s taxonomy n
a taxonomy of OBJECTIVES for the cognitive domain (see DOMAIN) devel-
oped by the American educationalist, B. S. Bloom, and widely referred to
in education and educational planning. Bloom’s taxonomy consists of 6
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body
levels, ranging from knowledge (which focuses on reproduction of facts)
to evaluation (which represents higher level thinking). The six levels in
Bloom’s taxonomy are:
Level Characteristic Student Behaviours
Knowledge Remembering, memorizing, recognizing, recalling
Comprehension Interpreting, translating from one medium to
another, describing in one’s own words
Application Problem-solving, applying information to produce
some result
Analysis Subdividing something to show how it is put
together, finding the underlying structure of a com-
munication, identifying motives
Synthesis Creating a unique, original product that may be in
verbal form or may be a physical object
Evaluation Making value decisions about issues, resolving con-
troversies or differences of opinion
body n
(in composition) those sections of an ESSAY which come between the intro-
duction and the conclusion and which support and develop the THESIS
STATEMENT.
body language n
the use of facial expressions, body movements, etc. to communicate
meaning from one person to another.
In linguistics, this type of meaning is studied in PARALINGUISTICS.
see also PROXEMICS
book flood n
an approach to the development of reading skills particularly in settings
where English is a SECOND LANGUAGE, in which students are exposed to a
large number (i.e. a “flood”) of high-interest reading materials, i.e. a type
of EXTENSIVE READING programme.
book report n
in teaching, a student’s oral or written account of a book he or she has
read, used to stimulate careful reading of a book and thoughtful dis-
cussion of it.
borrowing n borrow v
a word or phrase which has been taken from one language and used in
another language.
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boundary effect
For example, English has taken coup d’état (the sudden seizure of gov-
ernment power) from French, al fresco (in the open air) from Italian and
moccasin (a type of shoe) from an American Indian language.
When a borrowing is a single word, it is called a loan word.
Sometimes, speakers try to pronounce borrowings as they are pronounced
in the original language. However, if a borrowed word or phrase is widely
used, most speakers will pronounce it according to the sound system of
their own language.
For example, French /garaÔ/ garage has become in British English
/`gìrëNÔ/ or /`gìr∂dÔ/, though American English keeps something like the
French pronunciation.
borrowing transfer n
see SUBSTRATUM TRANSFER
bottom-up processing
see TOP-DOWN PROCESSING
bound form n
also bound morpheme
a linguistic form (a MORPHEME) which is never used alone but must be
used with another morpheme, e.g. as an AFFIX or COMBINING FORM. For
example, the English suffix -ing must be used with a verb stem, e.g.
writing, loving, driving.
A form which can be used on its own is called a free form, e.g. Betty,
horse, red, write, love, drive.
bound morpheme n
another term for BOUND FORM
boundaries n
divisions between linguistic units. There are different types of boundaries.
For example, boundaries may be
a between words, e.g. the##child
b between the parts of a word such as STEM1 and AFFIX, e.g. kind#ness
c between SYLLABLES, e.g. /beI + bi/ baby
see also JUNCTURE
boundary effect n
the effect of a test being too easy or too difficult for a particular group of
test takers, resulting in their scores tending to be clustered toward or at
either end or boundary of the test score distribution. A boundary effect
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bounding node
that results from a test being easy so that their scores are clustered toward
or at the top of the distribution is called a ceiling effect, whereas a bound-
ary effect that results from a test being too difficult so that their scores are
clustered toward or at the bottom of the distribution is called a floor effect.
bounding node n
see BOUNDING THEORY
bounding theory n
in GOVERNMENT/BINDING THEORY, a theory that is concerned with how far
a constituent can move within a sentence. The main principle of bounding
theory is the subjacency condition, which forbids movement across more
than one bounding node. Bounding nodes in English include S, NP, and CP.
For example, the sentence *Who did you hear the rumour that Mary
kissed? is ungrammatical, because it is derived from the structure in (a)
which would require moving who over two bounding nodes, NP and CP.
(a) Who did you hear [NP the rumour [CP that Mary kissed t ]]
In (a) the NP stands for Noun Phrase; the CP stands for Complement
Phrase, and the t stands for ‘trace’ and shows the place from which the
wh-word was extracted.
b-parameter n
see ITEM RESPONSE THEORY
brainstorming n brainstorm v
1 (in language teaching) a group activity in which learners have a free and
relatively unstructured discussion on an assigned topic as a way of gener-
ating ideas. Brainstorming often serves as preparation for another activity.
2 (in teaching writing) a form of prewriting (see COMPOSING PROCESSES) in
which a student or group of students write down as many thoughts as
possible on a topic without paying attention to organization, sentence
structure or spelling. Brainstorming serves to gather ideas, viewpoints, or
ideas related to a writing topic and is said to help the writer produce ideas.
Other writing activities sometimes included under brainstorming are:
clustering: the student writes a topic or concept in the middle of a page
and gathers ideas into clusters around the topic.
word bank: the student lists words that come to mind about a topic and
then arranges them into categories.
mapping: the student prepares a graphic representation of key words to
be used in a composition.
branching n
(in COMPUTER ASSISTED LEARNING) moving from one place to another
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broad transcription
within a lesson, usually on the basis of how well a student has performed
on a task. The process of deciding which of several alternative paths
through lesson material is best suited to the student using the programme,
based on previous performance, is known as selective branching.
branching direction n
the tendency for relative clauses to follow a particular order in relation to
the noun they modify. In some languages, such as English, relative clauses
usually precede the noun they modify. For example:
The cheese that the rat ate was rotten.
English is thus said to favour a right branching direction. Japanese, how-
ever, primarily makes use of a left branching direction, because the mod-
ifying clause typically appears to the left of the head noun. For example:
Nezumi ga tabeta chizu wa kusatte ita.
rat ate cheese rotten was
In second language learning the difficulty of learning relative clauses
may be influenced by whether the learner’s first language and the
TARGET LANGUAGE have the same branching direction.
branching programme n
see PROGRAMMED LEARNING
breath group n
a stretch of speech which is uttered during one period of breathing out.
see also SPEECH RHYTHM
bridge course n
in Teaching English for Academic Purposes, an academic content course
(e.g. in history or economics) taught specially for students of limited
English proficiency. A bridge course aims to help the students make the
transition from a language course to regular academic courses in their
field of study. Bridge courses may be taught by a second language teacher
who is familiar with the content area, or by a content teacher with some
familiarity in second language teaching. Bridge courses differ from SHEL-
TERED COURSES in that they usually follow closely a language-based course
for second language learners, and because they do not usually correspond
directly to a content course in the same area for native speakers.
broad notation n
see TRANSCRIPTION
broad transcription n
see TRANSCRIPTION
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business English
business English n
a branch of English for Special Purposes or EAP that focuses on the lan-
guage skills needed to function in a business setting. These skills include
presentation skills and other skills needed in sales, marketing, manage-
ment and other positions beyond the entry level in a business.
buzz groups n
(in teaching) a group activity in which groups of students have a brief dis-
cussion (for example, five minutes) to generate ideas or answer specific
questions. Buzz groups may be used as preparation for a lecture, or as an
activity during a lecture.
by-phrase n
in SYNTAX, an optional constituent of a passive sentence headed by by and
containing the logical subject, for example in the sentence The law was
passed by the legislature in 1999, the legislature is the logical subject or
agent, though not the surface subject. Some languages (Arabic, for
example) do not permit passive by-phrases. Some prepositional phrases
headed by by are not by-phrases in this sense, for example by the river in
John went for a walk by the river.
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C
CA n
an abbreviation for CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS
CACD n
an abbreviation for COMPUTER-ASSISTED CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
CAI n
an abbreviation for COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION
CAL n
an abbreviation for COMPUTER-ASSISTED LEARNING
CALL n
an abbreviation for COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING
call-word n
see DRILL
CALP n
an abbreviation for COGNITIVE ACADEMIC LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY
calque n
see LOAN TRANSIATION
candidate n
another term for TEST TAKER
canonical n
typical or usual. For example, the canonical word order of English is SVO
(subject-verb-object), although other orders are possible.
canonical form n
the form of a linguistic item which is usually shown as the standard form.
For example, the plural morpheme in English is usually shown as -s, even
though it may appear as -s, -es, -en, etc., -s is the canonical form.
canonical order n
also canonical word order
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captioning
the basic order of the constituents subject (S), object (O) and verb (V) in
a particular language. For example, the canonical order of English is
SVO, while in Japanese the canonical order is SOV.
captioning n
see SUBTITLES
cardinal vowel n
any of the VOWELS in the cardinal vowel system. The cardinal vowel
system was invented by Daniel Jones as a means of describing the vowels
in any language. The cardinal vowels themselves do not belong to any
particular language, but are possible vowels to be used as reference
points.
The cardinal vowel [i] is made with the front of the tongue as high as
possible in the mouth without touching the roof of the mouth. It is a front
vowel. By gradually lowering the tongue, three more front vowels were
established: [e], [£] and [a]. The difference in tongue position for [i] and
[e], for [e] and [£] and for[£] and [a] is approximately equal and the dif-
ference in sound between each vowel and the next one is also similar. All
these front vowels are made with fairly spread lips.
Cardinal vowel [ë] is made with the back of the tongue as low as
possible in the mouth. It is a back vowel. By gradually raising the back of
the tongue from the [ë] position, three other cardinal vowels were estab-
lished: […], [o] and [u]. These three are made with the lips gradually more
rounded.
These eight vowels are known as the primary cardinal vowels. The five
vowels: [i], [e], [£], [a] and [ë] are unrounded vowels and […], [o] and [u]
are rounded vowels.
With the tongue in these eight positions, a secondary series of cardinal
vowels was established. Where the primary cardinal vowels are
unrounded, the secondary cardinal vowels are rounded. Where the pri-
mary cardinal vowels are rounded, the secondary cardinal vowels are
unrounded.
unrounded rounded
primary ie£aë … o u
rounded unrounded
secondary y » œ Œ í î g ø
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case
i u y ø
e o » g
£ … æ î
a ë Œ ë
The primary The secondary
cardinal vowels cardinal vowels
caretaker speech n
also motherese, mother talk, baby talk
the simple speech used by mothers, fathers, babysitters, etc., when they
talk to young children who are learning to talk.
Caretaker speech usually has:
a shorter utterances than speech to other adults
b grammatically simple utterances
c few abstract or difficult words, with a lot of repetition
d clearer pronunciation, sometimes with exaggerated INTONATION pat-
terns
Caretaker speech is easier for children to understand, and many people
believe that it helps children to learn language.
see also FOREIGNER TALK
carrel n
in a LANGUAGE LABORATORY or multimedia centre, an installation
containing individual recording decks and headphones, or a computer,
video and tv monitor for student use. Carrels may be arranged in rows or
other layouts. In a language laboratory, a carrel is also known as an audio
booth.
case1 n
(in some languages) a grammatical category that shows the function of
the noun or noun phrase in a sentence. The form of the noun or noun
phrase changes (by INFLECTION) to show the different functions or cases.
For example, German has four cases, NOMINATIVE, ACCUSATIVE, DATIVE,
GENITIVE. Endings on the article change to show the case (the function) of
the noun, e.g.:
Nominative case (table is the subject of the sentence)
Der Tisch ist gross
The table is big.
Accusative case (table is the object of the sentence)
Karin kaufte den Tisch.
Karin bought the table.
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case
Some languages, e.g. Russian, have more than four cases, others have
fewer, and some have none at all. In these languages the functions shown
by case marking may be shown by WORD ORDER or by PREPOSITIONS.
English marks case only on pronouns. Three cases are recognized:
Nominative: I, we, you, he, she, it, they, who
Objective: me, us, you, him, her, it, them, who(m)
Genitive: my, our, your, his, her, its, their, whose
case2
see CASE GRAMMAR
case assigner n
(in CASE THEORY) an element that assigns a particular function, a case (see
CASE1), to a noun phrase in a sentence. Case assigners are often verbs or
prepositions.
case grammar n
an approach to grammar developed in the 1970s which stresses the
semantic relationships in a sentence. Parts of case grammar have been
incorporated into more recent versions of GENERATIVE GRAMMAR.
see also AGENTIVE CASE, BENEFACTIVE CASE, DATIVE CASE2, FACTITIVE CASE,
INSTRUMENTAL CASE, LOCATIVE CASE, OBJECTIVE CASE
case methods n
in language teaching and teacher education, the use of cases as a form of
pedagogy. A case consists of a report of (usually successful) practice pre-
pared by a practitioner. It attempts to explore what experienced prac-
titioners in a particular field (law, business, industry, teaching) know and
do and presents an account of “craft knowledge” as compared to the
“theoretical knowledge” that is often the focus of traditional academic
courses. Case methods are often used in the preparation of professionals in
law and business and are also thought to be useful in teaching and teacher
education. In teacher education, students may study and react to accounts
of how teachers developed courses, conducted classes, and responded to
particular teaching issues and problems. In business English courses, case
accounts presenting the circumstances of a particular company, office, or
individual, may form the basis of a variety of language development activi-
ties. Case methods should not be confused with a CASE STUDY.
case study n
the intensive study of an aspect of behaviour, either at one period in time
or over a long period of time, e.g. the language development of a child
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cataphora
over one year. The case study method provides an opportunity to collect
detailed information that may not be observable using other research
techniques (compare CROSS-SECTION(AL) METHOD), and may or may not be
based on the assumption that the information gathered on a particular
individual, group, community, etc., will also be true of the other individ-
uals, groups or communities.
case theory n
this theory, which is part of Chomsky’s UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR, stipulates
that each noun phrase in a sentence is assigned a case which shows its
function in the sentence.
These cases (see CASE1) may be shown by morphological endings; for
example, in:
Monica’s dress
Monica is in the GENITIVE CASE. She is the possessor of the dress. But in
many instances the case of a noun phrase is an abstract concept which is
not evident in the surface sentence. For example, in:
You should ask Paul.
Paul is in the ACCUSATIVE CASE because he is the OBJECT of asked but this
fact is not shown by any ending. However, it becomes obvious when a
pronoun is used instead of Paul:
You should ask him (object pronoun)
not *You should ask he
see also – THEORY/THETA THEORY
CASLA n
an abbreviation for COMPUTER APPLICATION IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISI-
TION
casual speech, casual style
see COLLOQUIAL SPEECH
CAT n
an abbreviation for COMPUTER ADAPTIVE TESTING
an abbreviation for COMPUTER ASSISTED TRANSLATION
cataphora n cataphoric adj
the use of a word or phrase which refers forward to another word or
phrase which will be used later in the text or conversation is called cat-
aphora.
For example, in the sentence:
When I met her, Mary looked ill.
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categorial grammar
the word her refers forward to Mary.
Examples of cataphoric sentences are:
My reasons are as follows: One, I don’t . . .
Here is the news. The Prime Minister . . .
see also ANAPHORA
categorial grammar n
see MONTAGUE GRAMMAR
categorical scale n
see SCALE
categorical perception n
the ability of humans to focus on distinctive acoustic features of speech and
to ignore irrelevant differences such as differences between two speakers.
Categorical perception develops very early in FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
as children become sensitive to differences between phonemic categories of
the language they are hearing and less sensitive to differences within those
categories. In SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, establishing categorical per-
ception in accordance with the phonemic categories of the target language
is much slower, and in some cases it appears not to happen at all.
categorize v categorization n
to put items into groups (categories) according to their nature or use.
For example:
a nouns may be categorized into ANIMATE and inanimate nouns.
b verbs may be categorized into TRANSITIVE and intransitive verbs.
category n
see GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY2
category symbol n
see GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY2
category system n
an observation system used to code, classify or analyze different class-
room behaviours. Many different category systems have been used for
observing and describing language classes, including COLT (the
Communicative Orientation of Language Teaching ), and FOCUS (Foci on
Communication Used in Settings ). These systems attempt to provide a set
of categories which can be used to describe objectively different dimen-
sions of classroom behaviour, such as the purpose of a communicative
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CCR
event, the media used for communicating content, the manner in which
the media are used, and the areas of content that are communicated.
Other approaches allow researchers to develop separate category systems
for different research sites and research questions.
see also INTERACTION ANALYSIS, HIGH INFERENCE CATEGORY
catenation n catenate v
the linking of sounds together in speech, such as the grouping of
phonemes into SYLLABLES, and the grouping of syllables and words
through ASSIMILATION1, ELISION, and JUNCTURE. Languages differ in the
way they combine sounds. Two languages may share many sounds, but
combine them in different ways. Spanish learners of English for example
may pronounce steak as /esteIk/, because although Spanish has the com-
bination /-st/ after a stressed vowel it does not have it before one.
causative verb n
a verb which shows that someone or something brings about or causes an
action or a state.
For example, in:
Peter killed the rabbit.
killed is a causative verb, but in:
The rabbit died.
died is not.
Some languages often form causative verbs from non-causative verbs by
adding affixes, e.g. in Malay:
Gelas itu jatuh ke lantai
glass the fall to floor
“The glass fell to the floor.”
Dia menjatuhkan gelas itu
He cause to fall glass the
“He dropped the glass.”
Causative verbs are always TRANSITIVE.
see also INCHOATIVE VERB
cause-effect method n
see METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT
CBT n
an abbreviation for COMPUTER-BASED TEST(ING)
CCR n
see CLASSROOM-CENTRED RESEARCH
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ceiling effect
ceiling effect n
see BOUNDARY EFFECT
CELIA n
an abbreviation for COMPUTER-ENHANCED LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION ARCHIVE
CELT n
an abbreviation for continuing education for language teachers
see PRESERVICE EDUCATION
central executive n
see WORKING MEMORY
central nervous system n
the part of the nervous system which consists of the brain and the spinal
cord.
central tendency n
(in statistics) any estimate of the central point around which scores tend
to cluster. The most common measures of central tendency are the MEAN,
the MEDIAN, and the MODE.
central vowel n
see VOWEL
cerebral dominance n
also lateralization
the development of control over different functions in different parts of
the brain. As the brain develops, it is thought that different bodily func-
tions (e.g. speech, hearing, sensations, actions) are gradually brought
under the control of different areas of the brain. Those parts of the brain
which control language are usually in the left hemisphere. One area in the
left hemisphere is known as Broca’s area, or the speech centre, because it
is an important area involved in speech. Another area called Wernicke’s
area is thought to be involved in understanding language. Damage to
these areas of the brain leads to different types of APHASIA. Whether or not
there is a relationship between lateralization and a CRITICAL PERIOD for
language acquisition has been much debated.
certified interpreter n
see INTERPRETER
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checklist
certified translator n
see TRANSLATOR
change from above n
in historical linguistics and sociolinguistics, language change that reflects
mostly conscious social factors, such as the importation of a French-like
pronunciation of /r/ into German, in emulation of French prestige norms or
the conscious adoption of features of African American Vernacular English
that have covert prestige. This may be contrasted with change from below,
which does not reflect prestige norms or rules but is more likely the product
of unconscious, long-term language drift. An example is the recent vowel
shift in several varieties of American English in which low tense vowels rise
and other vowels move into the vacated space. Change from above has been
compared to MONITORING in second language learning and use.
change from below n
see CHANGE FROM ABOVE
channel n
1 (in SOCIOLINGUISTICS) the way in which a MESSAGE is conveyed from one
person to another.
The two most common channels of communication are speech and
writing. Other examples are the use of drum beats, smoke signals, or
flags.
2 (in INFORMATION THEORY) the path along which information is sent. In
telephone communication, for example, the message is changed into elec-
trical signals by the telephone and the channel of communication is the
telephone wire.
charged words n
also loaded words
words which have a degree of CONNOTATION (i.e. which carry either posi-
tive or negative as opposed to neutral meaning). For example:
charged word neutral word
crazy eccentric
jock athlete
fag homosexual
checklist n
in assessing or measuring behaviour, the use of a list of skills or behav-
iours that an observer checks off while observing someone doing some-
thing, such as while observing a student-teacher teach a lesson.
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child centred
child centred adj
in teaching or curriculum development, approaches in which teaching and
learning are organized around the child’s needs, interests, learning styles,
etc.
see LEARNER-CENTRED
CHILDES n
a database of longitudinal language acquisition data maintained at
Carnegie Mellon University.
child language n
the type of language spoken by young children who are still learning their
mother tongue.
Child language is different from adult language in many ways. For
example:
a different sentence structures, e.g. Why not you coming? instead of Why
aren’t you coming?
b different word forms, e.g. goed instead of went, mouses instead of mice
Differences like these show that children have their own set of rules,
and do not learn language by simply imitating adults.
see also FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
chi-square n
also chi-squared, 2
(in statistics) a procedure used to determine whether the relationship
between two or more different variables is independent. For example, if
we wanted to find out if there is a relationship between ability to write
and belonging to a particular social or economic group, a chi-square(d)
test could be used. It measures whether a particular distribution of
observed values is sufficiently different from an expected distribution to
indicate that it cannot be explained as a chance occurrence.
see also CONTINGENCY TABLE
choral practice n also choral repetition, chorus repetition
in teaching, practice by a whole group or class of students, such as when
a group of students reads aloud from a passage or repeats a dialogue.
Choral practice is sometimes used as a preparation for individual practice
or to develop fluency.
chronological order n
(in composition) a paragraph in which the information is arranged
according to a sequence in time. For example:
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chunking
First . . . after that . . . later . . .
see also SPATIAL ORDER
chunk n
a unit of language that forms a syntactic or semantic unit but also has
internal structure, for example:
1 a unit of text that is longer than a sentence and shorter than a para-
graph
2 a unit of language longer than a word but shorter than a sentence and
which plays a role in comprehension and production.
see FORMULAIC LANGUAGE
also known as LEXICAL PHRASE, ROUTINE, GAMBIT
chunk analysis n
see CHUNKING
chunk building n
see CHUNKING
chunking n
a term used in several different ways:
1 referring to the process of combining smaller, frequently co-occurring
units (e.g. morphemes, words, etc.) into larger ones (see CHUNK) that can
be stored or processed together as a unit. For example, utterances such as:
in the final analysis
I told you so
Y’know what your problem is?
can each be produced word by word according to productive rules of
grammar, but if a speaker (or writer) uses some of them repeatedly, they
are likely to be stored in memory as chunks. This process can also be
called chunk building or fusion.
see also ADAPTIVE CONTROL OF THOUGHT
2 referring to the processes of dividing larger units into smaller parts. For
example, a long text can be broken into chunks that a learner works on
separately. This process can also be called chunk analysis.
3 referring to the process of organizing linguistic materials into hierarchi-
cal chunks as an aid to memory. For example, a telephone number such
as 8089569238 would be difficult to remember as an undifferentiated
string. However, if it is broken into chunks such as 808 (area code) + 956
(exchange) + 9238 (number), it is much easier to remember. Telephone
companies around the world differ in the ways in which they chunk these
numbers, but each of them has a system that does this in some fashion.
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CI
CI n
an abbreviation for CONFIDENCE INTERVAL
citation form
the form a word has when it is cited or pronounced in isolation, which
may be different from the form it has when it occurs in context. For
example, the word the is usually pronounced with a tense vowel in its
citation form, while it has a lax vowel when it is followed in context by
a word beginning with a consonant.
class n classify v
(in linguistics) a group of linguistic items which have something in
common. For example, in all languages words can be grouped (classified)
into WORD CLASSES according to how they combine with other words to
form phrases and sentences, how they change their form, etc. So horse,
child, tree belong to the English word class noun, and beautiful, noisy,
hard belong to the English word class adjective.
see also FORM CLASS, OPEN CLASS, TAXONOMIC
classical test theory n
also true score model
a test theory that assumes that a test taker’s observed score, a score that this
person actually received on a test, has two additive components as follows:
X T E
Observed Score True Score Error Score
where true score is defined as a hypothetical score of a test taker’s true
ability, which is thought of as the average of the scores a test taker would
be expected to obtain if this person took the same test an infinite number
of times. According to this theory, the true score remains constant and any
non-systematic variation in the observed score is due to the error score.
see also ITEM RESPONSE THEORY
classification methods n
see METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT
classifier1 n
a word or affix used with a noun, which shows the sub-class to which the
noun belongs.
For example, in Malay ekor “tail” is a classifier for animals and is used
with numerals:
lima ekor lembu “five oxen”
five ox
Some languages such as Malay, Chinese, and various African languages
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classroom discourse
have an extensive system of classifiers. In English, a few classifiers are still
used, e.g. head of in:
five head of cattle
In languages such as Swahili, the affix classifying a noun is also added to
its MODIFIERS, PREDICATE, etc.
classifier2 n
(in SYSTEMIC LINGUISTICS) a word in a NOUN PHRASE which shows the
sub-class to which a person or thing belongs.
For example, nouns and adjectives can function as classifiers:
classifier noun classified
electric trains
steam trains
see also MODIFIER, HEAD
classroom-based evaluation/classroom based assessment n
the collection of information about learners, teachers, and teaching in the
classroom in a normal school learning situation to assess the quality of
teaching and learning. Classroom-based evaluation is often an approach
to FORMATIVE EVALUATION.
classroom-centred research n
also CCR, classroom-process research, language classroom research
second language orientated research carried out in formal instructional
settings (rather than in naturalistic, untutored settings), especially in
relation to the effects of classroom practices of teachers and students on
learners’ achievement, performance in class and attitudes. Classroom-
centred research has focused on such things as the linguistic features of
classroom language (see CLASSROOM DISCOURSE), observation of the struc-
ture of oral communication between teachers and learners, error treat-
ment, communication strategies, turn-taking patterns, code-switching,
and other factors that are believed to influence second language acquisi-
tion. Classroom-centred research uses both quantitative and qualitative
methods, including research techniques derived from INTERACTION ANALY-
SIS and ETHNOGRAPHY, as well as quasi-experimental methods of com-
parison examining the effects of specific teaching methods and
experimental studies of the effects of aspects of interaction and process-
ing that are associated with classroom instructional processes.
classroom discourse n
the type of language used in classroom situations. Classroom discourse is
often different in form and function from language used in other situations
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classroom ethos
because of the particular social roles students and teachers have in class-
rooms and the kinds of activities they usually carry out there. For example,
teachers tend to rely on a discourse structure with the following pattern:
initiation – response – evaluation
In this typical three-part structure, the teacher initiates a question in order
to check a student’s knowledge, a student responds, and the student’s
response is evaluated with FEEDBACK from the teacher.
The restricted kind of discourse students encounter in classrooms is
thought to influence their rate of language development.
see also QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES
classroom ethos n
also classroom climate n
the affective dimensions of a classroom such as the atmosphere and feel-
ings of the classroom that can promote or detract from effective class-
room teaching and learning.
see CLIMATE
classroom interaction n
the patterns of verbal and non-verbal communication and the types of
social relationships which occur within classrooms. The study of class-
room interaction may be a part of studies of classroom DISCOURSE,
TEACHER TALK, and SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION.
see also INTERACTION ANALYSIS
classroom language n
see CLASSROOM DISCOURSE
classroom management n
(in language teaching) the ways in which student behaviour, movement,
interaction, etc., during a class is organized and controlled by the teacher
(or sometimes by the learners themselves) to enable teaching to take place
most effectively. Classroom management includes procedures for group-
ing students for different types of classroom activities, use of LESSON
PLANs, handling of equipment, aids, etc., and the direction and manage-
ment of student behaviour and activity.
classroom-process research n
see CLASSROOM-CENTRED RESEARCH
clause n
a group of words which form a grammatical unit and which contain a
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click
subject and a FINITE VERB. A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence
and often functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb.
For example:
I hurried home.
Because I was late, they went without me.
Clauses are classified as dependent or independent, e.g.:
I hurried because I was late.
independent dependent
clause clause
A clause is different from a phrase.
A phrase is a group of words which form a grammatical unit. A phrase does
not contain a finite verb and does not have a subject-predicate structure:
For example:
I liked her expensive new car.
George hates working in the garden.
Phrases are usually classified according to their central word or HEAD,
e.g. NOUN PHRASE1, VERB PHRASE, etc.
see also DEPENDENT CLAUSE, RELATIVE CLAUSE
cleft sentence n
a sentence which has been divided into two parts, each with its own verb,
to emphasize a particular piece of information. Cleft sentences usually
begin with It plus a form of the verb be, followed by the element which
is being emphasized.
For example, the sentence Mrs Smith gave Mary a dress can be turned
into the following cleft sentences:
It was Mrs Smith who gave Mary a dress.
It was Mary that Mrs Smith gave the dress to.
It was a dress that Mrs Smith gave to Mary.
In English a sentence with a wh-clause (e.g. what I want) as subject or
complement is known as a pseudo-cleft sentence. For example:
A good holiday is what I need.
What I need is a good holiday.
cliché n
a word or expression which has lost its originality or effectiveness because
it has been used too often. For example:
It’s a crying shame.
click n
a stop made with an ingressive velaric airstream, found in a number of
African languages.
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climate
climate n
(in teaching) the affective aspects of the classroom, such as the feelings
generated by and about the teacher, the students or the subject matter,
along with aspects of the classroom itself that contribute positively or
negatively to the learning atmosphere. An effective teacher is said to
create a suitable climate for learning by influencing students’ attitudes and
perceptions in a positive way. This may be achieved through:
1 establishing an atmosphere in which academic goals are emphasized
2 promoting high standards and by monitoring and rewarding achieve-
ment
3 maintaining an orderly environment
4 building expectations for success
clinical supervision n, n
(in teacher education) an approach to teacher supervision which focuses
upon the improvement of teaching by means of systematic observation of
teaching performance and focussed feedback by the supervisor. Clinical
supervision involves:
1 a close face-to-face relationship between a teacher and a supervisor
2 a focus on the teacher’s actual behaviour in the classroom, with the
goal of improving the teacher’s skill as a teacher
3 a three-stage strategy consisting of:
a a planning conference, in which the teacher discusses his or her goals,
methodology, problems, etc., with the supervisor and they decide on
what the supervisor should observe and what kind of information
about the lesson he or she should collect.
b classroom observation, in which the supervisor observes the teacher
in his or her classroom.
c feedback conference, in which the teacher and the supervisor
review the data the supervisor has collected, discuss the effective-
ness of the lesson, and decide on strategies for improvement, if
necessary.
clitic n
a grammatical form which cannot stand on its own in an utterance. It
needs to co-occur with another form which either precedes or follows it.
Some languages have clitic pronoun forms which are attached to the verb.
In English, n’t the contracted form of not in couldn’t, isn’t, and don’t can
be considered a clitic.
CLL n
an abbreviation for COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING
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cloze passage
close description n
also thick description
in qualitative research, detailed description that seeks to describe an
event, situation or phenomenon with as much information as possible.
close vowel n also high vowel
see VOWEL
closed-captions n
see SUBTITLES
closed-choice questions n
see QUESTION
closed class n
see OPEN CLASS
closed-ended response n
see TEST ITEM
closed set n
see OPEN CLASS
closed syllable n
see SYLLABLE
closure n
(in teaching) that part of the lesson which brings it to an end. An effec-
tive lesson closure is said to reinforce the key teaching points of the lesson
and help students transfer learning to the next lesson.
see also ENTRY
clozentropy n
a method of scoring cloze tests, based on the acceptable word method. A
cloze test is first given to a group of native speakers, and their responses
are listed in frequency order. When the test is given to non-native test
takers, someone who responds with a high frequency word scores more
than someone who responds with a low frequency word.
see also CLOZE TEST
cloze passage n
see CLOZE TEST
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cloze test
cloze test n
a technique for measuring reading comprehension as well as overall lan-
guage proficiency. In a cloze test, words are deleted from a reading pass-
age at regular intervals, leaving blanks. There are two widely used ways
to create the blanks. The first is known as rational deletion, where
words are deleted on the basis of some rational decision (e.g. PARTS OF
SPEECH), which results in rational cloze. For example, prepositions may
be deleted to assess test takers’ knowledge of English prepositions. The
second is known as fixed ratio deletion or nth word deletion, where
every nth word is deleted. For example, every fifth word may be deleted.
The test taker must then read the passage and try to guess the missing
words.
For example, a cloze passage looks like this:
A passage used in ________ cloze test is a ________ of written material in
________ words have been regularly ________. The subjects must then
________ to reconstruct the passage ________ filling in the missing
________.
Here, the test taker has to guess a, passage, which, removed, try, by,
words. The cloze procedure can also be used to judge the difficulty of
reading materials (i.e. READABILITY).
If the cloze procedure is being used for language testing, the test taker is
given a score according to how well the words guessed matched the orig-
inal words, or whether or not they made sense. Two types of scoring pro-
cedure are used:
a the test taker must guess the exact word that was used in the original
passage (as in the above example). This is called the exact word method.
b the test taker can guess any word that is appropriate or acceptable in
the context. This is called the acceptable word method (also the appro-
priate word method, the acceptable alternative method, and the con-
textually appropriate method).
cluster n
see consonant cluster
cluster reduction n
see CONSONANT CLUSTER REDUCTION
clustering n
see brainstorming
CMC n
an abbreviation for COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION
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code
coarticulation n
in PHONETICS, the overlapping of adjacent articulations.
In PHONOLOGY, the spreading of phonetic features to neighbouring seg-
ments.
see ASSIMILATION
cocktail party phenomenon n
the ability that humans have in social gatherings to listen selectively to
speech coming from one source (for example, a conversation some dis-
tance away) while ignoring other sources (for example, the speech of
other guests, even those who are closer). REDUNDANCY in conversation
helps make this possible, but the phenomenon is a specific example of the
more general human ability to pay ATTENTION selectively to some stimuli
while ignoring others.
see also DICHOTIC LISTENING
coda n
see SYLLABLE
codability n
the degree to which an aspect of experience can be described by the
vocabulary of a language.
Languages differ in the degree to which they provide words for the
description or naming of particular things, events, experiences, and states.
For example, English makes a distinction between blue and green whereas
some languages have a single word for this colour range.
code1 n
a term which is used instead of LANGUAGE, SPEECH VARIETY, or DIALECT. It
is sometimes considered to be a more neutral term than the others. People
also use “code” when they want to stress the uses of a language or lan-
guage variety in a particular community. For example, a Puerto Rican in
New York City may have two codes: English and Spanish. He or she may
use one code (English) at work and the other code (Spanish) at home or
when talking to neighbours.
see also CODE SELECTION, CODE SWITCHING
code2 n
a term used by the British educational sociologist Bernstein for different
ways of conveying meaning in a social context. Bernstein distinguished
between elaborated code and restricted code. The restricted code is said
to have a more reduced vocabulary range, to use more question tags, to
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code
use PRONOUNS like he and she instead of nouns and to use gestures such
as hand movements to help give meaning to what is said. It is claimed that
speakers using a restricted code assume that their addressees share a great
many of their attitudes and expectations.
On the other hand, persons using an elaborated code are said to make
greater use of adjectives, more complicated sentence structures and the
pronoun I. The elaborated code is claimed to be more explicit and speak-
ers using it do not assume the same degree of shared attitudes and expec-
tations on the part of the addressee. It has been claimed that while
middle-class children have access to both codes, working-class children
have access only to the restricted code.
There has been a great deal of controversy over Bernstein’s codes as they
have been linked to theories which relate language learning to social class
and educational policies.
see also DEFICIT HYPOTHESIS
code3 n
any system of signals which can be used for sending a MESSAGE. A natural
language is an example of a code, as are Morse code, braille, and SIGN
LANGUAGE.
The medium through which the signals are sent (e.g. by telephone, in
writing) is called the CHANNEL (b).
code mixing n
a mixing of two codes (see CODE1) or languages, usually without a change
of topic. This is quite common in bilingual or multilingual communities and
is often a mark of solidarity, e.g. between bilingual friends or colleagues in
an informal situation. Code mixing can involve various levels of language,
e.g. phonology, morphology, grammatical structures or lexical items.
Bilingual or multilingual speakers, for example, may think that one of
their languages, e.g. English, has more appropriate lexical items for some-
thing they want to express in a particular situation and they incorporate
these into the grammatical structure of the other language, in this case
Mandarin Chinese:
A: Zuótiān de party zěnmeyàng?
Yesterday’s party how
How was yesterday’s party?
B: Bié tí party bù party le!
Don’t mention party no party no longer
Don’t talk to me about the party!
Sometimes a type of code mixing even acquires a special name, e.g Ugewa
(the mixing of English and Cantonese by Hong Kong university students).
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coefficient of correlation
see also CODE SELECTION, CODE SWITCHING
code selection n
the selection of a particular language or language variety for a given situ-
ation. If someone uses more than one code when communicating with
others, they usually select one code for certain purposes (in certain places
and with certain people) and use another code for other purposes (in
other places and with other people). This code selection is often quite reg-
ular and its patterns can be investigated.
For example, an older Chinese person in Singapore may use Hokkien (a
Southern Chinese dialect) at home, Singapore English at work, and
Bazaar Malay to Indian or Malay stallholders at the market.
The code a person selects may often depend on the ethnic background,
sex, age, and level of education of the speaker and of the person with
whom he/she is speaking.
see also CODE SWITCHING, DIGLOSS, DOMAIN1
code switching n
a change by a speaker (or writer) from one language or language variety to
another one. Code switching can take place in a conversation when one
speaker uses one language and the other speaker answers in a different lan-
guage. A person may start speaking one language and then change to another
one in the middle of their speech, or sometimes even in the middle of a sen-
tence. For example, from the speech of a German immigrant in Australia:
Das handelt von einem secondhand dealer and his son.
“That is about a . . . ”
Code switching can be a sign of cultural solidarity or distance or serve as
an act of identity.
see also CODE SELECTION
coding n
a research technique in which data that have been collected are turned
into classes or categories (i.e. codes) for the purpose of counting or tabu-
lation. For example in conducting a NEEDS ANALYSIS, students’ responses
to questions on a questionnaire may be classified into different classes or
codes.
coefficient alpha n
another term for CRONBACH’S ALPHA
coefficient of correlation n
see CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
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coefficient of determination
coefficient of determination n
also r2
a measure of the amount of variability shared or predicted by two VARI-
ABLEs2. It is equal to the square of r (r = coefficient of CORRELATION). For
example, a correlation coefficient of + .70 indicates that 49% of the vari-
ability is shared by the two variables, i.e. 51% of the variability is not
shared or predicted by the variables.
cognate n, adj
a word in one language which is similar in form and meaning to a word
in another language because both languages are related. For example
English brother and German Bruder.
Sometimes words in two languages are similar in form and meaning but
are BORROWINGS and not cognate forms.
For example, kampuni in the African language Swahili is a borrowing
from English company.
see also FALSE COGNATE
cognition n cognitive adj
the various mental processes used in thinking, remembering, perceiving,
recognizing, classifying, etc.
see also COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
cognitive academic language proficiency n
also CALP
a hypothesis proposed by Cummins which describes the special kind of
second language proficiency which students need in order to perform
school learning tasks. Cummins suggests that many classroom tasks are
cognitively demanding and often have to be solved independently by the
learner without support from the context. The ability to carry out such
tasks in a second language is known as CALP. Cummins contrasts this kind
of language proficiency with Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills
(BICS). This refers to the language proficiency needed to perform other
kinds of tasks which are not directly related to learning academic content,
such as interpersonal communication. Interpersonal and social communi-
cation is relatively undemanding cognitively and relies on context to clar-
ify meaning. According to Cummins, different kinds of tests are needed to
measure CALP and BICS, and a learner’s skill in BICS does not predict per-
formance on CALP.
cognitive code approach n
an approach to second and foreign language teaching which was proposed
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cognitive linguistics
in the 1960s and which is based on the belief that language learning is a
process which involves active mental processes and not simply the forming
of habits. It gives importance to the learner’s active part in the process of
using and learning language, particularly in the learning of grammatical
rules. Although it has not led to any particular method of language teaching,
the COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH makes some use of cognitive code principles.
cognitive demand of instruction n
also cognitive load
the cognitive demands of instruction in academic subject matter in formal
schooling contexts. The cognitive difficulty of different subjects in the cur-
riculum (e.g. math, science) will depend on various factors, such as the
extent of student’s prior knowledge, the cognitive complexity inherent in
the instructional task, student interest in the topic, the effectiveness of the
teacher and the materials, and the mode and pace of presentation.
cognitive development n
also stage theory of development
developmental changes in cognitive abilities, processes, and structures.
The best known theory of childhood cognitive development is that of
Piaget, who proposed that such development consists of four major
stages, labelled
sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years). The child’s cognitive system is
limited to motor reflexes at birth.
preoperational stage (2 to 7 or 7 years). Children acquire representational
skills and especially language.
concrete operational stage (6/7 to 11/12). Children are able to understand
concrete problems and take multiple perspectives into account.
formal operational stage (11/12 to adult). At this stage children are
capable of logical, theoretical, and abstract cognitive operations.
cognitive domain n
see DOMAIN
cognitive linguistics n
An approach to LINGUISTICS which stresses the interaction between lan-
guage and cognition, focusing on language as an instrument for organiz-
ing, processing, and conveying information. Issues addressed within
cognitive linguistics include structural characteristics of language such as
prototypicality (see PROTOTYPE), METAPHOR, and IMAGERY;
functional principles of language organization such as iconicity (non-arbi-
trary relationships between meanings and expressions); the interface
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cognitive meaning
between SYNTAX and SEMANTICS; and the relationship between language
and thought.
see also LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY
cognitive meaning n
another term for DENOTATION
cognitive process n
also cognitive strategy
any mental process which learners make use of in language learning, such
as INFERENCING, GENERALIZATION, DEDUCTIVE LEARNING, MONITORING, and
MEMORIZING.
cognitive psychology n
a branch of psychology that deals with such processes as ATTENTION, PER-
CEPTION, COMPREHENSION, MEMORY, and LEARNING. In contrast with
BEHAVIOURISM, cognitive psychology is concerned with mental processes
and the representation of knowledge in the mind. Many cognitive psy-
chologists work within an INFORMATION PROCESSING paradigm, which
assumes that the mind is a symbol-processing system and that these sym-
bols are transformed into other symbols when acted on by different pro-
cesses, while others have adopted models proposed by CONNECTIONISM.
cognitive science n
a discipline which draws on research in LINGUISTICS, MATHEMATICS, neuro-
science, philosophy, PSYCHOLINGUISTICS, COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY, ARTI-
FICIAL INTELLIGENCE and other fields. Cognitive science deals with the
scientific study of thinking, reasoning and the intellectual processes of the
mind; it is concerned with how knowledge is represented in the mind,
how language is understood, how images are understood, and with what
the mental processes underlying INFERENCING, learning, problem solving,
and planning, are.
cognitive strategies n
learning strategies that operate directly on incoming information in ways
that enhance learning. Examples include rehearsal (repeating key words
or phrases silently or aloud, organizing (e.g. summarizing what has been
read or heard), using memory heuristics e.g. a KEYWORD or visual image),
and INFERENCING.
cognitive style n
also cognitive strategy, learning style
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coherence
the particular way in which a learner tries to learn something. In second
or foreign language learning, different learners may prefer different sol-
utions to learning problems. For example, some may want explanations
for grammatical rules; others may not need explanations. Some may feel
writing down words or sentences helps them to remember them. Others
may find they remember things better if they are associated with pictures.
These are called differences of cognitive style.
Several different dimensions of cognitive styles are often referred to:
1 analytic versus global refers to where the learner focuses on the details
or concentrates on the main idea or big picture
2 visual versus auditory versus hands-on or tactile refers to different sen-
sory preferences in learning
3 intuitive/random versus concrete/sequential learning refers to a differ-
ence between thinking in an abstract or nonsequential way versus a focus
on concrete facts or a preference to approach learning in a step by step,
organized fashion.
Differences in cognitive style are thought to affect how learners approach
learning tasks and may affect success on those tasks.
see also FIELD DEPENDENCE, GLOBAL LEARNING
cognitive variable n
variables associated with cognitive functioning that may affect learning,
including language learning. These may include general intelligence, LAN-
GUAGE APTITUDE, MEMORY, and the ability to analyze and evaluate.
Cognitive variables are sometimes contrasted with affective variables that
may also influence learning. Affective variables are more emotional in
nature and include such factors as EMPATHY, LANGUAGE ATTITUDES, LAN-
GUAGE ANXIETY, and MOTIVATION.
coherence n coherent adj
the relationships which link the meanings of UTTERANCES in a DISCOURSE
or of the sentences in a text.
These links may be based on the speakers’ shared knowledge. For
example:
A: Could you give me a lift home?
B: Sorry, I’m visiting my sister.
There is no grammatical or lexical link between A’s question and B’s reply
(see COHESION) but the exchange has coherence because both A and B
know that B’s sister lives in the opposite direction to A’s home.
In written texts coherence refers to the way a text makes sense to the
readers through the organization of its content, and the relevance and
clarity of its concepts and ideas. Generally a PARAGRAPH has coherence if
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cohesion
it is a series of sentences that develop a main idea (i.e. with a TOPIC SEN-
TENCE and supporting sentences which relate to it).
see also SCHEME, TEXT LINGUISTICS, CONVERSATIONAL MAXIM
cohesion n
the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different
elements of a text. This may be the relationship between different sen-
tences or between different parts of a sentence. For example:
a A:Is Jenny coming to the party?
B: Yes, she is.
There is a link between Jenny and she and also between is . . . coming and
is.
b In the sentence:
If you are going to London, I can give you the address of a good hotel
there.
the link is between London and there (see ANAPHORA).
see also COHERENCE
cohort n
(in research) a group of people who have some feature in common, such
as age, IQ, or number of months they have studied a foreign language.
collaborative assessment n
a type of assessment that arrives at a consensus collaboratively among dif-
ferent teachers teaching the same course regarding which common fea-
tures to assess in a learner’s response, product, or performance and how
consistently to use assessment criteria for this purpose.
collaborative evaluation n
(in language programme evaluation) the assessment and evaluation of a
curriculum or programme that is carried out jointly by classroom
teachers, researchers, or other trained educational experts.
collaborative learning n
a general term for an approach to teaching and learning which makes use
of learners working together in small groups. A form of collaborative
learning in which specific roles and responsibilities for group members
and for the use of group-based activities is known as COOPERATIVE
LEARNING.
collaborative research
(in teacher development programmes) research that is carried out by a
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colloquial speech
teacher in collaboration with others, such as another teacher or teachers,
a school consultant, a university researcher, or between a teacher and
learners. Collaborative research is an essential component of some models
of ACTION RESEARCH.
collective noun n
a noun which refers to a collection of people, animals, or things as a
group. For example school, family, government are collective nouns.
When collective nouns are used in the singular, they may be used with
either a singular verb or a plural verb. For example:
The government is going to look into this matter.
The government are looking into this matter.
The use of the plural verb suggests that the noun refers to something
which is seen as a group of individuals, whereas the use of the singular
verb suggests something seen as a single whole.
see also NOUN
collocation n collocate v
the way in which words are used together regularly.
Collocation refers to the restrictions on how words can be used together,
for example which prepositions are used with particular verbs, or which
verbs and nouns are used together.
For example, in English the verb perform is used with operation, but not
with discussion:
The doctor performed the operation.
* The committee performed a discussion. instead we say:
The committee held/had a discussion.
perform is used with (collocates with) operation, and hold and have col-
locate with discussion.
high collocates with probability, but not with chance:
a high probability but a good chance
do collocates with damage, duty, and wrong, but not with trouble, noise,
and excuse:
do a lot of damage do one’s duty do wrong
make trouble make a lot of noise make an excuse
see also IDIOM
colloquial speech n
also, CASUAL SPEECH, CASUAL STYLE, INFORMAL SPEECH
an informal type of speech used among friends and others in situations
where empathy, rapport or lack of social barriers are important. Colloquial
speech is often marked by the use of slang or idioms and by other linguistic
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colloquialism
characteristics such as deletion of subject or auxiliaries (e.g. as in “Got the
time?” instead of “Do you have the time?”). Colloquial speech is not necess-
arily non-prestige speech and should not be considered as SUBSTANDARD.
Educated native speakers of a language normally use colloquial speech in
informal situations with friends, fellow workers, and members of the family.
see also STYLE
colloquialism n
a word or phrase that is more commonly used in informal speech and
writing. For example boss is a colloquialism for employer.
see also COLLOQUIAL SPEECH
combining form n
a BOUND FORM that can form a new word by combining with another
combining form, a word, or sometimes an AFFIX. For example, the
combining form astr(o)-, ‘star’, can form the word astrology with the
combining form -(o)logy, the word astrophysics with the word physics,
and the word astral with the suffix -al. Groups of MORPHEMES like the
-blooded of warm-blooded or the -making of trouble-making are also
sometimes regarded as combining forms.
see also WORD FORMATION
comment n
see TOPIC2
comment clause n
a clause which comments on another clause in a sentence. For example:
She is, I believe, a New Zealander.
Coming from you, that sounds surprising
Comment clauses function as ADJUNCTS or disjuncts, and are optional in
the sentence structure.
commissive n
see SPEECH ACT CLASSIFICATION
common core n
(in language teaching) those basic aspects of a language (e.g. vocabulary and
grammar) which a learner needs to know whatever his or her purpose is in
learning the language. When designing a language SYLLABUS a teacher must
decide how much of the language content of the course must be common
core and how much must be directed to the learner’s particular needs, e.g.
for science or business. see also ENGLISH FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES
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communication strategy
common noun n
see PROPER NOUN
communication n communicate v
the exchange of ideas, information, etc., between two or more persons. In
an act of communication there is usually at least one speaker or sender, a
MESSAGE which is transmitted, and a person or persons for whom this
message is intended (the receiver). Communication is studied from many
disciplinary perspectives, is often viewed as a discipline in its own right,
and is central to SOCIOLINGUISTICS, PSYCHOLINGUISTICS, and INFORMATION
THEORY.
see also COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE, SPEECH EVENT
communication arts n
in a mainstream curriculum, those aspects of the curriculum that deal
with verbal, non-verbal, and visual forms of communication, such as
radio, TV, dance and drama.
communication disorder n
a disability or impairment that affects a person’s ability to communicate,
either verbally or non-verbally.
communication network n
the range of persons that members of a group communicate with. In any
group (e.g. students in a class or members of a school staff), some members
communicate more frequently with one another than with others, depend-
ing on their relationships, frequency of contact, etc. Communication net-
works may be studied as part of the study of BILINGUALISM and DIGLOSSIA
as well as in studies of second language acquisition, since language learn-
ing and language use may depend upon both the frequency of use of a lan-
guage as well as on whom one uses it to communicate with.
communication strategy n
a way used to express a meaning in a second or foreign language, by a
learner who has a limited command of the language. In trying to com-
municate, a learner may have to make up for a lack of knowledge of
grammar or vocabulary. For example the learner may not be able to say
It’s against the law to park here and so he/she may say This place, cannot
park. For handkerchief a learner could say a cloth for my nose, and for
apartment complex the learner could say building. The use of PARAPHRASE
and other communication strategies (e.g. gesture and mime) characterize
the INTER-LANGUAGE of some language learners.
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communication theory
see also ACCOMMODATION, FOREIGNER TALK
communication theory n
another term for INFORMATION THEORY
communicative approach n
also communicative language teaching
an APPROACH to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizes
that the goal of language learning is COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE and
which seeks to make meaningful communication and language use a focus
of all classroom activities. The communicative approach was developed
particularly by British applied linguists in the 1980s as a reaction away
from grammar-based approaches such as Situational Language Teaching
and the audiolingual method. The major principles of Communicative
Language Teaching are:
1 learners use a language through using it to communicate
2 authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of class-
room activities
3 fluency and accuracy are both important goals in language learning
4 communication involves the integration of different language skills
5 learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and
error
Communicative language teaching led to a re-examination of language
teaching goals, syllabuses, materials, and classroom activities and has had
a major impact on changes in language teaching world wide. Some of its
principles have been incorporated into other communicative approaches,
such as Task-Based Language Teaching, Cooperative Language Learning,
and Content-Based Instruction.
communicative competence n
knowledge of not only if something is formally possible in a language, but
also the knowledge of whether it is feasible, appropriate, or done in a par-
ticular SPEECH COMMUNITY.
Communicative competence includes:
a grammatical competence (also formal competence), that is knowledge
of the grammar, vocabulary, phonology, and semantics of a language
(also see COMPETENCE)
b sociolinguistic competence (also sociocultural competence), that is,
knowledge of the relationship between language and its nonlinguistic
context, knowing how to use and respond appropriately to different
types of SPEECH ACTS, such as requests, apologies, thanks, and
invitations, knowing which ADDRESS FORMS should be used with
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Community Language Learning
different persons one speaks to and in different situations, and so forth
(see also APPROPRIATENESS, PRAGMATICS, ROLE RELATIONSHIP)
c discourse competence (sometimes considered part of sociolinguistic
competence), that is knowing how to begin and end conversations (see
also SPEECH EVENTS, COHESION, COHERENCE)
d strategic competence, that is, knowledge of COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES
that can compensate for weakness in other areas.
communicative drill n
see MEANINGFUL DRILL
communicative function n
the extent to which a language is used in a community. Some languages
may be used for very specific purposes, such as the language called Pali,
which is used only for religious purposes in Buddhism. Other languages
are used for almost all the communicative needs of a community, e.g.
Japanese in Japan.
communicative interference n
interference (see LANGUAGE TRANSFER) which is caused by the use of rules of
speaking (e.g. greetings, ways of opening or closing conversations, address
systems – see ADDRESS FORM) from one language when speaking another.
For example, conversations in English often open with a health question
(How are you?) but in other languages, such as Malay, open with a food
question (Have you eaten yet?). A Malay-speaking student learning English
who opened a conversation in English with Have you eaten yet? would be
speaking with communicative interference from Malay to English.
communicative language teaching n
another term for COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
community language n
a language used within a particular community, including languages
spoken by ethnic minority groups.
For example, in Australia, apart from English, languages such as Italian,
Greek, Polish, Arabic, and Australian Aboriginal languages are com-
munity languages.
Community Language Learning n
also CLL
a METHOD of second and foreign language teaching developed by Charles
Curran. Community Language Learning is an application of counselling
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community literacy
learning to second and foreign language teaching and learning. It uses
techniques developed in group counselling to help people with psycho-
logical and emotional problems. The method makes use of group learn-
ing in small or large groups. These groups are the “community”. The
method places emphasis on the learners’ personal feelings and their reac-
tions to language learning. Learners say things which they want to talk
about, in their native language.
The teacher (known as “Counselor”) translates the learner’s sentences
into the foreign language, and the learner then repeats this to other mem-
bers of the group.
community literacy n
Reading skills associated with non-school-related reading, such as those
required to participate in neighbourhood or community activities and the
reading of signs, advertisements and documents.
comparative n
also comparative degree
the form of an adjective or adverb which is used to show comparison
between two things. In English, the comparative is formed with the suffix
-er, or with more:
better
This is than that.
more useful
The superlative is the form of an adjective or adverb which shows the
most or the least in quality, quantity, or intensity. In English, the superla-
tive is formed with the suffix -est or with most:
the tallest
She is in the class.
the most beautiful
comparative clause n
also comparative sentence
a clause which contains a standard with which someone or something
referred to in an INDEPENDENT CLAUSE is compared. In English, compara-
tive clauses are often introduced with than or as:
Tom is much taller than John is.
Jane doesn’t write as neatly as Fiona does.
comparative degree n
another term for COMPARATIVE
comparative historical linguistics n
also comparative philology, philology, historical linguistics
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competence
a branch of linguistics which studies language change and language
relationships. By comparing earlier and later forms of a language and by
comparing different languages, it has been possible to show that certain
languages are related, e.g. the INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE. It has also been
possible to reconstruct forms which are believed to have occurred in a
particular language before written records were available. For example *p
in an ancestor language to all the Indo-European languages is said to be
related to /p/ in Sanskrit as in pita “father” and /f/ in English as in father.
see also DIACHRONIC LINGUISTICS
comparative linguistics n
a branch of linguistics which studies two or more languages in order to
compare their structures and to show whether they are similar or differ-
ent. Comparative linguistics is used in the study of language types (see
TYPOLOGY) and in COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS. It is also used by
some applied linguists for establishing differences between the learner’s
native language and the TARGET LANGUAGE1 in the areas of syntax, vocab-
ulary, and sound systems.
see also CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS
comparative philology n
another term for COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS
comparative relative clause n
also, object of comparative relative clause, OCOMP
see NOUN PHRASE ACCESSIBILITY HIERARCHY
comparative sentence n
another term for COMPARATIVE CLAUSE
comparison and contrast method n
see METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT
compensatory instruction n
also compensatory education
a special education programme for children whose home background is
said to lack certain kinds of language experience. For example, children
who are not read to at home or who do not have story books at home.
see also CULTURAL DEPRIVATION
competence n
(in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR) the implicit system of rules that constitutes a
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competencies
person’s knowledge of a language. This includes a person’s ability to
create and understand sentences, including sentences they have never
heard before, knowledge of what are and what are not sentences of a par-
ticular language, and the ability to recognize ambiguous and deviant sen-
tences. For example, a speaker of English would recognize I want to go
home as an English sentence but would not accept a sentence such as I
want going home even though all the words in it are English words.
Competence often refers to an ideal speaker/hearer, that is an idealized
but not a real person who would have a complete knowledge of the whole
language. A distinction is made between competence and PERFORMANCE,
which is the actual use of the language by individuals in speech and
writing.
see also COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
competencies
in COMPETENCY BASED TEACHING, descriptions of the essential skills,
knowledge and behaviours required for the effective performance of a real
world task of activity. Activities such as “A job Interview” or “Taking
telephone messages” are regarded as collections of competencies or units
of competency. For example the activity “Working on a factory floor”
includes the following competencies:
follow instructions to carry out a simple task
respond appropriately to supervisor’s comments
request supplies
state amount of work already completed
state problem and ask for help if necessary
Such written descriptions of what a student is able to do with the lan-
guage, usually in terms of target language performance, are known as
Competency Statements.
competency based teacher education n
an approach to teacher education which focuses on the skills and compe-
tencies which are thought to constitute effective teaching.
competency based teaching n
also competency based education/instruction
an approach to teaching that focuses on teaching the skills and behav-
iours needed to perform COMPETENCIES. Competencies refer to the stu-
dent’s ability to apply different kinds of basic skills in situations that are
commonly encountered in everyday life. Competency Based Education is
based on a set of outcomes that are derived from an analysis of tasks
learners are typically required to perform in real-life situations.
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complementizer
Competency Based Language Teaching is an application of the principles
of CBE to language teaching and has been widely used for the develop-
ment and teaching of work-related and survival-orientated language
teaching programmes for adults. CBE is believed to improve the quality
of teaching and learning because of its focus on learning outcomes.
complement n complementation n
(in grammar) that part of the sentence which follows the verb and which
thus completes the sentence. The commonest complements are:
a subject complement: the complement linked to a subject by be or a link-
ing verb:
She is a doctor.
b object complement: the complement linked to an object:
We made her the chairperson.
c adjective complement: the complement linked to an adjective:
I am glad that you can come.
d prepositional complement: the complement linked to a preposition:
They argued about what to do.
While ADJUNCTS are optional parts of sentences, complements are often
obligatory parts of the sentences in which they occur. A clause which
functions as a complement is called a complement(ary) clause. For
example:
The question is why you did it.
In GENERATIVE GRAMMAR, the term complement has a broader meaning,
referring to an expression that combines with a HEAD to become a larger
constituent of essentially the same kind. For example, in read a book, a book
is the complement of the verb read; in at the end, the end is the complement
of the preposition at; in bags of groceries, of groceries is the complement of
the noun bags. In English complements usually follow their heads.
see also PARAMETER
complementaries n
see ANTONYM
complement(ary) clause n
see COMPLEMENT
complementizer n
any of a set of clause-introducing words, such as that in He thought that
Gore had won, if in I wonder if this is the right road, and for in They are
keen for you to come.
see also COMPLEMENT
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complementizer deletion
complementizer deletion n
the process of deleting a complementizer, for example, I know you’ll be
happy (from I know that you’ll be happy).
complex NP constraint n
a condition on transformations in early generative syntax that stated that
no element contained in an S dominated by an NP with a lexical head may
be moved out of that NP. More recently, this has been reinterpreted as an
example of SUBJACENCY.
complex sentence n
a sentence which contains one or more DEPENDENT CLAUSES, in addition to
its independent, or main, clause. For example:
When it rained, we went inside.
(dep cl) (ind cl)
A sentence which contains two or more independent clauses which are
jointed by co-ordination is called a compound sentence. For example:
He is a small boy but he is very strong
(ind cl) (ind cl)
I’ll either phone you or I will send you a note.
(ind cl) (ind cl)
A sentence which contains only one PREDICATE is called a simple sentence.
For example:
I like milk.
(pred)
complex transitive verb n
see TRANSITIVE VERB
complexity n
a composite measure of language use, normally reflecting the length of
utterances and the amount of subordination used. In studying a second
language learner’s discourse or interlanguage complexity is one measure
of L2 development.
componential analysis n
1 (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaning which analyzes a
word into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For
example, the meaning of the English word boy may be shown as:
<human> <male> <adult>
Usually, componential analysis is applied to a group of related words
which may differ from one another only by one or two components.
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compositionality principle
This approach was developed in ANTHROPOLOGICAL LINGUISTICS for the
study of kinship and other terms in various languages.
2 any approach to linguistics which analyses linguistic units, usually
words or sounds, into smaller parts or components. This approach has
been used in phonology and semantics.
see also DISTINCTIVE FEATURE, SEMANTIC FEATURES
components n
see COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS
composing processes n
in composition and writing, the different stages employed by writers.
Three stages are often recognized in the writing process:
1 rehearsing (also known as prewriting): activities in which writers
look for a topic or for ideas and language related to a topic before
beginning writing.
2 writing (also known as planning, drafting, composing): activities in
which writers note down ideas in rough form.
3 revising (also known as editing, postwriting): activities in which writers
check, revise and rewrite what they have written.
These stages in writing do not necessarily occur in sequence but may recur
throughout the composing process. A PROCESS APPROACH to the teaching
of writing focuses on encouraging the development of these composing
processes.
composition n
1 writing as an activity which is intended to increase a person’s skills or
effectiveness as writer.
2 the name for such an activity or subject in school.
3 a piece of written work produced to practise the skills and techniques
of writing or to demonstrate a person’s skill as a writer. In language
teaching, two types of writing activities are sometimes distinguished:
a free composition, in which the student’s writing is not controlled or
limited in any way, such as essay questions, or writing about a par-
ticular topic.
b controlled composition, in which the student’s writing is controlled
by various means, such as by providing questions to be answered,
sentences to be completed, or words or pictures to describe.
see also MODES OF WRITING, METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT
compositionality principle n
also Frege’s principle
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compound adjective
the principle that the meaning of a composite expression is built up from
the meanings of its basic expressions.
compound adjective n
see COMPOUND WORD
compound bilingualism n
the theory that a bilingual person relates words to their meanings in one
of two ways.
Compound bilingualism means that the bilingual has one system of word
meanings, which is used for both the first and the second language. For a
French/English bilingual, the French word pain (“bread”) and the English
word bread have the same meaning.
Co-ordinate bilingualism means that the bilingual has two systems of mean-
ings for words; one system is for the words the person knows in the first lan-
guage and the other is for the words he or she knows in the second language.
For a French/English bilingual the French word pain and the English
word bread would not have exactly the same meanings. This theory was
an attempt to show how the different conditions under which people
become bilingual could lead to different systems of meaning. The distinc-
tion between compound and co-ordinate bilingualism has been used in
studies of vocabulary learning, but has not been found useful as a general
model of bilingualism.
compound noun n
see COMPOUND WORD
compound predicate n
a PREDICATE containing two or more verbs sharing a single SUBJECT. For
example:
Spring came and went too quickly.
compound sentence n
see COMPLEX SENTENCE
compound subject n
a subject which consists of two or more elements joined by and and nor-
mally taking a plural verb. For example:
Beer and wine do not mix.
compound word n
a combination of two or more words which functions as a single word.
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comprehension approach
For example self-made (a compound adjective) as in He was a self-made
man and flower shop (a compound noun) as in They went to the flower
shop. Compound words are written either as a single word (e.g.
headache), as hyphenated words (e.g. self-government), or as two words
(e.g. police station).
see also PHRASAL VERB
comprehensible input1 n
INPUT language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the
learner’s present linguistic COMPETENCE
see also INPUT HYPOTHESIS
comprehensible input 2 n
spoken language that can be understood by the listener even though some
structures and vocabulary may not be known. According to Krashen’s
theory of language acquisition, comprehensible input is a necessary con-
dition for second language acquisition.
comprehension n
the identification of the intended meaning of written or spoken com-
munication. Contemporary theories of comprehension emphasize that it
is an active process drawing both on information contained in the mess-
age (BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING) as well as background knowledge, infor-
mation from the context and from the listener’s and speaker’s purposes
or intentions (TOP-DOWN PROCESSING).
see also LISTENING COMPREHENSION, READING COMPREHENSION
comprehension approach n
(in language teaching) an APPROACH to second and foreign language teach-
ing which emphasizes that:
a before learners are taught speaking, there should be a period of train-
ing in listening comprehension
b comprehension should be taught by teaching learners to understand
meaning in the TARGET LANGUAGE1
c the learners’ level of comprehension should always exceed their ability
to produce language
d productive language skills will emerge more naturally when learners
have well developed comprehension skills
e such an approach reflects how children learn their first language.
Although this approach has not led to a specific METHOD of language
teaching, similar principles are found in the TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
METHOD and the NATURAL APPROACH (2).
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comprehensible output hypothesis
comprehensible output hypothesis n
another term for OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS
computational linguistics n
the scientific study of language from a computational perspective.
Computational linguists are interested in providing computational
models of natural language processing (both production and compre-
hension) and various kinds of linguistic phenomena. The work of com-
putational linguists is incorporated into such practical applications as
speech recognition systems, SPEECH SYNTHESIS, automated voice response
systems, web search engines, text editors, and language instruction
materials.
computer adaptive test(ing) n
also computerized adaptive test(ing)
a test administered by computer in which the difficulty level of the next
item to be presented to test takers is estimated on the basis of their
responses to previous items and adapted to match their abilities.
see ADAPTIVE TESTING, ITEM RESPONSE THEORY
computer-administered test(ing) n
see COMPUTER-BASED TEST(ING)
computer aided translation n
see COMPUTER ASSISTED TRANSLATION
computer assisted conversation n
written discussion that takes place via computer networks.
computer assisted instruction n
also CAI, computer assisted language learning (CALL), computer based
instruction
the use of a computer in a teaching programme. This may include:
a a teaching programme which is presented by a computer in a sequence.
The student responds on the computer, and the computer indicates
whether the responses are correct or incorrect (see PROGRAMMED
LEARNING).
b the use of computers to monitor student progress, to direct students into
appropriate lessons, material, etc. This is also called computer-managed
instruction.
see also INTERACTIVE
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computer-based test(ing)
computer assisted language learning n
also CALL
the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign
language. CALL may take the form of
a activities which parallel learning through other media but which use
the facilities of the computer (e.g. using the computer to present a read-
ing text)
b activities which are extensions or adaptations of print-based or class-
room based activities (e.g. computer programs that teach writing skills
by helping the student develop a topic and THESIS STATEMENT and by
checking a composition for vocabulary, grammar, and topic develop-
ment), and
c activities which are unique to CALL
see also INTERACTIVE VIDEO
computer assisted learning (CAL) n also computer assisted instruction (CAI),
computer aided learning
the use of a computer in teaching and learning and in order to help
achieve educational objectives. The first kinds of CAL programs
which were developed reflected principles similar to programmed
instruction (see PROGRAMMED LEARNING). The computer leads the stu-
dent through a learning task step-by-step, asking questions to check
comprehension.
