Intercultural Communication in Contexts [8 ed.] 9781260837452, 1260837459, 9781264302543, 1264302541, 2020020603

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INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS

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INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS EIGHTH EDITION

Judith N. Martin Arizona State University

Thomas K. Nakayama Northeastern University

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS, EIGHTH EDITION Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10121. Copyright ©2022 by McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions ©2018, 2013, and 2010. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L C R 2 6 2 5 2 4 2 3 2 2 21 ISBN 978-1-260-83745-2 (bound edition) MHID 1-260-83745-9 (bound edition) ISBN 978-1-264-30254-3 (loose-leaf edition) MHID 1-264-30254-1 (loose-leaf edition) Portfolio Manager: Sarah Remington Product Developers: Alexander Preiss, Amy Oline Content Project Managers: Lisa Bruflodt, George Theofanopoulos Buyer: Sandy Ludovissy Designer: Laurie Entringer Content Licensing Specialist: Sarah Flynn Cover Image: ©Shutterstock/metamorworks Compositor: MPS Limited All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Martin, Judith N., author. | Nakayama, Thomas K., author.  Intercultural communication in contexts / Judith N. Martin, Arizona  State University ; Thomas K. Nakayama, Northeastern University.  Eighth edition. | New York, NY : McGraw Hill Education, [2022] |  Includes bibliographical references and index.  LCCN 2020020603 | ISBN 9781260837452 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781264302543 (spiral bound)  LCSH: Intercultural communication. | Cultural awareness. | Multiculturalism.  LCC HM1211 .M373 2022 | DDC 303.48/2—dc23  LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020020603 The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw Hill LLC, and McGraw Hill LLC does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

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About the Authors

The two authors of this book come to intercultural communication from very different backgrounds and very different research traditions. Yet we believe that these differences offer a unique approach to thinking about intercultural communication. We briefly introduce ourselves here, but we hope that by the end of the book you will have a much more complete understanding of who we are. Judith Martin grew up in Mennonite communities, primarily in Delaware and Pennsylvania. She has studied at the Université de Grenoble in France and has taught in Algeria. She received her doctorate at the Pennsylvania State University. By background and training, she is a social scientist who has focused on intercultural communication on an interpersonal level and has studied how people’s communication is affected as they move or sojourn between international locations. More recently, she has studied how people’s cultural backgrounds influence their online communication. She has taught at the State University of New York at Oswego, the University of Minnesota, the University of New Mexico, and Arizona State University. She enjoys gardening, hiking in the Arizona desert, Judith Martin traveling, and Netflix. Tom Nakayama grew up mainly in Georgia, at a time when the Asian American presence was much less than it is now. He has studied at the Université de Paris and various universities in the United States. He received his doctorate from the University of Iowa. By background and training, he is a critical rhetorician who views intercultural communication in a social context. He has taught at the California State University at San Bernardino and Arizona State University. He has done a Fulbright at the Université de Mons in Belgium. He is now professor of communication studies at Northeastern University in Boston. He lives Courtesy of Glenn Turner in Providence, Rhode Island and loves taking the train to campus. He loves the change of seasons in New England, especially autumn. The authors’ very different life stories and research programs came together at Arizona State University. We each have learned much about intercultural communication through our own experiences, as well as through our ­intellectual pursuits. Judith has a well-established record of social science approaches to intercultural communication. v

vi  About the Authors

Tom, in contrast, has taken a nontraditional approach to understanding intercultural communication by emphasizing critical perspectives. We believe that these differences in our lives and in our research offer complementary ways of understanding intercultural communication. For more than 25 years, we have engaged in many different dialogues about intercultural communication—focusing on our experiences, thoughts, ideas, and analyses— which led us to think about writing this textbook. But our interest was not primarily sparked by these dialogues; rather, it was our overall interest in improving intercultural relations that motivated us. We believe that communication is an important arena for improving those relations. By helping people become more aware as intercultural communicators, we hope to make this a better world for all of us.

Brief Contents

PART I

FOUNDATIONS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 1

Chapter

1

Why Study Intercultural Communication?  2

Chapter

2

The Study of Intercultural Communication  41

Chapter

3

Culture, Communication, Context, and Power  78

Chapter

4

History and Intercultural Communication  116

PART II

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION PROCESSES 157

Chapter

5

Identity and Intercultural Communication  158

Chapter

6

Language and Intercultural Communication  215

Chapter

7

Nonverbal Codes and Cultural Space  260

PART III

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION APPLICATIONS 301

Chapter

8

Understanding Intercultural Transitions  302

Chapter

9

Popular Culture and Intercultural Communication  344

Chapter 10

Culture, Communication, and Intercultural Relationships  375

Chapter

Culture, Communication, and Conflict  415

11

Chapter 12

Striving for Engaged and Effective Intercultural Communication  450

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Contents

Preface xix To the Student  xxxi



PART I

Chapter 1

FOUNDATIONS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 1

Why Study Intercultural Communication?  2 The Self-Awareness Imperative 3 The Demographic Imperative 5 Changing U.S. Demographics 5 Changing Immigration Patterns 6

The Economic Imperative 14 The Environmental Imperative 18 Floods and Droughts Lead to Migration 18 Wildfires 19 Water Rights 19 The Technological Imperative 20 Technology and Human Communication 20 Access to Communication Technology 24 The Peace Imperative 25 The Ethical Imperative 28 Relativity Versus Universality 28 Being Ethical Students of Culture 31 Internet Resources 34 Summary 35 Discussion Questions 35 ix

x  Contents

Activities 35 Key Words 36 References 36 Credits 40

Chapter 2

The Study of Intercultural Communication  41 The Early Development of the Discipline 42 Interdisciplinary Contributions 43 Perception and Worldview of the Researcher 44 Three Approaches to Studying Intercultural Communication 46 The Social Science Approach 48 The Interpretive Approach 54 The Critical Approach 60 A Dialectical Approach to Understanding Culture and Communication 66 Combining the Three Traditional Paradigms: The Dialectical Approach 66 Six Dialectics of Intercultural Communication 68 Keeping a Dialectical Perspective 71 Internet Resources 71 Summary 72 Discussion Questions 72 Activities 73 Key Words 73 References 74 Credits 77

Chapter 3

Culture, Communication, Context, and Power  78 What is Culture? 79 Social Science Definitions: Culture as Learned, Group-Related Perceptions 82

Contents xi

Interpretive Definitions: Culture as Contextual Symbolic Patterns of Meaning, Involving Emotions 83 Critical Definitions: Culture as Heterogeneous, Dynamic, and a Contested Zone 85

What is Communication? 87 The Relationship Between Culture and Communication 88 How Culture Influences Communication 88 How Communication Reinforces Culture 101 Communication as Resistance to the Dominant Cultural System 104 The Relationship Between Communication and Context 105 The Relationship Between Communication and Power 106 Internet Resources 111 Summary 111 Discussion Questions 112 Activities 112 Key Words 113 References 113 Credits 115

Chapter 4

History and Intercultural Communication  116 From History to Histories 118 Political, Intellectual, and Social Histories 119 Family Histories 120 National Histories 121 Cultural-Group Histories 123 History, Power, and Intercultural Communication 125 The Power of Texts 126 The Power of Other Histories 128 Power in Intercultural Interactions 130

History and Identity 130 Histories as Stories 131 Nonmainstream Histories 132

xii  Contents

Intercultural Communication and History 143 Antecedents of Contact 143 The Contact Hypothesis 144 Negotiating Histories Dialectically in Interaction 149 Internet Resources 150 Summary 151 Discussion Questions 152 Activities 152 Key Words 153 References 153 Credits 156



PART II

Chapter 5

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION PROCESSES 157

Identity and Intercultural Communication  158 Thinking Dialectically About Identity 159 The Social Science Perspective 161 The Interpretive Perspective 164 The Critical Perspective 165 Identity Development Issues 168 Minority Identity Development 169 Majority Identity Development 172 Social and Cultural Identities 175 Gender Identity 175 Sexual Identity 178 Age Identity 178 Racial and Ethnic Identities 180 Characteristics of Whiteness 183 Religious Identity 187 Class Identity 188 National Identity 191 Regional Identity 193

Contents xiii

Personal Identity 194 Multicultural People 194 Identity, Stereotypes, and Prejudice 200 Identity and Communication 204 Internet Resources 206 Summary 207 Discussion Questions 207 Activities 207 Key Words 208 References 208 Credits 213

Chapter 6

Language and Intercultural Communication 215 Social Science Perspective on Language 217 Language and Perception 218 Language and Thought: Metaphor 220 Cultural Variations in Communication Style 221 Influence of Interactive Media Use on Language and Communication Style 225 Slang and Humor in Language Use 225 Interpretive Perspective on Language 228 Variations in Contextual Rules 228 Critical Perspective on Language 229 Co-Cultural Communication 229 Discourse and Social Structure 233 The “Power” Effects of Labels 233 Moving Between Languages 235 Multilingualism 235 Translation and Interpretation 240 Language and Identity 243 Language and Cultural Group Identity 243 Code Switching 245

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Language Politics and Policies 247 Language and Globalization 250 Internet Resources 254 Summary 254 Discussion Questions 255 Activities 255 Key Words 256 References 256 Credits 258

Chapter 7

Nonverbal Codes and Cultural Space  260 Thinking Dialectically About Nonverbal Communication: Defining Nonverbal Communication 262 Comparing Verbal and Nonverbal Communication 263 What Nonverbal Behavior Communicates 264 The Universality of Nonverbal Behavior 266 Recent Research Findings 266 Nonverbal Codes 267 Stereotype, Prejudice, and Discrimination 278 Semiotics and Nonverbal Communication 280 Defining Cultural Space 283 Cultural Identity and Cultural Space 283 Changing Cultural Space 288 Postmodern Cultural Spaces 290 Internet Resources 293 Summary 293 Discussion Questions 294 Activities 294 Key Words 295 References 295 Credits 298

Contents xv

PART III

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION APPLICATIONS 301

Chapter 8

Understanding Intercultural Transitions  302 Thinking Dialectically About Intercultural Transitions 304 Types of Migrant Groups 306 Voluntary Migrants 307 Involuntary Migrants 308 Migrant–Host Relationships 310 Assimilation 312 Separation 313 Integration 314 Cultural Hybridity 316 Cultural Adaptation 317 Social Science Approach 318 Interpretive Approach 323 Critical Approach: Contextual Influences 332 Internet Resources 338 Summary 338 Discussion Questions 339 Activities 339 Key Words 339 References 340 Credits 343

Chapter 9

Popular Culture and Intercultural Communication  344 Learning About Cultures Without Personal Experience 346 The Power of Popular Culture 346 What is Popular Culture? 347 Consuming and Resisting Popular Culture 351 Consuming Popular Culture 351 Resisting Popular Culture 354

xvi  Contents

Representing Cultural Groups 356 Migrants’ Perceptions of Mainstream Culture 358 Popular Culture and Stereotyping 359 U.S. Popular Culture and Power 362 Global Circulation of Images and Commodities 362 Cultural Imperialism 365 Internet Resources 369 Summary 369 Discussion Questions 370 Activities 370 Key Words 371 References 371 Credits 373

Chapter 10

Culture, Communication, and Intercultural Relationships  375 Benefits and Challenges of Intercultural Relationships 377 Benefits 377 Challenges 379 Thinking Dialectically About Intercultural Relationships 382 Personal–Contextual Dialectic 383 Differences–Similarities Dialectic 384 Cultural–Individual Dialectic 384 Privilege–Disadvantage Dialectic 385 Static–Dynamic Dialectic 385 History/Past–Present/Future Dialectic 385 Intercultural Relationships 386 Social Science Approach: Cross-Cultural Differences 386 Interpretive Approach: Communicating in Intercultural Relationships 392 Critical Approach: Contextual Influences 403 Internet Resources 408 Summary 408 Discussion Questions 409

Contents xvii

Activities 410 Key Words 410 References 410 Credits 413

Chapter 11

Culture, Communication, and Conflict  415 Characteristics of Intercultural Conflict 418 Ambiguity 418 Language 420 Contradictory Conflict Styles 421

The Social Science Approach to Conflict 421 Cultural Values and Conflict 422 Religion and Conflict 422 Family Influences 423 Intercultural Conflict Styles 425 Gender, Ethnicity, and Conflict Styles 429 Interpretive and Critical Approaches to Social Conflict 430 Social Movements 432 Historical and Political Contexts 434 Managing Intercultural Conflict 436 Dealing with Interpersonal Conflict 437 Mediation 441 Peacebuilding 443 Internet Resources 444 Summary 445 Discussion Questions 446 Activities 446 Key Words 446 References 446 Credits 449

xviii  Contents

Chapter 12

Striving for Engaged and Effective Intercultural Communication  450 The Components of Competence 451 Social Science Perspective: Individual Components 452 Interpretive Perspective: Competence in Contexts 459 Critical Perspective: Competence for Whom? 461 Applying Knowledge About Intercultural Communication 463 Entering into Dialogue 463 Becoming Interpersonal Allies 465 Building Coalitions 466 Social Justice and Transformation 467 Forgiveness 471 What The Future Holds 473 Internet Resources 476 Summary 477 Discussion Questions 478 Activities 478 Key Words 478 References 479 Credits 481

Name Index  I-1 Subject Index  I-9

Preface

THE INCREASING IMPORTANCE OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN A RAPIDLY CHANGING WORLD On December 31, 2019, a new strain of coronavirus was identified in Wuhan, China. This virus, commonly known as the Coronavirus or COVID-19, was initially contained in China, largely due to China’s enormous quarantine of the Wuhan area. Quickly, however, the epidemic spread to other Asian countries, especially South Korea, and then to Europe and the rest of the world. It became a global pandemic. On the one hand, the spread of the virus and its impact on the global economy underscored how interconnected the world has become. People and goods travel around the globe and the spread of the virus demonstrated how significant these global connections are. This movement of goods and people was quickly slowed down or shut down entirely. Many people scrambled to get home, and the flow of goods began to have a tremendous impact on China, the world’s second largest economy and a major producer, as well as the United States, the world largest economy and a major consumer. On the other hand, the response to the spreading epidemic has been to revert to older notions of borders, as many nations put restrictions on crossing their borders, some completely closing their borders, e.g., for Spain “only Spanish citizens, residents and special cases will be allowed in the country” (Coronavirus, 2020). On top of this kind of border control, the European Union “agreed to close off a region encompassing at least 26 countries and more than 400 million people” (Stevins-Gridneff, 2020). The United Kingdom, no longer part of the European Union, did not agree to participate. At the time of this writing, we do not know how this pandemic will play out. We do know that so far, millions have contracted the disease, hundreds of thousands have died, and many more are suffering economic devastation; life all over the globe has changed immeasurably. People are asking how different cultural responses to the virus have different results. Government public health policies emerge within cultural and political frameworks. Can individualist cultures expect their citizens to follow rules that impact others? Are collectivist cultures better positioned to deal with these public health issues? After being asked to stay home and avoid contact with others, a Twitter user, Katie Williams, wrote: “I just went to a crowded Red Robin and I’m 30. It was delicious, and I took my sweet time eating my meal. Because this is America. And I’ll do what I want” (quoted in Dillin, 2020). The infrastructure of different places have also influenced the response: “the vigilant monitoring systems in Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong were built over years, after their failures to stop another dangerous xix

xx  Preface

outbreak—SARS—17 years ago. The United States disbanded its pandemic response unit in 2018” (Beech, 2020). We start with this focus on the Coronavirus as you may have been impacted by it. Your university or college may have moved classes online and some people that you know might have contracted it. Our cultures shape how we respond to these crisis situations, as our cultural frameworks offer us a way to understand how to respond. Do we follow the directives of the government officials? Or do we do what we want? Do we think about others? Or is it is everyone for him/herself? What will happen to globalization? Will we move more toward closing borders or will we reach out and be more engaged with the world? Those who study, teach, and conduct research in intercultural communication face an increasing number of challenges and other difficult questions: Are we actually reinforcing stereotypes in discussing cultural differences? Is there a way to understand the dynamics of intercultural communication without resorting to lists of instructions? How do we understand the broader social, political, and historical contexts when we teach intercultural communication? How can we use our intercultural communication skills to help enrich our lives and the lives of those around us? Can intercultural communication scholars promote a better world for all? Such questions are driven by rapidly changing cultural dynamics—both within the United States and abroad. On the one hand, natural disasters like wildfires in Australia and California, as well as migrants, driven from their home by climate change conditions or warfare have elicited a variety of positive responses, including tremendous caring and compassion across intercultural and international divides. On the other hand, the increasing number of terrorist attacks, many fueled by the increasing ideology of white supremacy world wide, the tightening of national borders in response to global migration, conflicts between police and communities of color in the United States, and the racist and hateful and sometimes false content posted on social media exemplify and sometimes exacerbate and lead to increased intergroup conflict (Hindu vs Muslim in India, violence against Rohingya in Myanmar, Uighurs in China forced into “reeducation camps”). These extremes demonstrate the dynamic nature of culture and communication. We initially wrote this book in part to address questions and issues such as these. Although the foundation of intercultural communication theory and research has always been interdisciplinary, the field is now informed by three identifiable and competing paradigms, or “ways of thinking.” In this book, we attempt to integrate three different research approaches: (1) the traditional social-psychological approach that emphasizes cultural differences and how these differences influence communication, (2) the interpretive approach that emphasizes understanding communication in context, and (3) the critical approach that underscores the importance of power and historical ­context to understanding intercultural communication, including postcolonial approaches. We believe that each of these approaches has important contributions to make to the understanding of intercultural communication and that they operate in interconnected and sometimes contradictory ways. In this eighth edition, we have further strengthened our dialectical approach, which encourages students to think critically about intercultural phenomena as seen from these ­various perspectives. Throughout this book, we acknowledge that there are no easy solutions to the difficult challenges of intercultural communication. Sometimes our discussions raise

Preface xxi

more questions than they answer. We believe that this is perfectly reasonable. The field of intercultural communication is changing, but the relationship between culture and communication is as well—because that relationship is, and probably always will be, complex and dynamic. We live in a rapidly changing world where intercultural contact will continue to increase, creating an increased potential for both conflict and cooperation. We hope that this book provides the tools needed to think about intercultural communication, as a way of understanding the challenges and recognizing the advantages of living in a multicultural world.

References Beech, H. (2020, March 17). Tracking the Coronavirus: How crowded Asian cities tackled an epidemic. The New York Times. Retrieved March 17, 2020, from https://www .nytimes.com/2020/03/17/world/asia/coronavirus-singapore-hong-kong-taiwan.html? action=click&module=Spotlight&pgtype=Homepage Coronavirus: Germany latest country to close borders. (2020, March 16). BBC News. Retrieved March 17, 2020, from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51905129 Dillin, R. (2020, March 15). #CoronaKatie trends after Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez begs people to stay in & woman tweets “I’ll do what I want.” Inquisitr. Retrieved March 17, 2020, from https://www.inquisitr.com/5943659 /coronakatie-alexandria-ocasio-cortez/ Parodi, E., Jewkes, S. Cha, S. & Park, J. (2020, March 12). Special report: Italy and South Korea virus outbreaks reveal disparity in death and tactcs. Reuters. Retrieved March 17, 2020, from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health -coronavirus-response-specialre/italy-and-south-korea-virus-outbreaks-reveal-disparity -in-deaths-and-tactics-idUSKBN20Z27P Stevins-Gridneff, S. (2020, March 17). Europe shuts out visitors to slow Coronavirus. The New York Times. Retrieved March 17, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com /2020/03/17/world/europe/EU-closes-borders-virus.html

SIGNATURE FEATURES OF THE BOOK Students usually come to the field of intercultural communication with some knowledge about many different cultural groups, including their own. Their understanding often is based on observations drawn from the Internet, social media, television, movies, books, personal experiences, news media, and other sources. In this book, we hope to move students gradually to the notion of a dialectical framework for thinking about cultural issues. That is, we show that knowledge can be acquired in many different ways—through social scientific studies, experience, media reports, and so on—but these differing forms of knowledge need to be seen dynamically and in relation to each other. We offer students a number of ways to begin thinking critically about intercultural communication in a dialectical manner. These include: • An explicit discussion of differing research approaches to intercultural communication, focusing on both the strengths and limitations of each

xxii  Preface

• Ongoing attention to history, popular culture, and identity as important factors in understanding intercultural communication • Student Voices boxes in which students relate their own experiences and share their thoughts about various intercultural communication issues • Point of View boxes in which diverse viewpoints from news media, research studies, and other public forums are presented • Incorporation of the authors’ own personal experiences to highlight p ­ articular aspects of intercultural communication

NEW TO THE EIGHTH EDITION • To reflect the increasing doubts about the benefits of an increasing rise of populism both in the U.S. and abroad, we continue to emphasize the importance of these issues to intercultural communication. For example, in Chapter 1, we discuss how globalization and related economic ­recessions influence intercultural communication. In Chapter 8, we provide new examples of the impact of war and terrorism on the continuing worldwide migration and the resulting intercultural encounters. • The continuing and expanding influence of communication technology in our daily lives is addressed by new material in Chapter 1, acknowledging the increasing (and dialectic) role, negative and positive, of social media in intercultural encounters, and social media examples are interwoven throughout the book. • Our expanded discussion of the implications of religious identity and belief systems in ­Chapters 1 and 11 is prompted by continued awareness of the important role religion plays in intercultural communication. • We continue to emphasize the important roles that institutions play in intercultural contact. In Chapter 8, we address the role of institutions in supporting or discouraging refugees, as well as immigrants and other kinds of intercultural transitions.

The eighth edition of Intercultural Communication in Contexts is now available online with Connect, McGraw-Hill Education’s integrated assignment and assessment platform. Connect also offers SmartBook for the new edition, which is the first adaptive reading experience proven to improve grades and help students study more effectively. All of the title’s website and ancillary content is also available through Connect, including: • A full Test Bank of multiple choice questions that test students on central concepts and ideas in each chapter • An Instructor’s Manual for each chapter with full chapter outlines, sample test questions, and discussion topics

Preface xxiii

CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER OVERVIEW Intercultural Communication in Contexts is organized into three parts: Part I, “Foundations of Intercultural Communication”; Part II, “Intercultural Communication Processes”; and Part III, “Intercultural Communication Applications.” Part I, “Foundations of Intercultural Communication,” explores the history of the field and presents various approaches to this area of study, including our own. We begin Chapter 1 with a focus on the dynamics of social life and global conditions as a rationale for the study of intercultural communication. We introduce ethics in this chapter to illustrate its centrality to any discussion of intercultural interaction. In this edition, we have introduced the “Environmental Imperative,” emphasizing the importance of increasing instances of wildfires, floods, droughts, and associated intercultural challenges (migration, conflict). We have also updated our discussion of the impact of rising populism and right-wing politics and immigration policies on intercultural encounters. In Chapter 2, we introduce the history of intercultural communication as an area of study as well as the three paradigms that inform our knowledge about intercultural interactions. We establish the notion of a dialectical approach so that students can begin to make connections and form relationships among the paradigms. We describe and illustrate these approaches through the very relevant case study of the continuing global migration, including the impacts on the various cultural groups (racial, ethnic, LGBTQ) who have left their countries and also on host communities in the destination countries, including the related short- and long-term political implications. In Chapter 3, we focus on four basic intercultural communication components—culture, communication, context, and power. In this edition, we’ve provided new examples of interpretive ethnographic research and extended our discussion of the critical impact of social media on cultural resistance (e.g., #metoo, the Time’s Up movement). Chapter 4 focuses on the importance of historical forces in shaping contemporary intercultural interaction. We include additional focus on family history, as well as a discussion of how national histories are narrated (e.g., renovation of the Colonial museum in Belgium, Holocaust denial, the new U.S. lynching museum, and Ireland’s emigration museum). In addition, we have added discussions on India’s colonial history and the British imposition of anti-same sex laws, and analyze the intercultural challenges in the controversy surrounding “Silent Sam,” the Confederate statute on the UNC-Chapel Hill campus. Part II, “Intercultural Communication Processes,” establishes the factors that contribute to the dynamics of intercultural communication: identity, language, and nonverbal codes. Chapter 5, on identity, has extended coverage of religious identity, multicultural identity, and sexual identity (in addition to gender identity). This chapter includes an extended exploration of cisgender and transgender identity, and its current status in various cultures. We also include an updated discussion on generational differences, as well as the concept of “stateless person” as an identity, as well as nationality, and further discuss microaggression as a communication strategy used to demean another identity in subtle ways.

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xxvi  Preface

Chapter 6 addresses language issues, with new examples of slang, and generational differences in communication style, as well as analysis of the communication style differences that influenced the challenging trade negotiations between the U.S. and China. We also introduce an extension of co-cultural theory—dominant group theory—that examines the strategies that dominant group members use in response to the concerns of co-cultural group members. Chapter 7 focuses on nonverbal codes and cultural spaces and includes new examples of cultural variations in nonverbal behavior, including manspreading, deception, and emoji use. There is also a discussion of recent controversies over wearing of hijab, the intercultural implications of LGBTQ-free zones in Poland as well as the recent postmodern mobile massively multiplayer online real-time strategy (MMORTS) games. Part III, “Intercultural Communication Applications,” helps students apply the knowledge of intercultural communication presented in the first two parts. Chapter 8 addresses intercultural transitions. In this edition, we have added updated material on the worldwide refugee situation, including the influence of interethnic conflict and populist politics. We also further discuss the problems of integration and assimilation, as well as the issues of working overseas for global businesses. In Chapter 9, we focus on popular and folk culture and their impact on intercultural communication. We have included new updated examples, including Green Book, as well as introduction of “yaoi” as an Asian popular culture example. Chapter 10 explores intercultural relationships. In this edition, we update the discussion of sexuality and intimate relationships (both cisgender and LGBTQ) in multicultural environments. We also discuss the importance of contextual influences on these relationships, as well as the continuing societal tensions concerning these relationships, and the implications for intercultural communication. Chapter 11 emphasizes an integrated approach to intercultural conflict in a many different ways, including conflict on social media, social change protests, as well as violence. We have refocused discussion on important strategies in peacebuilding, as well as the role of social movements (e.g., Black Lives Matter) and updated examples. Chapter 12 includes updated examples of current intercultural challenges (e.g., recent religious and ethnic/racial conflict) in both domestic and international contexts, as well as suggestions for practical ways to strive for intercultural competence in everyday encounters.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The random convergence of the two authors in time and place led to the creation of this textbook. We both found ourselves at Arizona State University in the early 1990s. Over the course of several years, we discussed and analyzed the multiple approaches to intercultural communication. Much of this discussion was facilitated by the ASU Department of Communication’s “culture and communication” theme. Department

Preface xxvii

faculty met to discuss research and pedagogical issues relevant to the study of communication and culture; we also reflected on our own notions of what constituted intercultural communication. This often meant reliving many of our intercultural experiences and sharing them with our colleagues. Above all, we must recognize the fine work of the staff at McGraw-Hill: Alex Preiss, Product Developer; Lisa Bruflodt, Content Project Manager; and Sarah Flynn, Content Licensing Specialist. In addition, we want to thank all the reviewers of this and previous editions of Intercultural Communication in Contexts, whose comments and careful readings were enormously helpful. They are:

First Edition Reviewers Rosita D. Albert, University of Minnesota Carlos G. Aleman, University of Illinois, Chicago Deborah Cai, University of Maryland Gail Campbell, University of Colorado, Denver Ling Chen, University of Oklahoma Alberto Gonzalez, Bowling Green State University Bradford “J” Hall, University of New Mexico Mark Lawrence McPhail, University of Utah Richard Morris, Northern Illinois University Catherine T. Motoyama, College of San Mateo Gordon Nakagawa, California State University, Northridge Joyce M. Ngoh, Marist College Nancy L. Street, Bridgewater State College Erika Vora, St. Cloud State University Lee B. Winet, State University of New York, Oswego Gust A. Yep, San Francisco State University

Second Edition Reviewers Eric Akoi, Colorado State University Jeanne Barone, Indiana/Purdue University at Fort Wayne Wendy Chung, Rider University Ellen Shide Crannell, West Valley College Patricia Holmes, University of Missouri Madeline Keaveney, California State University, Chico Mark Neumann, University of South Florida Margaret Pryately, St. Cloud State University Kara Shultz, Bloomsburg University

xxviii  Preface

Third Edition Reviewers Marguerite Arai, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs Rona Halualani, San José State University Piper McNulty, De Anza College Karla Scott, St. Louis University Candace Thomas-Maddox, Ohio University, Lancaster Susan Walsh, Southern Oregon University Jennifer Willis-Rivera, Southern Illinois State University

Fourth Edition Reviewers Sara DeTurk, University of Texas, San Antonio Christopher Hajek, University of Texas, San Antonio Mary M. Meares, Washington State University Kimberly Moffitt, DePaul University James Sauceda, California State University, Long Beach Kathryn Sorrells, California State University, Northridge David Zuckerman, Sacramento State University

Fifth Edition Reviewers Shirene Bell, Salt Lake Community College Lisa Bradford, University of Milwaukee-Wisconsin John Chiang, State University of New York Oneonta Susan DeTurk, University of Texas at San Antonio Charles Elliott, Cedarville University Gayle Houser, Northern Arizona University Tema Oliveira Milstein, University of New Mexico Marc Rich, California State University, Long Beach

Sixth Edition Reviewers Nader Chaaban, Northern Virginia Community College Jenny Gardner, Bay Path College Rachel Alicia Griffin, Southern Illinois University-Carbondale Julia Hagemann, Drexel University Amy N. Heuman, PhD, Texas Tech University Kumi Ishii, Western Kentucky University Meina Lui, University of Maryland Dr. Nina-Jo Moore, Appalachian State University

Preface xxix

Craig VanGeison, Saint Charles County Community College Nadene Vevea, North Dakota State University MJ Woeste, University of Cincinnati

Seventh Edition Reviewers Julie Chekroun, Santa Monica College & Cal State University Becky DeGreeff, Kansas State University Polytechnic Campus Thomas Green, Cape Fear Community College Rebecca Hall-Cary, Florida State University Kristine Knutson, University of Wisconsin Eau Claire Jerome Kreitzer, Community College of Vermont Grace Leinbach Coggio, University of Wisconsin-River Falls Ines Meyer-Hoess, The Pennsylvania State University

Eight Edition Reviewers Lee Artz, Purdue University Northwest Emily Bosch, Concordia College-Moorhead Rebecca Dumlao, East Carolina University Our colleagues and students have provided invaluable assistance. Thanks to our colleagues for their ongoing moral support and intellectual challenges to our thinking. Thanks to Marilyn Brimo, San Diego Mesa College for her timely suggestion to add “The Environmental Imperative” in this edition. Thanks to our editorial assistants, Megan Stephenson at Arizona State University and Dr. Deya Roy at California State University San Marcos. They found relevant scholarship and interesting examples to support and liven up our writing. They were also always cooperative and responsive even when they had their own research projects to complete and academic deadlines to meet. And as always, we owe thanks to our undergraduate students, who continue to challenge us to think about intercultural communication in ways that make sense to their lives. We thank our families and friends for once again allowing us absences and silences as we directed our energies toward the completion of this revision. We want to acknowledge both Ronald Chaldu and David L. Karbonski, who continue to be supportive of our academic writing projects. Our international experiences have enriched our understanding of intercultural communication theories and concepts. We thank all of the following people for helping us with these experiences: Tommy and Kazuko Nakayama; Michel Dion and Eliana Sampaïo of Strasbourg, France; Jean-Louis Sauvage and Pol Thiry of the Université de Mons-Hainaut, Belgium; Christina ­Kalinowska and the Café “Le Ropieur” in Mons, Belgium; Scott and the others at Le BXL in Brussels, Belgium; Emilio, Vince, Jimmy, Gene and the others at the Westbury Bar in Philadelphia; Jerzy, Alicja, Marek, and

xxx  Preface

Jolanta Drzewieccy of Bedzin, Poland; as well as Margaret Nicholson of the Commission for Educational Exchange between Belgium, Luxembourg, and the United States; and Liudmila Markina from Minsk, Belarus. Some research in this book was made possible by a scholarship from the Fulbright Commission and the Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique in Brussels. We also thank Dr. Melissa Steyn and her students at the Centre for Diversity Studies at the University of the Witswatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa for their insightful discussions. In addition, we thank the countless others we have met in cafés, train stations, bars, and conferences, if only for a moment of international intercultural interaction. Other people helped us understand intercultural communication closer to home, especially the staff and students at the Guadalupe Center at South ­Mountain Community College, and also Dr. Amalia Villegas, Cruzita Mori, and Lucia Madril and family. In spirit and conceptualization, our book spans the centuries and crosses many continents. It has been shaped by the many people we have read about and encountered. It is to these guiding and inspiring individuals—some of whom we had the good fortune to meet and some of whom we will never encounter—that we dedicate this book. It is our hope that their spirit of curiosity, openness, and understanding will be reflected in the pages that follow.

To the Student

Many textbooks emphasize in their introductions how you should use the text. In contrast, we begin this book by introducing ourselves and our interests in intercultural communication. There are many ways to think about intercultural interactions. One way to learn more about intercultural experiences is to engage in dialogue with others on this topic. Ideally, we would like to begin a dialogue with you about some of the ways to think about intercultural communication. Learning about intercultural communication is not about learning a finite set of skills, terms, and theories. It is about learning to think about cultural realities in multiple ways. Unfortunately, it is not possible for us to engage in dialogues with our readers. Instead, we strive to lay out a number of issues to think about regarding intercultural communication. In reflecting on these issues in your own interactions and talking about them with others, you will be well on your way to becoming both a better intercultural communicator and a better analyst of intercultural interactions. There is no endpoint from which we can say that we have learned all there is to know. Learning about communication is a lifelong process that involves experiences and analysis. We hope this book will generate many dialogues that will help you come to a greater understanding of different cultures and peoples and a greater appreciation for the complexity of intercultural communication.

COMMUNICATING IN A DYNAMIC, MULTICULTURAL WORLD We live in rapidly changing times. Although no one can foresee the future, we believe that changes are increasing the imperative for intercultural learning. In Chapter 1, you will learn more about some of these changes and their influence on intercultural communication. You stand at the beginning of a textbook journey into intercultural communication. At this point, you might take stock of who you are, what your intercultural communication experiences have been, both online and face-to-face, how you responded in those situations, and how you tend to think about those experiences. Some people respond to intercultural situations with amusement, curiosity, or interest; others may respond with hostility, anger, or fear. It is important to reflect on your experiences and to identify how you respond and what those reactions mean. We also think it is helpful to recognize that in many instances people do not want to communicate interculturally. Sometimes people see those who are culturally xxxi

xxxii  To the Student

different as threatening, as forcing them to change. They may believe that such people require more assistance and patience, or they may simply think of them as “different.” People bring to intercultural interactions a variety of emotional states and attitudes; further, not everyone wants to communicate interculturally. Because of this dynamic, many people have had negative intercultural experiences that influence subsequent intercultural interactions. Negative experiences can range from simple misunderstandings to physical violence. Although it may be unpleasant to discuss such situations, we believe that it is necessary to do so if we are to understand and improve intercultural interaction. Intercultural conflict can occur even when the participants do not intentionally provoke it. When we use our own cultural frames in intercultural settings, those hidden assumptions can cause trouble. For example, one of our students recounted an experience of conflict among members of an international soccer team based in Spain: “One player from the United States would have nervous breakdowns if practice started at 7:30 p.m., and players arrived late. This individual had been taught that ‘five minutes early was ten minutes late.’ The Spanish are not ones for arriving on time; to them you get there when you get there, no big deal. The players’ ‘hidden’ differing assumptions about appropriate behavior, time, and timing contributed to the conflict.” Intercultural experiences are not always fun. Sometimes they are frustrating, confusing, and distressing. On a more serious level, we might look at the U.S. military’s continued engagement in Iraq and Afghanistan as yet another example of intercultural communication. The subsequent interpretations of and reactions to this presence by different communities of people reflect important differences in our society and in the world at large. Although some people in the United States and abroad see these efforts as attempts to liberate oppressed people and establish democratic governments, others view them as imperialist intervention on the part of the United States. These differing views highlight the complexity of intercultural communication. We do not come to intercultural interactions as blank slates; instead, we bring our identities and our cultures.

IMPROVING YOUR INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION Although the journey to developing awareness in intercultural communication is an individual one, it is important to recognize the connections we all have to many different aspects of social life. You are, of course, an individual. But you have been influenced by culture. The ways that others regard you and communicate with you are influenced largely by whom they perceive you to be. By enacting cultural characteristics of masculinity or femininity, for example, you may elicit particular reactions from others. Reflect on your social and individual characteristics; consider how these characteristics communicate something about you. Finally, there is no list of things to do in an intercultural setting. Although prescribed reactions might help you avoid serious faux pas in one setting or culture, such lists are generally too simplistic to get you very far in any culture and may cause serious problems in other cultures. The study of communication is both a science

To the Student xxxiii

and an art. In this book, we attempt to pull the best of both kinds of knowledge together for you. Because communication does not happen in a vacuum but is integral to the many dynamics that make it possible—economics, politics, technology—the ever-changing character of our world means that it is essential to develop sensitivity and flexibility to change. It also means that you can never stop learning about intercultural communication.

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PART I

Foundations of Intercultural Communication CHAPTER 1

Why Study Intercultural Communication? CHAPTER 2

The Study of Intercultural Communication CHAPTER 3

Culture, Communication, Context, and Power CHAPTER 4

History and Intercultural Communication

1

CHAPTER

WHY STUDY INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION?

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

THE SELF-AWARENESS IMPERATIVE

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

THE DEMOGRAPHIC IMPERATIVE

1. Identify seven imperatives for studying intercultural c ­ ommunication. 2. Describe how technology can impact intercultural i­ nteraction. 3. Describe how global and domestic economic and environmental conditions influence intercultural r­ elations. 4. Explain how understanding intercultural communication can facilitate resolution of intercultural conflict. 5. Explain how studying intercultural communication can lead to increased self-understanding. 6. Understand the difference among a universalistic, a relativist, and a dialogic approach to the study of ethics and intercultural communication. 7. Identify and describe three characteristics of an ethical student of culture.

Changing U.S. Demographics Changing Immigration Patterns THE ECONOMIC IMPERATIVE THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPERATIVE

Floods and Droughts Lead to Migration Wildfires Water Rights THE TECHNOLOGICAL IMPERATIVE

Technology and Human Communication Access to Communication Technology THE PEACE IMPERATIVE THE ETHICAL IMPERATIVE

Relativity Versus Universality Being Ethical Students of Culture INTERNET RESOURCES SUMMARY DISCUSSION QUESTIONS ACTIVITIES KEY WORDS REFERENCES

2

Chapter 1 / Why Study Intercultural Communication? 3

When I was back home [Kuwait], before I came to the United States to go to college, I knew all about my culture and about my religion. However, I did not really know what other people from the other world [United States] think of Middle Eastern people or Muslims in general. So, what I have witnessed is a lot of discrimination in this country, not only against my race but against other groups. . . . Yet I understand that not all Americans hate us. I met a lot of Americans who are cooperative with me and show me love and are interested to know about my country and culture. —Mohamad My longest relationship was an intercultural relationship with a guy from C ­ olombia. We didn’t run into very many problems because we were both culturally open and enthusiastic to learn about each other’s traditions and values. We talked a lot about our backgrounds and really learned to embrace our differences, as we grew close with each other’s families. We both learned a lot about each other’s culture and different philosophies on life. Overall, it was an extremely rewarding experience. —Adrianna Both Mohamad’s and Adrianna’s experiences point to the benefits and ­challenges of intercultural communication. Through intercultural relationships, we can learn a tremendous amount about other people and their cultures, and about ourselves and our own cultural background. At the same time, there are many challenges. Intercultural communication can also involve barriers like stereotyping and discrimination. And these relationships take place in complex historical and political contexts. Mohamad’s experience in the United States is especially challenging today given the current political climate. An important goal in this book is how to increase your understanding of the dynamics at work in an intercultural interaction. This book will expose you to the variety of approaches we use to study intercultural communication. We also weave into the text our personal stories to make theory come alive. By linking theory and practice, we hope to give a fuller picture of intercultural communication than either one alone could offer. We bring many intercultural communication experiences to the text. As you read, you will learn not only about both of us as individuals but also about our views on intercultural communication. Don’t be overwhelmed by the seeming complexity of intercultural communication. Not knowing everything that you would like to know is very much a part of this process. Why is it important to focus on intercultural communication and to strive to become better at this complex pattern of interaction? We can think of at least seven reasons; perhaps you can add more.

THE SELF-AWARENESS IMPERATIVE One of the most important reasons for studying intercultural communication is the awareness it raises of our own cultural identity and background. This is also one of the least obvious reasons. Peter Adler (1975), a noted social psychologist, observes

4  Part I / Foundations of Intercultural Communication

that the study of intercultural communication begins as a journey into another culture and reality and ends as a journey into one’s own culture. We gain insights into intercultural experiences overseas. When Judith was teaching high school in Algeria, a Muslim country in North Africa, she realized something about her religious identity as a Protestant. December 25 came and went, and she taught classes with no mention of Christmas. Judith had never thought about how special the celebration of Christmas was or how important the holiday was to her. She then recognized on a personal level the uniqueness of this particular cultural practice. Erla, a graduate student from Iceland, notes the increased knowledge and appreciation she’s gained concerning her home country: Living in another country widens your horizon. You look at your country from a different point of view. We have learned not to expect everything to be the same as “at home,” but if we happen to find something that reminds us of home, we really appreciate it and it makes us very happy. Ultimately we are all very thankful that we had the opportunity to live in another country.

ethnocentrism  A tendency to think that our own culture is superior to other cultures.

However, it is important to recognize that intercultural learning is not always easy or comfortable. Sometimes, intercultural encounters make us aware of our own ethnocentrism—a tendency to think that our own culture is superior to other cultures. This means that we assume, subconsciously, that the way we do things is the only way. For example, when Tom first visited France he was surprised to discover that shoppers are expected to greet shopkeepers when entering a small store. Or that French people sometimes ate horsemeat, snails, and very fragrant cheeses. Sometimes, Americans think that these foods shouldn’t be eaten. This attitude that foods we eat are somehow normal and that people shouldn’t eat these other foods is a kind of ethnocentrism. To be surprised or even taken aback by unfamiliar ­customs is not unexpected; however, a refusal to expand your cultural horizons or to acknowledge the legitimacy of cultural practices different from your own can lead to intergroup misunderstandings and conflicts. What you learn depends on your social and economic position in society. Self-awareness through intercultural contact for someone from a racial or minority group may mean learning to be wary and not surprised at subtle slights by members of the dominant majority—and reminders of their place in society. For example, a Chinese American colleague is sometimes approached at professional meetings by white communication professors who ask her to take their drink order. If you are white and middle class, intercultural learning may mean an enhanced awareness of your privilege. White friends tell us that they became more aware of their racial privilege after George Floyd was killed by a white police officer in Minneapolis. In the midst of the nationwide protests, the legal protections afforded the police came into view. They suddenly realized the myriad of ways that police (and other social institutions) are protected and empowered by laws, court cases, and more that create an unequal field that helps and hurts us in different ways. Self-awareness, then, that comes through intercultural learning may involve an increased awareness of being caught up in political, economic, and historical systems—not of our own making.

Chapter 1 / Why Study Intercultural Communication? 5

THE DEMOGRAPHIC IMPERATIVE You have probably observed that your world is increasingly diverse. You may have classes with students who differ from you in ethnicity, race, religion, and/or nationality. College and university student bodies in the United States are becoming increasingly diverse. Statistics show that college enrollment for all racial and ethnic minorities has grown in the past 20 years, especially for Latino students where college enrollment has more than doubled. In fact, currently, approximately 45% of undergraduate students belong to racial and ethnic minority groups (Davis & Fry, 2019). Sports are also a very visible part of increasing diversity. Among the various U.S. American professional and college teams, the National Basketball Association and Women’s National Basketball Association receive the highest grades for racial and gender hiring practices; and the NBA continues to have the most owners of color and the most female majority owners (Lapchick, 2019). The Major League Baseball organization also receives high marks for diversity in administration (office staff, managers, etc.) and now almost 80% of its players are ethnic/racial minorities. In contrast, in 2019, there were only three Black NFL head coaches and of the 30 new head coaches hired in January 2020, not one is Black (Belson, 2020). College sports are maintaining their diversity, and probably the greatest prospects for expanding opportunities exist in college sports rather than at the professional sports level because of the number of jobs available (Lapcheck, 2019). In addition, team diversity can apparently improve performance. One research study of ­European soccer teams (with players from almost 50 different nationalities) found that the most linguistically diverse teams had the best winning records (Malesky & Saiegh, 2014).

Changing U.S. Demographics U.S. demographics are changing rapidly and provide another source of increased opportunity for intercultural contact. Racial and ethnic minorities are now growing more rapidly in numbers than whites. The fastest growth is among the multiracial Americans, followed by Asians and Hispanics. Non-Hispanic whites make up 60% of the U.S. population; Hispanics make up 19%; Blacks, 13%; Asians, 6%; and multiracial Americans, 3% (U.S. Census Bureau, 2019). This trend is expected to continue as shown in Figure 1-2 (Passel & Cohn, 2008). In fact, there are now 109 counties that are “majority-minority”—where there is no one majority ethnic group, and minority groups account for more than 50% of the population (Schaeffer, 2019). This loss of a white majority seems to lead to some white anxiety and fear. In fact, one study found that the anticipation of this loss resulted in whites expressing more preference for socializing and interacting primarily with whites and increased negative evaluations of racial minority groups (Craig, Rucker, & Richeson, 2018). We address the issue of whites losing majority status in Chapter 5. There is increasing diversity in the U.S. workforce as well—representing the diversity in the general population, in race and ethnicity, people with disabilities, and straight, gay, and transgendered individuals (see Figure 1-1).

demographics  The characteristics of a population, especially as classified by race, ethnicity, age, sex, and income.

6  Part I / Foundations of Intercultural Communication

FIGURE 1-1   Rapid changes in technology, demographics, and economic forces mean that you are likely to come into contact with many people with diverse backgrounds and experiences. Although many of these communication experiences will be in professional and work situations, many other interactions will be in public and social settings. (izusek/E+/Getty Images)

Changing Immigration Patterns

heterogeneous  Difference(s) in a group, culture, or population. homogeneous  Similarity in a group, culture, or population.

The second source of demographic change is different immigration patterns. Although the United States has often been thought of as a nation of immigrants, it is also a nation that established itself by subjugating the original inhabitants and that prospered to some extent as a result of slave labor. These aspects of national identity are important in understanding contemporary society. Today, immigration has changed the social landscape significantly. First, the foreign-born population continues to rise as a percentage of the total population, up from almost 5% in 1970 to more than 14% in 2020, but lower than 25 other countries and territories (Immigrant share.  .  .  . 2019), and also lower than it was during the great migrations in the 1800s and 1900s when most Europeans came to the United States (Radford, 2019). A second change concerns the origin of the immigrants. Prior to the 1970s, most of the immigrants to the United States came from Europe; now the large ­majority of immigrants are from Latin America (Radford, 2019). These shifts in patterns of immigration have resulted in a much more racially and ethnically diverse population and include 1 million lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender, or LGBT, adult immigrants. It’s not hard to see that the United States is becoming more heterogeneous. Sometimes more heterogeneous cultures are contrasted to more homogeneous cultures. Instead of thinking of cultures as either heterogeneous or homogeneous, it is more useful to think about cultures as more or less ­heterogeneous (or more or less homogeneous). Cultures can change over time and become more or less homogeneous. They can also be more heterogeneous than another culture.

Chapter 1 / Why Study Intercultural Communication? 7

90 80

Percent

70

85% 67%

60

47%

50 40

29%

30 20

14%

10 0

3.5%

11% 13% 13% 0.6%

5%

9%

1960 2005 2050

1960 2005 2050

1960 2005 2050

1960 2005 2050

White*

Hispanic

Black*

Asian*

FIGURE 1-2   Population by race and ethnicity, actual and projected: 1960, 2005, and 2050 (% of total). Source: From J. S. Passel and D’Vera Cohn, U.S. Population Projections: 2005–2050, Pew Research Center, 2008 , p. 9. Note: All races modified and not Hispanic (*); American Indian/Alaska Native not shown. See “Methodology.” Projections for 2050 indicated by light gray bars.

This heterogeneity presents many opportunities and challenges for students of intercultural communication. Sometimes tensions can be created by (and be the result of) world events and proposed legislation. After the devastating terror attacks in Paris in November 2015, people and governments had heightened concerns about the security threat posed by Middle Eastern refugees moving into Europe. For some, this concern translated to anti-immigrant/refugee attitudes and legislation. For example, in 2017, President Trump signed executive orders suspending the entry of immigrants from six Muslim countries and then initiated measures that would restrict immigration, including: building more barriers on the U.S.-Mexico border, allowing asylum seekers to cross at only certain border points, suspending the DACA program (Zoppo et al., 2017), and most recently, drastically cutting the number of refugees accepted into the United States (Shear & Kanno-Youngs, 2019). While some feel that these are reasonable measures, others feel that they pave the way for increased prejudice and discrimination against foreigners, particularly those from the Middle East and Latin America, especially given the fact that terrorist attacks by Islamist groups have decreased, comprising only 7% of attacks in the West, while twice as many (18%) were committed by far right groups (including white nationalists) (Brzozowski, 2019). We should also note the potential opportunities in a culturally diverse ­society. Diversity can expand our conceptions of what is possible—linguistically, politically, socially—as various lifestyles and ways of thinking converge. In fact, a growing number of research studies show that being around people who are different can make us more creative, more diligent, and make us work harder, especially for groups that value innovation and new ideas. Specifically, innovative groups and organizations who have gender and racial diversity produce more creative ideas and outperform less diverse groups (Phillips, 2014). However, increased

diversity  The quality of being different.

