Science and Technology: Definitions and Terminologies

Abstract

We must live in this universe and carry out many activities to support our lives. Science is the knowledge that illuminates the way, guides to the correct path and relieves the stress of worldly duties from the person who owns it. Technology is the innovation, change, or modification of the natural environment in order to satisfy perceived human wants and needs. Science needs technology in applying the rules and procedures and technology uses the science for its development and improvements. Society is affected greatly by both science and technology. Education is the way of developing the mind in order to gain knowledge, reasoning power and skills, and to reflect them to the attitudes and behaviors.  Ethics is the system of moral values; the principle of right or good conducts and it must be an integral part of the education.

These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

FormalPara Learning Objectives

Those who have completed this section are expected to achieve the following outcomes:

• 1. Define the need for learning.

• 2. Describe the information.

• 3. Define the information technology.

• 4. Express knowledge management.

• 5. Shall determine the boundaries between data, news, and information.

• 6. Define ways of obtaining different attributes of scientific decision-making and connections between them.

• 7. Define the wisdom and express its role in gaining scientific knowledge.

• 8. Explain the meaning of “knowledge is power.”

• 9. Clarify the misconception that the “knowledge and information is the same.”

• 10. Value the importance of knowledge in an organization.

• 11. Define the science and technology and express the distinctions between them.

• 12. Describe the attributes of useful knowledge.

• 13. Clarify the distinction between knowledge and ignorance, and differentiate between simple and complicated ignorance.

• 14. Describe the role of education in gaining knowledge.

• 15. Define the implications of technology education and educational technology.

• 16. Outline the attributes of educated people.

• 17. Express the effects of education on a society.

• 18. Describe the relationship between knowledge and culture and their effects on the society.

• 19. Label the essentials elements that are needed for the technology to be useful.

• 20. State ethics and its importance for a person.

1.1 Need to Know

We must live in this universe and carry out many activities to support our lives. We collect data from the environment we live in. Data are objective but unstructured facts and figures about an event that relay something specific. Yet, they are not organized in any way and do not provide further information regarding patterns, context, etc. These data are processed in form of contextualizing, categorizing, calculating, correcting, condensing, etc. and become information that is a message meant to change the receiver’s perception.

Essentially information is found in answers to questions that begin with such words as “who, what, where, when, and how many.” Human body collects information about the environment in which she/he is living using his/her natural senses. Wisdom is granted to the mankind to seek knowledge. Hereafter, the information collected is assessed with wisdom and it becomes the knowledge. Knowledge is all that the mind knows, from whatever source derived or obtained, or by whatever process.

Before one can begin to talk about knowledge management (KM), one must start by clearly defining the meaning of the word “knowledge.” It is important to understand what constitutes knowledge and what falls under the category of information or data . Unfortunately, this is a more difficult task than it may appear at first. Within everyday language , specific fields, and even within the same disciplines, the word “knowledge” often takes on a variety of meanings. Eventually, the knowledge is the aggregate facts, truths, or principles acquired and retained by the mind.

1.2 Perspectives on Knowledge, Information, Data

1.2.1 Description of Knowledge

In everyday language we use knowledge all the time. Sometimes we mean know-how, while other times we are talking about wisdom . On many occasions, we even use it to refer to information . Part of the difficulty in defining knowledge arises from its relationship to two other concepts, namely, data and information. These two terms are often regarded as lower denominations of knowledge, but the exact relationship varies greatly from one example to another. Within more technologically oriented disciplines—particularly involving information systems—knowledge is often treated similarly to information.

Humans have been storing, retrieving, manipulating, and communicating information since the Sumerians in Mesopotamia, who developed writing scripts in about 3000 BC, but the term information technology (IT) in its modern sense first appeared in 1958. IT is the application of computers and telecommunications equipment to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data, often in the context of a business or other enterprise. The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several industries are associated with information technology, such as computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet , telecom equipment, and e-commerce and computer services. The responsibilities of those working in the field include network administration, software development and installation, and the planning and management of an organization’s technology life cycle, by which hardware and software are maintained, upgraded, and replaced.