Depending on the student’s response, the computer gives the student fur-
ther practice or progresses to new material (see BRANCHING). In more
recent CAL COURSEWARE students are able to interact with the computer
and perform higher level tasks while exploring a subject or problem.
see also INTERACTIVE VIDEO
computer-assisted test(ing) n
see COMPUTER-BASED TEST(ING)
computer assisted translation n
also CAT, computer aided translation
translation with the aid of a computer program, usually a database con-
taining examples of previously translated sentences, phrases and other
stretches of speech, which the translator can consult before accepting,
rejecting, or modifying the translation. Computer assisted translation
should not be confused with MACHINE TRANSLATION.
computer-based test(ing) n
also computer-administered test(ing), computer-assisted test(ing)
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computer conferencing
a test in which items are presented to test takers on a computer.
COMPUTER ADAPTIVE TESTING is a special case of more general computer-
based testing.
computer conferencing n
a form of computer-mediated communication. Computer conferencing
programs rely on the filing and organizing powers of a host computer
and boost up the participation and management of group discussions
through an electronic network. The discussions can be in real time, in
which case the discussants are logged on to a computer simultaneously,
or they can be in non-real time. Computer conferencing has many
applications in language teaching, such as its use as a forum for
classroom discussions and as a means of introducing process writing to
students.
Computer-Enhanced Language Instruction Archive n
also CELIA
a computer-assisted language learning software archive accessed via
gopher and FTP
computer-mediated communication
also CMC
using one or more computers to facilitate communication between
two or more people. INTERNET RELAY CHAT (IRC) is one popular form of
this.
computer language n
a system used to write computer programs, consisting of elements such as
symbols, commands and functions which are combined according to
specific rules to perform operations on specific types of data. Dozens of
computer languages have been designed for different purposes. Computer
“languages” have many interesting formal properties, but do not have the
functional properties associated with natural languages.
computer literacy n computer literate adj
having sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and com-
puter software to be able to live in a computer-orientated society.
concept n
the general idea or meaning which is associated with a word or symbol in
a person’s mind. Concepts are the abstract meanings which words and
other linguistic items represent. Linguists believe all languages can express
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concord
the same concepts, although some languages may have fewer names for
some concepts than are found in other languages, or may distinguish
between concepts differently. The forming of concepts is closely related to
language ACQUISITION, and the use of concepts to form PROPOSITIONS is
basic to human thought and communication.
concept checking
in teaching the meaning of a new item, a term that is sometimes used to
refer to techniques for checking that students have understood its mean-
ing. For example after presenting the difference between the past perfect
and the perfect, the teacher may use questions or other techniques to see
if students have identified the correct time reference of a sentence in the
past perfect.
concept formation n
(in child development) the process of forming CONCEPTS, and an import-
ant part of the development of thought.
concept load n
See LEXICAL DENSITY
conceptual meaning n
another term for DENOTATION
concessive clause n
a dependent clause giving information which contrasts with information
contained in an independent clause, and which is usually introduced by
although or while For example,
Although she is only 13, Tina is an excellent pianist.
conclusion n
see ESSAY
concord n
also agreement
a type of grammatical relationship between two or more elements in a
sentence, in which both or all elements show a particular feature. For
example, in English a third person singular subject occurs with a singular
verb, and a plural subject occurs with a plural verb (number concord):
He walks They walk
Concord may affect CASE, GENDER, NUMBER, and PERSON.
see also GOVERNMENT
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concordance
concordance n concordancing v
a list of all the words which are used in a particular text or in the works
of a particular author, together with a list of the contexts in which each
word occurs (usually not including highly frequent grammatical words
such as articles and prepositions). Concordances have been used in the
study of word frequencies, grammar, discourse and stylistics. In recent
years the preparation of concordances by computers has been used to
analyze individual texts, large samples of writing by a particular author,
or different genres and registers. A collection of texts for such purposes is
called a corpus. Computer concordances are now often used in the prep-
aration of dictionaries, since they enable lexicographers to study how
words are used in a wide range of contexts.
concordancer n
software that searches for words of phrases in a corpus and displays the
selected item or items in a list together with their surrounding context.
Concordancers enable the uses of words to be displayed together with
contexts of use (see below) and are used in discourse analysis and other
forms of language analysis. They are also sometimes used by teachers to
provide students with examples of authentic language use. The follow-
ing are examples of some contexts for the word forecast in a written
corpus:
. . . calculations a second. The centre makes forecasts 10 days ahead for
18 national meteorological . . .
. . . any action whose success hinges on a forecast being right. They
might end up doing a lot . . .
. . . stands up in the House of Commons to forecast Britain’s economic
performance for the next . . .
. . . vice labour of its people. This gloomy forecast can be better under-
stood by looking closely . . .
. . . but three months earlier the secret forecast carried out by Treasury
economists suggested . . .
concrete noun n
a noun which refers to a physical thing, rather than a quality, state, or
action. For example book, house, and machine are concrete nouns. A
noun which refers to a quality, state, or action is called an abstract noun.
For example happiness, idea, and punishment are abstract nouns.
see also NOUN
concrete operational stage
see COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
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conference
concurrent validity n
(in testing) a type of VALIDITY that is based on the extent to which a test cor-
relates with some other test that is aimed at measuring the same skill, or with
some other comparable measure of the skill being tested. For example, to
determine the concurrent validity of a new L2 listening comprehension test,
one could calculate the correlation between scores of a group of test takers
on this test with their scores on an existing valid and reliable test of L2 lis-
tening comprehension at about the same time. The resulting CORRELATION
COEFFICIENT would provide a measure of the concurrent validity of the test.
conditional n
a grammatical MOOD which describes an imaginary or hypothetical situ-
ation or event. In some languages it is expressed by adding an AFFIX to the
verb, e.g. je donnerais (“I would give”) in French, where ais is the con-
ditional affix added to the verb infinitive donner (“to give”). In English,
should and would are also sometimes described as the conditional in sen-
tences such as:
We should like to meet her. I would go if I could.
conditional clause n
(in English) ADVERBIAL CLAUSES beginning with if, unless or conjunctions
with similar meanings, where a state or situation in one clause is depend-
ent on something that may or will happen, and which is described in
another clause. For example:
If it rains, we will go home.
If you worked harder, you would succeed.
You won’t be able to drive unless you have a licence.
conditioned response n
(in behaviourist psychology (see BEHAVIOURISM) a response which is not a
normal or automatic response to a STIMULUS but which has been learned
through the formation of a chain of associations (see STIMULUS-RESPONSE
THEORY). Behavioural psychologists believe that people are conditioned to
learn many forms of behaviour, including language, through the process of
training or conditioning, and that learning consists of stimulus-response
connections.
conditioning n
see CONDITIONED RESPONSE
conference n conferencing v
in teaching, a semi-structured face-to-face conversation between a
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conference interpretation
teacher and a student or a small group of students in which work being
undertaken is discussed. For example in a writing class a student may
present a collection of his or her writing in a portfolio and discuss the
selection in the portfolio, difficulties encountered, and strengths and
weaknesses. The teacher gives feedback on progress, suggested improve-
ments, etc.
conference interpretation n
see INTERPRETER
confidence interval n
also CI
a range of values with a lower and an upper limit between which an
unknown population parameter value is expected to lie with a certain
degree of probability. For example, a 95% confidence interval indicates
that we are 95% confident (or there is a 95% probability) that an
unknown population parameter value will fall within that interval. The
wider the CI, the more confident we are that it is likely to contain the
population parameter value.
confirmatory factor analysis n
see FACTOR ANALYSIS
conjoining n conjoin v
(in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR), a term used for the linking together of words,
phrases, or clauses, etc., which are of equal status. For example:
John likes apples and pears
Betty went to the butcher’s and to the supermarket.
see also CONJUNCTION, EMBEDDING
conjugation1 n
a class of verbs which follow the same pattern for changes in TENSE,
PERSON, or NUMBER. For example, in French there are four regular conju-
gations as well as irregular verbs. The verbs donner “to give”, parler “to
speak”, chercher “to look for”, etc., are described as belonging to the -er
(or 1st) conjugation.
conjugation2 n conjugate v
the way in which a particular verb changes (conjugates) for TENSE,
PERSON, or NUMBER. For example, the French verb donner “to give”: je
donne “I give”, nous donnons “we give”, je donnerai “I shall give”, j’ ai
donné “I have given, I gave”.
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connected speech
conjunct n
see ADJUNCT
conjunction n
also connective
1 a word which joins words, phrases, or clauses together, such as but,
and, when:
John and Mary went.
She sings but I don’t.
Units larger than single words which function as conjunctions are some-
times known as conjunctives, for example so that, as long as, as if
She ran fast so that she could catch the bus.
Adverbs which are used to introduce or connect clauses are sometimes
known as conjunctive adverbs, for example however, nevertheless:
She is 86, nevertheless she enjoys good health.
2 the process by which such joining takes place.
There are two types of conjunction:
a Co-ordination, through the use of co-ordinating conjunctions (also
known as co-ordinators) such as and, or, but. These join linguistic units
which are equivalent or of the same rank.
For example:
It rained, but I went for a walk anyway.
Shall we go home or go to a movie?
The two clauses are co-ordinate clauses.
b Subordination, through the use of subordinating conjunctions (also
known as subordinators) such as because, when, unless, that. These
join an INDEPENDENT CLAUSE and a DEPENDENT CLAUSE
For example:
I knew that he was lying.
Unless it rains, we’ll play tennis at 4.
conjunctive n
see CONJUNCTION
conjunctive adverb n
see CONJUNCTION
connected speech n
spoken language when analyzed as a continuous sequence as opposed to
the analysis of individual sounds or words in isolation.
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connectionism
connectionism n
a theory in COGNITIVE SCIENCE that assumes that the individual compo-
nents of human cognition are highly interactive and that knowledge of
events, concepts and language is represented diffusely in the cognitive
system. The theory has been applied to models of speech processing, lex-
ical organization, and first and second language learning. Connectionism
provides mathematical models and computer simulations that try to cap-
ture both the essence of INFORMATION PROCESSING and thought processes.
The basic assumptions of the theory are:
1 Information processing takes place through the interactions of a large
number of simple units, organized into networks and operating in par-
allel.
2 Learning takes place through the strengthening and weakening of the
interconnections in a particular network in response to examples
encountered in the INPUT.
3 The result of learning is often a network of simple units that acts as though
it “knows” abstract rules, although the rules themselves exist only in the
form of association strengths distributed across the entire network.
Connectionism is sometimes referred to as parallel distributed processing
(PDP) or neural networks. There are slight differences among these terms,
and over time connectionism has come to be viewed as the most general term.
see also LEARNING RULE
connective n
another term for CONJUNCTION
connotation n connotative adj
the additional meanings that a word or phrase has beyond its central
meaning (see DENOTATION). These meanings show people’s emotions and
attitudes towards what the word or phrase refers to. For example, child
could be defined as a young human being but there are many other
characteristics which different people associate with child, e.g. affection-
ate, amusing, lovable, sweet, mischievous, noisy, irritating, grubby.
Some connotations may be shared by a group of people of the same cul-
tural or social background, sex, or age; others may be restricted to one or
several individuals and depend on their personal experience.
In a meaning system, that part of the meaning which is covered by con-
notation is sometimes referred to as affective meaning, connotative mean-
ing, or emotive meaning.
connotative meaning n
another term for CONNOTATION
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consequential validity
consciousness n
in general, subjective experience, especially awareness of both stimuli in
the INPUT and of one’s own mental processes. Consciousness is also
closely associated with intentionality, and for this reason it is often
unclear whether a claim that some aspect of language learning is uncon-
scious should be taken to mean that the learning takes place without
intention, without the learner’s paying attention, or without the learner’s
being aware of the result of learning or the fact that learning took
place. There has also been controversy for centuries concerning the role
of consciousness in scientific explanation. Many researchers accept
INTROSPECTION as a valid tool for assessing consciousness, if proper safe-
guards are observed. Others subscribe to the theory of EPIPHENOMENALISM
and argue that conscious experience can be neither a valid explanation of
behaviour nor a proper object of science. For these reasons, many second
language researchers prefer to frame their questions in terms of relatively
better defined and tractable issues such as IMPLICIT (versus explicit) learn-
ing or INCIDENTAL (vs. intentional) learning.
consciousness raising n
in teaching, techniques that encourage learners to pay attention to lan-
guage form in the belief that an awareness of form will contribute
indirectly to language acquisition. Techniques include having students
infer grammatical rules from examples, compare differences between two
or more different ways of saying something, observe differences between
a learner’s use of a grammar item and its use by native speakers. A
consciousness-raising approach is contrasted with traditional
approaches to the teaching of grammar (e.g. drilling, sentence practice,
sentence combining), in which the goal is to establish a rule or
instil a grammatical pattern directly.
consecutive clause n
an adverbial clause that expresses consequence or result, e.g. The bus
took so long that we were late.
consecutive interpretation n
see INTERPRETATION
consent n
see informed consent
consequential validity n
a type of validity that is based on the extent to which the uses and
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conservatism thesis
interpretations of a test that may have an impact on society will result in
fair and positive social consequences for all STAKEHOLDERs including test
takers.
conservatism thesis n
see LEARNABILITY THEORY
consonant n
a speech sound where the airstream from the lungs is either completely
blocked (STOP), partially blocked (LATERAL) or where the opening is so
narrow that the air escapes with audible friction (FRICATIVE). With some
consonants (NASALS) the airstream is blocked in the mouth but allowed to
escape through the nose.
With the other group of speech sounds, the VOWELS, the air from the lungs
is not blocked.
There are a number of cases where the distinction is not clear-cut, such as
the /j/ at the beginning of the English word yes where there is only very
slight friction, and linguists have sometimes called these semi-vowels or
semi-consonants.
see also MANNER OF ARTICULATION, PLACE OF ARTICULATION
consonant cluster n
a sequence of two or more consonants at the beginning of a syllable (e.g.
/splæ∫/ in splash) or the end of a syllable (e.g. /sts/ in tests. In English, with
clusters of two, either the first sound is /s/ or the second one is an APPROX-
IMANT (l, r, w, or y); in initial clusters of three, the first sound is always
/s/, the second is a voiceless stop (/p,t,k/), and the third is an approximant.
In final position, many more clusters are possible, but most final clusters
of three or more consonants are formed as the result of adding a plural or
past tense inflection to a STEM and therefore end in /t/, /d/, /s/ or /z/.
Languages differ greatly in the ways in which consonants can form clus-
ters and in which positions in a word clusters can occur. Spanish, for
example, permits fewer clusters than English, and the Polynesian lan-
guages do not permit any clusters.
consonant cluster reduction n
also consonant cluster simplification
a process of simplifying CONSONANT CLUSTERS by omission of one or more
consonants, especially common in casual speech. For example, English
final clusters of three or four consonants are often simplified by dropping
a middle consonant, e.g. when pronouncing facts (which ends in /kts/) as
if it were facks (ending in /ks/). Consonant cluster reduction is also
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constituent
common in language learning when the target language permits sequences
of consonants that do not occur in the learner’s native language.
see also EPENTHESIS
consonant cluster simplification n
see CONSONANT CLUSTER REDUCTION
consonant harmony
consonant articulation agreement within a word. In first language acqui-
sition, children may pronounce a word like doggy as doddy or goggy. In
second language learning, a learner may find it difficult to pronounce a
word like synthesis, tending to say synsesis, synthethis or synthethith
because of consonant harmony.
see also MANNER OF ARTICULATION, PLACE OF ARTICULATION
consonant system n
the CONSONANTS of a language form systems. For example, English has,
among other consonants, two parallel series of STOPS:
bilabial alveolar velar
voiceless p t k
voiced b d g
Maori, a Polynesian language, has only one series: /p/, /t/, /k/ with no
voiceless/voiced contrast (see VOICE2).
constant comparison method n
(in QUALITATIVE RESEARCH), a method meant to generate GROUNDED
THEORY within the logic of ANALYTIC INDUCTION. The basic processes of
the constant comparison method are the coding and grouping of data and
the formation of hypotheses in parallel with data collection. This con-
trasts sharply with most methods of QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH, in which
hypotheses are stated at the outset, then tested.
constative n
see PERFORMATIVE
constituent n
a linguistic unit, (usually in sentence analysis) which is part of a larger
construction (see CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE)
see also DISCONTINUOUS CONSTITUENT, CHUNKING
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constituent analysis
constituent analysis n
also immediate constituent analysis
A technique sometimes used in teaching and in grammatical analy-
sis in which a sentence is analyzed into its main parts or con-
stituents, hierarchically arranged to show their relationship to each
other. It results in a description of a phrase, clause or sentence as
one of a hierarchy of grammatical categories assigned to the lin-
guistic units.
see CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE
constituent identification n
see CHUNKING
constituent structure n
another term for PHRASE STRUCTURE
constraint n
a principle of UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR that prohibits certain types of gram-
matical operations from applying to certain types of structures.
constraints n
see OPTIMALITY THEORY
constriction n constricted adj
(in the production of speech sounds) the narrowing of any part of the
mouth or the throat (the VOCAL TRACT) to restrict the passage of the
airstream from the lungs.
see also MANNER OF ARTICULATION
construct n
a concept that is not observed directly but is inferred on the basis of
observable phenomena and that can help in the analysis and understand-
ing of events and phenomena. Examples of constructs used in the study
of language are ROLE and STATUS.
construct validity n
(in testing) a type of VALIDITY that is based on the extent to which the
items in a test reflect the essential aspects of the theory on which the test
is based (i.e., the CONSTRUCT). For example, the greater the relationship
that can be demonstrated between a test of COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
in a language and the theory of communicative competence, the greater
the construct validity of the test.
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constructivism
constructed-response item n
a type of test item or test task that requires test takers to respond to a
series of open-ended questions by writing, speaking, or doing something
rather than choose answers from a ready-made list. The most commonly
used types of constructed-response items include fill-in, short-answer, and
performance assessment.
see also SELECTED-RESPONSE ITEM
construction1 n
A sequence of two or more forms that make up a grammatical unit in a
language, such as a PHRASE or CLAUSE.
construction2 n
see CONSTRUCTION GRAMMAR
construction grammar n
a linguistic theory that assumes that form-meaning correspondences are
the basic units of language. These units include constructions, each of
which has a specific syntactic configuration that is associated with a
specific set of semantic relations. Constructions exist independently of the
particular words that appear in them, but the semantics of the words that
appear in a construction fuse with the semantics of the construction itself.
For example, in sentence (b) the verb “sneeze” (normally an INTRANSITIVE
VERB) takes on the meaning of “cause to move” that is part of the resul-
tative construction that is common to both (a) and (b):
(a) John pushed the book off the shelf
(b) John sneezed the tissue off the table
In contrast with many linguistic theories that treat abstract principles and
formal operations as the essence of language and consider constructions
to be epiphenomenal (a by-product of deeper realities, uninteresting in
themselves), the notion of construction described by construction gram-
mar is much closer to the notions of “structure” and SENTENCE PATTERN
that are found in language teaching.
constructionism n
see SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM
constructivism n
a social and educational philosophy based on the beliefs that:
1 knowledge is actively constructed by learners and not passively received
2 cognition is an adaptive process that organizes the learner’s experien-
tial world.
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contact language
3 all knowledge is socially constructed
Constructivists believe that there are no enduring, context-free truths, that
researcher BIAS cannot be eliminated, that multiple, socially constructed
realities can only be studied holistically rather than in pieces, and that the
possibility of generalizing from one research site to another is limited.
Learning is seen as involving reorganization and reconstruction and it is
through these processes that people internalize knowledge and perceive the
world. In language teaching, constructivism has led to a focus on learning
strategies, learner beliefs, teacher thinking and other aspects of learning
which stress the individual and personal contributions of learners to learn-
ing. A constructivist view of teaching involves teachers in making their own
sense of their classrooms and taking on the role of a reflective practitioner.
contact language n
see PIDGIN
content analysis n
1 (in research) a method used for analyzing and tabulating the frequency of
occurrence of topics, ideas, opinions and other aspects of the content of
written and spoken communication. For example, content analysis could
be used to determine the frequency of occurrence of references to males,
females, adults, children, Caucasians, non-Caucasians, etc., in a set of lan-
guage teaching materials, in order to discover if any particular attitudes or
themes were unintentionally being communicated in the material.
2 (in testing) a method in which a panel of experts are called upon to ana-
lyze the content of a test to judge the degree to which the test content
actually represents what the test is designed to measure. A systematic
comparison of the test content with the TEST or ITEM SPECIFICATIONs to
which the test is constructed is often made for this purpose. It is used
in establishing CONTENT VALIDITY and CONSTRUCT VALIDITY.
content areas n
also content fields
the subjects other than language which are taught in a school curriculum.
In countries with immigrant populations, particularly in the United
States, a contrast is made between the teaching of English to non-native
speakers of English and teaching in the regular school programme for
other students where the focus is on the content areas, i.e. maths, science,
social studies, geography, etc. A course which teaches immigrant students
the writing skills they need in the content areas may be known as writing
in the content areas.
see also CONTENT BASED INSTRUCTION
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content validity
content based instruction n
a programme in English as a second language in which the focus is on
teaching students the skills they will need in regular classrooms, i.e. for
learning in the CONTENT AREAS such as maths, geography, or biology.
Such a programme teaches students the language skills they will need
when they are MAINSTREAMED.
see also LANGUAGE ACROSS THE CURRICULUM
content course n
a course in any area apart from language. In EAP programmes a distinc-
tion is often made between content courses (i.e. regular courses in differ-
ent fields) and language courses (courses developed for ESL students).
content knowledge n
in teaching, teachers’ knowledge of their subject matter. For example, a
language teacher’s content knowledge includes his or her knowledge of
grammar, learning theories, phonetics, etc. Teachers’ knowledge of their
subject matter is assumed to affect how well they understand items they
are asked or choose to teach, how well they are able to provide expla-
nations, and how they construct learning activities for learners.
see PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE
content reading n
the reading of books and other printed materials that contain information
needed for learning in the CONTENT AREAS, such as textbooks or other study
materials, in contrast with reading which is for pleasure or relaxation.
content schema n
in theories of reading comprehension, a distiction is sometimes made
between two kinds of schema that people make use of in understanding
texts. Content schema refers to background knowledge about the content
of a text, i.e. depending on whether it is a text about an earthquake, the
economy, French art or cooking. This type of schematic knowedge is con-
trasted with formal schema, i.e. knowledge about the formal, rhetorical,
organizational structure of diferent kinds of texts, such as whether the
text is a simple story, a scientific text, a news report, etc. Knowledge of
both types of schemata influence how a reader understands a text.
see SCHEMA THEORY
content validity n
(in testing) a type of VALIDITY that is based on the extent to which a test
adequately and sufficiently measures the particular skills or behaviour it
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content word
sets out to measure. For example, a test of pronunciation skills in a lan-
guage would have low content validity if it tested only some of the skills
that are required for accurate pronunciation, such as a test that tested the
ability to pronounce isolated sounds, but not STRESS, INTONATION, or the
pronunciation of sounds within words. Content validity is of particular
importance in CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTs, where the test content must
represent the content of what has been taught in a course.
content word n
words can be divided into two classes: content words and function words.
Content words are words which refer to a thing, quality, state, or action
and which have meaning (lexical meaning) when the words are used
alone. Content words are mainly nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs,
e.g. book, run, musical, quickly.
Function words are words which have little meaning on their own, but
which show grammatical relationships in and between sentences (gram-
matical meaning). Conjunctions, prepositions, articles, e.g. and, to, the,
are function words.
Function words are also called form words, empty words, functors, gram-
matical words, structural words, structure words. Content words are also
called full words, lexical words.
see also WORD CLASS
context n contextual adj
that which occurs before and/or after a word, a phrase or even a longer
UTTERANCE or a TEXT. The context often helps in understanding the par-
ticular meaning of the word, phrase, etc. For example, the word loud in
loud music is usually understood as meaning “noisy” whereas in a tie
with a loud pattern it is understood as “unpleasantly colourful”. The
context may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item
is used. For example, in ordinary usage, spinster refers to an older unmar-
ried woman but in a legal context it refers to any unmarried woman.
see also CONTEXTUAL MEANING
context clue n
also contextualization clue
in comprehension, information from the immediate setting surrounding
an item in a text and which provides information that can be used to
understand the meaning of an item. Such clues may be lexical or gram-
matical. In speech context clues include the verbal, paralinguistic and
non-verbal signs that help speakers understand the full meaning of a
speaker’s utterances in context.
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contingency table
context of situation n
the linguistic and situational context in which a word, utterance or text
occurs. The meaning of utterances, etc., is determined not only by the lit-
eral meaning of the words used but by the context or situation in which
they occur.
context-embedded language n
communication occurring in a context that offers help to comprehension
through such things as the situation and setting, visual clues, gestures and
actions. In such a situation the learner can make more use of TOP-DOWN
PROCESSING to infer meanings. At the same time the speaker may com-
municate less explicitly since much of the meaning is known from the
context. This can be compared with context-reduced language, in which
there are few contextual clues to support comprehension and which relies
therefore on linguistic elaboration. The distinction between context-
reduced and context-embedded language has been used in explaining the
nature of instruction in academic subjects in formal school contexts and
the role of background knowledge in communication.
contextual meaning n
the meaning a linguistic item has in context, for example the meaning a
word has within a particular sentence, or a sentence has in a particular
paragraph. The question Do you know the meaning of war? For example,
may have two different contextual meanings:
a it may mean Do you know the meaning of the word war?, when said
by a language teacher to a class of students.
b it may mean War produces death, injury, and suffering, when said by
an injured soldier to a politician who favours war.
context-reduced language
see CONTEXT-EMBEDDED LANGUAGE
contextually appropriate method n
see CLOZE PROCEDURE
contingency table n
a table that displays data concerning two VARIABLEs2. For example, if we
wanted to determine the relationship between the scores students
obtained on a grammar test and the number of hours spent in preparation
for the test, a contingency table could be used to show the number of
students obtaining different test scores according to the amount of time
they spent in preparation. The CHI-SQUARE test can be used to test the
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continuant
STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE of the relationship between the two variables
(i.e., between the scores and the preparation time).
Test scores
Hours spent in 0 → 10 11 → 20 21 → 30 Total
preparation
10 6 4 20
2 5 9 16
Total 12 11 13 36
A contingency table
continuant n
a CONSONANT that is produced when the primary constriction in the vocal
tract is not narrowed to the point where the air flow through the mouth
is blocked. These sounds can be maintained as long as there is air in the
lungs. Continuants include FRICATIVES (e.g. /s, z, f, v/), LIQUIDS (/l, r/, and
GLIDES (/w, y). NASALS are usually considered non-continuants, because
although they can be maintained, the vocal tract is stopped.
continuing education n
in the US, educational programs provided for adults, apart from the K-12
school system, which often include basic skills, recreational, advanced
and technical studies.
continuous n another term for PROGRESSIVE
continuous assessment n
an approach to assessment in which students are assessed regularly
throughout the programme rather than being given a single assessment at
the end. This is thought to give a more accurate picture of student
achievement.
continuum n
see SPEECH CONTINUUM
contour tone
tones that are specified as gliding movements within a pitch range.
Languages that have contour tones, such as Chinese, are contour tone
languages.
see TONE1
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contrastive rhetoric
contraction n
the reduction of a linguistic form and often its combination with another
form. For example:
I shall into I’ll
they are into they’re
did not into didn’t
contrastive analysis n
also CA
the comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages, for example
the sound system or the grammatical system. Contrastive analysis was
developed and practised in the 1950s and 1960s, as an application of
STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS to language teaching, and is based on the follow-
ing assumptions:
a the main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interfer-
ence from the first language (see LANGUAGE TRANSFER).
b these difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis.
c teaching materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the
efects of interference.
Contrastive analysis was more successful in PHONOLOGY than in other
areas of language, and declined in the 1970s as interference was replaced
by other explanations of learning difficulties (see ERROR ANALYSIS, INTER-
LANGUAGE). In recent years contrastive analysis has been applied to other
areas of language, for example the discourse systems (see DISCOURSE
ANALYSIS). This is called contrastive discourse analysis.
see also COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICS
contrastive discourse analysis n
see CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS
contrastive pragmatics n
the study of cultural differences in the way speech acts and other aspects
of speaking are realized, such as by comparing differences between
the ways people from two different cultures realize the speech act of
“apologizing”.
contrastive rhetoric n
the study of similarities and differences between writing in a first and
second language or between two languages, in order to understand how
writing conventions in one language influence how a person writes in
another. Writing in a second language is thought to be influenced to some
extent by the linguistic and cultural conventions of the writer’s first
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constrastive stress
language, and this may influence how the writer organizes written dis-
course (DISCOURSE STRUCTURE), the kind of SCRIPT or SCHEME the writer
uses, as well as such factors as TOPIC1, audience, paragraph organization,
and choice of VOCABULARY or REGISTER.
see also CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS
constrastive stress n
see STRESS
consultative speech/style n
sometimes used to refer to a style of speaking used with others who do not
share the speaker’s background knowledge or experience and hence need
more background knowledge than is normally used in COLLOQUIAL SPEECH.
control group n
(in research) one of two groups used in certain kinds of experimental
research, the other being the experimental group. For example, if we
wanted to study the effectiveness of a new teaching method, one group
(i.e. the experimental group) may be taught using the new method, and
another group (i.e. the control group), by using the usual teaching
method. The control group is chosen because of its equivalence to the
experimental group (e.g. by assigning participants to the two groups at
random). In studying the effects of the new method, the experimental
group is compared with the control group.
controllability n
see LOCUS OF CONTROL
controlled composition n
see COMPOSITION
controlled processing n
see AUTOMATIC PROCESSING
convenience sample
see SAMPLE
conventionalized speech n
another term for ROUTINE
convergence1 n
the process of two or more languages or language varieties becoming
more similar to one another. For example:
a if one language variety gains status, then the speakers of another var-
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conversation analysis
iety may change their pronunciation to be more like it, and use words
and grammatical structures from it.
b if speakers of two language varieties mix together, by moving to the
same area for example, both varieties may change to become more like
each other.
see also DIVERGENCE1
convergence2 n
see ACCOMMODATION
convergent question n
a question that encourages student responses to converge or focus on a
central theme. Convergent questions typically require a single correct
answer and elicit short responses from students. Convergent questions
may be useful when the teacher wants to focus on specific skills or infor-
mation or requires short responses, such as when attempting to find out
whether students can locate a specific piece of information in a reading
passage.
see also CLASSROOM DISCOURSE, DIVERGENT QUESTION, EVALUATIVE
QUESTION, QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES
convergent thinking n
discussion, analysis, etc., of ideas, topics, etc., that result in a common
conclusion, as compared with that which produces a variety of different
interpretations or conclusions. The latter is known as DIVERGENT THINKING.
The differences between these two kinds of thinking is a factor in the
design of instructional tasks.
convergent validity n
(in testing) a type of VALIDITY that is based on the extent to which two or
more tests that are claimed to measure the same underlying CONSTRUCT
are in fact doing so. For example, to establish convergent validity of two
tests that are claimed to measure the same construct (e.g. L2 listening
comprehension), they are administered to the same group of test takers
and the test scores are correlated. If a high correlation is obtained, this is
an indication that they are measuring the same construct. If not, one of
the tests is considered to be measuring something else (e.g. L2 reading
comprehension).
see CONSTRUCT VALIDITY, DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY
conversation analysis n
also conversational analysis
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conversational analysis
a research tradition evolving from ETHNOMETHODOLOGY which studies the
social organization of natural conversation (also referred to as talk-in-
interaction) by a detailed inspection of tape recordings and transcriptions.
Concerned with how meanings and pragmatic functions are communi-
cated in both mundane conversation and such institutional varieties of
talk as interviews and court hearings, conversation analysts have investi-
gated such topics as the sequential organization of talk, turn-taking, and
the ways that people identify and repair communicative problems.
see also ADJACENCY PAIR, CONVERSATIONAL MAXIM, DISCOURSE ANALYSIS,
ROLE, SPEECH ACT, TURN-TAKING
conversational analysis n
see CONVERSATION ANALYSIS
conversational implicature n
see CONVERSATIONAL MAXIM
conversational maxim n
an unwritten rule about conversation which people know and which
influences the form of conversational exchanges. For example in the fol-
lowing exchange
a: Let’s go to the movies.
b: I have an examination in the morning.
B’s reply might appear not to be connected to A’s remark. However, since
A has made an invitation and since a reply to an invitation is usually
either an acceptance or a refusal, B’s reply is here understood as an excuse
for not accepting the invitation (i.e. a refusal). B has used the “maxim”
that speakers normally give replies which are relevant to the question that
has been asked. The philosopher Grice has suggested that there are four
conversational maxims:
a The maxim of quantity: give as much information as is needed.
b The maxim of quality: speak truthfully.
c The maxim of relevance: say things that are relevant.
d The maxim of manner: say things clearly and briefly.
The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation
is called conversational implicature, and the “co-operation” between
speakers in using the maxims is sometimes called the co-operative prin-
ciple.
see also ADJACENCY PAIR, COHERENCE, REALITY PRINCIPLE
conversational openings n
(in conversational interaction) the strategies a person uses to begin a con-
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co-operating teacher
versation. These include clearing the throat, body movement, eye move-
ment, and repeating a previous part of the conversation.
see also TURN TAKING
conversational routine n
see FORMULAIC LANGUAGE
conversational rules n
also rules of speaking
rules shared by a group of people which govern their spoken con-
versational behaviour. Conversational rules may, for instance, regu-
late when to speak or not to speak in a conversation, what to say
in a particular situation, and how to start and end a conversation.
These rules vary not only between different languages (LANGUAGE1)
but also between different social groups speaking the same lan-
guage.
see also CONVERSATIONAL ANALYSIS, CONVERSATIONAL MAXIM
conversational style n
a particular way of participating in conversation. People differ in the way
they take part in normal conversation. Some people participate very
actively in conversation, speaking fairly quickly and with little or no
pausing between turns. This is called a high involvement style. Other
people may use a slower rate of speaking, longer pauses between turns
and avoid interruption or completion of another speaker’s turn. This is
called a high considerateness style.
co-occurrence restriction n
in some models of syntactic analysis, restrictions on the elements in the
sentence so that they can only occur with certain elements and not with
others. For example, the sentence:
*Anita laughed the baby
would be ungrammatical as the verb laugh cannot co-occur with an
OBJECT; it is intransitive.
co-occurrence rule n
see SPEECH STYLES
co-operating teacher n
also master teacher
(in teacher education) an experienced teacher in whose class a student
teacher does his or her practice teaching. The role of the co-operating
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co-operation
teacher is to help the student teacher acquire teaching skills and to give
feedback on his or her teaching.
co-operation n
(in learning) working together with one or more peer(s) to solve a prob-
lem, complete a learning task, share information or get FEEDBACK on
performance.
co-operative learning n
also collaborative learning
an approach to teaching and learning in which classrooms are organized
so that students work together in small co-operative teams. Such an
approach to learning is said to increase students’ learning since (a) it is
less threatening for many students, (b) it increases the amount of student
participation in the classroom, (c) it reduces the need for competitiveness,
and (d) it reduces the teacher’s dominance in the classroom.
Five distinct types of co-operative learning activities are often distinguished:
1 Peer Tutoring: students help each other learn, taking turns tutoring or
drilling each other.
2 Jigsaw: each member of a group has a piece of information needed to
complete a group task.
3 Co-operative Projects: students work together to produce a product,
such as a written paper or group presentation.
4 Co-operative/Individualized: students progress at their own rate
through individualized learning materials but their progress contributes
to a team grade so that each pupil is rewarded by the achievements of
his or her teammates.
5 Co-operative Interaction: students work together as a team to complete
a learning unit, such as a laboratory experiment.
Co-operative-learning activities are often used in COMMUNICATIVE
LANGUAGE TEACHING.
The use of Co-operative Learning principles in language teaching is
known as Cooperative Language Learning.
co-operative principle n
see CONVERSATIONAL MAXIM
co-ordinate bilingualism n
see COMPOUND BILINGUALISM
co-ordinate clause n
see CONJUNCTION
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core grammar
co-ordinating conjunction n
see CONJUNCTION
co-ordination n
see CONJUNCTION
co-ordinator n
see CONJUNCTION
copula n copulative adj
also linking Verb
a verb that links a SUBJECT to a COMPLEMENT. For example:
He is sick. She looked afraid.
The verb be is sometimes known as the copula since this is its main func-
tion in English. The following are copulative verbs, i.e. they can be used
copulatively: feel, look, prove, remain, resemble, sound, stay, become,
grow, turn, smell, taste.
see also TRANSITIVE VERB
copula absence n
see COPULA DELETION
copula deletion n
also copula absence
in many languages, including Russian, Arabic, Thai, and all English-based
creole languages, the copula (e.g. English be) is absent in the present
tense, so that sentences such as She working and He real nice are fully
grammatical.
see also AFRICAN AMERICAN ENGLISH
core curriculum n
a curriculum organized around subject matter that is considered essential
for all students in a programme. English is part of the core curriculum in
most schools around the world.
core grammar n
within the framework of Chomsky’s UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR, a grammar
which contains all the universal principles of language as well as special
conditions or rules (PARAMETERS) which can be “set” for particular lan-
guages.
Parameters may vary from one language to another. For example, in some
languages, e.g. English, the HEAD of a phrase is first, in Japanese the head
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core vocabulary
is last. Aspects of a language which are not predictable from the Universal
Grammar are considered not to belong to the core grammar but to the
periphery or peripheral grammar.
It is claimed that, in first language acquisition, the initial universal gram-
mar of a child consists of fixed principles and open (that is ‘unset’) par-
ameters. As the child receives input from his or her first language, the
open parameters are fixed for a particular language and the child’s L1
core grammar results.
Researchers have investigated the role of core grammars in second lan-
guage acquisition.
core vocabulary n
in language teaching, the essential words together with their meanings
that are needed in order to be able to communicate and understand at a
basic level.
coreferential adj
expressions are coreferential if they refer to the same person, event, or
thing. For example, in the sentence Susan told me an interesting story
about herself, Susan and herself are coreferential because they refer to the
same person.
coronals n
the class of sounds that includes LABIALS, ALVEOLARS, and PALATALS
corpus n
a collection of naturally occurring samples of language which have been
collected and collated for easy access by researchers and materials devel-
opers who want to know how words and other linguistic items are actu-
ally used. A corpus may vary from a few sentences to a set of written texts
or recordings. In language analysis corpuses usually consist of a relatively
large, planned collection of texts or parts of texts, stored and accessed by
computer. A corpus is designed to represent different types of language
use, e.g. casual conversation, business letters, ESP texts. A number of dif-
ferent types of corpuses may be distinguished, for example:
1 specialized corpus: a corpus of texts of a particular type, such as aca-
demic articles, student writing, etc.
2 general corpus or reference corpus: a large collection of many different
types of texts, often used to produce reference materials for language
learning (e.g. dictionaries) or used as a base-line for comparison with
specialized corpora
3 comparable corpora: two or more corpora in different languages or
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correction for guessing
language varieties containing the same kinds and amounts of texts, to
enable differences or equivalences to be compared
4 learner corpus: a collection of texts or language samples produced by
language learners
corpus linguistics n
an approach to investigating language structure and use through the
analysis of large databases of real language examples stored on com-
puter. Issues amenable to corpus linguistics include the meanings of
words across registers, the distribution and function of grammatical
forms and categories, the investigation of lexico-grammatical associ-
ations (associations of specific words with particular grammatical con-
structions), the study of discourse characteristics, register variation, and
(when learner corpora are available) issues in language acquisition and
development.
corpus planning n
a type of LANGUAGE PLANNING
a deliberate restructuring of a language, often by government authorities.
This may be done by giving it, for example, an increased range of vocab-
ulary, new grammatical structures, sometimes even a new or more stan-
dardized writing system.
For example, in Malaysia, where Bahasa Malaysia (Malay) has become
the national language, attempts have been made to construct new vocab-
ulary in areas such as business, education and research. Similar efforts
have been made for Swahili in East Africa.
correct adj correctness n
a term which is used to state that particular language usage, e.g. the
pronunciation of a word is right as opposed to wrong. For example:
This is the correct pronunciation.
The term often expresses a particular attitude to language usage (see PRE-
SCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR). It has become more common to abandon absolute
judgements of right and wrong and to consider a usage as being more or
less appropriate (APPROPRIATENESS) in a particular social setting.
see also ERROR
correction for guessing n
a mathematical adjustment to correct for the effects of random guessing
by test takers. It is not generally recommended in scoring a teacher-
constructed test, but when it is used, test takers should be informed that
their scores will be corrected for guessing or penalized.
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corrective recast
corrective recast n
see RECAST
correlation n
a measure of the strength of the relationship or association between two
or more sets of data. For example, we may wish to determine the
relationship between the scores of a group of students on a mathemat-
ics test and on a language test. Different types of correlation are
reported in the applied linguistics literature, whose use is determined by
the types of variables that are correlated. The Pearson product-moment
correlation (r) is a measure of association between two continuous vari-
ables. The point-biserial correlation (rpbi) is a measure of association
between a continuous variable and a dichotomous or binary variable
(e.g., gender – male versus female). The biserial correlation (rb) is a
measure of association between a continuous variable and an artificially
dichotomized variable (i.e. a variable that is continuously measurable
has been reduced to two categories (e.g. age – old versus young or test
score – pass versus fail)) but is rarely used nowadays. The tetrachoric
correlation is a measure of association between two artificially
dichotomized variables (i.e. both variables that are continuously meas-
urable have been reduced to two categories each). The phi correlation
(f) is a measure of association between two genuinely dichotomous vari-
ables. The Spearman rank-order correlation or Spearman’s rho (r) is a
measure of association between two ordinal variables. The Kendall
rank-order correlation or Kendall’s tau (t) is another measure of associ-
ation between two ordinal variables but better deals with tied ranks (i.e.
when two or more test takers have the same score and thus occupy the
same rank) than the Spearman’s rho does.
correlation coefficient n
also coefficient of correlation
a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables that
ranges in value from 1.00 (i.e. a perfect negative relationship) through
0.00 (i.e. total absence of a relationship) to +1.00 (i.e. a perfect positive
relationship). A correlation coefficient indicates both the direction (i.e.
positive or negative) and the strength (i.e. the size or magnitude) of the
relationship. For example, if students received quite similar scores on two
tests, their scores would have a high positive correlation. If their scores on
one test were the reverse of their scores on the other, their scores would
have a high negative correlation. If their scores on the two tests were not
related in any predictable way, their scores would have a zero correlation.
The closer an absolute value of the correlation coefficient is to 1.00, the
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course density
stronger the relationship between two variables is regardless of the direc-
tion of its correlation coefficient.
correlational research n
research carried out to examine the nature of the relationship between
two naturally occurring variables.
correlative conjunction n
co-ordinating CONJUNCTIONS used in pairs in a parallel construction.
For example:
both . . . and
either . . . or
neither . . . nor
counselling learning n
see COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING
countable noun n
also count noun n
a noun which has both singular and plural forms. For example:
word – words, machine – machines, bridge – bridges
A noun which does not usually occur in the plural is called an uncount-
able noun or a mass noun. For example:
education, homework, harm.
see also NOUN
counter-example
an example that falsifies a hypothesis or claim. For instance, an utterance
such as *He goed in learner speech is a counter-example to the claim that
people learn simply by imitating what they hear in input.
coursebook n
in language teaching, a book (usually as part of a series of books) that con-
tains all the materials necessary for a particular type of language learner at a
particular level (e.g. intermediate level adults). Such a book is typically based
on an integrated or multi-skills syllabus i.e. one that contains sections on
grammar functions, vocabulary, listening, speaking, reading and writing.
course density n
(in course design and syllabus design (see COURSE DESIGN)) the rate at
which new teaching points are introduced and reintroduced in a course or
syllabus in order to achieve a satisfactory rate of learning. In language
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course design
courses where the main emphasis is on grammar and vocabulary, learn-
ers can generally learn four or five items per hour for active use and
another four or five for passive use. Targets of 2000 items for active use
and a further 2000 for passive recognition are commonly set for a 400
hour course of instruction.
course design n
also language programme design, curriculum design, programme design
(in language teaching) the development of a language programme or set
of teaching materials. Whereas syllabus design generally refers to pro-
cedures for deciding what will be taught in a language programme, course
design includes how a syllabus will be carried out. For example:
a what teaching METHOD and materials will be needed to achieve the
OBJECTIVES
b how much time will be required
c how classroom activities will be sequenced and organized
d what sort of PLACEMENT TESTS, ACHIEVEMENT TESTS and other sorts of
tests will be used
e how the programme will be evaluated (see EVALUATION)
Course design is part of the broader process of CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT.
see also COURSE DENSITY
courseware n
computer programs used in COMPUTER ASSISTED LEARNING.
court interpreter n
an interpreter with the specialized knowledge necessary to provide
INTERPRETATION during judicial proceedings. The requirements for court
interpretation regarding training, experience, and certification varies from
country to country.
see also INTERPRETER
covariance n
a measure of the degree to which two variables vary together.
see also ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE
covariate n
a variable whose effect is statistically controlled in the ANALYSIS OF
COVARIANCE
coverage n
the degree to which words and structures can be used to replace other words
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creative writing
and structures, because they have a similar meaning. For example seat
includes the meanings of chair, bench, and stool, and What time is it please?
can replace Could you kindly tell me the time? Coverage is a principle used
to help select language items for language teaching, since items with a high
degree of coverage are likely to be most useful to language learners.
see also SELECTION
covert prestige n
positive attitudes towards a LANGUAGE or VARIETY that are not often
overtly expressed. For example, in many SPEECH COMMUNITIES, there is a
standard variety that has obvious prestige and is associated with edu-
cation and status, while a non-standard variety in the same area may not
be overtly valued. The prestige of the standard variety can be shown in
many ways, including a tendency of speakers to report that they use stan-
dard forms more often than they do. However, sometimes speakers report
using non-standard forms more frequently than they do in fact, indicating
that there is a kind of covert prestige associated with this variety as well.
c-parameter n
see ITEM RESPONSE THEORY
creative construction hypothesis n
a theory about how second and foreign language learners work out lan-
guage rules. The theory was proposed by Dulay and Burt, who claim that
learners work out the rules of their TARGET LANGUAGE1 by:
a using natural mental processes, such as GENERALIZATION
b using similar processes to first language learners
c not relying very much on the rules of the first language
d using processes which lead to the creation of new forms and structures
which are not found in the target language. For example:
*She goed to school. (instead of She went to school)
* What you are doing? (instead of What are you doing?)
creative thinking n
in education, innovative and adaptive thinking based on the ability to
identify problems, form hypotheses, and apply novel and appropriate sol-
utions to unfamiliar and open-ended tasks. An important goal of many
educational programmes is to develop students’ creative thinking skills.
creative writing n
types of writing such as fiction, drama and poetry that reflect the writers
originality, imagination, feelings and which do not describe factual events.
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creole
creole n
a PIDGIN language which has become the native language of a group of
speakers, being used for all or many of their daily communicative needs.
Usually, the sentence structures and vocabulary range of a creole are far
more complex than those of a pidgin language. Creoles are usually classi-
fied according to the language from which most of their vocabulary
comes, e.g. English-based, French-based, Portuguese-based, and
Swahili-based creoles.
Examples of English-based creoles are Jamaican Creole, Hawaiian Creole
and Krio in Sierra Leone, West Africa.
see also CREOLIZATION, POST-CREOLE CONTINUUM
creolization n
the process by which a PIDGIN becomes a CREOLE.
Creolization involves the expansion of the vocabulary and the grammat-
ical system.
criterion1 n
an acceptable standard with which a test taker’s response, product, or
performance is compared or against which it is evaluated.
criterion2 n
see BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVE
criterion measure n
(in testing) a standard against which a newly developed test (i.e. a pre-
dictor) can be compared as a measure of its VALIDITY. A criterion measure
may be another test that is well known to be a valid measure of the same
ability or another valid indicator of performance.
see also CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY
criterion-referenced test(ing) n
a test that measures a test taker’s performance according to a particular
standard or criterion that has been agreed upon. The test taker must reach
this level of performance to pass the test, and a test taker’s score is inter-
preted with reference to the criterion score, rather than to the scores of
other test takers, which is the case with a NORM-REFERENCED TEST.
criterion referencing n
in testing, the use of descriptions of what students should be able to do
with language in order to determine the pass score in a test or informal
assessment.
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critical literacy
criterion-related validity n
(in testing) a type of VALIDITY that is based on the extent to which a new
test is compared or correlated with an established external CRITERION
MEASURE. For example, a new test of L2 vocabulary can be validated by
correlating the test score of the new test with that of some other criterion
measure representing an identified CONSTRUCT (i.e. L2 vocabulary knowl-
edge).
Two kinds of criterion-related validity are identified: CONCURRENT
VALIDITY and PREDICTIVE VALIDITY.
criterion variable n
another term for DEPENDENT VARIABLE
critical age n
see CRITICAL PERIOD
critical applied linguistics n
an approach that applies the theories and methods of CRITICAL THEORY to
problems in language education, literacy, discourse analysis, language in
the workplace, translation, and other language related domains.
critical comprehension n
see READING
critical discourse analysis
a form of DISCOURSE ANALYSIS that takes a critical stance towards how lan-
guage is used and analyzes texts and other discourse types in order to
identify the ideology and values underlying them. It seeks to reveal the
interests and power relations in any institutional and socio-historical con-
text through analyzing the ways that people use language.
critical linguistics n
an approach to the analysis of language and of language use that focuses
on the role that language plays in assigning power to particular groups
within society. Critical linguistics is based on the study of texts and the
way texts are interpreted and used. The assumption is the relation
between form and function in discourse is not arbitrary or conventional
but is determined by cultural, social, and political factors, i.e. that texts
are inherently ideological in nature.
critical literacy n
an approach to the teaching of literacy which seeks to show how social
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critical pedagogy
identities and power relations become primary goals of analysis, critique,
and study. Critical reading in such an approach seeks not only to develop
the ability to interpret texts but also the ability to perceive the connec-
tions between social conditions and the reading and writing practices of
a culture, to be able to analyze those practices, and to develop the critical
and political awareness to take action within and against them.
critical pedagogy n
an approach to teaching that seeks to examine critically the conditions
under which language is used and the social and cultural purposes of its
use, rather than transmitting the dominant view of linguistic, cultural and
other kinds of information. Both the process of teaching and learning and
its study are viewed as inherently evaluative or ideological in character.
critical period n
also critical age
the period during which a child can acquire language easily, rapidly, per-
fectly, and without instruction. In Lenneberg’s original formulation of the
critical period hypothesis, this period was identified as ranging from age
two to puberty. Lenneberg believed that brain LATERALIZATION is complete
at puberty, making post-adolescent language acquisition difficult, with
complete learning of a second language a goal unlikely to be realized.
Some researchers now hold that the critical age for the acquisition of
phonology may be as early as five or six, while there is perhaps no age
limit for the acquisition of vocabulary. Some theorize that there is no
critical period at all, that it is possible to learn a second language perfectly
after puberty, while others argue that there is a steady decline in language
learning ability with age, with no sharp breaks identifying a critical
period. For this reason the term sensitive period is sometimes preferred.
Whether critical period related learning deficits are biologically, socially,
cognitively, or affectively based has also been the subject of much dispute.
critical period hypothesis n
see CRITICAL PERIOD
critical reading n
1 reading in which the reader reacts critically to what he or she is read-
ing, through relating the content of the reading material to personal
standards, values, attitudes or beliefs, i.e. going beyond what is given in
the text and critically evaluating the relevancy and value of what is read.
2 a level of reading in which the reader seeks to identify the underlying
ideology of a text, which is realized not so much by what the writer
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cross-cultural analysis
writes about but by how people, events and places are talked about.
Critical reading focuses on the analysis of textual ideologies and cul-
tural messages, and an understanding of the linguistic and discourse
techniques with which texts represent social reality. Critical reading is
one dimension of critical pedagogy.
critical theory n
originally a form of social theory, now also used to refer to an educational
philosophy and movement that emphasizes the importance of critical
examination of topics and practices where issues of social justice are at
stake. The goal of critical theory is to identify, confront, and resolve prob-
lems of injustice through the processes of awareness, reflection, and argu-
mentation. Language and language use is an important focus of critical
theory since language is believed to play a key role in creating or main-
taining power and in expressing ideological positions because it repre-
sents participants’ values either directly or indirectly. Empowerment and
emancipation from the constraints of social institutions and structures are
key themes in most critical approaches.
critical thinking n
a level of reading comprehension or discussion skills when the learner is
able to question and evaluate what is read or heard. In language teaching
this is said to engage students more actively with materials in the target
language, encourage a deeper processing of it, and show respect for
students as independent thinkers.
Cronbach’s alpha n
also coefficient alpha
a measure of internal consistency based on information about (a) the
number of items on the test, (b) the VARIANCE of the scores of each item,
and (c) the VARIANCE of the total test scores. Mathematically speaking, it
is equivalent to the average of the reliability estimates for all possible
splits. When items are dichotomously scored, Cronbach’s alpha results
are equal to those of KR20, which is why KR20 is considered a special
case of Cronbach’s alpha.
see also INTERNAL CONSISTENCY RELIABILITY, SPLIT-HALF RELIABILITY
cross-cultural analysis n
analysis of data from two or more different cultural groups, in order to
determine if generalizations made about members of one culture are also
true of the members of other cultures. Cross-cultural research is an
important part of sociolinguistics, since it is often important to know if
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cross-cultural communication
generalizations made about one language group reflect the culture of that
group or are universal.
cross-cultural communication n
an exchange of ideas, information, etc., between persons from different
cultural backgrounds. There are often more problems in cross-cultural
communication than in communication between people of the same cul-
tural background. Each participant may interpret the other’s speech
according to his or her own cultural conventions and expectations (see
CONVERSATIONAL RULES). If the cultural conventions of the speakers are
widely different, misinterpretations and misunderstandings can easily
arise, even resulting in a total breakdown of communication. This has
been shown by research into real-life situations, such as job interviews,
doctor-patient encounters and legal communication.
see also CONVERSATIONAL MAXIM
cross cultural pragmatics n
the study of similarities and differences in cultural norms for expressing
and understanding messages, such as differences in the conventions for
the realization of SPEECH ACTS.
cross-linguistic influence n
a cover-term used to refer to phenomena such as BORROWING, INTERFER-
ENCE, and LANGUAGE TRANSFER in which one language shows the influence
of another. It is sometimes preferred to the more widely used term “trans-
fer” and especially “interference”, because “cross-linguistic influence”
avoids associations with BEHAVIOURISM.
cross-over groups n
(in teaching) a group activity in which the class is initially divided into
groups for discussion. After a period of time, one or more member(s) of each
group move to join other groups, and the discussion continues. This allows
for ideas to be shared without the need for a whole-class feedback session.
cross-section(al) method n
also cross-section(al) study
a study of a group of different individuals or subjects at a single point in
time, in order to measure or study a particular topic or aspect of language
(for example use of the tense system of a language). This can be con-
trasted with a longitudinal method or longitudinal study, in which an
individual or group is studied over a period of time (for example, to study
how the use of the tense system changes and develops with age).
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cultural literacy
CRT n
an abbreviation for CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST(ING)
C-Test n
a variation of the cloze test where beginning with the second word in the
second sentence the second half of every second word in a reading pass-
age is deleted with the first sentence intact. Only the exact word method
is used.
cue n
(in language teaching) a signal given by the teacher in order to produce a
response by the students. For example in practising questions:
cue response
time What time is it?
day What day is it?
Cues may be words, signals, actions, etc.
see also DRILL
cued recall n
see RECALL
cultural disadvantage n
also cultural deprivation
the theory that some children, particularly those from lower social and
economic backgrounds, lack certain home experiences and that this may
lead to learning difficulties in school. For example, children from homes
which lack books or educational games and activities to stimulate
thought and language development may not perform well in school. Since
many other factors could explain why some children do not perform well
in school, this theory is an insufficient explanation for differences in chil-
dren’s learning abilities.
see also COMPENSATORY INSTRUCTION, CULTURAL RELATIVISM
cultural imperialism n
in language teaching, the transmission of ideas about a dominant culture
during the course of teaching (i.e. via textbooks, the choice of content,
etc.) in which certain cultural sterotypes and values are presented as
universal and superior while others (either by omission or by direct pres-
entation) are viewed as inferior.
cultural literacy n
familiarity with cultural and other types of knowledge (e.g. literary,
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cultural pluralism
historical, political, artistic) regarded as necessary for informed partici-
pation in a nation or culture. Cultural literacy may or may not be some-
thing possessed by a person who is bilingual.
cultural pluralism n
a situation in which an individual or group has more than one set of cul-
tural beliefs, values, and attitudes. The teaching of a foreign language or
programmes in BILINGUAL EDUCATION are sometimes said to encourage
cultural pluralism. An educational programme which aims to develop
cultural pluralism is sometimes referred to as multicultural education,
for example a programme designed to teach about different ethnic
groups in a country.
cultural relativism n
the theory that a culture can only be understood on its own terms. This
means that standards, attitudes, and beliefs from one culture should not
be used in the study or description of another culture. According to this
theory there are no universal cultural beliefs or values, or these are not
regarded as important. Cultural relativism has been part of the dis-
cussions of LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY and CULTURAL DEPRIVATION.
cultural studies n
an academic field that studies the conditions under which individuals
acquire or lose social and historical identities (their “culture”) through
the use of various symbolic systems, including language.
culturally relevant curriculum/instruction n
curriculum and instructional practices that acknowledge the beliefs,
norms and values of learners in relation to content and concepts being
taught. This may influence the choice of content, examples, modes of
presentation, grouping structures, learning strategies, etc., in order to pro-
mote better understanding and learning.
culture n
the set of practices, codes and values that mark a particular nation or
group: the sum of a nation or group’s most highly thought of works of
literature, art, music, etc. A difference is sometimes made between
“High” culture of literature and the arts, and small “c” culture of atti-
tudes, values, beliefs, and everyday lifestyles. Culture and Language com-
bine to form what is sometimes called “Discourses”, i.e. ways of talking,
thinking, and behaving that reflect one’s social identity.
The cultural dimension of language learning is an important dimension of
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curriculum alignment
second language studies. Education is seen as a process of socialization
with the dominant culture. In foreign language teaching the culture of the
language may be taught as an integral part of the curriculum.
culture fair adj
also culture free
(in language testing) a test which does not favour members of a particu-
lar cultural group, because it is based on assumptions, beliefs, and knowl-
edge which are common to all the groups being tested, is called culture
fair. For example, the following test item is not culture fair:
Bananas are — (a) brown, (b) green, (c) yellow.
The item is culturally biased because for some people bananas are
thought of as yellow, but for others green bananas are eaten, and cooked
bananas are brown. If only one of these answers is marked as correct, the
test favours a particular cultural group.
culture shock n
strong feelings of discomfort, fear, or insecurity which a person may have
when they enter another culture. For example, when a person moves to
live in a foreign country, they may have a period of culture shock until
they become familiar with the new culture.
curriculum1 n
1 an overall plan for a course or programme, as in the freshman compo-
sition curriculum. Such a programme usually states;
a the educational purpose of the programme, in terms of aims or goals and
b the content of the programme and the sequence in which it will be
taught, (also known as the syllabus)
c the teaching procedures and learning activities that will be employed
(i.e. methodology)
d the means used to assess student learning (i.e. assessment and
testing)
e the means used to assess whether the programme has achieved its goals
(i.e. evaluation)
2 the total programme of formal studies offered by a school or institu-
tion, as in the secondary school curriculum
curriculum2
another term for SYLLABUS
curriculum alignment n
the extent to which the different elements of the curriculum (goals,
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curriculum development
syllabus, teaching, assessment) match. For example if a curriculum is
organized communicatively, but assessment procedures are based on
grammatical criteria or if teaching materials in a course did not reflect the
objectives there would be a lack of curriculum alignment.
curriculum development n
also curriculum design
the study and development of the goals, content, implementation, and
evaluation of an educational system. In language teaching, curriculum
development (also called syllabus design) includes:
a the study of the purposes for which a learner needs a language (NEEDS
ANALYSIS)
b the setting of OBJECTIVES, and the development of a SYLLABUS, teaching
METHODS and materials
c the EVALUATION of the effects of these procedures on the learner’s
language ability.
curriculum frameworks n
see standards
curriculum guide n
a written document describing the academic curriculum of a school and
usually containing a description of its teaching philosophy, its goals and
objectives, and its methods of teaching and assessment.
curriculum ideology n
the beliefs and values which provide the philosophical justification for
educational programmes and the kinds of aims they contain. An ideology
represents a particular point of view concerning the most important
knowledge and value from the culture. Common curriculum ideologies in
language teaching are:
1 academic rationalism: the view that the curriculum should stress the
intrinsic value of the subject matter and its role in developing the
learner’s intellect, humanistic values and rationality. This justification
is often used for justifying the teaching of classical languages.
2 social and economic efficiency: the view that the curriculum should
focus on the practical needs of learners and society and the role of an
educational programme in producing learners who are economically
productive. This is the commonest aim associated with the teaching of
English.
3 learner-centredness: the view that the curriculum should address the
individual needs of learners, the role of individual experience, and the
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cyclical approach
need to develop awareness, self-reflection, critical thinking, learner
strategies and other qualities and skills believed to be important for
learners to develop.
4 social-reconstructionism: the view that schools and teaching should
play a role in addressing social injustices and inequality. Education is
not seen as a neutral process, and schools should engage teachers and
learners in an examination of important social issues and seek ways of
resolving them. This is the ideology of critical pedagogy.
5 cultural pluralism: the view that schools should prepare students to
participate in several different cultures and not merely the culture of the
dominant social and economic group.
cursive writing n
also longhand
handwriting in which the letters within a word are joined, as compared
with MANUSCRIPT WRITING in which letter forms look like ordinary type
and are unconnected within each word.
examples:
cutoff score n
a score on a CRITERION above or below which test takers are classified as
either masters or non-masters of the criterion concerned. For example, if
the cutoff score is set at 80 out of 100 (i.e. 80%), then only those who
score at or above 80 are considered to have successfully mastered material
covered in a course and are eligible for graduation or advancement to the
next higher level.
see STANDARD SETTING
cyclical approach n
another term for SPIRAL APPROACH
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D
Daedalus Interchange n
in COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING, a software program used in
language courses that allows synchronous communication, peer editing,
and citation instruction, among other features.
dangling modifier n
(in composition) a phrase or clause that does not modify anything in a
sentence or which refers to the wrong word in a sentence.
For example, in the sentence:
Walking home from school, the fire engine came screeching around the
corner.
The phrase walking home from school modifies fire engine, making an
inappropriate sentence. This could be corrected to:
Walking home from school, I saw the fire engine come screeching
around the corner.
The phrase walking home from school, now modifies I in the main clause,
and the sentence is no longer inappropriate
data n (singular datum)
(in research) information, evidence or facts gathered through experiments
or studies which can be analyzed in order to better the understanding of
a phenomenon or to support a theory.
data bank n
see DATABASE
database n
also data bank n
a large body of information or data which is intended to be used for a
specific purpose. In a language programme, a database which contains
information about students’ tests scores on all tests taken in the institu-
tion may be established. Later, this database may be used to determine
students’ rates of learning or the effectiveness of tests for particular pur-
poses. In first or second language acquisition research, a database may
contain examples of sentences produced by learners at different stages
of learning, which could later be analyzed for a variety of purposes.
dative alternation n
in English, sentences containing a logical direct and indirect (DATIVE1)
object can be realized in two alternative ways:
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decision-making
V NP to/for NP, for example, he threw the ball to his son or he cut a piece
of cake for her, the prepositional dative construction
V NP NP, for example, he threw his son the ball, he cut her a piece of
cake, the double object construction
Not all verbs permit both versions of the alternation.
dative case1 n
the form of a noun or noun phrase which usually shows that the noun or
noun phrase functions as the INDIRECT OBJECT of a verb.
For example, in the German sentence:
Sie gab der Katze eine Schale Milch.
She gave the cat a dish (of) milk
in the noun phrase der Katze, the article has the inflectional ending –er to
show that the noun phrase is in the dative case because it is the indirect
object of the verb.
see also CASE1
dative case2 n
(in CASE GRAMMAR) the noun or noun phrase which refers to the person
or animal affected by the state or action of the verb is in the dative case.
For example, in the sentences:
Gregory was frightened by the storm.
I persuaded Tom to go.
Gregory and Tom are in the dative case. Both Gregory and Tom are affec-
ted by something: Gregory is frightened and Tom experiences persuasion.
The dative case is sometimes called the experiencer case.
daughter (dependency) n
see SISTER (DEPENDENCY)
DCT n
see DISCOURSE COMPLETION TEST
decision-making n
in teaching, thinking processes employed by teachers in planning, con-
ducting and evaluating lessons or aspects of lessons, particularly when
different instructional choices are involved. Two kinds of decision-
making are often referred to:
1 pre-active decision-making: decisions that are made prior to teaching,
such as determining the content of a lesson
2 interactive decision-making: unplanned decisions made during a lesson,
such as a decision to drop a planned activity
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declarative
Decision-making has been viewed as a central component of teacher
thinking. Teachers’ classroom actions are characterized by judgements
and decisions that shape and determine the effectiveness of teaching.
However, not all teacher action can be explained in terms of decision-
making. Teachers’ actions are also guided by routines and by tacit or
intuitive plans of action.
declarative n
see SPEECH ACT CLASSIFICATION
declarative knowledge n
also factual knowledge (in cognitive psychology and learning theory), one
of two ways information is stored in LONG TERM MEMORY.
Declarative knowledge is information that consists of consciously known
facts, concepts or ideas that can be stored as PROPOSITIONs. For example,
an account of the tense system in English can be presented as a set of
statements, rules, or facts, i.e. it can be learned as declarative knowledge.
This can be contrasted with procedural knowledge, that is knowledge
concerning things we know how to do but which are not consciously
known, such as “how to ride a bicycle”, or “how to speak German”.
Procedural knowledge is acquired gradually through practice, and under-
lies the learning of skills. Many aspects of second language learning con-
sist of procedural rather than declarative knowledge.
see also ADAPTIVE CONTROL OF THOUGHT
declarative sentence n
a sentence which is in the form of a STATEMENT. For example:
I’m leaving now.
Declarative sentences may or may not have the function of a statement.
For example:
I suppose you’re coming this evening.
often functions as a question.
I’d like you to leave immediately.
often functions as an order or request.
declension n decline v
a list of the case forms (see CASE1) of a noun phrase in a particular language.
For example, in German:
nominative case: der Mann “the man”
accusative case: den Mann “the man”
dative case: dem Mann “to the man”
genitive case: des Mannes “of the man”
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deduction
decoding n decode v
the process of trying to understand the meaning of a word, phrase, or sen-
tence. When decoding a speech UTTERANCE, the listener must:
a hold the utterance in short term memory (see MEMORY)
b analyze the utterance into segments (see CHUNKING) and identify
clauses, phrases, and other linguistic units
c identify the underlying propositions and illocutionary meaning (see
SPEECH ACT).