8  Part I / Foundations of Intercultural Communication

immigrants  People who come to a new country, region, or environment to settle more or less permanently. (Compare with ­sojourners, see Chapter 8)

opportunity does not always lead to increased interaction or positive attitudes. While a recent survey found that incoming college students say they want to promote racial understanding (Eagan et al., 2016), this doesn’t happen automatically. For example, if they’ve had a previous negative intercultural interaction, they may avoid such future contact. For majority students (straight, white, Christian), this means missing out on intercultural learning and prejudice reduction. For minority students (e.g., students of color, LGBTQ, first-generation, poor, international students), the results are much greater—affecting their sense of belonging, wellbeing, and overall educational experience (Hudson, 2018). In addition, there have been numerous reports of racist incidents on college and high school campuses across the country in recent years (Griffith, 2019). This may be because these students are graduating from high schools that are becoming increasingly more segregated (Orfield & Frankenberg, 2014). To get a better sense of the situation in the United States today, let’s take a look at our history. As mentioned previously, the United States has often been referred to as a nation of immigrants, but this is only partly true. When Europeans began arriving on the shores of the New World, an estimated 8 to 10 million Native Americans were already living here. Their ancestors probably began to arrive via the Bering Strait at least 40,000 years earlier. The outcome of the encounters between these groups—the colonizing Europeans and the native peoples—is well known. By 1940, the Native American population of the United States had been reduced to an estimated 250,000. Today, about 6.6 million Native Americans and Alaska Natives (from 567 recognized tribes) live in the United States (Native Americans by the Numbers, 2017). African American Immigrants African Americans represent a special case in the history of U.S. immigration. African Americans did not choose to emigrate but were brought here involuntarily, mainly as slave labor. Many Europeans also emigrated as indentured servants. However, the system of contract servitude was gradually replaced by perpetual servitude, or slavery, almost wholly of Africans. Many landowners wanted captive workers who could not escape and who could not become competitors. They turned to slave labor. The slave trade, developed by European and African merchants, lasted about 350 years, although slavery was outlawed in Europe long before it was ­outlawed in the United States. Roughly 10 million Africans reached the Americas, although many died in the brutal overseas passage (Curtin, 1969). Slavery is an important aspect of U.S. immigration history. As James Baldwin (1955) suggested, the legacy of slavery makes contemporary interracial relations in the United States very different from interracial relations in Europe and other regions of the world. Slavery presents a moral dilemma for many whites even today. A common response is simply to ignore history. Many people assert that because not all whites owned slaves, we should forget the past and move on. For others, forgetting the past is not acceptable. In fact, some historians, like James Loewen, maintain that acknowledging and understanding the past is the only viable alternative in moving forward and making the connection of slavery to the current racial tensions in the United States:

Chapter 1 / Why Study Intercultural Communication? 9

Slavery’s twin legacies to the present are the social and economic ­inferiority it conferred upon blacks and the cultural racism it spread throughout our culture. Slavery ended in 1863–65, depending upon where one lived. Unfortunately, racism, slavery’s handmaiden, did not. It lives on afflicting all of us today. (Loewen, 2010, p. 159) Influential author/journalist Ta-Nehisi Coates (2017) agrees that we should begin by acknowledging the historical flaws of U.S. society and recognizing the historical consequences of slavery. However, the United States has several Holocaust museums but no organized, official recognition of the horrors of slavery. Perhaps it is easier for us to focus on the negative events of another nation’s history than on those of our own. In their travels, Judith and Tom have been struck by other countries’ efforts to come to terms with a shameful history. South Africa has an impressive Apartheid Museum (and a memorial commemorating the Truth and Reconciliation movement); Berlin, Germany has numerous plaques that denote locations where Jews were torn from their homes and sent to their deaths; Rwanda has several genocide memorials for the murders of 800,000 mostly minority Tutsi citizens in 1994. In each country, the effort is to not eliminate the very painful past, but to communicate to all that they recognize the shame and the country has moved forward. While many U.S. Americans feel that the election of Barack Obama, the first African American president, shows some progress in U.S. race relations, others like author Coates see a current backlash against Obama’s presidency and a need for a continuing national conversation about race. In Chapter 4, we explore the importance of history in understanding the dynamics of intercultural communication. Relationships with New Immigrants Relationships between residents and immigrants—between oldtimers and newcomers—have often been filled with tension and conflict. In the 19th century, Native Americans sometimes were caught in the middle of European rivalries. During the War of 1812, for example, Indian allies of the British were severely punished by the United States when the war ended. In 1832, the U.S. Congress recognized the Indian nations’ right to self-government, but in 1871, a congressional act prohibited treaties between the U.S. government and Indian tribes. In 1887, Congress passed the Dawes Severalty Act, terminating Native Americans’ special relationship with the U.S. government and paving the way for their removal from their homelands. As waves of immigrants continued to roll in from Europe, the more firmly established European—mainly British—immigrants tried to protect their way of life, language, and culture. As one citizen lamented in 1856, Four-fifths of the beggary and three-fifths of the crime spring from our foreign population; more than half the public charities, more than half the prisons and almshouses, more than half the police and the cost of administering criminal justice are for foreigners. (quoted in Cole, 1998, p. 126) The foreigners to which this citizen was referring were mostly from Ireland, devastated by the potato famines, and from Germany, which had fallen on hard economic and political times. Historian James Banks (1991) identifies other antiimmigrant events throughout the nation’s history. As early as 1729, an English mob

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Anglocentrism  Using Anglo or white cultural standards as the criteria for interpretations and judgments of behaviors and attitudes. melting pot  A metaphor that assumes that immigrants and cultural minorities will be assimilated into the U.S. majority culture, losing their original cultures. nativistic  Extremely patriotic to the point of being anti-immigrant.

prevented a group of Irish immigrants from landing in Boston. A few years later, another mob destroyed a new Scots-Irish Presbyterian church in Worcester, Massachusetts. In these acts, we can see the Anglocentrism that characterized early U.S. history. Later, northern and western European (e.g., German and Dutch) characteristics were added to this model of American culture. Immigrants from southern, central, and eastern Europe (e.g., Italy and Poland) were expected to assimilate into the so-called mainstream culture—to jump into the melting pot and come out “American.” In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a nativistic (anti-immigrant) movement propagated violence against newer immigrants. In 1885, 28 Chinese were killed in an anti-Chinese riot in Wyoming; in 1891, a white mob attacked a Chinese community in Los Angeles and killed 19 people; also in 1891, 11 Italian Americans were lynched in New Orleans. Nativistic sentiment was well supported at the government level. In 1882, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act, officially prohibiting anyone who lived in China from immigrating to this country. In 1924, the Johnson-Reed Act and the Oriental Exclusion Act established extreme quotas on immigration, virtually precluding the legal immigration of Asians. The nativistic sentiment increasingly was manifested in arguments that economic and political opportunities should be reserved solely for whites, and not just for native-born Americans. By the 1930s, southern and eastern European groups were considered “assimilatable,” and the concept of race assumed new meaning. All of the so-called white races were now considered one, so racial hostilities could focus on ethnic (nonwhite) groups, such as Asian Americans, Native Americans, and Mexican Americans (Banks, 1991). Sociologist David Roediger (1999) traces how devastating this racialization was, particularly for African ­Americans. In the growing, but sometimes fragile, economy of the first half of the 20th ­century, white workers had an advantage. Although white immigrants received low wages, they had access to better schools and to public facilities, and they were accorded greater public acceptance. People of color often were ­considered less fit to receive economic benefits and, to some extent, were not considered to be truly ­American (Foner, 1998). The notion of the melting pot began to break down as immigrants came in larger numbers from outside of Europe. Although European immigrants were able to melt into white society, other immigrants were barred from doing so. In order to melt into white society, European immigrants were encouraged to assimilate by speaking English only and dropping their culturally specific customs. As part of this melting pot experience, many Americans of European ancestry today do not speak their forebearers’ languages, such as German, Dutch, Norwegian, ­Polish, or Hungarian. Although the notion of the melting pot could explain European immigrant experiences, the metaphor did not explain other immigrant experiences. Immigrants from Asia, Latin America, and Africa did not simply blend into white society. As we will see in Chapter 4, there are many legal and historical reasons why this did not ­happen. Some people are critical of the melting pot metaphor, not only because it does not explain the experiences of non-European immigrants, but also because it implies that immigrants should give up their unique cultural backgrounds to become white and American.

POINT of VIEW

C

onsider the facts below regarding attitudes toward immigrants and facts about current immigrants. Does this information make you think differently about immigrants? How might this information impact communication between citizens and recent immigrants? According to a recent survey, ▪▪ Most U.S. Americans have a positive view of immigrants; 62% said that immigrants strengthen the country because of their hard work and talents and about half say that the United States should accept refugees. ▪▪ The exception are white evangelical protestants, of whom only 25% say the United States should accept refugees (Hartig, 2018).

According to other statistics, current immigrants living in the United States ▪▪ Are less likely than native born citizens to commit crimes or become incarcerated. ▪▪ With very few exceptions (such as access to medical care for victims of human trafficking), undocumented immigrants are not eligible for federal public benefits such as Social Security, Medicaid, Medicare, and food stamps. ▪▪ Have never been the source of any modern disease outbreaks in the United States. In fact, many Latin American countries have higher vaccination rates for one-yearolds than the United States. ▪▪ More than half of the foreign-born population are homeowners and are becoming homeowners at a faster rate than the U.S.-born population. ▪▪ Compared with all Americans, their U.S.-born children are more likely to go to college, less likely to live in poverty, and equally likely to be homeowners. Sources: From https://www.adl.org/media/6950/download; https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/immigration/reports/2017/04/20/430736/facts -immigration-today-2017-edition/. From K. Bialik “State of the Union 2019: How Americans See Major National Issues,” Pewresearch. org, Retrieved February 4, 2019, from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/02/04/state-ofthe-union-2019-how-americans-see-major-national-issues/. From H. Hartig “Republicans Turn More Negative Toward Refugees as Number Admitted to U.S. Plummets. Pewresearch.org, May 24, 2018, from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/05/24 /republicans-turn-more-negative-toward-refugees-as-number-admitted-to-u-s-plummets/.

Economic conditions make a big difference in attitudes toward foreign ­workers and immigration policies. During the Depression of the 1930s, ­Mexicans and ­Mexican Americans were forced to return to Mexico to free up jobs for white ­Americans. When prosperity returned in the 1940s, Mexicans were welcomed back as a source of cheap labor. This type of situation is not limited to the United States, but occurs all over the world. For example, Algerian workers are alternately welcomed and rejected in France, depending on the state of the French economy and

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the demand for imported labor. Guest workers from Turkey have been subjected to similar uncertainties in Germany. The tradition of tension and conflict among cultures continues to this day. For example, some U.S. Blacks and Latinos feel that hiring of undocumented workers depresses their wages; in 2020, Texas was the first state to publicly refuse any settlement of refugees. Similarly, in West Africa, Cameroon, a country that used to welcome refugees from neighboring Nigeria fleeing violence in their home region is now refusing them—due to their own internal problems (Obaji, 2019). In Chapter 8, we discuss the implications of these migration patterns for intercultural communication. Immigration and Economic Classes Some of the conflict may be related to the economic disparity that exists among these different groups. To understand this disparity, we need to look at issues of economic class. Most Americans are reluctant to admit that a class structure exists and even more reluctant to admit how difficult it is to move up in this structure. Indeed, most people live their lives in the same economic class into which they were born. And there are distinct class differences in clothing, housing, recreation, conversation, and other aspects of everyday life (Fussell, 1992). For example, the driveways to the homes of the very rich are usually obscured, whereas those of upper-class homes usually are long and curved and quite visible. Driveways leading to middle-class homes, in contrast, tend to go straight into garages. The myth of a classless society is hardly benign. It not only reinforces middleand upper-class beliefs in their own superior abilities, but also promotes a false hope among the working class and the poor that they can get ahead. Whereas real-life success stories of upward mobility are rare, fictitious ones abound in literature, film, and television. In 2020, the pandemic and the resulting near collapse of the worldwide (and U. S.) economy, the American Dream seems increasingly out of reach for many. In fact, immigrants and minority communities are the hardest hit in the current recession. The top 20% of U.S. households own more than 84% of the wealth, and the bottom 40% combine for a mere 0.3% (that’s right, not 3%, but 0.3%). 95% of recent gains have gone to the richest 1% of people, whose share of overall income is once again close to its highest level in a century. The most unequal country in the rich world is thus becoming even more so (Telford, 2019). Another recent study asked more than 50,000 people from 40 countries to estimate how much corporate CEOs and unskilled workers earned. Then they asked people how much CEOs and workers should earn. The average American estimated that the CEO-to-worker pay-ratio was 30-to-1, and that ideally, it’d be 7-to-1. The reality? The difference between CEO pay and unskilled worker is 354-1. Fifty years ago, it was 20-1. Again, the patterns were the same for all, regardless of age, education, political affiliation, or opinion on inequality and pay. The focus of some 2020 presidential candidates on economic inequality may reflect a growing concern on the part of many Americans (Fitz, 2015). A real consequence of this gap and the number of working poor is lowered economic growth in the nation and less equality of opportunity for the next generation. There are real material consequences. For example, a recent study showed that the rich even live longer than the poor. Men in the top 1% income bracket live 15 years

STUDENT VOICES I am involved in many different intercultural relationships. The main benefit of these relationships is that it shows other people that there is no reason to fear intercultural relationships. My generation, while more open to intercultural relationships than previous ones, is still hesitant, and I am often the recipient of dirty looks from strangers who disapprove. It is disheartening that people believe there is a difference in races, but the best way to change people’s minds is to show them firsthand, which is what I hope to do. —Katie

longer than the poorest 1%. In fact in some parts of the United States, adults with the lowest incomes on average die as young as people in much poorer nations in Africa and Asia (Fadula, 2019). Religious Diversity Immigration also contributes to religious diversity, bringing increasing numbers of Muslims, Buddhists, Confucians, Catholics, and others to the United States. The religious composition of the United States is rapidly changing due to a number of factors. According to a Pew Research survey, the percentages of ­Americans who say they believe in God, pray daily, and regularly go to church or other religious services all have declined somewhat in recent years. The recent decrease in religious beliefs and behaviors is largely attributable to the “nones”—the growing minority of ­Americans, particularly in the Millennial generation, who say they do not belong to any organized faith. What do these changes mean to the role of religion in a diverse society? What is the future of religion in the United States? Religious beliefs and practices often play an important role in everyday cultural life. One example is the very different views on abortion, described by our student Tanya: Pro-choice and pro-lifers have incredibly different worldview lenses. These different lenses they see through are most of the time influenced by religion and social upbringing. The values are different, yet no side is wrong and cannot see through the same worldview lens as their opponents. These different worldviews can sometimes lead to prejudices and stereotypes. Stereotypes about Islam and Muslims are widespread in the United States and violence against Muslims has increased. Across the country, hate crimes targeting Muslims, their mosques, and businesses have increased; girls wearing hijabs have been harassed, mosques have been defaced and targeted by arsonists, and similar terrible recent attacks on Jews—while they worshiped in a Pittsburgh synagogue, on the streets in New York, and in Rabbi’s home during a Hanukkah celebration. Some say that religious and political leaders use these stereotypes in ways that increase prejudice and discrimination. Political scientist Ali Muzrui (2001) describes Islam as the “ultimate negative ‘Other’ to the Christian tradition” and laments

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Islamophobia (fear of Islam and the hostility toward it). He lists the ­contrasting stereotypes: Whereas Christianity is supposed to be peace loving, Islam is portrayed as fostering holy war (Jihad). Whereas Christianity liberates women, Islam enslaves them. Whereas Christianity is modern, Islam is medieval. Whereas Christianity is forward looking, Islam is backward looking. Whereas Christians prefer nonviolence, Muslims easily resort to terrorism. (p. 110) Muzrui goes on to present evidence to debunk these stereotypes. Religious diversity is part of the demographic imperative that challenges us to learn more about intercultural communication. These increasingly diverse ethnic, racial, economic, political, and religious groups come into contact mostly during the day in schools, businesses, and other settings, bringing to the encounters different languages, histories, and economic statuses. This presents great challenges for us as a society and as individuals (Doherty, 2017). The main challenge is to look beyond the stereotypes and biases, to recognize the disparities and differences, and to try to apply what we know about intercultural communication. Perhaps the first step is to realize that the melting pot metaphor probably was never viable, that it was not realistic to expect everyone to assimilate into the United States in the same way. Today we need a different metaphor, one that reflects the racial, ethnic, and cultural diversity that truly exists in our country. Perhaps we should think of the United States as a “salad,” in which each group retains its own flavor and yet contributes to the whole. Or we might think of it as a “tapestry,” with many different strands contributing to a unified pattern. Fortunately, most individuals are able to negotiate day-to-day activities in spite of cultural differences. Diversity can even be a positive force. Demographic diversity in the United States has given us tremendous linguistic richness and culinary variety, varied resources to meet new social challenges, as well as domestic and international business opportunities.

THE ECONOMIC IMPERATIVE The idea of globalization—the creation of a world market in goods, services, labor, capital, and technology—is a point of disagreement for economists and workers alike. Nothing underscored the importance of global connectedness like the coronovirus pandemic of 2020—with disruptions in delivery and then shortages of medical, food, and other supplies. The continuing backlash against globalization is populism and protectionism and a withdrawal from global markets (e.g. tariffs leveled on foreign products). While some jobs have been lost due to the pandemic or protectionism, experts caution that many jobs worldwide are lost as a result of enormous economic “disruptions”: automation, digitization and climate change. For example, ride-sharing and self-driving cars and trucks mean fewer truck and taxi/lyft/Uber drivers; online shopping and fast food digital ordering means fewer sales people, etc. Climate change has also disrupted economies; for example, the loss of the coal industry and millions of jobs in the search for low-carbon economy (Orlik, Johnson, & Tanzi, 2018). What are the

STUDENT VOICES I believe it is very important to learn about intercultural communication both for personal and professional reasons. Knowing about other cultures, their lifestyles, traditions, and mindsets, allow you to interact better with them, to learn from them, and to respect them. Additionally, good intercultural communication is crucial in the workplace in order for every employee to feel comfortable and encouraged to express who they are and to provide diverse perspectives for problem solving. A company culture like that facilitates international expansion (if the company is thinking of opening offices internationally). No matter what industry you end up working in, intercultural communication is relevant. —Luis

implications for intercultural communication? The most successful businesses and workers in this global economy are adaptable and resourceful. The point is that, to compete effectively in this global market, Americans must understand how business is conducted in other countries (see Figure 1-3). American businesspeople should be able to negotiate deals that are advantageous to the U.S. economy. However, they are not always willing to take the time and effort to do this. For example, most U.S. automobile manufacturers do not produce automobiles that suit the Japanese market, e.g., they are too big, with no right hand drive. Stories abound of U.S. marketing slogans that were inaccurately translated, like Pepsi’s “Come alive with the Pepsi Generation,” which was translated into Chinese as “Pepsi brings your ancestors back from the grave” or had culturally inappropriate meanings like Ford’s marketing the Pinto in Brazil (slang for “small male genitals”) (Branding so much more, 2011). Cross-cultural trainers in the United States report that Asian business ­personnel often spend years in the United States studying English and ­learning about the country before they decide to establish operations here or invest money. In contrast, many American companies provide little or no training before sending their workers overseas and expect to close business deals quickly, with little regard for cultural idiosyncrasies. While business leaders admit that they have an uneven playing field in China (China has been accused of copyright infringement and unfair business agreements), they still want to capture the huge and lucrative China market—-a billion customers (Rapoza, 2019), and they need to learn how to do this. For example, eBay, the successful American e-commerce giant, copied its American model to China and got completely destroyed by local competitor Taobao. Why? Because Taobao understood that in China, shopping is a social experience and people like talking and even haggling with sellers and building relationships with them. Taobao had a chat feature that allowed customers to easily talk to sellers. Other failures include Mattel’s Barbie, and DeBeers diamond company (Why successful brands fail in China, 2019). In contrast, Starbucks’ decision to change its logo when it entered the Asian markets seems to be successful (see Point of View, p. 16). There are many reasons why businesspeople have difficulty succeeding in Chinese and other Asian markets. The reasons involve both differences in business

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POINT of VIEW STARBUCKS’ LOGO REDESIGN COULD PROVE BENEFICIAL TO COMPANY A recent press release describes why Starbucks’ decision to change its logo could be a good move as it expands into Asian markets. It recently dropped both its name and the word “coffee” from its 40-year-old logo in preparation for tripling its locations in China from about 400 to 1,500. In this release, Rice University Professor of Marketing Vikas Mittal described the interesting results of several studies investigating customers, logos, and brand commitment. He and his co-researchers found that, while Starbucks may have alienated some of their loyal U.S. customers, the redesign will probably attract new consumers in Asian countries like China, India, Taiwan, and ­Singapore, where consumers tend to be culturally collectivist and interdependent. Mittal said that removing the lettering gives the logo a more rounded appearance, and his research found that people with collectivistic values, like those in Asia, prefer rounded shapes. In fact, brands in collectivistic countries tend to have a higher percentage of rounded logos when compared to logos in individualistic countries (e.g., the United States), and logos and product shapes that are rounded are more acceptable and embraced in those cultures. The researchers’ explanation for Asians’ preference for rounded shapes is that these shapes represent harmony, which is consistent with an interdependent view of the world. Source: From J. Stark, “Rice research shows Starbucks logo redesign could prove beneficial to company,” Press Release, January 6, 2011. Retrieved May 25, 2011, from www.media.rice.edu/media /NewsBot.asp?MODE=VIEW&ID=15215&SnID=1521497554.

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FIGURE 1-3   To conduct business successfully in the global marketplace, Americans must understand the principles of ­intercultural business ­communication. (Goran Bogicevic/123RF )

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practices and cultural differences between East and West. For example, business dealings in China, as in many Eastern countries, are relationship-oriented, and business relationships cannot succeed without respect and harmony, and great importance is placed on guanxi or kuan-hsi (relationship or connection). Businesses, like eBay, who ignore this are likely to fail. There are other important cultural differences. For example, contract law is practiced very differently in China. Whereas in the West, the law is the essential set of rules of conduct; the “rules of conduct” in China are the ethics and standards of behavior required in a Confucian ­society. This means that social pressures rather than legal instruments are used to ensure compliance. Thus, what we might conceptualize as a legal issue may be seen in China as a relationship issue (Varner & Beamer, 2011). We discuss the implications of these types of cultural differences for relationships (Chapter 10) and conflicts (Chapter 11). Cultural differences in business practices have implications not only when people from different companies do business with each other, but also when ­people from different cultures work on the same team—sometimes working as virtual teams and rarely meeting face-to-face. These teams present large challenges in intercultural communication. These challenges include scheduling meetings for workers across many time zones and dealing with cultural and language differences. Even when employees have good language skills, they naturally interpret written and verbal communication through the filter of their own culture. For example, Israeli workers in one multinational company wondered why their U.S. counterparts would sometimes seem upset by e-mail exchanges. It turned out that Israelis, who tend to be rather direct and sometimes blunt, were sending e-mails that seemed rude to their American counterparts. And Americans’ e-mails seemed “wishy-washy” to the Israelis. The Americans’ requests, with phrases like “Thanks in advance for sending me . . . ,” mystified the Israelis who would say, “Thanks for what? I haven’t done anything yet.” After some cultural training, both sides adapted to the other (Snyder, 2003). In later chapters, we explore the implications of these and other cultural differences in communication practices. Globalization presents many new issues as multinational corporations often move operations to overseas locations because of lower labor costs. These business moves have far-reaching implications, including the loss of jobs at closed facilities. Domestic diversity also requires businesses to be attentive to cultural differences. As the workforce becomes more diverse, many businesses are interested in capitalizing on these differences for economic gain. When businesses foreground cultural diversity in their employment practices, this also has an impact on how they view their customers and how they develop and market new products that appeal to ever-widening consumer bases (Yohn, 2011). Understanding cultural differences involves not only working with diverse employees, but also recognizing new business markets, developing new products, and so on. From this perspective, diversity is a potentially powerful economic resource if organizations view the challenge as an opportunity. In this sense, then, business can capitalize on diversity.

multinational ­corporations  Companies that have operations in two or more nations.

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THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPERATIVE At first glance, it may seem odd that the environment would be an imperative for studying intercultural communication. However, international borders and cultural differences mean nothing to hurricanes, melting glaciers, rising tides, and animals as they all freely cross these socially constructed institutions. Yet, because the environment is international, these challenges require us to work across cultures, languages, and borders. Intercultural communication plays a central role in working across these differences and the potential conflicts that may arise. Perhaps no one has done more to draw attention to the gravity of the situation than Greta Thunberg, the young Swedish girl who held up a sign about climate change in front of the Swedish parliament in August 2018. Her photo went viral online and by “December 2018, more than 20,000 students around the world had joined her” (“Who is Greta” 2020). In 2020, she was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize for the second time. Thunberg’s work has connected her to many people worldwide on the issues of climate change. Climate change, in her view, requires international cooperation and collaboration by everyone, including world leaders. We can identify at least three environmental issues impacting intercultural encounters: floods and droughts, wildfires, and water rights.

Floods and Droughts Lead to Migration As seas rise, humans are on the move (Lu & Flavelle, 2019). For example, Indonesia is moving its capital from coastal Jakarta to higher ground as much of Jakarta will soon be under water. As many islands around the world see rising ocean waters, where will these people go? Hurricane Matthew made landfall in Haiti in 2016, leaving 200,000 homeless in its wake of destruction; Tropical Cyclone Idai hit Malawi in 2019 and devastated the people with rains and heavy flooding. Also in 2019, Hurricane Dorian stormed through the Bahamas as the strongest hurricane to hit there and left tremendous destruction, with Great Abaco island “virtually uninhabitable, with no water, power or food” (Hurricane Dorian, 2019). These kinds of events create refugees who flee for their survival. Although Florida is less than 100 miles away, the United States allows Bahamians to enter without a passport only if they take a commercial flight, but the airport was damaged and closed after the hurricane. If they came by boat, Bahamians needed a visa which can only be obtained by traveling first to the U.S. embassy in Nassau. According to immigration lawyers, Bahamians face tremendous difficulty in coming here even temporarily (Allen, 2019; McDonnell, 2019). In another region close to the United States, in Central America, five years of drought (as well as fierce and erratic rains) caused by climate change have destroyed the harvests in Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua, leaving people struggling to feed their families. Many feel they have no choice but to migrate, seeking relief in the United States (Moloney, 2019). In a number of African countries—including  Somalia,  Kenya, and Ethiopia— droughts have become increasingly severe, leaving millions without the ability to grow food. For families, this can mean going for days without food, and many eventually are forced to leave their homes (Giovetti, 2019). According to a report published

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in 2017 by Cornell University, events prompted by climate change such as drought and flooding could account for up to 1.4 billion forced migrations by the year 2060 (Giovetti, 2019). Known as “climate refugees,” this type of refugee still does not have international recognition. In December 2018, the United Nations ratified the “Global Compact for Migration” and the “Global Compact on Refugees” to update and expand the international understanding of refugees. However, these compacts did not include climate refugees or offer any guidance on how to handle these millions of refugees. The United States pulled out of the compacts and increasing concerns about migration has grown in a number of other countries. Learning to think about how we might live with those who are culturally different may be key to saving other people. Migration is a topic that we will discuss in further detail in the next chapter and Chapter 8, as it is an important way that intercultural communication and intercultural contact occurs.

Wildfires Another climate catastrophe is wildfires, caused by droughts and increasingly intense winds that can affect different cultural groups in different ways, sometimes leading to conflict. For example, the 2019–2020 wildfires in Australia caused conflict between whites and indigenous peoples. For centuries, indigenous peoples have used very effective traditional fire reduction techniques, including small bushfires, making intense bushfires uncommon and plant and animal foods more abundant (Our land is burning . . ., 2019). However, increasingly warm summers in Australia as well as extended droughts, coupled with the Australian government’s ineffective land/ fire management resulted in the recent tragic fires—killing millions of animals, and resulting in extensive loss of housing, and human deaths—and the conflict between indigenous and whites. One indigenous leader described their reaction to the fires “As first Nations people  .  .  . It’s a particular grief, to lose forever what connects you to a place in the landscape . . . as we watch how the mistreatment and neglect of our land and waters for generations, and the pig-headed foolishness of coal-obsessed climate change denialists turn everything and everyone to ash . . . . . . [as] First Nations people, [we] want to share, to make sure these horrors are never repeated” (Allam, 2020). And it appears that this tragedy has also led to some cooperation. University of Tasmania scientists are working with the Aboriginal community to reintroduce indigenous burning to native grasslands, and the Firesticks Alliance, an indigenous-led community project that aims to reinvigorate the use of cultural burning practices. This includes a sustainable funding model for indigenous-led fire management programs, as well as cross-cultural training for both indigenous and non-indigenous fire managers to better work together (McIlroy, 2019).

Water Rights A third common intercultural/environment conflict involves water rights (Detges et al., 2017). Water is absolutely necessary for human life and increasing demand for

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fresh water is growing rapidly. Experts point out that while it is plentiful, it is limited and current climate change and environmental degradation are changing its availability and the quality of water. The resulting competition over water use sometimes leads to intercultural conflict and even violence. Experts have compiled a list of top ten water rights conflicts. Here are three: There has been significant conflict over access and rights to the Nile Basin water among 11 African countries. There was some initial cooperation but since 2007, there is growing divergence in priorities and interests between upstream (Egypt and, to a lesser extent, Sudan) and downstream countries, especially Ethiopia. Similarly, there are conflicts over access to water in the Mekong River Basin— where China and Laos engage in enormous dam-building projects for hydropower generation—leading to diplomatic tensions as countries downstream of the dams fear the negative impacts—greater flooding and seasonal lack of water. While some attempts of formal cooperation have been attempted, there is little at the moment and fear of increasing destabilization in the Basin area. Finally, in 2000, water privatization in the city of Cochabamba, Bolivia caused violent protests in the “Water War of Cochabamba” and the death of nine people. Eventually, the city’s water was renationalized, but dwindling water supplies, caused by global climate change and technological deficiencies continue to heavily strain the city of Cochabamba. These conflicts over water occur in many places worldwide, including the United States. You can probably think of other environmental challenges and it seems as students of intercultural communication we need to consider the implications for intercultural communication. One thing is certain that the challenges are global and call for cultural understanding and cooperation beyond our national borders.

THE TECHNOLOGICAL IMPERATIVE Technology and Human Communication global village  A term coined by Marshall McLuhan in the 1960s that refers to a world in which communication technology unites people in remote parts of the world.

Communication technology is a constant and we do live in the global village envisioned so long ago by media expert Marshall McLuhan (1967). We are linked by technology to events in the most remote parts of the world and connected to people we may never meet face-to-face. The effects of social media have far-reaching consequences, and it is important to understand that these technologies can have positive and negative impacts on intercultural encounters. For example, through social media, people can connect quickly with friends and family anywhere in the world during natural disasters like hurricanes, floods, tsunamis, and also in dealing with terrorist attacks. Social media can draw quick and thorough attention to global problems, e.g., Greta Thunberg’s tremendous global impact started with and continues with social media coverage. On the other hand, there was a multitude of vicious racist tweets posted in reaction to the crowning of the first Indian American as Miss America (Cisneros & Nakayama, 2015). Or consider the videos of brutal beheadings of U.S. journalists and others posted by Islamic State militants that shocked and appalled millions and their skillful use of social media to persuade and enlist recruits

POINT of VIEW

W

hy is it that some languages are more dominant than others on the Internet regardless of the number of native speakers? For example, while there are more Chinese speakers than English speakers, English still retains the number one spot as the most commonly used language among Internet users. According to Internet World Stats, English is number 1 with over one billion users, Chinese comes in second with 850 million users, Spanish is third with 350 million users, ­Arabic 4th with 225 million users, and Portuguese fifth with 170 ­million users. However, experts note that Asia now has the largest share of Internet users (almost 50%, with 2 billion users) and if key Asian markets continue to expand their Internet usage Chinese could be expected to overtake English as the #1 Internet language. What are the implications for the future of intercultural communication? Source: From Top 10 Languages Used on the Internet. Retrieved January 20, 2020, from internetworldstats.com.

all around the world. These media videos and messages illustrate the far-reaching negative potential of communication technologies (Internet uproar, 2011; Islamic state says . . . 2014) and now social media sites Facebook, Twitter, etc. are grappling with challenges presented by deep fake videos and potential interference by foreign governments on domestic politics. These communication technologies have tremendous implications for intercultural communication. We will focus on four impacts on intercultural communication: (1) information about people and cultures; (2) contact with people who are different from us; (3) contact with people who are similar to us who can provide communities of support; and (4) differential access to communication technology. Information About People and Cultures The Internet provides instant online access to information about other cultures and people and this should give us a better understanding of our neighbors and perhaps some motivation to coexist peacefully (Purcell & Rainie, 2014). However, the evidence seems to be to the contrary. According to the Center for Systemic Peace, while conflict between national powers has decreased, societal wars (conflict between groups within a country) have increased (Marshall & Cole, 2014). It would seem that knowledge about others—those we live closest to— does not necessarily lead to better communication. In addition, some evidence shows that we mostly access information that supports our existing views of the world. We will tackle issues like this later. People also have access to increasing amounts of information about what is (or is not) happening in their own and other countries. Social media has played a role in copycat terrorist attacks, attacks against minority Rohingya in Myanmar, and in India, more than a dozen people were viciously beaten to death after false info about them was posted on WhatsApp (Death by ‘fake news’, 2018). In some ways, the Internet has democratized information, in that more people control and disseminate information than ever before. For this reason, leaders in some countries try to limit

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their citizens’ access to information. China has long blocked Google and Facebook and has strict regulations on which websites and social media platforms are accessible in the country; it is quite common now for autocratic governents to simply shut down the Internet—to stamp out citizen protest. According to Human Rights Watch, in the past year, governments in Bangladesh, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Sudan, Myanmar, and Zimbabwe shut down the Internet in all or some parts of their countries (Kumar, 2019). Alternatively, these governments can also weaponize social media, spreading disinformation to influence their publics or people in other countries. In spite of governments’ attempts to limit their citizens’ access to online communication, there remains information, world news, and possibilities for interpersonal communication that at the same time both facilitate and hinder intercultural communication. Contact with People who Differ Online communication and social media bring us in contact with people we may never meet in person, both in personal (social media) and professional encounters (LinkedIn, Slack); and many of these people are from different cultural backgrounds. However, such communication across cultures does present unique challenges. For example, language may be a factor. The people we talk to online may speak languages different from our own. An interesting situation arose for one of the authors of this book. Tom was in an online discussion when someone posted a message in Dutch. It was met with a flurry of hostile responses from people protesting the use of an exclusionary language, one most people couldn’t read. A discussion ensued about which languages might be acceptable to use. The decision reached was that any ­language was OK as long as there was an English translation. In a subsequent posting, someone from a university in South Africa recommended a book “for those of you who can read Dutch (heh-heh, all four of us)”—an apparent reaction to the previous exclusionary sentiments. Digital translation apps like Google Translate, Universal Translator, iTranslate can facilitate communication for travelers, businesspeople, and others in everyday intercultural encounters. Of course, the use of some languages is privileged over others on the Internet. As expert note, if you want to do business online, it’s more likely going to be in English, the FIGS ­languages (French, Italian, German, Spanish), the CJK languages (Chinese, Japanese, Korean), and “the main languages of former colonial empires” (Dutch, Russian, Portuguese). Linguist András Kornai (2013) cautions that the Internet itself may hasten the demise of many languages—those with fewer speakers or less representation online and only 5% of languages have a chance of thriving in the online realm. However, there are some efforts to use technology to preserve languages on the verge of extinction (see Point of View, p. 23). Contact with People who are Similar Social media and other online communication promote contact with people who are very similar to ourselves, with family members, friends, and others who share common interests. We can also turn to online groups for support and community. For example, international students can stay in touch with their local communities, keep up with what’s going on at home, and receive

POINT of VIEW

D

uolingo—an ad-supported company that offers free language lessons to 300 million users—has introduced a program to revive languages threatened with extinction. For example, with their Irish lessons, they’ve increased the number of Irish speakers from 100,000 in 2014 to now 4 million learners. Its most recent efforts focus on Navajo and Hawaiian, two of the more than 3,000 threatened languages. They use a “gamified” app to appeal to hundreds of thousands of young people. They aren’t making money on it but Myra Awodey, the project leader says, “it’s just something we feel like we have to do.” Linguists compare the loss of a language to the loss of a species. Languages are ways of seeing the world. Just as our understanding of history and science becomes more limited when a species goes extinct, our understanding of humanity becomes more limited when a language dies. Adapted from: K. Steinmetz (2018, November 2). One of the World’s 7,000 languages dies every three months. Can apps help save them? Time.com. Retrieved January 15, 2020, from https://time. com/5417035/technology-endangered-languages/

emotional support during difficult times of cultural adaptation. The same is true for the many immigrants and refugees, separated from families and friends in their home country. One study found that WhatsApp, mobile voice, and Viber were the three most used services that provided a tech lifeline for people in a Syrian refugee camp to communicate with their friends and family back home (Xu & Maitland, 2016). Similarly, transgender young people have depended on social media for support to connect with other transgender youth and as a way to strengthen their personal identity. The Internet can also be used to strengthen a sense of identity and identity management, as is the case for some diasporic groups—ethnic and/or national groups that are ­geographically dispersed throughout the world, sometimes as refugees fleeing from war, sometimes as voluntary emigrants. A recent study of children of South Asian immigrants found that the Internet plays a major role in creating a sense of community and ethnic identity for these young people. Whereas earlier generations of immigrants were expected to assimilate as quickly as possible into the host culture, the Internet now allows these children of immigrants to connect with other Indian adolescents, discussing religion and issues concerning Indian and immigrant identity. Similar diasporic discussions are held in the Kamehameha Roundtable, an online meeting place for the Polynesian diaspora and other people from the Pacific Islands who live in the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. However, it must be noted that the Internet also provides groups of people with similar hate-filled interests to increase their membership and the number of sites that promote hatred against Americans, Muslims, Jews, homosexuals, and people of non-­European ancestry, as well as graphic violence, continues to rise. Social networking is where the biggest growth is happening, particularly on Facebook and YouTube, where hate-filled messages are often packaged in very creative ways. For example, months before the 2017 rally in Charlottesville, people in far right movement used the online chat room Discord to encourage like-minded users to discuss logistics for

identity management  The way individuals make sense of their multiple images concerning the sense of self in different social contexts. diasporic groups  Ethnic and/or national groups that are geographically dispersed throughout the world.

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the rally—the weapons they might bring to the rally and how to run a vehicle into crowds of protestors (Gardner, 2018). Experts point out that young people are especially vulnerable to racist online flash games, jokes, and general hate-filled information on social networking sites, blogs, and web pages.

Access to Communication Technology As we’ve seen, technology plays a huge role in our everyday lives and often has a lot to do with our success as students and professionals. What would you do if you had no access to communication technology? If you were not able to text your friends or could not use your phone? Could not face-time your family? How might you feel in our technology-dominated world? Although communication technologies are a fact of life for millions of people around the world, lack of access to these technologies is a reality for many people. Consider that ▪▪ Approximately 10% of adult Americans are not online at all, and those living in rural areas, those with annual incomes of less than $30,000, and individuals with disabilities have less online access than others (Anderson et al., 2019). ▪▪ In many countries (South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East), only a fraction of the population has access to computers and the Internet; for example, Internet access in Africa is 29% compared to the worldwide average of about 50% (Internet Statistics for Africa, 2019).

cultural capital  certain bodies of cultural knowledge and cultural competencies.

While smartphone access is equal across racial and ethnic groups, Black and Latino adults still have less access to computers and high speed Internet at home (Perrin & Turner, 2019). So the inequity of technology access between “haves” and the “have-nots”—once referred to as the “digital divide,” is probably more accurately viewed as a continuum of digital inequalities rather than a divide (Wei, 2012). And there are some inequities, as noted above, related to income, urban-rural location, and physical ability. In addition, those Americans (mostly poor and some ethnic minorities) who have only a smartphone for online access at home have challenges. They are more likely than other users to encounter data-cap limits on smartphone service, frequently have to cancel or suspend service due to financial constraints, and face challenges when it comes to important tasks such as filling out job applications and writing (and reading) documents. Why do differences in access matter? In order to function effectively in our digital society, people need cultural capital, or certain bodies of cultural knowledge and ­cultural competencies, including the ability to use digital media effectively. The implications for intercultural communication are enormous. How do people relate to each other when one is information technology rich and the other is not? When there is increasing use of English on the Internet, what happens to those who don’t speak English? Can this lead to resentment? Will the increase in communication technology lead to increasing gaps between haves and have-nots? To more misunderstandings? Recent communication technology requires that we reexamine even our most basic conceptions of self, others, and culture. The average smart phone users touch their phones more than 2000 times a day (Newman, 2018); communication scholars

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ask us to consider the impact of this constant connectivity and think about who we are in these virtual relationships and what the connection is between our physical and virtual bodies. What kind of society or societies are we creating when we are so connected in cyberspace but not really present in physical spaces? We constantly check our phones when we’re with friends or family, for example, not really relationally present with them (Turkle, 2011). We might also examine our own technological use: Who are we in contact with? People who are like ourselves? People who are different? Do we use technology to increase our contact with and understanding of other cultures or merely to hang out with people who are like us? What does this say about us and our identities?

THE PEACE IMPERATIVE The bottom line seems to be this: Can individuals of different genders, ages, ethnicities, races, languages, socioeconomic statuses, and cultural backgrounds coexist on this planet? (see Figure 1-4.) Both the history of humankind and recent world events lead us not to be very optimistic on this point. The current trend is toward

FIGURE 1-4   This Iraqi boy looks at shoes and clothes of victims of a car bomb explosion in Baghdad on March 1, 2006. The causes of this violence stem from long histories of intercultural conflict and are likely to influence intercultural relations in the future. (Akram Saleh/Getty Images)

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colonialism  (1) The system by which groups with diverse languages, cultures, religions, and identities were united to form one state, usually by a European power; (2) the system by which a country maintains power over other countries or groups of people to exploit them economically, politically, and culturally.

longer, more intra-national protracted conflicts where military or material supports are supplied by foreign powers—fighting “proxy wars”—to warring groups (Backer, Bhavnani & Huth, 2016). For example, consider the religious strife between Shia and Sunni Muslims throughout the Middle East and between Kurds and government forces in Iraq and Turkey, the conflict between insurgent rebel groups and the government in Syria—with Russia and the United States backing different factions; the terrible conflict in Yemen, where Saudi-backed government is fighting Iranianbacked Houthi rebels; and woven throughout this region, conflict with the Islamic State (ISIS). There are also the conflicts between the ­government and various drug cartels in Mexico and the Boko Haram and Christian-Muslim conflicts in Nigeria. We could also note the recent tensions and conflicts between refugees/immigrants and the people/governments in Europe, as well as the racial and ethnic tensions in U.S. neighborhoods and recent conflicts between law enforcement and some Black communities. Some of these conflicts are tied to histories of colonialism around the world, whereby European powers lumped diverse groups—differing in language, culture, religion, or identity—together as one state. For example, the division of Pakistan and India was imposed by the British; eventually, East Pakistan declared its independence to become Bangladesh. Nevertheless, ethnic and religious differences in some areas of India and Pakistan continue to cause unrest. And the acquisition of nuclear weapons by both India and Pakistan makes these antagonisms of increasing concern. The tremendous diversity—and accompanying antagonisms—within many former colonies must be understood in the context of histories of colonialism. Some of the conflicts are also tied to economic disparities and influenced by U.S. technology and media. Many people in the United States see these influences as beneficial, but they also stimulate resistance. Communication scholar Fernando Delgado (2002) explains: Such cultural dominance, though celebrated at home, can spark intercultural conflicts because it inhibits the development of other nations’ indigenous popular culture products, stunts their economic development and foists U.S. values and perspectives on other cultures. These effects, in turn, often lead to resentment and conflict. (p. 353) Some of the conflicts have roots in past foreign policies. For example, recent terrors are partly related to the confusing and shifting alliances among the United States, Afghanistan, Syria, and other Arab and Muslim countries. In Afghanistan in the early 1990s, the Taliban seized power in response to the destructive rule of the Northern Alliance, a loose coalition of warlords. The United States had supported the Taliban in the fight against Soviet aggression in the late 1980s and had promised aid in rebuilding their country after the hostilities were over. However, with the withdrawal of Soviet forces and the fall of the Soviet Union, the United States wasn’t as concerned about fulfilling its promises to the Afghan nation and withdrew military support. After September 11, the United States once again put troops and support in Afghanistan to fight the Al-Qaeda-supported Taliban, and once again in 2016, the United States withdrew most troops from Afghanistan, having twice promised and then withdrawn support, leaving Afghan people to deal with the Taliban forces mostly on their own. In addition,

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U.S. foreign policies toward many Arab countries in the last half-century, coupled with open support for Israel, have caused widespread resentment (Kirkpatrick, 2011). Although there is no simple explanation for why terrorists attack the United States, the attacks clearly do not happen in a vacuum. They need to be understood in historical, political, religious, and economic contexts. It would be naive to assume that simply understanding the issues of intercultural communication would end war and intercultural conflict, but these problems do underscore the need for individuals to learn more about groups other than their own (see Figure 1-5). Scholars have described the many mistakes U.S. personnel made in the tribal areas of Afghanistan and Pakistan during the U.S.’s longest war. For example, when NGOs offered excessive payments to locals to do menial jobs in the community, it degraded the cultural tradition of villagers volunteering for such projects and also resulted in professionals (e.g. teachers) leaving their jobs, resulting in unstaffed schools and offices (Ahmad, 2020). In addition, the U.S. personnel’s lack of cultural knowledge, resulted in their underestimating the Taliban’s effective, innovative, and agile social media influence, as well as their ability to manipulate the locals in rural areas through the practice of shabnamah (night letters), using folklore, illustrations, and poetry to convey a message—messages that U.S. military goal was to take over the country (Johnson, 2017). However, although communication on the interpersonal level is important, we always need to consider the relationship between individual and societal forces in

FIGURE 1-5   Although this sign is an attempt to reach out to many ­ ultural groups in Boston Harbor by posting in many languages, it does not c explain the rationale for the ban and differing views on who “owns” natural resources, health concerns, and other issues facing shellfishing may lead to misunderstanding and conflicts among cultural groups. (T.K. Takayama)

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studying intercultural communication, and that sometimes individuals are born into and caught up in conflicts that they neither started nor chose. With this in mind, communication scholar Benjamin Broome, who has worked with many groups in conflict, including Greek and Turk Cypriots, proposes a comprehensive approach to peacebuilding. This approach is not just focused on eliminating conflict, but is also an effort to stop all forms of violence and to also promote transformative ways to deal with conflict, including strategies that address personal, relational, and structural (organizational, economic conditions, etc.) levels of interaction. According to Broome, communication, especially facilitated dialogue, plays a key role in the peacebuilding process (Broome, 2013; Broome & Collier, 2012). We will explore this and other approaches to deal with conflict in Chapter 11.

THE ETHICAL IMPERATIVE ethics  Principles of conduct that help govern behaviors of individuals and groups.

Living in an intercultural world presents ethical challenges as well. Ethics may be thought of as principles of conduct that help govern the behavior of individuals and groups. These principles often arise from communities’ consensus on what is good and bad behavior. Cultural values tell us what is “good” and what “ought” to be good. Ethical judgments focus more on the degrees of ­rightness and wrongness in human behavior than do cultural ­values (Johannesen, 1990). Some judgments are stated very explicitly. For example, the Ten Commandments teach that it is wrong to steal, tell a lie, commit murder, and so on. Many other identifiable principles of conduct that arise from our cultural experience may be less explicit—for instance, that people should be treated equally and should work hard. Several issues come to mind in a discussion of ethics in intercultural communication. For example, what happens when two ethical systems collide? Although an individual may want to “do the right thing” to contribute to a better society, it is not always easy to know what is “right” in specific situations. Ethical principles are often culture-bound, and intercultural conflicts arise from various notions of what is ethical behavior. One common cross-cultural ethical dilemma involves standards of conducting business in multinational corporations. The U.S. Congress and the Securities and Exchange Commission consider it unethical to make payments to government officials of other countries to promote trade. (Essentially, such payments smack of bribery.) However, in many countries, like China, government officials are paid in this informal way instead of being supported by taxes (Ambler, Witzel, & Xi, 2016). What, then, is ethical behavior for personnel in multi­national subsidiaries?

Relativity Versus Universality In this book, we stress the relativity of cultural behavior—that no cultural pattern is inherently right or wrong. So, is there any universality in ethics? Are any cultural behaviors always right or always wrong? The answers depend on one’s perspective. A universalist might try, for example, to identify acts and conditions that most societies think of as wrong, such as murder, theft, or treason. Someone who takes an

POINT of VIEW HOW NOT TO SAVE THE WORLD The good news is that many college students today are highly motivated to do good and make a difference in the world today. They are seeking volunteer opportunities in health care, construction, child care, or other community projects in international locations around the world. However, international service experts have cautioned these volunteers about the pitfalls and potential damage to the host community. Some issues to consider: ▪▪ Local institutions may be called on to spend precious time and energy in taking care of the volunteers, providing translation services, transportation, and expenses not covered by the sending institution or trainees. ▪▪ Host communities may be hesitant to explicitly address problems that arise as it may be considered impolite and not culturally appropriate to indicate that a volunteer’s presence was anything but helpful. ▪▪ Volunteers, especially in exotic tourist areas, can be tempted to spend more time as tourists rather than helping out, which reduces their effectiveness. ▪▪ Ethical dilemmas are especially challenging for volunteers or trainees in the medical field and include: Not being familiar enough with local conditions to recognize serious illnesses, challenges compounded by language barriers, and the inability to understand the meaning of patient’s statements. Because of lack of resources in some areas, trainees are thrust into patient-care setting for which they are unprepared. This can result in stress and/or guilt, and place their own health at risk. Helpful advice for motivated do-gooders: As Lisa V. Adams, associate dean for global health and director of the Center for Health Equity at Dartmouth tells her students: “You have succeeded in your academic careers because you are assertive, active learners who are not afraid to ask questions or to push yourselves hard and always deliver an outstanding final product.” She then tells them they must unlearn all this socialization, and need to “resist the temptation to share every great thought or idea” and instead switch into “listener mode.” What may look like easy fixes may “be complicated problems embedded in complex systems” that they can only begin to understand about weeks or months on site (Strauss, 2016). Source: From J. A. Crump and J. Sugarman, “Ethical Considerations for Short-Term Experiences by Trainees in Global Health,” Journal of American Medical Association, 300(12), 1456–1458, 2008. From V. Strauss, “How NOT to save the world: Why U.S. students who go to poor countries to ‘do good’ often do the opposite,” washingtonpost.com. Retrieved January 20, 2020, from https:// www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2016/03/22/how-not-to-save-the-world-why-u-s -students-who-go-to-poor-countries-to-do-good-often-do-the-opposite/.

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extreme universalist position would insist that cultural differences are only superficial, that fundamental notions of right and wrong are universal. Some religions take universal positions—for example, that the Ten Commandments are a universal code of behavior. But Christian groups often disagree about the universality of the Bible. For example, are the teachings of the New Testament mainly guidelines for the Christians of Jesus’s time, or can they be applied to Christians in the 21st century? These are difficult issues for many people searching for ethical guidelines (Johannesen, 1990). The philosopher Immanuel Kant (1949) believed in the universality of moral laws. His well-known “categorical imperative” states that people should act only on maxims that apply universally, to all individuals. The extreme relativist position holds that any cultural behavior can be judged only within the cultural context in which it occurs. This means that only those members of a community can truly judge the ethics of their own members. According to communication scholar William S. Howell (1982), The environment, the situation, the timing of an interaction, human relationships, all affect the way ethical standards are applied. . . . The concept of universal e­ thics, standards of goodness that apply to everyone, everywhere, and at all times, is the sort of myth people struggle to hold onto. (pp. 182, 187)

dialogical approach  Focuses on the importance of dialogue in developing and maintaining relationships between individuals and communities.