1.2.2 Information Technology (IT)

Information is seen as something one can codify and transmit, and where the IT plays a pivotal role in knowledge sharing. For instance, the encyclopedia at fact-archive.com defines it as: “information that has a purpose or use.” This kind of simplistic view of knowledge was particularly widespread during the 1990s when information technology became increasingly more common. However, even today, some knowledge management (KM) systems are little more than information management systems using knowledge as a virtual synonym for information. The activities that take place in acquiring knowledge are illustrated in Fig. 1.1. Data is the lowest point, an unstructured collection of facts and figures; information is the next level, and it is regarded as structured data; finally, knowledge is defined as “information about information” [1].

Fig. 1.1

Activities that take place in acquiring knowledge

1.2.3 Knowledge Management

Increasingly one sees definitions that treat knowledge as a more complex and personal concept that incorporates more than just information . The Longman online dictionary has one definition that begins to approach the way that knowledge is usually regarded within KM. It states “the information, skills, and understanding that you have gained through learning or experience.” Although still closely associated with information, concepts like skills, understanding, and experience begin to surface. IT is usually invaluable in the capacity of turning data into information , particularly in larger firms that generate large amounts of data across multiple departments and functions. The human brain is mainly needed to assist in contextualization.

Knowledge is closely linked to doing and implies know-how and understanding. The knowledge possessed by each individual is a product of his/her experience, and encompasses the norms by which she/he evaluates new inputs from his/her surroundings. I will use the definition presented by Gamble and Blackwell (2001) [2]

Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, expert insight, and grounded intuition that provides an environment and framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. It originates and is applied in the mind of the knowers. In organizations it often becomes embedded not only in documents or repositories, but also in organizational routines, practices and norms.

In order for KM to succeed, one needs a deep understanding of what constitutes knowledge. Now we have set clear boundaries between knowledge, information , and data . It is possible to go one step further and look at the forms in which knowledge exists and the different ways that it can be accessed, shared, and combined. Figure 1.2 illustrates the paths and links between different attributes of scientific decision-making; from data to wisdom . We will examine this in the section titled “Different Kinds of Knowledge.”

Fig. 1.2

Path and links between different attributes of scientific decision-making (from http://www.systemswiki.org/images/8/8a/Wisdom.png Retrieved 8 June 2016)

1.2.4 Wisdom

It is a habit or disposition to perform the action with the highest degree of adequacy under any given circumstance. This implies a possession of knowledge or the seeking thereof in order to apply it to the given circumstance. It involves an understanding of people, things, events, situations, and the willingness as well as the ability to apply perception, judgment, and action in keeping with the understanding of what is the optimal course of action. It often requires control of one’s emotional reactions (the “passions”) so that the universal principle of reason prevails to determine one’s action. In short, wisdom is a disposition to find the truth coupled with an optimum judgment as to what actions should be taken in order to deliver the correct outcome. Synonyms include: prudence, sagacity, discernment, or insight.

Wisdom is the ability to think, investigate, and evaluate the events and relations between events. Hence, it provides us with the capacity to solve real-life problems and acquiring wisdom becomes a must if we want to live meaningful lives. This is best expressed in a hadith narrated by Abu Huraira (may Allah be pleased with him): The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “The statement of wisdom is the lost property of the believer, so wherever s/he finds it then s/he has a right to it” (Source: Sunan At-Tirmidhi 2611).

As we live through life and its experiences, it is vital that we reflect on such experiences to make our subsequent steps in life easier. Immanuel Kant, a famous philosopher said that

Science is organized knowledge. Wisdom is organized life.¹

So, if wisdom enables a person to make more sound decisions, take a shortcut path to success, recalibrate values for the better, and simply live a better life, then why not spend time reflecting on our own experiences as well as learning from others? As Will Durant,² a renowned philosopher and Pulitzer Prize³ winner stated

A wise man can learn from another man’s experience; a fool cannot learn even from his own.

The Holy Qur’an strongly stresses the importance of wisdom and in several places it is described as “the book of wisdom” (Younus 10/1). This subject will be treated in detail after introduction of life and wisdom .

1.2.5 Knowledge in Organizations

• KNOWLEDGE = POWER?

Andalusian scientist Ibn Rushd and in later centuries Francis Bacon⁴ stated that the “Knowledge is power” as if they were reiterating the Quranic divination. Many organizations and individuals work after this principal and through their knowledge and experience; they could reach powerful and influential positions. Alternatively, one can find positions where she/he can control the information flow that also gives power and influence. One would believe that an introduction to information technology would reduce this type of influence because can float openly. Hence, the combination of knowledge and control over information waves contributes to enhanced power concentration in organizations.