Decoding is also used to mean the interpretation of any set of symbols
which carry a meaning, for example a secret code or a Morse signal.
see also ENCODING, MESSAGE, INFORMATION PROCESSING, INFORMATION
THEORY
deconstruct v
also problematize
to undermine (or problematize) an established way of thinking about
things by analyzing a concept or IDEOLOGY which was previously taken
for granted. For example, one might question taken-for-granted ways of
thinking about learning and teaching, learners and teachers, and so forth.
see also HEGEMONY
decontextualized adj
examples of language use (e.g. in a textbook lesson) that are presented
without information concerning how they were used in a real context and
which consequently fail to represent fully the meaning of a sentence or
utterance. Many language teaching approaches (e.g. WHOLE LANGUAGE,
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING), argue that language should always
be presented in context.
decreolization n
the process by which a CREOLE becomes more like the standard language
from which most of its vocabulary comes. For example, an English-based
creole may become more like Standard English. If educational
opportunities increase in a region where a creole is spoken and the stan-
dard language is taught, then there will be a range from the creole spoken
by those with little or no education to the standard language spoken by
those with high levels of education. This has been happening in countries
like Jamaica and Guyana where there is a range from an English-based
creole to a variety close to standard educated English.
see also POST-CREOLE CONTINUUM
deduction n
in composition, two ways of presenting an argument are sometimes con-
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deductive learning
trasted: reasoning by deduction and by induction. Reasoning by deduc-
tion proceeds from a generalization to particular facts which support it,
whereas reasoning by induction involves moving from particular facts to
generalizations about them.
see also ESSAY
deductive learning n
also learning by deduction
an approach to language teaching in which learners are taught rules and
given specific information about a language. They then apply these rules
when they use the language. Language teaching methods which empha-
size the study of the grammatical rules of a language (for example the
GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD) make use of the principle of deductive
learning.
This may be contrasted with inductive learning or learning by induction,
in which learners are not taught grammatical or other types of rules
directly but are left to discover or induce rules from their experience of
using the language. Language teaching methods which emphasize use
of the language rather than presentation of information about the lan-
guage (for example the DIRECT METHOD, COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH, and
COUNSELLING LEARNING) make use of the principle of inductive learning.
deep structure n
see GENERATIVE THEORY
deficit hypothesis n
also verbal deficit hypothesis
the theory that the language of some children may be lacking in vocab-
ulary, grammar, or the means of expressing complex ideas, and may
therefore be inadequate as a basis for success in school. Applied linguists
have criticized this hypothesis and contrasted it with the difference
hypothesis. This states that although the language of some children (e.g.
children from certain social and ethnic groups) may be different from
that of middle-class children, all DIALECTS are equally complex and chil-
dren can use them to express complex ideas and to form a basis for
school learning.
see also CULTURAL DEPRIVATION
defining relative clause n
also restrictive relative clause
a CLAUSE which gives additional information about a noun or noun phrase
in a sentence. A defining relative clause restricts or helps to define the
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deictic
meaning of the noun. It usually begins with who, which, whom, whose,
or that, and in written English is not separated from the noun by a
comma:
The man whom you met is my uncle.
The woman that you want to speak to has left. This may be contrasted
with a non-defining relative clause (also called a non-restrictive relative
clause), which gives additional information but which does not restrict or
define the noun or noun phrase. In writing, it is separated by a comma:
My uncle, who is 64, still plays football.
defining vocabulary n
a basic list of words with which other words can be explained or
defined. Defining vocabularies are used to write definitions in dictionar-
ies for children and for people studying foreign languages. They are
based on research into WORD FREQUENCY. In the Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English, all definitions are written using a 2000 word
defining vocabulary, so that anyone who knows the meaning of those
2000 words will be able to understand all the definitions in the
dictionary.
definite article n
see ARTICLE
definition method n
see METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT
degenerate adj
(in GENERATIVE THEORY) the claim that the input to language learners is
degenerate, that is, imperfect or containing performance errors. Because
learners have no principled way to distinguish between degenerate and
properly formed utterances, it is believed that exposure to input alone is
insufficient to explain how language is learned.
deictic adj deixis n
a term for a word or phrase which directly relates an utterance to a time,
place, or person(s).
Examples of deictic expressions in English are:
a here and there, which refer to a place in relation to the speaker:
The letter is here. (near the speaker)
The letter is over there. (further away from the speaker)
b I which refers to the speaker or writer.
you which refers to the person or persons addressed.
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delayed recall
he/she/they which refer to some other person or persons.
delayed recall
see IMMEDIATE RECALL
deletion n delete v
when a speaker leaves out a sound, morpheme, or word from what
he/she is saying, this is called deletion. For example, in casual or
rapid speech, speakers of English often delete the final consonant in
some unstressed words, so a friend of mine becomes a friend o’
mine.
demonstrative n
a word (a PRONOUN or a DETERMINER) which refers to something in terms
of whether it is near to or distant from the speaker. The demonstratives
in English are: this, that, these, those.
For example:
You take these books (here) and I’ll take those (there).
In Indonesian they are ini and itu.
buku ini (book this)
buku itu (book that)
denotation n denotative adj
that part of the meaning of a word or phrase that relates it to phenomena
in the real world or in a fictional or possible world.
For example, the denotation of the English word bird is a two-legged,
winged, egg-laying, warm-blooded creature with a beak. In a meaning
system, denotative meaning may be regarded as the “central” meaning or
“core” meaning of a lexical item. It is often equated with referential
meaning (see REFERENCE) and with cognitive meaning and conceptual
meaning although some linguists and philosophers make a distinction
between these concepts.
see also CONNOTATION
denotative meaning n
see DENOTATION
dental adj
describes a speech sound (a CONSONANT) produced by the front of the
tongue touching the back of the upper front teeth.
For example, in French the /t/ in /t£r/ terre “earth” and the /d/ in /du/
doux “sweet” are dental STOPS.
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dependent clause
In English, /t/ and /d/ are usually ALVEOLAR stops. The use of dental in
place of alveolar sounds by non-native speakers of English helps to create
a “foreign accent”.
see also PLACE OF ARTICULATION, MANNER OF ARTICULATION
dependability n
also replicability
(in QUALITATIVE RESEARCH), the issue of whether the same study using the
same methods in a similar context would produce the same results (simi-
lar to the concept of RELIABILITY in QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH). However,
since qualitative researchers believe that the prospects for true replicabil-
ity are rare, dependability is often approached in other ways, for example
by having another person systematically review the data and procedures
used by the researcher (a technique sometimes called auditing).
dependency grammar n
a grammatical theory in which the verb is considered to be the central and
most important unit. Verbs are classified according to the number of
noun phrases they require to complete a sentence. This number is called
the valency of the verb. The English verb blush, for instance, would have
a valency of one:
blushes V
she N1
The verb give, as in The salesgirl gave Jane the parcel would have a
valency of three:
gave
salesgirl Jane parcel
the the
This type of grammar has been developed mainly in France and Germany
and is different from many other grammars because of its verb-centred
approach.
see also CASE GRAMMAR
dependent clause n
also subordinate clause
a clause which must be used with another clause to form a complete
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dependent variable
grammatical construction. It depends on the other clause and is subordi-
nate to it.
A clause which can be used on its own is called an independent clause.
For example:
When it rains, please bring in the washing.
dependent independent
clause clause
She told me that she was going abroad
independent dependent
clause clause
Dependent or subordinate clauses are often linked to independent clauses
by a subordinating CONJUNCTION like when, that, etc., or by a relative
pronoun like who, whose, etc.
An independent clause (also called a main clause or a principal clause)
does not depend on another clause, although it may be linked to another
independent clause, or to a dependent clause. For example:
I will put the money in the bank or I will spend it.
independent independent
clause clause
I am going straight home after I’ve seen the movie.
independent dependent
clause clause
dependent variable n
also criterion variable
(in research) a VARIABLE1 that changes or is influenced according to
changes in one or more independent variables. In empirical studies, one
or more variables (the independent variable) may be studied as a cause or
predictor that is hypothesized to have an effect on another variable (the
dependent variable). For example, we may wish to study the effects of
attitudes and motivation on language proficiency. Attitudes and motiv-
ation would be the independent variables, while language proficiency
would be the dependent variable.
depth interview n
a detailed and extended INTERVIEW covering a wide range of topics in
order to obtain as much information as possible and to explore unknown
variables that are introduced during the interview.
see also FOCUSED INTERVIEW, GUIDED INTERVIEW
derivation n
in PHONOLOGY, the process of applying a set of phonological rules to an
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descriptive grammar
underlying form. For example, in French one can derive a form such as
[bõ] bon (“good”) from an underlying form /bon/ by means of two rules,
one of which nasalizes a vowel before a nasal consonant, the second of
which deletes a syllable-final nasal consonant.
in MORPHOLOGY and WORD FORMATION, the formation of new words by
adding AFFIXES to other words or morphemes. For example, the noun
insanity is derived from the adjective sane by the addition of the negative
prefix in- and the noun-forming suffix –ity. Derivation typically results in
changes of PARTS OF SPEECH. It can be contrasted with INFLECTION, which
never changes the lexical category.
in SYNTAX, the process of applying grammatical rules to underlying forms,
for example, in deriving S-STRUCTURE from D-STRUCTURE.
derived score n
(in statistics) any type of score other than a RAW SCORE. A derived score is
calculated by converting a raw score or scores into units of another scale.
For example, the number of correct responses in a text (the raw score)
may be converted into grades from A to F (a derived score).
see also STANDARD SCORE
description n
see ESSAY
descriptive adequacy n
see GENERATIVE THEORY
descriptive writing n
see MODES OF WRITING
descriptive function n
see FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE1
descriptive grammar n
a grammar which describes how a language is actually spoken and/or
written, and does not state or prescribe how it ought to be spoken or
written.
If a descriptive grammar of a non-prestige variety of English were writ-
ten, it might show, for example, that speakers of this variety sometimes
said:
I seen ’im. instead of I saw him.
’im ’n’ me done it. instead of He and I did it.
see also PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR
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descriptive research
descriptive research n
an investigation that attempts to describe accurately and factually a
phenomenon, subject or area. Surveys and case studies are examples of
descriptive research. The study of language teaching methodology has
sometimes been criticized because of the lack of descriptive research
describing how teachers actually use methods in the classroom.
see also BASIC RESEARCH, APPLIED RESEARCH, ACTION RESEARCH, CLASSROOM-
CENTRED RESEARCH
descriptive statistics n
statistical procedures that are used to describe, organize and summarize
the important general characteristics of a set of data. A descriptive statis-
tic is a number that represents some feature of the data, such as measures
of CENTRAL TENDENCY and DISPERSION.
descriptor n
a description of the level of performance required of a test taker for a
specific level or BAND on a rating scale. A descriptor can be general, con-
sisting of a short sentence, or fairly detailed, consisting of a paragraph
with several sentences.
see also SCORING RUBRIC
deskilling n
the loss of skills which a person once had through lack of use. In teaching,
deskilling refers to the removal of a teacher’s responsibility and partici-
pation in certain important aspects of teaching, leaving the teacher to deal
with lower-level aspects of instruction. Some educators argue that the over-
dependence on textbooks deskills teachers, since textbooks do much of the
thinking and planning that teachers themselves should be allowed to do.
detection n
see ATTENTION
determiner n
a word which is used with a noun, and which limits the meaning of the
noun in some way. For example, in English the following words can be
used as determiners:
a ARTICLES, e.g. a pencil, the garden
b DEMONSTRATIVES, e.g. this box, that car
c POSSESSIVES, e.g. her house, my bicycle
d QUANTIFIERS, e.g. some milk, many people
e NUMERALS, e.g. the first day, three chairs
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developmental interdependence hypothesis
developmental bilingual education n
also late-exit bilingual education
bilingual education programmes for language minority students who
enter school with limited or no proficiency in English but who are profi-
cient in other languages. Such programmes are intended to maintain the
students’ proficiency in home languages while promoting effective devel-
opment of English.
developmental error n
an ERROR in the language use of a first or second language learner which
is the result of a normal pattern of development, and which is common
among language learners. For example, in learning English, first and
second language learners often produce verb forms such as comed, goed,
and breaked instead of came, went, and broke. This is thought to be
because they have learned the rule for regular past tense formation and
then apply it to all verbs. Later such errors disappear as the learners’ lan-
guage ability increases. These OVERGENERALIZATIONS are a natural or
developmental stage in language learning.
see also INTERLANGUAGE, ERROR ANALYSIS
developmental feature n
see MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL
developmental functions of language n
According to Halliday, a young child in the early stages of language
development is able to master a number of elementary functions of lan-
guage. Each of these functions has a chance of meanings attached to it.
He distinguishes seven initial functions:
a Instrumental (“I want”): used for satisfying material needs
b Regulatory (“do as I tell you”): used for controlling the behaviour of
others
c Interactional (“me and you”): used for getting along with other people
d Personal (“here I come”): used for identifying and expressing the self
e Heuristic (“tell me why”): used for exploring the world around and
inside one
f Imaginative (“let’s pretend”): used for creating a world of one’s own
g Informative (“I’ve got something to tell you”): used for communicating
new information.
At about 18 months, the child is beginning to master the adult’s system
of communicationn, including grammer, vocabulary and meaning com-
ponents (see FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE2)
developmental interdependence hypothesis n
see THRESHOLD HYPOTHESIS
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developmental psychology
developmental psychology n
a branch of psychology which deals with the development of mental,
emotional, psychological, and social processes and behaviour in individ-
uals, particularly from birth to early childhood.
see also GENETIC EPISTEMOLOGY
developmental sequence n
(in second and foreign language learning) a succession of phases in acquir-
ing new linguistic forms. An important issue in theories of SECOND
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION is whether learners’ errors result from LANGUAGE
TRANSFER or are sometimes DEVELOPMENTAL ERRORS. It has been suggested
that a developmental sequence may explain how many learners acquire the
rules for NEGATION in English. Learners may first produce forms such as I
no like that (instead of I don’t like that) and No drink some milk (instead
of I don’t want to drink any milk), even when the learner’s mother tongue
has similar negation rules to English. As language learning progresses, a
succession of phases in the development of negation is observed, as no
gives way to other negative forms such as not and don’t. A developmental
sequence is thus said to occur with the development of negation in English.
developmental testing n
see FIELD TESTING
devoicing n
see VOICE2
diachronic linguistics n
an approach to linguistics which studies how languages change over time,
for example the change in the sound systems of the Romance languages
from their roots in Latin (and other languages) to modern times or the
study of changes between Early English to Modern British English. The
need for diachronic and synchronic descriptions to be kept apart was
emphasized by the Swiss linguist Saussure. Not all approaches to linguis-
tic analysis make this distinction (see GENERATIVE PHONOLOGY).
see also COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS
diacritics n
small added marks placed over, under, or through a letter that can be used
to distinguish different values of a sound. For example, the addition of ~ dis-
tinguishes the velarized lateral /ł/ in feel from the non-velarized /l/ in leaf.
diagnostic questionnaire n
a learner questionnaire used to find out what problems students report
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dialect levelling
they have when using a second language. It is usually given at the begin-
ning of a course as part of a needs analysis.
diagnostic test n
a test that is designed to provide information about L2 learners’ strengths
and weaknesses. For example, a diagnostic pronunciation test may be used
to measure the L2 learners’ pronunciation of English sounds. It would
show which sounds L2 learners are and are not able to pronounce or
whether their pronunciation is intelligible or not. Diagnostic tests may be
used to find out how much L2 learners know before beginning a language
course to better provide an efficient and effective course of instruction.
diagramming n
(in teaching composition), a technique which is sometimes used to show
how the parts of a sentence are related. For example:
S
NP VP
The three men at the bar left suddenly
see also BASE COMPONENT
dialect n dialectal adj
a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country (regional dialect),
or by people belonging to a particular social class (social dialect or SOCI-
OLECT), which is different in some words, grammar, and/or pronunciation
from other forms of the same language.
A dialect is often associated with a particular ACCENT3. Sometimes a
dialect gains status and becomes the STANDARD VARIETY of a country.
see also SPEECH VARIETY
dialect levelling n
also koinéization
a process through which dialect differences become reduced, for example
when people speaking different dialects move to a new area and the var-
iety spoken in that place after a time becomes a more common variety with
fewer features associated with the specific dialects of those who migrated
there. Dialect levelling has been a major process in the formation of both
American and other varieties of English such as New Zealand English.
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dialectology
dialectology n
the study of the regional variations of a language (see DIALECT).
Usually, studies in dialectology have concentrated on different words used
in various dialects for the same object or on different pronunciations of
the same word in different dialects.
see also AREAL LINGUISTICS
dialogue n
(in language teaching) a model conversation, used to practise speaking
and to provide examples of language usage. Dialogues are often specially
written to practise language items, contain simplified grammar and
vocabulary, and so may be rather different from real-life conversation.
dialogue journals n
written (electronically or by hand) or orally recorded discussions between
student and teachers in a writing programme, about school-related or
other topics of interest to student.
Dialogue journals may be used to develop writing skills, to enable
teachers to assess the value of a course or get student feedback and to
develop fluency in writing.
see LEARNING LOG
diary study n
(in second language acquisition) a regularly kept journal or written record
of a learner’s language development, often kept as part of a longitudinal
study (see LONGITUDINAL METHOD) of language learning. In many diary
studies, the researcher and the diarist are the same person, and the diarist
records examples of his or her own linguistic productions, hypotheses
about the target language, information about the communicative setting
involved (i.e. the participants, the purpose, etc.), and information con-
cerning affect. In other studies, a researcher analyzes diaries kept by one
or more learners who may or may not have been given guidance about
what to include. Diary studies are often used to supplement other ways of
collecting data, such as through the use of experimental techniques.
dichotic listening n
a technique which has been used to study how the brain controls hearing
and language. Subjects wear earphones and receive different sounds in the
right and left ear. They are then asked to repeat what they hear. Subjects
find it easier to repeat what they heard in one ear than in the other, and
this is thought to indicate which brain hemisphere controls language for
them (see BRAIN). The ability to perceive language better in the right ear
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difficulty index
than the left ear is called a right-ear advantage, and the ability to perceive
language better in the left ear is called left-ear advantage.
dichotomous scoring n
a scoring method where items are scored either right or wrong, mostly
used in tests adopting a TRUE/FALSE ITEM or MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEM format.
dictation n
a technique used in both language teaching and language testing in which
a passage is read aloud to students or test takers, with pauses during
which they must try to write down what they have heard as accurately as
possible.
diction n
1 a term sometimes used to describe the way in which a person pronounces
words, particularly the degree of clarity with which he or she speaks.
2 (in composition), the choice of words employed by the writer, particu-
larly the extent to which the words the writer uses are thought suitable
and effective for different kinds of writing.
dicto-comp n
a technique for practising composition in language classes. A passage is
read to a class, and then the students must write out what they under-
stand and remember from the passage, keeping as closely to the original
as possible but using their own words where necessary.
see also DICTATION
DIF n
an abbreviation for DIFFERENTIAL ITEM FUNCTIONING
difference hypothesis n
see DEFICIT HYPOTHESIS
differential item functioning n
a test item that functions differently either for or against a particular group
of test takers (e.g. those with Korean as their L1 or those with French as
their L1). A DIF item may be considered biased when a score difference
between two or more groups is due to a factor (e.g. test takers’ L1) that is
not the construct being tested (e.g. L2 listening comprehension).
difficulty index n
see ITEM FACILITY
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difficulty order
difficulty order n
see ACCURACY ORDER
difficulty parameter n
see B-PARAMETER
diglossia n
when two languages or language varieties exist side by side in a com-
munity and each one is used for different purposes, this is called diglos-
sia. Usually, one is a more standard variety called the High variety or
H-variety, which is used in government, the media, education, and for
religious services. The other one is usually a non-prestige variety called
the Low-variety or L-variety, which is used in the family, with friends,
when shopping, etc.
An example of diglossia can be found in the German speaking part of
Switzerland, where the H(igh) variety is a form of standard German
(Hochdeutsch) and the L(ow) variety is called Schwyzertüütsch, which is
a range of regional Swiss dialects. Other countries where diglossia exists
are, for example, Haiti and the Arab nations.
see also BILINGUALISM, MULTILINGUALISM, CODE SELECTION
diminutive n
(in MORPHOLOGY) a form which has an AFFIX with the meaning of “little”,
“small”, etc. For example, in Spanish –ito/-ita in besito (“a little kiss”)
and mesita (“a little table”) or English, -let as in piglet and starlet, and -
ling as in duckling.
d-index n
see ITEM DISCRIMINATION
diphthongize v
diphthong n diphthongal adj
a vowel in which there is a change in quality during a single syllable, as
in the English words boy, buy, bow. Diphthongs can be analyzed as a
sequence of two vowels or as VOWEL GLIDE.
direct access n
see ACCESS
directional hypothesis n
see ONE-TAILED TEST
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direct teaching
directive n
see SPEECH ACT CLASSIFICATION
direct method n
a method of foreign or second language teaching which has the following
features:
a only the target language should be used in class
b meanings should be communicated “directly” (hence the name of the
method) by associating speech forms with actions, objects, mime, ges-
tures, and situations
c reading and writing should be taught only after speaking
d grammar should only be taught inductively (see DEDUCTIVE LEARNING);
i.e. grammar rules should not be taught to the learners
The direct method was developed in the late 19th century as a reaction
against the GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD and was the first oral-based
method to become widely adopted. Some of its features were retained in
later methods such as SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE TEACHING.
direct negative evidence n
see EVIDENCE
direct object n
see OBJECT1
direct object relative clause n
another term for OBJECT RELATIVE CLAUSE
direct speech n
a style used to report what a speaker actually said, without introducing
any grammatical changes. In English, the speaker’s words may be written
between quotation marks, for example, “You are a thief, he said.” This
may be contrasted with indirect speech (also reported speech), for
example “He said I was a thief.”
direct teaching n
also active teaching
sometimes used to describe an approach to teaching which seeks to
increase achievement by focusing the teacher’s attention on specific, ana-
lytical and academic objectives, by coverage of objectives to be tested, by
engagement of students in tasks, and by giving feedback which focuses on
the degree to which objectives have been achieved. Attention is given to
promoting student success in learning through a teacher-directed style of
teaching in which the teacher provides a favourable CLIMATE for learning.
see also TIME ON TASK
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direct test
direct test n
a test that measures ability directly by requiring test takers to perform
tasks designed to approximate an authentic target language use situation
as closely as possible. An example of a direct test of writing includes a test
that asks test takers to write an essay; an ORAL PROFICIENCY INTERVIEW
(OPI) is an example of a direct test of speaking, which is conducted face to
face between an interviewer and an interviewee.
see also INDIRECT TEST, SEMI-DIRECT
directional hypothesis n
see ONE-TAILED TEST
directive n
see SPEECH ACT CLASSIFICATION
disambiguation n disambiguate v
the use of linguistic analysis to show the different structures of an
ambiguous sentence. For example:
The lamb is too hot to eat.
can be analyzed as:
a The lamb is so hot that it cannot eat anything
or:
b The cooked lamb is too hot for someone to eat it.
see also AMBIGUOUS
discontinuous constituent n
parts of a sentence which belong to the same CONSTITUENT but which are
separated by other constituents are called a discontinuous constituent.
For example:
a in French, the negative of the verb is formed with the discontinuous
constituent ne . . . pas as in:
Paul ne mange pas beaucoup.
“Paul doesn’t eat much”
b in English; the phrasal verb pick up in
The player picked the ball up.
is a discontinuous constituent.
discourse n
a general term for examples of language use, i.e. language which has been
produced as the result of an act of communication.
Whereas grammar refers to the rules a language uses to form grammatical
units such as CLAUSE, PHRASE, and SENTENCE, discourse normally refers to
larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations, and interviews.
Sometimes the study of both written and spoken discourse is known as
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discourse community
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS; some researchers however use discourse analysis to
refer to the study of spoken discourse and TEXT LINGUISTICS to refer to the
study of written discourse.
In POSTMODERNISM and CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS, discourse is used to
indicate not only any kind of talk but also the meanings and values
embedded in talk. In this sense, a dominant discourse refers to an institu-
tionalized way of thinking and talking about things.
discourse accent n
(in writing) those characteristics of writing produced by non-native
writers which make it different from the writing of native writers. For
example, non-native patterns of rhetorical organization in an essay or
non-native use of cohesive devices, topics, and paragraph organization
may contribute to a writer’s discourse accent.
see also CONTRASTIVE RHETORIC
discourse analysis n
the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger
meaningful units such as paragraphs. conversations, interviews, etc.
(see DISCOURSE).
For example, discourse analysis deals with:
a how the choice of articles, pronouns, and tenses affects the structure of
the discourse (see ADDRESS FORMS, COHESION)
b the relationship between utterances in a discourse (see ADJACENCY PAIRS,
COHERENCE)
c the MOVES made by speakers to introduce a new topic, change the topic,
or assert a higher ROLE RELATIONSHIP to the other participants
Analysis of spoken discourse is sometimes called CONVERSATIONAL
ANALYSIS. Some linguists use the term TEXT LINGUISTICS for the study of
written discourse.
Another focus of discourse analysis is the discourse used in the class-
room.
Such analyses can be useful in finding out about the effectiveness of teach-
ing methods and the types of teacher-student interactions.
see also SPEECH EVENT
discourse community n
a group of people involved in a particular disciplinary or professional
area (e.g. teachers, linguists, doctors, engineers) who have therefore devel-
oped means and conventions for doing so. The type of discourse used by
a discourse community is known as a GENRE. The concept of discourse
community thus seeks to explain how particular rhetorical features of
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discourse competence
texts express the values, purposes, and understandings of particular
groups and mark membership of such groups.
discourse competence n
see COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
discourse completion test n
also DCT
a type of questionnaire that presents a sociolinguistic description of a situ-
ation followed by part of a discourse designed to elicit a specific SPEECH
ACT. The responses elicited can then be analyzed as speech act realizations
of the desired type. For example, a discourse completion test designed to
elicit some kind of apology, might produce responses such as:
I’m sorry.
I won’t do that again.
What can I do to fix the situation?
discourse markers n
expressions that typically connect two segments of discourse but do not
contribute to the meaning of either. These include adverbials (e.g. how-
ever, still), conjunctions (e.g. and, but), and prepositional phrases (e.g. in
fact).
discourse structure n
another term for SCHEME
discovery learning n
(in education) an approach to teaching and learning which is based on the
following principles:
a Learners develop processes associated with discovery and inquiry by
observing, inferring, formulating hypotheses, predicting and communi-
cating.
b Teachers use a teaching style which supports the processes of discovery
and inquiry
c Textbooks are not the sole resources for learning
d Conclusions are considered tentative and not final
e Learners are involved in planning, conducting, and evaluating their
own learning with the teacher playing a supporting role
A number of language teaching approaches make use of discovery based
approaches to learning, particularly communicative language teaching
(see COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH) and the SILENT WAY.
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discrimination
discrete adj discreteness n
(of a linguistic unit) having clearly defined boundaries.
In PHONOLOGY, the distinctive sound units of a language (the PHONEMES)
are considered to be discrete units. For example, the English word pin
would consist of three such units: /p/, /∂/, and /n/.
discrete-point test n
a language test that measures knowledge of individual language items,
such as a grammar test with different sections on tenses, adverbs, and
prepositions. Discrete-point tests are based on the theory that lan-
guage consists of different parts (e.g. grammar, pronunciation, and
vocabulary) and different skills (e.g. listening, speaking, reading, and
writing) and these are made up of elements that can be tested separ-
ately. Tests consisting of MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEMs are usually discrete-
point tests. Discrete-point tests can be contrasted with INTEGRATIVE
TESTs.
discriminant validity n
also divergent validity
(in testing) a type of CONSTRUCT VALIDITY that is based on the extent to
which two or more tests that are claimed to measure different underlying
CONSTRUCTs are in fact doing so. For example, to establish discriminant
validity of two tests that are claimed to measure the different constructs
(e.g. L2 listening and L2 vocabulary), both tests are administered to the
same group of test takers using the same method (e.g. MULTIPLE-CHOICE
ITEMs for both tests) and the test scores are correlated. If a weak or no
correlation is obtained, this is an indication that they are indeed measur-
ing different constructs.
see CONSTRUCT VALIDITY, CONVERGENT VALIDITY, MULTI-TRAIT MULTI-
METHOD METHOD
discrimination1 n
see STIMULUS-RESPONSE THEORY
discrimination2
also discrimination power
(in testing) the degree to which a test or an item in a test distinguishes
among stronger and weaker test takers. For example, if test takers are
known to have different degrees of ability but all score around 85% on a
test, the test fails to discriminate. A measure of the discrimination of a test
is known as a discrimination index.
see also ITEM DISCRIMINATION
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discrimination index
discrimination index n
see DISCRIMINATION
discrimination power n
another term for DISCRIMINATION
discursive practices n
a term used in critical discourse analysis to refer to the processes of pro-
duction, distribution and interpretation that surround a text and which
must be taken into account in text analysis. These practices are them-
selves viewed as embedded in wider social practices of power and auth-
ority.
discussion method n
an approach to teaching which consists of a goal-focused group conver-
sation involving either groups of students or the whole class, and which
usually involves interaction about subject matter between a teacher and
students. Four common types of discussion procedures are used, which
differ according to the degree of teacher control.
1 recitation: a teacher directed and highly structured discussion in which
the teacher checks to see if students have learned certain facts.
2 guided discussion: a less structured discussion in which the teacher
seeks to promote understanding of important concepts
3 reflective discussion: the least structured form of discussion in which
students engage in critical and creative thinking, solve problems,
explore issues, etc.
4 small group discussion: the class is divided into small groups, with stu-
dents assuming responsibility for the discussion
disjunct n
also sentential adverb
see ADJUNCT
dispersion n
(in statistics and testing) the amount of spread among the scores in a
group. For example, if the scores of students on a test were widely spread
from low, middle to high, the scores would be said to have a large dis-
persion. Some common statistical measures of dispersion are VARIANCE,
STANDARD DEVIATION, and RANGE.
display question n
a question which is not a real question (i.e. which does not seek infor-
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distractor
mation unknown to the teacher) but which serves to elicit language prac-
tice. For example:
It this a book?
Yes, it’s a book.
It has been suggested that one way to make classes more communicative
(see COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH) is for teachers to use fewer display ques-
tions and more REFERENTIAL QUESTIONs.
see also RHETORICAL QUESTION
dissertation n
a formal written paper or report describing the writer’s own original
research, usually as a requirement for an M.A. or Ph.D. degree.
A THESIS is similar to a dissertation (and the two words are sometimes
used interchangeably) but is not so extensive and may not necessarily
report original research, e.g. it may be an extended piece of expository
writing on a given topic.
distance learning n
the linking of learners and teachers in different locations and often in real
time, by telephone, telecast, satellite, computer, or through the use of
learning packages. Many TESOL graduate programs are now delivered at
least partly via distance mode.
distinctive feature n
(in PHONOLOGY) a particular characteristic which distinguishes one dis-
tinctive sound unit of a language (see PHONEME) from another or one
group of sounds from another group.
For example, in the English sound system, one distinctive feature which
distinguishes the /p/ in pin from the /b/ in bin is VOICE1. The /b/ is a voiced
STOP whereas the /p/ is a voiceless stop (see VOICE2).
In GENERATIVE PHONOLOGY, distinctive features play an important part in
the writing of phonological rules. The features are generally shown in the
form of a binary opposition, that is the feature is either present [] or
absent [].
For example, vowels and sounds such as /l/, /n/, and /m/, where the air
passes relatively freely through the mouth or nose, have the feature [
sonorant] whereas sounds such as /p/, /k/, and /s/, where the air is stopped
either completely or partially, have the feature [ sonorant].
see also BINARY FEATURE
distractor n
any of the incorrect options in a MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEM. In ITEM ANALYSIS,
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distractor efficiency analysis
a distractor efficiency analysis is conducted to investigate whether the dis-
tractors are functioning as intended (i.e. attracting test takers into choos-
ing incorrect options when they do not know the correct answer). This
analysis needs the percentage of test takers in high, mid or low ability
groups who chose each correct or incorrect option to be calculated per
each item. Provided together with both ITEM FACILITY and ITEM DISCRIMI-
NATION indices, the result of the analysis helps test developers to better
decide which items to keep, revise, or discard.
see also KEY, TEST ITEM, MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEM
distractor efficiency analysis n
see DISTRACTOR
distribution1 n
(in statistics) the pattern of scores or measures in a group. For example,
the frequency distribution of scores in a test may be displayed in either
tabular (e.g. a) or graphic format (e.g. b and c):
a. Table
Test scores 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Frequency 1 1 3 7 10 6 5 2 2 0
b. Histogram
Test score distribution
10
9
8
7
Frequency
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Test scores
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divergence
c. Frequency polygon
Test score distribution
10
9
8
7
Frequency
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Test scores
distribution2 n
The range of positions in which a particular unit of a language, e.g. a
PHONEME or a word, can occur is called its distribution.
For example, in English, the phoneme /√/, usually written ng, cannot
occur at the beginning of a word but it can occur in final position, as in
sing. In other languages, /√/ may occur word initially, as in Cantonese
ngoh “I”.
disyllabic adj
consisting of two SYLLABLES, e.g. the English word garden /`gëN/ /d°n/.
see also MONOSYLLABIC
ditransitive verb n
see also TRANSITIVE VERB
divergence1 n
the process of two or more languages or language varieties becoming less
like each other. For example, if speakers of a language migrate to another
area, the variety of language spoken by them may become less similar to
the variety spoken by those who did not migrate, i.e. there will be diver-
gence. This has been the case with English spoken in the United Kingdom
compared with the varieties of English spoken in the USA, Canada,
Australia, and New Zealand.
see also CONVERGENCE1
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divergence
divergence2 n
see ACCOMMODATION
divergent question n
a question that elicits student responses that vary or diverge. For example,
divergent questions may be used when a teacher wishes to compare stu-
dents’ ideas about a topic. There are often no right or wrong answers with
divergent questions.
see also CONVERGENT QUESTION, EVALUATIVE QUESTION, QUESTIONING TECH-
NIQUES, CLASSROOM DISCOURSE
divergent validity n
another term for DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY
diversity n
in reference to a group of learners or individuals in society, the quality of
including people of many different ethnic, cultural, and linguistic back-
grounds or physical abilities. The move to recognize and promote cultural
diversity is known as MULTICULTURALISM. Many countries contain min-
ority groups of many different cultural, religious, and linguistic back-
grounds, but promote only the culture of the dominant group in
curriculum, teaching materials, the media, etc. Proponents of the status of
diversity seek acknowledgement of cultural diversity throughout society,
the encouragement of tolerance, the need to redress past discrimination
against minorities, and the creation of a more tolerant society.
DO n
an abbreviation for direct object or object relative clause
see NOUN PHRASE ACCESSIBILITY HIERARCHY
document analysis n
see DOCUMENTARY ANALYSIS
documentary analysis n
(in QUALITATIVE RESEARCH) the collection and analysis of documents at a
research site as part of the process of building a GROUNDED THEORY. The
documents collected may be private or public, primary documents (e.g.
letters, diaries, reports) or secondary documents (e.g. transcribed and
edited diaries), and both solicited and unsolicited documents.
domain1 n
an area of human activity in which one particular speech variety or a
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dominant language
combination of several speech varieties is regularly used. A domain can be
considered as a group of related speech situations (see SPEECH EVENT). For
instance, situations in which the persons talking to one another are mem-
bers of the family, e.g. mother and children, father and mother, elder
sister and younger sister, would all belong to the Family Domain. In BILIN-
GUAL and MULTILINGUAL communities, one language may be used in some
domains and another language in other domains. For example, Puerto
Ricans in the USA may use Spanish in the Family Domain and English in
the Employment Domain.
see also DIGLOSSIA, SPEECH EVENT
domain2 n
see PROJECTION (PRINCIPLE)
domain3 n
in planning goals and OBJECTIVEs for an educational programme, the par-
ticular area or aspect of learning an objective or set of objectives is
designed to address. Three general domains of objectives are often distin-
guished.
1 Cognitive domain: objectives which have as their purpose the develop-
ment of students’ intellectual abilities and skills.
2 Affective domain: objectives which have as their purpose the develop-
ment of students’ attitudes, feelings and values.
3 Psychomotor domain: objectives which have as their purpose the
development of students’ motor and co-ordination abilities and skills.
see also BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
domain4
see DOMAIN-REFERENCED TEST(ING)
domain-referenced test(ing) n
a specific type of CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST where a test taker’s per-
formance is measured against a domain or a well-defined set of instruc-
tional objectives to assess how much of the domain that a test taker has
learned.
dominant discourse n
see DISCOURSE
dominant language n
the language that one uses most often and is most competent in. In TRANS-
LATION and INTERPRETATION, this is often considered more appropriate as
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dominate
an indication of a translator’s or interpreter’s ability than terms such as
FIRST LANGUAGE or MOTHER TONGUE.
see LANGUAGE DOMINANCE
dominate v
see NODE
dorsal n, adj
see VELAR
dorsum n
see PLACE OF ARTICULATION
do-support n
in English, use of the “dummy” auxiliary do to form questions or nega-
tives in sentences such as Do you want some tea? and He doesn’t want
any tea, respectively. Most of the world’s languages do not have a com-
parable construction.
double negative n
a construction in which two negative words are used.
For example, in NONSTANDARD English
I never seen nothing.
instead of
I haven’t seen anything.
A double-negative does not become a positive. It is used for emphasis.
double-object construction n
see DATIVE ALTERNATION
doubled consonants n
see GEMINATES
drafting n
see COMPOSING PROCESSES
drill n
a technique commonly used in older methods of language teaching par-
ticularly the audiolingual method and used for practising sounds or sen-
tence patterns in a language, based on guided repetition or practice. A
drill which practises some aspect of grammar or sentence formation is
often known as pattern practice.
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D-structure
There are usually two parts to a drill.
a The teacher provides a word or sentence as a stimulus (the call-word or
CUE).
b Students make various types of responses based on repetition, substitu-
tion, or transformation. For example:
type of drill teacher’s cuestudent
substitution drill We bought a book. We bought a pencil.
pencil
repetition drill We bought a book. We bought a book.
We bought a pencil. We bought a pencil.
transformation drill I bought a book. Did you buy a book?
What did you buy?
Drills are less commonly used in communicative methodologies since it is
argued that they practise pseudo-communication and do not involve
meaningful interaction.
D-structure n
(in Government/Binding Theory) an abstract level of sentence represen-
tation where semantic roles such as agent (the doer of an action) and
patient (the entity affected by an action) are assigned to the sentence.
Agent is sometimes also referred to as the logical subject and patient as
the theme of the sentence. For example (in simplified form):
Vera shoot intruder
agent or logical patient or theme
subject
The next level of sentence representation is the S-STRUCTURE where syn-
tactic/grammatical cases such as nominative/grammatical subject and
accusative/grammatical object are assigned. For example (in simplified
form):
Vera (agent) shoot intruder (patient/theme)
grammatical subject grammatical object
The phonetic form (PF) component and the logical form (LF) component
are then needed to turn the s-structure into a surface sentence. The pho-
netic form (PF) component presents the s-structure as sound, and the log-
ical form (LF) component gives the syntactic meaning of the sentence.
The concepts of semantic roles and grammatical cases and their interrela-
tion have been used in first and second language acquisition research (see
-THEORY)
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dual adj
dual adj n
see LANGUAGE UNIVERSAL
duality of structure n
a distinctive characteristic of language which refers to the fact that lan-
guages are organized in terms of two levels. At one level, language con-
sists of sequences of segments or units which do not themselves carry
meaning (such as the letters “g”, “d” and “o”). However, when these
units are combined in certain sequences, they form larger units and carry
meaning (such as dog, god).
durative n
see ASPECT
dyad n
two people in communication with each other. A dyad can be considered
as the smallest part of a larger communication network. For example, in
describing language use within a family, some dyads would be mother-
child, grandmother-child, elder sister-younger sister.
dynamic verb n
see STATIC-DYNAMIC DISTINCTION
dysfluency n dysfluent adj
see FLUENCY
dyslexia n dyslexic adj
also word blindness
a general term sometimes used to describe any continuing problem in
learning to read, such as difficulty in distinguishing letter shapes and
words. Reading specialists do not agree on the nature or causes of such
reading problems, however, and both medical and psychological expla-
nations have been made. Because of the very general way in which the
term is often used, many reading specialists prefer not to use the term, and
describe reading problems in terms of specific reading difficulties.
dysphasia n
another term for APHASIA
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E
EAP n
an abbreviation for English for Academic Purposes
see ENGLISH FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES
early-exit/late-exit bilingual education programmes n
a term to distinguish two kinds of Transitional Bilingual Education pro-
grammes.
Early-exit programmes move children from bilingual classes in the first or
second year of schooling. Late-exit programmes provide bilingual classes
for three or more years of elementary schooling.
Ebonics n
another term for AFRICAN AMERICAN ENGLISH, the term derived from
“ebony” “phonics” or “black sounds”. Ebonics has also been used as
a superordinate term to refer generally to West-African–European lan-
guage mixtures, with USEB (United States Ebonics) referring specifically
to US language varieties.
echoism n
another term for ONOMATOPOEIA
echo question
see QUESTION
echolalia n
a type of speech disorder or APHASIA in which all or most of a speaker’s
utterances consist of the simple repetition or echoing of words or phrases
which the speaker hears.
eclectic method n
a term sometimes used for the practice of using features of several differ-
ent METHODS in language teaching, for example, by using both audiolin-
gual and communicative language teaching techniques.
In order to have a sound eclectic method a core set of principles is needed
to guide the teacher’s selection of techniques, strategies, and teaching pro-
cedures.
see also AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD, COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
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economy principle
economy principle n
in MINIMALISM, the principle that syntactic representations should contain
as few constituents as possible and derivations should posit as few gram-
matical operations as possible.
ED-form n
a term used to refer to the simple past tense of a verb in English, e.g.
“talked”.
editing1 n
the practices in second language writing classes of engaging students in
activities that require correction of discrete language errors in their
writing, such as errors in grammar, vocabulary, sentence structure,
spelling, etc. see REVISION
editing2 n
see COMPOSING PROCESSES
education n
in a general sense, the formal and informal processes of teaching and learn-
ing used to develop a person’s knowledge, skills, attitudes, understanding,
etc., in a certain area or domain. A distinction is sometimes made between
the broader goals of education, described above, and TRAINING, which
refers to the processes used to teach specific practical skills.
educational linguistics n
a term sometimes used to refer to a branch of APPLIED LINGUISTICS which
deals with the relationship between language and education.
educational psychology n
a branch of psychology which studies theories and problems in education,
including the application of learning theory to classroom teaching and
learning, curriculum development, testing and evaluation, and teacher
education.
educational technology n
1 the use of machines and educational equipment of different sorts (e.g.
language laboratories, tape recorders, video, etc.) to assist teachers and
learners.
2 a system of instruction which contains (a) an analysis of what learners
need to know and be able to do (b) a description of these needs as
BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES and (c) (1) above.
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e-language
effect size n
a measure of the strength of one variable’s effect on another or the
relationship between two or more variables. When a researcher rejects the
null hypothesis and concludes that an independent variable had an effect,
an effect size is calculated to determine how strong the independent vari-
able’s effect (e.g. presence or absence of a bilingual programme) was on
the dependent variable (e.g. academic performance). Effect size is often
used as a common metric to make research results comparable across
studies as it puts studies on the same scale.
see also META-ANALYSIS
EFL n
an abbreviation for ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
egocentric speech n
speech which is not addressed to other people. This is one of two types of
speech which the psychologist Piaget observed in the speech of children
learning a first language. Egocentric speech serves the purpose of giving
pleasure to the child and of expressing the child’s thoughts, and provides
an opportunity for the child to experiment or play with speech. It may be
contrasted with socialized speech, or speech which is addressed to other
people and which is used for communication.
egocentric writing n
see READER-BASED PROSE
EGP n
an abbreviation for English for General Purposes
see ENGLISH FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES
elaborated code n
see CODE2
elaborative rehearsal n
see REHEARSAL
e-language n
also externalized language
see I-LANGUAGE
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electronic discussion
electronic discussion n
online forums, such as bulletin boards, lists, or real-time conversation,
that provide a written record of all correspondents’ contributions
electronic literacies n
reading and writing practices in online environments
electronic portfolio n
in teacher education, a purposeful collection of a teacher’s work assembled
by electronic means and used to represent and display the teacher’s efforts,
growth and achievements in different areas. As with other kinds of PORT-
FOLIOS, the contents of an electronic portfolio are carefully planned and
chosen in relation to its purpose and goals. The portfolio may be used as an
aspect of professional development and also serve as the basis for assessment.
elementary school n
see SCHOOL SYSTEM
elicitation n
also elicitation technique, elicitation procedure
any technique or procedure that is designed to get a person to actively
produce speech or writing, for example asking someone to describe a pic-
ture, tell a story, or finish an incomplete sentence. In linguistics, these
techniques are used to prompt native speakers to produce linguistic data
for analysis. In teaching and second language research, the same and simi-
lar techniques are used to get a better picture of learner abilities or a fuller
understanding of INTERLANGUAGE than the study of naturally occurring
speech or writing can provide.
elicited imitation n
an ELICITATION PROCEDURE in which a person has to repeat a sentence
which he or she sees or hears. When people are asked to repeat a sentence
which uses linguistic rules which they themselves cannot or do not use,
they often make changes in the sentence so that it is more like their own
speech. Elicited imitation can be used to study a person’s knowledge of a
language. For example:
stimulus sentence elicited imitation
Why can’t the man climb over Why the man can’t climb over the
the fence? fence?
elision n elide v
the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech. For example, in rapid
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emergentism
speech in English, suppose is often pronounced as [sp°Áz], factory as
[`fìktri] and mostly as [`m°Ásli].
see also ELLIPSIS, EPENTHESIS
ellipsis n elliptical adj
the leaving out of words or phrases from sentences where they are unnec-
essary because they have already been referred to or mentioned. For
example, when the subject of the verb in two co-ordinated clauses is the
same, it may be omitted to avoid repetition:
The man went to the door and (he) opened it. (subject ellipsis)
Mary ate an apple and Jane (ate) a pear. (verb ellipsis)
see also ELISION
ELT n
an abbreviation for English Language Teaching. It is used especially in
Britain to refer to the teaching of ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE or ENG-
LISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE. In north American usage this is often
referred to as TESOL.
embedded sentence n
see EMBEDDING
embedding n embed v
(in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR) the occurrence of a sentence within another
sentence.
For example, in:
The news that he had got married surprised his friends.
(1) The news surprised his friends.
(2) (that) he had got married
sentence (2) is embedded in sentence (1) and is therefore an embedded
sentence.
emergentism n
the view that higher forms of cognition emerge from the interaction
between simpler forms of cognition and the architecture of the human
brain. For example, in LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, it has been proposed that
categories such as the PARTS OF SPEECH are not innate but emerge as a
result of the processing of INPUT by the perceptual systems.
see also CONNECTIONISM
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emotive meaning
emotive meaning n
another term for CONNOTATION
empathy n empathize v
the quality of being able to imagine and share the thoughts, feelings, and
point of view of other people. Empathy is thought to contribute to the
attitudes we have towards a person or group with a different language
and culture from our own, and it may contribute to the degree of success
with which a person learns another language.
emphatic pronoun n
a pronoun which gives additional emphasis to a noun phrase or which
draws attention to it. In English these are formed in the same way as
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNs, by adding -self, -selves to the pronouns. For example:
I myself cooked the dinner.
We spoke to the President herself
emphatic stress n
see STRESS
empirical investigation n
see FIELDWORK
empirical validity n
a measure of the VALIDITY of a test arrived at by comparing the test with
one or more CRITERION MEASUREs. Such comparisons could be with:
a other valid tests or other independent measures obtained at the same
time (e.g. an assessment made by the teacher) (CONCURRENT VALIDITY)
b other valid tests or other performance criteria obtained at a later time
(PREDICTIVE VALIDITY)
This approach to validity can be contrasted with judgemental validity,
such as CONTENT or FACE VALIDITY, that relies on theory rather than obser-
vation as in empirical validity.
empiricism n
the philosophical doctrine that all knowledge comes from experience.
This can be contrasted with rationalism, which holds that knowledge
comes from basic concepts known intuitively through reason, such as
innate ideas (see INNATIST HYPOTHESIS).
empowerment n
the provision or development of skills, abilities, knowledge and infor-
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English as a foreign language
mation that could help someone improve his or her conditions.
Empowerment is often viewed as a goal to assist people with low status,
influence and power increase their chances of prosperity, power, and
prestige. In some contexts second language courses seek not merely to
teach language skills but to empower students to seek action to redress
injustices they experience. Literacy and biliteracy are major means of
empowering individuals and groups.
empty category n
(in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR), a category that has no surface realization.
see also TRACE
empty word n
see CONTENT WORD
enabling skills n
another term for MICRO-SKILLS
encoding n encode v
the process of turning a message into a set of symbols, as part of the act
of communication.
In encoding speech, the speaker must:
a select a meaning to be communicated
b turn it into linguistic form using semantic systems (e.g. concepts,
PROPOSITIONs, grammatical systems (e.g. words, phrases, clauses), and
phonological systems (e.g. PHONEMEs, SYLLABLEs).
Different systems of communication make use of different types of symbols
to encode messages (e.g. pictorial representation, Morse code, drum beats).
see also DECODING
encoding specificity principle n
a principle of MEMORY that states that memory is improved when the
information available at the time of encoding is also available at retrieval.
For example, if one has learned a language in natural settings, it can be
quite difficult to recall specific vocabulary words when removed from the
environment in which they were learned.
En-form n
a term referring to the past participle form of a verb in English, e.g. fallen.
English as a foreign language n
also EFL
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English as an international language
see ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE
English as an international language n
a term used to characterize the status of English as the world’s major
second language and the commonest language used for international
business, trade, travel, communication, etc. Like the term World
Englishes, the notion of International Language recognizes that different
norms exist for the use of English around the world and that British,
American, Australian or other mother-tongue varieties of English are not
necessarily considered appropriate targets either for learning or for com-
munication in countries where English is used for cross-cultural or cross-
linguistic communication – for example, when a Brazilian and a
Japanese businessperson use English to negotiate a business contract.
The type of English used on such occasions need not necessarily be
based on native speaker varieties of English but will vary according to
the mother tongue of the people speaking it and the purposes for which
it is being used.
English as a second dialect n
also ESD
the role of standard English (see STANDARD VARIETY) for those who speak
other dialects of English.
see also BIDIALECTAI, BILINGUAL EDUCATION
English as a second language n
also ESL
a basic term with several somewhat different definitions. In a loose sense,
English is the second language of anyone who learns it after learning their
FIRST LANGUAGE in infancy in the home. Using the term this way, no dis-
tinction is made between second language, third language, etc. However,
English as a SECOND LANGUAGE is often contrasted with English as a
foreign language. Someone who learns English in a formal classroom set-
ting, with limited or no opportunities for use outside the classroom, in a
country in which English does not play an important role in internal com-
munication (China, Japan, and Korea, for example), is said to be learning
English as a foreign language. Someone who learns English in a setting in
which the language is necessary for everyday life (for example, an immi-
grant learning English in the US) or in a country in which English plays
an important role in education, business, and government (for example in
Singapore, the Philippines, India, and Nigeria) is learning English as a
second language.
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English only
English as a second language programme n
also ESL/ESOL programme
a programme for teaching English to speakers of other languages in
English-speaking countries. ESL programmes are generally based on par-
ticular language teaching methods and teach language skills (speaking,
understanding, reading, and writing). They may be school programmes
for immigrant and other non-English-speaking children, used together
with BILINGUAL EDUCATION or with regular school programmes, or com-
munity programmes for adults.
English for academic purposes n
also EAP
see ENGLISH FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES
English for general purposes n
also EGP
see ENGLISH FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES
English for science and technology n
also EST
see ENGLISH FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES
English for Speakers of Other Languages n
also ESOL
see ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE (1)
English for special purposes n
also English for specific purposes, ESP
the role of English in a language course or programme of instruction in
which the content and aims of the course are fixed by the specific needs
of a particular group of learners. For example courses in English for aca-
demic purposes, English for science and technology, and English for
Nursing. These courses may be compared with those which aim to teach
general language proficiency, English for general purposes.
see also LANGUAGES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES
English medium school n
a school in which English is used as the major medium of instruction. This
term is usually used in countries where English is a SECOND LANGUAGE.
English only n
a term for a movement and philosophy in the US that seeks to make
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English plus
English the official language of the US and to discourage the use of bilin-
gual education.
English plus n
a term for a movement and philosophy in the US that advocates the belief
that all US residents should have the opportunity to become proficient in
a language other than English.
entailment n
a relationship between two or more sentences (strictly speaking PROPOSI-
TIONs). If knowing that one sentence is true gives us certain knowledge of
the truth of the second sentence, then the first sentence entails the second.
Entailment is concerned with the meaning of the sentence itself (see
UTTERANCE MEANING). It does not depend on the context in which a sen-
tence is used.
see also IMPLICATION, UTTERANCE MEANING, PRESUPPOSTION
entry n
(in teaching) that part of a lesson which begins it. An effective lesson is
said to focus learners’ attention on the lesson, inform them of the goals of
the lesson and what they are expected to learn, and serve as an “organ-
izer”, preparing them for an upcoming activity.
see also CLOSURE
entry test n
another term for PLACEMENT TEST
epenthesis n epenthetic adj
the addition of a vowel or consonant at the beginning of a word or between
sounds. This often happens in language learning when the language which
is being learned has different combinations of vowels or consonants from
the learner’s first language. For example, Spanish learners of English often
say [espiNk] espeak for speak, as Spanish does not have words starting with
the CONSONANT CLUSTER /sp/. Many speakers of other languages do
not use combinations like the /lm/ or /lp/ of English and add an epenthetic
vowel, for example [f∂l°m] filem for film, and [hel°p] helep for help.
see also ELISION, INTRUSION
epiphenomenalism n
the theory that events in the nervous system give rise to consciousness, but
consciousness cannot effect events in the nervous system. That is,
thoughts have no effect on behaviour.
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equivalent forms
episodic memory n
that part of the MEMORY which is organized in terms of personal experi-
ences and episodes.
For example, if a subject was asked the question “What were you doing
on Friday night at 7 pm?” he or she may think of all the things that hap-
pened from 5 pm up to 7 pm. The person builds up a sequence of events
or episodes to help find the wanted information. Episodic memory may
be contrasted with semantic memory. Semantic memory is that part of the
memory in which words are organized according to semantic groups or
classes. Words are believed to be stored in long term memory according
to their semantic properties. Thus canary is linked in memory to bird, and
rose is linked to flower. These links are a part of semantic memory.
equated forms n
two or more forms of a test whose test scores have been transformed onto
the same scale so that a comparison across different forms of a test is
made possible. For example, if both X and Y are equated forms of test Z,
the test takers’ scores will not be affected by which form of the test they
take (i.e. X or Y).
equating n
also test equating
a process of establishing the scores that are equivalent on multiple forms
of a test that measure the same TRAIT. Equating enables the scores of the
equated forms of a test to be used interchangeably.
equative adj
also equational
a sentence in which the SUBJECT and COMPLEMENT refer to the same person
or thing is called an equative sentence.
For example, the English sentence:
Susan is the girl I was talking about.
subject complement
equilibration n
another term for ADAPTATION2
equivalent form reliability n
another term for ALTERNATE FORM RELIABILITY
equivalent forms n
another term for PARALLEL FORMS
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ergative
ergative adj
a term originally referring to languages in which the complement of a
transitive verb and the subject of an intransitive verb are assigned the
same CASE1. By extension, sometimes used to refer to English verbs such
as break, which can occur in sentences such as He broke the window and
The window broke, where the window seems to have the same THEMATIC
ROLE in the two sentences even though on the surface it is object in one
sentence and subject in the other.
ergative verb n
a verb which can be used both transitively and intransitively with the
same meaning. For example, boil in:
He boiled a kettle of water.
The kettle boiled.
error n
1 (in the speech or writing of a second or foreign language learner), the
use of a linguistic item (e.g. a word, a grammatical item, a SPEECH ACT,
etc.) in a way which a fluent or native speaker of the language regards as
showing faulty or incomplete learning. A distinction is sometimes made
between an error, which results from incomplete knowledge, and a mis-
take made by a learner when writing or speaking and which is caused by
lack of attention, fatigue, carelessness, or some other aspect of PERFORM-
ANCE. Errors are sometimes classified according to vocabulary (lexical
error), pronunciation (phonological error), grammar (syntactic error),
misunderstanding of a speaker’s intention or meaning (interpretive error),
production of the wrong communicative effect, e.g. through the faulty use
of a speech act or one of the RULES OF SPEAKING (pragmatic error). In the
study of second and foreign language learning, errors have been studied
to discover the processes learners make use of in learning and using a lan-
guage (see ERROR ANALYSIS).
2 see under SPEECH ERROR.
see also DEVELOPMENTAL ERROR, GLOBAL ERROR
error analysis n
the study and analysis of the ERRORs made by second language learners.
Error analysis may be carried out in order to:
a identify strategies which learners use in language learning
b try to identify the causes of learner errors
c obtain information on common difficulties in language learning, as an
aid to teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials.
Error analysis developed as a branch of APPLIED LINGUISTICS in the 1960s,
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error of measurement
and set out to demonstrate that many learner errors were not due to the
learner’s mother tongue but reflected universal learning strategies. Error
analysis was therefore offered as an alternative to CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS.
Attempts were made to develop classifications for different types of errors
on the basis of the different processes that were assumed to account for
them. A basic distinction was drawn between intralingual and interlingual
errors (see INTERLINGUAL ERROR). Intralingual errors were classified as
overgeneralizations (errors caused by extension of target language rules to
inappropriate contexts), simplifications (errors resulting from learners
producing simpler linguistic rules than those found in the target language),
developmental errors (those reflecting natural stages of development),
communication-based errors (errors resulting from strategies of communi-
cation), induced errors (those resulting from transfer of training), errors of
avoidance (resulting from failure to use certain target language structures
because they are thought to be too difficult), or errors of overproduction
(structures being used too frequently). Attempts to apply such categories
have been problematic however, due to the difficulty of determining the
cause of errors. By the late 1970s, error analysis had largely been super-
seded by studies of INTERLANGUAGE and SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION.
error correction n
strategies used by a teacher or more advanced learner to correct errors in
a learner’s speech. Error correction may be direct (teacher supplies the
correct form) or indirect (the teacher points out the problem and asks the
learner to correct it if possible).
see also FEEDBACK, RECAST
error gravity n
a measure of the effect that errors made by people speaking a second or
foreign language have on communication or on other speakers of the lan-
guage. The degree of error gravity of different kinds of errors (e.g. errors
of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, etc.) varies; some errors have
little effect, some cause irritation, while others may cause communication
difficulties.
For example, in the sentences below, a causes greater interference with
communication than b and shows a greater degree of error gravity.
a *Since the harvest was good, was rain a lot last year.
b *The harvest was good last year, because plenty of rain.
error of measurement n
also measurement error, error score
an estimate of the discrepancy between test takers’ TRUE SCOREs and their
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error score
OBSERVED SCOREs. Error can be classified as either random or systematic.
Random or unsystematic errors are those that affect a test taker’s score
because of purely random happenings (e.g. guessing, problems with test
administration or scoring errors), whereas systematic errors are those that
consistently affect a test taker’s score because of factors associated with a
test taker or a test that are not related to the TRAIT being measured (e.g.
a cultural bias in a test of reading comprehension).
see also CLASSICAL TEST THEORY, STANDARD ERROR OF MEASUREMENT
error score n
another term for ERROR OF MEASUREMENT
ESD n
an abbreviation for ENGLISH AS A SECOND DIALECT
ESL n
an abbreviation for ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE
ESOL n
an abbreviation for English for Speakers of Other Languages (see ENGLISH
AS A SECOND LANGUAGE (1))
ESP n
an abbreviation for ENGLISH FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES
essay n
(in composition) a longer piece of writing, particularly one that is written
by a student as part of a course of study or by a writer writing for publi-
cation which expresses the writer’s viewpoint on a topic.
see also METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT
essay test n
a SUBJECTIVE TEST in which a person is required to write an extended piece
of text on a set topic.
EST n
an abbreviation for English for Science and Technology
see ENGLISH FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES
ethnocentrism n
the belief that the values, beliefs and behaviours of one’s own group are
superior to those of others.
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ethnomethodology
ethnographic research n
see ETHNOGRAPHY
ethnography n
a branch of anthropology concerned with the detailed descriptive study of
living cultures. The related field of ethnology compares the cultures of dif-
ferent societies or ethnic groups. As a research methodology, ethno-
graphic research requires avoidance of theoretical preconceptions and
hypothesis testing in favour of prolonged direct observation, especially
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION, attempting to see social action and the activities
of daily life from the participants’ point of view, resulting in a long
detailed description of what has been observed. In studies of language
learning and use, the term ethnographic research is sometimes used to
refer to the observation and description of naturally occurring language
(e.g. between mother and child or between teacher and students), par-
ticularly when there is a strong cultural element to the research or the
analysis. However, much of this research is quasi-ethnographic at best,
since the requirements of prolonged observation and THICK DESCRIPTION
are frequently not met.
ethnography of communication n
the study of the place of language in culture and society. Language is not
studied in isolation but within a social and/or cultural setting.
Ethnography of communication studies, for example, how people in a
particular group or community communicate with each other and how
the social relationships between these people affect the type of language
they use.
The concept of an ethnography of communication was advocated by the
American social anthropologist and linguist Hymes and this approach is
important in SOCIOLINGUISTICS and APPLIED LINGUISTICS.
see also COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE, ETHNOMETHODOLOGY, ROLE
RELATIONSHIP, SPEECH EVENT
ethnolinguistic adj
a set of cultural, ethnic and linguistic features shared by members of a cul-
tural, ethnic, or linguistic sub-group.
ethnology n
see ETHNOGRAPHY
ethnomethodology – ethnomethodologist n
a branch of sociology that studies how people organize and understand
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etymology
the activities of ordinary life. It studies people’s relations with each other
and how social interaction takes place between people.
Ethnomethodologists have studied such things as relationships between
children and adults, interviews, telephone conversation, and TURN
TAKING in conversation. Language is not the main interest of eth-
nomethodologists, but their observations on how language is used in
everyday activities such as conversation are of interest to linguists and
sociolinguists.
see also CONVERSATION ANALYSIS
etymology n etymological adj
the study of the origin of words, and of their history and changes in their
meaning.
For example, the etymology of the modern English noun fish can be
traced back to Old English fisc.
In some cases there is a change in meaning. For example the word meat,
which now normally means “animal flesh used as food”, is from the Old
English word mete which meant “food in general”.
euphemism n
the use of a word which is thought to be less offensive or unpleasant than
another word. For example, indisposed instead of sick, or to pass away,
instead of to die.
evaluation n
in general, the systematic gathering of information for purposes of
decision making. Evaluation may use quantitative methods (e.g. tests),
qualitative methods (e.g. observations, ratings (see RATING SCALE)), and
value judgements. In LANGUAGE PLANNING, evaluation frequently involves
gathering information on patterns of language use, language ability, and
attitudes towards language. In language programme evaluation, evalu-
ation is related to decisions about the quality of the programme itself and
decisions about individuals in the programmes. The evaluation of pro-
grammes may involve the study of CURRICULUM, OBJECTIVEs, materials,
and tests or grading systems. The evaluation of individuals involves
decisions about entrance to programmes, placement, progress, and
achievement. In evaluating both programmes and individuals, tests and
other measures are frequently used.
see also FORMATIVE EVALUATION, SUMMATIVE EVALUATION
evaluative comprehension n
see READING
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exclamation
evaluative question n
a DIVERGENT QUESTION which requires students to make an evaluation,
such as a question which asks students to say why they think a certain
kind of behaviour is good or bad.
see also QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES
evidence n
in LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, two types of evidence are important for the
learner. Positive evidence is evidence that something is possible in the lan-
guage being learned. For example, if a learner of Spanish encounters sen-
tences that have no subject, this serves as positive evidence that subjects
do not (always) have to be overtly expressed in Spanish. Negative evi-
dence is evidence that something is not possible. For example, in English,
one can say He sometimes goes there, Sometimes he goes there, or He goes
there sometimes, but it is ungrammatical to say *He goes sometimes there,
an order that is possible in some other languages (French, for example).
Direct negative evidence in this case would consist of an explicit correc-
tion made by a teacher or conversational partner. The non-occurrence of
such sentences in input may also constitute indirect negative evidence to
the learner, but a learner could think that even though he or she has not
heard such sentences they are possible. Some SLA theorists believe that
neither direct nor indirect negative evidence plays a role in language learn-
ing and that only positive evidence contributes to acquisition.
exact word method n
see CLOZE TEST
examination n
any procedure for measuring ability, knowledge, or performance. An
examination is normally a formally administered summative or profi-
ciency test usually administered by an institution or examination board.
The terms “examination” and “test” can be used interchangeably as there
seems to be no generally agreed-upon agreement regarding the distinction
between the two.
see TEST
examinee n
another term for TEST TAKER
exclamation1 n
an utterance, which may not have the structure of a full sentence, and
which shows strong emotion. For example: Good God! or Damn!
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exclamation
see also INTERJECTION
exclamation2 n
also exclamatory sentence
an utterance which shows the speaker’s or writer’s feelings. Exclamations
begin with a phrase using what or how but they do not reverse the order
of the subject and the auxiliary verb:
How clever she is!
What a good dog!
see also STATEMENT, QUESTION
exclusive (first person) pronoun n
a first person pronoun which does not include the person being spoken or
written to. In some languages there is a distinction between first person
plural pronouns which include the persons who are addressed (inclusive
pronouns) and those which do not (exclusive pronouns). For example, in
Malay:
exclusive inclusive
kami kita
“we” “we”
see also PERSONAL PRONOUNS
existential adj
(in linguistics) describes a particular type of sentence structure which
often expresses the existence or location of persons, animals, things, or
ideas.
In English, a common existential sentence structure is:
There a form of the verb be
For example:
There are four bedrooms in this house.
Another frequently used existential structure uses the verb to have.
For example:
English
This house has four bedrooms
Malay
Ada dua teksi di sini (“Have two taxis here”)
exit test n
a type of ACHIEVEMENT TEST that is given at the end of a course
expanded pidgin n
see PIDGIN
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experimental method
expansion n
see MODELLING
expectancy grammar n
see PRAGMATIC EXPECTANCY GRAMMAR
expectancy theory n
the theory that knowledge of a language includes knowing whether
a word or utterance is likely to occur in a particular context or
situation.
For example, in the sentence below, “expected” words in (1) and (2) are
dress and change:
When the girl fell into the water she wet the pretty (1) she was wearing
and had to go home and (2) it.