And yet, to accept a completely relativistic position seems to tacitly accept the horrors of Nazi Germany, South African apartheid, or U.S. slavery. In each case, the larger community developed cultural beliefs that supported persecution and discrimination in such extreme forms that worldwide condemnation ultimately resulted (Hall, 1997, p. 23). Philosophers and anthropologists have struggled to develop ethical guidelines that seem universally applicable but that also recognize the tremendous cultural variability in the world. And many ethical relativists appeal to more natural, humanitarian principles. This more moderate position assumes that people can evaluate cultures without succumbing to ethnocentrism, that all individuals and cultural groups share a fundamental humanistic belief in the sanctity of the human spirit and the goodness of peace, and that people should respect the well-being of others (Kale, 1994). Communication scholar Bradford J. Hall (1997) reminds us that relativistic and universalistic approaches to ethics should be viewed not as a dichotomy, but rather as a compound of universalism and relativism. All ethics systems involve a tension between the universal and the relative. Although we recognize some universal will toward ethical principles, we may have to live with the tension of not being able to impose our “universal” ethic on others. One suggestion for meeting the ethical imperative is to employ a ­dialogical approach (Evanoff, 2004). The dialogical approach emphasizes the importance of relationships and dialogues between individuals and communities in wrestling with ethical dilemmas. Communication scholar M. J. Collier describes using a critical dialogic approach in working with a national nonprofit that aims to move poor families into financial stability. The organization provides training and resource development with a team approach, matching people in poverty, called Circle Leaders (CLs) with middle-class partners, called Allies. She interviewed CLs and Allies to identify recommendations for successful ethical intercultural interactions in this project. Her approach and

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interview data confirm the importance of recognizing multilevels involved in moving people from poverty, including the macro levels (social service policies, societal myths about poverty), the meso level (cultural, social class, and racial differences of individuals partnering in the project) and the micro level (individual interactions among those involved). The CLs emphasized how important it was to acknowledge the social class, racial, ethnic, gender, and sometimes religious and ­political differences involved in these intercultural teams, and that they all are needed to be able to confront and navigate these differences in a collaborative way. They noted that too often the Allies positioned themselves as “teachers” while not actually understanding the realities of being poor, for example, the myths about the “abundance of resources” available for the poor, the difficulty (impossibility) of living on a minimum wage salary, the fear that moving out of poverty might mean losing their family and community. Collier examines her own position as a white, academic researcher and how she can learn through dialogue and critical reflection. She concludes that “critical dialogic reflexivity is particularly useful in building engaged, inclusive, and equitable relationships” that are so essential in creating success in long-term ethical social justice projects (Collier, 2015, p. 221). The study of intercultural communication not only provides insights into cultural patterns, but also helps us address the ethical issues involved in intercultural interaction. Specifically, we should be able to (1) judge what is ethical and unethical behavior given variations in cultural priorities and (2) identify guidelines for ethical behavior in intercultural contexts in which ethics clash.

Being Ethical Students of Culture Related to the issue of judging cultural patterns as ethical or unethical are the issues surrounding the study of culture. Part of learning about intercultural communication is learning about cultural patterns and cultural identities—our own and others. There are three issues to address here: Developing self-reflexivity, learning about others, and acquiring a sense of social justice. Developing Self-Reflexivity In studying intercultural communication, it is vital to develop self-reflexivity—to understand ourselves and our position in society. In learning about other cultures and cultural practices, we often learn much about ourselves. Immigrants often comment that they never felt so much like someone of their own nationality until they left their homeland. Think about it: Many cultural attitudes and ideas are instilled in you, but these can be difficult to unravel and identify. Knowing who you are is never simple; rather, it is an ongoing process that can never fully capture the ever-emerging person. Not only will you grow older but your intercultural experiences will also change who you are and who you think you are. It is also important to reflect on your place in society. By recognizing the social categories to which you belong, and the implications of those categories, you will be in a better position to understand how to communicate. For example, being an undergraduate student positions you to communicate your ideas on specific subjects and in particular ways to various members of the faculty or staff at your school. You might want to communicate to the registrar your desire to change

self-reflexivity  A process of learning to understand oneself and one’s position in society.

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STUDENT VOICES I have spent three years in the United States seeking an education. I am from Singa­pore, and I believe that in many ways both countries are similar. They are both multicultural. They both have a dominant culture. In the United States the dominant culture is white, and in Singapore it is Chinese. Coming to the United States has taught me to be more aware of diversity. Even though in Singapore we are diverse, because I was part of the majority there, I didn’t feel the need to increase my level of intercultural awareness. In the United States I became a minority, and that has made me feel the need to become more culturally competent. —Jacqueline

majors—this would be an appropriate topic to address to that person. But you would not be well positioned during an exam to communicate to your chemistry professor your problems with your girl- or boyfriend. Learning About Others It is important to remember that the study of cultures is actually the study of other people. Never lose sight of the humanity at the core of the topic. Try not to observe people as if they are zoo animals. Communication scholar Bradford J. Hall (1997) cautions against using the “zoo approach” to studying culture: When using such an approach we view the study of culture as if we were ­walking through a zoo admiring, gasping and chuckling at the various exotic animals we observe. One may discover . . . the point that we are as culturally “caged” as others and that they are culturally as “free” as we are. (p. 14)

cultural humility  being aware of one’s cultural limitations and taking an “otheroriented approach” in intercultural encounters.

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Remember that you are studying real people who have real lives, and your conclusions about them may have very real consequences for them and for you. The notion of cultural humility is foundational for an ethical stance in learning about others. Being culturally humble means (1) having an awareness of the limitations of one’s own cultural background and worldview as well as the limitations of an ability to truly understand the cultural background and experiences of others, and (2) trying to take an “other-oriented” stance in each new intercultural encounter, which includes trying to suppress any readymade cultural assumptions about the other (Gallardo, 2014). Cultural studies scholar Linda Alcoff (1991/1992) acknowledges the ethical issues involved when students of culture try to describe the cultural patterns of others; she recognizes the difficulty of speaking “for” and “about” others who have different lives. Instead, she suggests, students of culture should try to speak “with” and “to” others. Rather than merely describe others from a distance, it’s better to engage others in a dialogue about their cultural realities. Learn to listen to the voices of others, to cultivate experiential knowledge. ­Hearing about the experiences of people who are different from you can broaden your ways of viewing the world. Many differences—based on race, gender, sexual orientation, nationality, ethnicity, age, and so on—deeply affect people’s everyday lives. Listening carefully as people relate their experiences and their ways of knowing will help you learn about the many aspects of intercultural communication.

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Developing a Sense of Social Justice A final ethical issue involves the responsibility that comes with the acquisition of intercultural knowledge and insights—that this educational experience is not just transformative for the individual but should also benefit the larger society and other cultural groups in the increasingly interdependent world. Learning about intercultural communication sometimes calls into question the core of our basic assumptions about ourselves, our culture, and our worldviews and challenges existing and preferred beliefs, values, and patterns of behavior. Liliana, a Colombian student, describes such a transformation: When I first came to the States to study and live I was surprised with all the diversity and different cultures I encountered. I realized I came from a country, society, school and group of friends with little diversity. During all the years I lived in Colombia I did not meet more than five people from other countries. Even at my school, there was little diversity—only two students of color among three thousand students. I realized that big difference when I was suddenly sharing a college classroom with students from all over the world, people of all colors and cultures. At the beginning it was difficult getting used to it because of the wide diversity, but I like and enjoy it now and I wish my family and friends could experience and learn as much as I have. As you learn about yourself and others as cultural beings, as you come to understand the larger economic, political, and historical contexts in which interaction occurs, is there an ethical obligation to continue learning? We believe that as members of an increasingly interdependent global community, intercultural communication students have a responsibility to educate themselves, not just about interesting cultural differences but also about intercultural conflicts, the impacts of stereotyping and prejudice, and the larger systems that can oppress and deny basic human rights— and to apply this knowledge to the communities in which they live and interact. This is the basis of social justice (Alexander et al., 2014). For example, how could you apply intercultural communication concepts in situations where gay, lesbian, and transgender young people are the targets of bullying? Statistics show that almost 90% of LGBTQ youth report being bullied and 60% say they feel unsafe at school because of their sexual orientation. One college student recalls a classroom debate about LGBTQ marriage and, along with two other LGBTQ students, having to defend their identities against five other students, in a heated polarized discussion: “I had never felt so invalidated and the teacher did nothing to stop the conversation until I started crying. Allowing the debate to even happen created a vacuum of bigotry [making] queer students feel forced to come out in an unsafe space” (Kenny, 2018). Why does this happen? What can be done to reduce harassment of this particular cultural group? In the following chapters, you will learn about the causes and patterns of conflict between various cultural groups, the origins and expressions of prejudice and discrimination, as well as strategies for reducing conflict and discrimination. Consider the homeless—another cultural group rarely mentioned by cultural communication scholars—often the target of prejudice and violence. Perhaps increased knowledge about this group and ethical application of intercultural communication principles could lead to better understanding of these individuals and ultimately to less discrimination and prejudice. After working as an advocate for

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homeless people in Denver, one communication scholar, Professor Phil Tompkins, describes the link between communication skills and social justice. He defines social justice as the “process of communicating, inspiring, advocating, organizing and working with others of similar and diverse organizational affiliations to help all people gain respect and participate fully in society in a way that benefits the community as well as the individual” (Tompkins, 2009). This definition has three important components: (1) communication is central; (2) the outcome of social justice must be beneficial to society, not just the individuals involved; and (3) respect for and participation by all is important. Another research project that fits Tompkins’ definition of social justice is communication scholar Uttaran Dutta’s (2015) work with indigenous communities in rural India. He, along with the leaders and members of the villages, cocreated a mobile app, using community-designed pictograph icons (requiring no reading or writing) that allowed the villagers (some of whom are illiterate) to access important information regarding local weather, employment, education, and other basic services such as health care. We hope that as you read the following chapters, you will agree with us that learning about intercultural communication also involves ethical application of that knowledge. What are unethical applications of intercultural communication knowledge? One questionable practice involves people who study intercultural communication in order to proselytize others without their consent. (Some religious organizations conduct Bible study on college campuses for international students under the guise of English language lessons.) Another questionable practice is the behavior of crosscultural consultants who misrepresent or exaggerate their ability to deal with complex issues of prejudice and racism in brief, one-shot training sessions. We feel there is a concomitant responsibility that goes along with this intercultural knowledge: To work toward a more equitable and fair society and world. We want you to keep in mind this ethical issue as you study the various topics covered in this book. In the final chapter, we’ll address this issue again with practical suggestions for meeting this ethical challenge.

INTERNET RESOURCES https://www.internationalrelationsedu.org/ This is an interesting resource for learning more about the field of intercultural communication and intercultural relations, including relevant educational and career opportunities. Check out this link https://www.internationalrelationsedu. org/5-ways-to-avoid-mistakes-in-cross-cultural-communication/ https://www.refugeesinternational.org/ Many people consider intercultural communication in the business setting, but intercultural communication due to refugee migrations is actually rather common. This site includes information about the work of Refugees International, a nonprofit that provides expert advice to governments as well as organizing 20 yearly field missions for providing basic services to refugees in need, water, healthcare, housing, and protection from harm. Includes opportunities for getting involved in this work. What special intercultural issues are present when considering refugees?

Chapter 1 / Why Study Intercultural Communication? 35

SUMMARY There are seven reasons or imperatives for studying intercultural communication: ▪▪ The self-awareness imperative involves increasing understanding of our own location in larger social, political, and historical contexts. ▪▪ The demographic imperative includes the changing domestic and international migration—raising questions of class and religious diversity. ▪▪ The economic imperative highlights issues of globalization and the c­ hallenges for increased cultural understanding needed to reach the global market. ▪▪ The environmental imperative encourages us to consider how changes in climate and ecology results in increasing intercultural contact and sometimes conflict. ▪▪ The technological imperative gives us increasing information and increased contact with people who are similar and different from us. Increased use of communication technology also raises questions about identity and access to these technologies. ▪▪ The peace imperative involves working through issues of colonialism, e­ conomic disparities, and racial, ethnic, and religious differences. ▪▪ The ethical imperative calls for an understanding of the universalist, r­ elativist, and dialogic approach to ethical issues. Being an ethical student of culture involves developing self-reflexivity, learning about others, and developing a sense of social justice and responsibility. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How does online/mobile communication (e-mail, social media, blogs, and so on) differ from face-to-face interactions? 2. How do these communication technologies change intercultural communication interaction? 3. What are some of the potential challenges organizations face as they become more diverse? 4. Why is it important to think beyond ourselves as individuals in intercultural interaction? 5. How do economic situations affect intergroup relations? ACTIVITIES 1. Family Tree. Interview the oldest member of your family you can contact. Then answer the following questions: a. When did your ancestors come to the United States? b. Where did they come from? c. What were the reasons for their move? Did they come voluntarily?

36  Part I / Foundations of Intercultural Communication

d. What language(s) did they speak? e. What difficulties did they encounter? f. Did they change their names? For what reasons? g. What were their occupations before they came, and what jobs did they take on their arrival? h. How has your family status changed through the generations? Compare your family experience with those of your classmates. Did most immigrants come for the same reasons? What are the differences in the v­ arious stories? 2. Intercultural Encounter. Describe and analyze a recent intercultural encounter. This may mean talking with someone of a different age, ethnicity, race, religion, and so on. a. Describe the encounter. What made it “intercultural”? b. Explain how you initially felt about the communication. c. Describe how you felt after the encounter, and explain why you think you felt as you did. d. Describe any challenges in trying to communicate. If there were no challenges, explain why you think it was so easy. e. Based on this experience, identify some characteristics that may be important for successful intercultural communication. KEY WORDS Anglocentrism (10) cultural capital (24) cultural humility (32) colonialism (26) demographics (5) dialogical approach (30) diasporic groups (23)

diversity (7) ethics (28) ethnocentrism (4) global village (20) heterogeneous (6) homogeneous (6) identity management (23)

immigrants (8) melting pot (10) multinational corporations (17) nativistic (10) self-reflexivity (31)

REFERENCES Adler, P. S. (1975). The transition experience: An alternative view of culture shock. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 15, 13–23. Ahmad, N. (2020). Peacebuilding mechanisms in Pakhtun Tribal Society of Pakistan: A cultural perspective. Dissertation, Department of Sociology, University of Peshawar. Alcoff, L. (1991/1992). The problem of speaking for others. Cultural Critique, 20, 5–32. Alexander, B. K., Arasaratnam, L. A., Durham, A., Flores, L., Leeds-Hurwitz, W., Mendoza, S. L., & Halualani, R. (2014). Identifying key intercultural

urgencies, issues, and challenges in today’s world: Connecting our scholarship to dynamic contexts and historical moments. Journal of International & Intercultural Communication, 7(1), 38–67. Allam, L. (2020, January 5). For First Nations people the bushfires bring a particular grief, burning what makes us who we are. Theguardian.com. Retrieved January 9, 2020, from https://www.theguardian.com /commentisfree/2020/jan/06/for-first-nations-people -the-bushfires-bring-a-particular-grief-burning-what -makes-us-who-we-are

Chapter 1 / Why Study Intercultural Communication? 37

Allen, G. (2019, September 19). Bahamians who fled Dorian face an uncertain future in U.S. NPR. Retrieved February 4, 2020, from https://www.npr .org/2019/09/19/762212419/bahamians-who-fled -dorian-face-an-uncertain-future-in-u-s Ambler, T., Witzel, M. & Xi, C. (2016). Doing business in China. 4th ed. New York: Routledge. Anderson, M., Perrin, A., Jiang, J., & Kumar, M. (2019, April 22). 10% of Americans don’t use the internet. Who are they? Pewresearch.org. Retrieved January 19, 2020, from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact -tank/2019/04/22/some-americans-dont-use-the-internet -who-are-they/ Backer D., Bhavnani, R., & Huth, R. (2016). Peace & Conflict 2016. NY: Routledge. Baldwin, J. (1955). Notes of a native son. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. Banks, J. (1991). Teaching strategies for ethnic studies. Needham, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Belson, K. (2020, January 1). Only 3 NFL coaches are Black: Its embarrassing. Nytimes.com. Retrieved January 7, 2020, from https://www.nytimes .com/2019/12/31/sports/football/nfl-coach-diversity.html Bialik, K. (2019, February 4). State of the Union 2019: How Americans see major national issues. Pewresearch. org. Retrieved January 7, 2020, from https://www .pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/02/04/state-of-the -union-2019-how-americans-see-major-national-issues/ Branding so much more than a name (2011). Strategic Direction, 27(3), 6–8. Broome, B. J. (2013). Building cultures of peace: The role of intergroup dialogue. In J. G. Oetzel & S. TingToomey (Eds.), Sage handbook of conflict communication: Integrating theory, research, and practice (2nd ed., pp. 737–762). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Broome, B. J., & Collier, M. J. (2012). Culture, communication, and peacebuilding: A reflexive multi-dimensional contextual framework. Journal of International & ­Intercultural Communication, 5(4), 245–269.  Brzozowski, A. (2019, November 20). Far right terrorism has more than tripled over last four years, report warns. Euractiv.com. Retrieved January 17, 2010, from https:// www.euractiv.com/section/justice-home-affairs/news /far-right-terrorism-has-more-than-tripled-over-last-four -years-report-warns/ Cisneros, J. D., & Nakayama, T.K. (2015). New media, old racisms: Twitter, Miss America, and cultural ­logics of race. Journal of International & Intercultural Communication, 8(2), 108–127. Coates, T.-N. (2017). We were eight years in power. New York: One World. Cole, D. (1998). Five myths about immigration. In P. S. Rothenberg (Ed.), Race, class, and gender in the United States: An integrated study (4th ed., pp. 125–129). New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Collier, M. J. (2015). Partnering for anti-poverty praxis in circles USA: Applications of critical dialogic reflexivity. Partnering for anti-poverty praxis in Circles USA: Applications of Critical Dialogic Reflexivity. Journal of International & Intercultural Communication, 8(3), 208–223. Craig, M. A., Rucker, J. M., & Richeson, J. A. (2018). Racial and political dynamics of an approaching “majority-minority” United States. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 677(1), 204–214. Curtin, P. D. (1969). The Atlantic slave trade: A census. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. Davis, L., & Fry, R. (2019, July 31). College faculty have become more racially and ethnically diverse, but remain far less so than students. Pew Research Reports. Retrieved January 7, 2020, from https://www.pewresearch.org/facttank/2019/07/31/us-college-faculty-student-diversity/ Death by ‘fake news’: Social media-fuelled lynchings shock India. (2018, July 14) straitstimes.com. Retrieved January 19, 2020, from https://www.straitstimes.com /asia/south-asia/death-by-fake-news-social-media-fuelled -lynchings-shock-india Delgado, F. (2002). Mass-mediated communication and intercultural conflict. In J. N. Martin, T. K. Nakayama, & L. A. Flores (Eds.), Readings in intercultural communication (pp. 351–359). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Detges, A., Pohl, B., & Schaller, S. (2017, August 21). Editor’s pick: 10 violent water conflicts. Releifweb.int. Retrieved January 9, 2020, from https://reliefweb .int/report/world/editor-s-pick-10-violent-water-conflicts. Doherty, C. (2017, October). Pew Research Center. The Partisan divide on political values grows. Retrieved January 22, 2020, from https://www.people-press.org/2017/10/05/ the-partisan-divide-on-political-values-grows-even-wider/ Dutta, U., & Das, S. (2015). Digital divide at the margins: Co-designing information solution to address needs of indigenous populations of rural India. Communication Design Quarterly, 4(1), 36–48. Evanoff, R. J. (2004). Universalist, relativist, and constructivist approaches to intercultural ethics. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 28, 439–458. Fadulu, L. (2019). Study shows income inequality between rich and poor keeps growing, with deadly effects. Nytimes.com. Retrieved January 16, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/10/us/politics /gao-income-gap-rich-poor.html Foner, E. (1998). Who is an American? In P. S. Rothenberg (Ed.), Race, class, and gender in the United States: An integrated study (4th ed., pp. 84–92). New York: St. Martin’s Press. Fussell, P. (1992). Class: A guide through the American status system. New York: Touchstone Books. Gallardo, M. (Ed). (2014). Developing cultural humility: Embracing race, privilege, and power. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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Gardner, K. (2018, August 30). Social media where voices of hate find a place to preach. Publicintegrity.org Retrieved January 8, 2020, from https://publicintegrity. org/politics/social-media-where-voices-of-hate-find -a-place-to-preach/ Giovetti, O. (2019, June 28). Forced migration: 6 causes and examples. concernusa.com. Retrieved February 5, 2020, from https://www.concernusa.org/story/forced -migration-causes/ Griffith, J. (2019, November 14). Racist incidents at Syracuse University prompt protest response from New York Governor. nbcnews.com. Retrieved January 7, 2020, from https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news /racist-incidents-syracuse-university-prompt-protest -response-new-york-governor-n1082176 Hall, B. J. (1997). Culture, ethics and communication. In F. L. Casmir (Ed.), Ethics in intercultural and international communication (pp. 11–41). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Hartig, H. (2018, May 24). Republicans turn more negative toward refugees as number admitted to U.S. plummets. pewresearch.org. Retrieved January 7, 2020, from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/05/24 /republicans-turn-more-negative-toward-refugees-as -number-admitted-to-u-s-plummets/ Howell, W. S. (1982). The empathic communicator. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Hudson, T. (2018). Random roommates: Supporting our students in developing friendships across difference. About Campus: Enriching the Student Learning Experience, 23(3), 13–22. Hurricane Dorian: Path of destruction. (2019, September 9). BBC News. Retrieved February 4, 2020, from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin -america-49553770 Immigrant share in U.S. nears record high but remains below that of many of countries. (2019, January 31). Pewresearch.org. Retrieved January 22, 2020, from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/01/30 /immigrant-share-in-u-s-nears-record-high-but-remains -below-that-of-many-other-countries/ft_19-01-31 _foreignbornshare_immigrantshareinus_2/ In U.S., decline of Christianity continues at rapid pace. (2019, October 17). pewresearch.org. Retrieved January 7, 2020, from https://www.pewforum.org/2019/10/17 /in-u-s-decline-of-christianity-continues-at-rapid-pace/ Internet rant causes uproar at UD university (2011, March 27). VOANews.com. Retrieved May 6, 2011, from www.voanews.com/english/news/usa/Internet -Rant-Causes-Uproar-at-US-­University-118747924.html. Internet usage statistics for Africa. (2019). Retrieved January 20, 2019, from http://www.internetworldstats.com /stats1.htm Islamic State beheads U.S. journalist and holds other (2014, August 19). Reuters.com. Retrieved March 8,

2016, from http://www.reuters.com/video/2014/08 /20/islamic-state-says-beheads-us-journalist?videoId =340547198 Johannesen, R. L. (1990). Ethics in human communication (3rd ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. Johnson, T., DuPee, M. & Shaaker, W. (2017). Taliban narratives: The use and power of stories in the Afghanistan conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kale, D. W. (1994). Peace as an ethic for intercultural communication. In L. Samovar & R. E. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader (7th ed., pp. 435–441). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Kant, I. (1949). Fundamental principles of the metaphysics of morals (T. Abbott, Trans.). Indianapolis, IN: Library of Liberal Arts/Bobbs-Merrill. Kenny, C. (2018, October 18). LGBTQ youth share their stories, offer advice to adults to end bullying. glaad.org. Retrieved January 20, 2020, From https://www.glaad. org/amp/lgbtq-youth-share-stories-offer-advice-adults -to-end-bullying Kirkpatrick, D. D. (2011, May 20). Many in Arab world say Obama’s speech doesn’t dispel grievances against U.S. The New York Times, p. A10. Kornai, A. (2013). Digital language death. Plosone. Retrieved March 8, 2016, from http://journals.plos.org/ plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0077056. Kumar, A. (2019, December 19). Shutting down the Internet to shut down critics. hrw.org. Retrieved January 8, 2020, from https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/12/19 /shutting-down-internet-shut-critics Lapchick, R. (2019, June 17). NBA’s racial and gender report card. Espn.com. Retrieved Jan 7 2020, from https://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/26995581 /nba-racial-gender-report-card Loewen, J. W. (2010). Teaching what really happened. NYC: Teachers College Press. Lu, D., & Flavelle, C. (2019, October 29). Rising seas will erase more cities by 2050, new research shows. nytimes .com. Retrieved January 9, 2020, from https://www .nytimes.com/interactive/2019/10/29/climate/coastal -cities-underwater.html Malesky, E. J., & Saiegh, S. M. (2014, June 2). Diversity is good for team performance in soccer. Washingtonpost .com. Retrieved April 4, 2016, from https://www .washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2014 /06/02/diversity-is-good-for-team-performance-in-soccer/ Marshall, M. G., & Cole, B. R. (2014). Global Report 2014: Conflict governance and state fragility. Vienna: Center for Systemic Peace, from http://www.systemicpeace .org/vlibrary/GlobalReport2014.pdf McDonnell, T. (2018, June 20). The refugees the world barely pays attention to. NPR. Retrieved February 4, 2020, from https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda /2018/06/20/621782275/the-refugees-that-the-world -barely-pays-attention-to

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McLuhan, M. (1967). The medium is the message. New York: Bantam Books. McIlroy, T. (2019, December 27). afr.com. Ancient indigenous burning practices could help fight bushfires. Retrieved January 9, 2020, from https://www.afr.com/ politics/federal/ancient-indigenous-burning-practicescould-help-fight-bushfires-20191212-p53jgy Moloney, A. (2019, August 14). Hunger driving migration in drought-hit Central America. reuters.com. Retrieved February 5, 2020, from https://www.reuters.com /article/us-central-america-drought-migration/hunger -driving-migration-in-drought-hit-central-america-un -idUSKCN1V423J Muzrui, A. (2001). Historical struggles between Islamic and Christian worldviews: An interpretation. In V. H. Milhouse, M. K. Asante, & P. O. Nwosu (Eds.), Transcultural realities: Interdisciplinary perspectives on cross-cultural relations (pp. 109–120). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Native Americans by the Numbers. (2017, February 28, 2019). Infoplease.com. Retrieved January 7, 2020, from https://www.infoplease.com/history/native-american -heritage/native-americans-by-the-numbers Newman, D. (2018, February 8). Communication changes in the digital transformation. fowmedia.com. Retrieved January 18, 2020, from https://fowmedia.com /communication-changes-in-the-digital-transformation/ Obaji, P. (2019, February 12). Cameroon used to welcome refugees. Now it forcibly expels them. foreignpolicy.com. Retrieved January 18, 2020, from https://foreignpolicy .com/2019/02/12/cameroon-used-to-welcome-refugees -now-it-forcibly-expels-them-nigeria-refoulement/ Orfield, G., & Frankenberg, E. (2014). Increasingly segregated and unequal schools as courts reverse policy. Educational Administration Quarterly, 50(5), 718–734. Orlik, T., Johnson, S., & Tanzi, A. (2019, October 29). Tracking the forces threatening the world’s hottest economies. bloomberg.com. Retrieved January 8, 2020, from https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2019-new -economy-drivers-and-disrupters/ Our land is burning, and western science does not have all the answers. (2019, November 18). Retrieved January 9, 2020, from http://theconversation.com/our-land-is-burning-and -western-science-does-not-have-all-the-answers-100331 Passel, J. S., & Cohn, D. V. (2008, February 11). U.S. populations projections: 2005–2050. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center. Perrin, A., & Turner, E. (2019, August 20). Smartphones help blacks Hispanics bridge some-but not all-digital gaps with whites. Researchreports.org. Retrieved January 8, 2020, from https://www.pewresearch.org /fact-tank/2019/08/20/smartphones-help-blacks -hispanics-bridge-some-but-not-all-digital-gaps-with-whites/ Phillips, K. W. (2014, October 1). How diversity makes us smarter. scientificamerican.com. Retrieved April 23,

2016, from http://www.scientificamerican.com/article /how-diversity-makes-us-smarter/. Purcell, K., & Rainie, L. (2014, December 8). Americans feel better informed due to the Internet. Pew Research Reports. From http://www.pewinternet.org/files/2014 /12/PI_InformedWeb_120814_02.pdf. Radford, J. (2019, June 17). Key findings about U.S. immigrants. pewresearch.org. Retrieved January 7, 2020, from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact -tank/2019/06/17/key-findings-about-u-s-immigrants/ Rapoza, K. (2019, August 30). U.S. companies: China is unfair but we don’t really care. forbes.com. Retrieved January 8, 2020, from https://www.forbes.com/sites /kenrapoza/2019/08/30/us-companies-china-unfair-but -we-dont-really-care/#176e72ef4adf Roediger, D. (1999). The wages of whiteness: Race and the making of the American working class. New York: Verso. Schaeffer, K. (2019, November 20). In a rising number of U.S. counties, Hispanic and black Americans are the majority. Pew Research Reports. Retrieved January 7, 2020, from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank /2019/11/20/in-a-rising-number-of-u-s-counties-hispanic -and-black-americans-are-the-majority/ Shear, M. D., & Kanno-Youngs, Z. (2019, September 26). Nytimes.com. Trump slashes refugee cap to 18,000, curtailing U.S. role as haven. Retrieved January 7, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/26/us/politics /trump-refugees.html Snyder, B. (2003, May). Teams that span time zones face new work rules. Stanford Graduate School of Business website: www.gsb.stanford.edu/news/bmag/sbsm0305 /feature_virtual_teams.shtml. Telford, T. (2019, September 26). Income inequality is the highest its been since the Census Bureau started tracking it, data shows. washingtonpost.com. Retrieved January 18, 2020, from https://www.washingtonpost.com /business/2019/09/26/income-inequality-america -highest-its-been-since-census-started-tracking-it-data-show/ Tompkins, P. K. (2009). Who is my neighbor? Communicating and organizing to end homelessness. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers. Turkle, S. (2011). Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other. New York: Basic Books. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2020). Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey. Retrieved January 6, 2010, from https://www.bls.gov/cps/demographics.htm. U.S. Census Bureau. (2019). Population estimates. Quick facts. Retrieved July 3, 2020, from https://www.census .gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045219 Varner, I., & Beamer, L. (2010). Intercultural communication in the global workplace. 5th ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Wei, L. (2012). Number matters: The multimodality of Internet use as an indicator of the digital inequalities. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 17, 303–318.

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Who is Greta Thunberg, the teenage climate change activist? (2020, January 28). BBC News. Retrieved February 4, 2020, from https://www.bbc.com/news/world -europe-49918719 Why successful U.S. brands fail in China. (2019). Baysourceglobal.com. Retrieved January 8, 2020, from https://baysourceglobal.com/why-successful-us-brands -fail-in-china-pt-1/ Xu, Y., & Maitland, C. F. (2016, June) Communication behaviors when displaced: A case study of Za’atari Syrian Refugee Camp. Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Information and Communication

Technologies and Development (ACM ICTD), Ann Arbor, MI. Retrieved January 25, 2020, from https:// cmaitland.ist.psu.edu/home/publications/. Yohn, D. L. (2011, May). Leveraging franchisee diversity. QSRmagazine.com. Retrieved April 4, 2016, from http://www.qsrmagazine.com/franchising/leveraging -franchisee-diversity. Zoppo, A., Santos, A. P., & Hudgins, J. (2017, February 14). nbcnews.com. Here’s the full list of Donald Trump’s executive orders. Retrieved January 7, 2020, from https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/white-house /here-s-full-list-donald-trump-s-executive-orders-n720796

CREDITS [page 3, text] Mohamad, quote from “Epigraph: When I was back home [Kuwait], before I came. . . . about my country and culture”. Original Work; [page 3, text] ­Adrianna, quote from “Epigraph: My longest relationship was an intercultural relationship . . . extremely rewarding experience”. Original Work; [page 9, text] J.W. Loewen, excerpt from “Teaching what really happened.” Teachers College Press. [page 9, text] D. Cole, excerpt from “Race, class, and gender in the United States: An integrated study.” St. Martin’s Press. [page 14, text] A. Muzrui, quote from “Transcultural realities: Interdisciplinary perspectives on cross-cultural relations.” Sage. [page 13, text] Excerpt from “2014 Religious Landscape Study.” The Pew Research Center. [page 13, text] Katie, excerpt from “Student Voices: I am involved in many different intercultural relationships . . . which is what I hope to do.” Original Work; [page 15, text] Luis, excerpt from “Student Voices: ­Americans, including myself, sometimes have this belief that what we do here . . . I hope this trend continues.” Original Work; [page 17, text] B. Snyder, quote from “Teams that span time zones face new work rules.” Stanford Graduate School of Business website. [page 21, text] Excerpt from “Internet World Stats.” Miniwatts Marketing Group. [page 16, text]

J. Stark, excerpt from “Rice Research Shows Starbucks Logo Redesign Could Prove Beneficial to Company.” Rice University News & Media. [page 26, text] F. Delgado, quote from “Readings in intercultural communication.” McGrawHill. [page 30, text] W. S. Howell, quote from “The empathic communicator.” Wadsworth. [page 29, text] J. A. Crump and J. Sugarman, excerpt from “Ethical considerations for short-term experiences by trainees in global health.” The Journal of American Medical Association. [page 29, text] V. Strauss, excerpt from “How NOT to save the world: Why U.S. students who go to poor countries to ‘do good’ often do the opposite.” The Washington Post. [page 32, text] Jacqueline, excerpt from “Student Voices: I have spent three years in the United States seeking an education . . . more culturally competent.” Original Work; [page 32, text] B. J. Hall, excerpt from “Ethics in intercultural and international communication.” Lawrence Erlbaum. [page 34, text] P. K. Tompkins, quote from “Who is my neighbor? Communicating and organizing to end homelessness.” Paradigm Publishers. [page 35, text] J. N. Martin and R. L. W. Butler, excerpt from “Transcultural realities: Interdisciplinary perspectives on cross-cultural relations.” Sage.

2 CHAPTER

THE STUDY OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE DISCIPLINE

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

Interdisciplinary Contributions

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

PERCEPTION AND WORLDVIEW OF THE RESEARCHER THREE APPROACHES TO STUDYING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

The Social Science Approach The Interpretive Approach The Critical Approach A DIALECTICAL APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION

Combining the Three Traditional Paradigms: The Dialectical Approach Six Dialectics of Intercultural Communication Keeping a Dialectical Perspective INTERNET RESOURCES

1. Identify four early foci in the development of intercultural communication. 2. Describe three approaches to the study of intercultural communication. 3. Identify the methods used within each of the three approaches. 4. Explain the strengths and weaknesses of each approach. 5. Identify three characteristics of the dialectical approach. 6. Explain the strengths of a dialectical approach. 7. Identify six intercultural communication dialectics.

SUMMARY DISCUSSION QUESTIONS ACTIVITIES KEY WORDS REFERENCES

41

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worldview  U ­ nderlying assumptions about the nature of reality and human behavior.

Now that we’ve described a rationale for studying intercultural communication, we turn to ways in which the study of intercultural communication is conducted. It is studied worldwide, by scholars in many different disciplines, with different worldviews (research philosophies), and different methodologies. How did the formal study of intercultural communication begin? Before answering this question, let us pose a few others: Whom do you think should be regarded as an expert in intercultural communication? Someone who has actually lived in a variety of cultures? Or someone who has conducted scientific studies on how cultural groups differ in values and attitudes? Or someone who analyzes what popular culture (movies, television, magazines, and so on) has to say about a particular group of people? Consider a related question: What is the best way to study intercultural communication behavior? By observing how people communicate in various cultures? By asking people to describe their own communication patterns? By distributing questionnaires to various cultural groups? Or by analyzing books, videos, movies, and other cultural performances of various groups? The answers to these questions help determine what kind of material goes into a textbook on intercultural communication. And intercultural communication scholars do not agree on what are the “right” answers to these questions. Thus, these questions and answers have implications for what you will be exposed to in this book and this course. By choosing some types of research (questionnaire, observation data), we may neglect other types (interviews, travel journal, media analysis). To help you understand why we chose to include the material we did, we describe the origins of the discipline in the United States and the philosophical worldviews that inform the current study and practices of intercultural communication. We then outline three contemporary perspectives that recognize ­contributions from other disciplines. Finally, we outline our dialectical approach, which integrates the strengths from all three contemporary perspectives.

THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE DISCIPLINE The roots of the study of intercultural communication can be traced to the post– World War II era, when the United States increasingly came to dominate the world stage. However, government and business personnel working overseas often found that they were ill-equipped to work among people from different cultures. The language training they received, for example, did little to prepare them for the complex challenges of working abroad. In response, the U.S. government in 1946 passed the Foreign Service Act that established the Foreign Service Institute (FSI) and hired Edward T. Hall and other prominent anthropologists and linguists ­(including Ray ­Birdwhistell and George Trager) to develop “predeparture” courses to assist the government and business personnel to work more effectively overseas—acknowledging that these personnel needed more than the existing language training. As they developed their courses, these scholars emphasized four important foci that continue to today. That is, the study is interdisciplinary, as FSI scholars came from many different disciplines; in addition, the study was internationally focused; was pragmatic and

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emphasized the importance of nonverbal aspects of intercultural encounters. In so doing, FSI theorists formed new ways of looking at culture and communication. Thus, the field of intercultural communication was born (Martin, Nakayama, & Carbaugh, 2020). Probably due to the urgency of international rebuilding, these experts defined culture in terms of nationality and tended to focus on international contexts. Their study was also very pragmatic, as the government and business personnel were not interested in theories of culture and communication, but in learning how they could adapt and effectively work in foreign cultures—eventually leading to a parallel “discipline” of cross-cultural training and eventually to diversity training (Landis, Bennett, & Bennett, 2004). E. T. Hall (1959, 1966) concluded that, just like language, nonverbal communication varies from culture to culture and respecting these cultural differences is critical to smooth communication. At the FSI, people were from different cultures and he might observe that Greeks use a lot of hand gestures and Chinese use few, he could consult members of different cultural groups and test his theories about cultural variations and communication. It was only later that scholars broadened the definition of culture beyond nationality. For example, Dreama Moon (2010) noted that how culture is defined determines how it is studied, and argued for the notion of culture to include the study of power and to expand the definition to include ethnicity, race, gender, etc. Over the years, scholars worldwide in many different disciplines were motivated to study intercultural problems in their own regions as different ethnic, racial, religious, gender, and national groups struggle to find ways to live together peaceably (Martin, Nakayama, & Carbaugh, 2020). While the study in the United States is rooted in the communication field, there are important contributions from many disciplines—including linguistics, anthropology, psychology, and others.

cross-cultural ­training  Training people to become familiar with other cultural norms and to improve their interactions with people of different domestic and international cultures. diversity training  The training meant to facilitate intercultural communication among various gender, ethnic, and racial groups in the United States.

Interdisciplinary Contributions The scholars at the FSI came from various disciplines, including linguistics, anthropology, and psychology. Not surprisingly, in their work related to communication, they drew from theories pertinent to their specific disciplines. Contributions from these fields of study blended to form an integrated approach that remains useful to this day. Linguists help us understand the importance of language and its role in intercultural interaction. They describe how languages vary in “surface” structure and are similar in “deep” structure. They also shed light on the relationship between language and reality. French and Spanish, for instance, have both formal and informal forms of the pronoun you. (In French, the formal is vous and the informal is tu; in Spanish, the formal is usted and the informal is tu.) In contrast, English makes no distinction between formal and informal usage; one word, you, suffices in both situations. Do such language ­distinctions affect our culture’s notion of formality? This question is explored further in Chapter 6. Linguists also point out that learning a second or third language can enhance our ­intercultural ­competence by providing insights into other cultures and expanding our communication repertoire.

intercultural ­competence  The ability to behave effectively and appropriately in interacting across cultures.

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Anthropologists help us understand the role that culture plays in our lives and the importance of nonverbal communication. Anthropologist Renate Rosaldo (1989) encouraged scholars to consider the appropriateness of cultural study ­methods, and other anthropologists have followed Rosaldo’s lead. They point out that many U.S. and European studies reveal more about the researchers than about their subjects. The so-called scientific study of other peoples is never entirely separate from the culture in which the researchers are immersed. In his study of the Victorian era, for example, Patrick Brantlinger (1986) notes that “evolutionary anthropology often suggested that Africans, if not nonhuman or a different species, were such an inferior ‘breed’ that they might be impervious to ‘higher influences’ ” (p. 201). Consider the famous 19th century case of Saartjie Baartman, a young African woman who was lured to Europe with false promises of fame and fortune. She was paraded naked before jeering mobs. She was exhibited in a metal cage and sold to an animal trainer [and] died in Paris in 1816. White scientists intent on proving the inferiority of Blacks dissected her body, bottled her brain and genitals, wired her skeleton and displayed them in a French museum. [However,] 192 years after she last looked on these rugged cliffs and roaring sea [of South Africa], her remains were finally removed from the Musée de l’Homme in Paris and flown back home. (Swarns, 2002, p. A28)

interdisciplinary  Integrating knowledge from different disciplines in conducting research and constructing theory. paradigm  A framework that serves as the worldview of ­researchers. Different paradigms assume different interpretations of reality, human behavior, culture, and communication.

This return of Baartman’s remains is part of a larger movement away from a scientific “era when indigenous people were deemed worthy of scientific study, but unworthy of the consideration commonly accorded to whites” (Swarns, 2002, p. A28). Indeed, the conclusions from such studies reveal more about the cultural attitudes of the researchers (e.g., ethnocentrism, racism, sexism) than they do about the people studied. Psychologists such as Gordon Allport help us understand notions of stereotyping and the ways in which prejudice functions in our lives and in intercultural interaction. In his classic study The Nature of Prejudice (1979), he describes how prejudice can develop from “normal” human cognitive activities such as categorization and generalization. Other psychologists, such as Richard Brislin (1999) and Dan Landis (Landis & Wasilewski, 1999), reveal how variables like nationality, ethnicity, personality, and gender influence our communication. An interdisciplinary focus can help us acquire and interpret information in a more comprehensive manner—in ways relevant to bettering the intercultural communication process, as well as producing knowledge. Thus, the field continues to be influenced by interdisciplinary contributions, including ideas from cultural studies, critical theory, and the more traditional disciplines of psychology and anthropology (Martin, Nakayama, & Carbaugh, 2020).

PERCEPTION AND WORLDVIEW OF THE RESEARCHER A second influence on the current study of intercultural communication is the research paradigm, or worldview, of the scholars involved. People understand and learn about the world through filtering lenses; they select, evaluate, and organize

STUDENT VOICES As a child, I did not consciously think of myself as a German or as a Norwegian. Since I never viewed myself in terms of my culture, cultural heritage was something with which I never used to identify others. When I communicated with others, the cultural background of the person I was talking with never crossed my mind. To someone who constantly sees racism and prejudice, this situation may seem ideal, but ignoring a person’s culture can cause as much harm as judging someone based upon that culture. Knowledge of someone’s historical background is necessary when communicating on anything other than a superficial level. —Andrew I grew up in northern Minnesota and we were very aware that we were Norwegian and not Swedish. We ate lutefisk and lefse, but we also ate American food. I really don’t like lutefisk. My dad belonged to the Sons of Norway, but I think he was more interested in socializing with his friends than insisting that we learned about Norwegian culture. I don’t speak Norwegian, but we always knew we were Norwegian. I guess that I mostly feel like an American, and most of the time people probably see me as white. —Juliann

information (stimuli) from the external environment through ­perception. As Marshal Singer (1987) explains: We experience everything in the world not “as it is”—because there is no way that we can know the world “as it is”—but only as the world comes to us through our sensory receptors. From there, these stimuli go instantly into the “data-storage banks” of our brains, where they have to pass through the filters of our censor screen, our decoding mechanism, and the collectivity of everything we have learned from the day we were born. (p. 9) In this sense, all of the information we have already stored in our brains (learning) affect how we interpret new information. Some of our learning and perception is group related. That is, we see the world in particular ways because of the cultural groups (based on ethnicity, age, gender, and so on) to which we belong. These grouprelated perceptions (worldviews or value orientations) are so fundamental that we rarely question them. They involve our assumptions about human nature, the physical and spiritual world, and the ways in which humans should relate to one another. For example, most U.S. ­Americans perceive human beings as separate from nature and believe that there is a fundamental difference between, say, a human and a rock. However, other cultural groups (Japanese, Chinese, traditional Native Americans) see humans and human reality as part of a larger physical reality. For them, the difference between a human and a rock is not so pronounced. The key point here is that academic research is also cultural behavior because research traditions require particular worldviews about the nature of reality and knowledge and particular beliefs about how research should be conducted. For example,

perception  The process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret external and internal stimuli to create their view of the world.

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researchers studying communication often reflect their own cultural assumptions in their research projects. Asian scholars say that U.S. communication scholars often emphasize individuality and rationality—two strong ­cultural beliefs held by many U.S. Americans—and ignore human interdependence and feeling in human encounters, important beliefs for many people around the world (Miike, 2007). And these research paradigms are often held as strongly as cultural or ­spiritual beliefs (Kuhn, 1970). There are even examples of intercultural conflicts in which scholars strongly disagree. For example, Galileo was excommunicated from the Catholic Church in the 17th century because he took issue with theologians’ belief that the earth was the center of the universe. More recent examples of the relation between academic research and cultural behavior can be seen in the social sciences. Some communication scholars believe there is an external reality that can be measured and studied, whereas others believe that reality can be understood only as lived and experienced by individuals (Casmir, 1994). Scholars’ cultural beliefs and experiences also influence them to focus on particular areas of the world and not others—resulting in extensive research on U.S., European, and Asian communication, but neglecting many others (Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East). Communication scholar Uttaran Dutta refers to these as “silent zones,” where there is little study of cultural communication (Dutta & Martin, 2017). In short, beliefs and assumptions about reality influence research methods and findings, and so also influence what we currently know about intercultural communication. At present, we can identify three broad approaches, or worldviews, that characterize the study of culture and communication. All three approaches involve a blend of disciplines and reflect different ­worldviews and assumptions about reality, human behavior, and ways to study culture and communication. As you read about each of these approaches, think about what kinds of assumptions concerning “culture” are used in each approach. How we think about “culture” influences how it is studied.

THREE APPROACHES TO STUDYING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION Three contemporary approaches to studying intercultural communication are: (1) the social science (or functionalist) approach, (2) the interpretive approach, and (3) the critical approach. (See Tables 2-1 and 2-2.) These approaches are based on different fundamental assumptions about human nature, human behavior, and the nature of knowledge. Each one contributes in a unique way to our understanding of the relationship between culture and communication, but each also has limitations. These approaches vary in their assumptions about human behavior, their research goals, their conceptualization of culture and communication, and their preferred methodologies. As a student of intercultural communication, you may not see yourself doing research on intercultural communication issues; however, it is important to understand the assumptions behind the scholarship that is being undertaken. Think about the strengths and weaknesses of each assumption and what each approach reveals (and also hides) about other cultures and their communication patterns.

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TABLE 2-1  THREE APPROACHES TO INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Social Science (or Functionalist)

Discipline on Psychology which approach is founded Research goal Describe and predict behavior Assumption of External and reality describable Assumptions of Predictable human behavior Method of Survey, study observation

Interpretive

Critical

Anthropology, sociolinguistics

Various

Describe behavior Subjective

Change behavior Subjective and material Changeable

Creative and voluntary Participant observation, field study Relationship of Communication Culture created culture and influenced by and maintained communication culture through communication Contribution Identifies cultural Emphasizes that of the variations; recog- communication approach nizes cultural and culture differences in and cultural many aspects of differences communication should be studied but often does in context not consider context

Textual analysis of media Culture a site of power struggles Recognizes the economic and political forces in culture and communication; asserts that all intercultural interactions are characterized by power

TABLE 2-2  THE SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH APPROACHES

Social scientific This research style emphasizes statistical measures. Understanding quantitative approaches is critical to analyzing data and statistics. These are skills important in any walk of life. Interpretive Interpretive approaches emphasize using language to describe human behavior. Understanding interpretive approaches is important to understanding how news is reported, how information is transferred, and how most people make decisions. Critical Critical methodologies analyze the large power structures that guide everyday life. Understanding this approach helps students grasp the invisible forces that alter our lives.

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social science approach  See functionalist approach. functionalist approach  A study of intercultural communication, also called the social science approach, based on the assumptions that (1) there is a describable, external reality, (2) human behaviors are predictable, and (3) culture is a variable that can be measured. This approach aims to identify and explain cultural variations in communication and to predict future communication. (Compare with critical approach and interpretive approach.) quantitative ­methods  Research ­methods that use ­numerical ­indicators to capture and ­ascertain the relationships among ­variables. These ­methods use survey and observation. variable  A concept that varies by existing in ­different types or ­different amounts and that can be operationalized and measured.

To examine these three approaches, let us start with a situation that illustrates a communication dilemma—the continuing worldwide migration. 272 million or 3.5% of the global population are currently on the move. Tragically, more than 70 million of these (or about one person every two seconds) are forcibly displaced from their home as a result of conflict or persecution (https://www.unhcr .org/en-us/figures-at-a-glance.html). Almost daily, we hear/see accounts of people trying desperately to escape the war-ravaged and dangerous existence in their home countries and find refuge in other countries. After leaving their homes with a few possessions, many walk for hundreds, sometimes thousands of miles, and/ or risk their lives by crossing in treacherous waters in tiny unsafe boats (in 2016, two children drowned every day on average trying to reach safely in Europe, UNHCR; http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home). How are they welcomed once they arrive safely to foreign countries? News reports tell us that some are welcomed, processed, and given food, shelter, and aid by compassionate citizens and governments. Others are stopped by border fences, government security forces, and even citizens who feel threatened by these waves of foreigners (see Figure 2.1). Still others encounter ambivalent hosts who want to be compassionate but are afraid that their neighborhoods and countries are not able to assimilate these vast numbers of newcomers, and some are placed in crowded, unsanitary camps. These situations provide good examples of intercultural encounters and offer useful insights into how we might think about intercultural communication and how different cultural groups understand (or don’t understand) each other. There are a variety of ways that foreigners (migrants) and hosts can interact, and we will explore these in more detail in Chapter 8. But for now, let’s analyze these encounters to demonstrate the characteristics of the three approaches to studying intercultural communication—contributions and limitations.