A challenge today is the over-flood of information . Those who know which information has values and can separate this apart, have a great advantage when coming to the use of information in the right way. Knowledge is, therefore, a key factor in working with information, which is probably why Robert Straughton Lynd felt the need to modernize Francis Bacon’s quote, when saying “knowledge is power only when you know which facts you don’t need to consider”.⁵

• INFORMATION = KNOWLEDGE?

The information society and knowledge society evolved together. It does not mean that they do not go hand in hand. This parallel development can also be a coincident, and has led to some logical misconceptions, as in “information = knowledge.” Information is not the same as knowledge. In best case, information is a possible representation of explicit knowledge. The biggest source to knowledge is by far silent knowledge—the one that sits between your ears. Today’s information systems are designed to bare information (explicit) as well as data . I am sorry to say that they function very poorly to deal with silent knowledge. On the other hand, many organizations still choose IT-based knowledge systems. Is that a smart move?

• BEING SOCIAL IS IMPORTANT!

The organizations must be aware that different processes must be put in work in order to engage and motive the coworkers. On other words, it is not about making yourself independent of your coworkers, but merely to use more time on working, talking, and being together. They must learn from each other so that knowledge floats more quickly from one to another. Information is, therefore, not equal to knowledge but an important part of knowledge development. IT can make it simpler to find and activate knowledge sources.

Most people acknowledge knowledge as being the most valuable part of an organization, and which in a great amount follows the individual coworker. Why is it so hard to handle? The knowledge economy is above us with its entire luggage. It has been said that knowledge is the best burden to carry, and that there is little doubt that the more the merrier! Knowledge is first and foremost attached to the individual, which can be illustrated through a Chinese saying “Wisdom is a treasure which follows its owner everywhere.”⁶

Organizations have in a great amount opened their eyes, because they are independent in the collective knowledge and competence, which a company beholds and also the richness it represents. To handle this, they invest in IT-based knowledge systems. But these investments are not always paying off if one is not dealing with the knowledge accurately.⁷

1.3 Descriptions of Science and Technology

Importance of science and technology is best indicated in Al-Qur’an as

And let not those who disbelieve think that they can outstrip (escape from the punishment). Verily, they will never be able to save themselves (from Allah’s punishment).

And make them ready against them all you can of power, including steeds of war (tanks, planes, missiles, artillery) to threaten thereby the enemy of Allah and your enemy, and others besides them, whom you may not know, (but) Allah does know. And whatever you shall spend in the Cause of Allah, shall be repaid to you, and you shall not be treated unjustly.

But if they incline to peace, you (also) incline to it, and (put your) trust in Allah. Verily, He is the All-Hearer, the All-Knower. V.8:59–61

All scholars who are authorized in interpreting Qur’anic verses agree that “power” here refers to scientific knowledge and steeds of war is undoubtedly the technology . Let us have more inside about these two technical terms.

1.3.1 Science

Science is originated from the Latin scientia, scire = to know. It is the name given to the knowledge that illuminates the way, guides to the correct path and relieves the stress of worldly duties from the person who owns it. It can also be defined as knowledge as of facts, phenomena, laws, and proximate causes, gained, and verified by exact observation, organized experiment, and correct thinking. There are many other definitions of science. One of the recent definitions is as follows:

To do science is to search for repeated patterns, not simply to accumulate facts.⁸

Hence, science is knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method. The part of science that is concerned with the knowledge physical world and its phenomena: natural science. It is a system or method reconciling practical ends with scientific laws. Engineering is both a science and an art.

1.3.2 Science and Ignorance

It is more difficult to correct someone’s falsehood than convincing him for the truth. Ignorance is a state of being uninformed (lack of knowledge). This is the simplistic state of the ignorance. Individuals with superficial knowledge of a topic or subject may be worse off than people who know absolutely nothing. This is the complicated state of the ignorance that can stifle learning, especially if the ignorant persons believe that they are not ignorant. A person who falsely believes, she/he is knowledgeable and hence will not seek out clarification of his/her beliefs, but rather rely on his/her ignorant position. She/he may also reject valid but contrary information , neither realizing its importance nor understanding it.