Knowledge of the expectancies of occurrence of language items is made
use of in the comprehension of language.
see also PRAGMATICS
expectancy-value theory n
refers to a variety of theories of MOTIVATION that assume that people are
motivated to do things that they perceive to have value and at which they
expect to succeed.
experiencer case n
see DATIVE CASE2
experiential verb n
a verb, such as the English verb feel, that has an EXPERIENCER CASE noun
as its subject.
experimental design n
see EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
experimental group n
see CONTROL GROUP
experimental method n
an approach to educational research in which an idea or HYPOTHESIS is
tested or verified by setting up situations in which the relationship
between different participants or variables can be determined (see
DEPENDENT VARIABLE). The plan for conducting an experimental study,
specifically the plan(s) for selecting participants, manipulating dependent
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expertise
variables, treatment, and collecting data is called the experimental
design.
expertise n
the special status someone obtains in performance of a task or occupation
through experience of a special kind resulting in
1 developing a better level of performance at doing something
2 an increased level of knowledge of particular domains
3 the development of automaticity in the carrying out of operations that
are needed to achieve a goal
4 an increased sensitivity to task demands and social situations when
solving problems
5 greater flexibility in performance
6 understand problems at a deeper level than novices
7 greater speed and accuracy in resolving problems
Work on expertise in teaching suggests that experienced teachers
process information about classrooms differently than do novices as a
result of a move from a teacher-centred to a more student-centred
approach to teaching. The role of experience in developing expertise is
problematic, since the two are not identical. Experience may develop
fluency in carrying out tasks but not necessarily expertise. In compar-
ing two teachers with a similar amount of teaching experience, one
may be characterized as a fluent non-expert, and the other as an
expert.
explanatory adequacy n
see GENERATIVE THEORY
explicit knowledge n
see IMPLICIT KNOWLEDGE
explicit learning n
learning language items (e.g. vocabulary) by means of overt strategies,
such as techniques of memorization. This may be contrasted with IMPLICIT
LEARNING which refers to learning primarily by means of unconscious
exposure to input.
see IMPLICIT LEARNING
explicit performative n
see PERFORMATIVE
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extensive reading
explicit teaching n
an approach in which information about a language is given to the learn-
ers directly by the teacher or textbook.
exploratory factor analysis n
see FACTOR ANALYSIS
exponent n
see FUNCTIONAL SYLLABUS
expository writing n
see MODES OF WRITING
expression n
in common usage, a phrase or group of words that has a fixed meaning,
such as “Goodness gracious me!”
expressive n
see SPEECH ACT CLASSIFICATION
expressive approach n
an approach to the teaching of second language writing in which students
focus on personal writing and development.
expressive function n
see FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
expressive writing n
writing in which the writer expresses personal feelings, emotions, experi-
ences, in personal letters, diaries, or autobiographies.
expressivist approach n
in the teaching of writing, the belief that the free expression of ideas
leads to self-discovery and that teachers should help students develop
their own ideas, voice, and stance in order to produce fresh and spon-
taneous prose.
extensive reading n
in language teaching, reading activities are sometimes classified as exten-
sive and intensive.
Extensive reading means reading in quantity and in order to gain a gen-
eral understanding of what is read. It is intended to develop good reading
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external speech
habits, to build up knowledge of vocabulary and structure, and to encour-
age a liking for reading.
Intensive reading is generally at a slower speed, and requires a higher
degree of understanding than extensive reading.
external speech n
see INNER SPEECH
external validity n
(in research design) the extent to which the results of an experimental
study can be generalized to the larger population from which participants
were drawn. Examples of threats to external validity include selection
bias where a group of participants in the study is sampled with BIAS or
pre-test sensitization where how participants respond to the TREATMENT
may be affected by the pre-test they took.
see also INTERNAL VALIDITY, GENERALIZABILITY
extinction n
see STIMULUS-RESPONSE THEORY
extraction n
a grammatical operation by which one CONSTITUENT is moved out of
another.
For example, in the sentence Who did you say that you saw?, the pronoun
who has been extracted from an embedded clause (you saw __) and
moved to the front of the sentence.
extralinguistic adj
describes those features in communication which are not directly a
part of verbal language but which either contribute in conveying a
MESSAGE, e.g. hand movements, facial expressions, etc., or have an
influence on language use, e.g. signalling a speaker’s age, sex, or
social class.
see also PARALINGUISTICS, SIGN LANGUAGE
extraposition n
the process of moving a word, phrase, or clause to a position in a sentence
which is different from the position it usually has.
For example, the subject of some sentences can be moved to the end of
the sentence:
a Trying to get tickets was difficult.
b It was difficult trying to get tickets.
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eye span
In sentence b It is called the anticipatory subject, and trying to get tickets
is called the postponed subject.
extrinsic motivation
see MOTIVATION
extrovert (also extravert) n extroversion (also extraversion) n
a person whose conscious interests and energies are more often directed
outwards towards other people and events than towards the person them-
self and their own inner experience. Such a personality type is contrasted
with an introvert, a person who tends to avoid social contact with others
and is often preoccupied with his or her inner feelings, thoughts and
experiences. Psychologists no longer believe that these are two distinct
personality types, since many people show aspects of both. Extroversion
and introversion have been discussed as PERSONALITY factors in second
language learning, though the contribution of either factor to learning is
not clear.
eye span n
see reading span
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F
face n
in communication between two or more persons, the positive image or
impression of oneself that one shows or intends to show to the other PAR-
TICIPANTs is called face. In any social meeting between people, the partici-
pants attempt to communicate a positive image of themselves which
reflects the values and beliefs of the participants. For example Ms Smith’s
“face” during a particular meeting might be that of “a sophisticated,
intelligent, witty, and educated person”. If this image is not accepted by
the other participants, feelings may be hurt and there is a consequent
“loss of face”. Social contacts between people thus involve what the soci-
ologist of language, Goffman, called face-work, that is, efforts by the par-
ticipants to communicate a positive face and to prevent loss of face. The
study of face and face-work is important in considering how languages
express POLITENESS.
see also POSITIVE FACE, NEGATIVE FACE
face threatening act n
also FTA
a SPEECH ACT that is potentially threatening to the FACE of a speaker or
hearer or threatening to the speaker or hearer’s freedom of action. For
example, apologies are potentially threatening to the good image of the
speaker, while complaints are threatening to the good image of the hearer;
requests potentially threaten the freedom of action of the hearer, while
promises threaten the freedom of action of the speaker. In Brown and
Levinson’s theory of POLITENESS, potential threat to face is also influenced
by SOCIAL DISTANCE and power relationships between speaker and hearer.
face to face interaction n
also face to face communication
communication between people in which the PARTICIPANTS are physically
present. In contrast there are some situations where speaker and hearer
may be in different locations, such as a telephone conversation.
face-to-face test n
see DIRECT TEST
face validity n
(in testing) the degree to which a test appears to measure the knowledge
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factor analysis
or abilities it claims to measure, based on the subjective judgement of an
observer. For example, if a test of reading comprehension contains many
dialect words that might be unknown to the test takers, the test may be
said to lack face validity.
see also VALIDITY
face-work n
see FACE
facility n
see ITEM FACILITY
facility index n
see ITEM FACILITY
facility value n
see ITEM FACILITY
factitive case n
(in CASE GRAMMAR) the noun or noun phrase which refers to something
which is made or created by the action of the verb is in the factitive case.
For example, in the sentence:
Tony built the shed.
the shed is in the factitive case.
However, in the sentence:
Tony repaired the shed
the shed is not in the factitive case as it already existed when the repair
work was done. In this sentence, the shed is in the OBJECTIVE CASE.
The factitive case is sometimes called the result (or resultative) case.
factive verb n
a verb followed by a clause which the speaker or writer considers to
express a fact.
For example, in:
I remember that he was always late.
remember is a factive verb.
Other factive verbs in English include regret, deplore, know, agree.
factor analysis n
a statistical procedure that is used to determine which unobserved latent
VARIABLEs2, called factors, account for the CORRELATIONs among different
observed variables. For example, if we give a group of students tests in
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false beginner
geometry, algebra, arithmetic, reading and writing, we can find out what
underlying factors are common to results on all these tests by using factor
analysis. A factor analysis might show that there are two factors in the
tests, one related to mathematics and the other related to language profi-
ciency. These factors may be interpreted as abilities or traits that these
tests measure to differing degrees. There are basically two types of factor
analysis: exploratory and confirmatory. Exploratory factor analysis, as its
name indicates, is used to explore a group of observed variables and
identify any underlying variables that might explain the relationships
among the observed variables, whereas confirmatory factor analysis,
again as its name indicates, is used to test or confirm a hypothesized
factor structure of a group of observed variables, specified a priori on the
basis of some underlying theory or previous research, to see if the pro-
posed factor structure is adequate to explain the relationships among the
observed variables.
false beginner n
(in language teaching) a learner who has had a limited amount of pre-
vious instruction in a language, but who because of extremely limited lan-
guage proficiency is classified as at the beginning level of language
instruction. A false beginner is sometimes contrasted with a true beginner,
i.e. someone who has no knowledge of the language.
false cognate n
also faux amis, false friend
a word which has the same or very similar form in two languages, but
which has a different meaning in each. The similarity may cause a second
language learner to use the word wrongly. For example, the French word
expérience means “experiment”, and not “experience”. French learners
of English might thus write or say: Yesterday we performed an interesting
experience in the laboratory.
False cognates may be identified by CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS.
familiarity n
a measure of how frequently a linguistic item is thought to be used, or the
degree to which it is known. This may be measured by asking people to
show on a RATING SCALE whether they think they use a given word or
structure never, sometimes, or often. Word familiarity has been used as a
way of selecting vocabulary for language teaching.
faux amis n
another term for FALSE COGNATE
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feminine
feature n
a property of a linguistic item which helps to mark it in certain ways, either
singling it out from similar items or classifying it into a group with others.
For example, the English phoneme /b/ has the feature voice, it is a voiced
stop. By this feature it can be distinguished from /p/, an unvoiced stop, or
classified together with /d/ and /g/, other voiced stops.
Features can be used in all levels of linguistic analysis, e.g. phonetics, mor-
phology, syntax. They can even form the basis of linguistic theories.
see DISTINCTIVE FEATURE, COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS
feedback n
any information that provides information on the result of behaviour.
For example, in PHONETICS, feedback is both air- and bone-conducted.
This is why we do not sound to ourselves as we sound to others and find
tape-recordings of our own voices to be odd and often embarrassing.
In DISCOURSE ANALYSIS, feedback given while someone is speaking is some-
times called back channelling, for example comments such as uh, yeah,
really, smiles, headshakes, and grunts that indicate success or failure in
communication.
In teaching, feedback refers to comments or other information that learn-
ers receive concerning their success on learning tasks or tests, either from
the teacher or other persons.
see also AUDITORY FEEDBACK, EVIDENCE, ERROR CORRECTION, KINESTHETIC
FEEDBACK, PROPRIOCEPTIVE FEEDBACK, RECAST
feeding order n
see BLEEDING ORDER
felicity conditions n
(in SPEECH ACT THEORY) the conditions which must be fulfilled for a speech
act to be satisfactorily performed or realized. For example, the sentence I
promise the sun will set today cannot be considered as a true promise,
because we can only make promises about future acts which are under
our control. The felicity conditions necessary for promises are:
a A sentence is used which states a future act of the speaker.
b The speaker has the ability to do the act.
c The hearer prefers the speaker to do the act rather than not to do it.
d The speaker would not otherwise usually do the act.
e The speaker intends to do the act.
feminine adj
see GENDER2
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field
field n
see LEXICAL FIELD
field dependence – field dependent adj
a learning style in which a learner tends to look at the whole of a learn-
ing task which contains many items. The learner has difficulty in study-
ing a particular item when it occurs within a “field” of other items.
A field independent learning style is one in which a learner is able to
identify or focus on particular items and is not distracted by other items
in the background or context.
Field dependence and independence have been studied as a difference of
COGNITIVE STYLE in language learning.
field experiences n
(in teacher education) opportunities which are provided for student
teachers to participate in real teaching situations, i.e. which involve stu-
dent teachers teaching students in a school or classroom and which enable
him or her to assume the role of a teacher, to gain teaching experience,
and to experience teaching as a profession.
field independence n
see FIELD DEPENDENCE
field methods n
see FIELDWORK
field of discourse n
see SOCIAL CONTEXT
field research n
see FIELDWORK
field testing n
also field trial, pilot testing
in the production of instructional materials, the try-out of materials
before publication or further development in order to determine their
suitability or effectiveness and to determine the reactions of teachers and
learners to the materials.
fieldwork n
also field research
the collection of data by observation or recording in as natural a setting
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fillers
as possible. Different procedures (called field methods) are used to obtain
data. For example:
a the recording of speakers to obtain speech samples for analysis of
sounds, sentence structures, lexical use, etc. The people recorded may
be native speakers of a particular language or speakers using a SECOND
LANGUAGE.
b interviews, e.g. in bilingual or multilingual communities, to obtain
information on language choice and/or attitudes to language.
c observation and/or video recording of verbal or non-verbal behaviour
in a particular situation (see PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION).
The collection and the use of data (empirical investigation) plays
an important part in the research work of many applied linguists and
sociolinguists.
figure of speech n
a word or phrase which is used for special effect, and which does not
have its usual or literal meaning. The two most common figures of
speech are the simile and the metaphor but there are many other less
common ones.
A simile is an expression in which something is compared to something
else by the use of a FUNCTION WORD such as like or as. In Tom eats like a
horse, Tom’s appetite is compared to that of a horse. My hands are as
cold as ice means that my hands are very cold.
In a metaphor, no function words are used. Something is described by
stating another thing with which it can be compared.
In Her words stabbed at his heart. The words did not actually stab, but
their effect is compared to the stabbing of a knife.
Metaphors are important means by which words carry both cultural and
semantic meanings, and each language has its own metaphors that have
accumulated over time and that must be learned by second and foreign
language learners.
filled pause n
see PAUSING
fillers n
expressions speakers use to create a delay or hesitation during conversa-
tion, enabling them to carry on the conversation during times of diffi-
culty, e.g. “well”, “I mean”, “Actually”, “You know”, “Let me think”.
The use of fillers in second language communication is an aspect of
STRATEGIC COMPETENCE.
see PAUSING
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final
final adj
occurring at the end of a linguistic unit, e.g. word final, clause final.
For example, a group of consonants at the end of a word such as st in the
English word list is called a final CONSONANT CLUSTER.
see also INITIAL, MEDIAL, SYLLABLE
final e n
also silent e
the spelling pattern in English in which when e is the last letter in a word
it is not pronounced, as in bite, late. Final e often signals a long vowel
sound for the preceding vowel letter.
final intake n
see INTAKE
finger spelling n
a kind of signing behaviour (see SIGN LANGUAGE) which has been devel-
oped to help hearing-impaired persons communicate. Finger spelling pro-
vides a manual alphabet which is used to spell out words using the fingers.
finite verb n
a form of a verb which is marked to show that it is related to a subject in
PERSON and/or NUMBER, and which shows TENSE1. A non-finite verb form
is not marked according to differences in the person or number of the sub-
ject, and has no tense. The INFINITIVE and the PARTICIPLEs are non-finite
forms of verbs in English. For example:
We want to leave.
She wants
I wanted
finite verb non-finite
forms form
first language n
(generally) a person’s mother tongue or the language acquired first. In
multilingual communities, however, where a child may gradually shift
from the main use of one language to the main use of another (e.g.
because of the influence of a school language), first language may refer
to the language the child feels most comfortable using. Often this term is
used synonymously with NATIVE LANGUAGE. First language is also known
as L1.
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flap
first language acquisition n
the process of learning a native language. First language acquisition
has been studied primarily by linguists, developmental psychologists,
and psycholinguists. Most explanations of how children learn to speak
and understand language involve the influence of both the linguistic
input to which children are exposed in social interaction with their
parents and other caregivers and a natural aptitude for grammar that
is unique to humans. However, proponents of UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR
and the INNATIST POSITION, proponents of COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY and
EMERGENTISM, and those who view language acquisition in terms of
LANGUAGE SOCIALIZATION disagree strongly on the relative importance
of these factors.
first language attrition n
see LANGUAGE ATTRITION
fixation pause n
(in reading) the brief periods when the eyeball is resting and during which
the visual input required for reading takes place. The jump from one fix-
ation point to another is known as a saccade.
see also READING SPAN
fixed ratio deletion n
also nth word deletion
see CLOZE TEST
fixed response item n
see TEST ITEM
fixed stress n
STRESS which occurs regularly on the same syllable in a word in a par-
ticular language.
Languages which rigidly follow a fixed stress pattern are rare. There are
always exceptions to the rule but Hungarian, for instance, usually stresses
the first syllable of a word, and Polish usually stresses the second syllable
from the end of a word (the penultimate syllable).
see also FREE STRESS
flap n
also tap
an articulation in which the tongue briefly touches a firm surface of the
mouth once. An ALVEOLAR flap ALLOPHONE of /t/ is heard in many
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flashcard
American pronunciations of words such as little, city, dirty, while in
British English the /r/ in very is such a flap or tap.
see also FRICTIONLESS CONTINUANT, MANNER OF ARTICULATION, PLACE OF
ARTICULATION, ROLL
flashcard n
(in language teaching) a card with words, sentences, or pictures on it,
used as an aid or CUE in a language lesson.
FLES n
an abbreviation for FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
floor effect n
see BOUNDARY EFFECT
fluency n fluent adj
the features which give speech the qualities of being natural and normal,
including native-like use of PAUSING, rhythm, INTONATION, STRESS, rate of
speaking, and use of interjections and interruptions. If speech disorders
cause a breakdown in normal speech (e.g. as with APHASIA or stuttering), the
resulting speech may be referred to as dysfluent, or as an example of
dysfluency.
In second and foreign language teaching, fluency describes a level of pro-
ficiency in communication, which includes:
a the ability to produce written and/or spoken language with ease
b the ability to speak with a good but not necessarily perfect command
of intonation, vocabulary, and grammar
c the ability to communicate ideas effectively
d the ability to produce continuous speech without causing comprehen-
sion difficulties or a breakdown of communication.
It is sometimes contrasted with accuracy, which refers to the ability to
produce grammatically correct sentences but may not include the ability
to speak or write fluently.
fluent reader n
a person who reads without effort, with few hesitations, and with a good
level of comprehension.
focus n
an element or phrase that contains new information can be put “into
focus” in various ways,. For example, to signal that John is the new infor-
mation in the sentence I saw John at the market, one can use emphatic or
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foreigner talk
contrastive STRESS (I saw JOHN at the market) or a CLEFT SENTENCE (It
was John who I saw at the market).
see also FUNCTIONAL SENTENCE PERSPECTIVE, GROUNDING
focused interview n
an interview that explores a particular aspect of an event or situation,
particularly with a group of individuals who have had similar experience
of the event. For example, in language programme evaluation a focused
interview may be held with teachers to find out how well students are
reacting to a new set of teaching materials.
See also DEPTH INTERVIEW, GUIDED INTERVIEW
focus on form n
in general terms, any focusing of attention on the formal linguistic charac-
teristics of language, as opposed to a pure focus on meaning in communi-
cation. In a more technical sense, focus on form has been defined as a brief
allocation of attention to linguistic form as the need for this arises inci-
dentally, in the context of communication. This may be contrasted with a
focus on forms (plural), referring to the kind of focus on one form (or rule)
at a time that one finds in a language course where there is a “structure of
the day”, usually pre-specified by the teacher or the textbook.
see also CONSCIOUSNESS RAISING
focus on forms n
see FOCUS ON FORM
foreground(ed) information n
see GROUNDING
foreigner talk n
the type of speech often used by native speakers of a language when
speaking to foreigners who are not proficient in the language. Some of the
characteristics of foreigner talk are:
a it is slower and louder than normal speech, often with exaggerated pro-
nunciation
b it uses simpler vocabulary and grammar. For example, articles, func-
tion words, and INFLECTIONs may be omitted, and complex verb forms
are replaced by simpler ones.
c topics are sometimes repeated or moved to the front of sentences, for
example: Your bag? Where you leave your bag?
Native speakers often feel that this type of speech is easier for foreigners
to understand.
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foreignism
see also ACCOMMODATION, CARETAKER SPEECH, PIDGIN, INTERLANGUAGE
foreignism n
a person’s use of a word or expression from another language when
speaking one’s native language in order to create a special effect or to
indicate special knowledge. (This should not be confused with the use of
a LOAN word.) For example, when a speaker of Indonesian uses words
from Dutch or English to indicate their familiarity with those languages
or when a speaker of English uses a word from French or German (with
a French or German pronunciation), as in “I think he lacks a certain
panache.”
foreign language n
a language which is not the NATIVE LANGUAGE of large numbers of people
in a particular country or region, is not used as a medium of instruction
in schools, and is not widely used as a medium of communication in gov-
ernment, media, etc. Foreign languages are typically taught as school sub-
jects for the purpose of communicating with foreigners or for reading
printed materials in the language.
see also SECOND LANGUAGE, INDIGENOUS LANGUAGE
foreign language experience (FLEX) n
an approach to foreign language teaching in the elementary school in the
US which seeks to provide a general exposure to the foreign language and
culture and to teach students to use a limited set of words, phrases and
conversational expressions. Such a programme is generally less intensive
than a FLES programme.
see FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
foreign languages in the elementary school n
also FLES
1 the teaching of foreign languages in elementary schools
2 the name of a movement which aims to increase the amount of foreign
language teaching in elementary schools in the USA
Foreign Service Institute n
also FSI
a US Government agency responsible for language teaching and the
accreditation of foreign service personnel, widely known in the foreign
language teaching and testing community for its language proficiency
scale with six levels, ranging from Level 0 (i.e. no functional proficiency)
to Level 5 (i.e. native-like proficiency).
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form
see also INTERAGENCY LANGUAGE ROUND TABLE, ACTFL PROFICIENCY GUIDE-
LINES, AUSTRALIAN SECOND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY RATINGS
Foreign Service Institute Oral Interview n
also FSI
a technique for testing the spoken language proficiency of adult foreign
language learners. The technique was developed by the United States
Foreign Service Institute. It consists of a set of RATING SCALEs which
are used to judge pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and fluency
during a 30 minute interview between the learner and, usually, two
interviewers.
forensic linguistics n
also language and the law
a branch of applied linguistics that investigates issues of language in
relation to the law, drawing on resources from SEMANTICS, ACOUSTIC PHO-
NETICS, DISCOURSE ANALYSIS, PRAGMATICS, SOCIOLINGUISTICS, and other
fields. Issues of concern include forensic identification (speaker identifi-
cation in legal cases through handwriting analysis or speech analysis);
INTERPRETATION for the police and courts; the semantics of legal termin-
ology (e.g. the legal meanings of murder, manslaughter, homicide); the
discourse of police interrogations and legal proceedings; ACCENT DIS-
CRIMINATION; and the problems faced by non-native speakers and mem-
bers of minority speech communities when dealing with the judicial
system.
forensic identification n
see FORENSIC LINGUISTICS
form n
the means by which an element of language is expressed in speech or
writing. Forms can be shown by the standard writing system for a
language or by phonetic or phonemic symbols. For example, in
English:
written form spoken form
house /haÁs/
Often a distinction is made between the spoken or written form of a lin-
guistic unit and its meaning or function.
For example, in English the written form -s and the spoken forms /s/ and
/z/ have a common function. They show the plural of nouns:
/kìts/ cats /dígz//d…Ngz/ dogs
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form class
form class n
(in linguistics) a group of items which can be used in similar positions in
a structure.
For example, in the sentence:
The . . . is here.
the words dog, book, evidence, etc. could be used. They all belong to the
same form class of nouns.
see also WORD CLASS, OPEN CLASS
form-focused instruction n
teaching which focuses on control of formal aspects of language such as the
grammatical features of a specific type of discourse or text, e.g. narrative.
form-function relation n
the relationship between the physical characteristics of a thing (i.e. its
form) and its role or function. This distinction is often referred to in study-
ing language use, because a linguistic form (e.g. the imperative) can per-
form a variety of different functions, as the following examples illustrate.
Imperative forms Communicative functions
Come round for a drink. invitation
Watch out. warning
Tum left at the corner. direction
Pass the sugar. request
form of address n
another term for ADDRESS FORM
form word n
see CONTENT WORD
formal assessment n
tests given under conditions that ensure the assessment of individual per-
formance in any given area
see also INFORMAL ASSESSMENT
formal competence n
see COMPETENCE, COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
formal grammar n
an approach to grammatical analysis and description in which the aim is
to investigate grammatical structures as primitives to be explained in
terms of their contribution to the systematic nature of language.
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formative evaluation
formal operational stage n
see COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
formal schema n
see CONTENT SCHEMA
formal speech n
a careful, impersonal and often public mode of speaking used in certain
situations and which may influence pronunciation, choice of words and
sentence structure. For example the following when said by a speaker at
a function:
Ladies and gentlemen, it gives me great pleasure to be here tonight.
see also, STYLE, COLLOQUIAL SPEECH, STYLISTIC VARIATION
formal universal n
see LANGUAGE UNIVERSAL
formant n
in ACOUSTIC PHONETICS, a group of overtones corresponding to a resonat-
ing frequency of the air in the vocal tract, used to classify vowel sounds.
format n
in a language test, the tasks and activities that test takers are required to
do (e.g. TRUE/FALSE ITEM or MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEM format)
formative n
(in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR) the minimum grammatical unit in a language.
For example, in:
The drivers started the engines.
the formatives would be:
the drive er s start ed the engine s
see also MORPHEME
formative evaluation n
the process of providing information to curriculum developers during the
development of a curriculum or programme, in order to improve it.
Formative evaluation is also used in syllabus design and the development
of language teaching programmes and materials.
Summative evaluation is the process of providing information to decision
makers, after the programme is completed, about whether or not the pro-
gramme was effective and successful.
see also EVALUATION
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formative test
formative test n
a test that is given during a course of instruction and that informs both
the student and the teacher how well the student is doing. A formative test
includes only topics that have been taught, and shows whether the stu-
dent needs extra work or attention. It is usually a pass or fail test. If a stu-
dent fails, he/she is able to do more study and take the test again.
see also TEST, SUMMATIVE TEST
formula n (plural formulae or formulas)
another term for FORMULAIC LANGUAGE
formulaic expression n
another term for FORMULAIC LANGUAGE
formulaic language n
also formulae (or formulas), formulaic expression, formulaic sequence
sequences of words that are stored and retrieved as a unit from memory
at the time of use, rather than generated online using the full resources of
the grammar of the language. Researchers have used many different terms
for this phenomenon, including prefabricated routines, routine formulae,
stock utterances, lexical phrases or lexicalized phrases, institutionalized
utterances, and unanalyzed chunks. Formulaic sequences may be semanti-
cally transparent and grammatically regular (e.g. “I’ll see you tomorrow,”
“with best wishes,” “thank you very much”) or irregular in their form and
meaning, as is the case with IDIOMs. Formulaic sequences may be learned
initially as a unit, without an understanding of their internal structure, and
later analyzed so that internal elements can be used productively; formu-
laic sequences can also be constructed from smaller units but stored as a
unit for future use, a process called fusion. Some formulae have open slots
and are called lexicalized sentence stems, e.g. “Who the [expletive] does
[pronoun] think [pronoun] is?” Formulaic language is believed to have
several functions, including conserving processing resources, enhancing
both FLUENCY and IDIOMATICITY, and realizing specific interactional func-
tions. Formulaic sequences that primarily function to organize discourse
(e.g. “In the first place,” “So what you are saying is X”) are often referred
to as conversational routines or gambits. Formulaic sequences associated
with a specific SPEECH ACT (e.g. “I really like your [noun],” “If it’s not too
much trouble, could you X?”) are sometimes called politeness formulas.
formulaic sequence n
another term for FORMULAIC LANGUAGE
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free form
formulaic speech n
another term for FORMULAIC LANGUAGE
fortis adj
describes a CONSONANT which is produced with a relatively greater amount
of muscular force and breath, e.g. in English /p/, /t/, and /k/. The opposite
to fortis is lenis, which describes consonants which are produced with less
muscular effort and little or no ASPIRATION, e.g. in English /b/, /d/, and /g/.
see MANNER OF ARTICULATION, VOICE2
fossilization n fossilized adj
(in second or foreign language learning) a process which sometimes
occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part
of the way a person speaks or writes a language. Aspects of pronun-
ciation, vocabulary usage, and grammar may become fixed or fos-
silized in second or foreign language learning. Fossilized features of
pronunciation contribute to a person’s foreign accent. Some researchers
are sceptical of the existence of true fossilization, which implies the
impossibility of future change, and prefer the term stabilization
instead.
see also INTERLANGUAGE
fragment n
see SENTENCE FRAGMENT
frame n
another term for SCRIPT
framing n
(in teaching) a QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE in which the teacher provides a
frame for a question by asking a question, pausing, and then calling on a
student response. This is said to increase students’ attention to the ques-
tion and thus improve the effectiveness of the question.
see also QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES, WAIT TIME
free composition n
see COMPOSITION
free form n
also free morpheme
see BOUND FORM
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free practice
free practice n
another term for production stage see STAGE
free recall n
see RECALL
free response item n
see TEST ITEM
free stress n
STRESS which does not occur regularly on the same syllable in words in a
particular language.
For example, English has free stress. The main stress may occur:
on the first syllable: e.g. `interval
on the second syllable: in`terrogate
on the third syllable: e.g. inter`ference
see also FIXED STRESS
free translation n
see TRANSLATION
free variation n
when two or more linguistic items occur in the same position without any
apparent change of meaning they are said to be in free variation.
For example, who and whom in the English sentence:
The man who we saw.
whom
Such variations are now often considered as social variations or stylistic
variations.
see also VARIABLE, VARIATION
freewriting n
also timed freewriting, quickwriting, quickwrite
(in teaching composition) a pre-writing activity (see COMPOSING PRO-
CESSES) in which students write as much as possible about a topic within
a given time period (for example, 3 minutes) without stopping. The goal
is to produce as much writing as possible without worrying about gram-
mar or accuracy, in order to develop fluency in writing and to produce
ideas which might be used in a subsequent writing task.
Frege’s principle n
another term for the COMPOSITIONALITY PRINCIPLE
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frictionless continuant
frequency1 n
see SOUND WAVE
frequency2 n
the number of occurrences of a linguistic item in a text or CORPUS.
Different linguistic items have different frequencies of occurrence in
speech and writing. In English, FUNCTION WORDs (e.g. a, the, to, etc.)
occur more frequently than verbs, nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Word
frequency counts are used to select vocabulary for language teaching, in
lexicography, in the study of literary style in STYLISTICS, and in TEXT
LINGUISTICS.
The twenty most frequently occurring words in a corpus of over one mil-
lion words in a study of written American English by Kucera and Francis
were:
the, of, and, to, a, in, that, is, was, he, for, it, with, as, his, on, be, at,
by, I.
frequency count n
a count of the total number of occurrences of linguistic items (e.g. sylla-
bles, phonemes, words, etc.) in a corpus of language, such as a written
text or a sample of spoken language. The study of the frequency of occur-
rence of linguistic items is known as language statistics and is a part of
COMPUTATIONAL and MATHEMATICAL LINGUISTICS. A frequency count of the
vocabulary occurring in a text or opus is known as a word frequency
count or word frequency list.
frequency polygon n
see DISTRIBUTION
fricative n
also spirant
a speech sound produced by narrowing the distance between two articu-
lators so that the airstream is not completely closed but obstructed
enough that a turbulent airflow is produced, as in the English /f/, /v/, /s/
and /z/ sounds in enough, valve, sister, and zoo.
frictionless continuant n
a speech sound (a CONSONANT) which is produced by allowing the
airstream from the lungs to move through the mouth and/or nose without
friction.
For example, for some speakers of English the /r/ in /r°Áz/ rose is a fric-
tionless continuant.
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front vowel
In terms of their articulation, frictionless continuants are very like vowels,
but they function as consonants.
see also NASAL, LATERAL, FRICATIVE, STOP
front vowel n
see VOWEL
FSI1 n
see FOREIGN SERVICE INSTITUTE
FSI2 n
an abbreviation for FOREIGN SERVICE INSTITUTE ORAL INTERVIEW
FSP n
an abbreviation for FUNCTIONAL SENTENCE PERSPECTIVE
FTA n
an abbreviation for FACE THREATENING ACT
full transfer/full access hypothesis
in SLA, the hypothesis that, with respect to SYNTAX, there are no inherent
restrictions on what can be transferred from the first language and no
inherent restrictions on access to UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR by second language
learners.
full verb n
see AUXILIARY VERB
full word n
see CONTENT WORD
function n
the purpose for which an utterance or unit of language is used. In lan-
guage teaching, language functions are often described as categories of
behaviour; e.g. requests, apologies, complaints, offers, compliments. The
functional uses of language cannot be determined simply by studying the
grammatical structure of sentences. For example, sentences in the imper-
ative form (see MOOD) may perform a variety of different functions:
Give me that book. (Order)
Pass the jam. (Request)
Turn right at the corner. (Instruction)
Try the smoked salmon. (Suggestion)
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functional literacy
Come round on Sunday. (Invitation)
In linguistics, the functional uses of language are studied in SPEECH ACT
theory, SOCIOLINGUISTICS, and PRAGMATICS. In the COMMUNICATIVE
APPROACH to language teaching, a SYLLABUS is often organized in terms of
the different language functions the learner needs to express or under-
stand.
see also FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE, FUNCTIONAL SYLLABUS, NOTIONAL SYL-
LABUS, SPEECH ACT, SPEECH ACT CLASSIFICATION
function word n
see CONTENT WORD
functional grammar n
a term with several meanings
in general, any approach to grammatical description that attempts to
describe the ways in which meanings and FUNCTIONs are realized in lan-
guage. For example, instead of describing “tense”, a grammatical notion,
one can investigate the ways in which “time reference”, a semantic
notion, is realized in language. The linguistic means for indicating time
reference in English include not only TENSE and ASPECT, but also MODALs,
ADVERBs, ADVERBIAL PHRASEs, and ADVERBIAL CLAUSEs.
More specifically, the term is used to refer to a formal model of grammar
developed in the 1970s by the Dutch Scholar Simon Dik, which consists
of a series of predicate frames, hierarchically layered templates into which
lexical items are inserted.
see also LEXICAL FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR
functional illiteracy n
see LITERACY
functional linguistics n
an approach to linguistics which is concerned with language as an instru-
ment of social interaction rather than as a system of formal rules that is
viewed in isolation from their uses in communication. It considers the
individual as a social being and investigates the way in which he or she
acquires language and uses it in order to communicate with others in his
or her social environment.
see also PRAGMATICS, SOCIAL CONTEXT, SPEECH EVENT
functional literacy n
see LITERACY
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functional load
functional load n
the relative importance of linguistic contrasts in a language. Not all the
distinctions or contrasts within the structure of a language are of the same
importance. For example the contrast between /p/ and /b/ at the beginning
of words in English serves to distinguish many words, such as pig – big;
pack – back; pad – bad, etc. The distinction /p/ – /b/ is thus said to have
high functional load. But other contrasts such as the contrast between /ù/
and // in words like wreathe – wreath are not used to distinguish many
words in English and are said to have low functional load.
functional sentence perspective n
also FSP
a type of linguistic analysis associated with the Prague School which
describes how information is distributed in sentences. FSP deals particu-
larly with the effect of the distribution of known (or given) information
and new information in DISCOURSE. The known information (known as
theme, in FSP), refers to information that is not new to the reader or lis-
tener. The rheme refers to information that is new. FSP differs from the
traditional grammatical analysis of sentences because the distinction
between subject – predicate is not always the same as the theme – rheme
contrast. For example we may compare the two sentences below:
1 John sat in the front seat. 2 In the front seat sat John.
Subject Predicate Predicate Subject
Theme Rheme Theme Rheme
John is the grammatical subject in both sentences, but theme in 1 and
rheme in 2.
Other terms used to refer to the theme – theme distinction are topic –
comment (see TOPIC2), background – focus, given – new information.
functional syllabus n
(in language teaching) a SYLLABUS in which the language content is
arranged in terms of functions or SPEECH ACTS together with the language
items needed for them. For example, the functions might be identifying,
describing, inviting, offering, etc., in different types of DISCOURSE (i.e.
speech or writing). The language skills involved might be listening, speak-
ing, reading, or writing. The language items needed for these functions
are called exponents or realizations.
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fundamental difference hypothesis
For example:
Type of Skill Function Exponents
discourse Vocabulary Structures
spoken speaking asking for bank Can you tell me
listening directions harbour where X is?
museum Where is X?
Often this term is used to refer to a certain type of NOTIONAL SYLLABUS.
see also COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
functions of language n
also language functions
although most linguists focus primarily on the formal characteristics of
language, there is also a long tradition originally deriving from work
in anthropology which is equally concerned with the functions of lan-
guage. Language is often described as having the following major func-
tions:
a descriptive function (or ideational function, in Halliday’s framework),
organizing a speaker’s or writer’s experience of the world and conveying
information which can be stated or denied and in some cases tested.
a social function (interpersonal function in Halliday’s terms), used to
establish, maintain and signal relationships between people.
an expressive function, through which speakers signal information about
their opinions, prejudices, past experiences, and so forth; and
a textual function, creating written and spoken TEXTS.
These functions frequently overlap, and most utterances accomplish more
than one function at the same time. For example, an utterance such as I’m
not inviting the Sandersons again, with appropriate intonation, signals an
intended future action (ideational or descriptive function), may show that
the speaker does not like the Sandersons (expressive function), and is pre-
sumably part of a conversation (textual function) in which the interlocu-
tors share a relationship that permits such expressions of dislike (social
function).
functor n
see CONTENT WORD
fundamental difference hypothesis n
in SLA, the hypothesis that first and second language acquisition are fun-
damentally different processes: first language acquisition is the result of
UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR and principles of acquisition associated with it;
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fundamental frequency
while second language acquisition is the result of general (non-language
specific) cognitive processes such as PROBLEM SOLVING and HYPOTHESIS
TESTING.
fundamental frequency n
see SOUND WAVE
fused sentence n
another term for RUN-ON SENTENCE
fusion n
see CHUNKING
fusional language n
another term for INFLECTING LANGUAGE
future perfect n
see PERFECT
future tense n
a tense form used to indicate that the event described by a verb will take
place at a future time. For example in the French sentence:
Je partirai demain.
I leave + future tomorrow.
the future tense ending -ai has been added to the verb infinitive partir
(=leave). English has no future tense but uses a variety of different verb
forms to express future time (e.g. I leave tomorrow; I am leaving tomor-
row; I will leave tomorrow; I am going to leave tomorrow). Will in
English is sometimes used to indicate future time (e.g. Tomorrow will be
Thursday) but has many other functions, and is usually described as a
MODAL verb.
fuzzy adj
a term used by some linguists to describe a linguistic unit which has no
clearly defined boundary. These units have “fuzzy borders’’, e.g. the
English words hill and mountain. Another term used for a gradual tran-
sition from one linguistic unit to another is gradience.
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G
gain score n
the difference between the score obtained in a pre-test and the score
obtained in a post-test, where both tests are identical or equivalent. Gain
scores are interpreted as an indication of learning.
gambit n
(in CONVERSATIONAL ANALYSIS) sometimes used to describe a word or phrase
in conversation which signals the function of the speaker’s next turn in the
conversation (see TURN-TAKING). Gambits may be used to show whether the
speaker’s contribution adds new information, develops something said by
a previous speaker, expresses an opinion, agreement, etc. For example,
gambits which signal that the speaker is going to express an opinion include:
The way I look at it ...
To my mind ...
In my opinion ...
These examples can also be considered conversational ROUTINES.
game1 n
(in language teaching) an organized activity that usually has the follow-
ing properties:
a a particular task or objective
b a set of rules
c competition between players
d communication between players by spoken or written language.
Games are often used as a fluency activity in communicative language
teaching and humanistic methods.
game2 n
(in COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING) rule-based competitive activi-
ties usually involving a time limit and/or visual display features in which
the player must acquire and/or manipulate knowledge in order to succeed.
gatekeeper n gatekeeping n
in describing power relations within a society, anything that controls or
limits access to something for a segment of the population. The ability to
speak standard English or a prestige variety of English may have a gate-
keeping role since those who do not speak this variety of English may find
their access to certain professions or services restricted.
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GB theory
GB theory or G/B theory n
another term for GOVERNMENT/BINDING THEORY
geminate adj
in phonology, adjacent segments that are the same, such as the two con-
sonants in the middle of Italian folla [folla] (“crowd”) or Japanese
[nippon] (“Japan”). Geminate consonants are sometimes called long or
doubled consonants.
GEN n
an abbreviation for genitive relative clause
see NOUN PHRASE ACCESSIBILITY HIERARCHY
gender1 n
refers to sex as either a biological or socially constructed category. For
example, the term genderlect can refer to the speech of men and women
and by extension to such varieties as a homosexual REGISTER in com-
munities where such varieties exist or are recognized.
gender2 n
a grammatical distinction in some languages that allows words to be div-
ided into categories such as masculine, feminine, or neuter on the basis of
inflectional and agreement properties, not limited to nouns with inherent
gender (see GENDER1). For example, in Spanish, most nouns and ending in
–a are feminine and most nouns ending in –o are masculine, and both
articles and adjectives agree in gender with the nouns they modify. In
English, grammatical gender is limited to the distinction between he, she,
and it in pronouns, and a small set of nouns that reflect the gender of the
person referred to, for example actor:actress, waiter:waitress, chair-
man:chairwoman or the gender stereotypically associated with the noun,
for example mailman. At the end of the 20th century, many such terms
were replaced by gender-neutral forms (e.g. actor for both men and
women, server instead of waiter or waitress, chairperson or chair instead
of chairman, mail carrier instead of mailman) in a number of English
speaking speech communities.
genderlect n
see GENDER1
generalization n generalize v
1 (in linguistics) a rule or principle which explains observed linguistic
data.
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generative theory
2 (in learning theory) a process common to all types of learning, which
consists of the formation of a general rule or principle from the obser-
vation of particular examples. For example a child who sees the English
words book – books, and dog – dogs may generalize that the concept
of plural in English is formed by adding s to words.
see also OVERGENERALIZATION
general nativism
see NATIVISM
generate v
if the application of a set of rules results in a given structure or string as
output, then those rules are said to “generate” the structure or string.
see GENERATIVE GRAMMAR, GENERATIVE THEORY
generative grammar
a type of grammar that attempts to define and describe by a set of rules
or principles all the GRAMMATICAL sentences of a language and no
ungrammatical ones. This type of grammar is said to generate, or pro-
duce, grammatical sentences.
generative phonology n
an approach to phonology which aims to describe the knowledge (COM-
PETENCE) which a native speaker must have to be able to produce and
understand the sound system of his or her language. In generative phonol-
ogy, the distinctive sounds of a language (the PHONEMEs) are shown as
groups of sound features (see DISTINCTIVE FEATUREs). Each sound is shown
as a different set of features. For example, the phoneme /e/ could be
shown by the features
high
low
tense
Phonological rules explain how these abstract units combine and vary
when they are used in speech.
see also GENERATIVE GRAMMAR, SYSTEMATIC PHONEMICS
generative theory n
a cover term for a variety of linguistic theories that have the common
goals of (a) providing an account of the formal properties of language,
positing rules that specify how to form all the grammatical sentences of
a language and no ungrammatical ones (the principle of descriptive
adequacy), while (b) explaining why grammars have the properties they
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generative semantics
do and how children come to acquire them in such a short period of time
(the principle of explanatory adequacy).
The major versions of generative theory (all associated with the pioneer-
ing work of the linguist Noam Chomsky) that have influenced the fields
of first and second language acquisition have been:
transformational grammar (also transformational-generative grammar,
TG, generative-transformational grammar), an early version of the theory
that emphasized the relationships among sentences that can be seen as
transforms or transformations of each other, for example the relation-
ships among simple active declarative sentences (e.g. He went to the
store), negative sentences (He didn’t go to the store), and questions (Did
he go to the store?). such relationships can be accounted for by transfor-
mational rules.
the Standard Theory (also Aspects Model) proposed in the mid-1960s,
which specified a base component that produces or generates basic syn-
tactic structures called deep structures; a transformational component
that changes or transforms those basic structures into sentences called
surface structures; a phonological component, which gives sentences a
phonetic representation (see GENERATIVE PHONOLOGY) so that they can be
pronounced; and a semantic component, which deals with the meaning of
sentences (see INTERPRETIVE SEMANTICS).
GOVERNMENT/BINDING THEORY, which dominated formally orientated
work in first and second language acquisition during the 1980s and 1990s.
MINIMALISM, a version of generative theory developed in the late 1990s.
generative semantics n
an approach to linguistic theory which grew as a reaction to Chomsky’s
syntactic-based TRANSFORMATIONAL GENERATIVE GRAMMAR. It considers
that all sentences are generated from a semantic structure. This semantic
structure is often expressed in the form of a proposition which is similar
to logical propositions in philosophy. Linguists working within this
theory have, for instance, suggested that there is a semantic relationship
between such sentences as
This dog strikes me as being like her master.
and
This dog reminds me of her master.
because they both have the semantic structure of
X perceives that Y is similar to Z.
see also INTERPRETIVE SEMANTICS
generative-transformational grammar n
see GENERATIVE GRAMMAR, GENERATIVE THEORY
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genitive case
generic adj
in grammar, a reference to sentences, such as (in English) Elephants like
peanuts or The elephant likes peanuts or An elephant likes peanuts, that
have a generic meaning, that is, they are meant to apply to all elephants
or elephants in general.
generic reference n
a type of reference which is used to refer to a class of objects or things,
rather than to a specific member of a class. For example in English:
specific reference generic reference
The bird is sick. A tiger is a dangerous animal.
The birds are sick. Tigers are dangerous animals.
There is a bird in the cage. The tiger is a dangerous animal.
genetic epistemology n
a term used to describe the theories of DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY of
the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980). Piaget listed several dif-
ferent stages which children pass through in mental development. The
first stage is the sensorimotor stage, from birth to about 24 months,
when children understand their environment mainly by acting on it.
Through touch and sight children begin to understand basic relation-
ships which affect them and objects in their experience. These include
space, location of objects, and the relationships of cause and effect. But
children cannot yet make use of abstract concepts. The next three
stages are a movement towards more abstract processes. During the
pre-operational stage, from around two to seven years, children develop
the symbolic function, which includes such skills as language, mental
imagery, and drawing. Children also begin to develop the mental ability
to use CONCEPTs dealing with number, classification, order, and time,
but use these concepts in a simple way. The concrete operational stage
from about seven to eleven years is the period when children begin to
use mental operations and acquire a number of concepts of conserva-
tion. During the formal operational stage (from around eleven
onwards) children are able to deal with abstract concepts and PROPOSI-
TIONs, and to make hypotheses, inferences, and deductions. Since the
mental processes Piaget studied are important for language develop-
ment, linguists and psycholinguists have made use of Piaget’s ideas in
studying how mental development and linguistic development are
related.
genitive case n
the form of a noun or noun phrase which usually shows that the
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genitive relative clause
noun or noun phrase is in a POSSESSIVE relation with another noun or noun
phrase in a sentence.
For example, in the German sentence:
Dort drüben ist das Haus des Bürgermeisters.
Over there is the house of the mayor.
the mayor’s house.
in the noun phrase des Bürgermeisters, the article has the inflectional
ending -es and the noun has the inflectional ending -s to show that they
are in the genitive case because they refer to the owner of das Haus.
In the English sentence:
She took my father’s car.
some linguists regard my father’s as an example of the genitive case.
see also CASE1
genitive relative clause n
also GEN
see NOUN PHRASE ACCESSIBILITY HIERARCHY
genre1 n
a type of discourse that occurs in a particular setting, that has distinctive
and recognizable patterns and norms of organization and structure, and
that has particular and distinctive communicative functions. For example:
business reports, news broadcasts, speeches, letters, advertisements, etc.
In constructing texts, the writer must employ certain features conven-
tionally associated with texts from the genre in which he or she is writing.
In reading a text the reader similarly anticipates certain features of the
text based on genre expectations.
genre2 n
a category of literary writing, such as tragedy, fiction, comedy, etc.
genre analysis n
the study of how language is used in a particular context, such as busi-
ness correspondence, legal writing, staff meetings, etc. Genres differ in
that each has a different goal and employs different patterns of structure
and organization to achieve its goals. In the study of written texts genre
analysis studies how writers conventionally sequence material to achieve
particular purposes. This includes the identification of particular types of
schema and how they are realized linguistically.
genre approach n
also genre-based approach
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gisting
an approach to the teaching of writing, particularly L1 writing, which
bases a writing curriculum on the different types of text structures or
genres children encounter in school and which are crucial to school suc-
cess. Genre-based approaches are particularly strong in Australia as a
result of the work of functional linguists such as Halliday and Martin.
Examples of genres encountered in school work are Observation and
Comment, Recount, Narrative, and Report. A report, for example, has
the structure of a general classificatory statement, a description, and a
final comment. Proponents of a genre approach argue that control over
specific types of writing are necessary for full participation in social pro-
cesses.
In adult second language teaching a genre-based approach starts from a
recognition of the discourse community in which the learners will be
functioning, e.g. a hotel, factory or hospital. Discourses from the target
speech community are studied in terms of the text types and text roles
that characterize them.
see also TEXT-BASED SYLLABUS DESIGN
genre-scheme n
another term for SCHEME
gerund n also gerundive
a verb form which ends in -ing, but which is used in a sentence like a
noun.
For example, in the English sentences:
Swimming is good for you.
I don’t like smoking
see also PARTICIPLE
gesture n
a movement of the face or body which communicates meaning, such as
nodding the head to mean agreement. Many spoken utterances are
accompanied by gestures which support or add to their meaning. SIGN
LANGUAGE is a system of communication based entirely on gestures. The
study of the role of gestures in communication is part of the study of
non-verbal communication.
see also PARALINGUISTICS
gisting n
in TRANSLATION, producing a rough or outline translation of a text,
often done in order to decide whether a complete translation would be
useful or desirable.
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given – new information
given – new information n
see FUNCTIONAL SENTENCE PERSPECTIVE
glide n
in British linguistics, another term for DIPHTHONG
In American linguistics, sounds produced with little or no obstruction of
the airstream that do not function as syllabic nuclei, i.e. are always pre-
ceded or followed by a VOWEL. For example, the glides /j/ and /w/ occur
before a vowel in the words you and we, but following the vowel (as the
second element of a diphthong) in the words bite and out.
See also SEMI-VOWEL
global education n
also multicultural education
an educational philosophy or IDEOLOGY that seeks to develop students
who recognize and appreciate diverse cultures and not merely the values
of the dominant culture or cultures in a society. Learners are encouraged
to appreciate differences between cultures and recognize common links
with people from different cultures, particularly minority cultures. This
approach is designed to teach tolerance and to curb racism and bigotry.
global error n
(in ERROR ANALYSIS) an error in the use of a major element of sentence
structure, which makes a sentence or utterance difficult or impossible to
understand. For example:
*I like take taxi but my friend said so not that we should be late for
school.
This may be contrasted with a local error, which is an error in the use of
an element of sentence structure, but which does not cause problems of
comprehension. For example:
*If I heard from him I will let you know.
global issues n
In language teaching, the focus on topics that have global importance,
such as global warming, conflict resolution, and human rights. The goals
of language teaching are seen as not simply to teach language skills but to
provide learners with an awareness of global issues and the means to
address them.
see also CURRICULUM IDEOLOGIES
global learning n
a COGNITIVE STYLE in which the learner tries to remember something as a
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goal
whole. For example, a learner may try to memorize complete sentences in
a foreign language.
When a learner remembers something by separating it into parts, this is
called an analytic style, or part learning. For example, a learner may
divide a sentence into words, memorize the words, and then combine
them again to make sentences.
global question n
(in language teaching) a question used in a reading comprehension exer-
cise. To answer a global question, a student needs a general understand-
ing of the text or passage. A student’s understanding of the details of a
text can be tested with specific questions.
glossary n
a subject-specific listing of terms and definitions.
glottal n
an articulation involving the glottis, the space between the vocal chords.
See PLACE OF ARTICULATION
glottal stop n
a speech sound (a CONSONANT) that is produced by the momentary clos-
ing of the glottis (the space between the VOCAL CORDS), trapping the
airstream from the lungs behind it, followed by a sudden release of the air
as the glottis is opened.
In some varieties of British English, a glottal stop is used instead of a /t/
in words like bottle and matter.
In some varieties of American English, a glottal stop (with NASAL RELEASE)
is used instead of a /t/ in words like kitten and button.
goal1 n
(in TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR) a term used by some linguists to refer to the
person or thing which is affected by the action expressed by the verb. For
example, in the English sentence:
Elizabeth smashed the vase.
vase is the goal.
goal2 n
(in CASE GRAMMAR) the noun or noun phrase which refers to the place to
which someone or something moves or is moved. For example in the sen-
tences:
He loaded bricks on the truck.
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goal setting
He loaded the truck with bricks.
the truck is the goal.
goal setting n
the theory that people are more motivated to accomplish a task when they
have clear, specific, and difficult but achievable goals than they are when
they have no clear goals or goals that are too easy.
see also MOTIVATION
goal -role n
see -THEORY
government n govern v
a type of grammatical relationship between two or more elements in a
sentence, in which the choice of one element causes the selection of a par-
ticular form of another element. In traditional grammar, the term gov-
ernment has typically been used to refer to the relationship between verbs
and nouns or between prepositions and nouns. In German, for example,
the preposition mit “with” governs, that is requires, the DATIVE CASE1 of
the noun that follows it:
Peter kam mit seiner Schwester.
Peter came with his sister.
Where sein “his’’ has the dative feminine case marker er.
In GOVERNMENT/BINDING THEORY the concept of government is based on
Traditional Grammar but it has been more strictly defined and structured
into a complex system to show the relationship of one element in a sen-
tence to another element.
For example, the verb give in the sentence
She will give them to me
governs them because:
1 give is a LEXICAL CATEGORY and therefore it can be a GOVERNOR
2 they are both within a maximal projection, e.g. a verb phrase (see
PROJECTION (PRINCIPLE)) and
3 they are in certain structural relationships to each other
Government/Binding Theory n
a theory of language developed by Chomsky and based on his concept of
a UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. It can be seen as a network of different subtheo-
ries which consist of certain principles and conditions (PARAMETERS) Some
of the subtheories are:
1 BINDING THEORY: shows the reference relationship between noun
phrases
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gradation
2 BOUNDING THEORY: places restrictions on movement within a sentence
3 CASE THEORY: assigns cases to the noun phrases in the sentence
4 -THEORY: assigns semantic roles to the elements in the sentence
5 X-BAR THEORY: describes the structure of phrases
Some aspects of the Government/Binding Theory and its subtheories have
been used in research into first and second language acquisition (see, for
example, ADJACENCY PARAMETER, PRO-DROP PARAMETER).
see also PROJECTION (PRINCIPLE)
governor n
(in GOVERNMENT/BINDING THEORY) an element in a sentence which gov-
erns, that is has an influence on, another element. Everything that can be
the HEAD of a phrase can function as a governor, e.g. nouns, verbs, adjec-
tives and prepositions.
gradability n
gradable adj
(of objects, people, ideas, etc.) having a certain property to a greater or
lesser degree. In English, this property is usually expressed by an adjec-
tive, e.g. hot, cold, rich, poor.
For example:
Was it really as cold last night as Thursday night?
Your plate is hotter than mine.
Usually, a comparison is implied, even if it is not expressed. It’s hot in
here, means “compared with outside” or “compared with the room tem-
perature which suits me”.
Adjectives which refer to something which can be described in degrees are
known as gradable adjectives. The negation of a gradable adjective does
not necessarily imply the opposite. For example, not hot does not necess-
arily mean cold, nor does not rich necessarily mean poor.
see also ANTONYM
gradable adjective n
see GRADABLE
gradable pair n
see ANTONYM
gradation n
also grading, sequencing
the arrangement of the content of a language course or a textbook so that
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grade
it is presented in a helpful way. Gradation would affect the order in which
words, word meanings, tenses, structures, topics, functions, skills, etc. are
presented. Gradation may be based on different criteria such as the com-
plexity of an item, its frequency in written or spoken language, or its
importance for the learner.
see also SELECTION
grade n
a way of expressing overall results in a test using a number or letter.
grade point average n
also GPA
a measure of scholastic performance used in the US and elsewhere based
on the average of numerical values assigned to letter grades (e.g. A= 4, B
= 3, etc.).
graded objectives n
(in language teaching) objectives which describe levels of attainment at
different stages within a language programme. These are intended to pro-
vide statements of practical short-term goals for learners and to provide
practical levels of mastery which they could attain after relatively short
periods of study. Graded objectives have been used particularly in pro-
grammes for foreign language teaching in the United Kingdom.
graded reader n
also simplified reader
a text written for children learning their mother tongue, or for second or
foreign language learners, in which the language content is based on a
language grading scheme (see GRADATION). A graded reader may use a
restricted vocabulary or set of grammatical structures.
gradience n
see FUZZY
grading n
another term for GRADATION
grammar1 n
a description of the structure of a language and the way in which linguis-
tic units such as words and phrases are combined to produce sentences in
the language. It usually takes into account the meanings and functions
these sentences have in the overall system of the language. It may or may
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grammatical
not include the description of the sounds of a language (see PHONOLOGY,
PHONEMICS).
see also MORPHOLOGY, SEMANTICS, SYNTAX
grammar2
(in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR) a grammar which describes the speaker’s
knowledge of the language. It looks at language in relation to how it may
be structured in the speaker’s mind, and which principles (see UNIVERSAL
GRAMMAR) and PARAMETERS are available to the speaker when producing
the language.
see also UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR, CORE GRAMMAR, I-LANGUAGE
grammar checker n
a program which checks certain grammatical and mechanical aspects of
writing (see MECHANICS) such as the use of passive forms, CONCORD, and
punctuation. Though useful for native speakers, these programs are often
less beneficial for second language users, due to the bewildering array of
options they provide.
grammar clusters n
in writing, the co-occurrence of certain grammatical forms within a
specific genre (type) of writing: for example, chronological transitions, the
use of personal pronouns, and specific uses of present, past, and past-
progressive forms often occur in narrative writing.
Grammar Translation Method n
a method of foreign or second language teaching which makes use of
translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activi-
ties. The Grammar Translation Method was the traditional way Latin and
Greek were taught in Europe. In the 19th century it began to be used to
teach “modern” languages such as French, German, and English, and it is
still used in some countries today. A typical lesson consists of the presen-
tation of a grammatical rule, a study of lists of vocabulary, and a transla-
tion exercise. Because the Grammar Translation Method emphasizes
reading rather than the ability to communicate in a language there was a
reaction to it in the 19th century (see NATURAL APPROACH, DIRECT METHOD),
and there was later a greater emphasis on the teaching of spoken language.
grammatical1 adj grammaticality n
a phrase, clause, or sentence which is ACCEPTABLE because it follows the
rules of a grammar (see GRAMMAR1), is described as grammatical. For
example, the English sentence:
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grammatical
They walk to school.
would be a grammatical sentence according to a grammar of Standard
English, but the sentence:
They walks to school.
would be considered ungrammatical according to such a grammar.
grammatical2 adj grammaticality n
in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR, a sentence is grammatical if it follows the rules
of a native speaker’s COMPETENCE. For example:
The teacher who the man who the children saw pointed out is a cousin
of Joan’s.
would be a grammatical sentence because it can be generated by the rules
of the grammar. However, it could be regarded as unacceptable because
of its involved structure which makes it difficult for a listener to under-
stand easily.
see also ACCEPTABLE
grammatical ambiguity n
see AMBIGUOUS
grammatical aspect n
see ASPECT
grammatical category1 n
a class or group of items which fulfil the same or similar functions in a
particular language. For example, CASE1, PERSON, TENSE1, and ASPECT are
grammatical categories. Some linguists also refer to related groups of
words such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives as grammatical categories but
these groups are usually referred to in TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR as PARTS OF
SPEECH.
grammatical category2 n
(in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR) a concept such as a SENTENCE, a NOUN
PHRASE, a VERB. Grammatical categories are shown by category symbols
such as S, NP, and V.
grammatical competence n
see COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
grammatical function n
the relationship that a CONSTITUENT in a sentence has with the other
constituents. For example, in the English sentence:
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grounding
Peter threw the ball.
Peter has the function of being the SUBJECT of the verb throw, and the ball
has the function of being the OBJECT of the verb.
grammatical meaning n
see CONTENT WORD
grammatical morpheme n
see MORPHEME
grammatical sensitivity n
see LANGUAGE APTITUDE
grammatical syllabus n
another term for structural syllabus
grammatical word n
see CONTENT WORD
grave accent n
the accent, e.g. on French près “near”.
see also ACCENT2
grounded theory n
a general methodology of analysis in QUALITATIVE RESEARCH, in which the
first level of analysis is systematically collected data, the second is the con-
ceptualization of the data into categories and their properties (see CONSTANT
COMPARISON METHOD), and the third is an inductive theory (see ANALYTIC
INDUCTION), usually illustrated by characteristic examples of data.
grounding n
an aspect of the INFORMATION STRUCTURE of a sentence in which in an act
of communication, speakers assume that some information is more
important than other information. Information which is needed for the
listener to understand new information is background information, and
information which is new or considered more important is foregrounded
or foreground information. For example, in the sentence As I was coming
to school this morning, I saw an accident, I saw an accident, this morn-
ing is foregrounded information and As I was coming to school is back-
ground information. The foregrounded information is contained in the
main clause of the sentence, which comes after the clause containing
background information.
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group discussion
group discussion n
a teaching activity which has the following characteristics:
1 A small number of students (four to twelve) meet together.
2 They choose, or are given, a common topic or problem and a goal or
objective.
3 They exchange and evaluate information or ideas about the topic.
see also CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING
group dynamics n
the interactions which take place within a group and the study of how
such factors as leadership, interaction and decision-making affect the
structure of a group. Group dynamics is an important consideration in
forming classroom groups (see CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING) and in designing
learning tasks and classroom materials.
see also SMALL-GROUP INTERACTION
group work n
(in language teaching) a learning activity which involves a small group of
learners working together. The group may work on a single task, or on
different parts of a larger task. Tasks for group members are often selec-
ted by the members of the group.
see also PAIR WORK
grouping n
(in teaching) arranging students into groups to help them learn better.
Choosing suitable grouping arrangements which match different kinds of
learning tasks is an important dimension of teaching. Different group
arrangements for teaching include:
1 Whole-group instruction: The class is taught as a whole.
2 Small-group discussion: A group of between six and eight students
working on a discussion topic.
3 Tutorial discussion group: A small group of usually less than five stu-
dents focusing on a narrow range of materials, often to help remedy a
learning difficulty.
Important issues in grouping are group size (a factor which influences
learner participation in group work) and whether students learn better
in mixed-ability groups or in groups of about the same proficiency
level. Use of small groups is a characteristic of Communicative
Language Teaching and Collaborative Language Learning since group
work is said to facilitate real communication and naturalistic language
use.
see also CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING, SMALL-GROUP INTERACTION
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guessing parameter
guided discussion n
see DISCUSSION MIETHOD
guided interview n
an interview in which the interviewer makes use of a set of questions that
has been prepared in advance and that is used to guide and structure the
interview. The list of questions used by the interviewer is known as an
interview schedule or protocol. Usually the interviewer records answers to
the questions into the schedule during the interview.
see also FOCUSED INTERVIEW, DEPTH INTERVIEW, STRUCTURED INTERVIEW,
UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
guided reading n
a teacher-directed mode of reading instruction in which the teacher
directs the purpose, structure, and response to a reading activity, leading
the readers through the reading of a text. This approach can be used to
model reading behaviours and strategies.
guessing parameter n
see ITEM RESPONSE THEORY
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H
habit n
a pattern of behaviour that is regular and which has become almost auto-
matic as a result of repetition. The view of language learning as habit for-
mation found in BEHAVIOURISM has been rejected by virtually all linguists
and specialists in LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, but research continues into
issues such as the mechanisms through which AUTOMATICITY develops in
language learning.
half-close vowel n
see VOWEL
half-open vowel n
see VOWEL
halo effect n
(in research) the effect of a feature that is not being tested, but that
changes or influences the results. For example, a teacher who is rating a
child according to “interest in learning English” may give the child a
higher rating because he or she is well behaved in class.
hard palate n
see PLACE OF ARTICULATION
hardware n
the physical equipment which may be used in an educational system, such
as a computer, video-cassette player, film projector, tape-recorder,
cassette or record player.
The materials used in such equipment such as programs, tapes, and films
are called software.
Hawthorn effect n
(in research) the effect produced by the introduction of a new element
into a learning situation, including changes in the normal behaviour of
research subjects when they know that they are being observed. For
example, if a new teaching method is used, there may be an improvement
in learning that is due not to the method, but to the fact that it is new.
Later on, the improvement may disappear.
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hegemony
head n
the central part of a phrase. Other elements in the phrase are in
some grammatical or semantic relationship to the head. For example, in
the
English noun phrase:
the fat lady in the floral dress
the noun lady is the head of the phrase.
see also MODIFIER, CLASSIFIER2
head-first language n
see PARAMETER
head-last language n
see PARAMETER
head parameter n
see PARAMETER
hearing impaired adj
a term used to describe hearing loss, which recognizes that nearly all
people with severe hearing difficulties have some degree of hearing,
known as residual hearing. The degree of hearing impairment may vary
across speech frequencies (see SOUND WAVE), at different levels of inten-
sity. With the use of hearing aids, people with hearing impairment often
learn to use residual hearing to maintain or improve their communication
skills.
hedging n hedges n
also weakeners, downtoners, detensifiers, understatements
in speech and writing, linguistic devices that writers use either to
indicate the writer’s lack of commitment to the truth of a statement
or a desire not to express that commitment categorically. Hedges are
linguistic items such as perhaps, somewhat, sort of, might, to a cer-
tain degree, it is possible that. Such items may occur as often as
once in every 15 seconds of conversation, depending on context of
communication.
hegemony n
The predominant organizational and institutional form of power and
domination within the economic, social, political, cultural and ideologi-
cal domains of a society, or across societies.
A culture is a hegemony if it is so dominant that its beliefs, values and
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heritage language
practices are viewed as natural or common sense. For example, deviations
from culturally valued rhetorical norms in writing by people from a dif-
ferent cultural background may be viewed as a failure to think clearly.
heritage language n
sometimes used to refer to the language a person regards as their native,
home, or ancestral language. This may be an indigenous language (e.g.
Welsh in Wales) or immigrant languages (e.g. Spanish in the US).
see also LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE
heritage language learner n
also heritage learner
a term that is sometimes used to refer to learners who acquired a par-
ticular language as their first language at home and subsequently study
that language. Special courses are sometimes designed for such learners,
for example, Spanish for Spanish speakers in the US, whose verbal fluency
in Spanish is often more advanced than their literacy-related skills
(because their education has been in English). Other writers use the term
more generally to refer to any learner of a language who considers that
language to be part of his or her cultural heritage.
hesitation phenomena n
another term for PAUSING
heuristic adj heuristics n
1 (in education) teaching procedures which encourage learners to learn
through experience or by their own personal discoveries.
2 (in learning) processes of conscious or unconscious inquiry or discov-
ery. For example, in trying to discover the meanings of words in a
foreign language, a learner may repeat aloud a sentence containing the
word, several times, in an attempt to work out its meaning. In FIRST-LAN-
GUAGE learning these heuristic processes are sometimes known as oper-
ating principles, i.e. ways in which learners work out the meaning of
utterances based on what they understand about the structure of the
TARGET LANGUAGE1. For example, among the operating principles a child
may use are:
a word which ends in ing is a verb.
in a sequence of two nouns (e.g. Jane’s doll) the first noun is the pos-
sessor and the second noun is the thing possessed.
heuristic function n
see DEVELOPMENTAL FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
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highlighting
hidden curriculum n
sometimes used to refer to implicit values or goals in a curriculum or edu-
cational system such as to impart the values and ideology of a particular
society or to socialize students into the dominant political and economic
system and the values of that system.
hierarchical chunks n
see CHUNKING
higher education n also tertiary education
education beyond the level of secondary school, such as at college, poly-
technic or university.
high frequency word n
a word occurring frequently in a corpus of spoken or written texts. Such
words are listed in a word frequency list.
high-inference category n
also high-inference behaviour n
(in research on teaching or other aspects of classroom behaviour) a cat-
egory of behaviour which cannot be observed directly but which has to
be inferred. For example, the fact that students are “interested in a
lesson”, or “making use of higher level thinking during a lesson” cannot
be observed directly and hence is a high-inference category of classroom
behaviour. On the other hand a category such as “asking questions
during a lesson” is easily observed and can be readily quantified (i.e.
counted or measured). It is an example of a low-inference category of
classroom behaviour. The distinction between high-inference and
low-inference categories is an important one in research on classroom
behaviour, particularly when the researcher wishes to quantify such
behaviour.