The Social Science Approach The social science approach (also called the functionalist approach) is based on research in psychology and sociology. This approach assumes a describable external reality. It also assumes that human behavior is predictable and that the researcher’s goal is to describe and ­predict behavior. Researchers who take this approach often use ­quantitative ­methods, gathering data by administering questionnaires or observing ­subjects firsthand. Social science researchers assume that culture is a variable that can be ­measured. This suggests that culture influences communication in much the same way that personality traits do. The goal of this research, then, is to predict specifically how culture influences communication. Applications So how might social science researchers understand the communication issues of those migrants who find themselves in a foreign country, trying to adapt to new ways of thinking and behaving? Social science researchers often use theories to predict human behavior. What predictions might be made about intercultural encounters between immigrants and individuals from the host country? One approach might be to investigate how various communication technologies affect cultural adaptation. For

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FIGURE 2-1   A refugee couple sleeps in the Serbian town of Presevo hoping to cross the border to Hungary. (Dimitar Dilkoff and Csaba Segesvari/AFP/Getty Images)

example, one study tried to find out whether Muslim migrants’ use of Facebook affected their cultural adaptation to the United States. Specifically, the researchers predicted that immigrants’ use of Facebook to communicate with other immigrants would impact their rate of adaptation to the United States and their perceptions of America. Perhaps not surprising, they discovered that, over time, these immigrants used Facebook mostly to interact with other Muslims and were also less likely to culturally adapt to the U.S. culture, and more likely to have a negative perception of the United States. They suggest that one reason for this outcome is the negative political and social situation in the United States and the War on Terror where Muslims have been the center of attention. In such a situation, the length of time immigrants spent in the United States led to negative feelings about this country (Croucher & Rahmani, 2015). However, another similar social science study found slightly different results. Like the previous study, communication researchers Young Yun Kim and Kelly McKay-Semmler (2013) measured Asian and European immigrants’ use of social media and e-mail to communicate with people from their own country and also with Americans. They also measured the immigrants’ face-to-face contacts with the same two groups. Based on Kim’s integrative theory of adaptation, they predicted (and found) that the more immigrants communicated with people in the United States (both face-to-face and on social media), the better adapted they were to U.S. culture and the less they communicated with friends and family back home. However, they also found that online connections did not replace direct interpersonal communication with U.S. Americans. They stressed the importance for immigrants to be directly and actively engaged with people in the host country as they strive to adapt to the new culture (Kim & McKay-Semmler, 2013). Perhaps the difference in the results for the two studies could be attributed to the difference in the attitudes of the host culture (the United States) toward the two groups of

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anxiety ­uncertainty management ­theory  The view that the reduction of anxiety and uncertainty plays an ­important role in ­successful ­intercultural ­communication, ­particularly when ­experiencing new cultures. face negotiation theory  The view that cultural groups vary in preferences for conflict styles and face-saving strategies.

immigrants—Asian and European immigrants who experienced a more welcoming reception versus Muslim immigrants from the Middle East who experienced a less welcoming reception. Another group of social science researchers predicted that immigrants’ degree of acculturation in the United States might influence their perceptions of racial discrimination and their need for social support (Hanasono, Chen, & Wilson, 2014). They surveyed 345 racial minority first- and second-generation immigrants and asked them to report how acculturated they felt to the U.S. society and also their experiences with discrimination (how often they experienced discrimination and how severe were these experiences). They also asked them to describe how likely they were to ask for social support from others to cope with these experiences—for advice or comfort in dealing with these experiences. Interestingly, the researchers found that immigrants who were less acculturated, less integrated into the fabric of U.S. society did express a higher need for social support in dealing with the detrimental effects of discrimination, but they were not likely to seek support! The researchers speculated that they did not ask for support because of language barriers or perhaps because they come from cultures where directly asking for support from others is not socially approved. Other studies find that LGBT migrants avoid asking for help because they assume that they won’t get help, because of discrimination and rejection (Kahna et al., 2017) (see Point of View, p. 52). In any case, the results suggest that there are members of immigrant communities in the United States that need help, and community leaders should find culturally sensitive ways to develop resources and programs (e.g., communication workshops) that help less acculturated (especially marginalized) individuals to find, seek, and receive social support (Chavez, 2011; Kahna et al., 2017). All these studies provide insight into intercultural communication between immigrants and people in the host culture. Other contemporary research programs illustrate the social science approach. One such program was headed by the late William B. Gudykunst (2005), a well-known communication researcher. He proposed the anxiety uncertainty management (AUM) theory, which explains the role of anxiety and uncertainty in individuals communicating with host culture members when they enter a new culture. This theory predicts certain optimal levels of uncertainty and anxiety, and how they motivate individuals to engage in successful interaction. This theory is explained further in Chapter 8. A related social science program is Stella Ting-Toomey’s (2005) face negotiation theory. Face is the sense of favorable self-worth, and in all cultures people are concerned about saving face. Ting-Toomey suggests that conflict is a face negotiation process in which people often have their face threatened or questioned. She and her colleagues have conducted a number of studies in which they try to identify how cultures differ in conflict style and face concerns (Neuliep & Johnson, 2016). For example, they found that members of individualistic societies like the United States are concerned with saving their own face in conflict situations and so use more dominating conflict resolution styles. In contrast, members of collectivistic cultures, like China, South Korea, and Taiwan, are more concerned with saving the other person’s face in conflict situations and use more avoiding, obliging, or integrating conflict resolution styles (Ting-Toomey, 2005). Research also shows that Latino and Asian

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Americans in the United States use more ­avoiding and third-party conflict styles than African Americans and more than do ­European Americans (Ting-Toomey, Yee-Jung, Shapiro, Garcia, Wright, & Oetzel, 2000). Another social science research program focuses on cultural differences in conversational strategies. In contrast to AUM, conversational constraints theory, developed by Min-Sun Kim (2005), attempts to explain how and why people make particular conversational choices. It suggests five universal conversational constraints, or concerns: (1) clarity, (2) minimizing imposition, (3) consideration for the other’s feelings, (4) risking negative evaluation by the hearer, and (5) effectiveness. Kim and her colleagues have discovered that people from individualistic and collectivistic cultures place varying importance on these various conversational concerns. Individualists seem to be most concerned with clarity; collectivists, with concerns about hurting the other’s feelings and minimizing imposition. Concerns for effectiveness and avoidance of negative evaluation by others seem to be universally important (Kim, 2005). The communication accommodation theory is the result of another social science program in which researchers attempted to identify how and when individuals accommodate their speech and nonverbal behavior to ­others during an interaction. Unlike AUM and conversational constraints theory, communication accommodation theory focuses on adaptation during intercultural interaction. The researchers posited that in some situations ­individuals change their communication patterns to accommodate others (Gallois, Ogay, & Giles, 2005). Specifically, individuals are likely to adapt during low-threat interactions or situations in which they see little difference between themselves and others. The underlying assumption is that we accommodate when we feel positive toward the other person. For example, when we talk to international students, we may speak more slowly, enunciate more clearly, use less jargon, and mirror their communication. We also may adapt to regional speech. For example, when Tom talks with someone from the South, he ­sometimes starts to drawl and use words like “‘y’all.” Of course, it is possible to overaccommodate. For example, if a white ­American speaks Black English to an African American, this may be perceived as overaccommodation. The diffusion of innovations theory, developed by ­communication scholar Everett Rogers (2003), explains how cultural practices can be changed—largely due to communication. This theory explains why some innovations, like computer technology or the Internet, or certain behaviors, like “safe sex,” are accepted by some people and rejected by others. The theory posits that in order for people to accept a new technology, they have to see the usefulness of it and it has to be compatible with their values and lifestyle. Communication also plays a key role; usually people first learn of innovations through impersonal ­channels—like social media—but only decide to adopt an innovation later, after asking the opinion or observing the behavior of someone who is known, trusted, or considered an expert—an “opinion leader.” If people important to the individual (e.g., peers for adolescents) adopt the innovation first, then the individual is more likely to adopt it. Opinion leaders can also be responsible for innovations not diffusing, if they ignore or speak out against an ­innovation. There seems to be a predictable, over-time pattern for the spread of an innovation, first to early adopters and then to many more individuals (Singhal & Dearing, 2006).

conversational ­constraints theory  The view that cultural groups vary in their fundamental concerns regarding how conversational messages should be constructed.

communication accommodation ­theory  The view that individuals adjust their verbal communication to facilitate understanding.

diffusion of ­innovations t­ heory  The view that communication and relationships play important roles in how new ideas are adopted (or not) by individuals and groups.

POINT of VIEW Consider how LGBTQ migrants’ needs differ from those of the international workers addressed by the Foreign Service Institute, described earlier. Could intercultural training help ICE workers be more effective? Which of the three research perspectives might be most relevant in studying these encounters between ICE workers and LGBTQ refugees? Many advocacy groups have drawn attention to poor conditions and mistreatment of detainees, especially the LGBTQ: **Jesus Mendoza, an HIV-positive gay Venezuelan, fearing political retaliation for his job and unable to find medicine, fled to the United States and spent two years in ICE detention. He almost died there. ICE refused to give him medicine or release him on parole, even though he had a sponsor, and even after repeated requests from his attorney. **Victoria Castro, a transgender woman from El Salvador, fled her home country after almost losing her life to a hate crime, was held in solitary confinement in an overcrowded ICE detention facility, and denied medical treatment. “The experience was quite traumatic and disturbing. The situation is getting worse every day and this is a fear that all trans people feel every day,” Castro says. “They can also lose their lives while in ICE’s custody.” Castro and Mendoza are the lucky ones. Castro was released to a sponsor in the United States while her asylum case is being processed. Mendoza was admitted entry to the United States while his asylum request is adjudicated. Of the 467 LGBTQ migrants held in custody in 2017, 28 reported being abused or assaulted sexually, and some died. **Johana Medina Leon, a 25-year-old transgender woman, fleeing violence in El Salvador, died in a Texas hospital following six weeks in ICE custody in New Mexico. **Roxsana Hernandez Rodriguez, 33, a transgender woman and asylum seeker from Honduras, died in an ICE detention facility in New Mexico from untreated HIV infection and AIDS-related complications. An autopsy found signs of physical abuse before her death. After these deaths, ICE issued a statement, reporting that they spend more than $250 million a year on health services for detainees and claiming they do provide medical care for detainees during their entire stay. Adapted from: Mounting concerns about treatment of LGBTQ asylum-seekers. CQ Magazine July 8, 2019. http://library.cqpress.com.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/cqweekly/weeklyreport116-000005587006.

individualistic  The tendency to emphasize individual identities, beliefs, needs, goals, and views rather than those of the group. (Compare with collectivistic.)

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Many social science studies explain how communication styles vary from culture to culture—often based on individualistic versus collectivistic values. For example, many people in the United States who have strong individualistic tendencies see value in direct communication and self-promotion. In cultures with a more collectivistic orientation such as Japan and China, people are more likely to use an indirect approach (Merkin, Taras, & Steel, 2014). We will discuss more of these cultural differences in communication patterns throughout the rest of the book.

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Strengths and Limitations Many of these social science studies have been useful in identifying variations in communication from group to group and ­specifying psychological and sociological variables in the communication process. However, this approach is limited. Many scholars now realize that human communication is often more creative than predictable and that reality is not just external but also internally constructed. We cannot identify all of the variables that affect our communication. Nor can we predict exactly why one intercultural interaction seems to succeed and another does not (Ting-Toomey, 2010). Scholars also recognize that some methods in this approach are not culturally sensitive and that researchers may be too distant from the phenomena or people they are researching (Kim, 2012). In other words, researchers may not really understand the cultural groups they are studying (Lu & Gutua, 2014). For example, if a researcher wanted to investigate differences between U.S. and Chinese romantic relationships, they might distribute a questionnaire using a common measure of intimacy used by U.S. American researchers. However, there seem to be vast differences between these two cultural groups’ definition and common expression of intimacy (Tam, 2018), raising doubts about the accuracy of the researcher’s results. To overcome these kinds of problems, social scientists have developed strategies for achieving equivalence of measures. A leading cross-cultural psychologist, Richard Brislin (1999), has written extensively on guidelines for cross-cultural researchers. He has identified several types of equivalencies that researchers should establish, including translation equivalence and conceptual equivalence. For example, in cross-cultural studies, literal ­translations are inadequate. To establish translation equivalence, research materials should be translated several times, using different translators. Materials that proceed smoothly through these multiple steps are considered ­translation equivalent. In Chapter 6, we explore issues of translation in more detail and describe some of the impressive improvements being made in machine translation. While machine translation can be enormously helpful for common phrases and rough drafts, these translations cannot yet do away with humans. Advances are being made rapidly and, as the databases increase, the computer-generated translations will improve (Schwartz, 2018). Researchers can establish conceptual equivalence by ensuring that the notions they are investigating are similar at various levels. For example, problem solving is one aspect of intelligence that may be conceptually equivalent in many cultures. Once this equivalence is established, researchers can identify culture-specific ways in which problem solving is achieved. Another example is communication apprehension or a fear of communicating—viewed negatively in U.S. culture, whereas in Japan, reticence is seen as socially desirable (Gudykunst, 2005). Thus, the construct of reticence is not equivalent between these two groups because U.S. American and Japanese individuals may not view it in the same way. Therefore, when establishing equivalence, researchers need to be careful to determine that the construct is viewed similarly in the cultures being compared (Fletcher et al., 2014). Establishing these equivalencies allows researchers to isolate and describe what distinguishes one culture from another.

collectivistic  The ­tendency to focus on the goals, needs, and views of the ingroup rather than individuals’ own goals, needs, and views. (Compare with individualistic.)

translation ­equivalence  The linguistic sameness that is gained after translating and back-translating research materials several times using different translators. (See also conceptual equivalence.) conceptual ­equivalence  The similarity of linguistic terms and meanings across cultures. (See also translation equivalence.)

54  Part I / Foundations of Intercultural Communication interpretive approach  An approach to intercultural communication that aims to understand and describe human behavior within specific cultural groups based on the assumptions that (1) human experience is subjective, (2) human behavior is creative rather than determined or easily predicted, and (3) culture is created and maintained through communication. (Compare with critical approach and functionalist approach.) ethnography  A discipline that examines the patterned interactions and significant symbols of specific cultural groups to identify the cultural norms that guide their behaviors, usually based on field studies. qualitative m ­ ethods  Research methods that attempt to capture people’s own meanings for their everyday behavior in specific contexts. These methods use participant observation and field studies. participant ­observation  A research method where investigators interact extensively with the cultural group being studied. rhetorical approach  A research method, dating back to ancient Greece, in which scholars try to interpret the meanings or persuasion used in texts or oral discourses in the contexts in which they occur.

The Interpretive Approach The interpretive approach is a second approach to studying intercultural communication. One interpretive approach, rooted in sociolinguistics, is the ethnography of communication (Hymes, 1974). Ethnographers of communication are devoted to descriptive studies of communication patterns within specific cultural groups. Interpretive researchers assume not only that reality is external to humans, but also that humans construct reality. They believe that human experience, including communication, is subjective and human behavior is neither predetermined nor easily predicted. The goal of interpretive research is to understand and describe human behavior. (Predicting behavior is not a goal.) Whereas the social scientist tends to see communication as influenced by culture, the interpretivist sees culture as created and maintained through communication (Carbaugh, 1996, 2017). This type of research uses qualitative methods derived from anthropology and linguistics such as field studies, observations, and participant observations. A researcher engaging in participant observation contributes actively to the communication processes being observed and studied (see Figure 2-2). The researcher thus is intimately involved in the research and may become good friends with members of the communities he or she is studying. See Point of View, p. 58 for a unique example of this methodology. Another example of interpretive research is the rhetorical approach, also used by critical researchers, perhaps the oldest communication scholarship, dating back to the ancient Greeks. Rhetoricians typically examine and analyze texts or public speeches in the contexts in which they occur. Cross-cultural psychologists use the terms etic and emic to distinguish the social science and interpretive approaches (Berry, 1997). These terms were borrowed from linguistics—etic from phonetic and emic from phonemic. Social science research usually searches for universal generalizations and studies cultures objectively, with an “outsider’s” view; in this way, it is “etic.” In contrast, interpretive research usually focuses on understanding phenomena subjectively, from within a particular cultural community or context; in this way, it is “emic.” These researchers try to describe patterns or rules that individuals follow in specific contexts. They tend to be more interested in describing cultural behavior in one community than in making crosscultural comparisons. Applications How might an interpretive researcher investigate the communication experiences of immigrants? One example is Rodriquez and Dawkins (2017), who interviewed undocumented unaccompanied Latino youth in Texas. They found that the youth were victims of crimes (exploitation by employers, border crossing abuse, etc.) much more often than perpetrators of crime, and in addition, one of the primary deterrents to crime and delinquency was the meaningful relationships they developed with schoolmates and family members. They enjoyed activities and friendships with U.S. students and found comfort and strength with family members they came to join. A similar study involved focus groups (Korem & Horenczyk, 2015). In this study, researchers asked young immigrants from Ethiopia living in Israel about their experiences and specifically what communication strategies they used to adapt to live

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FIGURE 2-2   One way to study and learn about cultural patterns is to interview other people, which is this woman’s approach. What are the strengths and weaknesses of interviewing as a research strategy? (Digital Vision/Alamy Stock Photo)

there. These young men and women described the differences between Ethiopian and Israeli cultural values and communication preferences. They described their home (Ethiopian) values as a strong emphasis on respect for elders and parents and the total loyalty one has for a friend, “if we are friends, you have to make me feel that I can depend on you no matter what.” They also contrasted the strong emphasis on gentleness and reservedness in Ethiopian relationships with the more assertiveness and directness preferred by Israelis. They described how they sometimes emphasized cultural commonalities and sometimes differences in their interactions in the foreign country—depending on the context. In some situations, they emphasized their commonalities; for example, they tried hard to speak Hebrew without an accent. In other situations, they emphasized that they were different and the uniqueness of their cultural backgrounds, “If there are elements that I like very much in my culture and they don’t limit me, I will preserve them” (p. 20). It also depended on whom they are interacting with, as one said, “Next to Israelis, I allow myself to behave more openly. Among Ethiopians I choose my words” although he goes on to say that this “double life” can be “tiresome.” We can see that immigrants in these studies describe some ambivalence and contradictory feelings in their adaptation experience—on the one hand, recognizing their own unique cultural background and values and at the same time, trying out the new values and communication patterns. We see here the challenges of living with two competing sets of values and expectations—a theme we will discuss more in later chapters.

etic  A term stemming from phonetic. The etic inquiry searches for universal generalizations across cultures from a distance. (Compare with emic.) emic  A term stemming from phonemic. The emic way of inquiry focuses on understanding communication patterns from inside a particular cultural community or context. (Compare with etic.)

STUDENT VOICES There are many different ways of encountering new cultures: as a tourist, a military family, an immigrant, or a refugee. Think of how each of these individual’s experiences create specific intercultural communication challenges: Last summer my best friend and I visited Paris for the first time. The excitement of finally being in the beautiful city we had been dreaming of left us feeling so happy and grateful. It didn’t take long for us to adjust and get into the groove of the way the people of the city communicate and work. Overall, the experience of my first trip to Paris was a very positive one. Being in a culture outside of my own made me realize how big the world really is and how the way we live here in America isn’t the only way to live and that there is so much more out there to experience. —Elizabeth As a subculture, my father was in the military. Military families are subject to an entirely different culture from other families as we were unable to have roots in one place due to military transfers every 3 to 4 years. Military families were therefore dependent on each other even more, and we had to learn to make new friends easily and accept change frequently. We were exposed to many different cultures, which required us to be more open and accepting of other people. I believe that my experiences as a military family have allowed me to be a “people person.” —Carrie My father is a first-generation Hispanic who was certainly not given an easy start in life. He was raised by his grandparents who did not speak a word of English and constantly experienced economic hardships and challenges. Yet my father found a way to rise above his circumstances and make something of his life; through hard work. My father is the hardest working person I know, and instilled in me the importance and value of an incredible work ethic. —Charles

In a third study, interpretive scholars interviewed Turkish immigrants who returned home from living in western Europe (Germany, the Netherlands, or France) (Kunuroglu, Yagmur, van de Vijver, & Kroon, 2015). These researchers asked the returned immigrants about their life back in their home country of Turkey; they recorded, transcribed, and then analyzed the interviews for recurring themes. The immigrants reported that their readaptation in their home country was almost as difficult as their adaptation in the foreign country. Back in Turkey, they found that many of their friends and family did not welcome them with open arms, some were maybe jealous of the immigrants’ experiences abroad and many criticized them for being “too foreign” (too German, Dutch, or French)—even though the returned immigrants reported that they hadn’t really adapted very much while in the foreign country. However, they were still regarded by Turks at home as not being Turkish enough! One 56

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returned immigrant from Germany describes the sadness he feels when he is called “almanci” (not-Turkish): I never forget, I was traveling on the very first row in a bus and it was night time. I warned the driver as he had the high beam headlamps on, thinking that the driver on the car ahead of us can be distracted. I asked the driver why he was doing that. And he replied, ‘they are almancıs, let them die’. (p. 206). As you can see, in contrast to the social science studies that aim to predict aspects of the immigrant experiences, the goal of interpretive researchers is to provide us with in-depth descriptions of experiences, often in the words of the immigrants themselves. Some interpretive studies investigate the unique communication patterns of one cultural group. For example, communication scholar David Engen (2004) describes the communication patterns of his white working class community. He characterizes the communication style in his home and community as direct, even blunt, and sometimes impassioned and argumentative. It was also pretty functional (no need for abstract language) and there was the role of humor—in working class life you laugh to survive. He then describes the shock of discovering the communication norms of the four-year American college classroom: abstract and philosophical, requiring “political correctness” and “proper” English (he vividly recalls saying things like “I seen that” and “I ain’t worried about that”) and his discomfort at realizing he did not have “the appropriate classroom language and dialogue” (p. 236). In similar studies, Communication scholar Todd Sandel and colleagues (2017) describe the distinctive “Taiwanese” style of talk, indicated by a mix of Mandarin and Taiwanese language, an identifiable accent and the discussion of safe and comfortable topics; Carbaugh and Berry (2001) describe the ­tendency of Finns to be rather reserved in communication. More importantly, these scholars show how communication patterns are inextricably tied to cultural identities in these communities (Carbaugh, 2017). A number of interpretive scholars have emphasized that descriptions of the communication rules of a given people must be grounded, or centered, in their beliefs and values (Asante & Miike, 2013; Miike, 2017). Most scholarly studies of communication are rooted in a European ­American perspective, and this frame of reference is not necessarily applicable to communication of all cultural groups. For example, Molefi Asante (1987) developed the framework of Afrocentricity to apply to studies about African or African American communication. He identifies five cultural themes shared by peoples of African descent: ▪▪ A common origin and experience of struggle ▪▪ An element of resistance to European legal procedures, medical practices, and political processes ▪▪ Traditional values of humaneness and harmony with nature ▪▪ A fundamentally African way of knowing and interpreting the world ▪▪ An orientation toward communalism

Afrocentricity  An orientation toward African or African American cultural standards, including beliefs and values, as the criteria for interpreting behaviors and attitudes.

POINT of VIEW

C

ommunication scholar Sarah Amira de la Garza proposes a unique ethnographic methodology in studying cultural practices. It’s based on the seasonal cycles of nature (spring, summer, winter, and fall) and honors unique paces and rhythms of the natural world. She admonishes the culture learner to surrender to the process, to become one with the process, the research instrument (González, 2000). Spring is a time of preparation, which involves self-searching and introspection, opening oneself to the privilege of entering and being welcomed into another culture’s life-world. Summer is the season of immersion into the culture, a challenging and sometimes exhausting time, living with uncertainty, discomfort, testing one’s limits living in accepting another’s way of living. May grieve the loss of the unfamiliar, and yearn for the familiar. Fall is the harvest season—when the learner begins to understand some of the cultural patterns, a tentative thesis starts to form in answer to the research questions posed, vague, half-shaped insights start to take a coherent shape. Winter, like summer, is a difficult season, when one wrestles with issues of accountability, how to present one’s findings, how to represent the voices of those who graciously shared their lives and cultural knowledge. Many researchers have used this framework and gained interesting insights into their own and other cultural patterns. For an example, read a study investigating the tensions between indigenous child-rearing practices and modernizing influences in a small village in the Copper Canyon of Mexico (Mendoza 2016).

Communication scholars have used this framework to understand various aspects of contemporary African American communication. For example, communication scholar Janice Hamlet (2015) emphasizes the strong creative oral tradition of African Americans, demonstrated in the interactive style of worship in many Black congregations. As she describes it, the traditional African American preacher’s job is to transform the congregation into an actively participating group, through emotional, often poetic and rhythmic sermons, and the congregation is expected to respond. Responses such as “Amen,” “Preach!”, “Tell it,” or “Go on Pastor” are common and expected during the sermon. This interaction is often referred to as call-response. Hamlet traces this communication tradition historically to the “hush harbors” created by slaves where they could, out of the sight of their owners, enjoy the warmth of their friends and family and vent their emotions by speaking, singing, crying, or shouting. Similarly, Asian scholars have developed Asiacentric frameworks to study the communication of people from Asian cultures. Communication scholar ­Yoshitaka Miike (2004, 2011) has identified five Asiacentric themes (circularity, harmony, other-directedness, reciprocity, and relationality). Based on these themes, he 58

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developed five propositions on human communication. Communication is a process in which ▪▪ We remind ourselves of the interdependence and interrelatedness of the universe. ▪▪ We reduce our selfishness and egocentrism. ▪▪ We feel the joy and suffering of all beings. ▪▪ We receive and return our debts to all beings. ▪▪ We moralize and harmonize the universe. From this Asiacentric framework, other scholars are developing specific communication theories, for example, a Chinese model of human relationship development (Chen, 1998), an I-Ching model of communication (Chen, 2009), and a Buddhist consciousness-only model of intrapersonal communication (Ishii, 2004). It is important to remember that scholars like Asante and Miike (2013) are not suggesting that these culture-specific frameworks are superior or should replace the traditional Eurocentric models, only that they are not inferior. Another important interpretive theory, a communication theory of identity, was developed by Michael Hecht (1993). He argues that communication is a communicative process and our identities emerge in relationships with others and are expressed in core symbols, meaning, and labels. He also contends that there are four identity frames: personal, enacted, relational, and communal. These frames help us interpret reality and understand the social world (Shin & Hecht, 2018). We will discuss this theory further in Chapter 5. Several scholars have used this framework to understand the identities of various cultural groups. For example, Urban and Orbe (2010) used this same theoretical framework to explore the identities of a group of immigrants to the United States from many different countries. They found that, while most of the immigrants desired to both fit into their new culture and retain a core of their own cultural identity, they also expressed some struggles with identity gaps between the various layers of identity. One such gap was between their enacted and relational identities. That is, those who had accents or were not white said they tried to enact American behaviors, but many Americans would relate to them as foreigners. Other immigrants experienced other identity gaps. So they were constantly negotiating their identity in relation to those around them. Urban and Orbe stress that their study demonstrated that immigrants are a very diverse population and highlights the similarities and differences of their experiences in negotiating their identities. Strengths and Limitations The utility of the interpretivist approach is that it provides an in-depth understanding of communication patterns in particular communities because it emphasizes investigating communication in context. Thus, for example, we learn more about African American communication in religious contexts and more about U.S. white working class students in classroom contexts than we would by distributing questionnaires with general questions on African American or European American communication.

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legisigns  Culturally appropriate lowtech visual prompts that complement conventional in-depth interviewing. critical approach  A metatheoretical approach that includes many assumptions of the interpretive approach but that focuses more on macrocontexts, such as the political and social structures that influence communication. (Compare with interpretive approach and ­functionalist approach.) macrocontexts  The political, social, and historical situations, backgrounds, and environments that influence communication.

The main limitation of this approach is that there are few interpretivist studies of intercultural communication. Interpretive scholars typically have not studied what happens when two groups come in contact with each other. However, there are comparative studies, including ­Hammer and Rogan’s (2002) study comparing the different ways in which Latino and Indochinese view and negotiate conflict with law enforcement officers, and Wilkins’ (2017) comparison of the British “stiff upper lip” and the Finnish matter of fact “Asiasta” styles, revealing central cultural features of each cultural community. He shows how speakers in each search for and employ an optimal form—recognizing and moderating the inadequacies of each style. A limitation is that the researchers often are outsiders to the communities under investigation, which means they may not represent accurately the communication patterns of members of that community. For example, Fred Jandt and ­Dolores Tanno (2001) recount the dilemma of many marginalized ­cultural groups who have been studied by outsiders who characterize the group rather erroneously and negatively. A number of scholars, members of these groups, are now trying to rewrite these cultural descriptions. One of these is Tuhiwai Smith (1999), a Maori scholar, who rejects the labels scholars have used to describe her people, including “not fully humanized,” “illiterate,” and she also describes their negative impact. She argues that scholars should develop an indigenous research agenda (e.g., Maori-based code of research ethics that includes the following: be respectful, be generous, don’t flaunt your knowledge, look, listen and then speak). Communication scholar Uttaran Dutta (2019a) agrees that indigenous communities have important contributions to knowledge and theory development and, along with indigenous co-researchers, developed several methods to meet the challenges outlined above, including an innovative research technique—iconic legisigns (see Figure 2-3) (Dutta, 2019b). Legisigns are culturally appropriate low-tech visual prompts that complement conventional in-depth interviewing, thus enabling ethnographic researchers in low-literate communities to co-create knowledge along with the local participants. The legisigns help participants decide discussion pointers, generate questions/probes, and ensure inclusivity and control of participants over the research.

The Critical Approach A third approach to the study of intercultural communication includes many assumptions of the interpretive approach. For instance, researchers who use the critical approach believe in subjective (as opposed to objective) and material reality. They also emphasize the importance of studying the context in which communication occurs—that is, the situation, background, or environment. However, critical researchers usually focus on macrocontexts, such as the political and social structures that influence communication. Critical scholars, unlike most social scientists and interpretivists, are interested in the historical context of communication (see Figure 2-4).

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Addiction

Transportation Sanitation

FIGURE 2-3   These iconic legisigns, low-tech visual graphics developed by villagers, help researchers to guide discussion and focus groups in low-literate indigenous communities. Source: Dutta, U. (2019). Conducting ethnographic research in low literate, economically weak underserved spaces: An introduction to iconic legisigns guided interviewing (ILGI). International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 18, Appendix D, p. 10.

Critical scholars are interested in the power relations in communication. For them, identifying cultural differences in communication is important only in relation to power differentials. In this perspective, culture is, in essence, a battleground— a place where multiple interpretations come together but a dominant force always prevails. The goal of critical researchers is not only to understand human behavior but also to change the lives of everyday communicators. Researchers assume that by examining and reporting how power functions in cultural situations, they can help the average person learn how to resist forces of power and oppression. Like interpretive scholars, critical scholars also use interviews, focus groups, and rhetorical methods in analyzing encounters between immigrants and host groups. They also use textual analyses. That is, they analyze the cultural products such as media (television, movies, journals, and so on) as powerful voices in shaping contemporary culture. Critical scholars try to understand these encounters within a larger cultural struggle that has a much longer history than simply the current interactions. A critical scholar would want to understand the larger political, historical, and economical contexts of intercultural encounters.

textual analysis  Examination of cultural texts such as media—television, movies, journalistic essays, and so on.

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FIGURE 2-4   German Chancellor Angela Merkel delivers a speech in December 2015, promising to “tangibly reduce” the number of migrants allowed to enter Germany. How might each of the paradigms study her message and its influence in shaping the response to the challenges of mass migration into Europe? (Thomas Lohnes/Getty Images)

Applications For example, one critical study used informal, conversational face-to-face interviews to understand the larger societal contexts of one group of immigrants—Montagnards who settled in North Carolina. The Montagnards come from the Central Highlands of Vietnam and fought with the United States against the Vietnamese government in the 1960s. After the war ended, they were persecuted by the Vietnamese for helping the United States and many fled the country and settled in the United States. In this study, communication scholar Etsuko Kinefuchi (2011) asked a group of Montagnard men to talk about their experiences in coming to the United States and to discuss what place they see as their home and why. In analyzing the interview data, she found that many of the men still thought of Vietnam as home, had a strong emotional attachment to the people there and their indigenous land, as one man said, “I’m here, but I’m not really here. My mind is with my people in Vietnam” (p. 235). They also maintained strong ties to the Montagnard immigrant community in the United States. All of them lived close to other Montagnards and socialized almost entirely with other Montagnards, speaking their own language. They found it very difficult to make friends and form relationships with U.S. Americans— the cultural differences seemed insurmountable and they had limited opportunities to interact with Americans. They thought that people in America are too busy, life is too hurried and stressful, and no one has time to talk. Nobody just drops by unannounced to see their friends—a common and cherished practice within their ethnic community. In addition, they felt targeted by prejudice and racism. They were often mistaken for Mexicans and said, “Americans don’t seem to like Mexicans” (p. 240), and they thought this attitude toward Mexicans contributed to the U.S. Americans’ indifference toward them.

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Unlike social science scholars who usually focus on the immigrants’ experience and initiative in adapting to the host culture, critical scholars like Kinefuchi focus on the structural (societal) limitations that prevent the Montagnards from having satisfying interpersonal encounters with Americans. She points out that their “choices” of home and their attachment to their Montagnard community were not only based on their individual preferences but were also significantly shaped by the (lack of) opportunity for interactions and relationships with U.S. Americans. Most lacked “cultural capital” (e.g., education and English proficiency) that would help them build social networks and facilitate their integration into the mainstream U.S. society, and in addition they were subject to a racialized U.S. society and a racial hierarchy that was in place well before their arrival in the United States. She describes a perpetual contradiction that many immigrants (due to such unequal systems as race, gender, and class) face in the United States; the expectation of assimilation on the one hand and the structural limitations that prevent assimilation on the other. She and other critical scholars question the assumption that immigrants always wish to assimilate or that assimilation or acculturation is a good thing, and urge other scholars to pay more attention to the importance of ethnic communities for immigrant well-being—that these communities can play active roles in helping immigrants (especially refugees) by providing them with emotional, relational, sociocultural, and political anchoring. They stress that when refugees are forced to flee their homes because of abject poverty, political turmoil, ostracism, and/or discrimination, it makes sense for them to resist assimilation into the new and often unwelcoming host culture, that “holding onto one’s culture can be (and often is) a source of comfort and strength, a source of rational survival, persistence, and positive self-identity” (De La Garza & Ono, 2015, p. 281). In addition, retaining certain aspects of one’s culture (e.g. language, being bilingual) may facilitate academic success of immigrant youth (McKay-Semmler & Kim, 2014). A similar study analyzed the stories of foreign domestic helpers in Hong Kong who recounted their intercultural encounters with host culture members—the Hongkongese (Ladegaard, 2013). Most of the women come from the Philippines and out of desperate financial situations, leave their families and migrate to find work in Hong Kong. They report enormous challenges of their immigrant situation. They are paid extremely low wages, have very few legal protections and rights, and are often exploited and even abused by their employees. Ladegaard, like Kinefuchi, suggests that researchers need to pay more attention to the larger sociocultural and political contexts of immigrant–host interaction that allow for and even promote negative stereotyping and prejudice. Another critical study did just that. This study analyzed the speeches of several right-wing leaders in France, the Netherlands, and Belgium to show how the social and political landscape can be manipulated to promote attitudes of distrust and prejudice against immigrants (Mols & Jetten, 2014). Using rhetorical analyses, they found that the speeches conveyed a feeling of collective nostalgia and perceptions of discontinuity to persuade people to take a tougher stance on immigration and refugee asylum-seeking. They accomplished this in a three-step process. First, there were references to the “glorious” past that was contrasted with the current bleak political and economic situation (“we know who’s bringing the country down”). In the second

STUDENT VOICES I think 9/11 is an intercultural issue because what happens in Jerusalem (Palestine) is actually the real definition of terrorism. But people from the West (i.e., the United States, Canada) don’t admit that, and the citizens of those countries don’t know what’s going on in the outside world. They claim that all Arabs are terrorists, but they don’t take a m ­ inute to discover the truth. Also, in the news, you don’t see what actually is going on in the Middle East, and this is just not fair to the Arab communities around the world. —Mohammad

postcolonialism  An intellectual, political, and cultural movement that calls for the independence of colonialized states and also liberation from colonialist ways of thinking.

hybrid   An identity that is consciously a mixture of different cultural identities and cultural traditions.

64

part, the speeches suggested that the glorious past was due to toughness against foreigners, and the third part then called for the country to be tough once again—a justification for harsher treatment of migrants and minorities. Taken together, these various viewpoints emphasize how different migrant groups experience cultural adaptation in a new country and their encounters with host members there. A critical perspective would emphasize the economic, political, and cultural differences among these groups, in understanding their experiences and their reception by host members in the new culture. An important critical perspective is postcolonialism, an intellectual, political, and cultural movement that calls for the independence of colonized states and liberation from colonialist mentalité, or ways of thinking. The legacy of this cultural invasion often lasts much longer than the political relationship. “It theorizes not just colonial conditions but why those conditions are what they are, and how they can be undone and redone” (Shome & Hegde, 2002, p. 250). Postcolonialism is not simply the study of colonialism but the study of how we might deal with that past and its aftermath, which may include the ­ongoing use of the colonial language, culture, and religion. For example, language specialist Garvida (2013) investigated how Filipinos negotiate their postcolonial identity through a particular type of language use (conyo talk) in online discussions. Conyo talk is a mélange of English, Filipino (tagalog), and Spanish. Filipinos who speak fluent Spanish and/or English (the languages of former colonizers) are perceived to be from upper/middle class and are treated with more respect, while Tagalog, a Philippine language, is considered inferior, as language of the poor and illiterates. Consequently, “conyo” talk, a hybrid of colonizer and indigenous languages, is used by many Filipinos to affirm their existence and demonstrate power, and often to criticize their colonizers. The switching between languages clearly shows the speakers’ multiple and complementary hybrid identities (Filipino, Hispanic, and Anglophone), co-created online where only other conyo speakers understand them. Hybrid identities form in locations where people mix and meld aspects of their cultural life from more than one culture. While Garvida looked at the case in Phillipines, hybrid identities are emerging in many regions. The use of Kiswahili as a regional language in East Africa is one example. Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania, formerly British colonies, are looking for greater cooperation, as they were earlier

STUDENT VOICES

H

ere are three different student perspectives on the various approaches to studying intercultural communication:

I am an engineer, so I think that hypotheses and research are very important in order to describe and predict a subject. On the other hand, it is important to understand the individual more like a person and not like a number. —Liliana I like the interpretive approach. I think that it is important to understand and to actually get involved hands-on to understand something so important and complicated as intercultural communication. Even though outsiders may never fully be considered an insider, they are better off than neither an insider nor an outsider. —Matt Having three different paradigms allows me to view intercultural communication from three different perspectives. I can then incorporate all three into how I interpret other cultures. I personally like the critical view the most because I agree that often cultural groups are in a power struggle against one another, and that’s just human nature. —Andrew

closer under British colonial rule. Known as East African Cooperation, the former colonies have a colonial past that they are using to forge a new postcolonial entity. Kiswahili has emerged as the language on which this new integration has occurred, rather than English (Robertson, 2016). A final example of a critical study is Dreama Moon’s (1999) investigation of gender and social class communication in the United States. In her study, Moon analyzed interviews of white women from working-class backgrounds. She discovered that social class is a “marked feature” in the communication practices in academia that restricts upward mobility. Subtle communication practices that reinforce social class differences are not so invisible to women from working-class backgrounds. Moon shows how culture, social class, and communication work together to reproduce the contemporary social structure. She also identifies some strategies used by these women to resist this process of social reproduction. Strengths and Limitations The critical approach emphasizes the power relations in intercultural interactions and the importance of social and historical contexts. However, one limitation is that most critical studies do not focus on face-to-face intercultural interaction. Rather, they focus on popular media forms of communication—TV shows, music videos, magazine advertisements, and so on. Such studies, with their lack of attention to face-to-face interactions, may yield less practical results. Thus,

social r­ eproduction  The process of perpetuating cultural patterns.

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for example, although understanding different discourses about racism may give us insights into U.S. race relations, it may not provide individuals with specific guidelines on how to communicate better across racial lines. However, one exception is co-cultural theory, presented in Chapter 6, which is used to understand how people’s location in a social hierarchy influences their perceptions of reality regarding, among other things, relational issues or problems (Orbe, 1998). Also, this approach does not allow for much empirical data. For example, Mols and Jetten (2014) did not measure audience reactions to right wing political leaders; instead their essay analyzed the speech content, using rhetorical frameworks for understanding the persuasive elements of discourse.

A DIALECTICAL APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION Combining the Three Traditional Paradigms: The Dialectical Approach

dialectical approach  An approach to intercultural communication that integrates three approaches— functionalist (or social science), interpretive, and critical—in understanding culture and communication. It r­ ecognizes and accepts that the three approaches are interconnected and sometimes contradictory. processual  Refers to how interaction happens rather than to the outcome.

As you can see from our discussion and the list of theories in Table 2-3, there are many different ways to approach the study of intercultural communication. The social science, interpretive, and critical approaches operate in interconnected and sometimes contradictory ways. Rather than advocating any one approach, we propose a dialectical approach to intercultural communication research and practice (see also Martin, Nakayama, & Flores, 2002). The dialectical approach emphasizes the processual, relational, and contradictory nature of intercultural communication, which encompasses many different kinds of intercultural knowledge. First, with regard to the processual nature of intercultural communication, it is important to remember that cultures change, as do individuals. For example, the many cultures that constitute the war-torn areas of Syria include Syrian Arabs, Syrian Turkmen, Kurds, Armenians, Greeks, Muslims, Christians, Jews, gay, lesbian, and transgendered Syrians, and many other cultural and linguistic groups. Intercultural communication studies provide a static but fleeting picture of these cultural groups. It is important to remember that the adaptation, ­communication, and other patterns identified are dynamic and everchanging, even if the research studies only provide a snapshot in time. Second, a dialectical perspective emphasizes the relational aspect of intercultural communication study. It highlights the relationship among various aspects of intercultural communication and the importance of viewing these holistically rather than in isolation. The key question becomes, Can we really understand culture without understanding communication, and vice versa? Specifically, can we understand the ways in which different cultural groups respond to forced migration and how they survive without looking at the values, beliefs, and histories of the various cultural groups involved, the cultural institutions that different groups have in place, the relative wealth available to different cultural groups, and so on? A third characteristic of the dialectical perspective involves holding contradictory ideas simultaneously. This notion may be difficult to comprehend because it goes against most formal education in the United States, which emphasizes

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TABLE 2-3 SUMMARY OF THEORETICAL NOTIONS IN THREE RESEARCH APPROACHES

Social Science

Interpretive

Critical

Anxiety uncertainty management (AUM)

Ethnography of communication

Postcolonial

Integrative theory of adaptation Face negotiation

Afrocentrism

Identity hybridity

Conversational constraints

Asiacentrism

Social reproduction

Communication Communication theory accommodation theory of identity Diffusion of innovations Interpretive theory of identity

dichotomous thinking. Dichotomies such as “good and evil,” “arteries and veins,” and “air and water” form the core of our philosophical and scientific beliefs. The fact that dichotomies such as “far and near,” “high and low,” and “long and short” sound complete, as if the two parts belong together, reveals our tendency to form dichotomies (Stewart & Bennett, 1991). One such dichotomy that emerged in American and European public discourse from the mass refugee migration from Syria was “terrorist” and citizen—where many lumped all immigrants into the “terrorist” category and this led to increased anti-immigration attitudes and even to governments closing their borders, and many refugees were then further victimized. However, a dialectical approach requires that we transcend ­dichotomous thinking in studying and practicing intercultural communication. Certainly, we can learn something from each of the three traditional approaches, and our understanding of intercultural communication has been enriched by all three. One of our students described how the three perspectives can be useful in everyday communication: The three paradigms help me understand intercultural communication by g­ iving me insight into how we can work with people. Understanding how to predict communication behavior will make it easier for us to deal with those of other cultures—the social science approach. By changing unfair notions we have [about people from other cultures], we can gain more equality, as in the critical approach. We try to change things. Finally, the interpretive perspective is important so we can see face-to-face how our culture is. Combining these approaches, our discussion of the migrant crisis provides us with extensive insight into the problems and challenges of this and other intercultural ventures. Clearly, if we limit ourselves to a specific research orientation, we may fail to see the complexities of contemporary intercultural interaction in contexts.

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Although this kind of paradoxical thinking is rather foreign to Western minds, it is quite accepted in many Asian cultures. For example, people doing business in China are advised to recognize this dialectical thinking: “It is not possible to overstate the importance of ‘and’ versus ‘or’ thinking. It recurs, in various forms, throughout business in China and the Orient as a whole” (Ambler, Witzel, & Xi, 2016). In fact, research findings can make a difference in the everyday world. From the social science perspective, we can see how specific communication and cultural differences might create differing worldviews, which can help us predict intercultural conflicts. An interpretive investigation gives us an opportunity to confirm what we predicted in a hypothetical social science study. In the case of the current mass migration, a social science study might predict and discover why various groups of citizens have negative attitudes toward immigrants, or what factors lead immigrants to successful adaptation in a new country. An interpretive study might show in-depth how different groups of immigrants experience cultural adaptation and encounters in the new country. A critical approach might focus on the different access to economic, political, and material resources among the cultural groups–such as which cultural groups were or were not welcomed and how these power differentials influenced their intercultural experience. Employing these different perspectives is similar to photographing something from different angles. No single angle or snapshot gives us the truth, but taking pictures from various angles gives a more comprehensive view of the subject. The content of the photos, of course, to some extent depends on the interests of the photographer. And the photos may contradict one another, especially if they are taken at different times. But the knowledge we gain from any of these “angles” or approaches is enhanced by the knowledge gained from the others. However, a dialectical approach requires that we move beyond simply acknowledging the contributions of the three perspectives and accept simultaneously the assumptions of all three. That is, we need to imagine that reality can be at once external and internal, that human behavior is predictable and creative and changeable. These assumptions may seem contradictory, but that’s the point. Thinking dialectically forces us to move beyond our familiar categories and opens us up to new possibilities for studying and understanding intercultural communication. dialectic  (1) A method of logic based on the principle that an idea generates its opposite, leading to a reconciliation of the opposites; (2) the complex and paradoxical relationship between two opposite qualities or entities, each of which may also be referred to as a dialectic.

Six Dialectics of Intercultural Communication We have identified six dialectics that characterize intercultural communication and have woven them throughout this book. Perhaps you can think of other dialectics as you learn more about intercultural communication. Cultural–Individual Dialectic Intercultural communication is both cultural and individual, or idiosyncratic. That communication is cultural means we share communication patterns with members of the groups to which we belong. For example, Sandra, a fifth-generation Italian American, tends to be expressive, like other members of her family. However, some of her communication patterns—such as the way she gestures when she talks—are completely idiosyncratic (i.e., particular to her and

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no one else). Consider another example, that of Amelia, who tends to be relationally oriented. Although her role as a woman and the relationships she cultivates in that role are important, being a woman does not completely define her behaviors. In this book, we often describe communication patterns that seem to be related to membership in particular cultural groups. However, it is important to remember that communication for all of us is both cultural and individual. We need to keep this dialectic in mind as we try to understand and develop relationships across cultural differences. Personal–Contextual Dialectic This dialectic involves the role of context in intercultural relationships and focuses simultaneously on the person and the context. Although we communicate as individuals on a personal level, the context of this communication is important as well. In some contexts, we enact specific social roles that give meaning to our messages. For example, when Tom was teaching at a Belgian university, he often spoke from the social role of a professor. But this role did not correspond exactly to the same role in the United States because Belgian students accord their professors far more respect and distance than do U.S. students. In Belgium, this social role was more important than his communication with the students. In contrast, his communication with students in the United States is more informal. Differences–Similarities Dialectic Intercultural communication is characterized by both similarities and differences, in that people are simultaneously similar to and different from each other. In this book, we identify and describe real and important differences between groups of people—differences in values, language, nonverbal behavior, conflict resolution, and so on. For example, Japanese and U.S. Americans communicate differently, just as do men and women. However, there also are many similarities in human experiences and ways of communicating. Emphasizing only differences can lead to stereotyping and prejudice (e.g., that women are emotional or that men are rational); emphasizing only similarities can lead us to ignore the important cultural variations that exist. Therefore, we try to emphasize both similarities and differences and ask you to keep this dialectic in mind. Static–Dynamic Dialectic This dialectic suggests that intercultural communication tends to be at once static and dynamic. Some cultural and ­communication patterns remain relatively constant, whereas other aspects of cultures (or personal traits of individuals) shift over time—that is, they are dynamic. For example, as we learned in Chapter 1, anti-immigrant sentiment traditionally has been a cultural constant in the United States, although the groups and conditions of discrimination have changed. Thus, the antagonism against Irish and Italian immigrants that existed at the turn of the 20th century has largely disappeared but may linger in the minds of some people. To understand interethnic communication in the United States today, we must recognize both the static and dynamic aspects of these relations. History/Past–Present/Future Dialectic Another dialectic emphasizes the need to focus simultaneously on the past and the present in understanding intercultural

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STUDENT VOICES When I was working in the Philippines there was a privilege–disadvantage dialectic with the general population. My trip got extended for an extra week. I had to go out and buy clothes at a department store in Manila. I did not speak any Filipino so this was a very interesting experience. Knowing that the Filipino people can speak English and Spanish somewhat I knew I would be able to get by. While the prices on the clothes were clearly marked the lady at the register had inflated the price by 1,000 pesos ($20). Knowing what the price should be I had to try to explain the situation to get the price down to the correct level. Americans are envied in the Philippines for what we have. After spending a good amount of time trying to explain my situation the Filipino lady appeared not to understand anything I was saying. I ended up not getting the clothes from her. —Bob In the past African Americans have dealt with a lot of prejudice and discrimination against them. There used to be separate water fountains, bathrooms, seats on a bus, etc., . . . the list could go on. So today when any African Americans come to dine at the restaurant I work at, we try to avoid seating them at the back of the restaurant. Since there has been a complaint, we don’t want them to feel as if we are discriminating against them by putting them in a place where they are tucked away. The discrimination that African Americans once felt should not translate over to the present since our society has come so far. Some might say we are giving them special treatment to make African Americans feel equal but I don’t see it like that. I see it as a sign of respect and a way of showing the African American culture that the discrimination they once felt should not exist anymore and they are just as equal as anyone else. —Jodi

communication. On the one hand, we need to be aware of contemporary forces and realities that shape the interactions of people from different cultural groups. On the other hand, we need to realize that history has a significant impact on contemporary events. One of our students described how this dialectic was illustrated in a televised panel discussion on race relations: The panelists frequently referred to and talked about the history of different cultural groups in the United States and the present. They also touched on racial conflicts of the past and future possible improvement for certain groups. They were, therefore, communicating in a history/past–present/future dialectical manner. The discussions of past and present were critical to the overall goal of understanding current cultural identity. Without understanding the history of, for example, the slave trade or the Jim Crow laws, can we truly comprehend the African American experience in the United States today? The history of each cultural group plays a major role in the present role of that group.

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Privilege–Disadvantage Dialectic A dialectical perspective recognizes that people may be simultaneously privileged and disadvantaged, or privileged in some

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contexts and disadvantaged in others. For example, many tourists are in the position of economic privilege because they can afford to travel, but in their travels, they also may be disadvantaged if they do not speak the local language. We can also be simultaneously privileged and disadvantaged because of gender, age, race, socioeconomic status, and other identities. One of our Asian American colleagues relates how he is simultaneously privileged because he is educated, middle class, and male and disadvantaged because he experiences subtle and overt mistreatment based on his race and accent (Collier, Hegde, Lee, Nakayama, & Yep, 2002, p. 247).