The word ignorant is an adjective describing a person in the state of being unaware and is often used as an insult to describe individuals, who deliberately ignore or disregard important information or facts. Ignoramus is commonly used in the US, the UK, and Ireland as a term for someone who is willfully ignorant. Ignorance is distinguished from stupidity, although both can lead to “unwise” acts. A person must learn all necessary facts and principles before performing in action . There is a proverb that states this fact as “knowledge comes before speech and action.” Even there is a legal principle that ignorantia juris non excusat, literally “ignorance of the law is no excuse,” stands for the proposition that the law applies also to those who are unaware of it. Therefore, real education involves first cleansing the minds from erroneous things and then filling them up with the truth, the good and the excellence.

1.3.3 Etymology of Technology

The word technology comes from two Greek words, transliterated techne and logos. Techne means art, skill, craft, or the way, manner, or means by which a thing is gained. Logos means word, the utterance by which inward thought is expressed, a saying, or an expression. So, literally, technology means words or discourse about the way things are gained. The term technology appears in dictionaries as follows:

• It is the innovation, change, or modification of the natural environment in order to satisfy perceived human wants and needs. (Standards for Technological Literacy, ITEA, 2000)

• The goal of technology is to make modifications in the world to meet human needs. (National Science Education Standards, NRC, 1996).

1.3.4 Distinction Between Science and Technology

Technology is the making, modification, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques , crafts, systems, and methods of organization, in order to solve a problem, improve a preexisting solution to a problem, achieve a goal, handle an applied input/output relation or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, including machinery, modifications, arrangements, and procedures. Technologies significantly affect human as well as other animal species’ ability to control and adapt to their natural environments. The term can either be applied generally or to specific areas: examples include construction technology, medical technology, and information technology .

In short, technology is the modification of the natural environment in order to satisfy perceived human needs and wants. Consequently, the contemporary meaning of the technology can be expressed as the whole of the proven and useful results of scientific discoveries as well as tools and methods and processes used for them. Technological literacy is the ability to use, manage, assess, and understand technology. While technology and science have a common denominator being the natural world, they are similar but yet very different. Technology is not any more “applied science” than science is “applied technology.” So, what is the difference between science and technology?

Technology is the application of science; science is gaining knowledge while technology is using knowledge. Capability of making tools is a special attribute of the human race. The human being has been generating technologies since its creation . This fact has been stated by Thomas Carlyle as “Man is a tool using animal. Without tools he is nothing, with tools he is all” [3]. Therefore, the history of technology on earth is as old as the humanity. Technique is the name used for activities that are experimentally verified (also called the applied science). It is the process of making tools and using tools to achieve results.

1.4 Education as a Means of Gaining Knowledge

A verse in Al-Qur’an reads: “And He taught Adam all the names (of everything) …” (V. 2:31). Muslim scholars agree that this verse is the indicator of an important fact: Allah Almighty granted the mankind with all the knowledge he needs to fulfill his responsibilities on earth at birth. Education is the process of disclosing the inherently hidden knowledge available in the sole to the stage of consciousness. Hence, it is the way of gaining knowledge, reasoning power and skills, and reflecting them to the attitudes and behaviors. In short, the education is not simply filling up the memory; rather it is developing the mind. It is a practice that accepts students from a low level of standing, pushes them through several stages of development and produces individuals qualified with certain abilities, skills, and attributes, who are fit for a job or a higher level in education . Steps in the process are specified as the curriculum.

1.4.1 Technology Education and Educational Technology

Technology Education is a study of technology , which provides an opportunity for students to learn about the processes and knowledge related to technologies that are needed to solve problems and extend human capabilities. Hence, Technology Education (Technological Studies) teaches about technology, it is a school subject with the ultimate goal of providing technological literacy for everyone. The Educational Technology (IT) is teaching with technology, thus a means of teaching with the ultimate goal of improving the process of teaching and learning.

1.4.2 Broad Classification of Knowledge Level

The knowledge can be classified into two broad levels as the level of appreciating and level of expressing. During our studies we are exposed to different subjects. We feel that we know a subject we studied but we cannot clearly answer questions related to it. This is the level of appreciation, which is also part of our culture. Level of expressing requires extensive efforts involving repetitions and experimentations. The knowledge and its utilization form the scholastic status of a person.

1.4.3 Effects on Society

Society can be defined as a group, large or small, of people in a particular place and time who are linked by common goals and interests. It is a group of people with common ideology, territory, interaction and culture, and common will to organize all their activities in accordance with their ideologies.

Culture refers to the language , values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects that constitute people’s way of life. The culture of the society is accumulation of leftovers from what the people learn practice and forget. It becomes an integral part of the people like the bone and flash and constitutes their characters. It is reflected as the knowledge, experience as well as the feelings such as the love and hate.