High variety n
See DIGLOSSIA
high vowel n
See VOWEL
highlighting n highlight v
(in reading) marking key words or sections in a passage with the use of a
coloured pen, making them easier to identify or remember when studying
or reviewing.
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histogram
histogram n
see DISTRIBUTION
historical linguistics n
another term for COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS
historic present n
a present tense used in a context where a past tense would normally be
used, to create a more vivid effect to show informality, or to show a sense
of “friendliness” between speaker and hearer.
For example:
Do you know what happened to me last night? I’m sitting in a restau-
rant when this guy comes up and pours water over me.
history n
see INTERNAL VALIDITY
holistic approach n
an approach to language teaching which seeks to focus on language in its
entirety rather than breaking it down into separate components, such as
reading, listening, writing, grammar, etc. This is one of the principles of
WHOLE LANGUAGE as well as of some approaches to teaching LANGUAGE
ARTS.
holistic evaluation n
(in teaching composition) a method of evaluating writing in which the
composition is viewed as a whole rather than as distinct parts.
holistic rating scale n
in testing, a scale in which different activities are included over several
bands to produce a multiple activity scale.
holistic scoring n
a method of scoring where a single score is assigned to writing or speak-
ing samples on the basis of an overall impressionistic assessment of the
test taker’s performance on a writing or speaking task as a whole.
see also ANALYTIC SCORING
holophrase n holophrastic adj
a single word which functions as a complex idea or sentence.
Holophrastic speech is one of the first stages in children’s acquisition of
speech.
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homophones
For example:
holophrases intended meaning
Water! I want some water
More. Give me some more.
home–school language switch n
used in referring to the language used in a school setting to describe the
need to change (“switch”) from one language spoken at home to another
used as the MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION at school.
see also BILINGUAL EDUCATION, IMMERSION PROGRAMME
homographs n
words which are written in the same way but which are pronounced dif-
ferently and have different meanings.
For example, the English words lead /liNd/ in Does this road lead to town?
and lead /led/ in Lead is a heavy metal, are homographs. Homographs are
sometimes called homonyms.
see also HOMOPHONES
homonyms1 n
see HOMOGRAPHS
homonyms2 n
see HOMOPHONES
homonyms3 n homonymy n
words which are written in the same way and sound alike but which have
different meanings.
For example, the English verbs lie in You have to lie down and lie in
Don’t lie, tell the truth!
It is a well-known problem in SEMANTICS to tell the difference
between homonymy (several words with the same form but different
meanings) and POLYSEMY (a single word with more than one mean-
ing).
homophones n
words which sound alike but are written differently and often have
different meanings.
For example, the English words no and know are both pronounced /n°Á/
in some varieties of British English.
Homophones are sometimes called homonyms.
see also HOMOGRAPHS
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homorganic
homorganic adj
Made with the same PLACE OF ARTICULATION. The sounds /n/, /d/, and /s/
as in English hands are homorganic, because they all share the feature
ALVEOLAR.
For example, the sounds /p/ and /m/ are both produced with the two lips
(i.e. are BILABIAL), although one is a STOP and the other a NASAL.
see also ASSIMILATION, MANNER OF ARTICULATION
honorifics n
politeness formulas in a particular language which may be specific affixes,
words, or sentence structures. Languages which have a complex system of
honorifics are, for instance, Japanese, Madurese (a language of Eastern
Java), and Hindi. Although English has no complex system of honorifics,
expressions such as would you . . . , may I . . . , and polite ADDRESS FORMS
fulfil similar functions.
HTML n
an acronym for Hypertext Markup Language, the authoring language
used to create web pages. Once necessary for language teachers to know
in order to produce web pages, it is now frequently built in to web page
making software programs.
humanistic approach n
(in language teaching) a term sometimes used for what underlies METHODS
in which the following principles are considered important:
a the development of human values
b growth in self-awareness and in the understanding of others
c sensitivity to human feelings and emotions
d active student involvement in learning and in the way learning takes
place (for this last reason such methods are also said to be STUDENT CEN-
TRED). COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING is an example of a humanistic
approach.
see also APPROACH
H-variety n
see DIGLOSSIA
hypercorrection1 n
overgeneralization of a rule in language use. For example, the rule that an
ADVERB modifies a VERB may be overextended and used in cases where an
adjective would normally be used, as in *This meat smells freshly instead
of This meat smells fresh.
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hypothesis
see also COPULA
hypercorrection2 n
the incorrect use of a word, pronunciation or other linguistic feature in
speaking as a result of the attempt to speak in an educated manner and in
the process replacing a form that is itself correct.
For example the use of ‘‘whom” instead of “who” in “Whom do you
think painted that picture?” Hypercorrections are sometimes used by a
second language learner who is attempting to speak correctly or by a
speaker of a non-standard variety of a language, when speaking formally.
This may result in the speaker using more self-correction and using more
formal vocabulary than speakers of a standard variety of the language.
hyponymy n hyponym n
a relationship between two words, in which the meaning of one of the
words includes the meaning of the other word.
For example, in English the words animal and dog are related in such a
way that dog refers to a type of animal, and animal is a general term that
includes dog and other types of animal.
The specific term, dog, is called a hyponym, and the general term, animal,
is called a superordinate.
A superordinate term can have many hyponyms. For example:
superordinate: vehicle
hyponyms: bus car lorry van
superordinate: move
hyponyms: walk run swim fly
see also SYNONYM
hypothesis n (plural hypotheses)
a speculation concerning either observed or expected relationships among
phenomena. Hypotheses are made and evaluated in both QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH and QUALITATIVE RESEARCH. However, in quantitative research
hypotheses are formulated in advance of the research, based on theory
and previous research, while in qualitative research hypotheses emerge
gradually in the course of the research itself (see also GROUNDED THEORY,
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hypothesis formation
ANALYTIC INDUCTION). If for research purposes the speculation is trans-
lated into a statement that can be tested by quantitative methods in
research, the statement is known as a statistical hypothesis, stated with
reference to population PARAMETERs (e.g. population mean) and takes the
form of two opposing but related hypotheses: a null hypothesis, symbol-
ized by H0, and an alternative hypothesis, symbolized by Ha or H1, that
are mutually exclusive and exhaustive. A null hypothesis is a statement
that “No difference exists between groups A and B” or “There is no cor-
relation between variables A and B”, whereas the alternative hypothesis
is an opposite statement that “The mean for group A is higher than that
for group B” or “There is a positive correlation between variables A and
B”. The statistical analysis of research results is frequently designed to
determine whether or not a null hypothesis should be rejected, thus pro-
viding support for an alternative hypothesis.
see also HYPOTHESIS TESTING
hypothesis formation n
(in language learning) the formation of ideas (“hypotheses”) by a learner
about the language he or she is learning. These hypotheses may be con-
scious or unconscious. Most people would agree that at least some of
these ideas come from the language we see and hear around us, but schol-
ars holding the INNATIST HYPOTHESIS claim that our most important
and basic ideas about language in general are present at birth.
hypothesis testing n
a procedure to test a statistical hypothesis. A five-step version of hypoth-
esis testing proceeds as follows:
1 State a null hypothesis (H0) and an alternative hypothesis (Ha).
2 Set a level of statistical significance () (see ALPHA).
3 Select and calculate an appropriate test statistic, a numerical value cal-
culated from the data sampled from a population and used to deter-
mine whether or not H0 should be rejected, which results in a
calculated value.
4 Compare the sample evidence from Step 3 against a criterion (i.e. a cal-
culated value against a critical value or a p-value against ).
5 Make a decision regarding the null hypothesis (i.e. either to reject H0 in
favour of Ha or fail to reject H0).
see also STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
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I
i1n
in Krashen’s theory of SLA, “i” represents a learner’s current level of
competence, and “i 1” the stage just beyond it.
iconicity n
see COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS
ideal speaker/hearer n
see COMPETENCE
ideational function n
see FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE2
ideogram n
see IDEOGRAPHIC WRITING
ideographic writing n
a WRITING SYSTEM using symbols (ideograms) to represent whole words or
concepts (“ideas”). The Chinese writing system is often considered to be
ideographic.
For example, in Chinese the ideogram represents “water”.
Chinese can create new LEXEMES by combining existing ideograms to form
COMPOUND WORDs. It can also combine existing ideograms into a sequence
whose pronunciation is like that of a foreign word the Chinese wish to
borrow, thus “transliterating” the foreign word into Chinese characters.
ideology n
a set of concepts, doctrines and beliefs that forms the basis of a political,
educational or economic system.
The relationships between ideology, language, and discourse are a central
focus of critical theory and critical linguistics.
see CURRICULUM IDEOLOGIES
ideophones n
a type of SOUND SYMBOLISM used to provide a vivid representation of an
object or image that has no inherent acoustic qualities, such as (in
English) zig-zag, shilly-shally, or topsy-turvy.
see also ONOMATOPOEIA
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idiolect
idiolect n idiolectal adj
the language system of an individual as expressed by the way he or she
speaks or writes within the overall system of a particular language. In
its widest sense, someone’s idiolect includes their way of communicat-
ing; for example, their choice of utterances and the way they interpret
the utterances made by others. In a narrower sense, an idiolect may
include those features, either in speech or writing, which distinguish
one individual from others, such as VOICE QUALITY, PITCH, and SPEECH
RHYTHM.
see also DIALECT, SOCIOLECT
idiom n idiomatic adj
an expression which functions as a single unit and whose meaning cannot
be worked out from its separate parts.
For example:
She washed her hands of the matter.
means
“She refused to have anything more to do with the matter”.
idiomatic adj, idiomaticity n
the degree to which speech is not simply grammatical but also native-like
in use. For example, “It pleases me that Harry was able to be brought by
you” (said by a host/hostess to a guest at a party) is grammatical but not
native-like or idiomatic, whereas “I’m so glad you could bring Harry” is
both grammatical and idiomatic.
IELTS n
see INTERNATIONAL ENGLISH LANGUAGE TESTING SYSTEM
IEP n
an abbreviation for INTENSIVE ENGLISH PROGRAMME
I-language
also internalized language
language viewed as an internal property of the human mind or a compu-
tational system in the human brain. Linguists who subscribe to this view
attempt to construct grammars showing how the mind structures
language and what universal principles are involved (see UNIVERSAL
GRAMMAR, GENERATIVE THEORY).
I-language can be contrasted with E-language (externalized language),
language viewed as a collection of texts or a social phenomenon.
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imitation
illiteracy n
see LITERACY
illocutionary act n
see LOCUTIONARY ACT
illocutionary force n
see SPEECH ACT, LOCUTIONARY ACT, PERFORMATIVE
illuminative evaluation n
also process evaluation
an approach to evaluation that seeks to find out how different aspects of
a course work or how a course is being implemented and the teaching
learning and processes that it creates. It seeks to provide a deeper
understanding of the processes of teaching and learning that occur in a
programme without necessarily seeking to change the course in any way
as a result. See EVALUATION
ILR n
an abbreviation for the INTERAGENCY LANGUAGE ROUND TABLE
imagery n
mental pictures or impressions (“images”) created by, or accompanying,
words or sentences.
Words or sentences that produce strong picture-like images may be easier
to remember than those without visual imagery. For example. in the fol-
lowing pair of sentences, (a) may be easier to remember than (b) because
it creates a stronger mental image.
a The gloves were made by a tailor.
b The gloves were made by a machine.
In second language learning. imagery may be used as a learning strategy.
For example, when reading a passage about agricultural machinery, a stu-
dent may think of a farm scene in which people are using different kinds
of machines. Later when trying to recall the passage he or she read, the
student may think of the image or picture and use this to trigger recollec-
tion of the information in the text.
imaginative function n
see DEVELOPMENTAL FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
imitation n
(in language learning) the copying of the speech of another person.
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immediate recall
Traditional views of language learning placed a high emphasis on the
role of imitation and it has been considered basic to some methods of
teaching foreign languages (see AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD, SITUATIONAL
LANGUAGE TEACHING). However, the basic assumption of research on
first and second language acquisition is that learners use language pro-
ductively and creatively and do not simply imitate the utterances of
others.
see also MODELLING, CREATIVE CONSTRUCTION HYPOTHESIS
immediate recall n
the remembering of something shortly after studying it. The ability to
remember something some time after it has been studied is known as
DELAYED RECALL
immersion programme n
a form of BILINGUAL EDUCATION and used to describe programmes which
serve language majority students and which use a second or foreign lan-
guage to teach at least 50% of the curriculum during the elementary or
secondary grades. For example, there are schools in Canada for
English-speaking children, where French is the language of instruction. If
these children are taught in French for the whole day it is called a total
immersion programme, but if they are taught in French for only part of
the day it is called a partial immersion programme.
see also SUBMERSION PROGRAMME
impact n
the effect of a test on individual test takers, other STAKEHOLDERs (e.g.
teachers, parents, school administrators, or test developers), educational
systems, or society.
see also BACKWASH, WASHBACK
imperative n
see MOOD
imperative sentence n
a sentence which is in the form of a command. For example:
Pick up the book!
Imperative sentences do not, however, always have the function of an
order. For example:
Look what you’ve done now!
often functions as an expression of annoyance.
see also DECLARATIVE SENTENCE, INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE
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implicational scaling
impersonal construction n
a type of sentence in which there is no mention of who or what does or
experiences something. Examples include English It’s cold, It’s raining,
and French Ici on parle anglais (literally, “Here one speaks English”)
“English is spoken here”.
implication n
in everyday communication, a great deal of information is implied by the
speaker rather than asserted. For example, if somebody said:
Rita was on time this morning.
it could imply that Rita was usually late.
Often the hearer would understand the implication of the utterance in the
way that the speaker intends (see UTTERANCE MEANING) and give a suitable
response but, of course, there may be misunderstandings and misinter-
pretations:
A: I’m rather short of cash at the moment.
(meaning: I’d like you to pay for the lunch)
B: Oh, I’m sure they accept credit cards here.
implicational scaling n
a method of showing relationships by means of an implicational table or
scalogram. For example, a group of students learning English may
acquire the rule for using the DEFINITE ARTICLE before the rule for the
INDEFINITE ARTICLE and they may acquire those two rules before the rule
for marking the PLURAL of nouns. This can be shown by investigating their
spoken or written language and presenting the results in a table. The
symbol means 100% correct use of the rule and the symbol means
that the rule is applied sometimes but not at other times (variable use).
student noun plural indefinite article definite article
C
A
D
B
F
E
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implicational universal
The symbol in any row in the table implies a symbol in any column
to the right of it in the same row or in any row below it. In this way the
students are ranked from student C through student E, who is the best
student, because he or she has 100% correct use of all the rules.
Implicational scaling has been used to show the order of acquisition of
rules by FOREIGN LANGUAGE and SECOND LANGUAGE learners, and by
people who are moving from a CREOLE towards a STANDARD VARIETY.
see also VARIABLE1
implicational universal n
see LANGUAGE UNIVERSAL
implicature n
see CONVERSATIONAL MAXIM
implicit knowledge n
also tacit knowledge, intuitive knowledge
knowledge that people can be shown (by their behaviour, their judge-
ments about grammaticality, and so forth) to possess intuitively, but
which they are unable to articulate. Implicit knowledge is contrasted with
explicit knowledge, which is verbalizable.
For example, native speakers of English intuitively know the regularities
of article use (when to use the definite, indefinite, or zero article), but they
are usually unable to say what any of those principles are. Foreign lan-
guage learners of English, on the other hand, may have quite a lot of
explicit knowledge about the rules for using English articles, while their
unmonitored production may reveal that this explicit knowledge has not
been internalized.
implicit learning n
in general, non-conscious learning, contrasted with explicit learning,
which is more conscious. Various writers define the difference between
implicit and explicit learning in slightly different ways, for example:
1 Explicit learning involves such conscious operations as hypothesis for-
mation and testing, while implicit learning does not.
2 Implicit learning is learning without awareness of what has been
learned, while in explicit learning the learner is aware of what has been
learned.
3 Explicit learning is accompanied by awareness that one is learning,
while implicit learning is not.
Differing definitions and difficulties involved in operationalizing terms
like “awareness” have given rise to many long-standing controversies.
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inchoative verb
implicit memory n
sometimes also referred to as unintentional unconscious memory, a type
of MEMORY that is revealed when previous experiences facilitate perform-
ance even when not accompanied by conscious recollection. For example,
both first and second language readers process recently encountered
words faster than words that they have not encountered recently, but this
speeded processing (see PRIMING) does not depend on readers remember-
ing that they have seen the word before.
implicit negative feedback n
see RECAST
implicit performative n
see PERFORMATIVE
implosive n
a stop made with an ingressive airstream mechanism in which air is
sucked into (instead of expelled from) the airstream during part of the
articulation.
impressionistic transcription n
see TRANSCRIPTION
inalienable possession n
in many languages, there is a distinction between those objects which can
change ownership, such as houses, or animals, and those which typically
cannot, such as body parts, one’s shadow, and one’s footprints.
The first type of possession is called alienable possession and the latter
type is called inalienable.
For example, in English, the verb own is typically not used with inalien-
able possessions: George owns a car but not *George owns a big nose (if
it is his own nose). On the other hand the verb have can be used with both
types of possession: George has a car and George has a big nose.
inanimate noun n
see ANIMATE NOUN
inchoative verb n
a verb which expresses a change of state. For example:
yellowed in The leaves yellowed.
and
matured in The cheese matured.
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incidental learning
as the leaves “became yellow” and the cheese “became mature”.
see also CAUSATIVE VERB
incidental learning n
learning something without the intention to learn it or learning one
thing while intending to learn another, for example, unintentionally
picking up vocabulary, patterns, or spelling through interaction,
communicative activities, or reading for content or pleasure. This
can be contrasted with intentional learning, for example learning by
following a deliberate programme of study to enhance vocabulary
or grammar.
In controlled experiments, incidental learning is usually used in a more
restricted sense, operationalized as a condition in which subjects are not
told in advance that they will be tested after treatment, sometimes con-
trasted with an intentional condition in which subjects are told what they
will be tested on.
incipient bilingualism n
the early stages of bilingualism or second language acquisition where a
language is not yet strongly developed.
inclusion n
in education, placing all students together for teaching rather than remov-
ing some students for separate teaching, e.g. second language students or
students with learning disabilities.
inclusive (first person) pronoun n
see EXCLUSIVE (FIRST PERSON) PRONOUN
indefinite article n
see ARTICLE
indefinite pronoun n
a pronoun that refers to something which is not thought of as definite or
particular, such as somebody, something, anybody, anyone, one, any-
thing, everybody, everything.
independent clause n
see DEPENDENT CLAUSE
independent variable n
see DEPENDENT VARIABLE
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indirect test
indexical information n
(in communication) information which is communicated, usually
indirectly, about the speaker or writer’s social class, age, sex, nationality,
ethnic group, etc., or his or her emotional state (e.g. whether excited,
angry, surprised, bored, etc.).
indicative n
see MOOD
indigenization n
another term for NATIVIZATION
indigenous language n
a language that’s spoken by the indigenous (original) inhabitants of a
country, for example, Hawaiian and American Indian languages in the US
and aboriginal languages in Australia.
indirect negative evidence n
see EVIDENCE
indirect object n
see OBJECT1
indirect object relative clause n
also IO
see NOUN PHRASE ACCESSIBILITY HIERARCHY
indirect question n
see DIRECT SPEECH
indirect speech n
see DIRECT SPEECH
indirect speech act n
a speech act in which the communicative intention is not reflected in the
linguistic form of the utterance. For example, “It is very hot in here” may
be used to express a request to turn on the air conditioner.
see SPEECH ACT
indirect test n
a test that measures ability indirectly by requiring test takers to perform
tasks not reflective of an authentic target language use situation, from
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individual differences
which an inference is drawn about the abilities underlying their perform-
ance on the test. An example of an indirect test of writing includes a test
that asks test takers to locate errors in a composition; an example of an
indirect test of pronunciation is a test where test takers are asked to select
a word that has the same pronunciation as the one in the STEM.
see also DIRECT TEST, SEMI-DIRECT
individual differences n
factors specific to individual learners which may account for differences
in the rate at which learners learn and their level of attainment. While
much research in SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING has the goal of discovering
processes and stages of development that are common to all learners, this
has always been accompanied by a complementary concern for differ-
ences among learners. Given the same learning environment, it is often
observed that some learners are highly successful and others are not.
Individual learner factors that have been frequently identified as possible
causes for differential success include age (see CRITICAL PERIOD), APTITUDE,
MOTIVATION, COGNITIVE STYLE, the use of LEARNING STRATEGIES, and
PERSONALITY.
individualization n
also individualized instruction, individualized learning
a learner-centred approach to teaching in which
a goals and objectives are based on the needs of individual learners
b allowances are made in the design of a CURRICULUM for individual dif-
ferences in what students wish to learn, how they learn, and the rate at
which they learn
Individualized approaches to language teaching are based on these
assumptions:
1 people learn in different ways
2 they can learn from a variety of different sources
3 learners have different goals and objectives in language learning
4 direct teaching by a teacher is not always essential for learning
Individualization includes such things as one-to-one teaching, home
study, self-access facilities, self-directed learning and the development of
learner autonomy, since they all focus on the learner as an individual.
Indo-European languages n
languages which are related and which are supposed to have had a
common ancestor language, called “Proto Indo-European”. Languages in
this group include most European languages, e.g. English, French,
German, and the Celtic and Slavonic languages. They also include the
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inferential comprehension
ancient Indian languages Sanskrit and Pali and such languages as Hindi,
Urdu, Bengali, Sinhala, and Farsi.
induced error n
also transfer of training
(in language learning) an ERROR which has been caused by the way in
which a language item has been presented or practised.
For example, in teaching at the teacher may hold up a box and say I’m
looking at the box. However, the learner may infer that at means under.
If later the learner uses at for under (thus producing *The cat is at the
table instead of The cat is under the table) this would be an induced error.
see also ERROR ANALYSIS, INFERENCING, INTERLANGUAGE
induction n
see DEDUCTION
inductive learning n
also learning by induction
see DEDUCTIVE LEARNING
inductive statistics n
see INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
inferencing n
(in learning and comprehension) the process of arriving at a hypothesis,
idea, or judgement on the basis of other knowledge, ideas, or judgements
(that is, making inferences or inferring). In language learning, inferencing
has been discussed as a LEARNING STRATEGY used by learners to work out
grammatical and other kinds of rules. In comprehension of both written and
spoken texts, several different kinds of inferencing are thought to play a role:
1 propositional inferences are those that follow on logically and necess-
arily from a given statement.
2 enabling inferences are related to causal relationships between events or
concepts
3 pragmatic inferences provide extra information which is not essential
to the understanding of a text, but which expands on it
4 bridging inferences are those that are needed if a text is to be under-
stood coherently
5 elaborative inferences are not actually necessary to understand a text
inferential comprehension n
see READING
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inferential statistics
inferential statistics n
also inductive statistics
statistical procedures that are used to make inferences or generalizations
about a population from a set of data. Statistical inference is based on
probability theory. A variety of different statistical techniques are used to
determine the probable degree of accuracy of generalizations about the
population from which a sample or set of data was selected.
see also DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS, STATISTICS, T-TEST, ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
infinitive n
the BASE FORM of a verb (e.g. go, come).
In English the infinitive usually occurs with the infinitive marker to
(e.g. I want to go) but can occur without to as with AUXILIARY VERBs
(e.g. Do come! You may go). The infinitive without to is known as the
bare infinitive or simple form. The infinitive with to is sometimes called
the “to-infinitive”.
The infinitive is a non-finite form of the verb (see FINITE VERB).
infix n
a letter or sound or group of letters or sounds which are added within a
word, and which change the meaning or function of the word.
see also AFFIX
INFL n
a category in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR which includes finite auxiliaries
(which are inflected for tense and agreement) and the infinitival particle to.
inflecting language n
also fusional language n
a language in which the form of a word changes to show a change in
meaning or grammatical function. Often there is no clear distinction
between the basic part of the word and the part which shows a gram-
matical function such as number or tense.
For example:
mice (mouse plural)
came (come past tense)
Greek and Latin are inflecting languages, although there is no clear-cut
distinction between inflecting languages, AGGLUTINATING LANGUAGEs, and
ISOLATING LANGUAGEs.
Sometimes inflecting languages and agglutinating languages are called
synthetic languages.
see also INFLECTION
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information processing
inflection/inflexion n inflect v
(in MORPHOLOGY) the process of adding an AFFIX to a word or changing it
in some other way according to the rules of the grammar of a language.
For example, in English, verbs are inflected for 3rd-person singular: I
work, he/she works and for past tense: I worked. Most nouns may be
inflected for plural: horse – horses, flower – flowers, man – men.
see also DERIVATION, CONJUGATION2
informal assessment n
procedures used for systematic observation and collection of data about
students’ performance under normal classroom conditions rather than
through the use of standardized tests or other controlled methods of
appraisal.
see FORMAL ASSESSMENT
informal speech n
another term for COLLOQUIAL SPEECH
informant n
(in research) a person who provides the researcher with data for analysis.
The data may be obtained, for instance, by recording the person’s speech
or by asking him or her questions about language use.
see also FIELD WORK
information content n
see INFORMATION THEORY
information gap n
(in communication between two or more people) a situation where infor-
mation is known by only some of those present.
In COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING it is said that in order to promote
real communication between students, there must be an information gap
between them, or between them and their teacher. Without such a gap the
classroom activities and exercises will be mechanical and artificial.
information processing n
(in psychology and PSYCHOLINGUISTICS) a general term for the processes by
which meanings are identified and understood in communication, the
processes by which information and meaning are stored, organized, and
retrieved from MEMORY and the different kinds of DECODING which take
place during reading or listening. The study of information processing
includes the study of memory, decoding, and HYPOTHESIS TESTING, and the
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information retrieval
study of the processes and strategies (see STRATEGY) which learners use in
working out meanings in the TARGET LANGUAGE1.
see also HEURISTIC, HYPOTHESIS TESTING, INFORMATION THEORY, INPUT, COG-
NITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
information retrieval n
1 the process of retrieving information from memory or that is stored in
another source, such as a computer
2 the study of how such processes occur
information science n
the study of the generation, organization, communication and use of infor-
mation. Information science is interdisciplinary and draws on work in lin-
guistics, engineering, computer science. physics, communications, etc.
information structure n
the use of WORD ORDER, INTONATION, STRESS and other devices to indicate
how the message expressed by a sentence is to be understood.
Information structure is communicated by devices which indicate such
things as:
a which parts of the message the speaker assumes the hearer already
knows and which parts of the message are new information (see FUNC-
TIONAL SENTENCE PERSPECTIVE)
b contrasts, which may be indicated by stressing one word and not
another (e.g. I broke MY pen; I broke my PEN; I BROKE my pen).
see also GROUNDING
information theory n
also communication theory
any theory that explains how communication systems carry information
and which measures the amount of information according to how much
choice is involved when we send information. One well-known model (that
of Shannon and Weaver) describes communication as a process consisting
of the following elements. The information source (e.g. a speaker) selects a
desired message out of a possible set of messages. The “transmitter”
changes the messages into a signal which is sent over the communication
CHANNEL (e.g. a telephone wire) where it is received by the RECEIVER (e.g. a
telephone or earphones) and changed back into a MESSAGE which is sent to
the “destination” (e.g. a listener). In the process of transmission certain
unwanted additions to the signal may occur which are not part of the mess-
age (e.g. interference from a poor telephone line) and these are referred to
as NOISE2. The information content of a unit (e.g. of a word or a sentence)
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initial state
is measured according to how likely it is to occur in a particular communi-
cation. The more predictable a unit is, the less information it is said to carry.
The unit of information used in information theory is the “binary digit”, or
“bit”. The related concept of REDUNDANCY refers to the degree to which a
message contains more information than is needed for it to be understood.
information transfer n
a type of activity often associated with COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACH-
ING in which students transfer meaning from one form to another, such
as when students select meaning from a reading or listening text and then
reproduce it in a different form, e.g. as a diagram or table or the reverse.
informative function n
see DEVELOPMENTAL FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
informed consent n
A basic ethical requirement of all research, including research into LAN-
GUAGE LEARNING and the efficacy of various teaching methods, that all
research subjects must give their consent to be included in the subject pool
and such consent must be based on an understanding of what the research
is about and how the results will be used. Obtaining informed consent
requires informing subjects of any risks that may be involved in their par-
ticipation, including risks that may seem minor to the researcher but may
matter to subjects such as feelings of discomfort or embarrassment. Most
institutions that sponsor research provide detailed guidelines for ethical
research and require that consent forms be kept on file.
inherent lexical aspect hypothesis n
see LEXICAL ASPECT HYPOTHESIS
inhibition n
see ATTENTION, PROACTIVE INHIBITION
initial adj
occurring at the beginning of a linguistic unit, e.g. as word-initial,
clause-initial.
For example, a group of consonants at the beginning of a word, such as
/spr/ in the English word spray, is an initial CONSONANT CLUSTER
see also MEDIAL, FINAL
initial state n
in LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, the starting point from which acquisition
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innateness position
proceeds. In behaviourism, the starting point for first language acquisition
was sometimes assumed to be zero (a blank slate), but GENERATIVE THEORY
assumes that children are equipped with UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR as the
initial state. In SLA, the initial state includes at least those resources trans-
ferred from the first language; whether universal grammar remains avail-
able to second and foreign language learners is one of the main questions
investigated in formally orientated SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION.
innateness position n
another term for INNATIST HYPOTHESIS
innatist hypothesis n
also innatist position, nativist position, innateness position, rationalist
position
a theory held by some philosophers and linguists which says that human
knowledge develops from structures, processes, and “ideas” which are in the
mindatbirth(i.e.areinnate),ratherthanfromtheenvironment,andthatthese
are responsible for the basic structure of language and how it is learned. This
hypothesis has been used to explain how children are able to learn language
(see LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE). The innatist hypothesis contrasts with
the belief that all human knowledge comes from experience (see EMPIRICISM).
see also MENTALISM
inner circle n
a term coined by Kachru to characterize the status of English in different
parts of the world. The inner circle refers to countries where English is
spoken as a first language, such as the UK, the USA, Canada and
Australia. This may be compared with the status of English in countries
where it is regarded as a second language (e.g. Singapore, India, Nigeria),
where it is used in such domains, as education, administration, and busi-
ness, where there is a high degree of individual bilingualism. This is
referred to as the outer circle. Both contexts are compared with contexts
known as the expanding circle, i.e. nations in which English has not had
a central role in the past but where it is currently largely used for purposes
of business and technology (e.g. China, Russia).
See also WORLD ENGLISHES
inner speech n
a type of “speech” discussed by the Russian psychologist Vygotsky, who
distinguished between external speech and inner speech.
External speech is spoken or written speech, and is expressed in words
and sentences. Inner speech is speech for oneself. It takes place inside
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instructional framework
one’s own mind and often takes place in “pure word meanings” rather
than in words or sentences, according to Vygotsky.
input n
(in language learning) language which a learner hears or receives and
from which he or she can learn. The language a learner produces is by
analogy sometimes called output.
see also INTAKE
input hypothesis n
the idea that exposure to comprehensible input which contains structures
that are slightly in advance of a learner’s current level of COMPETENCE is
the necessary and sufficient cause of SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION.
see also INTAKE, MONITOR HYPOTHESIS
inquiry learning n
see DISCOVERY LEARNING
insertion sequence n
in conversation, speakers may interrupt themselves and insert an utter-
ance which is not related to the main conversation. This utterance is often
referred to as an insertion sequence. There may be numerous reasons for
the sequence. Often it may be caused by an external event, e.g. a
ring/knock at the door, a ringing telephone:
A: ... and I actually told her that ... (doorbell rings)
Excuse me, that must be Al. He’s probably forgotten his key.
A: (returns) Now, what was I saying before? Ah, yes. She said ...
In many cases, the original conversation is continued after the insertion
sequence. Sometimes it is referred to briefly with utterances such as:
Sorry for the interruption. Now where were we? what was I saying? etc.
see also SEQUENCING1, SIDE SEQUENCE
inservice education n
see PRESERVICE EDUCATION
Institute of Translation and Interpreting n
also ITI
see TRANSLATION, INTERPRETATION
instructional framework n
the overall conceptual plan and organization used to design a lesson or a
unit of instructional materials or to analyze teaching.
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instructional objective
instructional objective n
another term for BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVE
instrumental case n
(in CASE GRAMMAR) the noun or noun phrase that refers to the means by
which the action of the verb is performed is in the instrumental case.
For example, in the sentences:
He dug the hole with a spade.
The hammer hit the nail.
a spade and the hammer are in the instrumental case.
instrumental function n
see DEVELOPMENTAL FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
instrumental motivation n
see MOTIVATION
intake n
a term referring to that part of the language to which learners are exposed
(see INPUT) that actually “goes in” and plays a role in language learning.
Some theorists believe that intake is that part of the input that has been
attended to and noticed by second language learners while processing the
input (see NOTICING HYPOTHESIS). It is also possible to distinguish between
preliminary intake, brief notice of some feature of the input, and final
intake, integration of knowledge of that item in one’s INTERLANGUAGE.
integrated approach n
(in language teaching) the teaching of the language skills of reading,
writing, listening, and speaking, in conjunction with each other, as when
a lesson involves activities that relate listening and speaking to reading
and writing.
see also LANGUAGE ARTS
integrated syllabus n
also multi-skilled syllabus
in language teaching, a syllabus that is based upon a close relationship
between different units of language (e.g. grammar, functions, skills) and
which seeks to provide for mutual reinforcement between the different
components of the syllabus.
integrated whole language approach n
see WHOLE LANGUAGE APPROACH
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interaction
integrative motivation n
see MOTIVATION
integrative orientation n
see MOTIVATION
integrative test n
an integrative test is one that requires a test taker to use several language
skills at the same time, such as a dictation test, which requires the learner
to use knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, and listening comprehension.
see DISCRETE-POINT TEST
intelligibility n
the degree to which a message can be understood. Studies of speech
PERCEPTION have found that the intelligibility of speech is due to various
factors including ACCENT3 and INTONATION, the listener’s ability to predict
parts of the message, the location of PAUSES in the utterance, the gram-
matical complexity of sentences, and the speed with which utterances are
produced.
intensifier n
a class of words, generally adverbs, which are used to modify gradable
adjectives, adverbs, verbs, or -ed- PARTICIPLEs, as in:
It is very good
It was completely destroyed.
I absolutely detest it.
see also GRADABLE
intensive language programme n
also intensive English programme, service English programme
a language programme designed to prepare international students or
other students needing language instruction to take regular academic
courses at a university.
intensive reading n
see EXTENSIVE READING
intentional learning n
see INCIDENTAL LEARNING
interaction n
the way in which a language is used by interlocutors.
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interaction analysis
interaction analysis n
also interaction process analysis
any of several procedures for measuring and describing the behaviour of
students and teachers in classrooms, (a) in order to describe what happens
during a lesson (b) to evaluate teaching (c) to study the relationship
between teaching and learning (d) to help teacher-trainees learn about the
process of teaching. In interaction analysis, classroom behaviour is
observed and the different types of student and teacher activity are classi-
fied, using a classification scheme. Several such schemes have been pro-
posed.
interactional and transactional functions of language n
a distinction that is sometimes made between uses of language where the
primary focus is on social interaction between the speakers and the need
to communicate such things as rapport, empathy, interest and social har-
mony (interactional function), and those where the primary focus is on
communicating information and completing different kinds of real world
transactions (transactional function). Interactional communication is pri-
marily person-orientated, whereas transactional communication is pri-
marily message focused. Interactional and transactional language may
differ in terms of such things as conventions for turn-taking, topics, and
discourse management.
interactional function n
see DEVELOPMENTAL FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
interaction hypothesis n
the hypothesis that language acquisition requires or greatly benefits from
interaction, communication and especially negotiation of meaning, which
happens when interlocutors attempt to overcome problems in conveying
their meaning, resulting in both additional input and useful feedback on
the learner’s own production.
interactionism n
also interactionist position n
(in psychology, linguistics, and research on language acquisition) the view
that language development and social development are associated and
that one cannot be understood without the other. Researchers who take
an interactionist position focus on the social context of language devel-
opment and how the relationship between the language learner and the
persons with whom he or she interacts influences language acquisition.
This perspective is sometimes contrasted with a linguistic approach,
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intercultural communication
which holds that language acquisition can be understood through analy-
sis of the learner’s utterances, independently of his or her cognitive devel-
opment or social life.
interactive adj
(in COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION) describes the ability of a user to
“communicate” (or “interact”) with a computer. Lessons in CAI
materials may involve a question on the computer, a response from the
student, and feedback from the computer telling the student if the answer
is correct. In CAI such activities are said to be “interactive”.
interactive listening n
in teaching listening, an emphasis on listening as involving an active inter-
play between a listener and a text or between a listener and a speaker.
interactive processing n
a theory of reading comprehension that sees reading as involving both the
accurate and sequential understanding of text based on identification of
the meanings of words and sentences in the text ( i.e. BOTTOM-UP
PROCESSING) as well as the experiences, background information, and pre-
dictions that the reader brings to the text (i.e. TOP-DOWN PROCESSING). Both
kinds of processing are involved and they modify and act on each other.
interactive reading n
in teaching reading, an emphasis on reading as involving an interplay
between the reader and the text.
Interagency Language Round Table n
also ILR
a collective name for a group of United States Government agencies, such
as the Foreign Service Institute, the Federal Bureau of Investigation and
the Defense Language Institute, involved in teaching and using languages.
The ILR Language Skill Level Descriptions provide assessment in all four
language skills.
intercultural communication n
also interdiscourse communication/intercultural discourse
an interdisciplinary field of research that studies how people communi-
cate and understand each other across group boundaries or discourse sys-
tems of various sorts including national, geographical, linguistic, ethnic,
occupation, class or gender-related boundaries and how such boundaries
affect language use. This could include the study of a corporate culture, a
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interdental
professional group, a gender discourse system, or a generational discourse
system
interdental adj
describes a speech sound (a CONSONANT) produced with the tip of the
tongue between the upper and lower teeth, e.g. /Â/ and /ù/ in the English
words /Â∂k/ thick and /ù∂s/ this.
see also MANNER OF ARTICULATION, PLACE OF ARTICULATION
interface n
in SLA, the relationship between implicit and explicit learning and knowl-
edge. The strong interface position holds that explicit knowledge can be
transformed into implicit knowledge through the process of automatiza-
tion, which is a consequence of practice. The no-interface position holds
that explicit and implicit knowledge develop independently and are
encapsulated systems, i.e. changes in one do not produce changes in the
other. In this view, the fact that a learner of English may have both intu-
itive and explicit knowledge about a particular phenomenon (such as the
use of tense and aspect) would be no more than a coincidence. Various
weak-interface positions have also been articulated. For example, explicit
knowledge may be successfully incorporated into the implicit knowledge
system if it becomes available at just the right time in the development of
the implicit system, or explicit knowledge about the regularities of a lan-
guage may help learners to notice these regularities when processing
input, which leads to the development of implicit knowledge.
interference n
see LANGUAGE TRANSFER
intergroup communication n
communication between different groups, especially those which are
socially, ethnically, or linguistically different. Intergroup communication
is often by means of a LINGUA FRANCA, a language known by speakers of
both groups.
For example, in Indonesia, where many different languages are spoken,
Bahasa Indonesia, the national language, is the language most frequently
used for intergroup communication.
see also INTRAGROUP COMMUNICATION
interim grammar n
a temporary grammatical system used by children learning their first lan-
guage at a particular stage in their language development. Children’s
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interlingual error
grammatical systems change as they develop new grammatical rules;
hence they may be said to pass through a series of interim grammars.
see also INTERLANGUAGE
interjection n
a word such as ugh!, gosh!, wow!, which indicates an emotional state or
attitude such as delight, surprise, shock, and disgust, but which has no
referential meaning (see REFERENCE).
Interjections are often regarded as one of the PARTS OF SPEECH.
see also EXCLAMATION1
interlanguage n
the type of language produced by second- and foreign-language learners
who are in the process of learning a language.
In language learning, learner language is influenced by several different
processes. These include:
a borrowing patterns from the mother tongue (see LANGUAGE TRANSFER)
b extending patterns from the target language, e.g. by analogy (see OVER-
GENERALIZATION)
c expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already
known (see COMMUNICATION STRATEGY)
Since the language which the learner produces using these processes dif-
fers from both the mother tongue and the TARGET LANGUAGE1, it is some-
times called an interlanguage, or is said to result from the learner’s
interlanguage system or approximative system.
see also INTERIM GRAMMAR
interlanguage hypothesis n
the hypothesis that language learners possess a grammatical system that
is different from both the first language and the target language but is
nevertheless a natural language. That is, interlanguages are believed to be
constrained by the same principles as all languages.
interlingual error n
(in ERROR ANALYSIS) an error which results from LANGUAGE TRANSFER, that
is, which is caused by the learner’s native language. For example, the
incorrect French sentence Elle regarde les (“She sees them”), produced
according to the word order of English, instead of the correct French sen-
tence Elle les regarde (Literally, “She them sees”).
An intralingual error is one which results from faulty or partial learning
of the TARGET LANGUAGE1, rather than from language transfer. Intralingual
errors may be caused by the influence of one target language item upon
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interlingual identification
another. For example a learner may produce He is comes, based on a
blend of the English structures He is coming, He comes.
interlingual identification n
(in second or foreign language learning) a judgement made by learners
about the identity or similarity of structures in two languages. For
example, in learning the sound system of a new language, a learner may
have to decide whether the ‘d’ sound in the new language is the same or
different from the ‘d’ sound in his or her native language. Learners often
categorize sounds in terms of the phonemic systems of their first language,
making acquisition of new target language sounds difficult.
see also PHONEME, LANGUAGE TRANSFER
interlocutor n
a neutral term referring to any person with whom someone is speaking.
A conversation requires at least two interlocutors. In language testing, the
term is sometimes used to refer to a teacher or other trained person who
acts during a test as the person with whom the student or candidate inter-
acts in order to complete a speaking task.
internal consistency reliability n
(in testing) a measure of the degree to which the items or parts of a
test are homogeneous, equivalent or consistent with each other. It is
based on a single test administration and obviates the need for PARAL-
LEL FORMS of a test, which are often expensive and difficult to develop.
Internal consistency reliability is often estimated by the following
approaches: CRONBACH ALPHA, KUDER-RICHARDSON FORMULAS or SPLIT-
HALF RELIABILITY.
internal validity n
(in research design) the extent to which the treatment delivered to subjects
in an experimental study is responsible for the observed change(s) in par-
ticipants’ behaviour. Examples of the threats to internal validity (i.e. poss-
ible explanations for the changes other than the treatment) include history
where there are environmental influences on the participants, or matura-
tion where participants matured, during the period between the pre-test
and the post-test, which suggests that the change could have resulted from
something other than the treatment itself.
see also EXTERNAL VALIDITY
internalized language n
another term for I-LANGUAGE
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interpretation
international language n
a language in widespread use as a FOREIGN LANGUAGE OR SECOND LAN-
GUAGE, i.e. as a language of international communication. English is the
most widely used international language.
International Phonetic Alphabet n
also IPA
a system of symbols designed by the International Phonetic Association to
be used to represent the sounds of all human languages in accordance
with a set of common principles. The symbols consist of letters and DIA-
CRITICS. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, while others are
special symbols, e.g. /‹/, /°/, and /Á/ as in the English word /‹°Á/ show.
International English Language Testing System n
also IELTS
a test of English for academic purposes, used widely to measure the
English language proficiency of international students whose native lan-
guages are not English and who intend to enter universities in Australia,
Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and elsewhere.
International Second Language Proficiency Ratings n
also ISLPR
formerly known as the Australian Second Language Proficiency Ratings
(ASLPR), the ISLPR is a proficiency scale that assesses the four language
skills, ranging from “0” (no proficiency) to “5” (native-like proficiency)
with 12 levels, each of which describes how a test taker at each level can
perform using which language forms.
see also FOREIGN SERVICE ORAL PROFICIENCY INTERVIEW
Internet Relay Chat n
see IRC
interpersonal function n
see FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE2
interpretation n
also interpreting
the act of rendering oral language that is spoken in one language (SOURCE
LANGUAGE2) into another language (TARGET LANGUAGE2) for the benefit of
listeners who do not understand (or who understand imperfectly) the
source language. Oral translation after a speaker has finished speaking or
pauses for interpretation is known as consecutive interpretation. If the
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interpreter
interpretation takes place as the speaker is talking, providing a continu-
ous translation that parallels the speaker’s speech, it is called simul-
taneous interpretation. Interpretation is often required in a variety of
situations, such as conferences, community settings, and the courts.
see also TRANSLATION
interpreter n
in general, someone who provides an oral translation of a speaker’s
words from one language to another. An accredited interpreter (or certi-
fied interpreter) is one who has received accreditation (or certification)
from a professional organization such as the Institute of Translation and
Interpreting (ITI), issued on the basis of training, experience, and exami-
nations. Some interpreters have highly specialized skills and are accred-
ited as CONFERENCE INTERPRETERS OR COURT INTERPRETERS.
interpreting n
see INTERPRETATION
interpretive error n
see ERROR
interpretive semantics n
a theory about the place of meaning in a model of GENERATIVE GRAMMAR.
It considers a meaning component, called the semantic component, as
part of the grammar. This component contains rules which interpret the
meaning of sentences. This theory differs from GENERATIVE SEMANTICS,
which insists that the semantic component is the most basic part of a
grammar from which all sentences of a language can be “generated” (see
GENERATIVE GRAMMAR, RULE2).
In generative semantics, syntactic rules operate on the meaning of a sen-
tence to produce its form. In interpretive semantics, semantic rules oper-
ate on the words and syntactic structure of a sentence to reveal its
meaning.
inter-rater reliability n
(in testing) the degree to which different examiners or judges making dif-
ferent subjective ratings of ability (e.g. of L2 writing proficiency) agree in
their evaluations of that ability. If different judges rank test takers in
approximately the same order, using a RATING SCALE that measures
different aspects of proficiency, the rating scale is said to have high inter-
rater reliability.
see also INTRA-RATER RELIABILITY
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interview guide
interrogative pronoun n
wh-pronouns (who, which, what, whose, who(m), etc.), which are used
to form questions, e.g.:
Which is your book?
What is your name?
see also WH-QUESTION
interrogative sentence n
a sentence which is in the form of a question. For example:
Did you open the window?
Interrogative sentences do not, however, always have the function of a
question. For example:
Could you shut the window?
may be a request for someone to shut the window and not a question
about whether or not the person is able to do so.
see also DECLARATIVE SENTENCE, IMPERATIVE SENTENCE
intertextuality n
the factors that make the use of one text depend on knowledge of other
texts. In interpreting a text a reader is said to make connections between the
text and other texts he or she has encountered.Thus for example, in reading
a story a reader can only make sense of it by reference to other stories pre-
viously encountered. The meaning a person derives from a text is thus said
to result from the interaction between the readers’ knowledge of the social
and literary conventions associated with the text and the genre to which it
belongs, the content of the text itself, and its relationship with other texts.
interval scale n
see SCALE
interview n
a conversation between an investigator and an individual or a group of indi-
viduals in order to gather information. Interviews are used to gather data
for linguistic analysis (see FIELDWORK) and may be used in NEEDS ANALYSIS.
see DEPTH INTERVIEW, FOCUSED INTERVIEW, GUIDED INTERVIEW, INTERVIEW
GUIDE, STRUCTURED INTERVIEW, UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
interview guide n
a list of topics used by an interviewer during an interview. An interview
guide helps the interviewer make sure that the important topics have been
covered during the interview, but it differs from an interview schedule
(see GUIDED INTERVIEW) in that it contains only the topics to be asked
about and not the actual questions that will be asked.
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interview schedule
interview schedule n
see GUIDED INTERVIEW
intervocalic adj
(of CONSONANTS) occurring between two vowels. For example, English /d/
in lady is intervocalic.
intimate speech/intimate speech style n
a form of speech used by people who are in a close and personal relation,
such as family members and close friends. Intimate speech is characterized
by:
1 the communication of much meaning indirectly or by implication
because there is a great deal of shared knowledge
2 the absence of elaborate linguistic forms
intonation n
when speaking, people generally raise and lower the PITCH of their voice,
forming pitch patterns. They also give some syllables in their utterances a
greater degree of loudness and change their SPEECH RHYTHM. These
phenomena are called intonation. Intonation does not happen at random
but has definite patterns (see INTONATION CONTOUR). Intonation is used to
carry information over and above that which is expressed by the words in
the sentence.
see also KEY2, PITCH LEVEL, TONE UNIT
intonation contour n
also intonation pattern, pitch contour, pitch pattern
the pattern of pitch changes that occur across an UTTERANCE, often
accompanied by differences in loudness and SPEECH RHYTHM.
Intonation contours may have grammatical functions. For example, the
word ready? – said with rising intonation – is a question, while the same
word with falling intonation is a statement. Intonation may also signal the
speaker’s attitude towards the matter discussed. For example, the utterance
I TOLD you so – with stress and a noticeable pitch rise on the word told,
followed by falling pitch over the end of the sentence – expresses annoyance.
Some intonation contours are associated with specific sentence types.
Generally speaking, falling intonation can be associated with certainty
and rising intonation with uncertainty. For example:
Declarative sentences in English typically have an abrupt pitch rise on the
last stressed word of the sentence followed by a fall. For example, the sen-
tence Language is a social phenomenon typically has an intonation con-
tour consisting of a rise on the first syllable of social, followed by a
gradual fall over the remaining syllables of the sentence.
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intra-rater reliability
Yes–no questions, for example, Is language a social phenomenon?, typi-
cally have a long gradual rise in pitch from the beginning to the end of the
sentence.
Wh-questions usually have the same intonation contour as declarative
sentences. For example in the question What kind of phenomenon is lan-
guage?, the abrupt pitch rise is usually on the first syllable of the word
language.
Closed-choice questions, for example, Is language a social, psychological,
or biological phenomenon?, typically exhibit list intonation, with a short
pitch rise on each option presented by the speaker (social, psychological)
except the last (biological), which has the rise-fall associated with finality.
Tag-questions, for example, Language is a social phenomenon, isn’t it?,
typically have declarative intonation on the main clause, followed by
rising intonation on the tag (isn’t it?) if the speaker is requesting confir-
mation and falling intonation on the tag if the speaker is requesting agree-
ment.
Intonation patterns differ between languages and may differ as well
between varieties of the same language. For example, the practice of using
yes–no question intonation with declarative sentences in contemporary
English is widely considered to be a feature associated with younger
speakers.
see also TONE UNIT
intonation pattern n
another term for intonation contour
intragroup communication n
communication among members of a group. In some multi-ethnic coun-
tries or communities, a language may be used for communication within
a particular ethnic group although it is not known or used by the majority
of the population; for example, Spanish in parts of the USA among some
Mexican-Americans.
see also COMMUNITY LANGUAGE, INTERGROUP COMMUNICATION
intralingual error n
see INTERLINGUAL ERROR
intransitive verb n
see TRANSITIVE VERB
intra-rater reliability n
(in testing) the degree to which an examiner or judge making subjective
ratings of ability (e.g. of L2 speaking proficiency) gives the same evalu-
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intrinsic motivation
ation of that ability when he or she makes an evaluation on two or more
different occasions.
see also INTER-RATER RELIABILITY
intrinsic motivation n
see MOTIVATION
introduction n
see ESSAY
introspection n
see VERBAL REPORTING
introvert n
see EXTROVERT
intrusion n intrusive adj
when an extra consonant is added at the end of a word to link it to a fol-
lowing word starting with a vowel, this is known as intrusion. In English,
an intrusive /r/ is often added, especially before and. For example:
China and Japan /`t‹a∂n°r °n dÔ°`pìn/
Lena and Sue /`liNn°r °n `suN/
see also LINKING
intuitive knowledge n
see IMPLICIT KNOWLEDGE
inversion n
a movement operation by which the order of two expressions is reversed.
For example, in English the auxiliary comes after the subject noun in
declarative sentences (e.g. He will come by at 8 o’clock) but before the
subject in questions (Will he come by at 8?). This specific operation is
called subject–verb inversion.
investment n
see SOCIAL CAPITAL
IO n
an abbreviation for INDIRECT OBJECT RELATIVE CLAUSE
see NOUN PHRASE ACCESSIBILITY HIERARCHY
IPA n
an abbreviation for
1 INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ASSOCIATION
2 INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET
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IT
IRC n
an acronym for Internet Relay Chat, a worldwide synchronous multi-user
chat protocol that allows one to converse with others in real time. IRC is
a free downloadable program used in language classrooms for establish-
ing KEYPALS interested in SYNCHRONOUS communication.
irregular verb n
see REGULAR VERB
IRT n
an abbreviation for ITEM RESPONSE THEORY
ISLPR n
an abbreviation for the INTERNATIONAL SECOND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY
RATINGS
isogloss n
a line on a map indicating the boundary of a particular linguistic theory.
A bundle of such isoglosses is often taken to indicate a DIALECT boundary.
isolating language n
also analytic language
a language in which word forms do not change, and in which grammati-
cal functions are shown by WORD ORDER and the use of FUNCTION WORDS.
For example, in Mandarin Chinese:
júzi wǒ chı̄ le
orange I eat (function word
showing completion)
“I ate the orange”
wǒ chı̄ le júzi le
I eat (function orange (function
word) word)
“I have eaten an orange”
Languages which are highly isolating include Chinese and
Vietnamese, although there is no clear-cut distinction between iso-
lating languages, INFLECTING LANGUAGES, and AGGLUTINATING LAN-
GUAGES. English is more isolating than many other European
languages, such as French, German, and Russian, but is also an
inflecting language.
IT n
information technology, a term referring particularly (but not limited to)
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item
to the use of computers in education. Language education as with other
forms of education, is making increasing uses of IT-aided education,
including (a) telecommunication-mediated writing: (b) word processor
facilitated composition (c) hypermedia-supported language learning, and
(d) simulation-stimulated oral discourse.
item n
an individual question in a test which requires the student to produce an
answer.
item analysis n
(in testing) the analysis of the responses to the items in a test in order to
find out how effective the test items are and to find out if they indicate
differences between high and low ability test takers.
see also DISTRACTOR EFFICIENCY ANALYSIS, ITEM FACILITY, ITEM DISCRIMI-
NATION
item difficulty n
see ITEM FACILITY
item discrimination n
also d-index
(in testing) a measure of the extent to which a test item is sensitive to dif-
ferences in ability among test takers. If a particular item in a test is
answered in the same way by both the test takers who do well on the test
as a whole and by those who do poorly, the item is said to have poor dis-
crimination. In ITEM ANALYSIS, the item-total POINT-BISERIAL CORRELATION
between the answers to an individual item (hence “item”) and the scores
on the whole test (hence “total”) is often used as an estimate of discrimi-
nation. Or alternatively, an item discrimination index can be calculated
using the following formula:
ID IFupper IFlower
where ID item discrimination for an individual item, IFupper item
facility for the upper third (or 33%) group on the whole test, IFlower
item facility for the lower third (or 33%) group on the whole test.
The ID index ranges from 1.00 to 1.00. In a NORM-REFERENCED TEST,
test items with low and negative ID indices need to be revised.
item facility n
also difficulty index, facility, facility index, facility value, item difficulty,
p-value
(in testing) a measure of the ease of a test item. It is the proportion of the
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ITI
test takers who answered the item correctly, and is determined by the fol-
lowing formula:
R
ItemFacility(IF)
N
where R number of correct answers
N the number of test takers
The higher the ratio of R to N, the easier the item.
item pool n
see ITEM BANK
item response theory n
also IRT
a modern measurement theory, as opposed to CLASSICAL TEST THEORY,
based on the probability of a test taker with a certain underlying ability
getting a particular item right or wrong. The difference among the three
main IRT models is in the number of parameters estimated in each model.
The one-parameter model, also called the Rasch model, estimates only
item difficulty (b-parameter); the two-parameter model takes into account
item difficulty and item discrimination (a-parameter); and the three-par-
ameter model estimates a guessing factor (c-parameter) in addition to
item discrimination and item difficulty parameters. The more parameters
an IRT model has, the more complex it becomes and the larger sample
size it requires. IRT is used to detect test bias (e.g., DIFFRENTIAL ITEM
FUNCTIONING) and develop a COMPUTER-ADAPTIVE TEST, among other
applications.
see also CLASSICAL TEST THEORY
item specifications n
a set of item-writing guidelines consisting of the following elements: (a) a
brief general description of the skills to be measured by the item, (b) a
description of the material that test takers will encounter and respond to in
the item, (i.e., a prompt), (c) a description of what test takers are expected
to do in response to the prompt (e.g., select an answer from four options in
a MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEM format) and how their responses will be evaluated
(e.g., a set of RATING CRITERIA for essays), and (d) an example item, written
according to specifications.
see also TEST ITEM, TEST SPECIFICATIONS.
ITI n
an abbreviation for the INSTITUTE OF TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING
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J
jargon n
speech or writing used by a group of people who belong to a particular
trade, profession, or any other group bound together by mutual interest,
e.g. the jargon of law, medical jargon.
A jargon has its own set of words and expressions, which may be incom-
prehensible to an outsider. The term jargon is typically not used by the
group itself but by those unfamiliar with that particular type of language,
and/or by those who dislike it.
Jargon is sometimes also used for the first (developmental) stage of a
PIDGIN language, where there is a great deal of individual variation, a
simple sound system, very short sentences and a restricted number of
words.
jigsaw activity n
in language teaching a type of INFORMATION GAP activity in which groups
of learners have different information that is needed to put together the
solution to a task. In jigsaw listening or reading activities, different
groups in the class may process separate but related parts of a text and
then later combine their information to reconstruct the whole through
class discussion or group interaction.
see also CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING
journal n
see LEARNING LOG
juncture n
The boundary between two PHONEMES accounting for the flow and pauses
between sounds in speech. Three types of juncture are commonly recog-
nized.
1 close juncture is characterized by a rapid transition between two
sounds, as between /s/ and /p/ in speak
2 open juncture is characterized by a slight pause between sounds, as in
pronouncing I scream versus ice cream
3 terminal juncture is characterized by a pause after a sound, as before
and after “Mrs Brown” in “My employer, Mrs Brown, is from
Canada”
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K
Kendall’s coefficient of concordance n
also Kendall’s W
a measure of the degree of AGREEMENT between two or more raters when
asked to rank-order a set of data (e.g. a set of 10 essays written by ESL
students), thus called a coefficient of CONCORDANCE. It ranges in value
from 0.00 (i.e. no agreement between the raters) to +1.00 (i.e. perfect
agreement between them) with no negative values. Kendall’s W can exam-
ine the relationship between two or more ordinal or rank-ordered vari-
ables, whereas the SPEARMAN’S RANK-ORDER CORRELATION is a measure of
association only between two ordinal variables.
Kendall rank-order correlation n
or Kendall’s tau (t)
see CORRELATION
Kendall’s tau (t) n
another term for KENDALL RANK-ORDER CORRELATION
Kendall’s W n
another term for KENDALL’S COEFFICIENT OF CONCORDANCE
key1 n
the tone, manner, or spirit in which a SPEECH ACT is carried out, for
example whether mockingly or seriously. The key chosen would depend
on the situation and the relationship of the speakers to each other. For
example, the statement If you do that I’ll never speak to you again may
be either a real threat or a mock threat. The signalling of key may be
verbal (e.g. by INTONATION) or non-verbal (e.g. by a wink, a gesture, or a
certain posture).
key2 n
(in INTONATION) a level of PITCH chosen by the speaker together with an
intonation contour (see TONE UNIT) in order to convey a particular kind
of meaning to the listener.
In English, a difference can be made between high key, mid key, and low
key.
For example, the choice of a high key often signals a contrast as in:
But she’s Peter’s WIFE (where wife also has a fall in pitch)
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key
This could be a reply to someone who had just stated that the person con-
cerned was Peter’s sister.
see also PITCH LEVEL
key3 n
(in testing) a correct option or answer in a MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEM.
see also DISTRACTOR
keypals n
electronic mail correspondents (from keyboard, by analogy to penpal).
Keypals are a popular, easy-to-establish feature of many second language
courses.
keyword technique n
(in second language learning) a learning strategy in which the learner
thinks of a homophone (HOMOPHONES) (the “key word”) in the native
language for the word he or she is trying to remember in the target lan-
guage. The learner then imagines a situation in which the homophone
and the target language word are interacting in some way. In remem-
bering the target word, the learner recalls the homophone and the situ-
ation in which it was used. For example in learning the French word for
“door” – porte – a learner might think of a near homophone in English,
such as “a porter”. Then the learner thinks of a situation involving a
porter – such as a porter opening a door to carry in a bag. When the
learner wants to remember the French word for door, he or she thinks
of the situation and the key word – porter. This helps recall the French
word – porte.
kinesics n kinesic adj
see PARALINGUISTICS
kinesthetic experience n
the sensation of bodily movement combined with perception and/or pro-
duction of sound.
kinesthetic feedback n
(in speaking or writing) feedback we receive which comes from the move-
ment and positions of the muscles, organs, etc., which are used to produce
speech or writing. The ability to feel where our tongues are in the mouth,
for example, is an important factor in being able to speak clearly. If this
kinesthetic feedback is interfered with (e.g. as a result of a dental injection
which causes the tongue to lose sensation), our speech may become
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K through 12
slurred. The other kind of feedback which is used to monitor our com-
munication is auditory feedback.
koinéization n
see DIALECT LEVELLING
KR20 n
an abbreviation for KUDER-RICHARDSON FORMULA 20
KR21 n
an abbreviation for KUDER-RICHARDSON FORMULA 21
Kuder-Richardson formulas n
measures of internal consistency used in estimating the RELIABILITY of a
test with items that are dichotomously scored (i.e. scored 1 for correct
responses or 0 for incorrect responses). There are two types of the Kuder-
Richardson formulas: Kuder-Richardson formula 20 (KR20) and Kuder-
Richardson formula 21 (KR21). KR20 is based on information about (a)
the number of items on the test, (b) the difficulty of the individual items,
and (c) the VARIANCE of the total test scores. A formula that is easier to
use (not requiring calculation of ITEM FACILITY) but less accurate than
KR20 is KR21, which is based on information about (a) the number of
items on the test, (b) the MEAN of the test, and (c) the VARIANCE of the total
test scores, all of which are readily available, but requires an assumption
that all items are equal in item difficulty.
see also CRONBACH ALPHA, INTERNAL CONSISTENCY RELIABILITY
kurtosis n
a measure of the extent to which the peak of a DISTRIBUTION departs from
the shape of the peak of a NORMAL DISTRIBUTION. When the peak of a dis-
tribution is more pointed than a NORMAL DISTRIBUTION, the shape of the
peak is described as leptokurtic, whereas when the peak is flatter, the
shape is called platykurtic.
K through 12 n
also K-12
in the US, the period of schooling from kindergarten through to grade 12
– the final year of high school.
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L
L1 n
see FIRST LANGUAGE
L2 n
another term for a TARGET LANGUAGE1 or a SECOND LANGUAGE.
labelled bracketing n
a technique for representing the phrase structure (also constituent struc-
ture) of a phrase or sentence.
For example, the structure of the English noun phrase
an experienced journalist
can be represented as: [D an] [A experienced] [N journalist]
where D a determiner, A an adjective, and N a noun
see also TREE DIAGRAM
labial n
a speech sound produced using the lips.
see also BILABIAL, LABIO-DENTAL
labialization n
a SECONDARY ARTICULATION in which lip rounding is added to a sound, as
in English /w/ and /∫/. In some varieties of English, /l/ and /r/ may be
strongly labialized as well.
labio-dental adj
describes a speech sound (a CONSONANT) which is produced by the lower
lip touching or nearly touching the upper teeth.
For example, in English the /f/ in /fæt/ fat, and the /v/ in /væt/ vat are
labio-dental FRICATIVES.
see also PLACE OF ARTICULATION, MANNER OF ARTICULATION
laboratory experiences n
in teacher education, a direct or simulated teaching or learning activity
that allows for the observation, application, study, and analysis of aspects
of classroom teaching and learning in a controlled, usually simplified set-
ting. They can be of varying degrees of control, reality and complexity.
Among those used in teacher education are audio or video recordings,
case studies, micro-teaching, role plays and simulations. Laboratory
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language
experiences allow for control over different aspects of teaching and are
hence sometimes preferred to the use of real teaching experiences.
laboratory research n
research that takes places under controlled conditions as in a laboratory.
The complexity of school-based or formal second language learning and
teaching cannot always be investigated in real classrooms. In order to test
hypotheses or theories about teaching and learning, experiments are
sometimes conducted in which the INDEPENDENT VARIABLES are carefully
defined, precise measurements are undertaken and other influences are
excluded as far as possible.
LAD n
an abbreviation for LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE
laminal adj
describes a speech sound (a CONSONANT) which is produced by the front
upper surface of the tongue (the blade or lamina) touching the upper teeth
or the gum ridge behind the upper teeth (the alveolar ridge).
In English, the /‹/ in /‹uN/ shoe is a laminal FRICATIVE.
see also PLACE OF ARTICULATION, MANNER OF ARTICULATION
LAN n
abbreviation for a local area network, which connects computers locally,
usually in one room or on one campus, without the need to access the
Internet.
language1 n
the system of human communication which consists of the structured
arrangement of sounds (or their written representation) into larger units,
e.g. MORPHEMES, WORDS, SENTENCES, UTTERANCES.
In common usage it can also refer to non-human systems of communi-
cation such as the “language” of bees, the “language” of dolphins.
language2 n
any particular system of human communication (see LANGUAGE1), for
example, the French language, the Hindi language. Sometimes a language
is spoken by most people in a particular country, for example, Japanese
in Japan, but sometimes a language is spoken by only part of the popu-
lation of a country, for example Tamil in India, French in Canada.