Keeping a Dialectical Perspective We ask that you keep a dialectical perspective in mind as you read the rest of this book. The dialectics relate in various ways to the topics discussed in the following chapters and are interwoven throughout the text. Keep in mind, though, that the dialectical approach is not a specific theory to apply to all aspects of intercultural communication. Rather, it is a lens through which to view the complexities of the topic. Instead of offering easy answers to dilemmas, we ask you to look at the issues and ideas from various angles, sometimes holding contradictory notions, but always seeing things in processual, relational, and holistic ways. The dialectical approach that we take in this book combines the three traditional approaches (social science, interpretive, and critical) and suggests four components to consider in understanding intercultural communication: culture, communication, context, and power. Culture and communication are the foreground, and context and power are the backdrops against which we can understand intercultural communication. We discuss these four components in the next chapter.

INTERNET RESOURCES https://www.state.gov/bureaus-offices/under-secretary-for-management/ foreign-service-institute/ This is the State Department’s website for the Foreign Service Institute (FSI). The FSI is the primary mechanism the federal government uses for training individuals to go overseas to serve, in some capacity, as representatives of the U.S. government. https://www.state.gov/foreign-language-training/ Check out the the FSI’s School of Language Studies (SLS) that provides language and culture training to U.S. government employees—for more than 65 languages. The training addresses all aspects of language training, from classroom instruction and distance learning to learning consultation services and testing. https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/international-travel.html This is another section of the State Department, which lists useful info about traveling, working and studying abroad, etc., including safety/security information as well as special considerations for students, women, and LGBT travelers.

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www.refugeecouncil.org.au/world/ This is a website sponsored by the nonprofit Refugee Council of Australia (RCOA), a national umbrella body for more than 200 organizations and over 1000 individual members. Read about the various refugee programs sponsored by Australians. Click on “Refugee Stories” and learn more about refugees, why they leave, where they go, and how they are treated in their new country. Click on “Media & Publications” and compare the national discussion about immigration in Australia to discussions on the same topic in the U.S. media.

SUMMARY ▪▪ The study of intercultural communication in the 21st century is a global project, studied by scholars in many different disciplines, with different world views or research philosophies. ▪▪ This new field was interdisciplinary and pragmatic. It emphasized nonverbal communication in international contexts. ▪▪ The perceptions and worldviews of scholars have an impact on the study of intercultural communication and have led to three contemporary approaches: the social science, interpretive, and critical approaches. ▪▪ This textbook advocates a dialectical approach that combines these three approaches. ▪▪ A dialectical approach emphasizes a processual, relational, and holistic view of intercultural communication, and it requires a balance of contradictory views. ▪▪ Intercultural communication is both cultural and individual, personal and contextual, characterized by differences and similarities, static and dynamic, oriented to both the present and the past, and characterized by both privilege and disadvantage.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How have the origins of the study of intercultural communication in the United States affected its present focus? 2. How did business and political interests influence what early intercultural communication researchers studied and learned? 3. How have the worldviews of researchers influenced how they studied intercultural communication? 4. How have other fields contributed to the study of intercultural ­communication? 5. What are the advantages of a dialectical approach to intercultural ­communication?

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ACTIVITIES 1. Becoming Culturally Conscious. One way to understand your cultural position within the United States and your own cultural values, norms, and beliefs is to examine your upbringing. Answer the following questions: a. What values did your parents or guardians attempt to instill in you? b. Why were these values considered important? c. What were you expected to do when you grew up? d. How were you expected to contribute to family life? e. What do you know about your ethnic background? f. What was your neighborhood like? Discuss your answers with classmates. Analyze how your own cultural ­position is unique and how it is similar to that of others. 2. Analyzing Cultural Patterns. Find a text or speech that discusses some intercultural or cultural issues, and analyze the cultural patterns present in the text. Consider, for example, the “I Have a Dream” speech by M ­ artin Luther King, Jr. (Andrews & Zarefsky, 1992), or Chief Seattle’s 1854 speech (Low, 1995). 3. Analyzing a Film. View a feature film or a video (e.g., Chir-raq or Brooklyn) and assume the position of a researcher. Analyze the cultural meanings in the film from each of the three perspectives: social science, interpretive, and critical. What cultural patterns (related to nationality, ethnicity, gender, and class) do you see? What does each perspective reveal? What does each one fail to reveal?


KEY WORDS Afrocentricity (57) anxiety uncertainty management theory (50) collectivistic (52) communication accommodation theory (51) conceptual equivalence (53) conversational contraints theory (51) critical approach (60) cross-cultural training (43) dialectic (68) dialectical approach (66) diffusion of innovations theory (51)

diversity training (43) emic (54) ethnography (54) etic (55) face negotiation theory (50) functionalist approach (48) hybrid (64) individualistic (52) intercultural competence (43) interdisciplinary (44) interpretive approach (54) legisigns (60) macrocontexts (60) paradigm (44)

participant observation (54) perception (45) postcolonialism (64) processual (66) qualitative methods (54) quantitative methods (48) rhetorical approach (54) social reproduction (65) social science approach (48) textual analysis (61) translation equivalence (53) variable (48) worldview (42)

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Sandel, T. L., Yueh, H-I. S., & Lu, P-Y. (2017). Some distinctive Taiwanese communication practices and their cultural meanings. In D. Carbaugh (Ed.), Handbook of communication in cross-cultural perspective (pp. 118–129). NYC: Routledge. Schwartz, L. (2018). The history and promise of machine translation. In I. Lacruz & R. Jääskeläinen, eds. (pp. 161–190). Innovation and expansion in translation process research. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Shin, Y., & Hecht, M. L. (2018). Communication theory of identity. In Y. Y. Kim (Ed.). International encyclopedia of intercultural communication (pp. 1–9). New Jersey, NJ: Wiley. Shome, R., & Hegde, R. (2002). Postcolonial approaches to communication: Charting the terrain, engaging the intersections. Communication Theory, 12, 249–270. Singer, M. R. (1987). Intercultural communication: A perceptual approach. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Singhal, A., & Dearing, J. W. (Eds.). (2006). Communication of innovations: A journey with Ev Rogers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Smith, L. T. (1999). Decolonizing methodologies: Research and indigenous peoples. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Stewart, E. C., & Bennett, M. J. (1991). American cultural patterns: A cross-cultural perspective (Rev. ed.). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Swarns, R. (2002, May 5). France returns old remains to homeland. The Arizona Republic, p. A28. Tam, L. (2018, July 15). How Chinese couples find it hard to show their emotions, and why saying ‘I love you’ is so important. Retrieved December 29, 2019, from https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/families/article /2155172/how-chinese-couples-find-it-hard-show-their -emotions-and-why Ting-Toomey, S. (2005). The matrix of face: An updated face-negotiation theory. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural communication (pp. 71–92). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Ting-Toomey, S. (2010). Applying dimensional values in understanding intercultural communication. Communication Monographs, 77(2), 169–180. Ting-Toomey, S., Yee-Jung, K. K., Shapiro, R. B.,  Garcia, W., Wright, T. J., & Oetzel, J. G. (2000). Ethnic/cultural identity salience and conflict styles in four US ethnic groups. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 24, 47–81. Urban, E. L., & Orbe, M. P. (2010). Identity gaps of contemporary US immigrants: Acknowledging divergent communicative experiences. Communication studies, 61(3), 304–320. Wilkins, R. (2017). The optimal form and its use in cross-cultural analysis: A British “stiff upper lip” and a Finnish matter-of-fact style. In D. Carbaugh (Ed.), Handbook of communication in cross-cultural perspective (pp. 129–141). NYC: Routledge.

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CREDITS [page 44, text] P. Brantlinger, quote from “ “Race,” writing and difference.” University of Chicago Press. [page 44, text] R. Swarns, quote from “France returns old remains to homeland.” The Arizona Republic. [page 45, text] Andrew, excerpt from “Student Voices: As a child, I did not consciously think of myself. . . . other than a superficial level.” Original Work; [page 45, text] Juliann, excerpt from “Student Voices: I grew up in northern ­Minnesota and we were very aware . . . people probably see me as white.” Original Work; [page 45, text] M. R. Singer, excerpt from “ Intercultural communication: A perceptual approach.” Prentice-Hall. [page 56, text] Elizabeth, excerpt from “Student Voices: Last summer my best friend and I visited Paris for the first time . . . more out there to experience.” Original Work; [page 56, text] Carrie, excerpt from “Student Voices: As a sub-culture, my father was in the military . . . to be a “people person.” Original Work; [page 56, text] Charles, excerpt from “Student Voices: My father is a first generation Hispanic who . . . of an incredible work ethic.” Original Work; [page 63, text] A. T. De La Garza and K. Ono, quote from “Retheorizing adaptation: Differential adaptation and critical

intercultural communication.” Journal of International & Intercultural Communication. [page 64, text] Mohammad, excerpt from “Student Voices: I think 9/11 is an intercultural issue because what . . . communities around the world.” Original Work; [page 64, text] R. Shome and R. Hegde, quote from “Postcolonial approaches to communication: Charting the terrain, engaging the intersections.” Communication Theory. [page 65, text] Liliana, excerpt from “Student Voices: I am an engineer, so I think that hypotheses and research are very . . . not like a number.” Original Work; [page 65, text] Matt, excerpt from “Student Voices: I like the interpretive approach. I think that it is important . . . neither an insider nor an outsider.” Original Work; [page 65, text] Andrew, excerpt from “Student Voices: Having three different paradigms . . . and that’s just human nature.” Original Work; [page 68, text] T. Ambler, M. Witzel & C. Xi, quote from “Doing business in China.” Routledge. [page 70, text] Bob, excerpt from “When I was working in the Philippines there . . . getting the clothes from her.” Original Work; [page 70, text] Jodi, excerpt from “In the past African Americans have dealt with . . . just as equal as anyone else.” Original Work.

3

CHAPTER

CULTURE, COMMUNICATION, CONTEXT, AND POWER

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

WHAT IS CULTURE?

After you read this chapter, you should be able to:

Social Science Definitions: Culture as Learned, Group-Related Perceptions Interpretive Definitions: Culture as Contextual Symbolic Patterns of Meaning, Involving Emotions Critical Definitions: Culture as Heterogeneous, Dynamic, and a Contested Zone

1. Identify three approaches to culture. 2. Define communication. 3. Identify and describe nine ­cultural value orientations. 4. Describe how cultural values influence communication. 5. Understand how cultural ­values influence conflict behavior. 6. Describe how communication can reinforce cultural beliefs and behavior. 7. Explain how culture can function as resistance to dominant value systems. 8. Explain the relationship between communication and context. 9. Describe the characteristics of power. 10. Describe the relationship between communication and power.

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION? THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION

How Culture Influences Communication How Communication Reinforces Culture Communication as Resistance to the Dominant Cultural System THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMUNICATION AND CONTEXT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMUNICATION AND POWER INTERNET RESOURCES SUMMARY DISCUSSION QUESTIONS ACTIVITIES KEY WORDS REFERENCES

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In Chapter 2, we touched on the history of intercultural communication studies, examined three theoretical approaches, and outlined an integrated ­dialectical approach to intercultural communication. In this chapter, we continue our discussion of the dialectical approach and identify four interrelated components or building blocks in understanding intercultural communication: culture, communication, context, and power. As noted previously, culture and communication are the foreground and context and power form the backdrop against which we can understand intercultural communication. First, we define and describe culture and communication. Then we examine how these two components interact with issues of context and power to enhance our understanding of intercultural communication.

WHAT IS CULTURE? Culture is often considered the core concept in intercultural communication. Intercultural communication studies often focus on how cultural groups differ from one another: Muslims differ from Christians; Japanese differ from U.S. Americans; men differ from women; environmentalists differ from conservationists; pro-lifers differ from pro-choicers; older people differ from young people, and on and on. Perhaps it is more helpful here to think of the similarities–differences dialectic in trying to understand intercultural communication. That is, we are all similar to and different from each other simultaneously (Root, 2013). Humans, regardless of cultural backgrounds, engage in many of the same daily activities and have many of the same wants and desires. We all eat, sleep, love, pursue friendships and romantic relationships and want to be respected and loved by those who are important to us. And yet some real differences exist between cultural groups. How we pursue these activities varies from culture to culture. Men and women often do not see the world in the same way. Old and young have different goals and dreams. Muslims and Christians have different beliefs, and the old adage “When in Rome do as the Romans do” implies that it is easy simply to adapt to different ways of thinking and behaving, yet anyone who has struggled to adapt to a new cultural situation knows that only the Romans are Romans and only they know how to be truly Romans. The challenge is to negotiate these differences and similarities with insight and skill. First, we need to examine what we mean by the term culture. Culture has been defined in many ways—from a pattern of perceptions that influence communication to a site of contestation and conflict. Because there are many acceptable definitions of culture, and because it is a complex concept, it is important to reflect on the centrality of culture in our own interactions. The late British writer Raymond Williams (1983) wrote that culture “is one of the two or three most complicated words in the English language” (p. 89). And this very complexity indicates the many ways in which it influences intercultural communication (Williams, 1981). Culture is more than merely one aspect of the practice of intercultural communication. How we think about culture frames our ideas and perceptions. For example, if we think that culture is defined by nation-states, then communication between a Japanese and an Italian would be intercultural communication because Japan and Italy are different nation-states. However, according to this definition, an encounter

culture  Learned ­patterns of behavior and attitudes shared by a group of people.

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POINT of VIEW

I

 n this essay, communication scholar Wen Shu Lee identifies different common uses of the term culture and then describes how each definition serves particular interests. She also defends her preferred choice, the sixth definition.

1. Culture = unique human efforts (as different from nature and biology). For example, “Culture is the bulwark against the ravages of nature.” 2. Culture = refinement, mannerism (as different from things that are crude, vulgar, and unrefined). For example, “Look at the way in which he chows down his food. He has no culture at all.” 3. Culture = civilization (as different from backward barbaric people). For example, “In countries where darkness reigns and people are wanting in culture, it is our mandate to civilize and Christianize those poor souls.” 4. Culture = shared language, beliefs, values (as different from language beliefs and values that are not shared; dissenting voices; and voices of the “other”). For example, “We come from the same culture, we speak the same language, and we share the same tradition.” 5. Culture = dominant or hegemonic culture (as different from marginal cultures). For example, “It is the culture of the ruling class that determines what is moral and what is deviant.” (This definition is a more charged version of definitions 2, 3, and 4 through the addition of power consciousness.) 6. Culture = the shifting tensions between the shared and the unshared (as ­different from shared or unshared things). For example, “American culture has changed from master/slave, to white only/Black only, to antiwar and Black power, to affirmative action/multiculturalism and political correctness, to transnational capital and anti-sweatshop campaigns.” Each of these definitions privileges certain interests. Definition 2 privileges high culture and leaves out popular culture. . . . Definition 3 privileges nations that are/were imperialistic, colonizing. . . . Definition 4 privileges a “universal and representative” view of a society, but such a view often represents only a specific powerful group and silences other groups that do not readily share this view. Definition 5 privileges the interaction of the culture authorized by the dominant group/sector/nation—more politically explicit than definitions 2, 3, and 4. Definition 6 is the one I like the most. It is more of a meta view of cultures. It focuses on the “links” between “the shared” and the “little shared.” But the sharedness, the unsharedness, and their links remain not only situated but also unstable, shifting, and contested.

Source: From M. J. Collier, R. Hegde, W. S. Lee, T. Nakayama, and G. Yep, “Dialogue on the edges: Ferment in communication and ­culture.” In M. J. Collier, et al. (Eds.), Transforming ­Communication About Culture (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002), pp. 229–230.

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TABLE 3-1  THREE PERSPECTIVES ON DEFINING CULTURE

Social Science

Interpretive

Critical

Learned and shared

Learned and shared

Patterns of perception

Contextual symbolic meanings Involves emotion

Heterogeneous, dynamic Site of contested meanings

Culture is:

The relationship between culture and communication: Culture influences communication

Culture influences communication Communication reinforces culture

Communication reshapes culture

Source: From J. N. Martin and T. K. Nakayama, “Thinking Dialectically About Culture and Communication,” Communication Theory, 9 (1999): 5.

between an Asian American from North Carolina and an African American from California would not be intercultural because North Carolina and California are not different nation-states. We do not advocate a singular definition of culture because any one definition is too restrictive (Baldwin, Faulkner, & Hecht, 2006). A dialectical approach suggests that different definitions offer more flexibility in approaching the topic. We believe that the best approach to understanding the complexities of inter­ cultural communication is to view the concept of culture from different perspectives (see Table 3-1). By and large, social science researchers focus not on culture per se but on the influence of culture on communication. In other words, such researchers concern themselves with communication differences that result from culture. They pay little attention to how we conceptualize culture or how we see its functions. In contrast, interpretive researchers focus more on how cultural contexts influence communication. Critical researchers, for their part, often view communication—and the power to communicate—as instrumental in reshaping culture. They see culture as the way that people participate in or resist society’s structure. Although research studies help us understand different aspects of intercultural communication, it is important to investigate how we think about culture, not ­simply as researchers but as practitioners as well. We, therefore, broaden our scope to consider different views of culture, especially in terms of how they influence intercultural communication.

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Social Science Definitions: Culture as Learned, Group-Related Perceptions Communication scholars from the social science paradigm, influenced by research in psychology, view culture as a set of learned, group-related perceptions (Hall, 1992). Geert Hofstede (1984), a noted social psychologist, defines culture as “the programming of the mind” and explains his notion of culture in terms of a computer program: Every person carries within him or herself patterns of thinking, feeling, and potential acting which were learned throughout [his or her] lifetime. Much of [these patterns are] acquired in early childhood, because at that time a person is most susceptible to learning and assimilating. (p. 4) Hofstede goes on to describe how these patterns are developed through interactions in the social environment and with various groups of individuals—first in the family and neighborhood, then at school and in youth groups, then at college, and so on. Culture becomes a collective experience because it is shared with people who live in and experience the same social environments. To understand this notion of the collective programming of the mind, ­Hofstede and other scholars studied organizational behavior at various locations of a multinational corporation; this study is discussed in detail later in the chapter. Social scientists also have emphasized the role of perception in cultural patterns. They contend that cultural patterns of thinking and meaning influence our perceptual process, which, in turn, influence our behavior. Communication scholar Milton Bennett (2013) describes various cultural differences in perceptual styles or how people organize their perceptions. For example, some cultural groups, such as Asian, tend to be more concrete, using more description and physical metaphors to capture their perceptions, with heavy emphasis on sensory information (color, shape, size) and feeling—seen in the rich sensory imagery of Japanese haiku (short succinct poetry), Vietnamese films, and Chinese opera. In contrast, other groups, for example, many Northern European cultural groups, tend to be more abstract, stressing coherent explanation and historical context of events. U.S. Americans’ perceptual style on this continuum is somewhere between these two, emphasizing action-oriented procedures, but that can be tested. He goes on to describe the important implications of these different perceptual styles in everyday workplace encounters. For example, when people from different cultures with different perceptual styles work together, there are predictable problems: Asians are more likely to want information about who exactly is involved and what exactly they want . . . Northern Europeans are more likely to want to know why the action is anticipated and when it was tried before. North Americans are almost exclusively focused on how the action with be implemented—including some determination of the probability of success. (p. 74) He describes the resulting conflict from the viewpoints of the various individuals: The Asians seem to ask for endless amounts of detail, the North Americans are impatient and just want to get started and learn from their mistakes, and Northern Europeans are offended by the idea of even discussing making mistakes! (p. 75).

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Intercultural communication scholars, who use the social science approach, are most interested in identifying these cultural differences in perception and behavior and then trying to understand how these differences impact communication between individuals with varying backgrounds. We will explore their research findings and insights later in the chapter.

Interpretive Definitions: Culture as Contextual Symbolic Patterns of Meaning, Involving Emotions Interpretive scholars, influenced by anthropological studies, also view culture as shared and learned; however, they tend to focus on contextual patterns of communication behavior, rather than on group-related perceptions. According to communication scholar Philipsen’s (1992) definition, culture refers to “a socially constructed and historically transmitted pattern of symbols, meaning, premises, and rules” (p. 7). Philipsen’s approach is through ethnography of communication—a common interpretive approach. These scholars look for symbolic meaning of verbal and nonverbal activities in an attempt to understand patterns and rules of communication. This area of study defines cultural groups rather broadly—for example, talk show participants, therapy support groups, and hip hop fans. Ethnography of communication scholar Donal Carbaugh (2007, 2017) suggests that it is best to reserve the concept of culture for patterns of symbolic action and meaning that are deeply felt, commonly intelligible, and widely accessible. Patterns that are deeply felt are sensed collectively by members of the cultural group. Gathering around the coffee machine at work every morning, for example, could be a cultural pattern, but only if the activity holds symbolic significance or evokes feelings that extend beyond itself. Then the activity more completely exemplifies a cultural pattern. Suppose that gathering around the coffee machine each morning symbolizes teamwork or the desire to interact with colleagues. To qualify as a cultural pattern, the activity must have the same symbolic significance for all members of the group; they must all find the activity meaningful in more or less the same way. Further, all participants must have access to the pattern of action. This does not mean that they must all use the pattern; it only means the pattern is available to them. These definitions of culture are influenced by communication ethnographer Dell Hymes’s (1972) framework for studying naturally occurring speech in depth and in context. The framework comprises eight elements: scene, participant, end, act sequence, key, instrumentality, norm, and genre. In this sequence, the terms form the acronym SPEAKING. The Scene is the setting of the communication event. The Participants are the people who perform or enact the event. The End is the goal of the participants in conversation. The Act sequence is the order of phases during the enactment. The Key is the tone of the conversation. The channel of communication is the Instrumentality. The Norms, as you know, are the rules that people follow. And Genre is the type or category of talk. By analyzing speech using this descriptive framework, we can gain a comprehensive understanding of the rules and patterns followed in any given speech community.

ethnography of communication  A specialized area of study within communication. Taking an interpretive perspective, scholars analyze verbal and nonverbal activities that have symbolic significance for the members of cultural groups to understand the rules and patterns followed by the groups. (See interpretive approach on page 59.) symbolic significance  The importance or meaning that most members of a cultural group attach to a ­communication activity.

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B

ob Marley, the well-known singer–songwriter and musician, was born in a rural area of Jamaica to a young, Black, Jamaican woman and a white ­British officer during a time in Jamaica when society divided strictly along racial lines. Marley came to terms with his own racial identity at an early age and resisted being categorized as white or Black: In the video biography, “Time Will Tell,” Marley was asked whether he was prejudiced against white people. He replied, “I don’t have prejudice against myself. My father was a white and my mother was Black. Them call me halfcaste or whatever. Me don’t dip on nobody’s side. Me don’t dip on the Black man’s side nor the white man’s side. Me dip on God’s side, the one who create me and cause me to come from Black and white.” Perhaps it was his biracial background that led Marley to write songs with a universal message. One of his most profound songs addressing unification, “War,” took the words of a speech by Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia and put them to music, “Until the philosophy which holds one race superior and another inferior is finally discredited and abandoned÷WAR!”

Source: From http://jahworks.org/bob-marley/.

embodied ethnocentrism  Feeling comfortable and familiar in the spaces, behaviors, and actions of others in our own cultural surroundings.

84

Culture is not only experienced as perceptions and values, and contextual, but the concept of culture also involves emotions. When we are in our own cultural surroundings, we feel a sense of familiarity and a certain level of comfort in the space, behavior, and actions of others. We might characterize this feeling as a kind of embodied ethnocentrism, which is normal (Bennett & Castiglioni, 2004). (Later on we’ll discuss the negative side of ethnocentrism.) This aspect of culture has implications for understanding adaptation to other cultural norms and spaces. That is, the stronger your identification with a particular space/cultural situation, the more difficult it might be to change spaces without experiencing a lot of ­discomfort— actual psychological and physiological changes. For example, students studying in France described their feelings in coping with the French language. Their self-esteem dropped and they became very self-conscious. Their whole bodies were entrenched in this effort of trying to communicate in French; it was a laborious and involved process that was connected to all aspects of themselves—a feeling of being out of their cultural comfort zone (Kristjánsdóttir, 2009). We should not underestimate the importance of culture in providing us a feeling of familiarity and comfort. Although the notion of culture as shared, learned group patterns of perception or symbolic behavior has long been the standard in a variety of disciplines, more and more people are beginning to question its utility. They question how much of “culture” is truly shared. For example, one colleague reports that in a class discussion about the definition of culture in which most students were giving the usual definitions, “one student almost indignantly jumped into our discussion and said, ‘Do we really have a common culture?’ ” She then followed with the question “Whose version of a shared and ­common culture are we talking about?” (Collier, Hegde, Lee,

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Nakayama, & Yep, 2002, p. 269). Indeed, these are important questions, and so the next section describes an alternative approach to defining culture. (For a challenge to common notions of a “shared” U.S. culture, take the “Test of U.S. Cultural Knowledge” on pages 89–90.)

Critical Definitions: Culture as Heterogeneous, Dynamic, and a Contested Zone A more recent approach to culture, influenced by cultural studies scholarship, emphasizes the heterogeneity of cultural groups and the often conflictual nature of cultural boundaries. For example, what is the “U.S. American culture”? Is there an American culture? How many perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs and behaviors are actually shared among the many diverse people living in the United States? Critical scholars suggest that in emphasizing only the shared aspects of culture, we gloss over the many interesting differences among U.S. Americans. Further, they emphasize that cultural boundaries are often contested and not easily agreed upon. For example, increasing numbers of people have multicultural identities, growing up to negotiate multiple cultural realities. Perhaps the best known is President Barack Obama, whose father was an exchange student from Kenya and his mother a U.S. American student. Others include Naomi Osaka, champion tennis player with Haitian father and Japanese mother; actor Ezra Miller identifies as nonbinary gender, queer, with Ashkenazi Jewish father and German-Dutch mother. MJ Rodriguez is an actress and singer known for her role in the show Pose—a transgender woman whose mother is African American and father is Puerto Rican. They often resist the many efforts by some to pigeonhole their race/ethnicity, as shown in the Point of View box on p. 90. This notion of culture as heterogeneous and often conflictual originated with British cultural studies scholars in the 1960s. Cultural studies scholars were fiercely interdisciplinary and dedicated to understanding the richness, complexity, and relevance of cultural phenomena in the lives of ordinary people. This desire to make academic work relevant to everyday life resonated in other fields. Most people, in fact, want to find the connections between what they learn in the classroom and what is occurring in contemporary society. In any case, this movement led to the reconfiguration of the role of the university in society. Cultural studies soon spread from Britain to Australia, Latin America, and other parts of the world. Because of differing cultural and political situations, the specific construction of cultural studies differs from place to place. In the United States, for instance, cultural studies developed mainly within departments of communication (Grossberg, 1993). You may sense that the concept of culture that emerged from this area of inquiry differs markedly from the concept expressed in social science or even interpretive research. However, it is in agreement with concepts found in recent work in anthropology. Many anthropologists have criticized research that categorizes people and characterizes cultural patterns as set, unchanging, and unconnected to issues of gender, class, and history. Recent anthropological research sees cultural processes as dynamic and fluid that extend across national and regional borders within contexts of history and power (Baldwin, Faulkner, & Hecht, 2006). Communication scholars who embrace the critical notions reject notions of culture as fixed, unchanging, and stable, calling it

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POINT of VIEW

E

dison Suasnavas tells the reporter that it’s rare his immigration status isn’t on his mind and when he thinks too much about the future, his hands get sweaty and some nights he wakes up in a panic realizing that the nightmare is real. Edison is a biologist who lives with his wife and daughter in a town outside Salt Lake City. He was born in Ecuador and is one of almost 700,000 “DREAMers,” undocumented immigrants who came to the U.S. as children, and temporarily protected from deportation by the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program, with an eventual way to citizenship. “It’s really hard, honestly. It’s an anxiety I live with every day,” he tells the reporter. His father and mother outstayed their visas 20 years ago, finding here what they desperately wanted —a house in a safe neighborhood, a restaurant job washing dishes for dad and a job for mother cleaning hotel rooms. The DREAMers’ future--many of them students, teachers, lawyers, engineers--has been in limbo since September 2017, when the government halted their temporary work permits. They could soon be deported —back to countries they don’t really know. Their fate depends on the government. Source: From A. F. Campbell (2019, October 28). “I’ve felt a profound sadness in the last two years”: What life is like for DREAMers right now. https://www.vox.com/ identities/2019/10/28/20909969/daca-workers-dreamers-supreme-court

“seductive” in allowing us “a false sense of security” (Halualani, 2011, p. 48). Rather, their goal is to dismantle this fixed notion of culture and to pose the following questions: Can we ever truly know a culture let alone our own? How culture is positioned? Who benefits from specific versions and interpretations of culture? Which power forces and structures help to shape and represent culture in these ways? What does it mean for us in a complex intercultural world? (Halualani, 2011, p. 44).

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Viewing culture as a contested site or zone helps us understand the struggles of various groups—Native Americans, Asian Americans, Pacific Islanders, ­African Americans, Latinos/as, women, gays and lesbians, transgender individuals, workingclass people, and so on—as they attempt to negotiate their relationships and promote their well-being within U.S. society. By studying the communication that springs from these ongoing struggles, we can better understand several intercultural concerns. Consider, for example, the DREAM Act (Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors Act) that temporarily allows some undocumented immigrant students who have grown up in the United States to apply for U.S. citizenship if they attend college or serve in the U.S. military. The controversies surrounding these and other propositions illustrate the concerns of many different cultural groups. (See Point of View, on this page.) Viewing culture as a contested site opens up new ways of thinking about intercultural communication. After all, the individuals in a given culture are not identical, which suggests that any culture is replete with cultural struggles. Thus, when we use terms like Chinese culture and French culture, we gloss over the heterogeneity, the

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diversity, that resides in that culture. Yet the ways in which various cultures are heterogeneous are not the same elsewhere as in the United States, which means it would be a mistake to map our structure of differences onto other cultures. How sexuality, ethnicity, gender, and class function in other cultures is not necessarily the same as, or even similar to, their function in the United States. By viewing any culture as a contested zone or site of struggle, we can understand the complexities of that culture; we can become more sensitive to how people in that culture live. Our dialectical approach, though, enables us to accept and see the interrelatedness of these different views. Culture is at once a shared and a learned pattern of beliefs and perceptions that are mutually intelligible and widely accessible. It is also a site of struggle for contested meanings. A dialectic perspective can help facilitate discussions on conflicting cultural notions (e.g., how to reconcile U.S. patriotism and instances of anti-Americanism). Our task in taking a dialectical approach is not to say whose views are right or wrong, but to recognize “the truth in all sides of the conflict and understanding the ways in which multiple realities constitute the whole of the cultural quandary” (Cargile, 2005, p. 117).

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION? The second component, communication, is as complex as culture and can be defined in many different ways. The defining characteristic of communication is meaning, and we could say that communication occurs whenever someone attributes meaning to another person’s words or actions. Communication may be understood as a “symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired and transformed” (Carey, 1989, p. 23). The three perspectives emphasize different aspects of this communication process. For example, the social science perspective emphasizes the various components of communication: There is a sender/receiver, message, channel, and ­context. This perspective also emphasizes that communication tends to be patterned and therefore can be predicted. This tradition also focuses on the variables, or influences on the communication, like gender, or the nature of a relationship. For example, people in long-term relationships will communicate in a different way from individuals who have recently met, or men and women will tend to communicate in different ways. The interpretive perspective emphasizes the symbolic, processual nature of communication; the symbolic nature of communication means that the words we speak or the gestures we make have no inherent meaning. Rather, they gain their significance from an agreed-upon meaning. When we use symbols to communicate, we assume that the other person shares our symbol system. Also, these symbolic meanings are conveyed both verbally and nonverbally. Thousands of nonverbal behaviors (gestures, postures, eye contact, facial expressions, and so on) involve shared meaning. To make things more complicated, each message has more than one meaning; often, there are many layers of meaning. For example, the message I love you may mean, “I’d like to have a good time with you tonight,” “I feel guilty about what I did last night without you,” “I need you to do me a favor,” “I have a good time when I’m with you,” or “I want to spend the rest of my life (or at least the next few hours) with

communication  A symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed.

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you.” When we communicate, we assume that the other person takes the meaning that we intend. It is more likely, when individuals come from different cultural backgrounds and experiences, that this assumption may be faulty. The interpretive perspective also emphasizes that the process by which we negotiate meaning is dynamic. Communication is not a singular event but is ongoing. It relies on other communication events to make sense. When we enter into communication with another person, we simultaneously take in messages through all of our senses. The messages are not discreet and linear but simultaneous, with blurry boundaries of beginning and end. When we negotiate meaning, we are creating, ­maintaining, repairing, or transforming reality. This implies that people are actively involved in the communication process. One person cannot communicate alone. The critical perspective emphasizes the importance of societal forces in the communication process. That is, that all voices and symbols are not equal, but are arranged in a social hierarchy in which some individual characteristics are more highly valued than others; for example, people are more likely to listen carefully to a police officer than to a young child. In addition, powerful social symbols—for example, flags, national anthems, and Disney logos—also communicate meaning nonverbally. Many of these symbols are material as well; that is, they have material consequences in the world. For example, when school children in the United States bring guns to school and kill schoolmates, the symbolism of these acts communicates something, and the acts themselves are material.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION The relationship between culture and communication is complex. A dialectical perspective assumes that culture and communication are interrelated and reciprocal. That is, culture influences communication, and vice versa. Thus, cultural groups influence the process by which the perception of reality is created and maintained: “All communities in all places at all times manifest their own view of reality in what they do. The entire culture reflects the contemporary model of reality” (Burke, 1985, p. 11). However, we might also say that communication helps create the cultural reality of a community. Let’s see how these reciprocal relationships work.

How Culture Influences Communication Intercultural communication scholars use broad frameworks from anthropology and psychology to identify and study cultural differences in communication. Two of the most relevant were developed by anthropologists Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) and by social psychologist Hofstede (1984). cultural values  The worldview of a cultural group and its set of deeply held beliefs.

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck Value Orientations Researchers Florence ­Kluckhohn and Fred Strodtbeck studied contemporary Diné (Navaho) and descendants of Spanish colonists and European Americans in the Southwest in the 1950s. They emphasized the centrality of cultural values in understanding cultural groups. Values are the most

POINT of VIEW TEST OF U.S. CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE  his test examines your knowledge of many of the cultures that comprise the contemporary United States.

T

1. Lagniappe is a term used in southern Louisiana for: a. Hurricanes b. Something free or sometimes a small gift given by a store owner to a customer after a purchase c. Inviting someone over for a meal d. Helping a friend with home remodeling or yard work 2. What is the name of the dish that features black-eyed peas and rice (although sometimes collards, ham hocks, stewed tomatoes, or other items) and is served in the South, especially on New Year’s Day? a. Chitlings b. Jowls c. Hoppin’ John d. Red rice 3. A very sweet pie made from molasses that originated with the Pennsylvania Dutch: a. Mincemeat pie b. Sugar pie c. Shoofly pie d. Lancaster pie 4. Which of the following is not the name of a Native American tribe? a. Seminole b. Apache c. Arapaho d. Illini 5. The month of Ramadan, a month of fasting for Muslims, ends with which holiday? a. Eid ul-Fitr b. Allahu Akbar c. Takbir d. Abu Bakr 6. On June 12 every year, some U.S. Americans celebrate “Loving Day” to commemorate: a. Your legal right to love someone of another race b. Your legal right to love someone of the same sex c. Your legal right to be a single parent d. Your legal right to get a divorce 89

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7. The celebration of Buddha’s birthday is not held on Christmas, but instead on: a. Fourth of July b. July 14 c. Asian Lunar New Year’s Day d. Hanamatsuri 8. Sometimes viewed as a Scandinavian tortilla, these potato flatcakes are often sold in areas with high Scandinavian American populations: a. Lefse b. Lutefisk c. Aquavit d. Fiskepudding 9. This traditional Mexican soup is made mostly from tripe, hominy, and chili: a. Tortilla soup b. Tomatillo c. Chorizo soup d. Menudo 10. Like a coconut pudding, this food comes from Hawaii: a. Lomi lomi b. Poke c. Haupia d. Kalua Answers can be found on page 110.

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deeply felt beliefs shared by a cultural group (see Figure 3-1); they reflect a shared perception of what ought to be, and not what is. Equality, for example, is a value shared by many people in the United States. It refers to the belief that all humans are created equal, even though we must acknowledge that, in reality, there are many disparities, such as in talent, intelligence, or access to material goods. Intercultural conflicts are often caused by differences in value orientations. For example, some people feel strongly that it is important to consider how things were done in the past. For them, history and tradition help provide g­uidance. ­Values often conflict among participants in international assistance projects in which future-oriented individuals show a lack of respect for traditional ways of doing things. And conflicts may be exacerbated by power differentials, with some values privileged over others. Organizational communication scholars have pointed out that many U.S. workplaces reward extremely individualistic relationships and “doing” behaviors at the expense of more collaborative (and equally productive) work (Buzzanell, 2000). Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck suggested that members of all cultural groups must answer the following important questions:

STUDENT VOICES

I

 nternational students describe the different cultural and communication patterns they encounter in the United States. A graduate student from India noted the U.S. patterns of greeting. In her native culture people only say hello to those they know. Initially, she was surprised by the frequency with which Americans greet each other; she later became disillusioned: I thought, they are really interested in how I am. Then . . . “I’m fine and how about you?” Then I realized that people are really not interested in the answer. It is just a way of acknowledging you. A British student commented on how openly Americans share their religious affiliation. At first, I felt like a bit separated because I didn’t quite fit into any. . . . They didn’t know quite how to respond to me. I thought, Oh, am I supposed to be religious? Am I going to fit in here? A graduate student from Iran noted how Americans are taught to “sell themselves”: The job search is another thing in this country that is culturally quite different. . . . In my society, mostly, they ask the professors in the university about efficient people or good students—there is not, you know, no selling yourself. And for the first couple of months I wasn’t very successful because I didn’t have the experience in selling myself. Source: From L. A. Erbert, F. G. Perez, and E. Gareis, “Turning Points and Dialectical I­ nterpretations of Immigrant Experiences in the United States,” Western Journal of Communication, 67, 113–137, 2003.

⬛⬛What is human nature? ⬛⬛What is the relationship between humans and nature? ⬛⬛What is the relationship between humans? ⬛⬛What is the preferred personality? ⬛⬛What is the orientation toward time? According to Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, there are three possible responses to each question as they relate to shared values. (See Table 3-2.) Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck believed that, although all responses are possible in all societies, each society has one, or possibly two, preferred responses to each question that reflect the predominant values of that society. Religious beliefs, for example, may reinforce certain cultural values. The questions and their responses become a framework for understanding broad differences in values among various cultural groups. Although the framework was applied originally to ethnic groups, we can extend it to cultural groups based on gender, class, nationality, and so on.

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FIGURE 3-1   Holidays are significant ways of enacting and transmitting culture and cultural values across the generations. For example, Kwanzaa is an important holiday for many African Americans. It was established in 1966 by Maulana Karenga and lasts seven days—December 26 to January 1—to mark seven important cultural values: unity, self-determination, collective work and responsibility, cooperative economics, purpose, creativity, and faith. What holidays does your family celebrate? What cultural values are being transmitted in those celebrations? (Miami Herald/Tribune News Service/Getty images)

The Nature of Human Nature As the table below shows, there are three possible responses, or solutions, to basic questions about human nature. One solution is a belief in the fundamental goodness of human nature. Legal practices in a society that holds this orientation would emphasize rehabilitating violators of the law; jails and prisons would be seen as places to train violators to rejoin society as contributing citizens. Religions such as Buddhism and Confucianism tend toward this orientation, focusing on improving the natural goodness of humans. A second solution reflects a perception of a combination of goodness and evil in human nature. Many groups within the United States hold this value orientation, although there has been a shift in views for many U.S. Americans in the past 50 years. With regard to religious beliefs, there is less emphasis on the fundamental evil of humanity, which many European settlers of the Puritan tradition believed (Kohls, 1996). However, the current emphasis seems to be on ­incarceration and punishment for violators of the law. Given this orientation, not surprisingly, the United States currently has a higher proportion of citizens incarcerated than almost any other industrialized country (Kaeble & Cowhig, 2018; Robertson, 2019).

STUDENT VOICES

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alues are complex, and in this post, Sang Won describes the negative and positive aspects of the high power distance value common in South Korea:

In South Korea, teachers get a lot of respect. Students must come to school on their best behavior. It is one of the commitments that they make before they come to school. Also, they do not eat or talk during class to show respect to their teachers. However, there is a negative aspect of being so respectful to their teachers. Sometimes, students do not speak up and say their opinion out of respect for the teacher. Consequently, teachers have to teach them how to speak up for their opinions. —Sang Won

According to the third orientation, human nature is essentially evil. Socie­ties that hold this belief would be less interested in rehabilitation of criminals than in punishment. We often have trouble understanding torture or the practice of cutting off hands and other limbs—practices prevalent in many societies in the past—without understanding their orientation to human nature. While he lived in Belgium, Tom was particularly struck by the display of punishments and tortures in the Counts of Flanders Castle in Ghent. Perhaps the key to understanding these cultural practices is an understanding of the Christian view of humans as essentially evil and born in sin. Relationship Between Humans and Nature In most of U.S. societies, humans dominate nature. For instance, scientists seed clouds when we need rain, and engineers

TABLE 3-2  KLUCKHOHN AND STRODTBECK VALUE ORIENTATIONS

Range of Values

Human nature

Basically good

Relationship between humans and nature Relationships between humans Preferred personality

Humans dominate

Mixture of good Basically evil and evil Harmony exists Nature between the two dominates

Individual

Group oriented

“Doing”: stress on action

Time orientation

Future oriented

“Growing”: stress “Being”: stress on spiritual on who you are growth Present oriented Past oriented

Collateral

Source: From F. Kluckhohn and F. Strodtbeck, Variations in Value Orientation (Chicago, IL: Row, Peterson, 1961).

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reroute rivers and build dams to meet the needs for water, recreation, and power. We control births with drugs and medical devices, and we make snow and ice for the recreational pastimes of skiing and skating. Certainly, not everyone in the United States agrees that humans should always dominate nature. Conflicts between environmentalists and land developers often center on disagreements over this value orientation. And, of course, there are variations in how these values play out in different societies. For example, a country like Canada, which g­enerally espouses a “humans over nature” orientation, still seems more concerned with environmental issues than does the United States. As described by a student, Canada is very concerned about protecting their environment, and this is very clear even if you are just traveling through. They are concerned about clean water, clean air and not doing too much logging of their trees, keeping streams free of pollution, etc. In societies that believe mainly in the domination of nature over humans, ­ ecisions are made differently. Families may be more accepting of the number of child dren that are born naturally. There is less intervention in the processes of nature, and there are fewer attempts to control what people see as the natural order. Many Native Americans and Japanese believe in the value of humans living in harmony with nature, rather than one force dominating the other. In this value orientation, nature is respected and plays an integral part in the spiritual and religious life of the community. Some societies—for example, many Arab groups—emphasize aspects of both harmony with and domination of nature. This reminds us that values are played out in very complex ways in any cultural group. Relationships Between Humans Some cultural groups value individualism, whereas others are more group-oriented. The cultural differences pertaining to these values distinguish two types of societies. Individualism, often cited as a value held by European Americans, places importance on individuals rather than on families, work teams, or other groups (Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swidler, & Tipton, 2007). This characteristic is often cited as the most important European American cultural value. As you can see in the Point of View (p. 97), this value is so ingrained in many U.S. Americans that it rarely rises to a conscious level. In contrast, people from more collectivistic societies, like those in Central and South America, Asia, and many Arab societies, place a great deal of importance on extended families and group loyalty. In the United States, this is the case in Amish communities and in some Latino/a and Native American communities. A visitor to Mexico described one example of collectivism in that culture: I remember that in public that children always seem to be accompanied by someone older, usually a family member. People went around in family groups—children with older siblings, grandparents, aunts—not nearly so age-segregated as it is here in the U.S. The collateral orientation emphasizes the collectivist connection to other individuals (mostly family members) even after death. This orientation is found in cultures in which ancestors are seen as a part of the family and are influential in decisions even

POINT of VIEW

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egan, an American college student who spent a year studying in Oman describes her realizations related to culture:

I began to realize how time-centric my life was in the U.S., since in Oman things were much slower and more relaxed. I also had a conversation with an Omani woman about her perceptions of American culture, mostly acquired through movies. She thought that Americans were all getting pregnant at a young age and I immediately felt defensive and wanted to tell her that she shouldn’t generalize and that her perception wasn’t accurate. Then she pointed to an interesting gender dynamic that I didn’t want to admit about my culture-that we have very sexualized media representations of young people. I also realized that teen pregnancy is nonexistent in Oman, and I started wondering about the role of media representations influencing teen behavior.

though they are not alive. Examples of this include the Asian practice of maintaining a table in the house to honor their ancestors or the Mexican “Day of the Dead” practice of having a picnic near the graves of the family members and leaving food for them. Values may also be related to economic status or rural–urban distinctions. In the United States, for example, working-class people tend to be more collectivistic than middle- or upper-class people. Working-class people donate a higher percentage of their time and money to help others (Piff, Kraus, Côté, Cheng, & Keltner, 2010). The TV show “Pose” addresses the challenges faced by queer individuals, especially from lower socioeconomic conditions, who are often rejected by their families. In trying to find a way to help these young people, they create houses and families with “moms” that take care of them and give them shelter and protection, despite no blood relation— showing their preference for collectivistic caring. These cultural values may influence patterns of communication. For example, people who value individualism tend also to favor direct forms of communication and to support overt forms of conflict resolution. People in collectivistic societies may employ less direct communication and more avoidance-style conflict resolution. Of course, sometimes people belong to cultural groups that hold contradictory values. For example, most U.S. work contexts require highly individualistic communication, which may conflict with the collectivistic family or ethnic backgrounds of some workers. Workers may find it hard to reconcile and live with these competing values. Consider the experience of Lucia, a Native American college student. When one of her uncles passed away during the first week of school, she was expected to participate in family activities. She traveled out of state with her family to his home, helped cook and feed other family members, and attended the wake and the funeral. Then her mother became ill, and she had to care for her. Thus, she missed the first 2 weeks of school. Some of her professors were sympathetic; others were not. As Lucia describes it, she feels almost constantly torn between the demands of her collectivistic family and the demands of the individualistic professors and administration.

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Preferred Forms of Activity The most common “activity value” in the United States is the “doing” orientation, which emphasizes productivity. (Remember the expression “Idle hands are the devil’s workshop”?) Employment reward systems reflect this value in that workers often must document their progress (e.g., in numbers of sales made or numbers of clients seen). In general, the highest status is conferred on those who “do” (sports figures, physicians, lawyers), rather than on those who “think” (philosophers, professors, priests). The “growing” orientation emphasizes the spiritual aspects of life. This orientation seems to be less prevalent than the other two, perhaps practiced only in Zen ­Buddhism and as a cultural motif in the United States in the 1960s (Stewart & Bennett, 1991). Some societies, as in Japan, combine both “doing” and “growing” orientations, emphasizing action and spiritual growth. The third solution is to emphasize “being,” a kind of self-actualization in which the individual is fused with the experience. Some societies in Central and South ­America, as well as in Greece and Spain, exhibit this orientation. Orientation to Time Most U.S. cultural communities—particularly European American and middle class—seem to emphasize the future. Consider the practices of depositing money in retirement accounts or keeping appointment books that reach years into the future. Other societies—for example, in Spain or Greece—seem to emphasize the importance of the present, a recognition of the value of living fully in and realizing the potential of the present moment. Many European and Asian societies strongly emphasize the past, believing that knowledge and awareness of history have something to contribute to an understanding of contemporary life. For example, a U.S. American student in a language school in Mexico reported that her professors would always answer questions about contemporary society with a historical reference. For instance, there were regional elections going on at the time. If students asked about the implication of the campaign platform of one of the candidates, the professor would always answer by describing what had happened in the region 50 or 100 years earlier. Hofstede Value Orientations Social psychologist Geert Hofstede and colleagues (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010) extended the work of Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, based on extensive cross-cultural study of personnel working in IBM subsidiaries in 53 countries. Whereas Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck based their framework on cultural patterns of ethnic communities within the United States, Hofstede and colleagues examined value differences among national ­societies. Hofstede identified five areas of common problems. One problem type, ­individualism versus collectivism, appeared in the Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck framework. Although the problems were shared by different cultural groups, solutions varied from culture to culture. As shown in Table 3-3, the problem types are identified as follows: ▪▪ Power distance: social inequality, including the relationship with authority ▪▪ Femininity versus masculinity: the social implications of having been born male or female ▪▪ Ways of dealing with uncertainty, controlling aggression, and expressing emotions

POINT of VIEW

A

recent example of individualism/collectivism is the differing cultural responses to COVID-19. Experts have suggested that the refusal of many in the U.S. to wear masks and practice “social distancing” is due to “oldfashioned . . . individualism of the American people” noting that these attitudes reflect a cultural belief shared by many Americans that each person is only responsible for their own behavior: “Let me live my life and make my own choices about what risks I’m willing to accept.” In contrast, experts note many Asians’ more collectivistic response which prioritizes the health of all people—with “massive social coordination” and ”the common goodwill to respond responsibly to coronavirus threat”, thus “accepting the hassles involved in rigorous testing and tracing and following government orders for restricting movements.” Of course, not all Americans refuse to follow health officials’ guidelines and not all Asians value collectivism, and there are probably many reasons for the low infection rate in Japan, Korea, and some other countries, including more centralized health infrastructures, higher acceptance of government mandates, and previous experience with pandemics. Time will tell how different cultural values might be related to pandemic responses and outcomes.

Source: From D. Linker (2020, May 6). American individualism is a suicide pact. theweek.com. Retrieved June 22, 2020, from https://theweek.com/articles/912853/american-individualism -suicide-pact

▪▪ Long-term versus short-term orientation to life ▪▪ Indulgence versus restraint: the subjective feeling of happiness and enjoying life Hofstede then investigated how these various cultural values influenced corporate behavior in various countries. Let’s examine the other problem types more closely. Power distance refers to the extent to which less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept the unequal distribution of power. Denmark, Israel, and New Zealand, for example, value small power distance. Most people there believe that less hierarchy is better and that power should be used only for legitimate purposes. Therefore, the best corporate leaders in those countries are those who minimize power differences. In societies that value high power distance—for example, Mexico, the Philippines, and India—the decisionmaking process and the relationships between managers and subordinates are more formalized. In addition, people may be uncomfortable in settings in which hierarchy is unclear or ambiguous. The masculinity–femininity value is two-dimensional. It refers to (1) the degree to which gender-specific roles are valued and (2) the degree to which cultural groups value so-called masculine values (achievement, ambition, acquisition of material goods) or so-called feminine values (quality of life, service to others, nurturance, support for the unfortunate). IBM employees in Japan, Austria, and Mexico scored high on the

power distance  A cultural variability dimension that concerns the extent to which people accept an unequal distribution of power. masculinity–femininity value  A cultural variability dimension that concerns the degree of being feminine—valuing fluid gender roles, quality of life, service, relationships, and interdependence— and the degree of being masculine— emphasizing distinctive gender roles, ambition, materialism, and independence.