Society is affected greatly by both science and technology. We can illustrate it by the scientific and technological ideas of airplanes. People can now travel long distances in a short period of time. However, the society wants to know whether the airplane is safe or not, before they use it. Laws and standards will help to ensure people’s safety.

The human species’ use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The prehistorical discovery of the ability to control fire increased the available sources of food and the invention of the wheel helped humans to travel in and control their environment. Recent technological developments, including the printing press , the telephone, and the Internet , have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to interact freely on a global scale. However, not all technology has been used for peaceful purposes; the development of weapons of ever-increasing destructive power has progressed throughout history, from clubs to nuclear weapons.

Technology has affected society and its surroundings in a number of ways. In many societies, technology has helped to develop more advanced economies (including today’s global economy) and has allowed the rise of a leisure class. Many technological processes produce unwanted by-products, known as pollution, and deplete natural resources, to the detriment of Earth’s environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and new technology often raises new ethical questions. Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity , a term originally applied only to machines, and the challenge of traditional norms.

There are three essential elements needed for technology to lead the civilizations:

• Societal needs—driving force;

• Resources of the society—capital, materials, and qualified work force;

• Societal environment—society must be open to changes and appreciate novelties, and the rulers must favor innovations.

1.5 Science and Ethics

Science gives us knowledge about the facts of the nature. Science and technology tell us how to do things without differentiating right or wrong. Accepted standards of right and wrong are the morals . A code or system of rules defining moral behavior for a particular society is called the ethics. Hence, what we ought to do in our profession is the domain of ethics.

Ethic is defined as the system of moral values; the principle of right or good conducts. An action is called ethical if it conforms to right principles of conduct as specified and accepted by specific professions, such as engineering or medicine . We must make judgments on what is true , what is good and what is excellent, and act accordingly. The base for our decisions comes from the facts that are accepted as true universally.

Philosophical debates have arisen over the present and future use of technology in society, with disagreements over whether technology improves the human condition or worsens it. Neo-Luddism, anarcho-primitivism, and similar movements criticize the pervasiveness of technology in the modern world, stating that it harms the environment and alienates people; proponents of ideologies such as trans-humanism and techno-progressivism view continued technological progress as beneficial to society and the human condition.

1.6 Recapitulation

1.6.1 Summary

This chapter is written to provide the definitions of technical and scientific terms that will be used throughout the book. The human being organizes the unstructured facts and figures into a message that changes his/her perceptions. This message is called the information and it is converted into information that has a purpose or use with the help of a capability named the wisdom . Science is the name given to the knowledge that illuminates the way, guides to the correct path and relieves the stress of worldly duties from the person who owns it. Technology is the innovation, change, or modification of the natural environment in order to satisfy perceived human wants and needs. Science needs technology in applying the rules and procedures and technology uses the science for its development and improvements. Society is affected greatly by both science and technology. Education is the way of developing the mind in order to gain knowledge, reasoning power and skills, and to reflect them to the attitudes and behaviors. Ethics is the system of moral values; the principle of right or good conducts and it must be an integral part of the education.

1.6.2 Review Questions

• 1. Why we need to know and how we know?

• 2. What is the knowledge? How we acquire knowledge?

• 3. Explain the differences between the data, information and knowledge.

• 4. What are the information technology and its role in transmitting knowledge?

• 5. What are the knowledge management and its role in scientific decision-making?

• 6. What sort of relations exists between knowledge and experience?

• 7. Express the boundaries between data, information and knowledge.

• 8. Explain the links between different attributes of scientific decision-making.

• 9. What are the wisdom and its role in gaining scientific knowledge?

• 10. What we mean by the statement “knowledge is power”?

• 11. Explain the importance of knowledge in an organization with an example.

• 12. Define the science and technology and express the distinctions between them.

• 13. Is all knowledge useful? What are the attributes of useful knowledge?

• 14. What is the basic distinction between knowledge and ignorance?

• 15. What are the types of ignorance?

• 16. How you differentiate between simple and complicated ignorance?

• 17. Why the education is essential in gaining knowledge?

• 18. What are the distinctions between technology education and educational technology?

• 19. What are the culture and its role in the welfare of a society?

• 20. How effective is the knowledge in developing the culture of a society?

• 21. What are the essential elements that the technology must have in order to lead a society?

• 22. What is ethics and why it is important for a person?