Languages are usually not spoken in exactly the same way from one part
of a country to the other. Differences in the way a language is spoken
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language achievement
by different people are described in terms of regional and social vari-
ation (see DIALECT, SOCIOLECT). In some cases, there is a continuum from
one language to another. Dialect A of Language X on one side of the
border may be very similar to Dialect B of Language Y on the other side
of the border if language X and language Y are related. This is the case
between Sweden and Norway and between Germany and the
Netherlands.
see also REGISTER
language achievement n
a learner’s mastery, in a SECOND LANGUAGE and FOREIGN LANGUAGE, of
what has been taught or learned after a period of instruction. Language
achievement may be contrasted with LANGUAGE APTITUDE, which is meas-
ured before a course of instruction begins.
language acquisition n
also language learning
the learning and development of a person’s language. The learning of a
native first language is called FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, and of a
second or foreign language, SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. Some theo-
rists use “learning” and “acquisition” synonymously. Others maintain a
contrast between the two terms, using “learning” to mean a conscious
process involving the study of explicit rules of language and MONITORING
one’s performance, as is often typical of classroom learning in a FOREIGN
LANGUAGE context, and using “acquisition” to refer to a nonconscious
process of rule internalization resulting from exposure to comprehensible
input when the learner’s attention is on meaning rather than form, as is
more common in a SECOND LANGUAGE context. Still others use “acquisi-
tion” only with reference to the learning of one’s first language.
language acquisition device n
also LAD
another term for LANGUAGE FACULTY. The term is seldom used nowadays,
having been replaced by the concept of UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR.
language across the curriculum n
(in the teaching of English and in LANGUAGE ARTS) an approach that
emphasizes the teaching of language skills in relation to their uses in the
total school curriculum, particularly in the CONTENT AREAS rather than in
isolation from the school curriculum. This approach reflects a functional
view of language and one which seeks to teach language through activi-
ties which are linked to the teaching of other school subjects. A similar
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language aptitude test
approach to the teaching of reading and writing is known as writing
across the curriculum and reading across the curriculum.
language and the law n
another term for FORENSIC LINGUISTICS
language anxiety n
subjective feelings of apprehension and fear associated with language
learning and use. Foreign language anxiety may be a situation-specific
anxiety, similar in that respect to public speaking anxiety. Issues in the
study of language anxiety include whether anxiety is a cause or an effect
of poor achievement, anxiety under specific instructional conditions, and
the relationship of general language anxiety to more specific kinds of
anxiety associated with speaking, reading, or examinations.
language aptitude n
the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, MOTIV-
ATION, interest, etc. Language aptitude is thought to be a combination of
various abilities, such as oral mimicry ability (the ability to imitate sounds
not heard before), phonemic coding ability (the ability to identify sound
patterns in a new language), grammatical sensitivity (the ability to recog-
nize the different grammatical functions of words in sentences, ROTE-
LEARNING ability, and the ability to infer language rules (see INFERENCING,
DEDUCTIVE LEARNING). A person with high language aptitude can learn
more quickly and easily than a person with low language aptitude, all
other factors being equal.
see also LANGUAGE APTITUDE TEST
language aptitude test n
a test that measures a person’s aptitude for SECOND LANGUAGE or
FOREIGN LANGUAGE learning and that can be used to identify those learn-
ers who are most likely to succeed (see LANGUAGE APTITUDE). Language
aptitude tests usually consist of several different tests that measure such
abilities as:
a sound coding ability – the ability to identify and remember new sounds
in a foreign or second language
b grammatical coding ability – the ability to identify the grammatical
functions of different parts of sentences
c inductive learning ability – the ability to work out meanings without
explanation in a new language (see INDUCTIVE LEARNING)
d memorization – the ability to remember words, rules, etc., in a new
language
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language arts
Two well-known language aptitude tests are The Modern Language
Aptitude Test and The Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery.
language arts n
those parts of an educational CURRICULUM which involve the development
of skills related to the use of language, such as reading, writing, spelling,
listening, and speaking. The term is used principally to describe
approaches used in FIRST LANGUAGE teaching which try to develop
LANGUAGE SKILLS together rather than separately.
language attitudes n
the attitudes which speakers of different languages or language varieties
have towards each other’s languages or to their own language.
Expressions of positive or negative feelings towards a language may
reflect impressions of linguistic difficulty or simplicity, ease or difficulty of
learning, degree of importance, elegance, social STATUS, etc. Attitudes
towards a language may also show what people feel about the speakers
of that language. Language attitudes may have an effect on SECOND
LANGUAGE or FOREIGN LANGUAGE learning. The measurement of language
attitudes provides information which is useful in language teaching and
LANGUAGE PLANNING.
see also LANGUAGE EGO, MATCHED GUISE TECHNIQUE, MOTIVATION,
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL
language attrition n
language loss that is gradual rather than sudden. This may refer to the
loss of a second or foreign language after instruction (second language
attrition or L2 attrition), such as often occurs in settings where the lan-
guage is not used in the community, or to first language attrition (L1 attri-
tion) in situations where the community speaks a different language, as in
language loss among immigrants. In these cases, the language that is lost
or being lost is called the attriting language, while the individuals who
experience attrition are called attriters. Language attrition may also refer
to the loss of a first or second language due to ageing. Research on second
language attrition has been similar to research on language acquisition,
including such topics as the role of age, individual differences, social-
psychological factors, individual differences, and language setting.
language awareness n
a movement that developed in Britain in the 1980s which sought to stimu-
late curiosity about language and to provide links among the different
kinds of language experiences children typically encountered in school,
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language comprehension
e.g. in science, in literature, and in foreign language classes. Language
awareness courses seek to develop knowledge about language and lan-
guages as an important element in the education of all children.
language change n
change in a language which takes place over time. All living languages
have changed and continue to change.
For example, in English, changes which have recently been occurring
include the following:
a the distinction in pronunciation between words such as what and Watt
is disappearing
b hopefully may be used instead of I hope, we hope, it is to be hoped
c new words and expressions are constantly entering the language, e.g.
drop-out, alternative society, culture shock
Language change should not be confused with LANGUAGE SHIFT
see also COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS, DIACHRONIC LINGUISTICS,
NEOLOGISM
language classroom research n
see CLASSROOM-CENTRED RESEARCH
language comprehension n
the processes involved in understanding the meaning of written or spoken
language. Theories of language comprehension are an important aspect of
psycholinguistics, cognitive psychology, and second language acquisition.
Among the different processes involved are:
a Perceptual processing: attention is focused on the oral or written text
and parts of it are retained in SHORT TERM MEMORY. Some initial analy-
sis of the text may begin and attention is focused on CUES which will
help identify constituents or meaningful sections of the text. These cues
may be pauses and acoustic emphasis in spoken text or punctuation or
paragraph separation in written text.
b Parsing: words are identified and matched with representations in
long term memory (see MEMORY) creating basic units of meaning called
PROPOSITIONS. Knowledge of the grammatical structure of the target
language is used to help identify constituents and arrive at proposi-
tions.
c Utilization or elaboration: propositions are related to other infor-
mation and concepts in long term memory and connections are formed
with existing concepts and schema (see SCHEME).
see also LANGUAGE PRODUCTION, INFORMATION PROCESSING, LISTENING
COMPREHENSION
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language conflict
language conflict n
disagreement among groups within a nation, state, or other political entity
about what languages should be officially recognized, protected, or devel-
oped. Typically, one language (or a variety of it) is supported by some and
rejected by others and, since the adoption of a particular language is closely
related to issues of national and regional identity, language conflict often
carries the potential for political instability. Well known 20th-century
examples include many disputes over the ways that political boundaries have
been drawn and redrawn in India since independence from England and
policies concerning the role of French and English in public life in Canada.
language contact n
contact between different languages, especially when at least one of the
languages is influenced by the contact. This influence takes place typically
when the languages are spoken in the same or adjoining regions and when
there is a high degree of communication between the people speaking
them. The influence may affect PHONETICS, SYNTAX, SEMANTICS, or com-
municative strategies such as ADDRESS FORMS and greetings. Language
contact occurs or has occurred in areas of considerable immigration such
as the USA, Latin America, Australia and parts of Africa, as well as in lan-
guage border areas such as parts of India.
see also contact language under PIDGIN
language death n
the disappearance of a “living” language as its speakers switch to using
other languages and children cease to learn it.
see also LANGUAGE LOSS, LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE, LANGUAGE REVITALIZA-
TION
language distance n
the relative degree of similarity between two languages. Some languages
have similar linguistic features and are said to be “close”. Others have very
different linguistic features and are said to be “distant”. For example, two
languages may have similar word order rules and similar rules for certain
syntactic or phonological structures. There is said to be a greater degree of
linguistic distance between English and French, for example, than between
French and Spanish. Language distance is thought to be one factor which
influences the ease or difficulty with which learners acquire new languages.
language dominance n
greater ability in, or greater importance of, one language than another.
1 For an individual, this means that a person who speaks more than one
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language functions
language or dialect considers that he or she knows one of the languages
better than the other(s) and/or uses it more frequently and with greater
ease. The dominant language may be his or her NATIVE LANGUAGE or may
have been acquired later in life at school or a place of employment.
2 For a country or region where more than one language or dialect is
used, this means that one of them is more important than the other(s). A
language may become the dominant language because it has more pres-
tige (higher STATUS) in the country, is favoured by the government, and/or
has the largest number of speakers.
language ego n
(in SECOND LANGUAGE OR FOREIGN LANGUAGE learning) the relation
between people’s feelings of personal identity, individual uniqueness, and
value (i.e. their ego) and aspects of their FIRST LANGUAGE.
language enrichment n
a term sometimes used to describe language teaching as part of a pro-
gramme of COMPENSATORY INSTRUCTION.
language experience approach n
an approach used in the teaching of reading to young children which
draws on the experiences children have in their personal lives as well as
on the language skills and vocabulary they have developed outside the
classroom. In this approach, children may recount stories and experiences
orally to the teacher, who writes words on charts or other visual devices
and uses them as a basis for teaching reading.
language faculty n
also language acquisition device, LAD
in GENERATIVE THEORY, the view is widely held that humans are innately
endowed with a specific faculty or mental MODULE which provides them
with a set of procedures for developing the grammar of their native lan-
guage.
language family n
a group of languages that are believed to have developed from a common
source, such as the Romance language family (French, Italian, Spanish,
Portuguese and Romanian) which are all derived from Latin in the
Middle Ages.
language functions n
another term for FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE1,2
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language laboratory
language laboratory n
also language lab
a room that contains desks or individual booths with tape or cassette
recorders and a control booth for teacher or observer and which is used
for language teaching. The recorders usually have recording, listening,
and playback facilities; students can practise recorded exercises and
follow language programmes either individually or in groups, and the
teacher can listen to each student’s performance through earphones.
Language laboratories are associated particularly with the AUDIOLINGUAL
METHOD and have been replaced in many institutions by a multimedia lab.
language learning n
see FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, SECOND LAN-
GUAGE ACQUISITION
language loss n
a general term referring to the loss or decline of linguistic skills, as may
happen when immigrants have limited opportunity to use their first lan-
guage in an environment where it is not spoken or valued or when second
language learners forget their second language through lack of oppor-
tunities for use. When the focus is on individuals, the more specific term
LANGUAGE ATTRITION is often used; when the focus is on groups of speak-
ers, the more common term is LANGUAGE SHIFT. Language loss may also
be pathological, as a result of accident, disease or old age (see APHASIA).
see also LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE
language loyalty n
retention of a language by its speakers, who are usually in a minority in
a country where another language is the dominant language (see
LANGUAGE DOMINANCE).
language maintenance n
the degree to which an individual or group continues to use their
language, particularly in a BILINGUAL or MULTILINGUAL area or among
immigrant groups. Many factors affect language maintenance, for
example:
a whether or not the language is an official language (see NATIONAL
LANGUAGE)
b whether or not it is used in the media, for religious purposes, in
education
c how many speakers of the language live in the same area. In some
places where the use of certain languages has greatly decreased there
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language planning
have been efforts to revise languages in declining use, e.g. of Maori in
New Zealand and Hawaian in Hawaii.
see also DIGLOSSIA, LANGUAGE SHIFT, LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION PRO-
GRAMME
language minority group n
also minority language group
a group of people in a country or community who have a language other
than the major or dominant language of the country or community.
see also COMMUNITY LANGUAGE, MAJORITY LANGUAGE
language majority student n
a term used in the US to refer to students who come from homes in which
English is the primary language used. They are contrasted with language
minority students, who come from a minority group and who speak a
language other than English at home.
language mixing n
see CODE MIXING
language norm n
see NORM
language of wider communication n
a language used for communication within a region or country by differ-
ent language groups. English is a language for wider communication for
many speakers in India, as is Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea, where
many regional languages and language varieties are spoken.
language pathology n
see SPEECH PATHOLOGY
language pedagogy n
also language didactics
a general term sometimes used to describe the teaching of a language as a
FIRST LANGUAGE, a SECOND LANGUAGE or a FOREIGN LANGUAGE.
language planning n
planning, often by a government or government agency, concerning
choice of national or official language(s), support for minority and com-
munity languages, ways of spreading the use of one or more languages,
spelling reforms, the addition of new words to the language, and other
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language policy
language problems. Through language planning, an official language
policy is established and/or implemented. For example, in Indonesia,
Malay was chosen as the national language and was given the name
Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian language). It became the main language of
education. There were several spelling reforms and a national planning
agency was established to deal with problems such as the development of
scientific terms. In pluralistic countries or in federal states, language plan-
ning may not be monolithic and several “plans” may coexist. Teachers’
implementation of programmes such as BILINGUAL EDUCATION or resistance
to such plans may also have an effect on language planning at the local or
micro-level.
see also LANGUAGE TREATMENT, SOCIOLINGUISTICS, SOCIOLOGY OF
LANGUAGE
language policy n
see LANGUAGE PLANNING
language production n
the processes involved in creating and expressing meaning through lan-
guage. Numerous theories in psycholinguistics and cognitive psychology
attempt to account for the different processes involved in language pro-
duction. Among the different stages involved are:
Construction: the speaker or writer selects communicative goals, and cre-
ates PROPOSITIONS which express intended meanings.
Transformation or articulation: meanings are encoded in linguistic form
according to the grammar of the target language.
Execution: the message is expressed in audible or visible form through
speech or writing.
An important issue in theories of language production is whether the pro-
cesses involved are analogous to those involved in language comprehen-
sion (though in reverse order).
see also LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION
language proficiency n
the degree of skill with which a person can use a language, such as how
well a person can read, write, speak, or understand language. This can be
contrasted with LANGUAGE ACHIEVEMENT, which describes language ability
as a result of learning. Proficiency may be measured through the use of a
PROFICIENCY TEST.
language programme design n
another term for COURSE DESIGN
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language survey
language programme evaluation n
see EVALUATION
language revitalization programme n
a programme intended to help to revive or strengthen a language which
is in danger of dying out, such as programmes for the teaching of Irish in
Ireland or several American Indian languages.
language shift n
the process by which a new language is acquired by a community usually
resulting with the loss of the community’s first language. Many minority
communities (e.g. the native Maori in New Zealand and the Hawaians in
Hawaii) have experienced language shift as their first language has been
gradually replaced by English. Attempts to prevent language shift are
known as language maintenance.
language skills n
also skills
(in language teaching) the mode or manner in which language is used.
Listening, speaking, reading, and writing are generally called the four
language skills. Sometimes speaking and writing are called the
active/productive skills and reading and listening, the passive/receptive
skills. Often the skills are divided into subskills, such as discriminating
sounds in connected speech, or understanding relations within a sen-
tence.
see also MICRO-SKILLS
language socialization n
the process by which children and other newcomers to a social group
become socialized into the group’s culture through exposure to and par-
ticipation in language-mediated social activities. Language socialization is
thought to be a key to the acquisition of both linguistic and sociocultural
knowledge. Thus acquisition of specific skills in a language are shaped by
the culturally specific activities within which these skills are used.
language survey n
investigation of language use in a country or region. Such a survey may
be carried out to determine, for example:
a which languages are spoken in a particular region
b for what purposes these languages are used
c what proficiency people of different age-groups have in these languages
see also LANGUAGE PLANNING
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language transfer
language transfer n
the effect of one language on the learning of another. Two types of
language transfer may occur. Positive transfer is transfer which makes
learning easier, and may occur when both the native language and the
target language have the same form. For example, both French and
English have the word table, which can have the same meaning in
both languages. Negative transfer, also known as interference, is the
use of a native-language pattern or rule which leads to an ERROR or
inappropriate form in the TARGET LANGUAGE1. For example, a French
learner of English may produce the incorrect sentence I am here since
Monday instead of I have been here since Monday, because of the
transfer of the French pattern Je suis ici depuis lundi (“I am here
since Monday”).
Although L1 to L2 transfer has been investigated most widely, it is also
generally recognized that there can also be transfer from an L2 to one’s
native language, as well as L2 to L3 transfer from one second or foreign
language to another.
see also COMMUNICATIVE INTERFERENCE, CROSS-LINGUISTIC INFLUENCE,
ERROR ANALYSIS, INTERLANGUAGE
language treatment n
any kind of action which people take about language problems. This
includes LANGUAGE PLANNING by governments and government appointed
agencies, but also includes such things as: language requirements for
employment in a private company, company policy on style in business
letters, trade-name spelling, publishers’ style sheets, and the treatment of
language in dictionaries and usage guides (see USAGE2).
language typology n
see TYPOLOGY
language universal n
(in general linguistic use) a language pattern or phenomenon which
occurs in all known languages. For example, it has been suggested
that:
a if a language has dual number for referring to just two of something, it
also has PLURAL number (for referring to more than two). This type of
universal is sometimes called an implicational universal.
b there is a high probability that the word referring to the female parent
will start with a NASAL consonant, e.g. /m/ in English mother, in
German Mutter, in Swahili mama, in Chinese (Mandarin) muqin
see also BIOPROGRAM, UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR
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larynx
language use survey n
an investigation which seeks to determine which languages are spoken in
different areas in a community or country, the function and uses of lan-
guages in different domains of language use, and sometimes an assess-
ment of the proficiency of different language groups in terms of their
minority and majority language. For example in a multilingual country
such as Singapore with four official languages (English, Chinese, Malay
and Tamil) a language use survey would seek to determine who uses
which languages, for what purposes, and to what degree of proficiency.
language variation n
see VARIATION
languages for special purpose n
also languages for specific purposes, LSP
second or foreign languages used for particular and restricted types of
communication (e.g. for medical reports, scientific writing, air-traffic con-
trol) and which contain lexical, grammatical, and other linguistic features
which are different from ordinary language (see REGISTER). In language
teaching, decisions must be made as to whether a learner or group of
learners requires a language for general purposes or for special purposes.
see also ENGLISH FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES
langue n
the French word for “language”. The term was used by the linguist
Saussure to mean the system of a language, that is the arrangement of
sounds and words which speakers of a language have a shared knowledge
of or, as Saussure said, “agree to use”. Langue is the “ideal” form of a
language. Saussure called the actual use of language by people in speech
or writing “parole”.
Saussure’s distinction between “langue” and “parole” is similar to
Chomsky’s distinction between COMPETENCE and PERFORMANCE. But
whereas for Saussure the repository of “langue” is the SPEECH COM-
MUNITY, for Chomsky the repository of “competence” is the “ideal
speaker/hearer”. So Saussure’s distinction is basically sociolinguistic (see
SOCIOLINGUISTICS) whereas Chomsky’s is basically psycholinguistic
(see PSYCHOLINGUISTICS).
see also USAGE1
larynx n laryngeal adj
a casing of cartilage and muscles in the upper part of the windpipe (in the
throat) which contains the VOCAL CORDS.
see also PLACE OF ARTICULATION
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latent trait theory
latent trait theory n
see ITEM RESPONSE THEORY
lateral n
a speech sound (a CONSONANT) which is produced by partially blocking
the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape
at one or both sides of the blockage. For example, in English the /l/ in /la∂t/
light is a lateral.
see also MANNER OF ARTICULATION, PLACE OF ARTICULATION
lateral plosion n
another term for lateral release
lateral release n
the release of a plosive by lowering the sides of the tongue, as at the end
of the word saddle.
lateralization n
see CEREBRAL DOMINANCE
Latin alphabet n
another term for ROMAN ALPHABET
lax vowel n
see TENSE/LAX
L-colouring n
a type of ASSIMILATION that occurs when a front vowel preceding the con-
sonant /l/ is pulled further back in the mouth and has a more centralized
quality than the counterpart front vowel not preceding /l/. For example,
the vowel of feel glides to a noticeably more centralized position than the
vowel of fee.
learnability n
a criterion for linguistic theory. An adequate theory must explain how
children are able to learn the grammar of their native language and must
therefore provide for grammars of languages that are easily learnable.
learnability hypothesis n
the idea, attributed to Manfred Pienemann, that a second or foreign lan-
guage learner’s acquisition of linguistic structures depends on how com-
plex these structures are from a psychological processing point of view,
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learner-centred approach
defined as the extent to which linguistic material must be re-ordered and
re-arranged when mapping semantics and surface form. The psycholin-
guistic processing devices acquired at one stage are a necessary building
block for the following stage. This implies a teachability hypothesis as
well, since structures cannot be taught successfully if the learner has not
learned to produce structures belonging to the previous stage.
learnability theory n
any of a class of theories that attempt to explain how children can learn
the language that they are exposed to, under the assumption that children
do not receive systematic information about sentences that are ungram-
matical (see EVIDENCE). One proposal that has been advanced within GEN-
ERATIVE GRAMMAR is the subset principle, which posits that language
learners choose options that allow the smallest number of grammatical
sentences. In GENERAL NATIVISM, the same effect is achieved by the con-
servatism thesis, the idea that children make use of available concepts to
formulate the most conservative hypothesis consistent with experience,
and the trigger requirement, the principle that no change is made in the
grammar without a triggering stimulus in the environment.
learner autonomy n
in language teaching, the principle that learners should be encouraged to
assume a maximum amount of responsibility for what they learn and
how they learn it. This will be reflected in approaches to needs analysis,
content selection, and choice of teaching materials and learning
methods.
learner beliefs n
also learner belief systems
ideas learners have concerning different aspects of language, language
learning and language teaching, that may influence their attitudes and
motivations in learning and have an effect on their learning strategies and
learning outcomes. Learners’ belief systems are relatively stable sets of
ideas and attitudes about such things as how to learn language, effective
teaching strategies, appropriate classroom behaviour, their own abilities,
and their goals in language learning. Identification of learner beliefs (e.g.
through interviews or administration of questionnaires) sometimes con-
stitutes part of a NEEDS ANALYSIS.
see also TEACHER BELIEF SYSTEMS
learner-centred approach n
in language teaching, a belief that attention to the nature of learners
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learner diary
should be central to all aspects of language teaching, including planning
teaching, and evaluation. Learning is dependent upon the nature and will
of the learners. Learner centredness may be reflected by:
1 recognizing learners’ prior knowledge
2 recognizing learners’ needs, goals and wishes
3 recognizing learners’ learning styles and learning preferences
4 recognizing learners’ views of teaching and of the nature of classroom
tasks
In learner-centred approaches, course design and teaching often become
negotiated processes, since needs, expectations, and student resources
vary with each group.
Learner-centred teaching is contrasted with teacher-centred teaching, i.e.
teaching in which primary decisions are carried out by the teacher based
on his/her priorities.
learner diary n
also learner journal
in language teaching, a record prepared by a learner of a students’ learn-
ing experiences and describing what activities they have done in class, the
progress they have made, and any problems they may have.
learner training n
in language teaching, procedures or activities that seek to:
1 raise learners’ awareness of what is involved in the processes of second
language learning
2 help learners become more involved in and responsible for their own
learning
3 help learners develop and strengthen their language learning strategies
learning n
the process by which change in behaviour, knowledge, skills, etc., comes
about through practice, instruction or experience and the result of such a
process.
see LANGUAGE LEARNING, FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, LANGUAGE ACQUISI-
TION, SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
learning by deduction n
another term for DEDUCTIVE LEARNING
learning by induction n
another term for inductive learning
see DEDUCTIVE LEARNING
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learning curve
learning centre n
a location within a classroom or school which contains a variety of dif-
ferent learning resources for independent learning. The materials nor-
mally:
1 have clearly specified goals
2 contain specific directions for their use
3 are graded according to difficulty level
4 contain means for self-checking
learning contract n
a written agreement between a learner and a teacher which usually con-
tains:
1 a description for a plan of work to be completed
2 a time frame for the work
Learning contracts seek to develop independent learning, self-directed
learning, and to encourage self-motivation and discipline.
learning curve n
also acquisition curve
a graphic representation of a learner’s progress in learning new material
over time. The following graph shows the development of negation in a
Spanish-speaking learner of English. It shows the proportion of the negat-
ing devices no v (e.g. I no want) and don’t v (e.g. I don’t want) over
time as found in taped samples taken over 20 different time periods.
learning disability
% of each negating device supplied.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Tapes no V
don’t V
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learning disability
learning disability n
a learning difficulty which affects a particular aspect of learning on the
part of a learner whose other learning abilities are considered normal. For
example, specific difficulties in learning to read (DYSLEXIA) or to write
(dysgraphia).
learning log n
also journal, learning journal
the use of a notebook or book in which students write about experiences
both in and out of school or record responses and reactions to learning
and to learning activities. Learning logs provide students with an oppor-
tunity to reflect on learning, and are usually shared with the teacher on a
regular basis but not graded. In this way, the teacher may be able to find
out how the student is progressing and the students gain additional
opportunities to practise writing. In writing classes’ learning logs may be
used as a prewriting activity (see COMPOSING PROCESSES) and also as a way
of encouraging students to develop fluency in writing through writing
regularly on topics of their own choice. When learning logs are used as a
way of establishing a dialogue between teacher and student (through
comments, questions and reactions), they are sometimes referred to as
dialogue journals or diaries.
learning module n
in teaching and instructional materials, a series of linked activities and
materials related to a certain objective, usually larger than a single lesson
or unit.
learning plateau n
a temporary period that sometimes occurs in learning, when after making
initial progress a learner makes little or no further progress (as seen by a
flat part on a LEARNING CURVE). After a period of time the learning plateau
is followed by further learning. Learning plateaus are often observed in
second and foreign language learning.
learning rule n
in CONNECTIONISM, changes in weights of the connections in a network
are governed by learning rules, equations that specify how and by how
much connections are strengthened or weakened based on experience.
Whenever a particular pathway through the network results in a success-
ful outcome, the relevant connections are strengthened. When a particu-
lar pathway does not result in success, some network architectures
implement a procedure called back propagation, which weakens connec-
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left branching direction
tions. As these learning rules are applied repeatedly over a large number
of training sessions, the system is increasingly fine-tuned and errors are
reduced.
learning strategy n
in general, the ways in which learners attempt to work out the meanings
and uses of words, grammatical rules, and other aspects of the language
they are learning. In FIRST LANGUAGE learning, the word “strategy” is
sometimes used to refer to the ways that children process language, with-
out implying either intentionality or awareness. For example, in trying to
understand a sentence, a child may “use” the learning strategy that the
first mentioned noun in a sentence refers to the person or thing perform-
ing an action. The child may then think that the sentence The boy was
chased by the dog means the same thing as The boy chased the dog. In
second language learning, a strategy is usually an intentional or poten-
tially intentional behaviour carried out with the goal of learning. A
number of broad categories of learning strategies have been identified,
including cognitive strategies such as analyzing the target language, com-
paring what is newly encountered with what is already known in either
the L1 or the L2, and organizing information; metacognitive strategies,
which include being aware of one’s own learning, making an organized
plan, and monitoring one’s progress; social strategies such as seeking out
friends who are native speakers of the target language or working with
peers in a classroom setting; and resource management strategies such as
setting aside a regular time and place for language study. Learning strat-
egies may be applied to simple tasks such as learning a list of new words,
or more complex tasks involving language comprehension and produc-
tion.
see also COMMUNICATION STRATEGY, COGNITIVE STYLE, HEURISTIC, INFER-
ENCING, STRATEGY TRAINING
learning style n
another term for COGNITIVE STYLE
learning to learn n
the acquisition of attitudes, learning strategies and learning skills that will
be applied in future learning situations and make future learning more
effective. Study skills and learning strategies are examples of the domain
of learning to learn.
left branching direction n
see BRANCHING DIRECTION
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left dislocation
left dislocation n
the occurrence of a linguistic form to the left of its normal position in a
sentence. For example in the sentence:
Madge made the pizza
pizza is in its normal object position in the sentence. But in the less
common sentence:
The pizza, Madge made it.
the pizza is now a left dislocation. Left dislocation is a WORD ORDER
device which is often used to signal a new topic (TOPIC2) or to give special
emphasis.
With right dislocation, a linguistic form appears to the right of its normal
position. For example:
She made the pizza, Madge did.
left-ear advantage n
see DICHOTIC LISTENING
lenis adj
see FORTIS
LES n
an abbreviation for LIMITED ENGLISH SPEAKER
leptokurtic distribution n
see KURTOSIS
lesson plan n lesson planning n
a description or outline of (a) the goals or OBJECTIVES a teacher has set for
a lesson (b) the activities and procedures the teacher will use to achieve
them, the time to be allocated to each activity, and the order to be fol-
lowed, and (c) the materials and resources which will be used during the
lesson.
lesson structure n
see STRUCTURING
level1 n
a layer in a linguistic system, e.g. word level, phrase level. Often, these
levels are considered to form a scale or hierarchy from lower levels con-
taining the smaller linguistic units to higher levels containing larger lin-
guistic units, e.g. MORPHEME level – WORD level – PHRASE level – CLAUSE
level, etc.
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lexeme
It is also sometimes said that the items on each level consist of items on
the next lower level: clauses consist of phrases, phrases of words, words
of morphemes, etc.
see also RANK, TAGMENICS
level2 n
see PITCH LEVEL
level n
(in testing) a description of the degree of proficiency expected for a test
taker to be placed in a certain position on a scale, such as “beginning”,
“intermediate”, or “advanced”.
see also BAND
level of comprehension n
1 in reading, a degree of understanding of a text, such as “literal com-
prehension”, “inferential comprehension”, “evaluative comprehen-
sion”
2 in testing, the degree of understanding of a text as measured by per-
formance on a test
level tone n
also register tone
in tone languages, tones that are relatively stable, with nongliding pitch.
see TONE1, CONTOUR TONE
levels of processing n
see REHEARSAL
levels of significance n
see STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
lexeme n
also lexical item
the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distin-
guished from other similar units. A lexeme is an abstract unit. It can occur
in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is
regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected (see INFLECTION).
For example, in English, all inflected forms such as give, gives, given,
giving, gave would belong to the one lexeme give.
Similarly, such expressions as bury the hatchet, hammer and tongs, give
up, and white paper (in the sense of a government document) would each
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lexical access
be considered a single lexeme. In a dictionary, each lexeme merits a sep-
arate entry or sub-entry.
lexical access n
(in speech production) the retrieval of words from the speaker’s lexicon
(LEXICON4). According to psycholinguistic models of speech production,
vocabulary is stored in some form in the speaker’s lexicon and must be
accessed in order to be used during the process of communication.
Researchers in BILINGUALISM have investigated whether the bilingual
person stores words in different lexicons for each language. Speed of
access to the lexicon may be faster in one language than the other.
lexical ambiguity n
see AMBIGUOUS
lexical approach n
an approach to language teaching that is based on the view that the basic
building blocks of teaching and learning are words and lexical phrases,
rather than grammar, functions or other units of organization. The lexi-
con is seen as playing a much more central role in language organization,
language learning, and language teaching than, for example, grammar,
and occupies a more central role in syllabus design, course content, and
teaching activities.
lexical aspect hypothesis n
also aspect hypothesis, inherent lexical aspect hypothesis
(in LANGUAGE ACQUISITION) the hypothesis that the acquisition of TENSE
and grammatical aspect is affected by lexical aspect (see ASPECT). For
example, the hypothesis holds that language learners first acquire the
English progressive affix -ing in conjunction with specific verbs like play
or read, which refer to actions that are inherently durative, rather than in
connection with verbs like fall, which refers to an action that is inherently
abrupt or nondurative (although it is possible to say I was falling, view-
ing the action as durative). Also according to this view, what appears to
be the acquisition of TENSE in the early stages of language learning is more
likely to reflect the encoding of aspect.
lexical category n
the four main lexical categories are n (noun), v (verb), a (adjective) and p
(preposition). Entries in a lexicon (see LEXICON2) or dictionary usually
show, among other information, the lexical category of a particular word,
e.g. lexical a
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lexical field
lexicon n
see also LEXICAL ENTRY
lexical corpus n
a collection of words for purposes of language analysis. Many lexical cor-
pora contain millions of words that can be analyzed by a computer.
see also CORPUS
lexical decision task n
see PRIMING
lexical density n
also Type-Token Ratio, concept load
a measure of the ratio of different words to the total number of words in
a text, sometimes used as a measure of the difficulty of a passage or text.
Lexical density is normally expressed as a percentage and is calculated by
the formula:
number of separate words
Lexical density 100
total number of words in the text
For example, the lexical density of this definition is:
29 separate words
100 50.88
57 total words
see also TYPE
lexical entry n
a term used in TRANSFORMATIONAL GENERATIVE GRAMMAR for a word or
phrase listed in the lexicon (see LEXICON3) of the grammar.
The information given in a lexical entry usually includes:
a its pronunciation (see DISTINCTIVE FEATURE)
b its meaning, which may be given in a formalized way, e.g. (+human)
(+male) (see SEMANTIC FEATURES)
c its LEXICAL CATEGORY, e.g. n(oun), v(erb), a(djective)
d other linguistic items it may co-occur with in a sentence, e.g. whether
or not a verb can be followed by an object (see OBJECT1)
In later models of TG Grammar, a lexical entry would also contain
semantic roles such as agent, patient and goal which can be assigned to
noun phrases in the sentence (see q-THEORY).
see also PROJECTION PRINCIPLE
lexical field n
also semantic field
the organization of related words and expressions (see LEXEME) into a
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lexical functional grammar
system which shows their relationship to one another. For example, kin-
ship terms such as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt belong to a
lexical field whose relevant features include generation, sex, membership
of the father’s or mother’s side of the family, etc.
The absence of a word in a particular place in a lexical field of a language
is called a lexical gap.
For example, in English there is no singular noun that covers both cow
and bull as horse covers stallion and mare.
lexical functional grammar n
also LFG
a theory of grammar that holds that there are two parallel levels of syn-
tactic representation: CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE (c-structure), consisting of
context-free phrase structure trees, and functional structure (f-structure),
consisting of attributes such as tense and gender and functions such as
subject and object. An important difference between LFG and the
Chomskyan tradition from which it developed is that many phenomena
that were treated as transformations in the Chomskyan tradition (for
example, passive vs. active sentences) are treated in the LEXICON3 in
LFG.
lexical gap n
see LEXICAL FIELD
lexical item n
another term for LEXEME
lexical meaning n
see CONTENT WORD
lexical phonology n
a model of morphology and phonology and the lexicon in which the
lexicon is divided into levels or strata. Phonological rules are divided
into lexical rules, which are carried out in the lexicon and include
morphological conditioning, and postlexical rules, which apply across
word boundaries in a separate component order after the rules of
syntax.
lexical phrases n
recurrent phrases and patterns of language use which have become insti-
tutionalized through frequent use, such as “Have we met?” and “You
must be joking”.
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lexicon
lexical semantics n
the subfield of SEMANTICS concerned with the meaning of words.
lexical syllabus n
a vocabulary syllabus that is organized in terms of the most important,
frequent, or useful vocabulary items in a language. Lexical syallabuses are
often organized according to levels (e.g. the first 1000 words, the second
1000 words, etc.).
lexical verb n
see AUXILIARY VERB
lexical word n
see CONTENT WORD
lexicogrammar n lexico-grammar
1 The linguistic resources (both grammatical and lexical) which learners
draw on in expressing meaning and communicating in a second lan-
guage.
2 The relationship between vocabulary and grammar. These forms of
language organization are normally studied separately but increasingly
lexico-grammatical patterns are being seen as central to language
description and language learning.
lexico-grammatical associations n
see CORPUS LINGUISTICS
lexicography n lexicographic(al) adj lexicographer n lexicology n lexicological
– adj
the art of dictionary making. Foreign language lexicography involves the
development of dictionaries for language learners.
lexicologist n
a student of the vocabulary items (LEXEMES) of a language, including their
meanings and relations (see LEXICAL FIELD), and changes in their form and
meaning through time. The discoveries of lexicologists may be of use to
lexicographers.
see also ETYMOLOGY, LEXICOGRAPHY
lexicon1 n
the set of all the words and idioms of any language (see LEXEME).
see also LEXICOGRAPHY, LEXICOLOGY
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lexicon
lexicon2 n
a dictionary, usually of an ancient language such as Latin and Greek.
lexicon3 n
the words and phrases listed in the BASE COMPONENT of a GENERATIVE
GRAMMAR and information about them.
see also LEXICAL ENTRY
lexicon4 n
a mental system which contains all the information a person knows about
words. According to psycholinguists, people’s knowledge of a word
includes
a knowing how a word is pronounced
b the grammatical patterns with which a word is used
c the meaning or meanings of the word
The total set of words a speaker knows forms his or her mental lexicon.
The content of the mental lexicon and how a mental lexicon is developed
are studied in psycholinguistics and language acquisition.
see also LEXICAL ACCESS
lexis n lexical adj
the vocabulary of a language in contrast to its grammar (SYNTAX).
see also LEXEME
LF n
another term for LOGICAL FORM
LF component n
see D-STRUCTURE
liaison n
another term for LINKING
Likert scale n
see ATTITUDE SCALE
limited English proficiency n
see LIMITED ENGLISH SPEAKER
limited English speaker n
also LES
(in BILINGUAL EDUCATION or an ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE PRO-
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linguicism
GRAMME) a person who has some proficiency in English but not enough
to enable him or her to take part fully and successfully in a class where
English is the only MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION. Such a person is sometimes
said to have limited English proficiency. However, since these students
actually speak two languages, the term “limited English speaker” has
been criticized in recent years for focusing only on their linguistic weak-
nesses while ignoring their linguistic strengths. For this reason, in many
places the term has been abandoned in favour of terms such as “ESL
learner” or “bilingual student.”
limited English proficient n
also LEP
sometimes used to describe a MINORITY STUDENT in an English speaking
country, whose English language proficiency is not at the level of native
speakers of English. Special instruction in English is therefore needed to
prepare the student to enter a regular school programme. This term is
considered offensive by some and a more neutral term such as Second
Language Student is preferred.
see also MAINSTREAMING, SHELTERED ENGLISH, SUBMERSION EDUCATION
linear programme n
see PROGRAMMED LEARNING
linear syllabus n
see SPIRAL APPROACH
lingua franca n
a language that is used for communication between different groups of
people, each speaking a different language. The lingua franca could be an
internationally used language of communication (e.g. English), it could be
the NATIVE LANGUAGE of one of the groups, or it could be a language
which is not spoken natively by any of the groups but has a simplified sen-
tence structure and vocabulary and is often a mixture of two or more lan-
guages (see PIDGIN). The term lingua franca (Italian for “Frankish
tongue”) originated in the Mediterranean region in the Middle Ages
among crusaders and traders of different language backgrounds. The
term auxiliary language is sometimes used as a synonym for lingua
franca.
linguicism n
by analogy with “racism” and “sexism” a term proposed by Phillipson to
describe practices, beliefs, policies, etc, that are designed to promote and
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linguist
maintain unequal divisions of power, prestige, resources, etc, between
groups on the basis of language.
see LINGUISTIC IMPERIALISM
linguist n
1 a person who specializes in the study of language. Different areas of
specialization are indicated by the field of study, as in applied linguist,
psycholinguist, sociolinguist, etc.
2 in popular usage, a person who speaks several languages fluently and
shows a propensity for language learning
linguistic analysis n
investigation into the structure and functions of a particular language or
language variety (see LANGUAGE2) or of language in general as a system of
human communication (see LANGUAGE1).
linguistic imperialism n
the theory that languages may be seen as occupying a dominant or domi-
nated role in a society. It is argued that English plays a dominant role
internationally and plays a role in maintaining the economic and political
dominance of some societies over others. Because of the role of English as
the dominant international language, many other languages have been
prevented from going through processes of development and expansion.
The spread of English is viewed as imposing aspects of Anglo-Saxon
Judaeo-Christian culture and causing a threat to the cultures and lan-
guages of non-English speaking countries.
see also CULTURAL IMPERIALISM
linguistically disadvantaged adj
a term sometimes used to refer to a person who has an insufficient com-
mand of the dominant language in a country. This term is not favoured
by linguists since it suggests the person’s home language is not useful or
is unimportant.
see also DEFICIT HYPOTHESIS
linguistic enviroment n
the spoken language that a learner encounters in both educational and
social settings, and which serves as potential listening input to the lan-
guage learning process.
linguistic insecurity n
a feeling of insecurity experienced by speakers or writers about some
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linguistic rights
aspect of their language use or about the variety of language they speak.
This may result, for instance, in MODIFIED SPEECH, when speakers attempt
to alter their way of speaking in order to sound more like the speakers of
a prestige variety.
see also SOCIOLECT
linguistic method n
a term used to refer to several methods of teaching first-language reading
which claim to be based on principles of linguistics, and in particular to
methods which reflect the views of two prominent American linguists of
the 1940s and 1950s, Leonard Bloomfield and Charles Fries. They argued
that since the written language is based on the spoken language, the
relationship between speech and written language should be emphasized
in the teaching of reading. This led to reading materials which made use
of words which had a regular sound-spelling correspondence and in
which there was a systematic introduction to regular and irregular
spelling patterns. In recent years, applied linguists have continued to pro-
pose and advocate different approaches to the teaching of reading and
language in general, but there is no longer any widely recognized “lin-
guistic method.”
linguistic relativity n
a belief which was held by some scholars that the way people view the
world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their NATIVE
LANGUAGE. As this hypothesis was strongly put forward by the
American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, it has often been
called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis or Whorfian hypothesis. In recent
years, study of the relationships between cognition and linguistic
expression has been revived in a more subtle form within COGNITIVE
LINGUISTICS.
see also ANTHROPOLOGICAL LINGUISTICS
linguistic rights n
as a category of human rights, i.e.universal rights that belong to all per-
sons, linguistic rights are based on the idea of human dignity and worth
as well as cultural tolerance. Examples of a linguistic right are the rights
of a minority language community to receive education in their language
and of people to receive governmental services in languages other than the
socially dominant language. Although various proposals have been put
forth to define such linguistic rights, there is so far no general agreement
on them comparable to the principles of human rights codified by the
United Nations.
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linguisticism
linguisticism n
a term sometimes used to refer to the use of ideologies, structures and
practices to legitimize and reproduce unequal divisions of power and
resources between language groups.
linguistic units n
parts of a language system. Linguistic units can be the distinctive sounds
of a language (PHONEMES), words, phrases, or sentences, or they can be
larger units such as the UTTERANCES in a conversation.
see also CHUNKING, DISCOURSE, DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
linguistics n linguist n linguistic adj
the study of language as a system of human communication. Linguistics
includes many different approaches to the study of language and many dif-
ferent areas of investigation, for example sound systems (PHONETICS,
PHONOLOGY), sentence structure (SYNTAX), relationships between language
and cognition (COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS), meaning systems (SEMANTICS, PRAG-
MATICS, FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE), as well as language and social factors
(SOCIOLINGUISTICS).
Several specialized branches of linguistics have also developed in combi-
nation with other disciplines, e.g. APPLIED LINGUISTICS, ANTHROPOLOGICAL
LINGUISTICS, PSYCHOLINGUISTICS, FORENSIC LINGUISTICS.
linking n
also liaison
a process in continuous speech which connects the final sound of one word
or syllable to the initial sound of the next. In English, words ending in a tense
vowel and a following word or syllable beginning with a vowel are usually
linked with a GLIDE, so that a phrase like be able sounds as though there is a
/y/ between be and able and blue ink sounds as though there is a /w/ between
the words blue and ink. In some varieties of English, a linking /r/ is inserted
between words ending and beginning with a vowel, as in saw Ann or media
event. When a word or syllable ending in a consonant cluster is followed by
a syllable beginning with a vowel, the final consonant of the cluster is often
pronounced as part of the following syllable, a process referred to as resyl-
labification. For example, left arm is usually pronounced as if it were lef tarm.
linking verb n
another term for COPULA
lipreading n lipread v
also speech reading
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literacy
a method used by hearing impaired people and others to identify what a
speaker is saying by studying the movements of the lips and face muscles.
liquid n
a cover term for LATERALS and frictionless r-sounds. Like GLIDES, liquids
are a subclass of CONTINUANTS.
list intonation n
see INTONATION CONTOUR
listening comprehension n
the process of understanding speech in a first or second language. The
study of listening comprehension processes in second language learning
focuses on the role of individual linguistic units (e.g. PHONEMES, WORDS,
grammatical structures) as well as the role of the listener’s expectations,
the situation and context, background knowledge and the topic. It there-
fore includes both TOP-DOWN PROCESSING and bottom-up processing.
While traditional approaches to language teaching tended to underem-
phasize the importance of teaching listening comprehension, more recent
approaches emphasize the role of listening in building up language com-
petence and suggest that more attention should be paid to teaching lis-
tening in the initial stages of second or foreign language learning.
Listening comprehension activities typically address a number of listening
functions, including recognition (focusing on some aspect of the code
itself), orientation (ascertaining essential facts about the text, such as par-
ticipants, the situation or context, the general topic, the emotional tone,
and the genre), comprehension of main ideas, and understanding and
recall of details.
see also COMPREHENSION APPROACH, NATURAL APPROACH, PERCEPTION, PSY-
CHOLINGUISTICS, SPEECH RECOGNITION
listening strategy n
in listening comprehension, a conscious plan to deal with incoming
speech, particularly when the listener experiences problems due to
incomplete understanding, such as by using a clarification strategy.
literacy n literate adj
the ability to read and write in a language. The inability to read or write
is known as illiteracy.
Functional literacy refers to the ability to use reading and writing skills
sufficiently well for the purposes and activities which normally require lit-
eracy in adult life. An inability to meet a certain minimum criterion of
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literacy practices
reading and writing skill is known as functional illiteracy. A person who
is able to read and write in two languages is sometimes called (a) biliter-
ate.
In recent years, several different approaches to the study of literacy have
developed in education and applied linguistics, including a linguistic
approach which focuses on oral–written language relationships, language
variation, and genres; a cognitive approach which focuses on PERCEPTION
and reading, writing and comprehension processes; and a sociocultural
perspective which treats literacy as social practice and deals with issues
such as socialization into literacy, the sociocultural context of literacy,
and the authority of written discourse.
literacy practices n
culture-specific ways of utilizing literacy in everyday life, related to
people’s social roles and identities.
literal comprehension n
see READING
literal translation n
see TRANSLATION
literary culture n
see ORAL CULTURE
loan blend n
a type of BORROWING in which one part of a word is borrowed from a
second language and the other part belongs to the speaker’s native lan-
guage. For example, in the German spoken by some people in Australia,
gumbaum means gumtree.
loan translation n
also calque
a type of BORROWING, in which each morpheme or word is translated into
the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.
For example, the English word almighty is a loan translation from the
Latin omnipotens:
omni potens
all mighty almighty
A loan translation may be a word, a phrase, or even a short sentence, e.g.
the English beer garden and academic freedom are loan translations of the
German Biergarten and akademische Freiheit.
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locutionary act
loan word n
see BORROWING
local error n
see GLOBAL ERROR
locative case n
the noun or noun phrase which refers to the location of the action of the
verb is in the locative case.
For example, in the sentence:
Irene put the magazines on the table.
the table is in the locative case.
lock-step n
in teaching, a situation in which all students in a class are engaged in the
same activity at the same time, all progressing through tasks at the same
rate.
lock-step teaching/syllabus n
the organization of teaching material in a sequence and where the order
of teaching items is determined strictly by what has already been taught.
Each item forms a necessary stage in the teaching of what comes later and
items must be taught in that sequence. Grammatical syllabuses in lan-
guage teaching are typically organized in this way.
see also LINEAR SYLLABUS, SPIRAL SYLLABUS
locus of control n
see ATTRIBUTION THEORY
locutionary act n
a distinction is made by Austin in the theory of SPEECH ACTS between three
different types of act involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence.
A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can
be understood.
For example, saying the sentence Shoot the snake is a locutionary act if
hearers understand the words shoot, the, snake and can identify the par-
ticular snake referred to. An illocutionary act is using a sentence to per-
form a function. For example Shoot the snake may be intended as an
order or a piece of advice.
A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means
of saying something. For example, shooting the snake would be a per-
locutionary act.
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locutionary meaning
Austin’s three-part distinction is less frequently used than a two-part dis-
tinction between the propositional content of a sentence (the PROP-
OSITION(s) which a sentence express or implies) and the illocutionary
force or intended effects of speech acts (their function as requests, com-
mands, orders, etc.).
locutionary meaning n
see SPEECH ACT
log n
see LEARNING LOG
logic n
in general, the study of reasoning, especially the formulation of deductive
rules that prove statements true from given premises and axioms. In order
to formalize rules for deduction, logical languages have been developed,
of which the best known are propositional logic and predicate logic.
More recently developed types of logical language include type logic,
second-order logic, and many-valued logic.
logical form n
also LF
see D-STRUCTURE
logical positivism n
see POSITIVISM
logical problem of language acquisition n
see also PLATO’S PROBLEM
logical subject n
a NOUN PHRASE1 which describes, typically, the performer of the
action. Some linguists make a distinction between the grammatical
subject (see SUBJECT) and the logical subject. For example, in the pas-
sive sentence:
The cake was eaten by Vera.
the cake is the grammatical subject but Vera is the logical subject as she
is the performer of the action. In:
Vera ate the cake.
Vera would be both the grammatical and the logical subject.
see also VOICE1
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L-variety
long consonants n
see GEMINATE
long term memory n
see MEMORY
long vowel n
see VOWEL
longitudinal method n
also longitudinal study
see CROSS-SECTION(AL) METHOD
look-and-say method n
a method for teaching children to read, especially in the FIRST LANGUAGE,
which is similar to the WHOLE-WORD METHOD except that words are
always taught in association with a picture or object and the pronuncia-
tion of the word is always required.
low-inference category n
see HIGH-INFERENCE CATEGORY
low variety n
see DIGLOSSIA
low vowel n
another term for open vowel
see VOWEL
Lozanov method n
another term for SUGGESTOPAEDIA
LSP n
an abbreviation for LANGUAGES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES
L-variety n
see DIGLOSSIA
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M
machine translation n
the use of a translation program to translate text without human input in
the translation process. Although great progress has been made in this
field in recent decades, machine translated text still varies greatly in qual-
ity, mostly depending on the complexity of the SOURCE TEXT, and is
seldom adequate for publication without human intervention to correct
errors of grammar, meaning, and style.
macroskills n
see MICROSKILLS
macrosociolinguistics n
sociolinguistic research that deals with sociological or social psychologi-
cal phenomena, and which studies language use in society as a whole,
including the study of language maintenance and language loss.
see also MICROSOCIOLINGUISTICS
macro-structure n
in writing, the topic and overall organization of a text as compared with
the details or MICROSTRUCTURE of a passage.
main clause n
see DEPENDENT CLAUSE
main idea n
in a composition, the central thought or topic, often identical with the
TOPIC SENTENCE of the composition.
mainstreaming n mainstream v
the entry into a regular school programme (i.e. mainstream programme)
of students for whom the language spoken in that school is a second lan-
guage. In many countries where there are significant numbers of immi-
grant students for whom English is a second language, school ESL
programmes seek to prepare students to enter mainstream classes, that is
classes where English is the medium of instruction in the CONTENT AREAS.
maintenance bilingual education n
see BILINGUAL EDUCATION
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manual method
maintenance rehearsal n
see REHEARSAL
majority language n
the language spoken by the majority of the population in a country, such
as English in the USA. A language spoken by a group of people who form
a minority within a country is known as a minority language, such as
Italian and Spanish in the USA.
see also COMMUNITY LANGUAGE, NATIONAL LANGUAGE
Mancova n
an abbreviation for multivariate analysis of covariance
manner of articulation n
the way in which a speech sound is produced by the speech organs. There
are different ways of producing a speech sound. With CONSONANTS the
airstream may be:
a stopped and released suddenly (a STOP), e.g. /t/
b allowed to escape with friction (a FRICATIVE), e.g. /f/
c stopped and then released slowly with friction (an AFFRICATE), e.g.
/dÔ/ as in /dÔem/ gem.
The vocal cords may be vibrating (a voiced speech sound) or not (a
voiceless speech sound) (see VOICE2).
With VOWELS, in addition to the position of the tongue in the mouth,
the lips may be:
a rounded, e.g. for /uN/ in /‹uN/ shoe; or
b spread, e.g. for /iN/ in /miNn/ mean.
see also FRICTIONLESS CONTINUANT, LATERAL, NASAL, PLACE OF ARTICULA-
TION
Manova n
an abbreviation for multivariate analysis of variance
manual method n
a method for teaching the hearing impaired, based on the use of SIGN--
LANGUAGE. There are many different manual communication systems;
some, such as American Sign Language (A.S.L.) have their own linguistic
rules which do not resemble the grammar of English. Those who are
entirely dependent on A.S.L. or similar manual codes may therefore have
difficulty reading, writing, or lip-reading English. Some manual codes
such as Signed English or the Pagett-Gorman system are based on English,
and learning to read and write English is easier for those who have
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manualist
learned these codes. Those who have learned a manual method of com-
munication normally cannot speak, and therefore have difficulty commu-
nicating with those who cannot use their particular sign language.
A third group of manual codes, e.g. Amerind, are based on universal ges-
tural codes.
manualist n
see SIGN LANGUAGE
mapping n
see BRAINSTORMING
marginalized voices n
the voices of those who are left out of the DOMINANT DISCOURSE. These
may include women, immigrants, and minority language speakers.
markedness theory n
the theory that within and across languages, certain linguistic elements
can be seen as unmarked, i.e. simple, core, or prototypical, while
others are seen as marked, i.e. complex, peripheral, or exceptional.
Some markedness relations are binary. For example, vowels can be
either voiced or voiceless. Voiced vowels are considered unmarked,
while voiceless vowels (which occur in fewer languages of the world)
are marked. Other markedness relations are hierarchical. For example,
the NOUN PHRASE ACCESSIBILITY HIERARCHY refers to a range of relative
clause structures that can be ordered from least to most marked.
Markedness has sometimes been invoked as a predictor of acquisition
order or direction of difficulty in second and foreign language learning.
In this view, if the target language contains structures that are marked,
these will be difficult to learn. However, if the target language struc-
tures are unmarked they will cause little or no difficulty, even if they
do not exist in the learner’s native language. This has been called the
markedness differential hypothesis.
marker n
see SPEECH MARKER
masculine adj
see GENDER2
mass noun n
see COUNTABLE NOUN
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matching item
mastery learning n
an individualized and diagnostic approach to teaching in which students
proceed with studying and testing at their own rate in order to achieve a
prescribed level of success. Mastery learning is based on the idea that all
students can master a subject given sufficient time. For example in an ESL
reading programme, students might be assigned graded reading passages
to read in their own time. Test questions after each passage allow the
learner to discover what level of comprehension they reached, and re-read
the passage if necessary. They must reach a specific comprehension level
before they move on to the next passage.
matched guise technique n
(in studies of LANGUAGE ATTITUDES) the use of recorded voices of people
speaking first in one dialect or language and then in another; that is, in
two “guises”. For example, BILINGUAL French Canadians may first speak
in French and then in English. The recordings are played to listeners who
do not know that the two samples of speech are from the same person and
who judge the two guises of the same speaker as though they were judg-
ing two separate speakers each belonging to a different ethnic or national
group. The reactions of the listeners to the speakers in one guise are com-
pared to reactions to the other guise to reveal attitudes towards different
language or dialect groups, whose members may be considered more or
less intelligent, friendly, co-operative, reliable, etc.
matched-subjects design n
an experimental design where participants with similar characteristics are
first matched into blocks and then participants within each block are ran-
domly assigned to the experimental conditions. For example, when com-
paring two methods of teaching L2 vocabulary, a researcher wants to
make sure that the participants in the study are homogeneous, so that any
difference in a vocabulary test between the groups taught with different
methods can be attributed to the difference in teaching methods. If one
group happened to consist predominantly of L2 learners whose L1 shares
many cognates with their L2, it would not be clear whether the difference
in the test is due to the treatment (i.e. use of different teaching methods)
or not. This problem could have been avoided by first matching partici-
pants by their L1 background and then randomly assigning participants
within each L1 background block into the two classes using different
teaching methods.
matching item n
a type of test item or test task that requires test takers to indicate which
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materials
entries (e.g. words or phrases) on one list are the correct matches for
entries on another list.
see also SELECTED-RESPONSE ITEM
materials n
in language teaching, anything which can be used by teachers or learners
to facilitate the learning of a language. Materials may be linguistic, visual,
auditory, or kinesthetic, and they may be presented in print, audio or
video form, on CD-ROMS, on the Internet or through live performance
or display.
materials evaluation n
in language teaching, the process of measuring the value and effectiveness
of learning materials.
mathematical linguistics n
a branch of linguistics which makes use of statistical and mathematical
methods to study the linguistic structure of written or spoken texts. This
includes the study of the frequency of occurrence of linguistic items (see
FREQUENCY COUNT) and the study of literary style.
see also COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS
matrix (plural matrices) n
a table consisting of rows and columns to display data or results of an
analysis. For an example, see the matrix used in this dictionary under the
entry for IMPLICATIONAL SCALING.
maturation n
see INTERNAL VALIDITY
maximal projection n
see PROJECTION (PRINCIPLE)
mean n
the arithmetic average of a set of scores. The mean is the sum of all the
scores divided by the total number of items. The mean is the most com-
monly used and most widely applicable measure of the CENTRAL TEND-
ENCY of a distribution.
see also MEDIAN, MODE
mean length of utterance n
also MLU
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meaningful drill
(in LANGUAGE ACQUISITION research) a measure of the linguistic complex-
ity of children’s utterances, especially during the early stages of FIRST LAN-
GUAGE learning. It is measured by counting the average length of the
utterances a child produces, using the MORPHEME rather than the word as
the unit of measurement. As a simple countable measure of grammatical
development the MLU has been found to be a more reliable basis for com-
paring children’s language development than the age of the children.
MLU is generally not considered to be a good index of development in
SECOND LANGUAGE learning.
mean utterance length n
another term for MEAN LENGTH OF UTTERANCE
meaning n
(in linguistics) what a language expresses about the world we live in or
any possible or imaginary world.
The study of meaning is called SEMANTICS. Semantics is usually concerned
with the analysis of the meaning of words, phrases, or sentences (see CON-
NOTATION, DENOTATION, LEXICAL FIELD, SEMANTIC FEATURE) and sometimes
with the meaning of utterances in discourse (see DISCOURSE ANALYSIS) or
the meaning of a whole text.
see also FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE1,2 PRAGMATICS
meaning units n
segments or chunks of spoken discourse which serve listeners as signals of
organization and are characterized by pitch change on the most import-
ant syllable. These are also referred to as sense groups, tone units, or
intonation groups.
meaningful drill n
in language teaching and in particular AUDIOLINGUALISM, a distinction
between different types of DRILLS is sometimes made according to the
degree of control the drill makes over the response produced by the stu-
dent.
A mechanical drill is one where there is complete control over the stu-
dent’s response, and where comprehension is not required in order to pro-
duce a correct response. For example:
Teacher Student
book Give me the book.
ladle Give me the ladle.
A meaningful drill is one in which there is still control over the response,
but understanding is required so that the student produces a correct
response. For example:
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meaningful learning
Teacher reads a sentence Student chooses a response
I’m hot. I’ll get you something to eat.
I’m cold. I’ll turn on the air conditioning.
I’m thirsty. I’ll get you something to drink.
I’m hungry. I’ll turn on the heater.
A communicative drill is one in which the type of response is controlled
but the student provides his or her own content or information. For
example in practising the past tense, the teacher may ask a series of ques-
tions:
Teacher Student completes cue
What time did you get up on
Sunday? I got up __________
What did you have for
breakfast? I had __________
What did you do after
breakfast? I __________
Drills, however, are less commonly used in language teaching today and
have been replaced by more communicative teaching strategies.
meaningful learning n
(in COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY) learning in which learned items become part
of a person’s mental system of concepts and thought processes. The psy-
chologist Ausubel contrasted meaningful learning with ROTE LEARNING
and other types of learning in which learned items are not integrated into
existing mental structures.
meanscore n
another term for MEAN
means–ends model n
an approach to CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT or to teaching in which a dis-
tinction is made between ends (e.g. objectives and content) and means
(i.e. the process of instruction) and which generally employs a cycle of
planning activities involving:
a identification of learners’ need
b specification of goals
c formulation of objectives
d selection of content
e organization of content
f selection of learning experiences
g evaluation of learning
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median
measurement error n
another term for ERROR OF MEASUREMENT
mechanical drill n
see MEANINGFUL DRILL
mechanical translation n
another term for MACHINE TRANSLATION
mechanics n
(in composition) those aspects of writing such as spelling, use of apostro-
phes, hyphens, capitals, abbreviations and numbers, which are often dealt
with in the revision or editing stages of writing (see COMPOSING PRO-
CESSES). These may be compared with more global or higher level dimen-
sions of writing, such as organization, COHERENCE, or rhetorical structure.
see SCHEME
media n
a general term for television, radio and newspapers considered as a whole
and as ways of entertaining or spreading news or information to a large
number of people. In language teaching, teaching materials which involve
the use of different kinds of media such as visual and printed media, are
sometimes known as multi media or mixed media.
media resources n
in teaching, all resources involved in teaching and learning including tech-
nology, audio and video resources, computers, multi-media language
labs, projectors, films, and video.
medial adj
occurring in the middle of a linguistic unit.
For example, in English the /∂/ in /p∂t/ pit is in a medial position in the
word.
see also INITIAL, FINAL
median n
the value of the middle item or score when the scores in a SAMPLE are
arranged in order from lowest to highest. The median is therefore the
score that divides the sample into two equal parts. It is the most
appropriate measure of the CENTRAL TENDENCY for data arranged in an
“ordinal scale” or a “rank scale” (see SCALE).
see also MEAN, MODE
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medium
medium n
the means by which a message is conveyed from one person to another.
For example, an invitation to a party can be made in writing or in speech.
The plural of medium is media or mediums.
see also MESSAGE, DECODING, ENCODING
medium of instruction n
the language used in education. In many countries, the medium of
instruction is the STANDARD VARIETY of the main or NATIONAL LANGUAGE
of the country, e.g. French in France. In some countries, the medium of
instruction may be different in various parts of the country, as in
Belgium where both French and Dutch are used. In MULTILINGUAL coun-
tries or regions there may be a choice, or there may be schools in which
some subjects are taught in one language and other subjects in another.
The plural of medium of instruction is media of instruction or mediums
of instruction.
see also BILINGUAL EDUCATION
melting pot n
used mainly in the US to describe how a variety of immigrant ethnic
groups have blended together and gradually assimilated into mainstream
American culture. The melting pot view of immigration is sometimes used
as an argument against BILINGUAL EDUCATION and in favour of the ENGLISH
ONLY movement.
membershipping n membership v
classifying a person as a member of a group or category, e.g. shop
assistant, student, or residents of a particular town. Once a category
has been assigned to a person, conversation with that person may be
affected.
For example, a visitor to a town may ask a passer-by whom he or she,
correctly or incorrectly, memberships as a local resident: Could you
please tell me how to get to the station? Wrong membershipping may
result in misunderstanding or may cause annoyance, e.g. if a customer in
a department store is wrongly membershipped as a shop assistant.
In speaking, membershipping involves the ability to display credibility
and competence through familiarity or exploitation of discourse conven-
tions typically used in a group or speech community, e.g. such as the
ability to use the technical terms and concepts used by linguists or lan-
guage teachers.
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mentalism
memorizing n memorize v memorization n
the process of establishing information, etc., in memory. The term “mem-
orizing” usually refers to conscious processes. Memorizing may involve
ROTE LEARNING, practice, ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING, etc.
memory n
the mental capacity to store information, either for short or long periods.
Two different types of memory are often distinguished:
a Short-term memory refers to that part of the memory where infor-
mation which is received is stored for short periods of time while it is
being analyzed and interpreted. Working memory is a more contem-
porary term for short-term memory which conceptualizes memory not
as a passive system for temporary storage but an active system for tem-
porarily storing and manipulating information needed in the execution
of complex cognitive tasks (e.g. learning, reasoning, and comprehen-
sion). In the influential model of Baddeley, working memory consists of
two storage systems, the articulatory loop for the storage of verbal
information and the visuospatial sketchpad for the storage of visual
information, plus a central executive, a very active system responsible
for the selection, initiation, and termination of processing routines (e.g.
encoding, storing, and retrieving).
b Long-term memory is that part of the memory system where infor-
mation is stored more permanently. Information in long-term
memory may not be stored in the same form in which it is received.
For example, a listener may hear sentence A below, and be able to
repeat it accurately immediately after hearing it. The listener uses
short-term memory to do this. On trying to remember the sentence a
few days later the listener may produce sentence B, using information
in long-term memory which is in a different form from the original
message.
a The car the doctor parked by the side of the road was struck by a pass-
ing bus.
b The doctor’s car was hit by a bus.
see also EPISODIC MEMORY, IMPLICIT MEMORY, RELEARNING
mental lexicon n
a person’s mental store of words, their meanings and associations
mentalism n mentalist adj
the theory that a human being possesses a mind which has consciousness,
ideas, etc., and that the mind can influence the behaviour of the body.
see also BEHAVIOURISM, EPIPHENOMENALISM, INNATIST HYPOTHESIS
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mentor teacher
mentor teacher n
an experienced teacher in a school who works with a student teacher
during teaching practice and gives guidance and feedback to the student
teacher.
mesolect n
see POST CREOLE CONTINUUM, SPEECH CONTINUUM
message n
what is conveyed in speech or writing from one person to one or more
other people. The message may not always be stated in verbal form but
can be conveyed by other means, e.g. wink, gestures. A distinction can be
made between message form and message content. In a spoken request,
for example, the message form is how the request is made (e.g. type of
sentence structure, use or non-use of courtesy words, type of intonation)
and the message content is what is actually requested (e.g. the loan of
some money).
see also DECODING, ENCODING, KEY1
meta-analysis n
also quantitative research synthesis
a collection of statistical procedures for a quantitative review and sum-
mary of the results of statistical analyses from a group of related studies
that investigate the same question in a research domain to discern over-
all patterns and draw general conclusions. Generally, a meta-analyst,
once having identified a set of research questions to investigate in a
research domain (e.g. effectiveness of Spanish-English bilingual pro-
grammes on Spanish L1 children’s academic performance in L2 English),
(a) searches for relevant studies, whether published or unpublished; (b)
decides which studies to include in a meta-analysis, using a set of selec-
tion criteria; (c) codes each study for study characteristics; (d) calculates
and then averages EFFECT SIZEs from the studies; and (e) investigates
relationships between study characteristics and effect sizes statistically.
Meta-analysis can be contrasted with traditional narrative literature
reviews in that the latter combine results from different studies qualita-
tively.
see also EFFECT SIZE
metacognitive knowledge n
also metacognition n
(in cognition and learning) knowledge of the mental processes which
are involved in different kinds of learning. Learners are said to be
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metathesis
capable of becoming aware of their own mental processes. This
includes recognizing which kinds of learning tasks cause difficulty,
which approaches to remembering information work better than
others, and how to solve different kinds of problems. Metacognitive
knowledge is thought to influence the kinds of learning strategies learn-
ers choose.
see also LEARNING STRATEGY, METACOGNITIVE STRATEGY
metacognitive strategy n
a category of LEARNING STRATEGY which involves thinking about the
mental processes used in the learning process, monitoring learning while
it is taking place, and evaluating learning after it has occurred. For
example, metacognitive strategies a learner may use when he or she is
beginning to learn a new language include:
1 planning ways of remembering new words encountered in conversa-
tions with native speakers
2 deciding which approaches to working out grammatical rules are more
effective
3 evaluating his or her own progress and making decisions about what to
concentrate on in the future
meta-language n
the language used to analyze or describe a language. For example, the sen-
tence: In English, the phoneme /b/ is a voiced bilabial stop is in meta-
language. It explains that the b-sound in English is made with vibration
of the vocal cords and with the two lips stopping the airstream from the
lungs.
metalinguistic knowledge n
(in language learning) knowledge of the forms, structure and other
aspects of a language, which a learner arrives at through reflecting on and
analyzing the language. In linguistic analysis, researchers sometimes make
use of a native speaker’s metalinguistic knowledge as one source of infor-
mation about the language.
metaphor n
see FIGURE OF SPEECH
metathesis n metathesize v
change in the order of two sounds in a word, e.g. /fl∂m/ for /f∂lm/ film.