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TABLE 3-3  HOFSTEDE VALUE ORIENTATIONS

Power Distance

Low power distance Less hierarchy better e.g., Denmark, Israel, New Zealand

High power distance More hierarchy better e.g., Mexico, India Femininity/Masculinity

Femininity Fewer gender-specific roles Value quality of life, support for unfortunate e.g., Denmark, Norway, Sweden

Masculinity More gender-specific roles Achievement, ambition, acquisition of material goods e.g., Japan, Austria, Mexico

Uncertainty Avoidance

Low uncertainty avoidance Dislike rules, accept dissent Less formality e.g., Great Britain, Sweden, Hong Kong

High uncertainty avoidance More extensive rules, limit dissent More formality e.g., Greece, Portugal, Japan

Long-Term/Short-Term Orientation

Short-term orientation Universal guidelines for good and evil Prefer quick results e.g., Western Religions Judaism, Christianity, Islam

Long-term orientation Definition of good and evil depends on circumstances Value perseverance and tenacity e.g., Confucianism, Hinduism, Buddhism

Indulgence/Restraint

Indulgence Relatively free gratification of needs related to enjoying life and having fun

Restraint Suppression and regulation of needs related to enjoying life and having fun

Freedom of speech over maintaining order

Maintaining order over freedom of speech

e.g., Mexico, Nigeria, Sweden, Australia

e.g., Russia, Egypt, China, India

Source: From G. Hofsted, G. J. Hofstede, and M. Minkov, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, 3rd ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010)

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masculine values orientation, expressing a general preference for ­gender-specific roles, with some roles (e.g., main wage earner) better filled by men and other roles (e.g., homemaker, teacher) by women. In contrast, employees in northern Europe (Denmark, Norway, ­Sweden, and the Netherlands) tended to rank higher in feminine values orientation, reflecting more gender equality and a stronger belief in the importance of quality of life for all. Uncertainty avoidance concerns the degree to which people who feel threatened by ambiguous situations respond by avoiding them or trying to establish more structure to compensate for the uncertainty. Societies that have a low uncertainty avoidance orientation (Great Britain, Sweden, Hong Kong, and the United States) prefer to limit rules, accept dissent, and take risks. In contrast, those with a high uncertainty avoidance orientation (Greece, P­ortugal, and Japan) usually prefer more extensive rules and regulations in ­organizational ­settings and seek consensus about goals. Hofstede’s original framework contained only four problem types and was criticized for its predominantly western European bias. In response, a group of  Chinese researchers developed and administered a similar, but more Asian-oriented, questionnaire to people in 22 countries around the world (Chinese Culture Connection, 1987). Their questionnaire included ideas related to Confucian-based thinking. In comparing their framework to Hofstede’s, they concluded that there was, in fact, a great deal of overlap. Indeed, the three dimensions of individualism—collectivism, power distance, and masculinity–femininity—seem to be universal. However, uncertainty avoidance seems to be more ­relevant to Western societies. A fifth dimension that emerged from the Asian study and that seems to apply to both Eastern and Western societies is the long-term versus short-term orientation, which reflects a society’s search for virtue or truth. Those with a short-term orientation are concerned with possessing the truth (reflected in the Western religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), focusing on quick results in endeavors, and recognizing social pressure to conform. Those with a long-term orientation tend to respect the demands of virtue (reflected in ­Eastern religions such as Confucianism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Shintoism); to focus more on thrift, perseverance, and tenacity in whatever they attempt; and to be willing to subordinate themselves to a larger purpose. Based on recent research by Michael Minkov, one of Hofstede’s associates, there is now an additional value dimension, indulgence versus restraint. This dimension is related to the subjective feelings of happiness. That is, people may not actually be happy or healthy but they report that they feel happier and healthier. National cultures that are categorized as more indulgent (Mexico, Nigeria, ­Sweden, Australia) tend to allow relatively free gratification of needs related to enjoying life and having fun. Indulgence orientation is expressed in the importance of having lots of friends (e.g., Facebook), active participation in sports (not just watching sporting events) and there is less moral regulation. Societies that emphasize restraint (Russia, Egypt and other Islamic countries, China, India) tend to suppress gratification of needs and regulate it by means of strict social norms. Having many friends is reportedly less important, there is more watching of sports but less participation, and a strong work ethic. Countries with a predominant indulgence orientation

uncertainty avoidance  A cultural variability dimension that concerns the extent to which uncertainty, ambiguity, and deviant ideas and behaviors are avoided.

long-term versus short-term orientation  A cultural variability dimension that reflects a cultural-group orientation toward virtue or truth. The long-term orientation emphasizes virtue, whereas the shortterm orientation emphasizes truth. indulgence versus restraint  A cultural variability dimension that reflects a subjective feeling of happiness. The indulgence orientation emphasizes relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint emphasizes suppressing gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.

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STUDENT VOICES I recently spent two weeks in Mexico City. It was an amazing experience. The contrast between Phoenix and Mexico City totally blew me away, especially the architecture. I mean, just walking down the street you see buildings all around you that are hundreds of years old. We went to the Basilica of the Virgin of Guadalupe, and our guide showed us the exact hill where Juan Diego supposedly saw the Virgin and brought back roses to prove to the priests that he saw her. The priests then built a church exactly right there because that was what the Virgin told Juan to tell the priests to do. Juan Diego is like a national hero in Mexico, and this place where they built these churches is totally sacred. People come from all over Mexico to this exact place, and it is just so hugely important to them. We also went to Teotihuacán and Templo Mayor. Both are ancient ruins from the Aztecs. These places were really, really amazing. Our guide pointed out for us places where the Spanish built buildings right on top of the ancient structures. It was their way of winning over the natives, of making the ­Spanish ways take over the ways of the native people. I realized that this change in architecture conveyed a whole history of different cultures and conquest. I was amazed that as I stood there at Templo Mayor, right in the heart of this huge city, I could literally see hundreds of years of history. And the domination also hit me. The Spanish had to build over the temples and other sacred sites of the Aztecs in order to win the hearts of the people. And they needed to make Juan Diego a national hero and make sacred the spot that he is said to have seen the Virgin of Guadalupe. And in order to make all that real to the people, they had to put it all in the architecture. —Samantha

emphasize freedom of speech over maintaining order; countries with more restraint orientation tend to value maintaining order over allowing freedom of speech. Limitations of Value Frameworks Identifying cultural values helps us understand broad cultural differences, but it is important to remember that not everyone in a given society holds the dominant value (Kirkman, Lone, & Gibson, 2006). We shouldn’t reduce individuals to mere stereotypes based on these value orientations. After all, not all Amish or Japanese are group-oriented, and not all Americans and Australians are individualistic. Remember that cultures are dynamic and heterogeneous. Although people in small rural communities may be more collectively oriented, or more willing to help their neighbors, we cannot say that people in big cities ignore those around them. Value heterogeneity may be particularly noticeable in a society that is undergoing rapid change. South Korea, for example, has transformed itself in the past 50 years from a poor, agrarian country into a global economic and ­technological powerhouse; it is one of the world’s largest economies, a world leader in ­broadband penetration, and has the most techno-savvy young people in the world. Influenced by Western 100

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capitalism and individualism, many young Koreans are now embracing more individualistic values, making their own decisions and expressing individuality, for example with body tattoos—increasingly popular with young men and women, a practice unheard of 50 years ago (Park, 2015). Another limitation of value frameworks is that they tend to “essentialize” people. In other words, people tend to assume that a particular group characteristic is the essential characteristic of a given member at all times and in all contexts. However, a recent study found that all Korean women interviewed expressed both a strong family orientation and a “relational” concept of self as well as a concept of the autonomous or independent self (Shim, Kim, & Martin, 2008). Similarly, researchers who have spent many years in China also observe that the contemporary Chinese “are not either individualist or collective but both at the same time” (Ambler, Witzel, & Xi, 2016). It is useful to keep these tensions in mind when thinking about cultural groups—that they often reflect a set of dynamic contrasts, rather than a static set of specific characteristics or traits. The cultural–individual dialectic reminds us that these value orientations exist on a continuum and are all present, to a greater or lesser extent, in all societies. For example, we could characterize the debate about health care in the United States as a struggle between “masculine” and “feminine” value orientations. Those with a “masculine” orientation believe that each person should take care of him- or herself and be free to achieve and to acquire as many material goods as possible. Others, representing a “feminine” position, believe that everyone should sacrifice a little for the good of the whole and that everyone should be assured access to health care and hospitalization. The differences–similarities dialectic reminds us that although people may differ with respect to specific value orientations, they also may hold other value orientations in common. For example, people may have different views on the importance of individual or group loyalty but share a belief in the essential goodness of human nature and find similarity in religious faith and practice. Finally, a static–dynamic dialectic reminds us that although group-related values tend to be relatively consistent, people are dynamic, and their behavior varies contextually. Thus, they may be more or less individualistic or group oriented depending on the context.

How Communication Reinforces Culture Culture not only influences communication but also is enacted through, and so is influenced by, communication. Scholars of cultural communication describe how various aspects of culture are enacted in speech communities in situ, that is, in contexts. They seek to understand communication patterns that are situated socially and give voice to cultural identity. Specifically, they examine how the cultural forms and frames (terms, rituals, myths, and social dramas) are enacted through structuring norms of conversation and interaction. The patterns are not connected in a deterministic way to any cultural group (Carbaugh, 2017; Philipsen, 2002). Using an ethnography of communication approach, researcher Craig Engstrom (2012) examined how patterns of talk about drinking alcohol shape and reinforce notions of masculinity and gender identity among U.S. college students. He conducted

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communication rules  A systematic pattern of behavior that takes place on a regular basis within a cultural community.

performative  Acting or presenting oneself in a specific way so as to accomplish some goal. autoethnography  Research method where writers examine their own life experiences to discover broader cultural insights.

fieldwork, observing and interacting with students in resident halls and other campus locations for more than a year and also conducted extensive interviews with male and female students. He concluded that in order to be seen as a competent communicator in this speech community, male students had to portray drinking as a normal behavior and follow several communication rules: Rule 1: Refer to alcoholic consumption in non-numeric and abstract way, never say exactly how much was drunk (e.g., “I partied hard,” “At least you got to have fun”) and one should not ask specifically how much was consumed. However, explicit references “I was drunk” could be said as a way to explain some other unacceptable action, for example, urinating in public, making derogatory references to women. Even nondrinkers would follow this rule and use it to deflect attention or make excuses for some undesirable behavior. Rule 2: Refer to alcohol positively. One should not make negative statements about alcohol consumption—even when there was clearly an alcohol-related tragedy, for example, when a student got hit by a train because he was drunk and fell on railroad tracks. Conversations instead would point to other possible explanations. Rule 3: Refer to alcohol consumption as normal. Behavior that seemed out of the ordinary or excessive would be normalized and excused by “normal” alcoholic consumption. Again, this excuse was used for discounting unacceptable behavior even when students were not drinking. Engstrom discusses the role and value of these patterns of talk in the speech community of college students and shows how, by following these communication rules, they could take the emphasis off an embarrassing behavior, or get “off the hook” for questionable behaviors, and maintain and reinforce a cultural identity of masculinity. Illustrating the reciprocal relationship between communication and cultural identity, one feels more masculine when following the rules. This reciprocity is also seen in the consequences for students who do not follow these rules—they may be seen as effeminate or just odd. Engstrom also suggests that his study shows that excessive drinking does not cause misconduct; rather, talk about drinking “accounts for” and normalizes such misconduct. A related approach from cultural communication studies sees culture as ­performative. If we accept this metaphor, then we are not studying any external (cultural) reality. Rather, we are examining how persons enact and represent their culture’s worldviews. (See Figure 3-2.) Several Latino/a communication scholars have described, in autoethnographies (writing about their own e­xperiences), how they each perform their ethnic identity in various contexts, and they emphasize that being Latino is never just one thing; there are multiple, contingent, and overlapping ways to experience and articulate Latina/o identity (Delgado, 2009). They show us that individuals in the same cultural category (Latino/a) may share some similarities but also view and perform their identities in very different ways. For example, Hector Amaya (2007) describes how he has “rewritten” himself and performed this identity change through the process of acculturating to upper-middle-class academic life—after coming to the United States as an adult, learning English, and acquiring graduate degrees. He says that every immigrant must answer the question, “What kind of personal characteristics ought I have to be treated ethically by others?” (p. 195). He describes how he deliberately worked very

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FIGURE 3-2 This photo of tourists watching Aztec dancers in Mexico City reflects an earlier context in which Aztec culture was dominant in Mexico. What role does Aztec culture play in Mexican life today? What does this communicate about the continued vitality of Aztec culture in today’s M ­ exico? (Courtesy Jackie Martinez, Arizona State University)

hard to “learn to perform what others (white majority) value as evidence of moral worth” (p. 200), acquiring the necessary mannerisms, and tastes in clothing, food, and art. It is not easy; he says his “brownness” is still often seen as threatening to whites, and he feels he has to dress much better than most white middle-class people in order to get the same treatment they enjoy even when they are dressed in grubbies. He feels he has to pay more attention to clothing brand, to style, and to newness; things he never considered in Mexico. Karma Chavez, daughter of a Mexican father and a white U.S. mother, describes growing up in rural Nebraska—in contrast to most Latina/os, who mostly live in urban U.S. areas on the two coasts—and what it means to be brown in the beetgrowing heartland of the United States. She describes what happened when a meatpacking plant was opened and the new brown (Mexican migrant) workers moved into her town in the 1980s. Many whites were not welcoming to this new group— some even moved away. She tried to distance herself from this marginalized group and stressed her (fictionalized) Spanish heritage to her white friends. “Their Brown bodies reflected my family’s history. Their Brown bodies, like a spotlight, highlighted our brownness to the whites we had learned to relate to in ways that concealed our otherness from them. I learned to hide our food, our traditions, and my father. Those parts of me now seemed vulnerably naked in front of everyone’s eyes” (Chavez, 2009, p. 170). As she grew up, she became more conscious of the discrimination and prejudice against Latinos in her rural hometown and, as a scholar, committed to understanding and changing the marginalized position of many Latinas/os. She could never understand

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why her parents and grandparents never talked about their negative experiences. As a communication scholar now, she studied the situation and describes how the particular rural context, the distances between farms, and the relatively small Latino/a population affected her family’s relationships and identity. In contrast to urban areas with large Latino/a populations, rural living—where Latino/as are few and far between—means you probably have to assimilate in order to survive. She concludes: “Latinas/os in rural spaces often lack Latina/o community, and thus lack the resources to resist discrimination or to reshape Brown-white relationships” (p. 173). Like Amaya, she sees that trying to assimilate to whiteness can be an invaluable resource for those who are capable of performing it. She also notes the high price of the assimilation and what it means to lack resources to resist—that her grandparents rarely speak of the discrimination and even violence they experienced in Nebraska. It is simply too painful. Finally, Fernando Delgado views his performance as a Latino, a little differently from Amaya and Chavez. He describes how he tactically and strategically performs his roles as a Latino teacher, scholar, and administrator in higher education, saying that one is more intentional and deliberate when one’s presence is challenged institutionally. He recounts instances of being marginalized as the only Latino in his white Iowan graduate program and later being marginalized by other minority faculty (an African American professor questioned his being listed as a “Faculty of Color,” saying that Spanish aristocrats should not be counted toward diversity). He describes times where he deliberately seeks separation (not acculturation), in order to be accepted by Mexican Americans as well as the majority Anglos and acknowledges he is committed to Latina/o politics, straddling both majority and minority worlds (which is not always easy): “Uncertainty, reflection, and self-critique often drive the contingent actions that I take because while on the one hand I may risk losing a job, on the other I may risk losing my self” (Delgado, 2009, p. 163). Each of these three scholars interrogates their own performances of identity and identifies some constraints to those performances; what are some contextual constraints that might inhibit anyone’s performances of identity?

Communication as Resistance to the Dominant Cultural System Resistance is the metaphor used in cultural studies to conceptualize the relationship between culture and communication. Borrowing this metaphor, we can try to discover how individuals use their own space to resist the dominant cultural system. For example, workers can find ways to resist the authority structure of management and extreme competition in many ways, some subtle (e.g., work slowdowns) and some more obvious (e.g., whistleblowing). Or students may sign their advisors’ names on course registration forms, thereby circumventing the university bureaucracy. Social media has dramatically increased the efficiency of resistance. For example, a Facebook post and then a tweet (#Blacklivesmatter) after the murder of Trayvon Martin and Michael Brown by white police officers gathered momentum, which then thousands to communicate their nonviolent resistance against perceived injustices and institutionalized racism (Day, 2015). Similarly “Me Too” was initially used by sexual harassment survivor and activist Tarana Burke on Myspace, leading to #metoo, as well as the 2018 Time’s Up

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movement expanded to multiple industries, including fast food, healthcare and others. Turns out that various social media differ in their role in these movements; Reddit enables individuals to share their personal stories in depth while Twitter is used more to persuade others to continue the movement (Manikonda, Beigi, Liu, & Kambhampati, 2018). In all these ways of resisting the dominant cultural systems, people find ways to meet their needs and struggle to make relationships and contexts more equitable.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMUNICATION AND CONTEXT Context typically is created by the physical/virtual or social aspects of the situation in which communication occurs. For example, communication may occur face-to-face in a classroom, a bar, a church, or in a virtual context online, and people communicate differently depending on the context. You probably communicate differently when hanging out with friends and when talking with your instructor and other students in a classroom. Intercultural communication may be more or less challenging online or face-to-face. For example, communicating via a phone conversation can be more challenging than talking face-to-face when there are language barriers. On the other hand, communicating online through Facebook posts or e-mail may be easier than face-to-face context when language barriers are involved. Perhaps you can think of other examples of how an online context affects intercultural communication. Context is neither static nor objective, and it can be multilayered. Context may consist of the social, political, and historical structures in which the communication occurs. Not surprisingly, the social context is determined on the societal level. Consider, for example, the controversy over the Calvin Klein underwear ads in the early 1990s that used young adolescents as models: Many critics viewed the ads as equivalent to pedophilia. The controversy took place in a social context in which pedophilia was seen as perverse or immoral. This meant that any communication that encouraged or fed that behavior or perspective, including advertising, was deemed wrong by the majority of observers. However, pedophilia has not been considered wrong in all societies in all periods of history. To interpret the ads adequately, we would have to know something about the current feelings toward and meanings attached to pedophilia wherever the ads were displayed. The political context in which communication occurs, whether online or face-toface, includes those forces that attempt to change or retain existing social structures and relationships. For example, consider the actions of BlackLivesMatter protesters described above who chanted “Hands up, don’t shoot” (a reference to incidents where Black suspects were shot when their hands were supposedly up). In order to understand these communicative actions, we must consider the political context. In this case, the political context would be the ongoing debates over policing policies and practices in communities of color in the United States. In other locales or other eras, the protester’s communicative acts would not make sense or might be interpreted in other ways. We also need to examine the historical context of communication. For example, the meaning of a college degree depends in part on the particular school’s reputation.

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Why does a degree from Harvard communicate a different meaning than a degree from an obscure state university? Harvard’s reputation relies on history—the large endowments given over the years, the important persons who have attended and graduated, and so forth.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMUNICATION AND POWER Power is pervasive in communication interactions, although it is not always evident or obvious how power influences communication or what kinds of meaning are constructed. We often think of communication between individuals as being between equals, but this is rarely the case (Allen, 2011). As communication scholar Mark Orbe (1998) describes it, In every society a social hierarchy exists that privileges some groups over others. Those groups that function at the top of the social hierarchy determine to a great extent the communication system of the entire society. (p. 8) Orbe goes on to describe how those people in power, consciously or unconsciously, create and maintain communication systems that reflect, reinforce, and promote their own ways of thinking and communicating. There are two levels of group-related power: (1) the primary dimensions—age, ethnicity, gender, physical abilities, race, and sexual orientation—which are more permanent in nature and (2) the secondary dimensions— educational background, geographic location, marital status, and socioeconomic status— which are more changeable (Loden & Rosener, 1991). The point is that the dominant communication systems ultimately impede those who do not share the systems. The communication style most valued in college classrooms, for example, emphasizes public speaking and competition (because the first person who raises his or her hand gets to speak). Not all students are comfortable with this style, but those who take to it naturally are more likely to succeed. Power also comes from social institutions and the roles individuals occupy in those institutions. For example, in the classroom, there is temporary inequality, with instructors having more power. After all, they set the course requirements, give grades, determine who speaks, and so on. In this case, the power rests not with the individual instructor but with the role that he or she is enacting. Power is dynamic. It is not a simple one-way proposition. For example, students may pay attention to their mobile devices, carry on conversations through instant messages, read Facebook buzzfeeds, Twitter feeds, or engage in other “distracting” behaviors—thus weakening the professor’s power over them (Cheong, Shuter, & Suwinyattichaiporn, 2016). They may also refuse to accept a grade and file a grievance with the university administration to have the grade changed. Further, the typical power relationship between instructor and student often is not perpetuated beyond the classroom. However, some issues of power play out in a broader social context (Johnson, 2017). For example, in contemporary society, cosmetic companies have a vested interest in a particular image of female beauty that involves purchasing and using makeup. Advertisements encourage women to feel compelled to

POINT of VIEW

R

ose Weitz, a communication scholar, describes the importance of hair for women in U.S. society in attracting men. Although some writers say that women who use strategies like the “hair flip” in attracting men do so unconsciously and are just blindly obeying cultural rules, her interviews with women reveal that many are acutely aware of the cultural rules and the power of the “flip.” Those who cannot participate feel marginalized. A young white woman: I have very long hair and use the hair flip, both consciously and unconsciously. When I do it [consciously], I check the room to see if anyone is looking in my direction but never catch a guy’s eye first. I just do it in his line of vision. [I] bend over slightly, pretending to get something from a bag or pick something up) so that some of my hair falls in front of my shoulder. Then I lean back and flip my hair out and then shake my head so my hair sways a little. A young Latino woman: In Hispanic culture hair is very important for a woman. It defines our beauty and gives us power over men. Now that I cut my hair short, I miss the feeling of moving my hair around and the power it gave me. . . . The hair flip is especially aggravating for those Black women whose hair will not grow long. As one Black graduate student explains, As an African American woman, I am very aware of non–African American women “flipping” their hair. . . . I will speak only for myself here (but I think it’s a pretty global feeling for many African American women), but I often look at women who can flip their hair with envy, wishfulness, perhaps regret?, . . . with my “natural” hair, if I run my fingers through it, it’s going to be a mess [and won’t] gracefully fall back into place. Source: From R. Weitz, Rapunzel’s Daughters: What Women’s Hair Tells Us About Women’s Lives (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2004).

participate in this cultural definition. Resistance can be expressed by a refusal to go along with the dominant cultural standards of beauty. Angela, a student from rural Michigan, describes how she resisted the “beauty culture” of her metropolitan university: I came to school, and when I looked around I felt like I was inadequate. I had one of two choices: to conform to what the girls look like here, or to stay the same. I chose to stay true to my “Michigan” self. I felt more confident this way. I still remember looking at all of the blond girls with their fake boobs and black pants, strutting down campus. Four years later, I have a more mature attitude and realized that this culture wasn’t for me. What happens when someone like Angela decides not to buy into this definition? Regardless of the woman’s individual reason for not participating, other

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people are likely to interpret her behavior in ways that may not match her own reasons. What her unadorned face communicates is understood against a backdrop of society’s definitions—that is, the backdrop developed by the cosmetics industry. Dominant cultural groups attempt to perpetuate their positions of privilege in many ways. However, subordinate groups can resist this domination in many ways too. Cultural groups can use political and legal means to maintain or resist domination, as in the US Women’s Soccer Team’s lawsuit for pay equality with the men’s team, accompanied by lots of protest at the last World cup, and gaining support from sponsors (Adidas, LUNA Bar, Secret Deodorant) (Kaplan, 2019). But these are not the only means of invoking power relations. #MeToo has been driven not by litigation but by mainstream and social media, bringing down men (and some women), as women (and some men) have risen up, changing norms, providing relief that the law did not (MacKinnon, 2019). Groups can negotiate their various relations to culture through economic boycotts and strikes, for example, when University of Missouri football players (Black and white) refused to play in Fall 2015 to protest the pervasive and casual forms of racism on their campus. Individuals can subscribe (or not subscribe) to specific magazines or newspapers, change TV channels, write letters to government officials, or take action in other ways to change the influence of power. Power is complex, especially in relation to institutions or the social structure. Some inequities, such as in gender, class, or race, are more rigid than those created by temporary roles such as student or teacher. The power relations between student and teacher, for example, are more complex if the teacher is a female challenged by male students. We really can’t understand intercultural communication without considering the power dynamics in the interaction. A dialectical perspective looks at the dynamic and interrelated ways in which culture, communication, context, and power intersect in intercultural communication interactions. Consider this example: When Tom first lived in Brussels, he asked for a national train schedule from the information office at one of the train stations. Because he does not speak Dutch, he talked to the agent behind the counter in French. The agent gave Tom a copy of the national train schedule in Dutch. When Tom asked if it was available in French, the man politely apologized, saying that it was the end of the season and there were no more available in French. It was clear to Tom that, although both ­parties followed la forme de la politesse, the agent did not want to give him the train schedule in French. Indeed, it was not near the end of the season because he requested the schedule in January and the annual train schedule ran from June 1 to May 23. From a communication perspective, it might not be at all clear that an intercultural struggle had taken place. None of the traditional signals of conflict were manifested: no raised voices, no harsh words, no curtness. Indeed, the exchange seemed polite and courteous. From a cultural perspective, however, with various contexts and power differentials in mind, a different view of this intercultural interaction emerges. Belgium is a nation largely divided by two cultures, Flemish and Walloon, although there is a small German-speaking minority in the far eastern part of the country. Belgium is officially trilingual (Dutch, French, German); that is, each language is the official language in its territory. Dutch is the official language in Flanders, and French

STUDENT VOICES Many of the Thai managers I spoke with while doing research on American companies in Thailand stressed to me that when working with Thais one needed to be very aware of relationships and the hierarchy in which they exist. A Thai woman I spoke with, who was the secretary to the company’s American president, provided this example of the need for attention to the details of relationships: I believe in the United States it is common for a boss to ask the secretary to request some materials from another person or to call people and tell them the boss wants to see them. In the United States, you all look at each other as equals. It is not so important what someone’s title is, their age, or time with the company. In Thailand, those things are very important. For example, my boss, who is an American, was always asking me to go call so-and-so and request a meeting or go talk to so-and-so and get some reports from them. By having me do this, the Thais were wondering several things: Why should we deal with her; she is just a secretary, and have I done something wrong that the boss does not want to talk with me? Finally, I got my boss to understand that when he had a request for someone—especially someone who was high-ranking in the company, someone who was much older than me or had been with the company longer than me—I would write a short note to that person, he would sign it, then I would pass the note along. That way, everyone’s face was saved, their positions were recognized, and the boss came across as showing that he cared about his personal relationships with everyone. Mind you, I can run over and ask others of my same rank, age, or time with the company for any information or a meeting, but it is important to show respect toward those in high positions. —Chris

is the official language in Wallonia, except in the eastern part, where German is the official language. The only part of Belgium that is officially bilingual is the “BrusselsCapital Region.” There are many historical contexts to consider here. For example, ­Brussels is historically a Flemish city, located in Flanders (but near the border with ­Wallonia). Also, the French language dominated in Belgium from the time it gained independence from the Netherlands in 1830 until the early 20th century when Flemish gained parity. There are social and economic contexts to consider as well. Since the 1960s, Flanders has been more economically powerful than Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region, despite being in Flanders, has become increasingly French speaking; some estimates place the current percentage of francophones at 85% to 90%. And nearly 30% of Brussels’ residents are foreigners, most of whom are francophones. The increasing migration of city dwellers to the suburbs has also caused tensions because a number of communes located in Flanders now have a francophone majority. So, although the Brussels-Capital Region is officially bilingual, this is the site of a number of struggles between French and Dutch. Indeed, as many Walloons told

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POINT of VIEW ANSWERS TO THE TEST OF U.S. CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE 1. The correct answer is B. Lagniappe refers to small freebies or sometimes small gifts given by stores when you purchase something. It is used mostly in southern Louisiana and Mississippi and also along the Gulf Coast. 2. The correct answer is C. Hoppin’ John is a New Year’s tradition across the South. Normally it is simply rice and black-eyed peas, but it can include other items. 3. The correct answer is C. Shoofly pie, traditionally made from molasses, is a very sweet pie. 4. The correct answer is D. The Illini are a nonexistent tribe. “The Fighting Illini” is the official nickname of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign athletic teams. 5. The correct answer is A. Also sometimes just called Eid, this is a 3-day joyous festival that celebrates family, friendship, community, and the Creator. It is a time of reconciliation. 6. The correct answer is A. It marks the anniversary of the Supreme Court ruling in Loving v. Virginia that overturned legal barriers to interracial marriage. 7. The correct answer is D. Hanamatsuri (or flower festival) is in the spring and marks a time of renewal and the birthday of Buddha. 8. The correct answer is A. Lefse is made primarily from potatoes. 9. The correct answer is D. Menudo is traditionally served on New Year’s Day. 10. The correct answer is C. Haupia is made from coconut milk.

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Tom, one does not get a sense of the conflict in Wallonia, but it is evident in Brussels. In the context of the various tensions that existed at the time of Tom’s arrival in Belgium, the intercultural conflict at the train station is merely a playing out of much larger issues in Belgian society. Tom’s entry into that society, as another francophone foreigner, situated his communication interactions in largely prefigured ways. Although he later secured a French train schedule, he continued to use the Dutch one so he could learn the Dutch names of many Belgian cities as well. In any case, Tom’s experience involved various dialectical tensions: (1) being a francophone foreigner versus a traditional Flemish resident, (2) being in an officially bilingual region versus an increasingly francophone one, (3) recognizing the importance of formality and politeness in French versus the nature of this ancient conflict, (4) having abundant opportunities to learn French versus the lack of opportunities to study Dutch in the United States, and (5) illustrating the economic power of the Flemish in Belgium versus that of the francophones in B­r ussels. From these dialectical tensions and others, Tom attempted to understand and contextualize his intercultural interaction.

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There are no simple lists of behaviors that are key to successful intercultural interaction. Instead, we encourage you to understand the contexts and dialectical tensions that arise in your intercultural communication experiences. In this way, you will better understand the constraints you face in your interactions. You will also come to a better understanding of the culture you are in and the culture you are from. Although the dialectical perspective makes the investigation of culture and communication far more complex, it also makes it far more exciting and interesting and leads to a much richer understanding.

INTERNET RESOURCES www.geert-hofstede.com This Geert Hofstede Cultural Dimensions website provides a description of Hofstede’s cultural values dimensions and the specific value scores for a variety of countries and regions of the world. For those of you who may be studying, working, or traveling abroad, you may find it useful to compare the values scores of your home culture and host culture to better understand how the two cultures are similar and different according to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. https://www.amnesty.org/en/ Amnesty International is an organization that works towards social justice and equality worldwide. The website provides information about social justice work that is occurring in countries all over the world with specific information on each country. www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/ This UNESCO Culture Sector website provides links to relevant news and events along with general background information about the changing realm of culture, both regionally and globally. The website also provides links that describe the culture and people from different regions worldwide, such as the Arab states, Latin America, the Caribbean, Europe, and North America. www.globalvoicesonline.org/ The Global Voices Online website is sponsored by Harvard’s Berkman Center for Internet and Society. The site provides blogs, podcasts, photo-sharing sites, and videoblogs from around the world. There is a site search available along with an index of countries and topics. You can select a topic, such as racism or politics, and select the country you wish to read and learn more about in terms of that topic.

SUMMARY ▪▪ There are four building blocks to understanding intercultural communication: culture, communication, context, and power. ▪▪ Culture can be viewed as ▪▪ Learned patterns of group-related perceptions ▪▪ Contextual symbolic patterns of meaning, involving emotions ▪▪ Heterogeneous, dynamic, and a site of contestation

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▪▪ Communication is a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, m ­ aintained, repaired, and transformed. ▪▪ Communication can be viewed as ▪▪ Components of speaker, sender, receiver, message and channel, and variables ▪▪ Symbolic and processual ▪▪ Involving power dynamics ▪▪ The relationship between culture and communication is complex: ▪▪ Culture influences communication and is enacted and reinforced through communication. ▪▪ Communication also may be a way of contesting and resisting the dominant culture. ▪▪ The context also influences communication: It is the physical (or virtual) and social setting in which communication occurs or the larger political, social, and historical environment. ▪▪ Power is pervasive and plays an enormous, although sometimes hidden, role in intercultural interactions. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How do definitions of culture influence people’s perspectives on inter­cultural communication? 2. How do the values of a cultural group influence communication with members of other cultural groups? 3. What techniques do people use to assert power in communication inter­actions? 4. How is culture a contested site? ACTIVITIES 1. Cultural Values. Look for advertisements online or on social media. Analyze the ads to see if you can identify the social values to which they appeal. 2. Culture: Deeply Felt or Contested Zone? Analyze the lyrics of songs you listen to and try to identify patterns in the songs. Then think about your own cultural position and discuss which framework—the one proposed by cultural ethnographies (culture as deeply felt) or the one proposed by cultural studies (culture as a contested zone)—more adequately articulates the connection between culture and communication.

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KEY WORDS autoethnography (102) communication (87) communication rules (102) cultural values (88) culture (79) embodied ethnocentrism (84)

ethnography of communication (83) indulgence versus restraint orientation (99) long-term versus shortterm orientation (99) masculinity–femininity value (97)

performative (102) power distance (97) symbolic significance (83) uncertainty avoidance (99)

REFERENCES Allen, B. (2011). Difference matters: Communicating social identity (2nd ed.). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press. Amaya, H. (2007). Performing acculturation: Rewriting the Latino/a immigrant self. Text and Performance Quarterly, 27(3), 194–212. Ambler, T., Witzel, M., & Xi, C. (2016). Doing business in China (4th ed.). NYC: Routledge. Ambler, T., & Witzel, M. (2000). Doing business in China. New York: Routledge. Baldwin, J. R., Faulkner S. L., & Hecht, M. L. (2006). A moving target: The illusive definition of culture. In J. R. Baldwin, S. L. Faulkner, M. L. Hecht, & S. L. Lindsley (Eds.), Redefining culture: Perspectives across the disciplines (pp. 3–26). Mahwah, NJ: ­Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bellah, R. N., Madsen, R., Sullivan, W. M., Swidler, A., & Tipton, S. M. (2007). Habits of the heart: Individualism and commitment in American life. Berkeley, CA: ­University of California Press. Bennett, M. J. (2013). Basic concepts of intercultural communication: Paradigms, principles, & practices (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Nicholas Brealey. Bennett, M. J., & Castiglioni, I. (2004). Embodied ethnocentrism and the feeling of culture. In D. Landis, J. M. Bennett, & M.  J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 249–265). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Burke, J. (1985). The day the universe changed. Boston, MA: Little, Brown. Buzzanell, P. M. (ed.) (2000). Rethinking organizational and managerial communication from feminist perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Campbell, A. F. (2019, October 28). “I’ve felt a profound sadness in the last two years”: What life is like for DREAMers right now. Vox.com. Retrieved December 29, 2019, from https://www.vox.com /identities/2019/10/28/20909969/daca-workers -dreamers-supreme-court

Carbaugh, D. (2007). Cultural discourse analysis: Communication practices and intercultural encounters. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 36(3), 167–182 Carbaugh, D. (2017). (Ed.). The Routledge handbook of communication in cross-cultural perspective. NYC: Routledge. Carey, J. W. (1989). Communication as culture: Essays on media and society. Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman. Cargile, A. (2005). Describing culture dialectically. In W. J. Starosta, & G.-M. Chen (Eds.), Taking stock in intercultural communication: Where to now? ( pp. 99–123). Washington, DC: National Communication Association. Chavez, K. (2009). Remapping Latinidad: A performance cartography of Latino/a in rural Nebraska. Text and Performance Quarterly, 29(2), 165–182. Cheong, P. H., Shuter, R., & Suwinyattichaiporn, T. (2016). Managing student digital distractions and hyperconnectivity: communication strategies and challenges for professorial authority. Communication Education, 65(3), 272–289. Chinese Culture Connection (1987). Chinese values and the search for culture-free dimensions of c­ ulture. ­Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 18, 143–164. Collier, M. J., Hegde, R. S., Lee, W., Nakayama, T. K., & Yep, G. A. (2002). Dialogue on the edges: Ferment in communication and culture. In M.  J. Collier (Ed.), Transforming communication about culture (International and Intercultural Communication Annual, vol. 24, pp. 219–280). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Day, E. (2015, July 19). #Black lives matter: The birth of a new civil rights movement. Theguardian.com. Retrieved April 10, 2016, from http://www.theguardian .com/world/2015/jul/19/blacklivesmatter-birth-civil -rights-movement Delgado, F. (2009). Reflections on being/performing Latino identity in the academy. Text and Performance Quarterly, 29(2), 149–164.

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Engstrom, C. L. (2012). “Yes . . ., But I Was Drunk”: Alcohol references and the (re)production of masculinity on a college campus. Communication Q ­ uarterly, 60(3), 403–423. Grossberg, L. (1993). Can cultural studies find true happiness in communication? Journal of Communication, 43(4), 89–97. Hall, B. (1992). Theories of culture and communication. Communication Theory, 1, 50–70. Halualani, R. T. (2011). In/visible dimensions: Framing the intercultural communication course through a ­critical intercultural communication framework. Intercultural Education, 22(1), 43–54. Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture’s consequences. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (Revised and Expanded 3rd ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Hymes, D. (1972). Models of the interaction of language and social life. In J. Gumperz, & D. Hymes (Eds.), Directions in sociolinguistics: The ethnography of speaking (pp. 35–71). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Johnson, A. G. (2017). Privilege, power, and difference (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Kaeble, D., & Cowhig, M. (2018, April). BJS correctional populations in the United States. Dept of Justice Bulletin. Retrieved December 21, 2019, from https://www .bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/cpus16.pdf Kaplan, E. (2019, November 9). U.S. women’s soccer equal pay fight: What’s the latest, and what’s next? ESPN.com. Retrieved December 21, 2019, from https://www.espn.com/sports/soccer/story/_/id /27175927/us-women-soccer-equal-pay-fight-latest-next Kirkman, B. L., Lowe, K. B., & Gibson, C. B. (2006). A quarter century of culture’s consequences: A review of empirical research incorporating Hofstede’s cultural values framework. Journal of International Business Studies, 37, 285–320. Kluckhohn, F., & Strodtbeck, F. (1961). Variations in value orientations. Chicago, IL: Row, Peterson. Kohls, L. R. (1996). Survival kit for overseas living. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Kristjánsdóttir, E. S. (2009). Invisibility dreaded and desired: Phenomenological inquiry of sojourners’ crosscultural adaptation. Howard Journal of Communications, 20(2), 129–146. Loden, M., & Rosener, J. B. (1991). Workforce American! Managing employee diversity as a vital resource. Homewood, IL: Business One Irwin. MacKinnon, C. A. (2019). Where #MeToo came from, and where it’s going. theatlantic.com. Available

at https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive /2019/03/catharine-mackinnon-what-metoo-has -changed/585313/ Manikonda, L., Beigi, B., Liu, H., & Kambhampati, S. (2018). Twitter for sparking a movement, Reddit for sharing the moment: #metoo through the lens of social media. Retrieved Jan 22, 2020, from https://arxiv.org /abs/1803.08022 Martin, J. N., & Nakayama, T. K. (1999). Thinking ­dialectically about culture and communication. ­Communication Theory, 9, 1–25. Orbe, M. O. (1998). Constructing co-cultural theory: An explication of culture, power, and communication. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Park, J. (2015). Signs of social change on the bodies of youth: Tattoos in Korea. Visual Communication, 15(1), 71–92. Philipsen, G. (1992). Speaking culturally: Explorations in social communication. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Philipsen, G. (2002). Cultural communication. In W. B. Gudykunst, & B. Mody (Eds.), Handbook of international and intercultural communication (2nd ed., pp. 51–67). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Piff, P. K., Kraus, M. W., Côté, S., Cheng, B. H., & Keltner, D. (2010). Having less, giving more: The influence of social class on prosocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(5), 771–784. Robertson, C. (2019, April 25). Crime is down, yet U.S. incarceration rates are still among the highest in the world. nytimes.com. Retrieved December 30, 2019, from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/25/us/us-massincarceration-rate.html Root, E. (2013) Insights into the differences—similarities dialectic in intercultural communication from university students’ narratives. Intercultural Communication Studies, 22(3), 61–79. Shim, Y-J., Kim, M-S, & Martin, J. N. (2008). Changing Korea: Understanding culture and communication. New York: Peter Lang. Stewart, E. C., & Bennett, M. J. (1991). American cultural patterns: A cross-cultural perspective. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Williams, R. (1981). The analysis of culture. In T. Bennett, G. Martin, C. Mercer, & J. Woollacott (Eds.), Culture, ideology and social process: A reader (pp. 43–52). London: Open University Press. Williams, R. (1983). Keywords: A vocabulary of culture and society (Rev. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

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CREDITS [page 79, text] R. Williams, quote from “Keywords: A vocabulary of culture and society.” Oxford University Press. [page  80, text] M.J. Collier, excerpt from “Transforming Communication About Culture.” Sage Publications, Inc. [page 81, Table 3-1: “Three perspectives on defining culture”] Communication Theory. [page 82, text] G. Hofstede, quote from “Culture’s Consequence.” Sage Publications. [page  82, text] M.J. Bennet, excerpt from “Basic Concepts of Intercultural Communication: Paradigms, Principles, & Practices.” Nicholas Brealey. [page 84, text] excerpt from “Bob Marley, the well-known singer-songwriter . . . discredited and abandoned÷WAR!.” jahworks. [page 103, text] Excerpt from Arizona State University. [page 87, text] A. Cargile, quote from “Taking Stock in Intercultural Communication: Where to Now?” [page 87, text] J.W. Carey, quote from “Communication as Culture: Essays on Media and Society.” [88, text] J. Burke, quote from “The Day the Universe Changed.” [page 91, text] L. A. Erbert, excerpt from “Turning points and dialectical interpretations of immigrant experiences in the United States.” [page 93, Table 3-2: “­Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck Value Orientations”] [page 93, text] Sang Wong, excerpt from “Student Voices: In South Korea, teachers get a lot of

respect . . . how to speak up for their opinions.” Original Work; [page 98, Table 3-3: “Hofstede Value Orientations”] McGraw-Hill. [page 100, text] Samantha, excerpt from “Student Voices: I recently spent two weeks in Mexico City . . . they had to put it all in the architecture”. Original work; [101, text] T. Ambler and M. Witzel, excerpt from “Doing business in China.” Routledge. [page 103, text] K. Chavez, quote from “Remapping Latinidad: A performance cartography of Latino/a in rural Nebraska.” Text and Performance Quarterly. [page  104, text] K. Chavez, excerpt from “Remapping Latinidad: A performance cartography of Latino/a in rural Nebraska.” Text and Performance Quarterly. [page 104, text] F. Delgado, quote from “Reflections on being/performing Latino identity in the academy.” Text and Performance Quarterly. [page 106, text] M.O. Orbe, excerpt from “Constructing Co-Cultural Theory: An Explication of Culture, Power, and Communication.” Sage. [page 107, text] R. Weitz, excerpt from “Rapunzel’s Daughters: What Women’s Hair Tells Us About Women’s Lives.” Farrar, Straus and Giroux. [page 109, text] Chris, excerpt from “Student Voices: Many of the Thai managers I spoke with while doing research on ­American . . . those in high positions.” Original work.

4 CHAPTER

HISTORY AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

FROM HISTORY TO HISTORIES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Political, Intellectual, and Social Histories Family Histories National Histories Cultural-Group Histories

1. Identify six different types of history. 2. Define “the grand narrative.” 3. Explain the relationship between history, power, and intercultural communication. 4. Describe the role of narratives in constructing history. 5. Describe the relationship between history and identity. 6. Identify seven types of hidden histories. 7. Identify four antecedents that influence intercultural contact. 8. Explain the contact hypothesis. 9. Identify eight contact conditions that influence positive attitude change. 10. Describe a dialectic perspective in negotiating personal histories.

HISTORY, POWER, AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

The Power of Texts The Power of Other Histories Power in Intercultural Interactions HISTORY AND IDENTITY

Histories as Stories Nonmainstream Histories INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND HISTORY

Antecedents of Contact The Contact Hypothesis Negotiating Histories Dialectically in Interaction INTERNET RESOURCES SUMMARY DISCUSSION QUESTIONS ACTIVITIES KEY WORDS REFERENCES

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Americans ignore history, for to them everything has always seemed new under the sun. The national myth is that of creativity and progress, of a steady climbing upward into power and prosperity, both for the individual and for the country as a whole. Americans see history as a straight line and themselves standing at the cutting edge of it as representatives for all mankind. They believe in the future as if it were a religion; they believe that there is nothing they cannot accomplish, that solutions wait somewhere for all problems. In writing about the Vietnam War, Frances FitzGerald (1972), a journalist, contrasted the U.S. orientation to history with the Vietnamese cultural orientation. This difference in orientation to the past framed the Vietnam conflict in a very narrow way for the United States. This contrasts greatly with the Vietnamese view of history, especially in the context of their struggles against outside aggression over thousands of years. You may think it odd to find a chapter about history in a book on intercultural communication. After all, what does the past have to do with intercultural interaction? In this chapter, we discuss how the past is a very important facet of intercultural communication. The history that we know and our views of that history are very much influenced by our culture. When people of different cultural backgrounds encounter one another, the differences among them can become hidden barriers to communication. However, people often overlook such dynamics in intercultural communication. We typically think of “history” as something contained in history books. We may view history as those events and people, mostly military and political, that played significant roles in shaping the world of today. This chapter examines some of the ways in which history is important in understanding intercultural interaction. Many intercultural interactions involve a dialectical ­interplay between past and present. We have found, in the classes we teach, that European American students often want to deemphasize history. “Why do we have to dwell on the past? Can’t we all move on?” they ask. In contrast, some other students argue that without history it is impossible to understand who they are. How do these different viewpoints affect the communication among such students? What is the possibility for meaningful communication interactions among them? On a larger scale, we can see how history influences intercultural interaction in many different contexts. For example, the ongoing conflict between the Israelis and the Palestinians makes little sense without an understanding of the historical relations among the different groups that reside in the area. ­Historical antagonisms help explain the present-day animosity felt by many ­Pakistanis toward Indians. Disputes over the Kashmir region, Indian participation in the struggle for independence of Bangladesh, and conflicts over the Himalayas underscore deep-rooted bases for strife. How we think about the past very much influences how we think about ourselves and others even here in the United States. Judith went to college in southern Virginia after growing up in Delaware and Pennsylvania. She was shocked to encounter the antipathy that her dormitory suitemates expressed toward northerners. The

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suitemates stated emphatically that they had no desire to visit the North; they felt certain that “Yankees” were unfriendly and unpleasant people. For Judith, the Civil War was a paragraph in a history book; for her suite­ mates, that historical event held a more important meaning. It took a while for friendships to develop between Judith and her suitemates. In this way, their interactions demonstrated the present–past dialectic. Indeed, this exemplifies the central focus of this chapter: that various histories contextualize intercultural communication. Taking a dialectical perspective enables us to understand how history positions people in different places from which they can communicate and understand other people’s messages. Earlier in this book, we set forth six dialectical tensions that we believe drive much intercultural interaction. In this chapter, we focus on the history/past–present/ future dialectic. As you will see, culture and cultural identities are intimately tied to history because they have no meaning without history. Yet there is no single version of history; the past has been written in many different ways. For example, your own family has its version of family history that must be placed in ­dialectical tension with all of the other narratives about the past. Is it important to you to feel positive about who your forebears were and where they came from? We often feel a strong need to identify in positive ways with our past even if we are not interested in history. The stories of the past, whether accurate or not, help us understand why our families live where they do, why they own or lost land there, and so on. We experience this dialectical tension between the past, the present, and the future every day. It helps us understand who we are and why we live and communicate in the ways we do. In this chapter, we first discuss the various histories that provide the contexts in which we communicate: political, intellectual, social, family, national, and culturalgroup histories. We then describe how these histories are intertwined with our various identities, based on gender, sexual orientation, ­ethnicity, race, and so on. We introduce two identities that have strong ­historical bases: diasporic and colonial. We pay particular attention to the role of narrating our personal histories. As you read this chapter, think about the importance of ­history in constructing your own identity and the ways in which the past–present dialectic helps us understand different identities for others in various cultural groups. Finally, we explore how history influences intercultural communication.

FROM HISTORY TO HISTORIES Many different kinds of history influence our understanding of who we are—as individuals, as family members, as members of cultural groups, and as citizens of a nation. To understand the dialectics in everyday interaction, we need to think about the many histories that help form our different identities. These histories necessarily overlap and influence each other. For example, when Fidel Castro came to power in Cuba in the 1950s, some Cubans left Cuba and came to the United States. Today, the families that departed and those that have stayed have a complex relationship

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FIGURE 4-1   In the United States, the history of racially segregated facilities extends well beyond drinking fountains. Drinking fountains were not segregated by sexual orientation, gender, or some other cultural difference but by race alone. What are some other facilities that were once racially segregated? How does that history help us understand race relations today? Do you know how your family experienced racial privilege and discrimination in the United States? (Bettmann/Getty Images)

and a desire to reunite. “When Mr. Obama fulfilled that promise with a policy change in 2009, a rush to Cuba began. Now more than 400,000 Cuban Americans go annually. When Mr. Castro later signaled a shift of his own, no longer calling exiles gusanos, or worms, […] the divide between Cuban and Cuban American, between exile and loyalist, eased further away” (Cave, 2016). Political histories tell the story of that exodus but not necessarily the story of every family, even though many families’ histories were very much influenced by that event. Identifying the various forms of historical contexts is the first step in understanding how history affects communication. (See Figure 4-1.)

Political, Intellectual, and Social Histories Some people restrict their notion of history to documented events. Although we cannot read every book written, we do have greater access to written history. When these types of history focus on political events, we call them political histories. Written histories that focus on the development of ideas are often called intellectual histories.

political histories  Written histories that focus on political events. intellectual h ­ istories  Written histories that focus on the development of ideas.

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social histories  Written histories that focus on everyday life experiences of various groups in the past. absent history  Any part of history that was not recorded or that is missing. Not everything that happened in the past is accessible to us today because only some voices were documented and only some perspectives were recorded.

altered history  Sometimes historical events are changed in order to serve particular ideological goals. This communication practice results in a revised history.

family histories  Histories of individual families that are typically passed down through oral stories.