Metathesis sometimes occurs in the speech of language learners but it may
also occur with native speakers. When a metathesized form becomes
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method
commonly and regularly used by most native speakers of a language, it
may lead to a change in the word. For example, Modern English bird
developed by metathesis from Old English brid “young bird”.
method n
(in language teaching) a way of teaching a language which is based on sys-
tematic principles and procedures, i.e. which is an application of views on
how a language is best taught and learned and a particular theory of lan-
guage and of language learning.
Different methods of language teaching such as the DIRECT METHOD, the
AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD, TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE result from different
views of:
a the nature of language
b the nature of second language learning
c goals and OBJECTIVE in teaching
d the type of SYLLABUS to use
e the role of teachers, learners, and instructional materials
f the activities, techniques and procedures to use
see also APPROACH
methodology n
1 (in language teaching) the study of the practices and procedures used in
teaching, and the principles and beliefs that underlie them.
Methodology includes:
a study of the nature of LANGUAGE SKILLS (e.g. reading, writing, speaking,
listening) and procedures for teaching them
b study of the preparation of LESSON PLANs, materials, and textbooks for
teaching language skills
c the evaluation and comparison of language teaching METHOD (e.g. the
AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD)
2 such practices, procedures, beliefs themselves. One can for example
criticize or praise the methodology of a particular language course.
see also CURRICULUM, SYLLABUS
3 (in research) the procedures used in carrying out an investigation,
including the methods used to collect and analyze data.
see also EXPERIMENTAL METHOD, SCIENTIFIC METHOD
methods of development n
(in composition) the ways in which a paragraph or extended piece of
writing is developed. A number of methods of development are often used
in composing in English, either individually, or sometimes within other
methods of development. These are:
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microteaching
1 Process Method: the writer describes something by breaking a complex
whole down into its different parts and describing them in order.
2 Definition Method: the writer defines a term or object by identifying it
within a general class and then distinguishing it from all other members
of the class.
3 Classification Method: the writer groups people, things or ideas accord-
ing to some principle order, in this way both classifying and explaining
them.
4 Comparison and Contrast Method: the writer describes the similarities
or differences between two sets of items.
5 Cause–Effect Method: the writer describes why things are the way
they are or why something happened, by describing causes and
effects. A cause–effect paragraph is usually developed by inductive
reasoning.
metrical phonology n
a cover term for several non-linear theories of STRESS. Instead of seeing
stress as a property of individual segments (vowels), metrical phonology
views stress as a relational property between constituents expressed in
metrical trees.
micro-skills n
also enabling skills, part skills
(in language teaching) a term sometimes used to refer to the individual
processes and abilities which are used in carrying out a complex activity.
For example, among the micro-skills used in listening to a lecture are:
identifying the purpose and scope of the lecture; identifying the role of
conjunctions, etc., in signalling relationships between different parts of
the lecture; recognizing the functions of PITCH and INTONATION. For the
purposes of SYLLABUS DESIGN, the four macroskills of reading, writing,
speaking, and listening may be further analyzed into different microskills.
see also LANGUAGE SKILLS
micro-sociolinguistics n
see SOCIOLINGUISTICS
microteaching n
a technique used in the training of teachers, in which different teaching
skills are practised under carefully controlled conditions. It is based on
the idea that teaching is a complex set of activities which can be broken
down into different skills. These skills can be practised individually, and
later combined with others. Usually in microteaching, one trainee teacher
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mid vowel
teaches a part of a lesson to a small group of his or her classmates. The
lesson may be recorded on tape or videotape and later discussed in indi-
vidual or group tutorials. Each session generally focuses on a specific
teaching task. Microteaching thus involves a scaling-down of teaching
because class size, lesson length, and teaching complexity are all reduced.
mid vowel n
see VOWEL
migrant education n
education programmes for either newly arrived immigrants or for agri-
cultural workers and their families and other shifting populations,
depending on how the term “migrant” is defined in a particular context.
mim-mem method n
a term for the AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD, because the method uses exer-
cises such as pattern practice (see DRILL) and dialogues which make use
of the mimicry (imitation) and memorization of material presented as
a model.
minimal-distance principle n
the principle that in English, a COMPLEMENT or a NON-FINITE VERB refers
to the NOUN PHRASE1 which is closest to it (i.e. which is minimally distant
from it). For example in the following sentences:
John wants Mary to study.
Penny made the children happy.
the non-finite verb to study refers to Mary (not John) and the complement
happy to the children (not Penny).
Some sentences do not follow the principle, however. For example, in:
John promised Mary to wash the clothes.
the non-finite verb phrase to wash the clothes refers to John (not Mary).
Such sentences are believed to cause comprehension problems for children
learning English.
minimal pair n
two words in a language which differ from each other by only one
distinctive sound (one PHONEME) and which also differ in meaning. For
example, the English words bear and pear are a minimal pair as they
differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /b/ and /p/.
The term “minimal pair” is also sometimes used of any two pieces of lan-
guage that are identical except for a specific feature or group of related
features.
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minority language group
For example, the sentences:
The boy is here.
The boys are here.
may be called a minimal pair because they are the same except for the
contrast between singular and plural expressed in both noun and verb.
minimal pair drill n
a DRILL in which MINIMAL PAIRs are practised together, especially in order
to help students to learn to distinguish a sound contrast. For example if
a teacher wanted to practise the contrast between /b/ and /p/, the teacher
could (a) explain how the sounds differ; (b) present pairs of words con-
taining the contrast, for listening practice; e.g. bore – pour, big – pig,
buy – pie; (c) get the students to show that they know which member of
the pair they have heard; (d) get them to pronounce such pairs them-
selves.
Minimal Terminable Unit n
another term for T-UNIT
minimalism n
also minimalist approach, minimalist programme
a theory of grammar introduced by Chomsky in 1995 as an advance on
GOVERNMENT/BINDING THEORY while remaining within the general para-
digm of the principle and parameters model of UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. The
cornerstone of the theory is that grammars should make use of the mini-
mal theoretical apparatus necessary to provide a characterization of lin-
guistic phenomena that meets the criterion of DESCRIPTIVE ADEQUACY. This
goal is motivated in part by the desire to minimize the acquisition burden
faced by children and account for the fact that children will acquire any
language they are exposed to.
minimalist approach n
see MINIMALISM
minimalist programme n
see MINIMALISM
minority language n
see MAJORITY LANGUAGE
minority language group n
another term for LANGUAGE MINORITY GROUP
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minority students
minority students n
in countries where English is a first language, often used to refer to stu-
dents whose first language is a language other than English, for whom
special instruction in English may be needed.
miscue n
see MISCUE ANALYSIS
miscue analysis n
the analysis of errors or unexpected responses which readers make in
reading, as part of the study of the nature of the reading process in chil-
dren learning to read their mother tongue.
Among the different types of miscue which occur are:
a insertion miscue: the adding of a word which is not present in the
text (e.g. the child may read Mr Barnaby was a busy old man
instead of Mr Barnaby was a busy man).
b reversal miscue: the reader reverses the order of words (e.g. the child
reads Mrs Barnaby was a rich kind old lady instead of Mrs Barnaby
was a kind rich old lady).
mistake n
see ERROR
mitigating devices n
a term used for expressions that are used to soften a request or other kind
of imposition or make it more indirect, such as “please” in “Please close
the door” and “would you” in “Would you close the door.”
MLAT n
an abbreviation for the Modern Language Aptitude Test, a test of LAN-
GUAGE APTITUDE
MLU1 n
an abbreviation for MEAN LENGTH OF UTTERANCE
MLU2
an abbreviation for Multi-Word Lexical Unit, a LEXEME consisting of
more than one word. For example, COMPOUND NOUNs and PHRASAL VERBs
are MLUs.
modal n
also modal verb, modal auxiliary
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mode
any of the AUXILIARY VERBs which indicate attitudes of the speaker/writer
towards the state or event expressed by another verb, i.e. which indicate
different types of modality. The following are modal verbs in English:
may, might, can, could, must, have (got) to, will, would, shall, should
Modal meanings are shown in the following examples; all are in contrast
to simple assertion:
I may be wrong. (may possibility)
That will be Tom at the door. (will prediction)
You can smoke here. (can permission)
I can play the piano. (can ability)
Modality can be expressed in other ways, too:
I may be wrong. Perhaps I’m wrong.
modality n
see MODAL
mode n
the most frequently occurring score or scores in a SAMPLE. It is a measure
of the CENTRAL TENDENCY of a DISTRIBUTION. For example, in the follow-
ing test scores, the mode is equal to 20.
score number of students
with the score
10 2
20 10
30 3
40 4
50 3
A frequency distribution with two modes is known as a bimodal distri-
bution, as when the two most frequently occurring scores are 60 and 40.
The mode(s) of a distribution can be pictured graphically as the “peaks”
in the distribution. A NORMAL DISTRIBUTION has only one peak. The fol-
lowing shows a bimodal distribution:
see also MEAN, MEDIAN
frequency
mode 1 mode 2
scores
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mode of discourse
mode of discourse n
the medium in which language is used between two or more people in a
particular situation, such as written, spoken, face to face, telephone, or
via the Internet.
Modern Language Aptitude Test n
see LANGUAGE APTITUDE TEST, SOCIAL CONTRAST
model n
(in language teaching) someone or something which is used as a standard
or goal for the learner, e.g. the pronunciation of an educated native
speaker.
see also MODELLING
modelling1 n
providing a model (e.g. a sentence, a question) as an example for some-
one learning a language.
In SECOND LANGUAGE and FOREIGN LANGUAGE learning, some teaching
methods emphasize the need for teachers to provide accurate models for
learners to imitate, for example the AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD. In FIRST LAN-
GUAGE learning, parents sometimes provide correct sentences for children
to repeat, and this may be referred to as modelling. The effect of model-
ling on children’s language development has been compared with that of
expansion and prompting.
In expansion the parent repeats part of what the child has said, but
expands it. The expansion usually contains grammatical words which the
child did not use. This is thought to be one of the ways children develop
their knowledge of the rules of a language. For example:
Child: Doggy sleeping.
Parent: Yes, the doggy is sleeping.
Prompting refers to stating a sentence in a different way. For example:
Parent: What do you want?
Child: (no answer)
Parent: You want what?
By presenting the question in two different forms the parent may assist
the child in understanding the structure of questions and other language
items.
modelling2
a learning process in which a person observes someone’s behaviour and
then consciously or unconsciously attempts to imitate that behaviour. For
example, many of the teaching practices a new teacher uses may have
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modes of writing
been modelled from teachers he or she has observed. Students may also
model behaviours from their teachers. For example, if a student sees that
the teacher is not punctual and is poorly organized, he or she may decide
that punctuality and organization are not important and thus not attempt
to develop these qualities.
modern language n
in foreign language teaching this term is sometimes used to refer to a
foreign language which is an important language today such as French or
Italian, as compared to an ancient language such as Latin or ancient Greek.
Modern Language Aptitude Test n
also MLAT
see LANGUAGE APTITUDE TEST
modernism n
the rejection of tradition and authority in favour of reason, science, and
objectivity, closely associated with “Western” thought and the scientific
method.
From the point of view of POSTMODERNISM, modernism is not “contem-
porary”, but “out of date”.
see POSITIVISM
modes of writing n
non-creative forms of writing, particularly essay writing, have tradition-
ally been classified into four types:
1 descriptive writing provides a verbal picture or account of a person,
place or thing.
2 narrative writing reports an event or tells the story of something that
happened.
3 expository writing provides information about and explains a particu-
lar subject. Patterns of development within expository writing include
giving examples, describing a process of doing or making something,
analyzing causes and effects, comparing and/or contrasting, defining a
term or concept, and dividing something into parts or classifying it into
categories.
4 Argumentative writing attempts to support a controversial point or
defend a position on which there is a difference of opinion, ESL
writing programmes have often been based on the assumption that
novice writers should begin with the simplest mode – the descriptive
essay, and gradually move to learning the most difficult – the argu-
mentative one.
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modification
modification n
a type of COMMUNICATION STRATEGY in which a speaker simplifies or elab-
orates a normal discourse pattern in order to make a message more
accessible to a listener.
modified speech n
a term used by linguists to describe speech which is deliberately changed
in an attempt to make it sound more educated or refined. The change is
usually temporary and the speaker lapses back to his or her normal
speech pattern.
modifier n modification n modify v
a word or group of words which gives further information about (“mod-
ifies”) another word or group of words (the HEAD).
Modification may occur in a NOUN PHRASE1, a VERB PHRASE, an ADJECTIVAL
PHRASE, etc.
a Modifiers before the head are called premodifiers, for example
expensive in this expensive camera.
b Modifiers after the head are called postmodifiers, for example with a
stumpy tail in The cat with a stumpy tail.
Halliday restricts the term “modifier” to premodifiers and calls postmod-
ifiers QUALIFIERS.
In earlier grammars, the term “modifier” referred only to words, phrases,
or clauses which modified verbs, adjectives, or other adverbials, but not
to those which modified nouns.
modularity hypothesis n
see MODULE2
modularity principle n
see MODULE2
module1 n
an instructional unit in a course that is planned as a self-contained and
independent learning sequence with its own objectives. For example a
120 hour language course might be divided into four modules of 30 hours
each. Assessment is carried out at the end of each module. The use of
modules is said to allow for flexible organization of a course and can give
learners a sense of achievement because objectives are more immediate
and specific.
see UNIT
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monolingual
module2
an autonomous component of a larger system.
For example, a language contains a phonological module.
Language itself can also be seen as a module. In this view, sometimes
referred to as the modularity principle or modularity hypothesis, the lan-
guage faculty is considered to be autonomous with respect to such other
human systems such as the perceptual system and general cognition. In
this view, neither the form of language nor the process through which it
is acquired is influenced by these systems.
monitor hypothesis n
also monitor model of second language development
a theory proposed by Krashen which distinguishes two distinct processes
in second and foreign language development and use. One, called “acqui-
sition”, is said to be a subconscious process which leads to the develop-
ment of “competence” and is not dependent on the teaching of
grammatical rules. The second process, called “learning” refers to the
conscious study and knowledge of grammatical rules. In producing utter-
ances, learners initially use their acquired system of rules. Learning and
learned rules have only one function: to serve as a monitor or editor of
utterances initiated by the acquired system, and learning cannot lead to
acquisition.
see also INPUT HYPOTHESIS
monitoring1 n monitor v
listening to one’s own UTTERANCES to compare what was said with what
was intended, and to make corrections if necessary. People generally try to
speak fluently (see FLUENCY) and appropriately (see APPROPRIATENESS), and
try to make themselves understood. The interjections and self-corrections
that speakers make while talking show that monitoring is taking place,
and are usually for the purposes of making meaning clearer. For example:
He is, well, rather difficult.
Can I have, say, a glass of beer.
They own, I mean rent, a lovely house.
see also AUDITORY FEEDBACK, PAUSING
monitoring2
in teaching, the observing and making assessments of what is happening
in the classroom during learning activities.
monolingual n, adj monolingualism n
1 a person who knows and uses only one language
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monophthong
2 a person who has an active knowledge of only one language, though
perhaps a passive knowledge of others
see also ACTIVE/IPASSIVE LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE, BILINGUAL, MULTILINGUAL
monophthong n
a vowel in which there is no appreciable change in quality during a sylla-
ble, as in English /a/ in father. The “long” tense vowels of some lan-
guages, such as French, are monophthongs (e.g. French beau /bo:/,
“beautiful”) in comparison to the comparable English vowel, which
exhibits noticeable diphthongization in its articulation (e.g. boat /bowt/).
This is what is meant by the statement that French has pure vowels.
see DIPHTHONG
monosyllabic adj monosyllable n
consisting of one SYLLABLE, e.g. the English word cow.
see also DISYLLABIC
Montague grammar n
a cover term for the kind of syntactic and semantic work associated with
the philosopher Richard Montague, who argued that theories of meaning
for natural languages and for formal languages (such as LOGIC) should be
based on the same principles, especially the COMPOSITIONALITY PRINCIPLE.
For example, the sentences of English are not interpreted directly but are
translated into a categorial grammar, a syntactic counterpart to the
expressions of a logical language.
MOO n
in COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING, an acronym for multi-user
domain, object-orientated, a graphic-or text-based multi-user environ-
ment where language learners can chat in real time and perform a variety
of simulations via the Internet.
mood n
a set of contrasts which are often shown by the form of the verb and
which express the speaker’s or writer’s attitude to what is said or written.
Three moods have often been distinguished:
1 indicative mood: the form of the verb used in DECLARATIVE SENTENCEs or
QUESTIONs. For example:
She sat down.
Are you coming?
2 imperative mood: the form of the verb in IMPERATIVE SENTENCEs. For
example:
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morpheme boundary
Be quiet!
Put it on the table!
In English, imperatives do not have tense or perfect aspect (see ASPECT)
but they may be used in the progressive aspect. For example:
Be waiting for me at five.
3 subjunctive mood: the form of the verb often used to express uncer-
tainty, wishes, desires, etc. In contrast to the indicative mood, the sub-
junctive usually refers to non-factual or hypothetical situations. In
English, little use of the subjunctive forms remains. The only remaining
forms are:
a be (present subjunctive), were (past subjunctive) of be
b the stem form, e.g. have, come, sing of other verbs (present subjunctive
only)
The use of the subjunctive form is still sometimes found in:
a that clauses after certain verbs. For example:
It is required that she be present.
I demand that he come at once.
b past subjunctive of be in if clauses. For example:
If I were you, I’d go there.
c in some fixed expressions. For example:
So be it.
morpheme n morphemic adj
the smallest meaningful unit in a language. A morpheme cannot be div-
ided without altering or destroying its meaning. For example, the
English word kind is a morpheme. If the d is removed, it changes to kin,
which has a different meaning. Some words consist of one morpheme,
e.g. kind, others of more than one. For example, the English word
unkindness consists of three morphemes: the STEM1 kind, the negative
prefix un-, and the noun-forming suffix -ness. Morphemes can have
grammatical functions. For example, in English the -s in she talks is a
grammatical morpheme which shows that the verb is the third-person
singular present-tense form.
see also AFFIX, ALLOMORPH, BOUND FORM, COMBINING FORM
morpheme boundary n
the boundary between two MORPHEMEs
For example, in kindness there is a clear morpheme boundary between
the STEM1 kind and the suffix -ness. On the other hand, in the adverb
doubly (from double -ly) it is hard to establish the boundary. Does the
l go with double, with -ly, or with both?
see also AFFIX, COMBINING FORM
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morphology
morphology n morphological adj
1 the study of MORPHEMEs and their different forms (ALLOMORPHs), and
the way they combine in WORD FORMATION. For example, the English
word unfriendly is formed from friend, the adjective-forming suffix -ly
and the negative prefix un-.
2 a morphemic system: in this sense, one can speak of “comparing the
morphology of English with the morphology of German”.
see also AFFIX, COMBINING FORM
morphophonemics n
variation in the form of MORPHEMEs because of PHONETIC factors, or the
study of this variation.
morphophonemic orthography n
an ALPHABETIC WRITING SYSTEM in which knowledge of how different
forms of a word are pronounced is needed to read perfectly. For example,
one has to know English to know that the “ea” of the present tense form
read is pronounced with a high front tense vowel (the same as in reed)
while the past tense form read is pronounced with a mid front lax vowel
(the same as in red).
morphophonemic rules n
rules that specify the pronunciation of morphemes. A morpheme may
have more than one pronunciation determined by such rules. For
example, the plural and possessive morphemes of English are regularly
pronounced /Iz/, /s/, or /z/, depending on whether the stem to which it is
attached ends in a SIBILANT, VOICELESS STOP, or other sound. Similarly, the
regular past tense ending “-ed” is pronounced /°I d/, /t/, or /d/, depending
on whether the stem to which it is attached ends in an ALVEOLAR STOP,
voiceless consonant, or other sound.
morphosyntax n morphosyntactic adj
an analysis of language which uses criteria from both MORPHOLOGY, the
combining of morphemes to form words, and syntax (see SYNTAX1), the
structuring and functioning of words in sentences.
For example, in English, the plural morpheme /s/ is added to nouns to
show that more than one item is being discussed:
Those pears are pretty expensive, aren’t they?
The s, ed, and ing of lives, lived, and living, are all morphemes but, at
the same time, they have meanings beyond the word they are attached to.
We can really say that their meaning only becomes apparent when they
are used in a sentence, e.g.
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motivation
Peter lives in Paris.
Anita lived in Paris a couple of years ago.
Is she still living in Paris?
All these morphemes can be referred to as inflectional morphemes (see
INFLECTION) and in order to discuss them, criteria both from morphology
and syntax (morphosyntactic criteria) have to be used.
Other inflectional morphemes would be the case markers in some lan-
guages (see CASE1) which show whether a noun phrase is used as the sub-
ject or the object of a sentence, and morpheme endings on adjectives to
show comparison, e.g.
These vegetables are fresher than those at the other stall.
mother talk n
another term for CARETAKER SPEECH
mother tongue n
(usually) a FIRST LANGUAGE which is acquired at home.
motherese n
another term for CARETAKER SPEECH
motivation n
in general, the driving force in any situation that leads to action. In the
field of language learning a distinction is sometimes made between an ori-
entation, a class of reasons for learning a language, and motivation itself,
which refers to a combination of the learner’s attitudes, desires, and will-
ingness to expend effort in order to learn the second language.
Orientations include an integrative orientation, characterized by a will-
ingness to be like valued members of the language community, and an
instrumental orientation towards more practical concerns such as getting
a job or passing an examination. The construct of integrative motivation
(most prominently associated with R. C. Gardner) therefore includes the
integrative orientation, positive attitudes towards both the target lan-
guage community and the language classroom and a commitment to learn
the language (see SOCIO-EDUCATIONAL MODEL). Another widely cited dis-
tinction is between intrinsic motivation, enjoyment of language learning
itself, and extrinsic motivation, driven by external factors such as
parental pressure, societal expectations, academic requirements, or other
sources of rewards and punishments. Other theories of motivation
emphasize the balance between the value attached to some activity and
one’s expectation of success in doing it (see EXPECTANCY-VALUE THEORY),
GOAL SETTING, the learner’s attributions of success and failure (see
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motor theory
ATTRIBUTION THEORY), the role of self-determination and learner AUTON-
OMY, and the characteristics of effective motivational thinking.
Motivation is generally considered to be one of the primary causes of suc-
cess and failure in second language learning.
motor theory n
a theory of SPEECH PERCEPTION that posits that listeners rely on their knowl-
edge of the articulatory movements they make when producing a particu-
lar sound in order to decode the acoustic signal produced by that sound.
move n
(in DISCOURSE ANALYSIS) a unit of DISCOURSE which may be smaller than an
UTTERANCE.
For example, a teacher’s utterance: That’s right, Jessica, and can you give
me another example? would consist of two moves:
a That’s right, Jessica, which gives the teacher’s reaction to a correct
answer by the student
b can you give me another example? which attempts to elicit another
response from the student
see also SPEECH ACT
move alpha n
in SYNTAX, the most general formulation of possible MOVEMENT permitted
by a rule. More specific rules include move NP and move wh, which in
turn are more general than specific transformations such as those involved
in passivization.
movement rule n
in SYNTAX, a rule that plays a role in deriving a surface structure by the
reordering of constituents. For example, in the question What did you
see?, what is assumed to be generated initially in the direct object position
and then moved to initial position.
see also D-STRUCTURE, LF, S-STRUCTURE
MTMM method n
an abbreviation for MULTI-TRAIT MULTI-METHOD METHOD
MUD n
in COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING, an acronym for multi-user
domain. A text-based computer environment where language learners can
communicate in real time and perform a variety of simulations via the
Internet. In many instances, replaced by the advent of MOOs.
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multi-media laboratory
multicultural education n
see CULTURAL PLURALISM
multidimensional model n
in general, any model of development or learning in which development
proceeds along two or more dimensions rather than a single one. Manfred
Pienemann has proposed a multidimensional model of SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION in which some linguistic features are acquired according to a
natural order defined by psycholinguistic processing constraints, while
others depend more on whether a learner orientates more towards cor-
rectness and prescriptive norms or towards fluency.
multilingual n, adj
a person who knows and uses three or more languages. Usually, a multi-
lingual does not know all the languages equally well. For example,
he or she may:
a speak and understand one language best
b be able to write in only one
c use each language in different types of situation (DOMAINs), e.g. one lan-
guage at home, one at work, and one for shopping
d use each language for different communicative purposes, e.g. one lan-
guage for talking about science, one for religious purposes, and one for
talking about personal feelings.
see also BILINGUAL, MULTILINGUALISM
multilingualism n
the use of three or more languages by an individual (see MULTILINGUAL) or
by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a
nation. Multilingualism is common in, for example, some countries of
West Africa (e.g. Nigeria, Ghana), Malaysia, Singapore, and Israel.
see BILINGUALISM, NATIONAL LANGUAGE
multimedia n
1 the use of several different types of media for a single purpose, e.g. as
in a video that uses film, audio, sound effects, and graphic images.
2 a collection of computer controlled or computer mediated technologies
that enable people to access and use data in a variety of forms: text,
sound, and still and moving images
multi-media laboratory n
a room containing computers, video players and other equipment
designed to help students learn a foreign language, with or without a
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multiple-choice item
teacher. In many institutions the multi-media lab has replaced the tra-
ditional LANGUAGE LABORATORY.
multiple-choice item n
a TEST ITEM in which the test taker is presented with a question along with
four or five possible answers from which one must be selected. Usually the
first part of a multiple-choice item will be a question or incomplete state-
ment. This is known as the stem. The different possible answers are
known as alternatives. The alternatives contain (usually) one correct
answer and several wrong answers or distractors.
For example:
Yesterday I ___________ several interesting magazines.
(a) have bought (b) buying (c) was buying (d) bought
(d) is the correct response, while (a), (b) and (c) are distractors.
see also SELECTED-RESPONSE ITEM
multiple correlation n
a coefficient of CORRELATION among three or more VARIABLES2. For
example, if we wish to study the correlation between a DEPENDENT VARI-
ABLE (e.g. the level of students’ language proficiency) and several other
variables (i.e. the independent variables, e.g. the amount of homework the
students do each week, their knowledge of grammar, and their motiv-
ation), the multiple correlation is the correlation between the dependent
variable and all the predictors (the independent variables).
multiple intelligences n
also MI
a theory of intelligence that characterizes human intelligence as having
multiple dimensions that must be acknowledged and developed in edu-
cation. Conceptions of intelligence that dominated earlier in the 20th cen-
tury, particularly through the influence of the Stanford–Binet IQ test,
were based on the idea that intelligence is a single, unchanged, inborn
capacity. Advocates of MI argue that there are other equally important
intelligences, found in all people in different strengths and combinations.
MI thus belongs to the group of instructional philosophies that focus on
the differences between learners and the need to recognize learner differ-
ences in teaching. The theory of MI is based on the work of the psychol-
ogist Gardner who posits 8 intelligences:
1 Linguistic: the ability to use language in special and creative ways, which
is something lawyers, writers, editors and interpreters are strong in
2 Logical/mathematical: this involves rational thinking and is often
found with doctors, engineers, programmers and scientists
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multivariate analysis
3 Spatial: this is the ability to form mental models of the world and
is something architects, decorators, sculptors and painters are good
at
4 Musical: a good ear for music, as is strong in singers and composers
5 Bodily/kinesthetic: having a well co-ordinated body is something found
in athletes and craftspersons
6 Interpersonal: this refers to the ability to be able to work well with
people and is strong in salespeople, politicians and teachers
7 Intrapersonal: the ability to understand oneself and apply one’s talent
successfully, which leads to happy and well adjusted people in all areas
of life
8 Naturalist: refers to those who understand and organize the patterns of
nature
The theory of multiple intelligences has been applied both in general edu-
cation as well as in langage teaching, where an attempt is made to pro-
vide learning activities that build on learners’ inherent intelligences.
multiple question n
a question with more than one wh-phrase, for example “Who hit who(m)
first?” or “Where and when did you meet?”
multiple regression n
see REGRESSION ANALYSIS.
multi-skilled syllabus n
see INTEGRATED SYLLABUS
multi-trait multi-method method n
also MTMM method
a statistical procedure to test CONSTRUCT VALIDITY of a test by means of
examining a correlation of two or more TRAITS (e.g. L2 listening ability
and L2 reading ability) using two or more methods (e.g. MULTIPLE-CHOICE
ITEM and SELF-ASSESSMENT). For example, a positive high correlation
between two different tests that are claimed to measure the same trait is
evidence of CONVERGENT VALIDITY, whereas a low correlation between
two tests that are claimed to measure different traits using the same
method is evidence of DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY.
multivariate analysis n
a general term for various statistical techniques that are used to ana-
lyze MULTIVARIATE DATA, such as FACTOR ANALYSIS and REGRESSION
ANALYSIS.
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multivariate analysis of covariance
multivariate analysis of covariance n
also MANCOVA
a multivariate extension of univariate ANCOVA to experimental situations
where there are multiple dependent variables.
see also ANCOVA
multivariate analysis of variance n
also MANOVA
a multivariate extension of univariate ANOVA to experimental situations
where there are multiple dependent variables.
see also ANOVA
multivariate data n
(in statistics) data that contain measurements based on more than one
VARIABLE2. For example, if we were measuring a student’s language profi-
ciency and tests were given for reading, writing, and grammar, the result-
ing information would be multivariate data because it is based on three
separate scores (three variables).
multi-word lexical unit n
a sequence of word forms which functions as a single grammatical unit. For
example “look into” which is used in the same way as “investigate”. Multi-
word units tend to acquire meanings which are not predictable from the
individual parts, in which case they are often described as idioms.
mutation n
a change in a sound, as in the formation of some irregular noun plurals
in English by a change in an internal vowel, e.g. foot – feet, man – men,
mouse – mice.
The term “mutation” is used when the sound change is due to the PHO-
NETIC environment of the sound that changes. In the examples, mutation
was due to other vowels that were present in earlier forms of the words
but have since disappeared.
mutual intelligibility n
a situation where speakers of two closely related or similar language vari-
eties understand one another such as speakers of Spanish and Portuguese.
The degree of mutual intelligibility depends on the amount of shared
vocabulary, similarity in pronunciation, grammar, etc., as well as non-lin-
guistic factors such as relative status of the languages, attitudes towards
the languages and the amount of exposure that speakers have had to each
other’s language.
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N
Nn
(in testing and statistics) a symbol for the number of students, subjects,
scores, or observations involved in a study (as in, e.g., N 15).
N` n
also N-bar
see BAR NOTATION
N`` n
also N-double bar
see BAR NOTATION
narrative n
1 the written or oral account of a real or fictional story
2 the genre structure underlying stories
see STORY GRAMMAR
narrative writing n
see MODES OF WRITING
narrow transcription n
see TRANSCRIPTION
nasal n
a sound (CONSONANT or VOWEL) produced by lowering the soft palate so
that there is no velic closure and air may go out through the nose. For
example, the final sounds of rum, run, and rung are bilabial, alveolar, and
velar nasals, respectively, formed by stopping the airstream at some place
in the mouth, while letting air continue to flow through the nose. Some
languages, such as French, have nasal vowels as well as consonants. For
example, the vowel of French bon /bõ/ (“good”) is a nasal vowel that con-
trasts with the nonnasal vowel /o/ of beau (“beautiful”).
nasal cavity n
see VOCAL TRACT, PLACE OF ARTICULATION
nasal plosion n
another term for nasal release
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nasal release
nasal release n
the release of a PLOSIVE by lowering the soft palate so that air escapes
through the nose, as at the end of the words hidden, kitten, Clinton.
nasalization n
a SECONDARY ARTICULATION caused by lowering of the soft palate during a
sound in which air is going out through the mouth. For example, the
vowels in words like beam, bean, and king are nasalized due to the influ-
ence of the following nasal consonants.
see also ASSIMILATION
National curriculum in English n
a curriculum for the teaching of English in England and Wales, which
specifies the knowledge, skills and understanding that pupils should have
acquired by the end of four key stages in the period of compulsory edu-
cation (5-16), roughly at the ages of 7,11, 14, and 16. The curriculum is
divided into three ‘profile components’: speaking and listening, reading,
and writing. Each profile component consists of one or more ‘attainment
targets’ within which the content of the curriculum is presented as ‘state-
ments of attainment’ at 10 developmental levels.
national language n
a language which is usually considered to be the main language of a
nation. For example, German is the national language of Germany. A
government may declare a particular language or dialect to be the
national language of a nation, e.g. Standard Chinese (Putonghua) in
China and Filipino in the Philippines.
Usually, the national language is also the official language; that is the lan-
guage used in government and courts of law, and for official business.
However, in multilingual nations, there may be more than one official
language, and in such cases the term “official language” is often used
rather than “national language”. For example, the Republic of Singapore
has four official languages; English, Chinese (Mandarin), Malay, and
Tamil.
see also STANDARD VARIETY
native language n
(usually) the language which a person acquires in early childhood because
it is spoken in the family and/or it is the language of the country where he
or she is living. The native language is often the first language a child
acquires but there are exceptions. Children may, for instance, first acquire
some knowledge of another language from a nurse or an older relative and
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nativization
only later on acquire a second one which they consider their native lan-
guage. Sometimes, this term is used synonymously with FIRST LANGUAGE.
native speaker n
a person who learns a language as a child and continues to use it fluently
as a dominant language. Native speakers are said to use a language gram-
matically, fluently and appropriately, to identify with a community where
it is spoken, and to have clear intuitions about what is considered gram-
matical or ungrammatical in the language. One of the goals of linguistics
is to account for the intuitions the native speaker has about his/her lan-
guage. Dictionaries, reference grammars and grammatical descriptions
are usually based on the language use of the native speaker of a dominant
or standard variety. In some contexts (the teaching of some languages in
some countries) it is taken as a basic assumption that the goal of learning
a second or foreign language is to approximate as closely as possible to
the standards set by native speakers; in other teaching and learning con-
texts, this assumption is increasingly being questioned and native speak-
ers no longer have the privileged status they used to have.
nativism n
the view that the ability of humans to learn language builds upon an
innate faculty of language (see INNATENESS HYPOTHESIS) which includes
innate ideas. Two types of nativism can be identified: special nativism
(also specific nativism), which posits that linguistic concepts (such as the
notions of sentence, noun phrase, verb) are part of innate knowledge, and
general nativism, the view that linguistic categories and principles of lan-
guage are constructed from biologically determined structures and princi-
ples that are not specifically linguistic in character.
nativist position n
another term for INNATIST HYPOTHESIS
nativization n nativize v
also indigenization
1 the adaptation a language may undergo when it is used in a different
cultural and social situation. English in India, for example, is said to
have undergone nativization because changes have occurred in aspects
of its phonology, vocabulary, grammar, etc., so that it is now recog-
nized as a distinct variety of English – Indian English
2 the process by which a borrowed word loses pronunciation features of
the source language and assimilates to the pronunciation patterns of
the borrowing language
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natural approach
natural approach n
also natural method
1 a term for a number of language-teaching METHODs which were devel-
oped in the 19th century as a reaction to the GRAMMAR TRANSLATION
METHOD.
These methods emphasized:
a the use of the spoken language
b the use of objects and actions in teaching the meanings of words and
structures
c the need to make language teaching follow the natural principles of first
language learning
These methods lead to the DIRECT METHOD.
2 a term for an APPROACH proposed by Terrell, to develop teaching prin-
ciples which:
a emphasize natural communication rather than formal grammar study
b are tolerant of learners’ errors
c emphasize the informal ACQUISITION of language rules.
natural language n
a language which has NATIVE SPEAKERS, in contrast with an ARTIFICIAL LAN-
GUAGE.
natural language processing n
the analysis of human language by a computer, for example, the auto-
matic analysis of a text in order to determine the kinds of grammatical
structures used, or the processing of spoken input for acoustic analysis.
natural method n
another term for NATURAL APPROACH
natural morphology n
a theory of morphology that describes a “natural” or “unmarked” system
and the laws that govern deviations from it. The most natural type of mor-
phology would be one in which every morpheme corresponds to one and
only one meaning and every meaning has one and only one form, a relation
called bi-uniqueness. The –s morpheme on the verb goes in the sentence
“John goes to work early” does not meet this condition, because it encodes
information concerning tense (present), person (3rd), and number (singular).
see also MARKEDNESS
natural order hypothesis n
the hypothesis that children acquiring their first language acquire linguis-
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needs analysis
tic forms, rules, and items in a similar order. For example, in English chil-
dren acquire progressive -ing, plural -s, and active sentences before they
acquire third person -s on verbs, or passive sentences. This is said to show
a natural order of development. In SECOND LANGUAGE and FOREIGN LAN-
GUAGE learning grammatical forms may also appear in a natural order,
though this is not identical with the ORDER OF ACQUISITION in FIRST LAN-
GUAGE learning.
natural phonology n
a theory of phonology that stresses universal processes of phonology that
are motivated by the physiology of the speech organs and the acoustic
characteristics of speech sounds. Some examples of natural processes are
the neutralization of unstressed vowels (which occurs in English) and the
devoicing of final voiced stops (which occurs in German). These are con-
trasted with “learned” conventional phonological rules of particular lan-
guages, such as the alternation between /k/ and /s/ in the English words
electric and electricity, which have no phonetic motivation. The theory
suggests that learning to suppress a natural process when learning a new
language will be difficult (for example, in the case of a German learner of
English who must learn that final voiced stops are not devoiced), but
when the phonological rules of a new language are natural ones, there
will be little difficulty in learning them.
naturalness n natural adj
(in GENERATIVE PHONOLOGY), the probability that particular sounds,
classes of sounds, or phonological rules occur in any language. For
example, the VOWELS [i] and [u] are considered to be more frequent and
therefore more “natural” than the vowels [y] (an [i] pronounced with
rounded lips) and [ø] (an [u] pronounced with spread lips). In general, a
language will have a [y], as in German /`ryNm°n/ rühmen “to praise”, only
if it has an [i], as in German /`ryNm°n/ Riemen “strap”.
needs analysis n
also needs assessment
(in language teaching and language programme design) the process of
determining the needs for which a learner or group of learners requires a
language and arranging the needs according to priorities. Needs assess-
ment makes use of both subjective and objective information (e.g. data
from questionnaires, tests, interviews, observation) and seeks to obtain
information on:
a the situations in which a language will be used (including who it will be
used with)
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needs hierarchy
b the OBJECTIVES and purposes for which the language is needed
c the types of communication that will be used (e.g. written, spoken,
formal, informal)
d the level of proficiency that will be required
Needs assessment is a part of CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT and is normally
required before a SYLLABUS can be developed for language teaching.
see SITUATION ANALYSIS
needs hierarchy n
the theory that individuals instigate, direct, and sustain activity to
satisfy certain needs that are hierarchical in nature, beginning with bio-
logical needs and progressing upwards to psychological ones. The psy-
chologist Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs containing five levels
of needs:
1 physiological
2 safety and security
3 belongingness and love
4 esteem
5 self-actualization
Need hierarchies have sometimes been referred to in research in
motivation and language learning, since learners may have different
motivations for learning a language associated with their varying
needs.
negation n
contradicting the meaning or part of the meaning of a sentence. The main
NEGATOR in English is not, often in its contracted form n’t and combined
with an auxiliary, for example:
She isn’t going / hasn’t gone / didn’t go / doesn’t want to go.
but there are other negators, e.g. never.
Although he lived quite close, he never visited us.
Negation can be expressed by NEGATIVE PRONOUNS, e.g:
There was nobody there.
or by negative affixes, e.g.:
That was really unkind!
Some varieties of English may use a DOUBLE NEGATIVE, such as:
I haven’t done nothing.
This does not mean that the two negators cancel themselves out and make
the sentence again a positive statement. Double negation is merely used
for emphasis. Often double negation is frowned on as being non-
standard. However, it is typically used in a number of English DIALECTS
and it follows a definite pattern, e.g. the use of no instead of any-:
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negative question
We didn’t hurt nobody!
In recent grammatical theory, interest has been shown in the scope of the
negator, that is, how much of the sentence is actually negated and in what
way the meaning of the sentence can change if the negator is put in a dif-
ferent place, for instance, do the two sentences:
She didn’t think he could do it
and
She thought he couldn’t do it
really mean the same?
negative evidence n
see EVIDENCE
negative face n
the desire of persons that their desires and freedom of action not be
impeded.
see also POLITENESS
negative feedback n
see FEEDBACK, RECAST
negative politeness strategies n
see POLITENESS
negative pronoun n
a PRONOUN which stands for a negative NOUN PHRASE1. The following
words in English are negative pronouns:
nobody, no one, none, neither, nothing
For example:
Nobody has passed the test.
That’s none of your business.
Negative pronouns can function as NEGATORS.
negative question n
a question which includes a negative word or PARTICLE. For example,
Can’t you drive?
Isn’t it awful?
In English, negative questions are answered in the same way as positive
questions:
If you can drive If you can’t drive
Can you drive? Yes, I can. No, I can’t.
Can’t you drive?
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negative reinforcement
negative reinforcement n
see OPERANT CONDITIONING, STIMULUS-RESPONSE THEORY
negative transfer n
see LANGUAGE TRANSFER
negatively skewed distribution n
see SKEWNESS
negator n
a word which makes a sentence a negative sentence. For example, English
negators include not, hardly ever, never, seldom, neither, nothing.
see also NEGATIVE PRONOUN
negotiated syllabus n
an approach to the development of a language course in which students’
needs and learning preferences are taken into account during the course;
these needs are discussed by students and teachers together during the
course and serve to generate ideas about the content of the course. The
negotiated syllabus reflects a learner-centred approach to teaching.
negotiation n
(in conversation) what speakers do in order to achieve successful com-
munication. For conversation to progress naturally and for speakers to be
able to understand each other it may be necessary for them to:
a indicate that they understand or do not understand, or that they
want the conversation to continue (see FEEDBACK)
b help each other to express ideas (see FOREIGNER TALK)
c make corrections when necessary to what is said or how it is said (see
REPAIR).
These aspects of the work which speakers do in order to make successful
conversation is known as negotiation, in CONVERSATIONAL ANALYSIS.
see also ACCOMMODATION, CONVERSATIONAL MAXIM, ETHNOMETHODOLOGY
negotiation of meaning n
see INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS
neologism n
a new word or expression which has come into a language. It is often diffi-
cult to pinpoint the exact year when a neologism appears in a language but
it has been suggested that, in English, the word non-standard has been used
regularly since about 1923 and the word null-hypothesis since about 1935.
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Neuro-linguistic Programming
Often neologisms are the result of the opening up of new areas of art, sci-
ence or technology. For example, the field of computer science brought
about a large range of neologisms such as user-friendly, software, floppy
disk.
network n
a group of people within a larger community who are in a relatively fixed
relationship to one another and who communicate among themselves in
certain more or less predictable ways, e.g. a family group, a tutorial group
at a university, the staff in an office. Recognition of networks and their
structures is of importance for studies of language variation, language
use, and language learning. There are two differences between a network
and a PEER GROUP:
a in a peer group all members have equal STATUS, but in a network mem-
bers may be of unequal status (e.g. parents and children in a family)
b in a network all members know one another, but in a peer group this
need not be so. For example, a lexicographer may consider all lexicog-
raphers to be his or her peer group without knowing them all person-
ally
Nevertheless, most peer groups are networks and many networks are peer
groups.
neural networks n
see CONNECTIONISM
Neuro-linguistic Programming n
also NLP
a training philosophy and set of training techniques first developed by
John Grindler and Richard Bandler in the mid-1970s as an alternative
form of therapy. Grindler (a psychologist) and Bandler (a student of lin-
guistics) were interested in how people influence each other and in how
the behaviours of very effective people could be duplicated. Grindler and
Bandler developed NLP as a system of techniques therapists could use in
building rapport with clients, gathering information about their internal
and external views of the world, and in helping them achieve goals and
bring about personal change. The principles of NLP have been applied in
a variety of fields, including management training, sports training, com-
munications sales and marketing, and language teaching and have had
some appeal within language teaching to those interested in humanistic
approaches, i.e. those which focus on developing one’s sense of self-
actualization and self-awareness, as well as to those drawn to New Age
Humanism.
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neurolinguistics
neurolinguistics n neurolinguistic adj
the study of the function the BRAIN performs in language learning and lan-
guage use. Neurolinguistics includes research into how the structure of
the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the
brain language is stored (see MEMORY), and how damage to the brain
affects the ability to use language (see APHASIA).
neuter adj
see GENDER2
neutralization n
when a contrast that is normally made in a language is not marked, this
is called neutralization. For example, in PHONOLOGY, the high tense vowel
of bean (/biNn/) and the lax vowel of bin (/bIn/) are normally in contrast
(they are PHONEMEs), but there is no contrast between these vowels before
a velar nasal, as in the suffix –ing. In MORPHOLOGY, English normally con-
trasts singular and plural forms of nouns (e.g. cat, cats), but in a few cases
(e.g. fish, sheep) this contrast is neutralized.
New Rhetoric n
in the teaching of composition, an approach advocated by a group of
genre theorists and researchers particularly in the US that argue for a
redefinition of traditional notions of rhetoric to focus on the social, cul-
tural, political and ideological assumptions and underpinnings that
underlie the formal features of texts. In the analysis of texts a new rheto-
ric approach focuses on the social and ideological realities that underlie
the regularities of texts, and employs ethnographic methods to identify
the relations between texts and contexts.
node n
(in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR) each position in a tree diagram where lines
(“branches”) meet. At each node is a symbol for a GRAMMATICAL CAT-
EGORY2.
For example, in the tree diagram for a noun phrase, the child:
NP
Det N
the child
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nominal scale
the category symbols NP (NOUN PHRASE1), Det (DETERMINER), N (NOUN)
are all at nodes in the diagram.
The NP node is said to dominate the Det node and the N node.
see also BASE COMPONENT
no-interface position n
see INTERFACE
noise1 n
when speech sounds are produced, the moving particles of air from the
lungs may form regular patterns (see SOUND WAVE) or irregular patterns.
These irregular patterns are called noise and occur in the production of
certain consonants such as /s/.
noise2 n
(in INFORMATION THEORY) any disturbance or defect which interferes with
the transmission of the message from one person to another. In speech,
this interference could be caused by other sounds, e.g. a pneumatic drill,
a voice on the radio. Because of the presence of noise, a certain degree of
REDUNDANCY is necessary in any communication.
nominal n
1 a term used instead of NOUN
2 a term for a linguistic unit which has some but not all characteristics of
a noun, e.g. wounded in The wounded were taken by helicopter to the
hospital.
Although wounded is the HEAD of the noun phrase the wounded and is
preceded by an article, it would not be modified by an adjective but by an
adverb, e.g. the seriously wounded.
nominal clause n
also noun clause
a clause which functions like a noun or noun phrase; that is, which may
occur as subject, object COMPLEMENT, in APPOSITION, or as prepositional
COMPLEMENT. For example:
nominal clause as subject: What she said is awful.
nominal clause as object: I don’t know what she said.
nominal scale n
see SCALE
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nominalization
nominalization n nominalize v
the grammatical process of forming nouns from other parts of speech,
usually verbs or adjectives. For example, in English: nominalized forms
from the verb to write: writing, writer as in: His writing is illegible. Her
mother is a writer.
nominative case n
the form of a NOUN or noun phrase (see NOUN PHRASE1) which usually
shows that the noun or noun phrase can function as the subject of the sen-
tence. For example, in the German sentence:
Der Tisch ist sehr groß
The table is very big.
the article has the ending -er to show that the noun phrase is in the nom-
inative case because it is the subject of the sentence.
see also CASE1
non-count noun n
see COUNTABLE NOUN
non-defining relative clause n
also non-restrictive relative clause
see DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE
non-directional hypothesis n
see TWO-TAILED TEST
nondirective interview n
an INTERVIEW which is not directed or structured and in which the inter-
viewer allows the person being interviewed to speak freely about a range
of topics of his or her own choice. The difference between a nondirective
interview and an UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW is that in the nondirective
interview there is a minimum amount of questioning by the interviewer,
while in the unstructured interview topic control remains largely with the
interviewer.
see also DEPTH INTERVIEW, FOCUSED INTERVIEW, GUIDED INTERVIEW, INTER-
VIEW GUIDE
non-English proficient n
(in a BILINGUAL EDUCATION or ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE PRO-
GRAMME), a learner who has no previous experience learning English and
who speaks only his or her home language on entering school.
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nonrhotic
non-finite verb n
see FINITE VERB
non-linear morphology n
in MORPHOLOGY, a theoretical framework in which the morphemes that
make up a derived word are each represented at an autonomous level of
representation called a tier. This framework has been shown to be
especially useful in accounting for the intricate, non-linear morphology of
Arabic.
see also AUTOSEGMENTAL PHONOLOGY, METRICAL PHONOLOGY
non-literate n
a culture or group which has no written language, i.e. which possesses an
ORAL CULTURE.
non-parametric tests n
a group of statistical procedures that do not make the strong distribu-
tional assumptions associated with PARAMETRIC TESTS (e.g. that the data
are normally distributed) and are used to analyze data measured on a
NOMINAL or ORDINAL SCALE. Examples of non-parametric tests include
CHI-SQUARE and SPEARMAN RANK-ORDER CORRELATION.
non-past n, adj
a term sometimes used for the PRESENT TENSE form of a verb in languages
such as English. It emphasizes that this verb form is generally used to
describe time periods other than the past, but not necessarily the present.
For example:
I leave tomorrow. (future reference)
The sun rises in the east. (general truth)
non-pro-drop language n
see PRO-DROP PARAMETER
non-punctual adj
see PUNCTUAL-NON-PUNCTUAL DISTINCTION
non-restrictive relative clause n
another term for non-defining relative clause
see DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE
nonrhotic adj
see RHOTIC
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non-specific nativism
non-specific nativism n
the view that the ability to acquire language depends on innate (biologi-
cally specified) mechanisms, but that these mechanisms are general to all
cognition, not specific to language.
see also INNATIST HYPOTHESIS
nonstandard adj
used of speech or writing which differs in pronunciation, GRAMMAR, or
vocabulary from the STANDARD VARIETY of the language. Sometimes the
expression SUBSTANDARD is used but linguists prefer the term nonstandard
as it is a more neutral term.
see also NORM, STANDARD VARIETY
non-verbal communication n
communication without the use of words. This could be done, for
instance, by gestures (see PARALINGUISTICS) or signs (see SIGN LANGUAGE).
non-verbal teacher behaviour n
the use of silence, paralinguistic behaviour, gestures, body movement and
other aspects of non-linguistic behaviour used by teachers in teaching.
The study of non-verbal teacher behaviour seeks to determine the effects
of such behaviour on the affective as well as other aspects of classroom
life. In language teaching, teachers from one cultural background may use
non-verbal behaviours that are different from those in the learners’ home
culture, and this may at times lead to misunderstanding.
norm1 n normative adj
that which is considered appropriate in speech or writing for a particular
situation or purpose within a particular group or community.
The norm for an informal situation may be very different from the norm
for a formal one.
For example, in English, a first name (Joe) may be the norm for address-
ing people in an informal situation but title and surname (Mr Smith) for
a formal one.
see also STANDARD VARIETY, STYLE
norm2 n
(in testing and statistics) the scores or typical performance of a particular
group (the “norm” group) as measured in some way. Norms may be used
to compare the performance of an individual or group with the norm
group. Norms may be expressed by reference to such factors as age,
length of previous instruction, or PERCENTILE rank on a test.
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normative grammar
norm-referenced test(ing) n
a test that measures how the performance of a particular test taker or
group of test takers compares with the performance of another test taker
or group of test takers whose scores are given as the norm. A test taker’s
score is therefore interpreted with reference to the scores of other test
takers or groups of test takers, rather than to an agreed criterion score,
which is the case with a CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST.
normal distribution n
(in statistics) a commonly occurring DISTRIBUTION of scores, in which
scores rise and fall gradually from a single peak. It forms a symmetrical
bell-shaped curve. In a normal distribution, the MEAN, MEDIAN, and MODE
all coincide, and the information necessary for describing the distribution
is given in the mean and the STANDARD DEVIATION (SD).
1 SD 1 SD
2 SD 2 SD
3 SD 3 SD
13.5% 34% 34% 13.5%
mean
The normal curve
The graph above shows the percentage of people who fall in various
portions of the normal distribution. For example, approximately 68%
of the people fall in the range between one SD below and one SD
above the mean. Thus if a test has a mean of 100 and an SD of 10
and its scores are normally distributed, then approximately 68% of the
people who took this test have test scores between 90 and 100 (i.e. 100
– 10 ( one SD below the mean) and 100 10 ( one SD above the
mean)).
normalized standard score n
(in statistics) a STANDARD SCORE which has been converted to a NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION through a statistical procedure. For example a PERCENTILE
ranking is a normalized standard score.
normative grammar n
a grammar which contains rules for what is considered to be correct or
appropriate usage. The rules may be based on classical literary works or
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notation
the speech of those people who are considered as models for others to
copy. In a nation in which many different DIALECTs are spoken, a
NATIONAL LANGUAGE may be developed and a normative grammar and
dictionary produced.
see also PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR, STANDARD VARIETY
notation n notate v
also transcription
the use of symbols (see PHONETIC SYMBOLS) to show sounds or sound
sequences in written form. There are different systems of phonetic sym-
bols. One of the most commonly used is that of the International Phonetic
Association.
A distinction is made between two types of notation:
1 Phonemic notation uses only the distinctive sounds of a language
(PHONEMEs). It does not show the finer points of pronunciation.
Phonemic notation is written within slanting brackets.
For example, the English word foot may appear in phonemic notation
as /fÁt/. /f/, /Á/, and /t/ are phonemes of English. Phonemic notation may
be used, for example:
a for languages which have no writing system of their own
b for teaching purposes, to show differences in pronunciation, e.g. /hed/
head and /hæt/ hat.
2 Phonetic notation (also phonetic script) uses phonetic symbols for vari-
ous sounds, including symbols to show in detail how a particular sound
is pronounced. It is used to show finer points of pronunciation.
Phonetic notation is written in square brackets. For example, the
English word pin may appear in phonetic notation as [p≠∂n] with the
raised h showing the ASPIRATION of the [p].
In phonemic notation, pin would be rendered as /p∂n/.
Phonetic notation may be used, for example:
a to show the different pronunciation of closely related dialects
b to show the pronunciation of individual speakers or groups of speak-
ers. For example, students learning English may use a DENTAL
t-sound, shown by [t ][ , instead of the ALVEOLAR [t] commonly used in
English.
Phonemic notation is sometimes referred to as broad notation and pho-
netic notation as narrow notation.
see also INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET
notetaking n
also notemaking
while reading or listening, the writing down of main points, reactions,
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notional syllabus
questions, or other responses. Such notes may be used for discussion or
to help organize and retain information.
noticing hypothesis n
the hypothesis that INPUT does not become INTAKE for language learning
unless it is noticed, that is, consciously registered.
notion n
see NOTIONAL SYLLABUS
notional-functional syllabus n
another term for NOTIONAL SYLLABUS
notional grammar1 n
a grammar which is based on the belief that there are categories such as
TENSE, MOOD, GENDER, NUMBER, and CASE which are available to all lan-
guages although not all languages make full use of them. For example, a
case system (see CASE1) is found in German, Latin, and Russian, but not
in modern English.
TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR was often notional in its approach and sometimes
attempted to apply some categories to a language without first investigat-
ing whether they were useful and appropriate for describing that lan-
guage.
notional grammar2 n
a grammar based on the meanings or concepts that people need to express
through language (e.g. time, quantity, duration, location) and the linguis-
tic items and structures needed to express them.
notional syllabus n
also notional-functional syllabus
(in language teaching) an approach to developing a communicative syl-
labus and widely discussed in the 1970s, a SYLLABUS in which the language
content is arranged according to the meanings a learner needs to express
through language and the functions the learner will use the language for.
The term NOTIONAL is taken from NOTIONAL GRAMMAR2. A notional syl-
labus is contrasted with a grammatical syllabus or STRUCTURAL SYLLABUS
(one which consists of a sequence of graded language items) or a situ-
ational syllabus (one which consists of situations and the relevant lan-
guage items (see SITUATIONAL METHOD)).
A notional syllabus contains:
a the meanings and concepts the learner needs in order to communicate
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noun
(e.g. time, quantity, duration, location) and the language needed to
express them. These concepts and meanings are called notions
b the language needed to express different functions or SPEECH ACTS
(e.g. requesting, suggesting, promising, describing)
These notions and functions are then used to develop learning teaching
units in a language course.
see also COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
noun n
a word which (a) can occur as the subject or object of a verb or the object
(COMPLEMENT) of a preposition (b) can be modified by an
adjective (c) can be used with DETERMINERS.
Nouns typically refer to people, animals, places, things, or abstractions.
see also ADJECTIVAL NOUN, ANIMATE NOUN, COLLECTIVE NOUN, CONCRETE
NOUN, COUNTABLE NOUN, PROPER NOUN, PARTS OF SPEECH
noun clause n
another term for NOMINAL CLAUSE
noun phrase1 n
also NP
(in STRUCTURALIST LINGUISTICS, GENERATIVE GRAMMAR and related gram-
matical theories) a group of words with a noun or pronoun as the main
part (the HEAD).
The noun phrase may consist of only one word (for example Gina in Gina
arrived yesterday) or it may be long and complex (for example, all the
words before must in: The students who enrolled late and who have not
yet filled in their cards must do so by Friday).
noun phrase2 n
(in some TRADITIONAL GRAMMARS) a participial (see PARTICIPLES) or INFINI-
TIVE phrase which could be replaced by a noun or pronoun.
For example, the participial phrase mowing the lawn in:
George just hates mowing the lawn.
could be replaced by it:
George just hates it
noun phrase accessibility hierarchy
also NAPH
a way of describing the relation among different relative clause types
across languages. The claims made by those who posit a hierarchy include
the following:
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null hypothesis
1 All languages have some types of relative clauses.
2 The range of relative clause types includes:
subject relative clause (SU), for example, He thanked the mechanic who
fixed his car (who refers to the subject of the relative clause)
object relative clause (DO), for example, He took his car to the mechanic
(who) he liked best (who refers to the object of the relative clause)
indirect object relative clause (IO), for example, I know who you told
the story (who refers to the indirect object of the relative clause)
object of preposition relative clause (OPREP), for example, I moved the
rock (that) you hid the money under (that refers to the complement of
under)
genitive relative clause (GEN), for example, I know the man whose car
the mechanic fixed (whose refers to the owner of the car)
comparative relative clause (OCOMP), for example, I know someone
(who) you are smarter than (who refers to the complement of smarter)
3 Not all languages permit all relative clause types. They form a hierar-
chy: SU DO IO OPREP GEN OCOMP. The relative clause
types to the left are higher in the hierarchy. If a language has any of one
of these relative clause types, it will also have all types higher in the
hierarchy. For example, if a language has IO, it will also have DO and
SU. If it has OCOMP, it will have all other types as well.
4 The claim has also been made that second language learners will find it
easiest to learn relative clause types higher in the hierarchy (such as SU
and DO) and more difficult to learn those that are lower down.
see also MARKEDNESS
NP n
an abbreviation for NOUN PHRASE1
NPAH n
an abbreviation for NOUN PHRASE ACCESSIBILITY HIERARCHY
NRT n
an abbreviation for NORM-REFERENCED TEST(ING)
nth word deletion
see CLOZE TEST
nucleus n
see SYLLABLE
null hypothesis
see HYPOTHESIS
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null morpheme
null morpheme n
also zero morpheme
in MORPHOLOGY, a morpheme involved in null affixation. For example,
the plural of fish is fish, which can be analyzed as the noun fish plus the
null variant of the plural morpheme.
null subject parameter n
another term for PRO-DROP PARAMETER
number1 n
a grammatical distinction which determines whether nouns, verbs, adjec-
tives, etc. in a language are singular or plural. In English this is seen par-
ticularly in NOUNS and DEMONSTRATIVES.
For example:
singular plural
count noun book books
demonstrative this these
number2 n
numbers are used either as cardinal numbers (or cardinals) or ordinal
numbers (or ordinals).
Cardinal numbers are used when counting; e.g. 6 boys, 200 dollars, a mil-
lion years, and they may be used as nouns (e.g. count up to ten)
Ordinal numbers are used when we put things in a numerical order; e.g.
first, second, third, fourth, fifth, etc.
Both cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers can be written with figures
(e.g. 6, 6th) or with words (six, sixth).
number concord n
see CONCORD
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O
object1 n
the noun, noun phrase or clause, or pronoun in sentences with TRANSITIVE
VERBs, which is traditionally described as being affected by the action of
the verb. The object of a verb can be affected by the verb either directly
or indirectly.
If it is affected directly, it may be called the direct object. In English, the
direct object of a verb may be:
a created by the action of the verb, as in:
Terry baked a cake.
b changed in some way by the action of the verb as in:
Terry baked a potato .
c perceived by the SUBJECT of the verb, as in:
Terry saw the cake.
d evaluated by the subject of the verb, as in:
Terry liked the cake.
e obtained or possessed by the subject of the verb, as in:
Terry bought the cake.
If the object of a verb is affected by the verb indirectly, it is usually called
the indirect object. In English, the indirect object may be:
a the receiver of the direct object, as in:
Terry gave me the cake. ( “Terry gave the cake to me”)
b the beneficiary of the action of the verb, as in:
Terry baked me the cake. ( “Terry baked the cake for me”)
In English, direct objects and many indirect objects can become subjects
when sentences in the active voice are changed to the passive voice (see
VOICE1):
The cake was given (to) me.
I was given the cake.
see also GOAL1, OBJECT OF RESULT
object2 (of a preposition) n
another term for PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT
see COMPLEMENT
object case n
another term for OBJECTIVE CASE
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object complement
object complement n
see COMPLEMENT
object of comparative relative clause n
another term for COMPARATIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE
object of preposition relative clause n
also OPREP
see NOUN PHRASE ACCESSIBILITY HIERARCHY
object of result n
also affected object
an object of a verb which refers to something that is produced through
the action indicated by the verb, e.g. a cake in:
Terry baked a cake.
as the cake is the result of the baking. However, in:
Terry baked a potato.
a potato is not an object of result as it is not produced by baking. It is,
however, affected by baking, and so may be called an affected object.
see also FACTITIVE CASE
object relative clause n
also direct object relative clause, DO
see NOUN PHRASE ACCESSIBILITY HIERARCHY
objective n
a goal of a course of instruction. Two different types of objectives may be
distinguished.
General objectives, or aims, are the underlying reasons for or purposes of
a course of instruction. For example, the aims of the teaching of a foreign
language in a particular country might be: to teach students to read and
write a foreign language, to improve students’ knowledge of a foreign cul-
ture, to teach conversation in a foreign language, etc. Aims are long-term
goals, described in very general terms.
Specific objectives (or simply objectives), are descriptions of what is to
be achieved in a course. They are more detailed descriptions of
exactly what a learner is expected to be able to do at the end of a
period of instruction. This might be a single lesson, a chapter of a
book, a term’s work, etc. For instance, specific objectives of a class-
room lesson might be: Use of the linking words and, but, however,
although. These specific objectives contribute to the general objective
of paragraph writing. A description of specific objectives in terms
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observation schedules
which can be observed and measured is known as a BEHAVIOURAL
OBJECTIVE.
objective case n
also object case
the noun or noun PHRASE1 that refers to whoever or whatever has the
most neutral relationship to the action of the verb is in the objective
case.
The noun or noun phrase in the objective case neither performs the
action, nor is the instrument of the action.
For example, in the sentences:
They sliced the sausage with a knife.
The sausage sliced easily.
The sausage was thick.
the sausage is neither agent (like they) nor instrument (like a knife).
It is in the objective case.
The notion of the objective case is related to the traditional notion of
OBJECT1. But not everything in the objective case would be an object, nor
would all objects be considered to be in the objective case.
see also CASE GRAMMAR
objective marking n
see OBJECTIVE SCORING
objective test n
a test that can be scored objectively (i.e. scored without the use of the
examiner’s personal judgement), which may be contrasted with a SUBJEC-
TIVE TEST. Tests that consist of TRUE–FALSE and MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEMs are
examples of objective tests.
objective test item n
a test item that requires the choice of a single correct answer, such as a
MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEM or a TRUE–FALSE ITEM.
observation n
in language classrooms, the purposeful examination of teaching and/or
learning events through systematic processes of data collection and analy-
sis. Observation of teaching is a widely used activity in teacher education
programmes.
observation schedules n
in classroom observation, analytic instruments (documents) used to
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observational methods
record observable behaviours in classrooms, either as events occur (“real-
time coding”) or with electronically recorded data.
observational methods n
(in research) procedures and techniques that are based on systematic
observation of events, e.g. using audio and video recorders, check lists,
etc. Observational methods are often used in studying language use and
classroom events.
see also ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION
observed score n
see CLASSICAL TEST THEORY
observer’s paradox n
an issue that occurs when carrying out observation in order to study
language behaviour, and which refers to the fact that when we observe
people’s behaviour we may alter the very behavioural patterns we wish
to observe. Hence an observer in a teacher’s classroom may affect both
the behaviour of the teacher and the students, making the data that was
collected unrepresentative of real classroom behaviour. The observer’s
paradox is equally relevant in QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH (see HALO EFFECT,
HAWTHORN EFFECT).
obstruent n
a speech sound (CONSONANTs) produced when the passage of the air from
the lungs is obstructed in some way. Obstruents include FRICATIVEs, STOPs,
and AFFRICATEs. NASALs such as /n/ and /m/ are not usually considered
obstruents because, although the air is stopped in the mouth, it is allowed
free passage through the nose.
In GENERATIVE PHONOLOGY, obstruents are often marked [-sonorant] to
distinguish them from sounds such as VOWELs, NASALs, GLIDEs, and LIQ-
UIDs.
see also SONORANT
OCOMP n
an abbreviation for object of comparative relative clause
official language n
see NATIONAL LANGUAGE
off-task behaviour n
see ON-TASK BEHAVIOUR
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ontogeny
one parameter model n
see ITEM RESPONSE THEORY
one-tailed test n
also directional hypothesis
a type of statistical hypothesis test that is appropriately chosen where the
direction of an effect, such as a difference or correlation, is specified in
advance (e.g. the experimental group will score significantly higher than
the control group on a vocabulary recognition test).
onomatopoeia n
also sound symbolism, echoism
refers to words that are considered by convention to be imitative of
nature, acoustically similar to the thing to which it refers (e.g. the bow-
wow of a dog or the tick-tock of a clock) or the sound made by the thing
to which it refers (e.g. a buzz saw). There are other words that are
examples of semi-onomatopoeia, such as the English words splash or
growl. Languages differ in the range, choice, and phonetic realizations of
onomatopoeic words. An English dog goes bow-wow or ruff-ruff; or
woof-woof; a Japanese one goes wan-wan.
see also IDEOPHONE
onset n
see SYLLABLE, TONE UNIT
on-task behaviour n
(in a lesson or learning activity) learner behaviour which is directed towards
the lesson or activity. For example, during a class in which students have
been asked to read a passage and answer questions about it, students may
not give their full attention to the task during the lesson. Behaviour not
related to the task (i.e. off-task behaviour) may include getting up and talk-
ing to a classmate or doodling. The goal of an effective teacher is said to be
to increase the amount of time students are engaged in on-task behaviour
in order to provide them with maximum opportunities for learning.
see also TIME ON TASK, EFFECTIVE TEACHING
ontogeny n ontogenetic adj
also ontogenesis
in studies of child LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, the development of language in
an individual is sometimes referred to as ontogeny, and the historical
development of language in a speech community as phylogeny. Linguists
are interested in whether the ontogeny of language in the child shows
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open class
similar stages to those which a language has gone through in its histori-
cal development. In other words, they are interested in the famous ques-
tion whether ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny.
open class n
also open set
a group of words (a WORD CLASS), which contains an unlimited number of
items.
Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are open-class words. New words
can be added to these classes, e.g. laser, e-commerce, chatroom.
The word classes conjunctions, prepositions, and pronouns consist of
relatively few words, and new words are not usually added to them.
These are called closed classes, or closed sets.
open-ended question n
a TEST ITEM which allows the person taking the test to answer in his or
her own way, in contrast to questions with limited multiple-choice
possibilities.
open-ended response n
see TEST ITEM
open learning n
also open education
a system for educating adults where normal restrictions on entry to adult
education are removed and where learners receive recognition for pre-
vious experience. Courses are organized flexibly according to the students
needs. A number of features distinguish open learning:
a greater accessibility to education than with traditional courses, includ-
ing accessibility in terms of academic background, age, time required,
physical location and time constraints
b flexibility in terms of course structure and delivery with a considerable
degree of learner control over pacing, contents, structure and means of
assessment
c a variety of means of support and of study
In open learning individuals are encouraged to take responsibility for the
direction, content, and process of their own learning.
open set n
another term for OPEN CLASS
open syllable n
see SYLLABLE
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operator
open vowel n
also low vowel
see VOWEL
openings n
see CONVERSATIONAL OPENINGS
operant n
see OPERANT CONDITIONING
operant conditioning n
a learning theory proposed by Skinner within the context of behaviourist
psychology (see BEHAVIOURISM). It is a type of conditioning (see CON-
DITIONED RESPONSE) in which a child learning its first language produces
an action (e.g. an UTTERANCE) that achieves some outcome (e.g. to get
food). This action is called the operant. The outcome is positively rein-
forced (positive reinforcement) if the operant is followed by something
pleasant, and negatively reinforced (negative reinforcement) if it is fol-
lowed by the removal of something unpleasant. This concept was influ-
ential during the heyday of the AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD.
operating principle n
see HEURISTIC
operational definition n operationalize v
a definition of a concept in terms which can be observed and measured.
In language teaching and language testing, many linguistic concepts need
to be operationalized. For example, terms such as “competence” and
“proficiency” need to be operationalized in preparing programme goals,
OBJECTIVEs, and test items.
operator n
(in English) the first AUXILIARY VERB to occur in a verb phrase, so called
because it is the verb which “operates” as the question-forming word, by
moving to the initial position in the sentence in questions. For example:
a He will be coming
aux 1 aux 2
(operator)
b She couldn’t have been there.
aux 1 aux 2 aux 3
(operator)
a becomes Will he be coming?
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OPI
b becomes Couldn’t she have been there?
OPI n
an abbreviation for ORAL PROFICIENCY INTERVIEW
opposition n
the relationship between pairs of elements in a language, such as the dis-
tinctive sounds (PHONEMEs).
For example, the opposition between /k/ and /g/ in English distinguishes
between the MINIMAL PAIR cut /kît/ and gut /gît/.
In general, the term “opposition” is used when two elements differ in only
one feature. So English /k/ and /g/ are said to be in opposition because
they differ only in that /g/ is voiced and /k/ is voiceless (see VOICE2). One
is less likely to speak of the opposition between /k/ and /b/ (as in cut /kît/
and but /bît/), because they differ in several ways involving both PLACE OF
ARTICULATION and VOICING.
see MARKEDNESS
OPREP n
an abbreviation for object of preposition relative clause
optimality theory n
a linguistic theory which considers constraints rather than rules as central
to grammar. An example of a (universal) constraint is that a nasal (opti-
mally) has the same place as a following consonant. According to opti-
mality theory, the surface forms of language reflect the resolution of
conflicts between competing constraints. The theory has been applied pri-
marily to problems in phonology.
optimum age hypothesis n
see CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS
oral1 adj
a term used to stress that a spoken form of language is used as opposed
to a written form, as in an oral test, an oral examination.
oral2 adj, n
(of) a speech sound which is produced while the soft palate (the velum) at
the back of the mouth is raised so that the airstream from the lungs
cannot escape through the nose.
In English, all vowels, and all consonants except /m/, /n/, and /√/ as in /s∂√/
sing, are oral.
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oral reading
In GENERATIVE PHONOLOGY, oral sounds are marked [-nasal] to distinguish
them from NASAL sounds.
see also MANNER OF ARTICULATION, PLACE OF ARTICULATION
oral approach n
another term for SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE TEACHING
oral cavity n
see VOCAL TRACT, PLACE OF ARTICULATION
oral culture n
the culture of a society in which culture and cultural values are com-
municated through spoken language rather than through writing. A
society in which written language plays an important part in culture and
cultural values is said to have a literary culture.
see also NON-LITERATE
oral mimicry ability n
see LANGUAGE APTITUDE
oral language n
see AURAL LANGUAGE
oral method n
a method for teaching the deaf, based on lip-reading and carefully articu-
lated speech. This method is now less commonly used than the AUDI-
TORY/ORAL METHOD.
oral proficiency interview n
also OPI
a type of speaking test that elicits and assesses a ratable sample of a test
taker’s oral language proficiency in a structured interview format where the
tester and test taker are engaged interactively in oral communication tasks.
The test taker’s spoken language production is often tape-recorded and
later rated by one or multiple raters on the basis of a predetermined rating
scale. The most widely known and influential OPI is the ACTFL OPI that is
a criterion-referenced, direct, face-to-face (or telephone), integrative inter-
view where an ACTFL certified tester takes a test taker through the four
phases such as a warm-up, repeated level checks and probes, and a wind-
down until the tester can identify the test taker’s upper limitation or ceiling.
oral reading n
see READING
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oralist
oralist n
see SIGN LANGUAGE
order of acquisition n
also acquisition order
the order in which linguistic forms, rules, and items are acquired in first-
or second-language learning.
see also LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS
ordinal scale n
see SCALE
orientation1 n
see ATTENTION
orientation2 n
see MOTIVATION
orientation3
see LISTENING COMPREHENSION
orthography n orthographic adj
The term “orthography” is used:
1 for spelling in general.
2 for correct or standard spelling
For some languages, the orthography is based on generally accepted
usage and is not prescribed by an official body. For other languages,
e.g. Swedish, it is laid down by official or semi-official organizations.
Like the term “spelling” itself, the term “orthography” is more likely
to be used of alphabetic writing than of syllabic writing, and is
unlikely to be used of character-based writing systems (see WRITING
SYSTEMs).
other repair n
see REPAIR
outcomes-based teaching/education n
also standards-based education
an approach to education and curriculum development which involves
(a) describing the learning outcomes that students should know at the
end of a course of instruction (b) devising a curriculum to help them
achieve the outcomes (c) using the outcomes achieved as a measure of
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overgeneralization
effectiveness. In some parts of the world, particularly in the US, this
approach is thought necessary to ensure that students graduate from high
school with the knowledge and skills they will need in the real world.
see also COMPETENCY-BASED EDUCATION STANDARDS
outcome variable n
another term for DEPENDENT VARIABLE
outlier n
an extreme score. Typically any scores that fall beyond or 3 STAN-
DARD DEVIATIONs from the mean are considered outliers.
outline n outlining v
(in composition) a plan for an essay or piece of writing which presents the
main points the essay will cover and the order in which they will be men-
tioned. In an outline, main points are distinguished from supporting
details, sometimes using systems of numerals and letters.
Several kinds of outlines are often used.
1 Topic Outline: each entry is a word or group of words.
2 Sentence Outline: similar to a topic outline except that, the words are
replaced by sentences.
3 Paragraph Outline: this contains only a list of TOPIC SENTENCES for each
paragraph.
output n
see INPUT
output hypothesis n
also comprehensible output hypothesis
the hypothesis that successful second language acquisition requires not
only COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT, but also comprehensible output, language
produced by the learner that can be understood by other speakers of the
language. It has been argued that when learners have to make efforts to
ensure that their messages are communicated (pushed output) this puts
them in a better position to notice the gap between their productions and
those of proficient speakers, fostering acquisition.
over-extension n
another term for OVERGENERALIZATION
overgeneralization n overgeneralize v
also over-extension, over-regularization, analogy
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overgeneralization
a process common in both first- and second-language learning, in which
a learner extends the use of a grammatical rule of linguistic item beyond
its accepted uses, generally by making words or structures follow a more
regular pattern. For example, a child may use ball to refer to all round
objects, or use mans instead of men for the plural of man.
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P
paced reading n
in developing reading skills, the use of software in which the computer
scrolls text down the screen at a rate predetermined by the reader in order
to encourage faster reading.
pacing n
in teaching, the speed at which material is covered during a lesson includ-
ing the rhythm of a class and the degree to which class time is used well.
Teachers use different strategies to ensure that pacing is appropriate.
Determination of pace for some activities may be determined by learners:
this is known as learner-paced instruction. When teachers make pacing
decisions it is known as teacher-paced instruction. For example teachers
may provide a public summary of progress or announce a time frame for
activities.
paired-associate learning n
a learning task in which pairs of words or other items are presented
and the learner is required to make associations between them. For
example:
horse – brown
bird – blue
table – white
The learner is tested with the first member of the pair to see if the second
item can be remembered.
see also ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING
pair work n
also pair practice
(in language teaching) a learning activity which involves learners working
together in pairs. see also GROUP WORK
palatal n
an articulation involving the front of the tongue and the hard palate, for
example the initial sound in English you.
see PLACE OF ARTICULATION
palatalization n
see ASSIMILATION
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palate
palate n
see PLACE OF ARTICULATION
paradigm1 n paradigmatic adj
a list or pattern showing the forms which a word can have in a gram-
matical system. For example, in English:
singular plural
boy boys
boy’s boys’
(of the boy) (of the boys)
Paradigms may be used to show the different forms of a verb. For
example, in French:
singular plural
je parle “I speak” nous parlons “we speak”
tu parles “you speak” vous parlez “you speak”
il parle “he speaks” ils parlent “they speak”
elle parle “she speaks” elles parlent “they speak”
Paradigms typically show a word’s INFLECTIONs rather than its derivatives
(see DERIVATION).
paradigm2
a term used very widely and loosely to refer to a conceptual framework of
beliefs, theoretical assumptions, accepted research methods, and standards
that define legitimate work in a particular science or discipline. The scientist
Kuhn described the process of change in the sciences as a paradigm shift. He
argued that change in a scientific field does not occur as a step-by-step cumu-
lative process. Instead, new paradigms emerge as the result of revolutions in
the thinking of a particular professional community. These shifts involve the
adoption of a new outlook or paradigm on the part of members of that com-
munity. A paradigm shift in the physical sciences was the shift from
Newtonian to quantum physics. Paradigm shifts also occur in the social sci-
ences such as the shift from grammar-based to communicative approaches
in language teaching. THEORIES are representative of particular paradigms.
paradigmatic relations n
also paradigmatic relationships
see SYNTAGMATIC RELATIONS
paragraph n
a unit of organization of written language in many languages, which
serves to indicate how the main ideas in a written text are grouped.
In TEXT LINGUISTICS, paragraphs are treated as indicators of the
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parallel processing
macro-structure of a text (see SCHEME). They group sentences which
belong together, generally those which deal with the same topic. A
new paragraph thus indicates a change in topic or sub-topic.
see also DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
paragraph outline n
see OUTLINE
paralinguistic features n
see PARALINGUISTICS
paralinguistics n paralinguistic adj
the study or use of non-vocal phenomena such as facial expressions, head
or eye movements, and gestures, which may add support, emphasis, or
particular shades of meaning to what people are saying. These phenom-
ena are known as paralinguistic features.
For example, in English turning the head from side to side can be used to
show disagreement (equivalent to “no”), whereas in Lebanese Arabic the
same meaning can be signalled by raising the chin and producing an
ingressive dental affricate. The use of paralinguistic features in this sense
is also called kinesics.
For some linguists, paralinguistic features would also include those vocal
characteristics such as TONE OF VOICE which may express the speaker’s
attitude to what he or she is saying.
see also PROXEMICS
parallel construction n
a sentence containing words, phrases, clauses or structures which are
repeated.
For example:
Michael smiled at the baby, touched her arm, then winked at her.
parallel-form reliability n
see ALTERNATE FORM RELIABILITY
parallel forms n
see ALTERNATE FORMS
parallel distributed processing (PDP) n
see CONNECTIONISM
parallel processing n
information processing in which two or more processing operations are
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parameter
carried out at the same time or in parallel, such as when people try to
remember a word and search for its meaning, spelling and pronuncia-
tion at the same time. This may be compared with sequential process-
ing, where the two pieces of information are processed in sequence, such
as when one tries to listen to two simultaneous conversations by attend-
ing to both but going back and forth rapidly from one to the other.
parameter1
(in GENERATIVE THEORY) an abstract grammatical category that controls
several superficially unrelated surface syntactic properties. for example,
the head parameter determines whether a language positions the HEAD of
a phrase before or after its COMPLEMENT2. A head-first language (English
is one) is one in which heads normally precede their complements. A
head-last language (Japanese is one) is one in which heads normally
follow their complements.
see also PRO-DROP PARAMETER
parameter2 n
a numerical value that summarizes a POPULATION, such as population
mean (), population variance () and population standard devia-
tion (2). The Greek alphabet letters are used to denote parameters.
see also STATISTIC
parameter-resetting n
see PARAMETER-SETTING
parameter-setting n
the process by which children determine what setting of a PARAMETER is
appropriate for the one they are learning. In SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISI-
TION, parameter-setting is more appropriately considered to be
parameter-resetting (since learners already have parameter-settings
initially established for their first language).
parametric tests n
a group of statistical procedures based on the assumptions that the data
are normally distributed and are measured on an INTERVAL or RATIO SCALE.
Examples of parametric tests include T-TEST, ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE, and
PEARSON PRODUCT-MOMENT CORRELATION.
paraphrase n, v
an expression of the meaning of a word or phrase using other words or
phrases, often in an attempt to make the meaning easier to understand.
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participant observation
For example, to make (someone or something) appear or feel younger is
a paraphrase of the English verb rejuvenate. Dictionary definitions often
take the form of paraphrases of the words they are trying to define.
paraprofessional n
also teacher’s aid
a non-certified adult who helps teachers in the classroom. In some ESL
classrooms such persons may be adults from the students’ home language
community.
parser n
any apparatus that parses. For example, in CORPUS LINGUISTICS, a parser is
a computer program that adds syntactic analysis to a CORPUS, identifying
subjects, verbs, objects, etc., as well as more complex syntactic infor-
mation. In PSYCHOLINGUISTICS, the parser is viewed as a psychological
process that operates on input and produces a structural description as
part of the process of comprehension.
parsing n
the operation of assigning linguistic structure to a sentence or phrase.
Parsing is a well-established technique of TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR. For
example, the sentence The noisy frogs disturbed us can be parsed as fol-
lows:
subject verb object
The noisy frogs disrurbed us
definite adjective noun verb ((past pronoun
article (plural) tense) (1st-person
plural)
participant n
a person who is present in a SPEECH EVENT and whose presence may have
an influence on what is said and how it is said. He or she may actually
take part in the exchange of speech or be merely a silent participant; for
example, as part of an audience to whom a political speech is made.
see also INTERLOCUTORS
participant observation n
(in QUALITATIVE RESEARCH) a procedure in which the researcher or
observer takes part in the situation he or she is studying (hence the term
participant observer) as a way of collecting data. It is claimed that an
observer who is also a participant can understand a situation more fully
than someone who is totally disengaged from it and may not actually
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participant observer
have first-hand knowledge of it, but participant observation also raises
ethical issues concerning overt and covert observation and INFORMED
CONSENT on the part of those observed.
participant observer n
see PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
participation structure n
in using language for communicative purposes, the rights and obligations
of participants with respect to who can say what, when, and to whom and
an important focus of research on classroom communication and class-
room discourse.
participle n participial adj
a non-finite verb form (see FINITE VERB) which functions as an adjective,
and is used in passive sentences (see VOICE) and to form PERFECT and PRO-
GRESSIVE ASPECT. There are two participles in English, the present partici-
ple and the past participle.
The present participle is formed by adding -ing to a verb base. It functions
as an adjective (e.g. a smiling girl, a self-winding watch); it is used with
BE to form the PROGRESSIVE (e.g. It is raining); it occurs in constructions
such as Let’s go shopping.
The past participle is usually formed by adding -ed to a verb base;
exceptions are the -en-suffix (break – broken; fall – fallen) and some
irregular verbs (e.g. build – built). It is used as an adjective (e.g. a
broken window); it is used with BE to form the passive (e.g. I was
amused by her); it is used to form the PERFECT ASPECT (e.g. She has
finished).
particle n
a term sometimes used for a word which cannot readily be identified with
any of the main PARTS OF SPEECH (i.e. as a noun, verb, adverb, etc.). The
word not and the to used with INFINITIVEs are sometimes called particles
for this reason, as well as up, down and similar adverbs when they func-
tion as ADVERB PARTICLEs.
partitive n
also partitive construction
a phrase used to express quantity and used with an uncountable noun (see
COUNTABLE NOUN). There are three types of partitive in English:
a measure partitives, e.g. a yard of cloth, an acre of land, two pints of
milk
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past continuous
b typical partitives (i.e. where a particular partitive collocates with a
particular noun), e.g. a slice of cake, a stick of chalk, a lump of
coal
c general partitives (i.e. those which are not restricted to specific nouns),
e.g. a piece of paper/cake, a bit of cheese/cloth.
see also COLLOCATION
part learning n
see GLOBAL LEARNING
part skills n
another term for MICRO-SKILLS
parts of speech n
a traditional term to describe the different types of word which are used
to form sentences, such as noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, prep-
osition, conjunction, interjection. From time to time other parts of speech
have been proposed, such as DETERMINER.
Parts of speech may be identified by:
a their meaning (e.g. a verb is the name of a state or event: go)
b their form (e.g. a verb has an -ing-form, a past tense, and a past par-
ticiple: going, went, gone)
c their function (e.g. a verb may form or be part of the PREDICATE of a
sentence: They went away).
These criteria will identify the most typical representatives of each part of
speech. However, many problems still remain. For example, in the sen-
tence:
Their going away surprised me.
is going a verb or a noun?
see also GERUND, PARTICIPLE, PARTICLE
passive language knowledge n
see ACTIVE/PASSIVE LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE
passive vocabulary n
see ACTIVE/PASSIVE LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE
passive voice n
see VOICE1
past continuous n
see PROGRESSIVE
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past participle
past participle n
see PARTICIPLE
past perfect n
see PERFECT
past tense n
the form of a verb which is usually used to show that the act or state
described by the verb occurred at a time before the present. For example,
in English:
present tense past tense
is was
walk walked
try tried
The form of the past which is used without an AUXILIARY VERB (e.g. I
left, he wept) is sometimes known as the simple past or preterite.
path analysis n
a statistical procedure to test a researcher’s theory of the causal relation-
ships among a set of observed (or manifest) variables by analyzing
hypothesized causal effects among variables.
patient -role n
see -THEORY/THETA THEORY
pattern practice n
see DRILL
pausing n
also hesitation phenomena
a commonly occurring feature of natural speech in which gaps or hesita-
tions appear during the production of utterances. The commonest types
of pauses are:
a silent pauses: silent breaks between words
b filled pauses: gaps which are filled by such expressions as um, er, mm
People who speak slowly often use more pauses than people who speak
quickly. When people speak, up to 50% of their speaking time may be
made up of pauses.
see also FLUENCY
PDP n
an abbreviation for PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING
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peer feedback
peak (of a syllable) n
see SYLLABLE
Pearson product-moment correlation (r)
see CORRELATION
pedagogic grammar n
also pedagogical grammar
a grammatical description of a language which is intended for pedagogi-
cal purposes, such as language teaching, syllabus design, or the prep-
aration of teaching materials. A pedagogic grammar may be based on:
a grammatical analysis and description of a language
b a particular grammatical theory, such as GENERATIVE GRAMMAR
c the study of the grammatical problems of learners (see ERROR ANALYSIS)
or on a combination of approaches.
pedagogical content knowledge n
in teaching, a teacher’s knowledge of subject matter and the ability to rep-
resent it in a way that will facilitate teaching and learning. Whereas con-
tent knowledge refers to knowledge of subject matter, pedagogical
content knowledge refers to knowing how to turn that subject matter into
plans for teaching and learning. It is a key component of teaching skill.
pedagogy n
in general terms, pedagogy refers to theories of teaching, curriculum and
instruction as well as the ways in which formal teaching and learning in
institutional settings such as schools is planned and delivered. In edu-
cational theory, pedagogy is usually divided into curriculum, instruction,
and evaluation. Since language is the essential medium of pedagogy, the
role of language in pedagogy is a focus of theorizing and research by lin-
guists, applied linguists, educators, and critical pedagogues. Critical
pedagogy seeks to address issues related to the distribution and exercises
of power and knowledge in educational settings.
peer assessment n
activities in which learners assess each other’s performance
peer editing n
another term for PEER REVIEW
peer feedback n
another term for PEER REVIEW
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peer group
peer group n
a group of people with whom a person associates or identifies, e.g. neigh-
bourhood children of the same age, or members of the same class at
school or of the same sports team.
see also NETWORK
peer monitoring n
in teaching, the use of observation and assessment of what is happening
in the classroom during learning activities that is carried out for students
by other students in the class.
peer review n
also peer feedback, peer editing
(in the teaching of composition, particularly according to the PROCESS
APPROACH) an activity in the revising stage of writing (see COMPOSING
PROCESSES) in which students receive FEEDBACK about their writing from
other students – their peers. Typically students work in pairs or small
groups, read each other’s compositions and ask questions or give com-
ments or suggestions.
peer teaching n
also peer mediated instruction
classroom teaching in which one student teaches another, particularly
within a learner-centred approach to teaching. For example, when stu-
dents have learnt something, they may teach it to other students, or test
other students on it.
peer tutoring n
see CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING
percentile n
a term describing the position of a test taker within a distribution div-
ided equally into 100 ranks. A test taker’s percentile has a correspon-
ding RAW SCORE below which a particular percentage of scores fall (see
PERCENTILE SCORE for this interpretation). For example, the 95th per-
centile of a test taker on a test has a certain raw score, which varies
depending on which NORM GROUP this test taker’s raw score is compared
to.
see also DISTRIBUTION, PERCENTILE SCORE
percentile rank n
another term for PERCENTILE SCORE
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perfect
percentile score n
also percentile rank
a term indicating the percentage of all the test takers in the NORM GROUP
who scored below the RAW SCORE one test taker has received. It is used to
describe a test taker’s relative position with respect to all other test takers
in a distribution. For example, if a test taker is said to have an 95th-
percentile score on a test (or to be at the 95th percentile), it means that
this person scored higher than 95% of the test takers in the norm group
or is among the top 5% of all test takers. On most tests, the higher one’s
percentile score, the better. Percentile scores are used in the NORM-
REFERENCED TESTING context, whereas percentage scores (i.e. the percent-
age of items answered correctly) are used in the CRITERION-REFERENCED
TESTING context.
see also PERCENTILE
perception n
the recognition and understanding of events, objects, and stimuli through
the use of senses (sight, hearing, touch, etc.). Several different types of
perception are distinguished:
a Visual perception: the perception of visual information and stimuli
b Auditory perception: the perception of information and stimuli
received through the ears. Auditory perception requires a listener to
detect different kinds of acoustic signals, and to judge differences
between them according to differences in such acoustic characteristics
as their frequency, amplitude, duration, order of occurrence, and rate
of presentation
c Speech perception: the understanding or comprehension of speech
(see CHUNKING, HEURISTIC (2)).
perceptual salience n
another term for SALIENCE
perfect n
also perfective
(in grammar) an ASPECT which shows a relationship between one state or
event and a later state, event, or time. In English the perfect is formed
from the AUXILIARY VERB have and the past PARTICIPLE. For example:
I have finished. She has always loved animals.
If the auxiliary is in the present tense, the verb group is described as the
present perfect (e.g. They have eaten) and if the auxiliary is in the past
tense, the verb group is described as the past perfect (e.g. They had
finished).
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performance
English also has a fairly rare future perfect (They will have finished before
noon tomorrow).
In English the perfect generally refers
a to a state or event that extends up to a point in time (e.g. I have lived
here for six years – up to now)
b to an event that occurred within a time period (e.g. Have you ever been
to Paris – in your life up to now)
c to an event that has results which continue up to a point in time (e.g. I
have broken my watch – and it’s still broken now).
performance n
(in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR) a person’s actual use of language. A differ-
ence is made between a person’s knowledge of a language (COMPE-
TENCE) and how a person uses this knowledge in producing and
understanding sentences (performance). For example, people may have
the competence to produce an infinitely long sentence but when they
actually attempt to use this knowledge (to “perform”) there are many
reasons why they restrict the number of adjectives, adverbs, and clauses
in any one sentence. They may run out of breath, or their listeners may
get bored or forget what has been said if the sentence is too long. In
second and foreign language learning, a learner’s performance in a lan-
guage is often taken as an indirect indication of his or her competence
(see PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS), although other indexes such as GRAMMAT-
ICALITY JUDGEMENTs are sometimes considered a more direct measure of
competence.
There is also a somewhat different way of using the term “performance”.
In using language, people often make errors (see SPEECH ERRORS). These
may be due to performance factors such as fatigue, lack of attention,
excitement, nervousness. Their actual use of language on a particular
occasion may not reflect their competence. The errors they make are
described as examples of performance.
see also USAGE1
performance-based assessment n
an approach to assessment that seeks to measure student learning based
on how well the learner can perform on a practical real-world task such
as the ability to write an essay or carry out a short conversation. This
approach is thought to be a better measure of learning than performance
on traditional tests such as multiple-choice tests.
performance factors n
see PERFORMANCE
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performative
performance grammar n
a description of the rules or strategies which people use when they pro-
duce and understand sentences. A performance grammar may be con-
trasted with a competence grammar (see COMPETENCE), which is a
description of the linguistic knowledge of speakers and hearers, but not
an explanation of how they use that knowledge in speaking and listening.
performance objective n
another term for BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVE
performance standard n
the level which is set for the attainment of an OBJECTIVE, i.e. the CRITE-
RION.
see BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVE
performance standards n
in testing and programme development, statements that specify how stu-
dents will demonstrate their knowledge and skills in language as well as
the level at which they must perform in order to be considered to have
met the standard.
performance test n
a test that is based on a sample or the actual skill, behaviour or activity
being measured such as testing students’ composition skills by requiring
them to write a composition.
see PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT
performative n
(in SPEECH ACT theory) an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch
out ( a warning), I promise not to be late ( a promise). The philos-
opher Austin distinguished between performatives and constatives. A
constative is an utterance which asserts something that is either true or
false; for example, Chicago is in the United States. Austin further distin-
guished between explicit performatives (those containing a “performative
verb”, such as promise, warn, deny, which names the speech act or illo-
cutionary force of the sentence) and implicit performatives, which do not
contain a performative verb, e.g. There is a vicious dog behind you ( an
implied warning).
It has even been suggested that there is no real difference between con-
statives and implicit performatives, because the sentence Chicago is in the
United States can be understood to mean (I state that) Chicago is in the
United States, with the implicit performative verb state.
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performative hypothesis
performative hypothesis n
the hypothesis that every sentence can theoretically be derived from a
deep structure containing an EXPLICIT PERFORMATIVE associated with a
particular SPEECH ACT. For example, under this proposal, a sentence like
I’ll be there early would be derived from a deep structure something like
I promise to you that I will be there early, or (under a different reading)
I predict that I will be there early.
periphery n
also peripheral grammar
see CORE GRAMMAR
perlocutionary act n
see LOCUTIONARY ACT
perseveration error n
see SPEECH ERRORS
perseverative assimilation n
see ASSIMILATION
person n
a grammatical category which determines the choice of pronouns in a sen-
tence according to such principles as:
a whether the pronoun represents or includes the person or persons actu-
ally speaking or writing (“first person”, e.g. I, we)
b whether the pronoun represents the person or persons being addressed
(“second person”, e.g. you)
c whether the pronoun represents someone or something other than the
speaker/writer or the listener/reader (“third person”, e.g. he, she, it,
they).
personal function n
see DEVELOPMENTAL FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
personal pronouns n
the set of pronouns which represent the grammatical category of PERSON,
and which in English is made up of I, you, he, she, it, we, they, and their
derived forms (e.g. me, mine, yours, him, his, hers, etc.).
personality n
those aspects of an individual’s behaviour, attitudes, beliefs, thought,
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phi correlation ()
actions and feelings which are seen as typical and distinctive of that
person and recognized as such by that person and others. Personality fac-
tors such as self-esteem, inhibition, anxiety, RISK-TAKING and extroversion
(see EXTROVERT), are thought to influence second language learning
because they can contribute to MOTIVATION and the choice of learner strat-
egies.
PF component n
also phonetic component
see D-STRUCTURE
pharyngeal n
a speech sound (a CONSONANT) involving the root of the tongue and the
back of the throat (the PHARYNX). Several such speech sounds occur in
Arabic.
pharyngealization n
a secondary articulation in which the root of the tongue is drawn back so
that the pharynx is narrowed, as in some so-called “emphatic” conso-
nants in Arabic.
pharynx n
that part of the throat which extends from above the VOCAL CORDS up to
the soft palate (velum) at the back of the mouth. The pharynx is like a
large chamber and in the production of speech sounds its shape and
volume can be changed in various ways:
a by tightening the muscles which enclose it
b by movement of the back of the tongue
c by either raising or lowering the soft palate.
Changes in the shape of the pharynx affect the quality of the sounds pro-
duced.
see also PLACE OF ARTICULATION
phatic communion n
a term used by the British-Polish anthropologist Malinowski to refer to
communication between people which is not intended to seek or convey
information but has the social function of establishing or maintaining
social contact. Examples of phatic communion in English include such
expressions as How are you? and Nice day, isn’t it?
phi correlation ()
see CORRELATION
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philology
philology n philological adj
another term for COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS
phone n phonic adj
individual sounds as they occur in speech. Phones are grouped by PHONE-
MIC ANALYSIS into the distinctive sound units (PHONEMEs) of a language.
For example, in English, the different ways of pronouncing the vowel in
the word can, e.g. long [ìN], shorter [ì], with nasalization [ìÜ], are all
phones of the phoneme /ì/.
see also ALLOPHONE, PHONEMICS, PHONOLOGY
phoneme n phonemic adj
the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.
For example:
a in English, the words pan and ban differ only in their initial sound:
pan begins with /p/ and ban with /b/
b ban and bin differ only in their vowels: /ì/ and /∂/.
Therefore, /p/, /b/, /ì/, and /∂/ are phonemes of English. The number of
phonemes varies from one language to another. English is often con-
sidered to have 44 phonemes: 24 CONSONANTs and 20 VOWELs.
see also ALLOPHONE, MINIMAL PAIR, PHONEMICS, PHONOLOGY
phoneme synthesis n
the conversion of a digital representation of phonemes into sounds by a
speech synthesizer (see SPEECH SYNTHESIS)
phonemic analysis n
the grouping of words and sounds (PHONEs) in a particular language in
order to decide which are the distinctive sound units (PHONEMEs) of that
language and which are only variants of these.
For example, the two English words nip and nib differ only because nip
ends with /p/ and nib with /b/. So /p/ and /b/ are two separate English
phonemes.
On the other hand, pronouncing nip with an aspirated /p/, [ph], does not
make it into another word. So [ph] is a variant (an ALLOPHONE) of /p/ and
not a separate phoneme.
There are different approaches to phonemic analysis (see DISTINCTIVE
FEATUREs, MINIMAL PAIRs).
see also ALLOPHONE, ASPIRATION, PHONEMICS, PHONOLOGY
phonemic coding ability n
see LANGUAGE APTITUDE
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phonetics
phonemic notation n
see NOTATION
phonemics n phonemic adj
1 the study or description of the distinctive sound units (PHONEMEs) of a
language and their relationship to one another.
2 procedures for finding the phonemes of a language (see PHONEMIC
ANALYSIS).
The term “phonemics” has been used by American linguists, particu-
larly in STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS. Lately, the term PHONOLOGY has been
preferred.
3 the phonemic system of a language, as in a phrase like “the phonemics
of English”.
see also MORPHOPHONEMICS
phonetic component n
another term for PF COMPONENT
see D-STRUCTURE
phonetic method n
another term for PHONICS
phonetic notation n
also phonetic script
see NOTATION, PHONETIC SYMBOLS
phonetic script n
another term for PHONETIC NOTATION
see NOTATION, PHONETIC SYMBOLS
phonetic symbols n
special alphabetic or other typographical characters which express the
sounds of an actual spoken utterance in writing. A transcription of such an
utterance in phonetic symbols is said to be in phonetic notation or script.
For example, the sound which is written sh in English, sch in German and
ch in French can be expressed by symbols [‹]or [š], e.g. English [‹ ∂p] ship,
German [‹∂f] Schiff “ship”, French [‹ik] chic “smart, stylish”.
see also INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET, NOTATION, PHONETICS
phonetics n phonetic adj
the study of speech sounds. There are three main areas of phonetics:
1 Articulatory phonetics deals with the way in which speech sounds are
produced. Sounds are usually classified according to the position of the
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phonics
lips and the tongue, how far open the mouth is, whether or not the
VOCAL CORDs are vibrating, etc.
2 Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds
through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air
disturbances (SOUND WAVEs). Various instruments are used to measure
the characteristics of these sound waves.
3 Auditory phonetics deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the
listener.
For example, a listener may perceive:
a differences ASPIRATION e.g. between the aspirated /p/ of [p≠∂t] pit and the
unaspirated /p/ of [t∂p] tip.
b other differences in sound quality, e.g. between the “clear” /I/ of [la∂t]
light and the “dark” /I/ of [h∂ł] hill.
see also PHONEMICS, PHONOLOGY
phonics n
also phonetic method
a method of teaching children to read. It is commonly used in teaching
reading in the mother tongue.
Children are taught to recognize the relationship between letters and
sounds. They are taught the sounds which the letters of the alphabet rep-
resent, and then try to build up the sound of a new or unfamiliar word by
saying it one sound at a time.
see also ALPHABETIC METHOD
phonological component n
see GENERATIVE THEORY
phonological rule n
see GENERATIVE PHONOLOGY
phonology n phonological adj
1 another term for PHONEMICS.
2 (for some linguists) a cover term for both PHONETICS and PHONEMICS.
3 the establishment and description of the distinctive sound units of a
language (PHONEMEs) by means of DISTINCTIVE FEATUREs.
Each phoneme is considered as consisting of a group of these features and
differing in at least one feature from the other phonemes, e.g.
/iN/ /uN/
high high
low low
back back
round round
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phrasal verb
where the features or high, or low, or back refer to the
position of the tongue in the mouth and or round to whether the lips
are rounded or not.
Phonology is also concerned with:
a the study of word-to-word relations in sentences; that is, how sound
patterns are affected by the combination of words. For example, /g∂v/
give and /h∂m/ him may combine to /g∂v∂m/ give him.
b the investigation of INTONATION PATTERNS.
see also BOUNDARIES, GENERATIVE PHONOLOGY, SUPRASEGMENTAL
phonotacties n phonotactic adj
(in PHONOLOGY) the arrangements of the distinctive sound units
(PHONEMEs) in a language.
For example, in English, the consonant groups (CONSONANT CLUSTERs)
/spr/ and /str/ can occur at the beginning of a word, as in sprout, strain,
but they cannot occur at the end of a word. A description of the phono-
tactics of English consonant clusters would include this information.
phrasal-prepositional verb n
see PHRASAL VERB
phrasal verb n
a verbal construction consisting of a verb plus an ADVERB PARTICLE. A dis-
tinction may be made between phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs, and
phrasal-prepositional verbs, according to the different grammatical
patterns in which they occur. For example:
phrasal verb prepositional verb
Particle Turn OFF the Verb may I’ll APPLY for the
may be light. be stressed job.
stressed
Particle can Turn the light off. Particle *I’ll apply the job
occur after cannot for)
the object occur after
the object
short Turn it off Pronouns I’ll apply for it.
pronouns (*Turn off it) occur after (*I’ll apply it for)
occur the verb+
between particle
the verb
and the
particle
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phrase
A phrasal-prepositional verb consists of a verb, an adverb particle, and
a PREPOSITION:
We must cut down on expenses.
They put their failure down to bad advice.
The meaning of some of these verbal constructions can be guessed from
the meanings of their parts (e.g. cut down on). But the meaning of others
is idiomatic (e.g. put down to).
Nowadays the term “phrasal verb” is often used to include phrasal verbs,
prepositional verbs, and phrasal-prepositional verbs.
see also IDIOM
phrase n
see CLAUSE
phrase-marker n
also P-marker
a representation of the structure of a phrase or sentence.
see also TREE DIAGRAM
phrase structure n
also constituent structure, syntactic structure
a representation of the set of constituents that an expression contains. For
example, the constituents of the English noun phrase this big house are the
demonstrative this the adjective big the noun house. Phrase structure
is usually represented in terms of a labelled bracketing or a tree diagram.
phrase-structure grammar n
a grammar which analyzes the structure of different sentence types in a
language. It consists of phrase-structure rules which specify the con-
stituency of syntactic categories. For example, one phrase-structure rule
specifies that a noun phrase (NP) can be expanded or “rewritten as” (Art)
(Adj) N (PP), that is, an optional article plus an optional adjective plus a
noun plus an optional prepositional phrase. The structure of sentences
generated by such rules is often illustrated by a TREE DIAGRAM.
S
(Sentence)
NP VP
(noun phrase) (verb phrase)
DET N V ADV
(determiner) (noun) (verb) (adverb)
the parrot shriked noisily
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pidginization hypothesis
phrase-structure rule n
see PHRASE-STRUCTURE GRAMMAR
phylogeny n
also phylogenesis
see ONTOGENY
pidgin n
a language which develops as a contact language when groups of people
who speak different languages try to communicate with one another on a
regular basis. For example, this has occurred many times in the past when
foreign traders had to communicate with the local population or groups
of workers from different language backgrounds on plantations or in fac-
tories. A pidgin usually has a limited vocabulary and a reduced grammat-
ical structure which may expand when a pidgin is used over a long period
and for many purposes. For example, Tok Pisin (New Guinea Pidgin):
yu ken kisim long olgeta bik pela stua
you can get(it) at all big (noun marker) stores
Usually pidgins have no native speakers but there are expanded pidgins,
e.g. Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea and Nigerian Pidgin English in West
Africa, which are spoken by some people in their community as first or
PRIMARY LANGUAGE. Often expanded pidgins will develop into CREOLE
languages.
Research has shown that there are some similarities between the struc-
tures of pidgin and creole languages and the INTERLANGUAGEs of second
language learners (see PIDGINIZATION2)
see also PIDGINIZATION1, SUBSTRATUM INTERFERENCE/INFLUENCE, SUPERSTRA-
TUM/SUBSTRATE LANGUAGE
pidginization1 n
the process by which a PIDGIN develops.
pidginization2 n
(in second and foreign language learning) the development of a gram-
matically reduced form of a TARGET LANGUAGE1. This is usually a tempor-
ary stage in language learning. The learner’s INTERLANGUAGE may have a
limited system of auxiliary verbs, simplified question and negative forms,
and reduced rules for TENSE1, NUMBER1, and other grammatical categories.
If learners do not advance beyond this stage, the result may be a
PIDGINIZED FORM of the target language.
see also PIDGINIZATION HYPOTHESIS
pidginization hypothesis n
(in SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION theory) the hypothesis that a
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pidginized form (of a language)
PIDGINIZED FORM of a language may develop (a) when learners regard
themselves as socially separate from speakers of the TARGET LANGUAGE1
(b) when a language is used for a very limited range of functions.
see also PIDGINIZATION2
pidginized form (of a language) n
a variety of a language in which the sentence structure and the vocabu-
lary of the original language have been greatly reduced.
Generally, elements from another language have been absorbed, either in
the form of vocabulary items or in the way sentences are structured (see
PIDGIN).
An example is Bahasa Pasar (Bazaar Malay), a pidginized form of Malay,
which was spoken extensively by Chinese and other non Malays in
Malaysia and Singapore and used as a lingua franca.
pied piping n
see PREPOSITION STRANDING
pilot testing n
see PRETESTING
pitch n
when we listen to people speaking, we can hear some sounds or groups of
sounds in their speech to be relatively higher or lower than others. This
relative height of speech sounds as perceived by a listener is called “pitch’’.
For example, in the Spanish question listo? (“ready”) meaning “Are you
ready?” the second syllable -to will be heard as having a higher pitch than
the first syllable. What we can hear as pitch is produced by the VOCAL
CORDS vibrating. The faster the vocal cords vibrate, the higher the pitch.
see also SOUND WAVEs, FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY
pitch contour n
another term for INTONATION CONTOUR
pitch level n
the relative height of the PITCH of a speaker’s voice, as this is perceived by
the listener.
For English, three pitch levels have often been recognized: normal pitch
level, higher than normal level, lower than normal level.
These three levels cannot be identified in absolute terms. One person’s
high pitch will not be the same as another person’s high pitch. Differences
in pitch level are therefore relative (see KEY2).
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place of articulation
see also TONE UNIT
pitch movement n
another term for TONE2
pitch pattern n
another term for INTONATION CONTOUR
pitch range1 n
variations in PITCH height that an individual speaker is able to produce.
Differences in the pitch of individual speakers are related to differences in
the size of their VOCAL CORDS and the structure of their VOCAL TRACT.
pitch range2 n
variations in height which are used by a speaker or group of speakers in
communication. Whether the pitch range used by individuals in a speech
community is wide or narrow often depends on social or cultural con-
ventions and may be a convention of a whole speech community.
For example, the pitch range of the average Australian when speaking
English is narrower than that of many British English speakers. When
speakers are in certain emotional states, they may either extend their
normal pitch range, e.g. to express anger or excitement, or narrow it, e.g.
to express boredom or misery.
pivot grammar n
a term for a now-discarded theory of grammatical development in first-
language learning. Children were said to develop two major grammatical
classes of words: a pivot class (a small group of words which were
attached to other words, e.g. on, allgone, more) and an “open class” (e.g.
shoe, milk) to which pivot words were attached. The child’s early gram-
mar was thought to be a set of rules which determined how the two
classes of words could be combined to produce utterances such as allgone
milk, shoe on.
PLAB n
an abbreviation for the Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery, a test of
LANGUAGE APTITUDE.
place of articulation n
there are many parts of the mouth and throat (the oral cavity) that are
used in the production of speech sounds. The main ones for the articula-
tion of English CONSONANTs are:
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placement test
a the two lips (BILABIAL), e.g. /p/
b the lower lip touching the upper teeth (LABIODENTAL), e.g. /f/
c the tongue touching the upper teeth (INTERDENTAL), e.g. / / th in thick
d the tongue touching the alveolar ridge (alveolum) (ALVEOLAR), e.g. /t/
e the back of the tongue touching the soft palate (velum) (VELAR), e.g.
/k/
The production of VOWELs is conditioned by the position of the tongue
in the mouth, e.g. front vowels, back vowels, high vowels, low vowels (see
VOWEL).
see also CARDINAL VOWELS, MANNER OF ARTICULATION
nasal cavity
hard palate
alveolar ridge
lips oral cavity
velum or
teeth soft palate
uvula
apex or tip pharynx
blade or lamina
front
dorsum or
back]
larynx
vocal cords
placement test n
a test that is designed to place test takers at an appropriate level in a pro-
gramme or course. The term “placement test” does not refer to what a
test contains or how it is constructed, but to the purpose for which it is
used. Various types of test or testing procedure (e.g. dictation, an inter-
view, a grammar test) can be used for placement purposes.
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politeness
planning n
see COMPOSING PROCESSES
platykurtic distribution n
see KURTOSIS
plosive n
another term for STOP
plural n
(with English COUNTABLE NOUNs, and PRONOUNs,) the form referring to
more than one. For example, books, geese, they are the plurals of book,
goose, and he/she/it.
P-marker n
an abbreviation for PHRASE MARKER
point-biserial correlation (rpbi)
see CORRELATION
point of view n
(in composition) the position from which the writer presents an idea or
topic. In English composition, good writing is said to be written from a
consistent point of view, that is, without any unnecessary shifts of point
of view. In the following example, an inconsistent point of view is used
because the writer shifts from referring to teachers impersonally (using
“teachers” and “they”) to referring to them personally (using “you”).
Teachers should always prepare carefully for lessons. They should
never walk into class without knowing what they are going to teach,
and you should never arrive late for class.
politeness n
(in language study) (a) how languages express the SOCIAL DISTANCE
between speakers and their different ROLE RELATIONSHIPs; (b) how face-
work (see FACE), that is, the attempt to establish, maintain, and save face
during conversation, is carried out in a speech community. Languages
differ in how they express politeness. In English, phrases like I wonder if
I could ... can be used to make a request more polite. Many other lan-
guages (Japanese and Javanese are examples) devote far more linguistic
resources and require more complex work on the part of a speaker to
encode levels of politeness. Politeness markers include differences
between FORMAL SPEECH and COLLOQUIAL SPEECH, and the use of ADDRESS
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politeness formula
FORMs. In expressing politeness, the anthropologists Brown and Levinson
distinguished between positive politeness strategies (those which signal
the closeness, intimacy, and rapport between speaker and hearer) and
negative politeness strategies (those which address the social distance
between speaker and hearer and minimize the imposition that a face-
threatening action unavoidably effects).
politeness formula n
see ROUTINE
polysemy n polysemous adj
(of a word) having two or more closely related meanings, e.g. foot in:
He hurt his foot.
She stood at the foot of the stairs.
The foot is the lowest part of the stairs just as the foot is the lowest part
of the human body.
A well known problem in SEMANTICs is how to decide whether we are
dealing with a single polysemous word (like foot) or with two or more
HOMONYMs3.
polysyllabic adj
(of a word) consisting of more than one SYLLABLE. For example, in
English:
telephone
and in Hawaiian:
humuhumunukunukuapua’a (the name of the Hawaii state fish) are poly-
syllabic words.
population n
(in statistics) any set of items, individuals, etc. that share some common
and observable characteristics and from which a SAMPLE can be taken.
Thus, one can speak of comparing test scores across a sample of a popu-
lation of students.
portfolio n
a purposeful collection of work that provides information about some-
one’s efforts, progress or achievement in a given area. It is a learning as
well as assessment tool. As applied to language learners, its characteristics
are:
a the learner is involved in deciding what to include in the portfolio
b the learner may revise material in the portfolio after feedback from the
teacher or others
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positivism
c the learner is required to assess or reflect on the work in the portfolio,
thus becoming aware of personal development
d there is evidence of mastery of knowledge
e it may include various forms of work, such as written work, audio
recording, video recording, etc.
When used in teacher education the portfolio is known as a TEACHING
PORTFOLIO.
portfolio assessment n
an approach that makes use of portfolios as a basis of assessment.
portmanteau word n
see BLENDING
positional variant n
an ALLOPHONE of a particular PHONEME that appears in a specific position.
For example, the aspirated stops at the beginnings of the English words
pot, top, and cop are positional variants of the phonemes /p/, /t/, and /k/,
respectively.
positive evidence n
see EVIDENCE
positive face n
the good image that people have of others and themselves and wish others
to have of them as well.
see FACE, POLITENESS
positive politeness strategies n
see POLITENESS
positive reinforcement n
see OPERANT CONDITIONING, STIMULUS-RESPONSE THEORY
positive transfer n
see LANGUAGE TRANSFER
positively skewed distribution n
see SKEWNESS
positivism n
a philosophical movement that began in the early 19th century,
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possessive
characterized by an emphasis on the scientific method as the only source
of knowledge and a desire to rebuild society on the basis of “positive”
knowledge. As a version of EMPIRICISM, among the basic ideas of posi-
tivism are the idea that the world is orderly, that all natural phenomena
have natural causes, and that nothing is self-evident, but the laws of
nature can be discovered through experimentation. Although few people
nowadays subscribe to all of these beliefs, some degree of positivism
characterizes most “scientific” approaches to understanding all phenom-
ena, including language learning. Logical positivism is a specific type of
positivism that rejects as meaningless all statements that cannot be empir-
ically verified.
see also MODERNISM, POSTMODERNISM
possessive n
a word or part of a word which is used to show ownership or possession.
In English, there are many kinds of possessives, for example:
a possessive pronouns, such as my, her, your, mine, hers, yours, etc.
b ’s, as in Helen’s shoes, and s’, as in the three boys’ books
c the of construction, as in the home of the doctor
The possessive pronouns that are used before a noun (e.g. my, her, your)
are often called “possesive adjectives” to distinguish them from those that
are used after a verb (e.g. mine, hers, yours). The distinction can be seen
in a pair of sentences like:
My book is here. This book is mine.
see also DETERMINER
post-creole continuum n
when people in a CREOLE-SPEAKING community are taught in the standard
language to which the creole is related, they form a post-creole con-
tinuum.
For example, in Jamaica and Guyana, an English-based creole is spoken
and Standard English is taught in schools. Those with higher levels of
education speak something close to Standard English, the acrolect.
Those with little or no education speak the creole or something close to
it, the basilect, and the rest speak a range of varieties in between, the
mesolects.
speech varieties speakers
acrolect higher education and social status
mesolects
basilect little or no education, low social status
see also DECREOLIZATION, SPEECH CONTINUUM
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postverbal negation
postmodernism n
also postpositivism
a term that has significantly different meanings in architecture, literary
criticism, anthropology, and other disciplines. In education, the term gen-
erally refers to a rejection of POSITIVISM and MODERNISM, which are criti-
cized for failing to recognize the cultural relativity of all forms of
knowledge, for emphasizing the importance of the autonomous individ-
ual, and for failing to take a moral stand against oppression. In this view,
“science” is usually interested (not disinterested) and never objective.
With respect to approaches to research and theory, postmodernists are
sceptical of general theories and attempts to generalize research findings.
postmodifier n
see MODIFIER
postponed subject n
see EXTRAPOSITION
postposition n
a word or MORPHEME which follows a noun or NOUN PHRASE1 and indi-
cates location, direction, possession, etc. For example, in Japanese:
Tokyo – kara
“Tokyo” “from”
“from Tokyo”
English prefers PREPOSITIONs to postpositions, but a word like notwith-
standing can be used in either way:
The plan went ahead, notwithstanding my protests.
(prepositional use)
The plan went ahead, my protests notwithstanding.
(postpositional use)
postpositivism n
see POSTMODERNISM
post-test n
a test given after learning has occurred or is supposed to have occurred.
A test given before learning has occurred is a pre-test. In teaching, the
comparison of pre-test and post-test results measures the amount of
progress a learner has made.
postverbal negation n
the use of a NEGATOR following a verb, as in German Ingrid kommt
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nicht (Ingrid comes not Ingrid isn’t coming), where nicht is the nega-
tor. Compare preverbal negation; the use of a negator preceding the verb,
as in Spanish Juan no va (Juan not goes Juan isn’t going), where no is
the negator.
postwriting n
see COMPOSING PROCESSES
poverty of the stimulus n
a term referring to the notion that UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR is needed to
explain language learning because the input to learners is so impoverished
that it is insufficient to explain learning. In particular, the input does not
provide learners with NEGATIVE EVIDENCE necessary to avoid or retreat
from incorrect hypotheses.
power n
the probability of correctly rejecting a NULL HYPOTHESIS when it is false,
denoted by 1-
, where
is the probability of a TYPE II ERROR. It is also the
probability of detecting a real effect, such as a difference or correlation,
in a study. Power studies, in which a preliminary effort to investigate the
actual needed power of a statistical test if an effect is to be detected are
not very commonly carried out in applied linguistics but would be bene-
ficial to the field.
see also TYPE I ERROR, TYPE II ERROR
power test n
a type of test where every test taker is given sufficient time to complete
the test. The difficulty level of some items on the test is beyond the ability
of test takers so that no test taker is expected to get every item right.
see also SPEEDED TEST
practice n
in general, the building up of a skill through repetition or repeated
exposure. In language learning, each skill requires practice in order to
establish FLUENCY in the sense of the smooth operation of psycholinguis-
tic processes.
practice effect n
the effect of previous practice on later performance. For example, in test-
ing how much grammar improvement had occurred in students after a
grammar course, if the same items appeared on a pre-test and a post-test
(see POST-TEST), students might perform better on the post-test simply
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pragmatic transfer
because they had already had practice on the items during the pre-test,
rather than because of what they had learned from the course.
practice stage n
also repetition stage
see STAGE
practice teaching n
also practicum, teaching practice
(in teacher education) opportunities provided for a student teacher to gain
teaching experience, usually through working with an experienced teacher
– the CO-OPERATING TEACHER – for a period of time by teaching that
teacher’s class. Practice teaching experiences may include MICROTEACH-
ING, teaching an individual lesson from time to time, or regular teaching
over a whole term or longer, during which the student teacher has direct
and individual control over a class. Practice teaching is intended to give
student teachers experience of classroom teaching, an opportunity to
apply the information and skills they have studied in their teacher edu-
cation programme, and a chance to acquire basic teaching skills.
pragmalinguistics n
the interface between LINGUISTICS and PRAGMATICS, focusing on the lin-
guistic means used to accomplish pragmatic ends. For example, when a
learner asks “How do I make a compliment (or a request, or a warning)
in this language?”, this is a question of pragmalinguistics knowledge. This
can be contrasted with sociopragmatics and sociopragmatic knowledge,
which concern the relationship between social factors and pragmatics.
For example, a learner might need to know in what circumstances it is
appropriate to make a compliment in the target language and which form
would be most appropriate given the social relationship between speaker
and hearer.
pragmatic error n
see ERROR
pragmatic failure n
a communicative failure that occurs when the pragmatic force of a mess-
age is misunderstood, for example, if an intended apology is interpreted
as an excuse.
pragmatic transfer n
transfer of L1 norms and forms of performing SPEECH ACTs. Pragmatic
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pragmatics
transfer may result in the inappropriate transfer of forms or expressions
from the L1 to the L2 as well as level or range of politeness or indirect-
ness in the L2.
pragmatics n pragmatic adj
the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the
relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which
they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of:
a how the interpretation and use of UTTERANCEs depends on knowledge
of the real world
b how speakers use and understand SPEECH ACTs
c how the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between
the speaker and the hearer
Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with SEMANTICS, which deals with
meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of
sentences.
see also USAGE2
predeterminer n
a word which occurs before DETERMINERs in a NOUN PHRASE1. For
example, in English the QUANTIFIERs all, both, half, double, twice, etc., can
be predeterminers.
all the bread
determiner
predeterminer
predicate n predicate v
that part of a sentence which states or asserts something about the SUB-
JECT and usually consists of a verb either with or without an OBJECT1,
COMPLEMENT, or ADVERB. For example:
Joan is tired.
The children saw the play.
The sun rose.
Adjectives, nouns, etc., which occur in the predicate are said to be used
“predicatively”. For example:
Her behaviour was friendly. (PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVE)
These books are dictionaries. (predicative noun)
see also ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE
predicate frames n
see FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR
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preliminary intake
predicate logic n
see LOGIC
predication n
see PROPOSITION
predicative adjective n
an adjective that is used after a verb
see also ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE
predictive validity n
a type of VALIDITY based on the degree to which a test accurately predicts
future performance. A LANGUAGE APTITUDE TEST, for example, should have
predictive validity, because the results of the test should predict the ability
to learn a second or foreign language.
predictor n
see CRITERION MEASURE, DEPENDENT VARIABLE
prefabricated language n
also prefabricated routine, prefabricated speech
see FORMULAIC LANGUAGE
preferred language n
see PRIMARY LANGUAGE
preferred strategies n
the most efficient strategies for speech processing of a particular language,
utilizing the phonological and metrical rules of the language.
prefix n
a letter or sound or group of letters or sounds which are added to the
beginning of a word, and which change the meaning or function of the
word.
Some COMBINING FORMs can be used like prefixes. For example, the word
pro-French uses the prefix pro- “in favour of”, and the word Anglo-
French uses the combining form Anglo- “English”.
see also AFFIX
preliminary intake n
see INTAKE
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premodifier
premodifier n
see MODIFIER
preoperational stage n
see COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
preposition n
a word used with NOUNs, PRONOUNs and GERUNDs to link them grammat-
ically to other words. The phrase so formed, consisting of a preposition
and its COMPLEMENT, is a prepositional phrase. In English, a prepositional
phrase may be “discontinuous”, as in:
who(m) did you speak to?
Prepositions may express such meanings as possession (e.g. the leg of the
table), direction (e.g. to the bank), place (e.g. at the corner), time (e.g.
before now). They can also mark the cases discussed in CASE GRAMMAR.
For example, in the sentence:
Smith killed the policeman with a revolver.
the preposition with shows that a revolver is in the INSTRUMENTAL
CASE.
In English, too, there are groups of words (e.g. in front of, owing to) that
can function like single-word prepositions.
see also POSTPOSITION
preposition stranding n
A preposition is stranded if it doesn’t move along with its complement.
For example, with, to, from and about have been stranded in the follow-
ing WH-QUESTIONS:
Who did you speak to?
Who did you go with?
Who is that present from?
Who was the story about?
Where are you from?
Preposition stranding is not possible in some languages, for example
Italian and French. In English, preposition stranding is disapproved of in
some versions of PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR, but is more common in speech
than pied piping, the process through which the wh-word and the prep-
osition move together, as in the following:
To who(m) did you speak?
With who(m) did you go?
Sentences exhibiting pied piping are felt by many speakers of English
nowadays to be quite unnatural and in some cases unacceptable (for
example, *From where are you?).
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present tense
prepositional adverb n
another term for ADVERB PARTICLE
prepositional complement n
also prepositional object, object (of a preposition)
see COMPLEMENT
prepositional dative construction n
see DATIVE ALTERNATION
prepositional phrase n
see PREPOSITION
prepositional verb n
see PHRASAL VERB
prescriptive grammar n
a grammar which states rules for what is considered the best or most cor-
rect usage. Prescriptive grammars are often based not on descriptions of
actual usage but rather on the grammarian’s views of what is best. Many
TRADITIONAL GRAMMARS are of this kind.
see also DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR, NORMATIVE GRAMMAR
present continuous n
see PROGRESSIVE
present participle n
see PARTICIPLE
present perfect n
see PERFECT
present perfect continuous n
see PROGRESSIVE
present tense n
a tense which typically relates the time of an action or state to the pres-
ent moment in time. In English the present tense can also be used to refer
to future time (e.g. We leave tomorrow) or to timeless expressions (e.g.
Cats have tails), and for this reason it is sometimes called the NON-PAST
tense.
see also ASPECT
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presentation stage
presentation stage n
see STAGE
preservice education n
also preservice training
(in teacher education) a course or programme of study which student
teachers complete before they begin teaching. This may be compared with
INSERVICE EDUCATION, which refers to experiences which are provided for
teachers who are already teaching and which form part of their continued
professional development. Preservice education often sets out to show
future teachers basic teaching techniques and give them a broad general
background in teaching and in their subject matter. Inservice education or
training usually takes place for a specific purpose and often involves the
following cycle of activities:
1 assess participants’ needs
2 determine objectives for inservice programme
3 plan content
4 choose methods of presentation and learning experiences
5 implement
6 evaluate effectiveness
7 provide follow-up assistance
Inservice programmes for language teachers are sometimes referred to as
Continuing Education for Language Teachers (CELT).
presupposition n presuppose v
what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already
knows. For example:
speaker A: What about inviting Simon tonight?
speaker B: What a good idea; then he can give Monica a lift.
Here, the presuppositions are, among others, that speakers A and B know
who Simon and Monica are, that Simon has a vehicle, most probably a
car, and that Monica has no vehicle at the moment. Children often pre-
suppose too much. They may say:
. . . and he said “let’s go” and we went there.
even if their hearers do not know who he is and where there is.
see also COHERENCE, COHESION
pre-test n
see POST-TEST
pre-test sensitization n
see EXTERNAL VALIDITY
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primary language
pre-teaching n
selecting new or difficult items that students will meet in a future class-
room activity, and teaching such items before the activity. For example,
difficult words in a listening-comprehension exercise may be taught
before students do the exercise.
preterite n
see PAST TENSE
pretesting n
also pilot testing, trialling
the try-out phase of a newly written but not yet fully developed test. Tests
under development may be revised on the basis of the ITEM ANALYSIS
obtained from the results of pretesting.
pretonic n, adj
see TONE UNIT
preverbal negation n
see POSTVERBAL NEGATION
pre-writing n
see COMPOSING PROCESSES
primary cardinal vowel n
see CARDINAL VOWEL
primary data n
in LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, refers to the language that children hear.
see also EVIDENCE
primary language n
also preferred language
people speaking more than one language (see BILINGUAL, MULTILIN-
GUAL) may not necessarily be most fluent in the first language they-
acquired as a child (the mother tongue). The terms primary
language or preferred language are used to refer to the language
which bilingual or multilingual speakers are most fluent in or
which they prefer using for most everyday communicative functions.
A child may have more than one primary language if he or she
acquires more than one language during the period of primary lan-
guage development.
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primary language acquisition
primary language acquisition n
a term referring to the acquisition of any language from infancy, some-
times preferred over the term FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION because of the
difficulty in establishing which language should be considered “first” in
some cases, such as in childhood BILINGUALISM.
primary language instruction n
an approach to the teaching of second language students in which
instruction in the students’ primary language – i.e. the native language
of the students – is used for subjects which are the most cognitively
demanding.
primary stress n
see STRESS
priming n
processing a word that has been recently encountered and activated is
faster and easier than processing one that has not. This phenomenon is
called priming. For example, if a subject is shown the word doctor and
later is shown a list of words and non-words and asked to say which are
English words and which are not (a lexical decision task), the decision
will be made faster for the word doctor than for words that have not
been activated. Concepts that are related to one another in some way
are also assumed to be connected in mental networks and when one
member of the network is activated, the others are as well. This
phenomenon is called spreading activation. For this reason, when the
word doctor is presented, related words such as hospital, nurse, and
medication are also primed.
see also IMPLICIT MEMORY
principal clause n
see DEPENDENT CLAUSE
principle of subjacency n
see BOUNDING THEORY
principles1 n
in teaching, beliefs and theories that teachers hold concerning effective
approaches to teaching and learning and which serve as the basis for some
of their decision-making. For example,
Make the lesson learner-centred.
Every learner is a genius.
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PRO
Provide opportunities for active learner participation.
Teacher’s principles are an important aspect of their BELIEF SYSTEMS, and
may be a result of teaching experience, training, or their own experiences
as learners.
principles2 n
see UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR
Principles and Parameters framework n
the concept of grammar introduced by Chomsky in 1981 which views
human language as a complex set of principles, each with one or more
parameters of variation. The grammars of particular languages are deter-
mined by fixing those parameters.
see UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR
prior knowledge n
what a learner already knows and which is available before a certain
learning task, such as knowledge of vocabulary, syntax, the first lan-
guage, or background knowledge about a topic or event. Prior knowl-
edge is thought to be the most important single factor influencing
learning and is particularly important for students with diverse cultural
backgrounds since their experience may be different from mainstream
students. Many language teaching techniques are designed to activate
students’ prior knowledge, such as brainstorming and pre-reading dis-
cussion questions.
see also MAINSTREAMING
private speech n
speech which is intended for oneself. The Russian psychologist Vygotsky
believed that in acquiring language, children use private speech to over-
come cognitive difficulties they encounter, e.g. when playing a game or
completing a puzzle. Private speech represents thinking aloud and helps
clarify thought. Second language learners may also use private speech
(e.g. whispering to themselves) to help them overcome difficulties they
encounter when trying to communicate in a second language or to use a
second language to complete a classroom task. Private speech can thus
serve an important strategic function serving to mediate or redirect a
learner’s own activity.
PRO n
also BIG PRO
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pro
This term is used in GOVERNMENT/BINDING THEORY when discussing
embedded sentences with infinitives, e.g.
a I wanted to leave
b I wanted Anita to leave
c It is time to leave
The proposed D-STRUCTURE for these sentences would be
d I wanted [PRO to leave]
e I wanted Anita [PRO to leave]
f It is time [PRO to leave]
In d and e the element PRO behaves like an anaphor. In d it refers to I
and in e it refers to Anita. In f PRO does not behave like an anaphor but
more like a pronoun referring to someone or some people outside the sen-
tence (see BINDING PRINCIPLE).
pro n
also little pro
This term is used in GOVERNMENT/BINDING THEORY when discussing
declarative sentences which do not have an overt subject (see PRO-DROP
PARAMETER).
proactive inhibition n
also proactive interference
the interfering effect of earlier learning on later learning. For example, if
a learner first learns how to produce questions which require AUXILIARY
VERB inversion (e.g. I can go Can I go?) this may interfere with the learn-
ing of patterns where auxiliary inversion is not required. The learner may
write *I don’t know where can I find it instead of I don’t know where I
can find it. By contrast, retroactive inhibition/interference is the effect of
later learning on earlier learning. For example, children learning English
may learn irregular past-tense forms such as went, saw. Later, when they
begin to learn the regular -ed past-tense inflection, they may stop using
went and saw and produce *goed and *seed.
problematize v
see DECONSTRUCT
problem-posing n
a teaching strategy first developed by the Brazilian educator, Paolo Friere
and sometimes used in second language teaching and having the follow-
ing characteristics:
1 A topic of concern or interest to students is identified. It should pose a
problem for which there are several possible solutions.
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process approach
2 Students discuss the problem (or problems) and relate it to their own
experience.
3 Students analyze the cause of the problem and seek solutions.
4 Through the question and answer exchanges that occur students gen-
erate vocabulary and other language that the teacher later draws on to
develop a series of exercises, practice opportunities and application
activities that form the basis of the rest of the lesson or unit.
problem-solving tasks n
simple tasks, often involving word puzzles or simple drawings, used to
stimulate pair work and oral discussion among small groups of second
language learners. The use of such tasks is characteristic of some phases
of lessons in the communicative approach.
problem-solving strategy n
a learning STRATEGY which involves selecting from several alternatives in
order to reach a desired goal. In second and foreign language learning,
problem-solving strategies are often used, for example, in choosing
whether to use a or the before a noun.
procedural knowledge n
knowledge of how to perform an activity, i.e. the “how to” level of
knowledge involved in employing a skill such as using a computer or
operating a video camera.
see DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE
procedural syllabus n
a term sometimes used for a type of task-based syllabus in which class-
room activities are organized around tasks and the procedures needed to
accomplish them, such as using maps to find the quickest route to a des-
tination or following instructions to prepare or make something. The use
of sets of procedures of this kind is an attempt to replace a conventional
grammar-based syllabus with a meaning-based one in which negotiation
of meaning and communicative accomplishment of tasks are used to drive
the second language acquisition process, rather than explicit teaching and
practice of grammatical form.
proceduralization n
see ADAPTIVE CONTROL OF THOUGHT
process approach n
also process writing
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process method
(in teaching composition) an approach which emphasizes the composing
processes writers make use of in writing (such as planning, drafting and revis-
ing) and which seeks to improve students’ writing skills through developing
their use of effective COMPOSING PROCESSES. This approach is sometimes com-
pared with a product approach or a prose model approach, that is, one which
focuses on producing different kinds of written products and which empha-
sises imitation of different kinds of model paragraphs or essays.
process method n
see METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT
process objective n
an objective that is described in terms of how it will be achieved, such as
“to improve discussion skills by taking part in group discussions and cla