Some writers seek to understand the everyday life experiences of various groups in the past; what they document are called social histories. Although these types of history seem more manageable than the broad notion of history as “everything that has happened before now,” we must also remember that many historical events never make it into books. For example, the strict laws that forbade teaching slaves in the United States to read kept many of their stories from being documented. Absent history, of course, does not mean the people did not exist, their experiences do not matter, or their history has no bearing on us today. To consider such absent histories requires that we think in more complex ways about the past and the ways it influences the present and the future. Absent history is also the result of concealing the past. One important way that this happens is when the past is deliberately erased or hidden. Until July 2016, the U.S. government had kept 28 pages of the 9/11 Commission’s report hidden or unavailable to the public. Under tremendous public pressure, the U.S. government finally released the hidden 28 pages. In contrast, the report that looked into the 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba has remained classified and unavailable to the ­public. Our understanding of the history and the role of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) remains a part of hidden history. After so many decades, many people wonder why the role of the U.S. government in this invasion should remain a part of absent history. Altered history is another way that influences how we see ourselves and others. In altered history, the past is changed to fit particular worldviews and interests. In this sense, history is not a series of facts to be memorized, but a place where the past can be used for present interests and goals. Altered history is not the same as alternative history. Alternative history is a fictional genre in which authors try to speculate on what the world would look like if particular scenarios in the past had happened, for example, the South won the Civil War, Germany and Japan won World War II. Altered history is often presented in textbooks where “There is a constant tension between those who believe that textbooks exist to promote fervent patriotism and those who believe that they exist to promote dispassionate analysis” (Gardner, 2014). Recent textbook controversies have erupted over the ways that the past is portrayed not only in Japanese textbooks, but also Korean, Chinese, German, U.S. American, and Saudi Arabian, among others. Another recent revelation is that the ancient Egyptian pharaoh, Hatshepsut, was one of several early female pharaohs. In 2016, the Egyptian Minister of Antiquities announced recent research that: “In the reign of Thutmosis III, all mentions of her name were erased and all representations of her female figure were replaced by images of a male king, her deceased husband ­Thutmosis II” (Izadi, 2016). In this case, the past is not erased, but altered to construct a different, gendered view of the pharaohs.

Family Histories Family histories occur at the same time as other histories but on a more personal level. They often are not written down but are passed along orally from one generation to the next. Some people do not know which countries or cities their families emigrated from or what tribes they belonged to or where they lived in the

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United States. Other people place great emphasis on knowing that their ancestors fought in the Revolutionary War, survived the Holocaust, or traveled the Trail of Tears when the Cherokees were forcibly relocated from the Southeast to presentday Oklahoma. Many of these family histories are deeply intertwined with ethnicgroup histories, but the family histories identify each family’s participation in these events. In 2012, PBS launched “Finding Your Roots with Henry Louis Gates, Jr.” This series focuses on uncovering family histories of various well-known figures, including film and television celebrities, athletes, business people, and others. The goal of the series “has unearthed the family histories of influential people helping shape our national identity” (PBS, n.d.). These family histories are shaped by many historical events and forces that have shaped our world, such as slavery, the Holocaust, various wars, natural disasters and so on. These family histories are very important to their families, but they are also windows into the past for the rest of us. They highlight the value of family history in understanding identity and our place in the world. You might talk to members of your own family to discover how they feel about your family’s history. Find out, for example, how family history influences their perceptions of who they are. Do they wish they knew more about their family? What things has your family continued to do that your forebears probably also did? Do you eat some of the same foods? Practice the same religion? Celebrate birthdays or weddings in the same way? The continuity between past and present often is taken for granted.

National Histories The history of any nation is important to the people of that nation. We typically learn national history in school. In the United States, we learn about the founding fathers—George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, ­Alexander Hamilton, and so on—and our national history typically begins with the arrival of Europeans in North America in the 16th century. U.S. citizens are expected to recognize the great events and the so-called great people (mostly men of European ancestry) who were influential in the development of the nation. In history classes, students learn about the Revolutionary War, Thomas Paine, the War of 1812, the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln, the Great Depression, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and so on. They are told stories, verging on myths, that give life to these events and figures. For example, students learn about Patrick Henry’s “give me liberty or give me death” speech even though the text of the speech was collected by a biographer who “pieced together twelve ­hundred words from scattered fragments that ear witnesses remembered from twenty years before” (Thonssen, Baird, & Braden, 1970, p. 335). Students also learn about George Washington having chopped down a cherry tree and confessing his guilt (“I cannot tell a lie”), although there’s no evidence of this story’s truth. National history gives us a shared notion of who we are and solidifies our sense of nationhood. Although we may not fit into the national narrative, we are expected to be familiar with this particular telling of U.S. history so we can understand the many references used in communication. It is one way of constructing cultural discourses.

national history  A body of knowledge based on past events that influenced a country’s development.

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POINT of VIEW REMAKING A COLONIAL MUSEUM As a part of the 1897 International Exposition in Brussels, King Leopold II built the Palais des Colonies (Palace of the Colonies) to promote his colony, the Congo Free State. After the exposition, the museum was renamed the Musée du Congo (Museum of the Congo) and became a permanent museum. Under intense criticism for maintaining a colonial museum, Belgium decided to close the museum in late 2013 and renovate the museum from its focus on colonizing and so-called civilizing the Congo to a museum with displays that are more adapted to a contemporary audience. The museum reopened in December 2018 and there is little agreement if the renovation achieved its goal (Birnbaum, 2019). After 1895, international awareness of the atrocities going on in King Leopold II’s Congo Free State began to spread. Many writers, including Joseph Conrad and Mark Twain wrote about the abuses as the international community began to put pressure on Belgium to do something about the Congo Free State. In 1908, Belgium took over the Congo Free State and established the Belgian Congo, no longer under King Leopold II’s rule. While estimates vary widely on the damage done by the Congo Free State, Edmund D. Morel, a British politician at the time, wrote: “It takes a long time to kill 20 million souls, so, notwithstanding the frightful depopulation of many of the getatable regions, the whole country Is not yet ‘vacant’” (p. 105). More contemporary researchers “estimate that the Congo’s population may have been slashed by as much as half, or some 10 million people” (Hochschild, 2020). In any case, the loss of millions point to the brutality and destruction of central Africa, which was widely debated and known at the time. Today, there is debate over how we remember that past. Should we note the tremendous wealth that Belgium gained by exploiting the Congo? Some of Belgium’s wealthiest families can trace their wealth to the Congo. Do we remember the millions lost? Do we focus on the atrocities committed by the Belgians in central Africa? Do we also discuss the contributions made by the Belgians to the Congo? Do we note the contributions of Belgians in central Africa? These questions confront museums and monuments around the world. As Adam Hochschild, a major writer about King Leopold II’s foray into the Congo, noted: “A good museum should make you start looking at the world beyond its walls with new eyes” (2020). Sources: From M. Birnbaum (2019, March 15) Belgium’s Africa Museum reopens, as country confronts its violent colonial past. The Washington Post. Retrieved February 5, 2020, from https:// www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/this-belgian-museum-needed-a-five-year-overhaul-to-make-itless-racist/2019/03/14/ef09a106-020e-11e9-958c-0a601226ff6b_story.html. From A. Hochschild (2020, January/February) The fight to decolonize the museum. The Atlantic. Retrieved February 7, 2020, from https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/01/when -museums-have-ugly-pasts/603133/ From E. D. Morel (1904). King Leopold’s rule in Africa. London: William Heinemann.

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Yet U.S. students seldom learn much about the histories of other nations and cultures unless they study the languages of those countries. As any student of another language knows, it is part of the curriculum to study not only the grammar and vocabulary of the language but also the culture and history of the people who speak that language. Judith and Tom both studied French. Because we learned a great deal about French history, we understand references to the ancien régime (the political ­system prior to the French Revolution in 1789), les Pieds-noirs (colonial French who returned to France during the struggle for Algerian independence in the mid-20th century), la Bastille (the notorious prison), and other commonly used terms. The French have their own national history, centering on the ­development of France as a nation. For example, French people know that they live in the Vème République (or Fifth ­Republic), and they know what that means within the grand narrative of French history. See Figure 4-2 for an example of how this impacts contemporary French politics. When Judith lived in Algeria, her French friends spoke of les Événements (the events), but her Algerian friends spoke of la Libération—both referring to the war between France and Algeria that led to Algerian independence. When Tom lived in France, he also heard the expression la Libération, but here it referred to the end of the German occupation in France during World War II. Historical contexts shape language, which means we must search for salient historical features in communicating across cultural differences.

Cultural-Group Histories Although people may share a single national history, each cultural group within the nation may have its own history. The history may be obscure (hidden), but it is still related to the national history. Cultural-group histories help us understand the identities of various groups. Consider, for example, the expulsion of many Acadians from eastern ­Canada and their migration to and settlement in Louisiana. These historical events are central to understanding the cultural traits of the Cajuns. Their neighbors, the Creoles, have been displaced by a more recent historical event, Hurricane Katrina. It remains unclear how the hurricane will shape Creole culture. “With their geographic underpinnings swept away, many New Orleanians of Creole descent are trying to figure out how best to preserve a community separated from both its birthplace and home base” (Saulny, 2005, p. A13). The forced removal in 1838 of the Cherokees from Georgia to settlements in what eventually became the state of Oklahoma resulted in a 22% loss of the Cherokee population. This event, known as the Trail of Tears, explains much about the Cherokee Nation. The migration in 1846 of 12,000 Latter Day Saints from Nauvoo, Illinois, to the Great Basin region in the western United States was prompted by anti-Mormon attacks. These events explain much about the character of Utah. The northward migration of African Americans in the early part of the 20th century helps us understand the settlement patterns and working conditions in northern cities such as Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, and New York. These cultural histories are not typically included in our national history, but they are important in the development of group identity, family histories, and contemporary lives of individual members of these cocultures.

cultural-group ­histories  The history of each cultural group within a nation that includes, for example, the history of where the group originated, why the people migrated, and how they came to develop and maintain their cultural traits.

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FIGURE 4-2   As France discusses reworking how their government work, Jean-Luc Mélenchon has raised the issue of creating a 6th Republic. Without understanding French history, these calls for a 6th Republic might not make sense. France is currently in the 5th Republic. Since the French Revolution in 1789, France has had two Empires and five Republics. (T. K. Nakayama)

STUDENT VOICES I am the fourth generation of females raised in Philadelphia. My great-grandmother raised me until she died, when I was 13. Her mother was a slave who had 19 children. Charlotte, North Carolina, was the place my great-grandmother said she was born. I care because my grandmother had personal information about why blacks should be glad slavery is over. She encouraged my family to make use of all of the benefits of freedom. She always said, “Get an education so you can own something, because we couldn’t own anything. We couldn’t even go to school.” So that is why she moved to the city of Philadelphia. She made getting an education a reward instead of a joke. —Marlene I was born and raised in Pakistan, and lived there until I was 7 years old. I remember growing up there very well, but I also remember very well when we moved out of Pakistan. I am basically the first generation in my family to grow up outside of Pakistan. Today most of the immigrants that live in the United States moved here a very long time ago. They have ancestors that came to the United States a long time ago. That is not the case with my family. In addition the immigration to the United States for my family was different in the fact that at first we moved to Canada and then we moved to the United States. —Waleed My family immigrated to the United States for a better life. I didn’t realize that my family history had so much involvement with the history I learned in class. For instance, my great-grandfather was an orphan who rode the orphan train west from New York until a family chose him and his brother to work on their farm. I also had a member of my family die during WWII, some lived in Chicago during the Chicago Fire, and my great grandpa was a rural mail carrier who used a horse and buggy to deliver the mail. Something I didn’t know before was my grandpa, who now works for Burlington Northern, started out as an apprentice telegraph operator. . . . He has come quite far from that! —William

We prefer to view history as the many stories we tell about the past, rather than one story on a single time continuum. Certainly, the events of families, cultural groups, and nations are related. Even world events are related. Ignorance of the histories of other groups makes intercultural communication more difficult and more susceptible to misunderstandings.

HISTORY, POWER, AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION Power is a central dynamic in the writing of history. It influences the content of the history we know and the way it is delivered. Power dictates what is taught and what is silenced, what is available and what is erased. Let’s look at what this means.

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FIGURE 4-3   Memorial Day services are being held by internees at the Manzanar Internment Camp for U.S. Americans of Japanese ancestry during World War II. Although the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the internment of U.S. citizens based on their ethnicity, the U.S. government later apologized. (Courtesy Francis Stewart Gallery/National Park Service)

The Power of Texts History is extremely important in understanding identity. Think about all of the stories about the past that you have been taught. Yet, as literature professor Fredric Jameson (1981) notes, although history is not a narrative at all, it is accessible to us only in textual, narrative form. However, people do not have equal access to the writing and production of these texts. Political texts reflect the disparities of access to political participation in various countries at various times in history. Some languages have been forbidden, making the writing of texts difficult if not impossible. For example, U.S. ­government Indian schools did not permit Native American children to speak their native languages, which makes it more difficult for people today to understand what this experience was about. With regard to the language we use to understand history, think about the difference between the terms internment camp and concentration camp. In 1942, at the height of World War II, after President Franklin Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, anyone of Japanese ancestry—whether they were U.S. citizens or not—was rounded up from a restricted zone, including parts of Arizona, ­Oregon, and Washington and all of California, and placed mostly into 10 camps. (See Figure 4-3.) The U.S. federal government used both terms in the 1940s, but the historical weight of the German concentration camps of the same era, in which millions of Jews perished, often casts a shadow over our understanding

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he internment, or mass imprisonment, of Japanese Americans by the U.S. government in the 1940s has led to much discussion about the right term for these camps. What difference does it make if we call them “concentration camps” or “relocation centers”? This entry from the Encyclopedia of Japanese American History provides food for thought. Concentration camps. Euphemistically called “relocation centers” by the War Relocation Authority (WRA), the concentration camps were hastily constructed facilities for housing Japanese Americans forcibly removed from their homes and businesses on the West Coast during World War II. Located in isolated areas of the United States on either desert or swampland, the camps were usually surrounded by barbed wire and guarded by armed sentries. Although these sentries were presumably in place to protect the inmates from hostile outsiders, their guns usually pointed into the camps instead of away from them. Most inmates were transported to their camp by train from an assembly center between April and September 1942. In all, over 120,000 Japanese Americans served time in these camps. Source: From B. Niiya (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Japanese American History: An A-to-Z Reference from 1868 to the Present (New York: Checkmark Books, 2001), p. 142.

of the U.S. concentration camps. Denotatively, the use of the term concentration camp is correct, but connotatively, it invokes quite different responses. You may wish to keep this in mind as you read Chapter 6, which discusses the importance of language and discourse in intercultural communication. When U.S. Americans are taught history, they also learn a particular way of looking at the world from their history textbooks. This worldview, as James Loewen (1995) tells us, reinforces a very positive white American identity. In his analysis of history textbooks, he notes, “History is furious debate informed by evidence and reason. Textbooks encourage students to believe that history is facts to be learned” (p. 16). Yet these “facts” are often wrong or portray the past in ways that serve the white American identity. For example, he analyzes the way in which Native Americans are depicted in history texts:

concentration camp  A place where governments have interned people from various religious or ethnic groups who usually did not have trials and were not convicted of any crimes.

Even if no Natives remained among us, however, it would still be important for us to understand the alternatives forgone, to remember the wars, and to learn the unvarnished truths about white–Indian relations. Indian history is the antidote to the pious ethnocentrism of American exceptionalism, the notion that European Americans are God’s chosen people. Indian history reveals that the United States and its predecessor British colonies have wrought great harm in the world. We must not forget this—not to wallow in our wrongdoing, but to understand and to learn, that we might not wreak harm again. (p. 136) But the prevailing value of teaching history lies not in serving the future but in reinforcing a positive cultural identity for white Americans. How does power function in determining which stories are told and how they are told?

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modernist ­identity  The identity that is grounded in the Western tradition of scientific and political beliefs and assumptions— for example, the belief in external reality, democratic representation, liberation, and independent subjects. grand narrative  A unified history and view of humankind.

The relative availability of political texts and the ways that they reflect power­ful inequities are reinscribed in the process of writing history. History writing requires documentation and texts and, of course, is limited by what is available. In writing history, we often ask ourselves, “What was important?” without asking, “Important to whom? For what purposes?” Once texts are written, they are available for teaching and learning about the past. But the seeming unity of the past, the linear nature of history, is merely the reflection of a modernist identity, grounded in the Western tradition.

The Power of Other Histories We live in an era of rapid change, which causes us to rethink cultural struggles and identities. It may be difficult for you to envision, but at one time a unified story of humankind—the grand narrative—dominated how people thought of the past, present, and future. The grand narrative refers to the overarching, all-encompassing story of a nation or humankind in general. Because of the way it is built, this grand narrative organizes history into an understandable story that leads to some “truths” over other possible conclusions. In the story of humankind, the grand narrative was one of progress and an underlying assumption that developments in science, medicine, and education would lead to progress and better lives. This is no longer the case. French philosopher Jean-François Lyotard (1984) writes: In contemporary society and culture—postindustrial society, postmodern culture­—the grand narrative has lost its credibility, regardless of what mode of unification it uses, regardless of whether it is a speculative narrative or a narrative of emancipation. (p. 37)

apartheid  A policy that segregated people racially in South Africa.

More recently, communication scholar Dave Tell (2008) has analyzed how a grand narrative about the murder of Emmett Till arose. Tell argues that an article in Look magazine about the murder is key to establishing the narrative of Till’s murder, which played an important role in the rise of the civil rights movement. In the wake of continuous wars and global conflicts, global warming, failed promises of liberation, new diseases such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and bird flu, and other events that challenge what we know and what has changed, the master narrative no longer seems as believable to many. In its place are many other narratives that tell different stories. In the context of intercultural communication, the master narratives of many cultures and nations are also undergoing reconsideration, and many new narratives are emerging. In her work on the constructions of white identity in South Africa, communication scholar Melissa Steyn (2001) notes how the grand narrative in South Africa served white interests and led to the establishment of apartheid. Although racially restrictive laws existed in South Africa for many years, the South African government instituted a rigid framework for regulating race in 1948. This system, apartheid, lasted until it was dismantled from 1990 to 1994, but only after a long struggle against it. Under this apartheid system, everyone was required to register their race in one of four categories: Black, white, Indian, and colored. These categories were used to restrict where people could live (e.g., blacks were permitted to live on only 13% of the land, although they constituted 60% of the population), employment, access to public

POINT of VIEW HOLOCAUST DENIAL In a number of European countries and Israel, it is illegal to deny that the Holocaust happened. In the United States, it is not illegal to deny that the Holocaust was a historical reality. Thus, one of the leading Holocaust denial organizations is in the United States. What is at stake in the world’s remembering that the Holocaust happened or didn’t happen? Human rights advocate Ewelina Ochab argues that “Holocaust denial and distortion is the dismissal of irrefutable and established facts that Holocaust happened. It belittles the suffering of the victims and survivors of the atrocities perpetrated by the Nazis. Holocaust denial and distortion are a form of hate speech that dehumanize the victims and survivors and aims to question and justify the acts” (2020). Think about what is at stake in how we remember the past or forget about the past. Although Jeff Jacoby, a Boston Globe columnist, comes from a family that survived the Holocaust, he is much less optimistic that the world will remember the Holocaust. He notes that, “It was always inevitable that the enormity of the Holocaust would recede in public awareness. The human mind is built to forget; neither individuals nor societies can prevent the intensity of agonizing memories from diminishing over time” (2016). Do you agree with him? Have atrocities around the world been prevented through Holocaust remembrance? Is it as inevitable as he thinks it is? Sources: From J. Jacoby (2016, May 1). Never forget, the world said of the Holocaust. But the world is forgetting. Boston Globe. Retrieved February 5, 2020, from https://www.bostonglobe.com/ opinion/2016/04/30/never-forget-world-said-holocaust-but-world-forgetting/59cUqLNFxylkW7BDu RPgNK/story.html From E. U. Ochab (2020, January 27). Why challenging Holocaust denial and distortion matters. Forbes. Retrieved February 7, 2020, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/ewelinaochab/2020/01/27/ why-challenging-holocaust-denial-and-distortion-matters/#59945bbc3738.

facilities (e.g., hospitals, ambulances, educational institutions), and other aspects of ­public life. Although they were numerically a minority, whites dominated this social system and accrued most of the benefits of it. To do so, they needed to tell a master narrative in which this system seemed to make sense. It was only under tremendous domestic and international pressure that the system was dismantled (Bureau of African Affairs, 2005; Guelke, 2005; Thompson, 2001). The popular film Cry Freedom (Attenborough, 1987), starring Denzel Washington as ­Steven Biko, a Black leader, highlights the struggle and consequences of apartheid. Steyn writes: In drawing on the master narrative, interpreting it and adapting it to the particular circumstances in which they found themselves in the country, whites were able to maintain their advantage as the dominating group that controlled the political, material, and symbolic resources of the country for three centuries. (p. 43) By telling and retelling one view of the past, white South Africans were able to create a society in which a white minority dominated.

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In place of the grand narrative are revised and restored histories that previously were suppressed, hidden, or erased. The cultural movements making this shift possible are empowering to the cultural identities involved. Recovering various histories is necessary to rethinking what some cultural identities mean. It also helps us rethink the dominant cultural identity. For example, on June 30, 1960, at the signing of the treaty granting independence to the former Belgian colony of the Congo (formerly Zaire), the king of the Belgians, Baudouin, constructed one way of thinking about the past: All of our thoughts should be turned toward those who founded the African emancipation and after them, those who made the Congo into what it is today. They merit at the same time our admiration and your recognition since it was they who consecrated all of their efforts and even their lives for a grand ideal, bringing you peace and enriching your homeland materially and morally. They must never be forgotten, not by Belgium, not by the Congo. (Quoted in Gérard-Libois & Heinen, 1989, p. 143) In response, Patrice Lumumba, who would become prime minister, offered a different view of Belgian colonialism: After eighty years of colonial rule, our wounds are still too fresh and too deep to be chased from our memory. . . . We have known the ironies, the insults, the beatings to which we had to submit morning, noon, and night because we were negroes. Who will forget that they spoke to Blacks with “tu” certainly not because of friendship, but because the honorary “vous” was reserved only for speaking to whites. (p. 147) Lumumba’s words created a different sense of history. These differences were clear to the people of the time and remain clear today. In this way, the grand narrative of Belgian colonialism has been reconfigured and no longer stands as the only story of the Belgian Congo.

Power in Intercultural Interactions Power is also the legacy, the remnants of the history that leaves cultural groups in particular positions. We are not equal in our intercultural encounters, nor can we ever be equal. Long histories of imperialism, colonialism, exploitation, wars, genocide, and more leave cultural groups out of balance when they communicate. Regardless of whether we choose to recognize the foundations for many of our differences, these inequalities influence how we think about others and how we interact with them. They also influence how we think about ourselves—our identities. These are important aspects of intercultural communication. It may seem daunting to confront the history of power struggles. Nevertheless, the more you know, the better you will be positioned to engage in successful intercultural interactions.

HISTORY AND IDENTITY The development of cultural identity is influenced largely by history. In this next section, we look at some of the ways that cultural identities are constructed through understanding the past. Note how different cultural-group identities are tied to history.

POINT of VIEW LYNCHING In April 2018, the National Memorial for Peace and Justice, also known as the National Lynching Memorial, opened in Montgomery, Alabama. It was built “on the site of a former warehouse where Black people were enslaved” (National Memorial for Peace and Justice). The institute behind the museum and memorial believe that confronting this history is an important step in the reconciliation process. Others believe that we also need to make lynching illegal on the federal level. In 1918, the Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill was introduced into the U.S. Congress and it would have made lynching a federal crime. It did not pass. Since then, “For more than a century, and more than 200 attempts, this body has failed,” noted NJ Senator Corey Booker (qtd. in Lockhart, 2018) in introducing the Justice for Victims of Lynching Act in December 2018. While it passed the Senate, the House did not take action and it expired. It was reintroduced in February 2019 and again passed the U.S. Senate. Two companion bills, the Emmett Till Anti-Lynching Act and the Justice for Victims of Lynching Act of 2019 were introduced into the House where neither has been passed, nor signed into law by President Trump (Bare, 2019). One group opposing passage of the anti-lynching bill is Liberty Counsel, a Christian evangelical group “and its chairman, Mat Staver, are taking issue with the bill’s inclusion of LGBTQ people” (Sopelsa, 2019). How should the U.S. deal with its history of lynching? How does it help us understand violence against minorities today? Sources: From A. Bare (2019, November 1). An update on the Justice for Victims of Lynching Act. American Legal News. Retrieved January 31, 2020, from https://americanlegalnews.com/an-updateon-the-justice-for-victims-of-lynching-act/ From P. R. Lockhart (2018, December 21). After more than 200 attempts, the Senate has finally passed the anti-lynching legislation. Vox. Retrieved January 31, 2020, from https://www.vox.com /identities/2018/12/21/18151805/senate-lynching-legislation-hate-crimes-booker-harris-scott National Memorial for Peace and Justice. Retrieved January 31, 2020, from https://museumandme morial.eji.org/ From B. Sopelsa (2019, January 9). Evangelical groups wants gays removed from anti-lynching bill. NBC News. Retrieved January 31, 2020, from https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out /evangelical-group-wants-gays-removed-anti-lynching-bill-n956831

Histories as Stories Faced with these many levels or types of history, you might wonder how we make sense of them in our everyday lives. Although it might be tempting to ignore them all and merely pretend to be “ourselves,” this belies the substantial influence that history has on our own identities. According to communication scholar Walter Fisher (1984, 1985), storytelling is fundamental to the human experience. Instead of referring to humans as Homo sapiens, Fisher prefers to call them Homo narrans because it underscores the importance of narratives

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in our lives. Histories are stories that we use to make sense of who we are and who we think others are. It is important to recognize that a strong element in our cultural attitudes encourages us to forget history at times. French writer Jean Baudrillard (1988) observes: America was created in the hope of escaping from history, of building a utopia sheltered from history. . . . [It] has in part succeeded in that project, a project it is still pursuing today. The concept of history as the transcending of a social and political rationality, as a dialectical, conflictual vision of societies, is not theirs, just as modernity, conceived precisely as an original break with certain history, will never be ours [France’s]. (p. 80) The desire to escape history is significant in what it tells us about how our culture negotiates its relation to the past, as well as how we view the relations of other nations and cultures to their pasts. By ignoring history, we sometimes come to wrongheaded conclusions about others that only perpetuate and ­reinforce stereotypes. The paradox is that we cannot escape history even if we fail to recognize it or try to suppress it.

Nonmainstream Histories

hidden histories  The histories that are hidden from or forgotten by the mainstream representations of past events. ethnic histories  The histories of ethnic groups. racial histories  The histories of nonmainstream racial groups.

People from nonmainstream cultural groups often struggle to retain their histories. Theirs are not the histories that everyone learns about in school, yet these histories are vital to understanding how others perceive them and why. These nonmainstream histories are important to the people in these cultural groups, as they may play a significant role in their cultural identities. Nonmainstream histories sometimes stand alongside the grand narrative, but sometimes they challenge the grand narrative. As we saw earlier, some nonmainstream histories are absent histories, as these histories have been lost or are not recoverable. Sometimes these nonmainstream histories are hidden histories, as they offer different views on the grand narrative and, therefore, have been suppressed or marginalized in our understanding of the past. Let’s look at some of these nonmainstream histories and how these views of the past help us better understand different cultural groups. Racial and Ethnic Histories Mainstream history has neither the time nor the space nor the inclination to include all ethnic histories and racial histories. This is especially true given that the histories of cultural groups sometimes seem to question, and even undermine, the celebratory nature of the mainstream national history. When Tom’s parents meet other Japanese Americans of their generation, they are often asked, “What camp were you in?” This question makes little sense outside of its historical context. Indeed, this question is embedded in understanding a particular moment in history, a moment that is not widely understood. Most Japanese Americans were interned in concentration camps during World War II. In the aftermath of

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his letter from the president of the United States was sent to all of the surviving Japanese American internees who were in U.S. concentration camps during World War II. In recognizing that there is no way to change mistakes made in the past, what does this letter do? If you were to compose this letter, what would you write? How should we deal with the past to construct better intercultural relations in the future?

the experience, the use of that history as a marker has been important in maintaining cultural identity. The injustices done by any nation are often swept under the carpet. In an attempt to bring attention to and promote renewed understanding of the internment of Japanese 133

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Americans during World War II, academician John Tateishi (1984) collected the stories of some of the internees. He notes at the outset that this book makes no attempt to be a definitive academic history of Japanese ­American internment. Rather it tries to present for the first time in human and personal terms the experience of the only group of American citizens ever to be confined in concentration camps in the United States. (p. vii) Although not an academic history, this collection of oral histories provides insight into the experiences of many Japanese Americans. Because this historical event demonstrates the fragility of our constitutional system and its guarantees in the face of prejudice and ignorance, it is not often discussed as significant in U.S. history. For Japanese Americans, however, it represents a defining moment in the development of their community. While Pearl Harbor may feel like a distant historical event, the internment of Japanese Americans has drawn important parallels to the treatment of ­Muslims after 9/11. Because of the fears that arose after these events, “In recent years, many scholars have drawn parallels and contrasts between the internment of JapaneseAmericans after the attack on Pearl Harbor, and the treatment of hundreds of Muslim noncitizens who were swept up in the weeks after the 2001 terror attacks, then held for months before they were cleared of links to terrorism and deported” (Bernstein, 2007). “When a federal judge in Brooklyn ruled last June that the government had wide latitude to detain noncitizens indefinitely on the basis of race, religion or national ­origin” (Bernstein, 2007), a number of Japanese Americans spoke out against the broad ­r uling and the parallels it had to their cultural group’s historical experience. Ethnic and racial histories are never isolated; rather, they crisscross other cultural trajectories. We may feel as if we have been placed in the position of victim or victimizer by distant historical events, and we may even seem to occupy both of these positions simultaneously. Consider, for example, the position of German American Mennonites during World War II. They were punished as pacifists and yet also were seen as aggressors by U.S. Jews. To further complicate matters, U.S. citizens of German ancestry were not interned in concentration camps, as were U.S. citizens of Japanese ancestry. How we think about being victims and victimizers is quite complex. French writer Maurice Blanchot, in confronting the horrors of the Holocaust, the devastation of the atom bomb, and other human disasters, redefines the notion of responsibility, separating it from fault. In The Writing of the Disaster, Blanchot (1986) asserts, My responsibility is anterior to my birth just as it is exterior to my consent, to my liberty. I am born thanks to a favor which turns out to be a predestination—born unto the grief of the other, which is the grief of all. (p. 22) This perspective can help us face and deal with the different positions that history finds for us. The displacement of various populations is embedded in the history of every migrating or colonizing people. Whether caused by natural disasters such as the

STUDENT VOICES I used to feel very guilty in history classes, learning about the tragedies white Europeans have committed against other races. Even though my ancestors immigrated to the United States after the abolition of slavery and the conflict with Native Americans, I still felt like I was somehow part of this historic problem. It wasn’t until one of my upper level courses that the teacher told the class that guilt does not help anything, but awareness and conscious efforts to combat lingering historic problems can make a difference to members of disadvantaged minorities, and this is what matters. —Evangeline When I came to the United States, I was surprised to meet so many Americans who were very proud of their family histories. They knew a lot about the accomplishments of their families over many struggles in the past. I didn’t know as much about my family’s history; I never really thought much about it and it took me a while to feel comfortable interacting with the American students. —Li Wei I was in Germany for a few hours in April. My boyfriend is Jewish, so lately I have been thinking about how the Holocaust has affected his ­family. I found myself angry at every German in the airport. I knew that I was placing a ridiculous stereotype on the German people. —Angela

drought in the Midwest during the Great Depression of the 1930s or determined by choice, migrations influence how we live today. Native peoples throughout most of the United States were exterminated or removed to settlements in other regions. The state of Iowa, for example, has few Native ­Americans and only one reservation. The current residents of Iowa had nothing to do with the events in their state’s history, but they are the beneficiaries through the ownership of farms and other land. So, although contemporary Iowans are not in a position of fault or blame, they are, through these benefits, in a position of responsibility. Like all of us, their lives are entangled in the web of history from which there is no escape, only denial and silence. Gender Histories Feminist scholars have long insisted that much of the history of women has been obliterated, marginalized, or erased. Historian Mei Nakano (1990) notes: The history of women, told by women, is a recent phenomenon. It has called for a fundamental reevaluation of assumptions and principles that govern traditional history. It challenges us to have a more inclusive view of history, not merely the chronicling of events of the past, not dominated by the record of men marching forward through time, their paths strewn with the detritus of war and politics and industry and labor. (p. xiii)

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gender histories  The histories of how cultural conventions of men and women are created, maintained, and/or altered.

Although there is much interest in women’s history among contemporary scholars, documenting such gender histories is difficult because of the traditional restrictions on women’s access to public forums, public documents, and public records. Even so, the return to the past to unearth and recover identities that can be adapted for survival is a key theme of writer Gloria Anzaldúa (1987). She presents la Llorona (the crying woman) as a cultural and historical image that gives her the power to resist cultural and gender domination. La Llorona is well known in northern Mexico and the U.S. southwest. This legend tells the story of a woman who killed her children and who now wanders around looking for them and weeping for them. Her story has been retold in various ways, and Anzaldúa rewrites the tale to highlight the power that resides in her relentless crying. This mythical image gives her the power to resist cultural and gender domination: My Chicana identity is grounded in the Indian woman’s history of resistance. The Aztec female rites of mourning were rites of defiance protesting the cultural changes which disrupted the equality and balance between female and male, and protesting their demotion to a lesser status, their denigration. Like la Llorona, the Indian woman’s only means of protest was wailing. (p. 21) Anzaldúa’s history may seem distant to us, but it is intimately tied to what her ­Chicana identity means to her. In a similar vein, transgender history can reconfigure the contemporary cultural context. For example, Susan Stryker (2008) focuses on “the collective political history of transgender social change activism in the United States— that is, on efforts to make it easier and safer and more acceptable for the people who need to cross gender boundaries to be able to do so” (p. 2).

sexual orientation history  The historical experiences of gays and lesbians.

Sexual Orientation Histories In recounting his experiences as a young man whom the police registered as “homosexual,” Pierre Seel (1994) recounts how police lists were used by the Nazis to round up homosexuals for internment. The incarceration and extermination of gays, as members of one of the groups deemed “undesirable” by Nazi Germany, is often overlooked by World War II historians. Seel recalls one event in his sexual orientation history: One day at a meeting in the SOS Racisme [an antiracism organization] room, I finished by getting up and recounting my experience of Nazism, my deportation for homosexuality. I remarked as well the ingratitude of history which erases that which is not officially convenient for it. (p. 162) (Un jour de réunion, dans la salle de SOS Racisme, je finis par me lever et par raconter mon expérience du nazisme, ma déportation pour homosexualité. Je fis également remarquer l’ingratitude de l’histoire qui gomme ce qui ne lui convient pas officiellement.) This suppression of history reflects attempts to construct specific understandings of the past. If we do not or cannot listen to the voices of others, we miss the significance of historical lessons. The late Guy Hocquenghem (Hocquenghem & Blasius, 1980), a gay French philosopher, lamented the letting go of the past because doing so left little to sustain and nurture his community:

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n the face of historical wrongs, there may seem to be little that can be done to correct things that happened in the past. Spain, however, is attempting to make amends for its past by allowing Sephardic Jews (Jews who trace their roots to the Iberian Peninsula) to apply for dual citizenship with a law that came into effect in October 2015. The measure aims to correct what Spain’s conservative government calls the “historic mistake” of sending Jews into exile in 1492, forcing them to convert to Catholicism or burning them at the stake. Historians believe at least 200,000 Jews lived in Spain before the Catholic monarchs Isabella and Ferdinand ordered them to convert to the Catholic faith or leave the country. Many found refuge in the Ottoman Empire, the Balkans, North Africa, and Latin America. They risked the death penalty if they returned to Spain. (“Spain passes law,” 2016). When the law expired in 2019, 132,000 applications for citizenship were received under this law (Jones, 2019). In 2013, Portugal passed a similar law that allows the expelled Jews to return to Portugal and claim citizenship. Unlike the Spanish law, the Portuguese law does not have time limit for people to make application (Grimley, 2019). Sources: From “Spain passes law awarding citizenship to descendants of expelled Jews,” The Guardian, June 11, 2015. Retrieved April 15, 2016, from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/11 /spain-law-citizenship-jews. From N. Grimley (2019, May 24). Turning Portuguese. BBC News. Retrieved February 6, 2020, from https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/Turning_Portuguese From S. Jones (2019, October 2). 132,000 descendants of expelled Jews apply for Spanish citizenship. The Guardian. Retrieved February 6, 2020, from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/ oct/02/132000-sephardic-jews-apply-for-spanish-citizenship

I am struck by the ignorance among gay people about the past—no, more even than ignorance: the “will to forget” the German gay holocaust. . . . But we aren’t even the only ones who remember, we don’t remember! So we find ourselves beginning at zero in each generation. (p. 40) How we think about the past and what we know about it help us to build and maintain communities and cultural identities. And our relationships with the past are intimately tied to issues of power. To illustrate, the book The Pink ­Swastika: Homosexuality in the Nazi Party attempts to blame the Holocaust on German gays and lesbians (“Under Surveillance,” 1995). This book, in depicting gays and lesbians as perpetrators, rather than victims, of Nazi atrocities, presents the gay identity in a markedly negative light. However, stories of the horrendous treatment of gays and lesbians during World War II serve to promote a common history and influence intercultural communication among gays and lesbians in France, Germany, the Netherlands, and other nations. Today, a monument in Amsterdam serves to mark that history, to help ensure that we remember that gays and lesbians were victims of the Nazi Holocaust as well.

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In the United States, Bayard Rustin is often forgotten, despite his enormous contributions to the civil rights movement. “His obscurity stemmed not only from amnesia but also from conscious suppression” (Kennedy, 2003), despite his major role in U.S. history. The Nation (2003) observed: “Rustin helped found the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). He advised Martin Luther King Jr., organized the 1963 March on Washington and wrote several essays that continue to repay close study. Throughout these pursuits, Rustin expressed a gay sexuality for which he was stigmatized as a sexual criminal, a smear that crippled his ability to lead the movements to which he passionately contributed ideas and inspiration.” In 2020, California Governor Gavin Newsom decided to pardon Rustin for his 1953 conviction for having sex with men (Rushing, 2020). Bayard Rustin died in 1987, so he never saw his conviction pardoned. Similarly, in 2017, Britain pardoned thousands of men posthumously who had been convicted of engaging in same-sex activities (Bowcott, 2020). Why is it important for the United Kingdom and California to pardon people for crimes after they are deceased? What do these pardons do for living people today? Abraham Lincoln’s sexual history has also been a major point of contention over a number of years. Psychologist C. A. Tripp’s book The Intimate World of Abraham Lincoln once again raised the possibility that the former president’s sexual history included men. While we may never know whatever really happened, the concern over this history underscores the way it may influence our national history. The Lincoln case points to the difficulty in understanding this type of history. The words, homosexual, heterosexual, and bisexual did not exist during Lincoln’s era; therefore, those words would not be used to describe his private life. Among other examples, Tripp points to a member of Lincoln’s bodyguard, Captain David V. Derickson, who would come over to the White House and sleep in the same bed with Lincoln. Is this evidence for how we might understand this sexual history? On the one hand, it seems odd for Captain Derickson to come to the White House and sleep in the same bed with Lincoln; however, “as many historians have noted, same-sex bed sharing was common at the time and hardly proof of homosexual activities or feelings” (Greenberg, 2005). There is no general agreement about Lincoln’s sexual history, but more importantly, the debate over how we should think about Lincoln points to the power of these histories in understanding our national identity. When India repealed Section 377 of its penal code, which criminalized same-sex relations, it also moved on from another piece of its colonial history. Section 377 begins, “Whoever voluntarily has carnal intercourse against the order of nature . . .” (qtd. in Subramanian, 2018). The imposition of British cultural attitudes about sexuality on India has a long history: “In 1830  Thomas Macaulay, the main drafter of the penal code, called homosexual sex ‘odious’ and ‘revolting’” (Suresh, 2018). This British colonial legacy has remained in India while the British decriminalized homosexuality in 1967. Yet, “A country decolonizes itself slowly. The Supreme Court’s decision on Section 377 snips away one more tether binding India to its colonial past” (Subramanian, 2018).

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Diasporic Histories The international relationships that many racial and ethnic groups have with others who share their heritage and history are often overlooked in intercultural communication. These international ties may have been created by transnational migrations, slavery, religious crusades, or other historical forces. Because most people do not think about the diverse connections people have to other nations and cultures, we consider these histories to be hidden. In his book The Black Atlantic, scholar Paul Gilroy (1993) emphasizes that to understand the identities, cultures, and experiences of African descendants living in Britain and the United States, we must examine the connections between Africa, Europe, and North America. A massive migration, often caused by war or famine or persecution, that results in the dispersal of a unified group is called a diaspora. The chronicles of these events are diasporic histories. A cultural group (or even an individual) that flees its homeland is likely to bring some customs and practices to the new homeland. In fact, diasporic migrations often cause people to cling more strongly to symbols and practices that reflect their group’s identity. Over the years, though, people become acculturated to some degree in their new homelands. Consider, for example, the dispersal of eastern European Jews who migrated during or after World War II to the United States, Australia, South America, Israel, and other parts of the world. They brought their Jewish culture and eastern European culture with them, but they also adopted new cultural ­patterns as they became New Yorkers, Australians, Argentinians, Israelis, and so on. Imagine the communication differences among these people over time. Imagine the differences between these groups and members of the dominant culture of their new homelands. In 2016, the EPIC museum opened in the Docklands area of Dublin, Ireland. This museum emphasizes interactive exhibits. It notes that “At EPIC you’ll discover the far reaching influence of Irish history, and the impact the 10 million Irish men and women who left Ireland had on the world” (EPIC, n.d.). Today there are about 6.5 million people in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland combined. While this museum tends to celebrate Irish emigration, what would our world look like if other nations took the same path and, for example, there were more Chinese outside of China than in China? History helps us understand the cultural connections among people affected by diasporas and other transnational migrations. Indeed, it is ­important that we recognize these relationships. But we must also be careful to distinguish between the ways in which these connections are helpful or hurtful to ­intercultural ­communication. For example, some cultures tend to regard negatively those who left their homeland. Thus, many Japanese tend to look down on ­Japanese ­Canadians, Japanese Americans, Japanese Brazilians, Japanese ­Mexicans, and Japanese Peruvians. In contrast, the Irish tend not to look down on Irish ­Americans or Irish Canadians. Of course, we must remember, too, that many other intervening factors can influence diasporic relationships on an interpersonal level. Colonial Histories As you probably know, throughout history, societies and nations have ventured beyond their borders. Because of overpopulation, limited resources, notions of grandeur, or other factors, people have left their homelands to colonize

diaspora  A massive migration often caused by war, famine, or persecution that results in the dispersal of a unified group. diasporic histories  The histories of the ways in which international cultural groups were created through transnational migrations, slavery, religious crusades, or other historical forces.

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POINT of VIEW

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hen the Commonwealth of Virginia passed the Racial Integrity Act of 1924, it “didn’t just make blacks in Virginia second-class citizens—it also erased any acknowledgment of Indians […]. With a stroke of the pen, Virginia was on a path to eliminating the identity of the Pamunkey, the Mattaponi, the Chickahominy, the Monacan, the Rappahonnok, the Nansemond, and the rest of Virginia’s tribes” (Heim, 2015). There are important consequences to the absent history of Indian tribes in Virginia. Until recently, Virginia had no federally recognized Indian tribes. “In order to receive federal recognition, and be eligible for the housing, education, and health-care funding that comes with it, Indian tribes need to meet several criteria heavily weighted to historical documentation” (Heim, 2015). Claiming Pochahontas as one of their ancestors, the Pamunkey tribe worked for decades to make their case for federal recognition. This small tribe initially received federal recognition in July 2015, but that was put on hold as a legal challenge was made to their new status. In February 2016, the challenge was denied and the Pamunkey became Virginia’s first and only federally recognized Indian tribe. Given the erasure of Indian history in Virginia, will any other tribes in Virginia be able to gain federal recognition? In what other cases have people been impacted by absent history?

colonial histories  The histories that legitimate international invasions and annexations.

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other territories. It is important to recognize these colonial histories so we can better understand the dynamics of intercultural communication today. Let’s look at the significance of colonialism in determining language. Historically, three of the most important colonizers were Britain, France, and Spain. As a result of colonialism, English is spoken in Canada, ­Australia, New Zealand, Belize, Nigeria, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, ­Zimbabwe, Hong Kong, Singapore, and the United States, among many places in the world. French is spoken in Canada, Senegal, Tahiti, Haiti, Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Niger, Mali, Chad, and the Central African Republic, among other places. And Spanish is spoken in most of the Western Hemisphere, from Mexico to Chile and Argentina, and including Cuba, Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama. Many foreign language textbooks proudly display maps that show the many places around the world where that language is commonly spoken. Certainly, it’s nice to know that one can speak Spanish or French in so many places. But the maps don’t reveal why those languages are widely spoken in those regions, and they don’t reveal the legacies of colonialism in those regions. For example, the United Kingdom maintains close relations with many of its former colonies, and the queen of England is also the queen of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the Bahamas. But some colonial relationships are not close, such as the relationship with Ireland. And others are changing, as both Australia and Jamaica are considering ending the British monarch as their heads of state (Botelho & Brocchetto, 2016; McKenzie, 2016). Other languages have been spread through colonialism as well, including­Portuguese in Brazil, Macao, and Angola; Dutch in Angola, Suriname, and Mozambique; and a related Dutch language, Afrikaans, in South Africa. ­Russian is spoken in

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the former Soviet republics of Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and ­Tajikistan. In addition, many nations have reclaimed their own languages in an effort to resist the influences of colonialism. For example, today Arabic is spoken in Algeria and Vietnamese is spoken in Vietnam; at one time, French was widely spoken in both countries. And in the recently independent Latvia, the ability to speak Latvian is a requirement for citizenship. The primary languages that we speak are not freely chosen by us. Rather, we must learn the languages of the societies into which we are born. Judith and Tom, for example, both speak English, although their ancestors came to the United States from non-English-speaking countries. We did not choose to learn English among all of the languages of the world. Although we don’t resent our native language, we recognize why many individuals might resent a language imposed on them. Think about the historical forces that led you to speak some language(s) and not others. Understanding history is crucial to understanding the linguistic worlds we inhabit, and vestiges of colonialism are often part of these histories. Postcolonialism is useful in helping us understand the relationship between history and the present. In struggling with a colonial past, people have devised many ways of confronting that past. As explained in Chapter 2, postcolonialism is not simply the study of colonialism, but the study of how we might deal with that past and its aftermath, which may include the ongoing use of the colonial language, culture, and religion. For example, many companies are locating parts of their businesses in India because of the widespread use of English in this former British colony. How should people in India deal with the ongoing dominance of English, the colonizer’s language, but also the language of business? For example, Hispanics or Latinos/as share a common history of colonization by Spain, whether their families trace their origins to Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and so on. Although Spain is no longer in political control of these lands, how do those who live in the legacy of this history deal with that history? In what ways does it remain important, as a part of this cultural identity, to embrace the colonizer’s language (Spanish)? The colonizer’s religion (Catholicism)? And are there other aspects of Spanish culture that continue to be reproduced over and over again? Postcolonialism is not simply a call to make a clean break from that colonial past, but “to examine the violent actions and erasures of colonialism” (Shome & Hegde, 2002, p. 250). In this case, that interrogation might even mean reconsidering the category “Hispanic” that incorporates a wide range of groups that share a Spanish colonial history but do not share other histories that constitute their cultures. The legacy of this cultural invasion often lasts much longer than the political relationship. Socioeconomic Class Histories Although we often overlook the importance of socioeconomic class as a factor in history, the fact is that economic and class issues prompted many people to emigrate to the United States. The poverty in Ireland in the 19th century, for example, did much to fuel the flight to the United States; in fact, today, there are more Irish Americans than Irish. Yet it is not always the socioeconomically disadvantaged who emigrate. After the Russian Revolution in 1917, many affluent Russians moved to Paris. Likewise, many

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affluent Cubans left the country after Castro seized power in 1959. Currently, the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services office administers the EB-5 visa program that allows foreign investors to secure permanent residency (a green card) in the United States if they meet certain requirements (creating a new business, creating a certain number of jobs, and investing a certain amount of money). Called the EB-5 Immigrant Investor Program, this visa program is an example of how socioeconomic class can influence international migrations. Many other countries also offer similar programs. The key point here is that socioeconomic class distinctions are often overlooked in examining the migrations and acculturation of groups around the world. Historically, the kinds of employment that immigrants supplied and the regions they settled were often marked by the kinds of capital—cultural and financial—that they were or were not able to bring with them. These factors also influence the interactions and politics of different groups; for example, Mexican Americans and Cuban Americans, as groups, frequently are at odds with the political mainstream. Religious Histories In the past, as well as today, religion is an important historical force that has shaped our planet. Religious conflicts have led to wars, such as the Christian Crusades nearly a thousand years ago. Religious persecution has also led to migration of various religious groups to new places. In the United States, one example of this movement are the Mormons, who left New York, settled in Illinois, and then left to go to Utah. Many French Huguenots (Protestants), persecuted by French Catholics, left France to settle primarily in North America, South Africa, and elsewhere in Europe. Because many of these religious histories remain controversial, they are viewed differently, depending on with which side one identifies. Even recent historical events, and how they are interpreted, can create religious conflict. In August 2010, a New York City commission approved the construction of a mosque near “Ground Zero,” the site of the former World Trade Center. This created a national controversy over the proposed mosque and the role of Islam in the attacks on 9/11. For many Muslims, the 9/11 attackers were extremists, much like the extremists in many other religions. For many non-Muslims, the 9/11 attackers were acting as Muslims. In a speech made at a White House dinner, President Obama stated: Now, that’s not to say that religion is without controversy. Recently, attention has been focused on the construction of mosques in certain communities—particularly New York. Now, we must all recognize and respect the sensitivities surrounding the development of Lower Manhattan. The 9/11 attacks were a deeply traumatic event for our country. And the pain and the experience of suffering by those who lost loved ones is just unimaginable. So I understand the emotions that this issue engenders. And Ground Zero is, indeed, hallowed ground. But let me be clear. As a citizen, and as President, I believe that Muslims have the same right to practice their religion as everyone else in this country. (Applause.) And that includes the right to build a place of worship and a community center on private property in Lower Manhattan, in accordance with local laws and ordinances. This is America. And our commitment to religious freedom must be unshakeable. The principle that people of all faiths are welcome in this country and that they will not be treated differently by their government is essential to who we are. 

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In this example, we can see that different views about the role of religion in the past can create contemporary controversies. Although religious freedom is an important American cultural value, as noted by President Obama, that cultural value can be in tension with other views on what happened and why on 9/11.

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND HISTORY One way to understand specific relationships between communication and history is to examine the attitudes and notions that individuals bring to an interaction; these are the antecedents of contact. A second way is to look at the specific conditions of the interaction and the role that history plays in these contexts. Finally, we can examine how various histories are negotiated in intercultural interaction, applying a dialectical perspective to these different histories.

Antecedents of Contact We may be able to negotiate some aspects of history in interaction, but it is important to recognize that we bring our personal histories to each intercultural interaction. These personal histories involve our prior experience and our attitudes. Social psychologist Richard Brislin (1981) has identified four elements of personal histories that influence interaction. First, people bring childhood experiences to interactions. For example, both Judith and Tom grew up hearing negative comments about Catholics. As a result, our first interactions with adherents to this faith were tinged with some suspicion. This personal history did not affect initial interactions with people of other religions. Second, people may bring historical myths to interactions. These are myths with which many people are familiar. The Jewish conspiracy myth—that ­Jewish people are secretly in control of U.S. government and business—is one example. Third, the languages that people speak influence their interactions. Language can be an attraction or a repellent in intercultural interactions. For example, many people from the United States enjoy traveling in Britain because English is spoken there. However, these same people may have little desire, or even be afraid, to visit Russia, simply because it is not an English-speaking country. Finally, people tend to be affected by recent, vivid events. For example, after the terrorist attacks in San Bernardino, Brussels, Paris, and the Boston Marathon, interactions between Arab Americans and other U.S. residents were strained, characterized by suspicion, fear, and distrust. The media’s treatment of such catastrophic events often creates barriers and reinforces stereotypes by blurring distinctions between Arabs, Muslims, and Palestinians. Perhaps recent histories, such as the police shootings of African Americans, such as Eric Garner, Michael Brown, Tamir Rice, Sandra Bland, and others, as well as the rise of the Black Lives Matter movement are more influential in our interactions than the hidden or past histories, such as the massacre in 1890 of some 260 Sioux Indians at Wounded Knee in South Dakota or the women’s suffrage movement around the turn of the 20th century.

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POINT of VIEW SILENT SAM Silent Sam was a statue installed on the campus of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1913 to commemorate the university’s students who left their studies to fight for the Confederate State of America in the U.S. Civil War. Although the Civil War ended almost 50 years before Silent Sam was installed, supporters claimed that it was to recognize the student-soldiers. When UNC trustee Julian Carr spoke at the installation of the statue, he said: The present generation, I am persuaded, scarcely takes note of what the Confederate soldier meant to the welfare of the Anglo-Saxon race during the four years immediately succeeding the war, when the facts are that their courage and steadfastness saved the very life of the Anglo-Saxon race in the South (qtd. in Kilgrove, 2018). Silent Sam was not controversial until the University of North Carolina admitted African American students in 1955. These students saw Silent Sam with a different historical lens. Since then, Silent Sam has been a controversial historical marker on campus. In 2018, protestors pulled down the statue. By state law, it is illegal to remove the statue and a debate ensued over what to do with it. In November 2019, the university decided to give the statue to the Sons of Confederate Veterans with $2.5 million trust to care for the statue with the stipulation that the statue not be located in “any of the 14 counties with a U.N.C. school” (Gogel-Burrough & Zaveri, 2019). This move has created much controversy and one group of alumni sued to block the $2.5 million from going to this confederate group (Murphy, 2020). There are many Confederate statues and memorials across the South. How should we deal with these historical markers? What do they memorialize? What do they erase? How do they influence how we look toward the future? Sources: From N. Bogel-Burroughs & M. Zaveri (2019, November 27), “University of North Carolina gives ‘Silent Sam’ statue to Confederate group.” New York Times. Retrieved February 6, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/27/us/unc-silent-sam.html. From K. Kilgrove (2018, August 22), “Scholars explain the racist history of UNC’s Silent Sam statue.” Forbes. Retrieved February 6, 2020, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/kristinakillgrove/2018/08/22/scholars-explain-the-racist-history-of-uncs-silent-sam-statue/#4f1984df114f. From K. Murphy (2020, January 29), “Prominent UNC alumni want to stop the $2.5M Silent Sam deal with Confederate group.” The (Raleigh) News & Observer. Retrieved February 6, 2020, from https://www.newsobserver.com/news/local/education/article239768938.html

contact ­hypothesis  The notion that better communication between groups is facilitated simply by putting people together in the same place and allowing them to interact.

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The Contact Hypothesis The contact hypothesis is the notion that better communication between groups of people is facilitated simply by bringing them together and allowing them to interact. Although history does not seem to support this notion, many public policies and

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programs in the United States and abroad are based on this hypothesis. Examples include desegregation rulings; the prevalence of master-planned communities like Reston, Virginia; and many international student exchange programs. All of these programs are based on the assumption that simply giving people from different groups opportunities to interact will result in more positive intergroup attitudes and reduced prejudice. Scholars have tried to identify the conditions under which the contact hypothesis does and does not hold true. The histories of various groups figure prominently in their studies. Based on these and subsequent studies, psychologists have outlined at least eight conditions that must be met (more or less) to improve attitudes and facilitate intergroup communication (Allport, 1979; Amir, 1969; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006, 2013). These are particularly relevant in light of increasing diversity in U.S. society in general and the workforce in particular. The eight conditions are as follows: 1. Group members should be of equal status, both within and outside the contact situation. Communication will occur more easily if there is no disparity between individuals in status characteristics (education, socioeconomic status, and so on). This condition does not include temporary inequality, such as in student–teacher or patient–doctor roles. Consider the implications of this condition for relations among various ethnic groups in the United States. How are we likely to think of individuals from specific ethnic groups if our interactions are characterized by inequality? A good example is the interaction between longtime residents and recent immigrants in the many places in the U.S. where they often provide housecleaning, gardening, home health care, and similar services for whites. It is easy to see how the history of these groups in the United States contributes to the lack of equality in interaction, leads to stereotyping, and inhibits effective intercultural communication. 2. Strong normative and institutional support for the contact should be provided. This suggests that when individuals from different groups come together, positive outcomes do not happen by accident. Rather, institutional encouragement is necessary. Examples include university support for contact between U.S. and international students, or for contact among different cultural groups within the university, and local community support for integrating elementary and high schools. Numerous studies have shown the importance of commitment by top management to policies that facilitate intercultural interaction in the workplace (Downey et. al., 2015). Finally, institutional support may also mean government and legal support, expressed through court action. 3. Contact between the groups should be voluntary. This may seem to contradict the previous condition, but it doesn’t. Although support must exist beyond the individual, individuals need to feel that they have a choice in making contact. If they believe that they are being forced to interact, as with some diversity programs or affirmative action programs, the intercultural interaction is unlikely to have positive outcomes. In fact, such mandatory contact/training can backfire and people often get react angrily, “feeling like they’ve been blamed for something that isn’t their fault, very defensive about being sexist and racist” (Dobbin & Kalev, 2016). A better program design would be to involve all participants from the beginning.

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POINT of VIEW

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n an April 23, 2012 press release, the White House announced that President Obama would be giving posthumously Jan Karski the Presidential Medal of Freedom. President Obama said: We must tell our children about how this evil was allowed to happen—because so many people succumbed to their darkest instincts; because so many others stood silent. But let us also tell our children about the Righteous Among the Nations. Among them was Jan Karski—a young Polish Catholic—who witnessed Jews being put on cattle cars, who saw the killings, and who told the truth, all the way to President Roosevelt himself. Jan Karski passed away more than a decade ago. But today, I’m proud to announce that this spring I will honor him with America’s highest civilian honor—the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

On May 29, 2012 when the award was made, President Obama said: Fluent in four languages, possessed of a photographic memory, Jan served as a courier for the Polish resistance during the darkest days of World War II. Before one trip across enemy lines, resistance fighters told him that Jews were being murdered on a massive scale, and smuggled him into the Warsaw Ghetto and a *Polish death camp* to see for himself. Jan took that information to President Franklin Roosevelt, giving one of the first accounts of the Holocaust and imploring to the world to take action. After President Obama’s laudatory remarks on all of the recipients of the Presidential Medal of Honor, an immediate uproar ensued over the use of the term, “Polish death camp.” The asterisks are marked on the White House press release, along with an apology for using those words., as they are historically inaccurate. The Polish Prime Minister Donald Tusk explained: “When someone says ‘Polish death camps,’ it’s as if there were

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This can be done by showing­the benefits of an inclusive diversity policy—one that values all kinds of diversity, and not merely that based on gender, for example. Equally important is the mounting evidence of bottom-line benefits of diverse personnel who work well together (Hunt, Layton, & Prince, 2015). 4. The contact should have the potential to extend beyond the immediate situation and occur in a variety of contexts with a variety of individuals from all groups. This suggests that superficial contact between members of different groups is not likely to have much impact on attitudes (stereotypes, prejudice) or result in productive communication. For instance, simply sitting beside someone from another culture in a class or sampling food from different countries is not likely to result in genuine understanding of that person or appreciation for his or her cultural background. Thus, college students who develop intercultural relationships and international students with American friends benefit greatly in increased knowledge and other positive outcomes, although U.S. ethnic/ racial histories do play a role here. White students seem to benefit more from

no Nazis, no German responsibility, as if there was no Hitler. That is why our Polish sensitivity in these situations is so much more than just simply a feeling of national pride.” In his analysis of the speech, David Frum more directly explains that “the camps were German, German, German: ordered into being by Germans, designed by Germans, fulfilling a German plan of murder.” And he concludes: “The medal to Karski was to be part of the process of laying painful memories to rest. It was intended too to strengthen the U.S.−Polish relations that the Obama administration had frayed in pursuit of its “reset” with Russia. Instead, this administration bungled everything: past, present and future.” In response, the White House amended the posted speech with: “*Note–the language in asterisks below is historically inaccurate. It should instead have been: ‘Nazi death camps in German occupied Poland.’ We regret the error.” How we communicate about the past can have tremendous impacts on contemporary and future intercultural relations. It is difficult to know how much damage was caused to U.S.−Polish relations, but this example highlights the importance of thinking about how you communicate about the past. Sources: From The White House (2012, April 23), “President Obama announces Jan Karski as a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom.” Retrieved from https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press -office/2012/04/23/president-obama-announces-jan-karski-recipient-presidential-medal-freedo. From President Obama (2012, May 29), “Remarks by the President at Presidential Medal of Freedom Ceremony. The White House Office of the Press Secretary.” Retrieved from https://www.whitehouse .gov/the-press-office/2012/05/29/remarks-president-presidential-medal-freedom-ceremony. From D. Tusk, quoted in M. Landler (2012, May 30), “Polish premier denounces Obama for referring to a ‘Polish death camp,’ ” New York Times. Retrieved April 16, 2016, from http://www .nytimes.com/2012/05/31/world/europe/poland-bristles-as-obama-says-polish-death-camps.html. From D. Frum (2012, May 30), “It wasn’t a ‘gaffe,’ ” The Daily Beast. Retrieved April 16, 2016, from http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/05/30/poland-insult.html.

these friendships than minority students, learning more about discrimination and prejudice toward minorities, a subject minority students already have experienced (Hudson, 2018). 5. Programs should maximize cooperation within groups and minimize competition. For example, bringing a diverse group of students together should not involve pitting the African Americans against the European Americans on separate sports teams. Instead, it might involve creating diversity within teams to emphasize cooperation. Especially important is having a superordinate goal, a goal that everyone can agree on. This helps diverse groups develop a common identity. For instance, there is a successful program that brings together Jewish and Arab adolescents from historically conflicting groups for weekly meetings with common goals of academic learning-—resulting in reduced anxiety and improved relationships among these young people (Mana, 2019). 6. Programs should equalize numbers of group members. Positive outcomes and successful communication will be more likely if members are represented in

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POINT of VIEW

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hen we look back, we see that many wrongs have been perpetrated against some people for the benefit of others. For those who benefited from the wrongs of the past, how should they address these wrongs? Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. is an example of the complexity of dealing with the past. [I]n the fall of 1838, no one was spared: not the 2-month-old baby and her mother, not the field hands, not the shoemaker, and not Cornelius Hawkins, who was about 13 years old when he was forced onboard. Their panic and desperation would be mostly forgotten for more than a century. But this was no ordinary slave sale. The enslaved African Americans had belonged to the nation’s most prominent Jesuit priests. And they were sold, along with scores of others, to help secure the future of the premier Catholic institution of higher learning at the time, known today as Georgetown University. Now, with racial protests roiling college campuses, an unusual collection of Georgetown professors, students, alumni, and genealogists is trying to find out what happened to those 272 men, women, and children. And they are confronting a particularly wrenching question: What, if anything, is owed to the descendants of slaves who were sold to help ensure the college’s survival? […] At Georgetown, slavery and scholarship were inextricably linked. The college relied on Jesuit plantations in Maryland to help finance its operations, university officials say. (Slaves were often donated by prosperous parishioners.) And the 1838 sale—worth about $3.3 million in today’s dollars—was organized by two of Georgetown’s early presidents, both Jesuit priests. […]

numerical equality. Research studies have shown that being in the numerical minority can cause stress and that the “solo” minority, particularly in beginning a new job, is subject to exaggerated expectations (either very high or very low) and extreme evaluations (either very good or very bad) (Pettigrew & Martin, 1989).

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7. Group members should have similar beliefs and values. A large body of research supports the idea that people are attracted to those whom they perceive to be similar to themselves. This means that, in bringing diverse groups of people together, we should look for common ground—­similarities based on religion, interests, competencies, and so on. For example, not surprisingly, a recent study of interracial friendships of college students found that the strongest motivator for initiating these relationships was shared interests and values (Hudson, 2019). 8. Programs should promote individuation of group members. This means that they should downplay the characteristics that mark the different groups (such as language, physical abilities, or racial characteristics). Instead, group members might focus on the characteristics that express individual personalities.

What has emerged from their research, and that of other scholars, is a glimpse of an insular world dominated by priests who required their slaves to attend Mass for the sake of their salvation, but also whipped and sold some of them. […] Mismanaged and inefficient, the Maryland plantations no longer offered a reliable source of income for Georgetown College, which had been founded in 1789. It would not survive, Father Mulledy feared, without an influx of cash. […] Father Mulledy promised his superiors that the slaves would continue to practice their religion. Families would not be separated. And the money raised by the sale would not be used to pay off debt or for operating expenses. None of those conditions were met, university officials said. Father Mulledy took most of the down payment he received from the sale— about $500,000 in today’s dollars—and used it to help pay off the debts that Georgetown had incurred under his leadership. In the uproar that followed, he was called to Rome and reassigned. […] Meanwhile, Georgetown’s working group has been weighing whether the university should apologize for profiting from slave labor, create a memorial to those enslaved, and provide scholarships for their descendants, among other possibilities, said Dr. Rothman, the historian. “It’s hard to know what could possibly reconcile a history like this,” he said. “What can you do to make amends?” Source: From R. L. Swarns (2016, April 16), “272 slaves were sold to save Georgetown. What does it owe their descendants?” New York Times. Retrieved April 16, 2016, from http://www .nytimes.com/2016/04/17/us/georgetown-university-search-for-slave-descendants.html?_r=0.

This list of conditions can help us understand how domestic and international contexts vary. It is easy to see how the history within a nation-state may lead to conditions and attitudes that are more difficult to ­facilitate. For example, historical conditions between African Americans and white Americans may make it impossible to meet these conditions; interracial interactions in the United States cannot be characterized by equality. Note that this list of conditions is incomplete. Moreover, meeting all of the conditions does not guarantee positive outcomes when diverse groups of people interact. However, the list is a starting place, and it is important to be able to identify which conditions are affected by historical factors that may be difficult to change and which can be more easily facilitated by communication professionals.

Negotiating Histories Dialectically in Interaction How can a dialectical perspective help us negotiate interactions, given individual attitudes and personal and cultural histories? How can we balance past and present in our everyday intercultural interactions?

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First, it is important to recognize that we all bring our own histories (some known, some hidden) to interactions. We can try to evaluate the role that history plays for those with whom we interact. Second, we should understand the role that histories play in our identities, in what we bring to the interaction. Communication scholar Marsha Houston (1997) says there are three things that white people who want to be her friends should never say: “I don’t notice you’re Black,” “You’re not like the others,” and “I know how you feel.” In her opinion, each of these denies or rejects a part of her identity that is deeply rooted in history. Sometimes it is unwise to ask people where they are “really from.” Such questions assume that they cannot be from where they said they were from, due to racial characteristics or other apparent features. Recognizing a person’s history and its link to her or his identity in communication is a first step in establishing intercultural relationships. It is also important to be aware of your own historical blinders and assumptions. Sometimes the past–present dialectic operates along with the disadvantage–privilege dialectic. The Hungarian philosopher György Lukács wrote a book titled History and Class Consciousness (1971), in which he argues that we need to think dialectically about history and social class. Our own recognition of how class differences have influenced our families is very much affected by the past and by the conditions members experienced that might explain whom they married, why they lived where they did, what languages they do and do not speak, and what culture they identify with. Two dialectical tensions emerge here: (1) between privilege and disadvantage and (2) between the personal and the social. Both of these dialectics affect our view of the past, present, and future. As we attempt to understand ourselves and our situations (as well as those of others), we must recognize that we arrived at universities for a variety of reasons. Embedded in our backgrounds are dialectical tensions between privilege and disadvantage and the ways in which those factors were established in the past and the present. Then there is the ­dialectical tension between seeing ourselves as unique persons and as members of ­particular social classes. These factors affect both the present and the future. In each case, we must also negotiate the dialectical tensions between the past and the present, and between the present and the future. Who we think we are today is very much influenced by how we view the past, how we live, and what culture we believe to be our own.

INTERNET RESOURCES http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/remembering/ The American Radio Works has compiled information and documents relating to segregation in the United States and posted them online. Students can listen to accounts of segregation and retrospective analyses as well as read many detailed accounts. There is also a section that outlines key laws of the Jim Crow era. http://www.archives.gov/research/genealogy/ The National Archives has set up this webpage to help you research your family history. You can see what kinds of records they hold and how you might go about doing this research.

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http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/journal/2016/2/17/building-bridges/ This is a website about the Japanese diaspora in the Western Hemisphere, hence it is available in English, Japanese, Portuguese, and Spanish. The entire website is worth exploring, but this particular page makes important connections between Asian Americans and Arab Americans. It underscores the ways that the United States has changed and remained the same regarding race, racial profiling and stereotyping, and national security. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/true/ This webpage explores the evidence and controversy over the possible sexual relationship between Thomas Jefferson and one of his slaves, Sally Hemmings. Here you can read about the DNA evidence, as well as the reaction from historians and descendants. Here you can see an example of a contested intercultural history and its importance for the contemporary world. www.ushmm.org/museum/ https://www.ushmm.org/research/about-the-mandel-center The first web address is for the United States Holocaust Museum. The museum website offers many exhibits related to the Holocaust that are viewable online. The second web address is specifically designed for university students. This section includes a searchable database for tracing Holocaust survivors and archiving information.

SUMMARY ▪▪ Multiple histories are important for empowering different cultural identities. •  Multiple histories include: •  Political histories •  Intellectual histories •  Social histories •  Family histories •  National histories •  Cultural-group histories ▪▪ Histories are constructed through narrative. ▪▪ Hidden histories are those typically not conveyed in a widespread manner and are based on race/ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, diaspora, colonialism, socioeconomic class, and religion. ▪▪ People bring four elements of personal history to intercultural interactions: • Childhood experience • Historical myths • Language competence • Memories of recent political events

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▪▪ Contact hypothesis suggests that simply bringing people from diverse groups together will only work if certain conditions are met: • Group members must be of equal status and relatively equal numbers. • Contact must be voluntary, extend beyond the superficial, have institutional support, and promote similarity and individuation of group members. • There should be maximum cooperation among participants. ▪▪ A dialectical perspective helps negotiate histories in intercultural interaction. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are some examples of hidden histories, and why are they hidden? 2. How do the various histories of the United States influence our communication with people from other countries? 3. How do you benefit or have been disenfranchised in the telling of certain histories? How do you take responsibility for the histories from which you benefit? 4. What factors in your experience have led to the development of positive feelings about your own cultural heritage and background? What factors have led to negative feelings, if any? 5. When can contact between members of two cultures improve their attitudes toward each other and facilitate communication between them? 6. How do histories influence the process of identity formation? 7. What is the significance of the shift from history to histories? How does this shift help us understand intercultural communication? 8. Why do some people in the United States prefer not to talk about history? What views of social reality and intercultural communication does this attitude encourage? ACTIVITIES 1. Cultural-Group History. This exercise can be done by individual students or in groups. Choose a cultural group in the United States that is unfamiliar to you. Study the history of this group, and identify and describe significant events in its history. Answer the following questions: a. What is the historical relationship between this group and other groups (particularly the dominant cultural groups)? b. Are there any historical incidents of discrimination? If so, describe them. c. What are common stereotypes about the group? How did these stereotypes originate? d. Who are important leaders and heroes of the group? e. What are notable achievements of the group? f. How has the history of this group influenced the identity of group members today?

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2. Family Histories. Write a brief personal narrative that tells the story of your family history. This may require additional research or conversations with family members. You may want to focus more on one parent’s side, depending on how much information you can find or which story has more meaning to you. Try and trace this story back to its furthest beginning. a. How did your family come to live where they currently live? b. Were there any great historical events that affected them and the d ­ ecisions they made (e.g., slavery, the Holocaust)? c. How does this history have meaning for you?

KEY WORDS absent history (120) altered history (120) apartheid (128) colonial histories (140) concentration camps (127) contact hypothesis (144) cultural-group histories (123)

diaspora (139) diasporic histories (139) ethnic histories (132) family histories (120) gender histories (136) grand narrative (128) hidden histories (132) intellectual histories (119)

modernist identity (128) national history (121) political histories (119) racial histories (132) sexual orientation history (136) social histories (120)

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analysis. In J. P. VanOudenhoven, & T. M. Willemsen (Eds.), Ethnic minorities: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 169–200). Amsterdam/Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger. Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 751–783. Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2013). Does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Recent meta-analytic findings (pp. 103-124). In S. Oskamp, Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination. Taylor and Francis. Phillips, K. W. (2014, October 1). How diversity makes us smarter. scientificamerican.com. Retrieved April 23, 2016, from http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/ how-diversity-makes-us-smarter/. Rushing, E. (2020, February 6). Pa. civil rights icon Bayard Rustin gets posthumous pardon. The Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved February 6, 2020, from https://www.inquirer.com/news/pennsylvania/ bayard-rustin-pardon-california-lgbt-civilrights-20200206.html Saulny, S. (2005, October 11). Cast from their ancestral home, Creoles worry about culture’s future. The New York Times, p. A13. Sciiutto, J., Browne, R., & Walsh, D. (2016, July 15). Congress releases secret “28 pages” on alleged Saudi 9/11 ties. CNN. Retrieved October 2, 2016, from http://www .cnn.com/2016/07/15/politics/congress-releases -28-pages-saudis-9-11/ Seel, P., & Bitoux, J. (1994). Moi, Pierre Seel, déporté homosexual. Paris: Calmann-Lévy. Shaffer, M. (2002, June 9). Navajos protest national status for Old Spanish Trail. The Arizona Republic, pp. B1, B8. Shome, R., & Hegde, R. (2002). Postcolonial approaches to communication: Charting the terrain, engaging the intersections. Communication Theory, 12, 249–270. Spain passes law awarding citizenship to descendants of expelled Jews. (2015, June 11). The Guardian. Retrieved April 15, 2016, from http://www.theguardian .com/world/2015/jun/11/spain-law-citizenship-jews Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (1996). Intergroup relations. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Steyn, M. (2001). “Whiteness just isn’t what it used to be”: White identity in a changing South Africa. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Stryker, S. (2008). Transgender history. Berkeley, CA: Seal Press. Subramanian, S. (2018, September 6). India’s historic gayrights ruling and the slow march of progress. The New

Yorker. Retrieved February 7, 2020, from https://www. newyorker.com/news/news-desk/indias-historic-gayrights-ruling-and-the-slow-march-of-progress Suresh, M. (2018, September 6). This is the start of a new era for India’s LGBT communities. The Guardian. Retrieved February 7, 2020, from https://www.the guardian.com/commentisfree/2018/sep/06/india-lgbthomophobia-section-377 Swarns, R. L. (2016, April 16). 272 slaves were sold to save Georgetown. What does it owe their descendants? New York Times. Retrieved April 16, 2016, from http:// www.nytimes.com/2016/04/17/us/georgetown -university-search-for-slave-descendants.html?_r=0. Tateishi, J. (1984). And justice for all: An oral history of the Japanese American detention camps. New York: Random House. Tell, D. (2008). The “shocking story” of Emmett Till and the politics of public confession. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 94, 156–178. The White House. (2012, April 23). President Obama announces Jan Karski as a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom. https://www.whitehouse .gov/the-press-office/2012/04/23/president-obama -announces-jan-karski-recipient-presidential-medal -freedo. Thompson, L. (2001). A history of South Africa (3rd ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Thonssen, L., Baird, A. C., & Braden, W. W. (1970). Speech criticism (2nd ed.). New York: Ronald Press. Tripp, C. A. (2004). The intimate world of Abraham Lincoln. New York: Free Press. Tusk, D. (quoted in Landler, M.) (2012, May 30). Polish premier denounces Obama for referring to a ‘Polish death camp.’ New York Times. Retrieved April 16, 2016, from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/31 /world/europe/poland-bristles-as-obama-says-polish -death-camps.html. Under surveillance. (1995, December 26). The Advocate, p. 14. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. (n.d.) EB-5 Immigrant Investor Program. Department of Homeland Security. Retrieved from https://www .uscis.gov/eb-5. Will, G. (2016, April 15). Histories that shouldn’t be secret. The Washington Post. Retrieved April 16, 2016, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/histories -that-shouldnt-be-secret/2016/04/15/9fa6bdbe-0262 -11e6-b823-707c79ce3504_story.html.

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CREDITS [page 117, text] F. Fitzgerald, excerpt from Fire in the lake: Vietnamese and Americans in Vietnam. Vintage Books. [page 119, text] D. Cave, quote from “With Obama visit to Cuba, old battlelines fade” from New York Times (March 26, 2016). [page 120, text] E. Izadi, quote from “A new discovery sheds light on ancient Egypt’s most successful female pharaoh” from The ­Washington Post (April 23, 2016). [page 121, text] L. Thonssen, A. C. Baird, and W. W. Braden, quote from Speech criticism, second edition. Ronald Press. [page 123, text] S. Saulny, quote from “Cast from their ancestral home, Creoles worry about culture’s future” from The New York Times (October 11, 2005): A13. [page 125, text] Marlene excerpt from “Student Voices: I am the fourth generation of females . . . reward instead of a joke.” Original Work; [page 125] Waleed, excerpt from “Student Voices: I was born and raised in Pakistan, and lived . . . moved to the United States.” Original Work; [page 125, text] William, excerpt from “Student Voices: My family immigrated to the United States for a better. . . come quite far from that!” Original Work; [page 127, text] B. Niiya, excerpt from Encyclopedia of Japanese American history: An A-to-Z reference from 1868 to the present. Checkmark Books. [page  127, text] J. W. Loewen, quote from Lies my teacher told me: Everything your American history textbook got wrong. Touchstone. [page 127, text] J. W. Loewen, excerpt from Lies my teacher told me: Everything your American history textbook got wrong. Touchstone. [page 128, text] J.-F. Lyotard, excerpt from The postmodern condition: A report on knowledge (G. Bennington & B. Massumi, Trans.). University of Minnesota Press. [page 128, text] M. Steyn, excerpt from “Whiteness just isn’t what it used to be”: White Identity in a Changing South Africa. State University of New York Press. [page 130, text] J. Gérard-Libois and J. Heinen, excerpt from ­Belgique-Congo, 1960. Politique et Histoire. [page 132, text] J. Baudrillard, excerpt from America (C. Turner, Trans.). Verso. [page 134, text] J. Tateishi, excerpt from And justice for all: An oral history of the Japanese American detention camps. Random House. [page 134, text] N. Bernstein, quote from “Relatives of interned Japanese-Americans side with Muslims” from The New York Times (April 3, 2007). [page 129, text] J. Jacoby, excerpt from “‘Never forget’ the world said of the Holocaust. But the world is forgetting” from The Boston Globe (May 1, 2016). [page 135, text] Evangeline, excerpt from “Student Voices: I used to feel very guilty

in history classes . . . and this is what matters.” Original Work; [page 135, text] Angela, excerpt from “Student Voices: I was in ­Germany for a few hours in April. My boyfriend is Jewish, so lately . . . ridiculous stereotype on the German people.” Original Work; [page 134, text] M. Blanchot, excerpt from The writing of the disaster (A. Smock, Trans.). University of Nebraska Press. [page 135, text] M. Nakano, excerpt from Japanese American women: Three generations, 1890–1990. Mina Press/National Japanese American Historical Society. [page 136, text] G. Anzaldúa, excerpt from Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza. Spinsters/Aunt Lute. [page 136, text] S. Stryker, quote from Transgender history. Seal Press. [page 136, text] P. Seel and J. Bitoux, excerpt from Moi, Pierre Seel, déporté homosexual. Calmann-Lévy. [page 137, text] Excerpt from “Spain passes law awarding citizenship to descendants of expelled Jews” from The Guardian (June 11, 2015). [page 136–137, text] G. Hocquenghem and M. Blasius, excerpt from “Interview” from Christopher Street (April 1980): 36–45. [page  138, text] D. Greenberg, quote from “The gay emancipator?” from Slate (January 14, 2005). [page 140, text] J. Heim, quote from “How a long-dead white supremacist still threatens the future of Virginia’s Indian tribes” from The Washington Post (July 1, 2015). [page 141, text] R. Shome and R. Hegde, quote from “Postcolonial approaches to communication: Charting the terrain, engaging the intersections” from Communication Theory (2002): 249–270. [page 146–147, text] The White House, excerpt from “President Obama announces Jan Karski as a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom” from The White House (April 23, 2012). The White House is Public Domain and does not require permission. [page 146–147, text] President Obama, excerpt from “Remarks by the President at Presidential Medal of Freedom Ceremony” from The White House Office of the Press Secretary (May 29, 2012). [page 146–147, text] D. Tusk quoted in M. Landler, excerpt from “Polish premier denounces Obama for referring to a ‘Polish death camp’ ” from New York Times (May 30, 2012). [page 146–147, text] D. Frum, excerpt from “It wasn’t a ‘gaffe’ ” from The Daily Beast (May 30, 2012). [page 153, text] D. Frum, quote from “It wasn’t a ‘gaffe’ ” from The Daily Beast (May 30, 2012). [page 149, text] R. L. Swarns, excerpt from “272 slaves were sold to save Georgetown. What does it owe their descendants?” from New York Times (April 16, 2016).

PART II

Intercultural Communication Processes CHAPTER 5

Identity and Intercultural Communication CHAPTER 6

Language and Intercultural Communication CHAPTER 7

Nonverbal Codes and Cultural Space

5

CHAPTER

IDENTITY AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

THINKING DIALECTICALLY ABOUT IDENTITY

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

The Social Science Perspective The Interpretive Perspective The Critical Perspective

1. Identify three communication approaches to identity. 2. Define identity. 3. Describe phases of minority identity development. 4. Describe phases of majority identity development. 5. Identify and describe nine social and cultural identities. 6. Identify characteristics of w ­ hiteness. 7. Describe phases of multicultural identity development. 8. Explain the relationship among identity, stereotyping, and p ­ rejudice. 9. Explain the relationship between identity and c ­ ommunication.

IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT ISSUES

Minority Identity Development Majority Identity Development SOCIAL AND CULTURAL IDENTITIES

Gender Identity Sexual Identity Age Identity Racial and Ethnic Identities Characteristics of Whiteness Religious Identity Class Identity National Identity Regional Identity PERSONAL IDENTITY MULTICULTURAL PEOPLE IDENTITY, STEREOTYPES, AND PREJUDICE IDENTITY AND COMMUNICATION INTERNET RESOURCES SUMMARY DISCUSSION QUESTIONS ACTIVITIES KEY WORDS REFERENCES

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Now that we have examined some sociohistorical contexts that shape culture and communication, let us turn to a discussion of identity and its role in intercultural communication. Identity serves as a bridge between culture and communication. It is important because we communicate our identity to others, and we learn who we are through communication. It is through communication—with our family, friends, and others—that we come to understand ourselves and form our identity. Issues of identity are particularly important in intercultural interactions. Conflicts can arise, however, when there are sharp differences between who we think we are and who others think we are. For example, many Muslims, like Omar Alnatour, feel that: “As a Muslim, I am tired of condemning terrorist attacks being carried out by inherently violent people who hijack my religion. […] Above it all, I am tired of having to repeatedly say that Muslims are not terrorists” (2015). In this case, his Muslim identity and who he thinks he is do not always match with what others think about him and Muslim identity. This conflict lies at the heart of Islamophobia, as there is an unfounded, irrational fear of Muslims when people from many religions kill others for political reasons. When Sadiq Khan was elected mayor of London in 2016, he became the first Muslim mayor of a European Union capital. His election may signal a shift away from fear of Muslims and an acceptance of Muslim identity in Britain. In this chapter, we describe a dialectical approach to understanding identity, one that encompasses three communication approaches: social science, interpretive, and critical. We then explore the important role language plays in understanding identity and how minority and majority identities develop. We then turn to the development of specific aspects of our social and cultural identity including those related to gender, race or ethnicity, class, religion, and nationality. We describe how these identities are often related to problematic communication—stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. We also examine an increasingly important identity—that of multicultural individuals. Finally, we discuss the relationship between identity and communication.

THINKING DIALECTICALLY ABOUT IDENTITY Identity is a core issue for most people. It is about who we are and who others think we are. How do we come to understand who we are? And how do we communicate our identity to others? A useful theory is that of impression management—how people present themselves and how they guide the impression others form of them (Goffman, 1959). Some scholars suggest that individuals are constantly performing “spin control” campaigns to highlight their strengths and virtues while also attempting “damage control” by minimizing deficiencies (Tedeschi, Lindskold, & Rosenfeld, 1985; Rosenfeld and Giaclone, 1991). Social media, such as Facebook, are also important sites for impression management (Roulin & Levashina, 2016). As we will see, individuals cannot control others’ impressions completely, as those we interact with also play an important role in how our identities develop and are expressed. What are the characteristics of identity? In this section, we use both the static– dynamic and the personal–contextual dialectics in answering this question.

identity  The concept of who we are. Characteristics of identity may be understood differently depending on the perspectives that people take—for example, social science, interpretive, or critical perspectives. impression management theory  The ways by which individuals attempt to control the impressions others have of them.

POINT of VIEW

I

dentities are not simply a matter of how we personally identify. Identities are also how others and social institutions value or devalue certain identities. How cultures feel about various identities can change over time. How we live together with people of different identities is always negotiated. On February 11, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced on Twitter that a new strain of Coronavirus that was first detected in Wuhan, China, would be called COVID-19. They are using the hashtag #COVID19 on Twitter. The spread of this virus in 2020 worldwide revived anti-Chinese and anti-Asian stereotypes. One of the most pervasive stereotypes fueled racism, “Anti-Chinese racism always hinged on the belief that Asians harbor disease” (Pomfret, 2020). Identifying people as Chinese or Asian has led to some people being denied hotel rooms that are afraid of the coronavirus in Indiana (O’Daniel, 2020) to a 16-year-old student in Los Angeles who was physically attacked at school (Capatides, 2020). The businesses in Boston’s Chinatown are “struggling as coronavirus fears have decimated the local economy” (Heslam, 2020). The Boston mayor and other leaders are urging people to support Chinatown. In contrast, the University of California, Berkeley’s “health services center listed xenophobia towards Asians as a ‘normal reaction’ to the spread of the coronavirus” (Pomfret, 2020). The stigmatization of Asian identity and Chinese identity is not limited to the United States. In the French, #jesuispasunvirus (I am not a virus) was trending as a response to the anti-Asian and anti-Chinese sentiment. In German, the hashtag #IchbinKeinVirus was also trending. Others look to the histories of their own identities as a basis for responding to this rising stigmatization of some identities over others. Mark Schneier warns that, “As a Jew, the upsurge of anti-Chinese bigotry triggered by the coronavirus brings

TABLE 5-1  THREE PERSPECTIVES ON IDENTITY AND COMMUNICATION

Social Science

Interpretive

Critical

Identity created by self (by relating to groups)

Identity formed through communication with others Emphasizes avowal and ascribed dimensions

Identity shaped through social, historical forces

Emphasizes individualized, familial, and spiritual self (crosscultural perspective)

Emphasizes contexts and resisting ascribed identity

There are three contemporary communication perspectives on identity (see Table 5-1). The social science perspective, based largely on research in psychology, views the self in a relatively static fashion in relation to the various cultural 160

back painful memories of medieval Europeans blaming Jews for the spread of the Black Death and other plagues, and sometimes massacring them as a result” (2020).  He reminds Jews that Shanghai allowed Jews a place of refuge during the Holocaust in World War II and asks that, “As Jews and people of conscience, we must rise to the challenge and reach out a hand of solidarity with our Chinese-American brothers and sisters” (Schneier, 2020). The WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus (2020) asks all of us, “We have a choice. Can we come together to face a common and dangerous enemy? Or will we allow fear, suspicion and irrationality to distract and divide us?” Sources: From C. Capatides (2020, February 14). Bullies attack Asian American teen at school, accusing him of having coronavirus. CBS News. Retrieved February 18, 2020, from https://www.cbsnews .com/news/coronavirus-bullies-attack-asian-teen-los-angeles-accusing-him-of-having-coronavirus/ From T. A. Ghebreyesus (2020, February 15). “This is a time for facts, not fear” says WHO chief as COVID-19 virus spreads. UN News. Retrieved February 18, 2020, from https://news.un.org /en/story/2020/02/1057481 From M. Müller (2020, February 5). “Ein Essen - aber bitte ohne Coronavirus!” Deutsche Welle. Retrieved February 18, 2020, from https://www.dw.com/de/ein-essen-aber-bitte-ohne -coronavirus/a-52254562 From B. O’Daniel (2020, February 17). Asian men denied hotel rooms over coronavirus fears: “Racism at its finest.” WSBT 22 News. Retrieved February 18, 2020, from https://wsbt.com/news/local /asian-men-denied-rooms-at-plymouth-motels-over-coronavirus-fears-racism-at-its-finest From J. Pomfret (2020, February 5). The coronavirus awakens old racist tropes against Chinese people. The Washington Post. Retrieved February 18, 2020, from https://www.washingtonpost.com /opinions/2020/02/05/coronavirus-reawakens-old-racist-tropes-against-chinese-people/ From M. Schneier (2020, February 13). Jews must set an example in resisting coronavirus anti-Chinese racism. The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved February 18, 2020, from https://www.jpost.com/Opinion /Jews-must-set-an-example-in-resisting-coronavirus-anti-Chinese-racism-617537 From World Health Organization. (2020, February 11). Breaking. Twitter. Retrieved February 18, 2020, from https://twitter.com/WHO/status/1227248333871173632

communities to which a person belongs: nationality, race, ethnicity, religion, gender, and so on. The interpretive perspective is more dynamic and recognizes the important role of interaction with others as a factor in the development of the self. Finally, the critical perspective views identity even more dynamically—as a result of contexts quite distant from the individual. As you read this chapter, keep in mind that the relationship between identity and intercultural interaction involves both static and dynamic elements and both personal and contextual elements.

The Social Science Perspective The social science perspective emphasizes that identity is created in part by the self and in part in relation to group membership. According to this perspective, the self is composed of multiple identities, and these notions of identity are culture bound. How, then, do we come to understand who we are? That depends very much on our cultural background. According to Western psychologists like Erik Erikson, our identities are 161

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self-created, formed through identity conflicts and crises, through identity diffusion and confusion (Erikson, 1950, 1968). Occasionally, we may need a moratorium, a time-out, in the process. Our identities are created not in one smooth, orderly process but in spurts, with some events providing insights into who we are and long periods intervening during which we may not think much about ourselves or our identities.

individualized identity  The sense of self as independent and self-reliant. familial identity  The sense of self as always connected to family and others.

Cross-Cultural Perspectives In the United States, young people are often encouraged to develop a strong sense of identity, to “know who they are,” to be independent and selfreliant, which reflects an emphasis on the cultural value of individualism. However, this was not always the case, and even today in many countries there is a very different, more collectivist notion of self. Min-Sun Kim (2002), a communication scholar, traces the evolution of the individualistic self. Before 1500, people in Europe as well as in most other civilizations lived in small cohesive communities, with a worldview characterized by the interdependence of spiritual and material phenomena. With the beginning of the industrial revolution in the 1600s came the notion of the world as a machine, this mechanistic view extended to living organisms and has had a profound effect on Western thought. It taught people to think of themselves as isolated egos—unconnected to the natural world and society in general. Thus, according to Kim, a person in the West came to be understood as “an individual entity with a separate existence independent of place in society” (Kim, 2002, p. 12). In contrast, people in many other regions of the world have retained the more interdependent notion of the self. Cross-cultural psychologist Alan Roland (1988) has identified three universal aspects of identity present in all individuals: (1) an individualized identity, (2) a familial identity, and (3) a spiritual identity. Cultural groups usually emphasize one or two of these dimensions and downplay the other(s). Let’s see how this works. The individualized identity is the sense of an independent “I,” with sharp distinctions between the self and others. This identity is emphasized by most groups in the United States, where young people are encouraged to be independent and self-reliant at a fairly early age—by adolescence. In contrast, the familial identity, evident in many collectivistic cultures, stresses the importance of emotional connectedness to and interdependence with others. For example, in many African and Asian societies, and in some cultural groups in the United States, children are encouraged and expected to form strong, interdependent bonds, first with the family and later with other groups. As one of our students explains, to be Mexican American is to unconditionally love one’s family and all it stands for. Mexican-Americans are an incredibly close-knit group of people, especially when it comes to family. We are probably the only culture that can actually recite the names of our fourth cousins by heart. In this respect our families are like clans, they go much further than the immediate family and very deep into extended families. We even have a celebration, Dia de los ­Muertos (Day of the Dead), that honors our ancestors. In these societies, educational, occupational, and even marital choices are made by individuals with extensive family guidance. The goal of the developed identity is not to become independent from others but rather to gain an understanding of and cultivate one’s place in the complex web of interdependence with others.

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In addition, the understanding of the familial self may be more connected to others and situation bound. According to studies comparing North Americans’ and East Asians’ senses of identity, when asked to describe themselves, the North Americans give more abstract, situation-free descriptions (“I am kind,” “I am outgoing,” “I am quiet in the morning”), whereas East Asians tend to describe their memberships and relationships to others rather than themselves (“I am a mother,” “I am the youngest child in my family,” “I am a member of a tennis club”) (Cross, 2000). The third dimension is the spiritual identity, the inner spiritual reality that is realized and experienced to varying extents by people through a number of outlets. For example, the spiritual self in India is expressed through a structure of gods and goddesses and through rituals and meditation. In Japan, the realization of the spiritual self tends more toward aesthetic modes, such as the tea ceremony and flower arranging (Roland, 1988). Clearly, identity development does not occur in the same way in every society. The notion of identity in India, Japan, and some Latino/a and Asian American groups emphasizes the integration of the familial and the spiritual self but very little of the more individualized self. This is not to say there is not considerable individuality among people in these groups. However, the general identity contrasts dramatically with the predominant mode in most U.S. cultural groups, in which the individualized self is emphasized and there is little attention to the familial self. However, there may be some development of the spiritual self among devout Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, or Muslim individuals. Groups play an important part in the development of all these dimensions of self. As we are growing up, we identify with many groups, based on gender, race, ethnicity, class, sexual orientation, religion, and nationality (Tajfel, 1981, 1982). And depending on our cultural background, we may develop tight or looser bonds with these groups (Kim, 2002). By comparing ourselves and others with members of these groups, we come to understand who we are. Because we belong to various groups, we develop multiple identities that come into play at different times, depending on the context. For example, in going to church or temple, we may highlight our religious identity. In going to clubs or bars, we may highlight our sexual orientation identity. Women who join social groups exclusive to women (or men who attend social functions just for men) are highlighting their gender identity. Communication scholar Ting-Toomey (1993, 2005) argues in her identity negotiation theory that cultural variability influences our sense of self and ultimately influences how successful we are in intercultural interactions. Her argument goes like this: Individuals define themselves in relation to groups they belong to due to the basic human need for security and inclusion. At the same time, humans also need differentiation from these same groups. Managing relationships with these various groups involve boundary regulation and working through the tension between inclusion and differentiation and can make us feel secure or vulnerable. How we manage this tension influences the coherent sense of self (identity)—individuals who are more secure are more open to interacting with members of other cultures. When people feel good about themselves and the groups to which they belong, they are more successful in intercultural interactions. However, as we will see in the next section, identities are formed not just by the individual but also through interactions with others.

spiritual identity  Identification with feelings of connectedness to others and higher meanings in life.

identity negotiation theory  A theory that emphasizes the process of communicating one’s own desired identities while reinforcing or resisting others’ identities as the core of intercultural communication.

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The Interpretive Perspective

avowal  The process by which an individual portrays himself or herself. ascription  The process by which others attribute identities to an individual.

The interpretive perspective builds on the notions of identity formation discussed previously but takes a more dynamic turn. That is, it emphasizes that identities are negotiated, co-created, reinforced, and challenged through communication with others; they emerge when messages are exchanged between persons (Hecht, Warren, Jung, & Krieger, 2005; Ting-Toomey, 2005). This means that presenting our identities is not a simple process. Does everyone see you as you see yourself ? Probably not. To understand how these images may conflict, the concepts of avowal and ascription are useful. Avowal is the process by which individuals portray themselves, whereas ascription is the process by which others attribute identities to them. Sometimes these processes are congruent. In June 2015, the racial identity of Rachel Dolezal, former president of the local NAACP chapter in Spokane, Washington and former instructor at Eastern Washington University, became a site of contestation. She notes that: “If somebody asked me how I identify, I identify as Black. Nothing about whiteness describes who I am” (quoted in McGreal, 2015). While her avowed racial identity is Black, her parents and society identify her as white. When her parents revealed that they are white, the reaction was strong: “Some white people painted Dolezal as mentally unstable, on the grounds that no normal white person would choose to call themselves Black. But it was the wave of rage and mockery from the African American community that really stung” (McGreal, 2015). Many people felt betrayed by the conflict between her avowed identity and her ascribed identity. Different identities are emphasized depending on the individuals we are communicating with and the topics of conversation. For example, in a social conversation with someone, we are attracted to, our gender or sexual orientation identity is probably more important to us than other identities (ethnicity, nationality). And our communication is probably most successful when the person we are talking with confirms the identity we think is most important at the moment. In this sense, competent intercultural communication affirms the identity that is most salient in any conversation (Collier & Thomas, 1988). For example, if you are talking with a professor about a research project, the conversation will be most competent if the interaction confirms the salient identities (professor and student) rather than other identities (e.g., those based on gender, religion, or ethnicity). How do you feel when someone does not recognize the identity you believe is most salient? For example, suppose your parents treat you as a child (their ascription) and not as an independent adult (your avowal). How might this affect communication? One of our students describes how she feels about the differences between Black identity and African American identity: I think my identity is multifaceted. In some spaces I am Black. In others I am African American. In very few, I am both. This is both due to the connotations associated with the words and also the location I am in. In social spaces, I identify myself as being Black because in my eyes the word “black” is associated with hip hop culture, Black Power, and more recently, Black Lives Matter, topics that I believe appropriate to discuss in social settings. However, the term African American seems more proper. To me it is just a description of a person from a

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continent I’ve never stepped foot on. “African American” is an ascribed identity as opposed to my Black avowed identity. Central to the interpretive perspective is the idea that our identities are expressed communicatively—in core symbols, labels, and norms. Core symbols (or cultural values) tell us about the fundamental beliefs and the central concepts that define a particular identity. Communication scholar Michael Hecht and his colleagues (Hecht, 1998; Hecht, Jackson, & Ribeau, 2003) have identified the contrasting core symbols associated with various ethnic identities. For example, core symbols of African American identity may be positivity, sharing, uniqueness, realism, and assertiveness. Individualism is often cited as a core symbol of European American identity. Core symbols are not only expressed but also created and shaped through communication. Labels are a category of core symbols; they are the terms we use to refer to particular aspects of our own and others’ identities—for example, African American, Latino, white, or European American. Finally, some norms of behavior are associated with particular identities. For example, women may express their gender identity by being more concerned about safety than men. They may take more precautions when they go out at night, such as walking in groups. People might express their religious identity by participating in activities such as going to church or Bible study meetings.

The Critical Perspective Like the interpretive perspective, the critical perspective emphasizes the dynamic nature of identities, but in addition, it emphasizes the contextual and often conflictual elements of identity development. This perspective pays particular attention to the societal structures and institutions that constrain identities and are often the root of injustice and oppression (Collier, 2005). Contextual Identity Formation The driving force behind a critical approach is the attempt to understand identity formation within the contexts of history, economics, politics, and discourse. To grasp this notion, ask yourself, How and why do people identify with particular groups and not others? What choices are available to them? We are all subject to being pigeonholed into identity categories, or contexts, even before we are born. (See Figure 5-1.) Many parents ponder a name for their unborn child, who is already part of society through his or her relationship to the parents. Some children have a good start at being, say, Jewish or ­Chicana before they are even born. We cannot ignore the ethnic, socioeconomic, or racial positions from which we start our identity journeys. The identities that others may ascribe to us are socially and politically determined. They are not constructed by the self alone. We must ask ourselves what drives the construction of particular kinds of identities. For example, the label “heterosexual” is a relatively recent one, created less than a hundred years ago (Katz, 1995). Today, people do not hesitate to identify themselves as ­“heterosexuals.” A critical perspective insists on the constructive nature of this process and attempts to identify the social forces and needs that give rise to these identities.

core symbols  The fundamental beliefs that are shared by the members of a cultural group. Labels, a category of core symbols, are names or markers used to classify individual, social, or cultural groups.

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FIGURE 5-1 We have many different identities—including gender, ethnicity, age, religion, and sexuality—that we express in different ways at different times. Celebrations are one way to highlight identity. Here, Sikhs in the northern Indian city of Chandigarh light candles in a temple to celebrate Diwali. Diwali marks the age-old culture of India and celebrates knowledge and the vanquishing of ignorance. (Aman Sharma/AP Images)

These contextual constraints on identity are also reflected in the experience of a Palestinian woman who describes her feelings of not having a national “identity” as represented by a passport—because of political circumstances far beyond her control: I am Palestinian but I don’t have either a Palestinian passport or an Israeli passport. . . . If I take the Palestinian passport, the Israeli government would prevent me from entering Jerusalem and Jerusalem is a part of my soul. I just can’t NOT enter it. And of course I’m not taking an Israeli passport, so . . . I get frustrated when I talk to people WITH identity, especially Palestinians with Israeli identity. I just get like kind of offended because I think they’re more comfortable than me. (Collier, 2005, p. 243) interpellation  The communication process by which one is pulled into the social forces that place people into a specific identity.

Resisting Ascribed Identities When we invoke such discourses about identity, we are pulled into the social forces that feed the discourse. We might resist the position they put us in, and we might try to ascribe other identities to ourselves. Nevertheless, we must begin from that position in carving out a new identity. French philosopher Louis Althusser (1971) uses the term interpellation to refer to this process. He notes that we are pushed into this system of social forces:

POINT of VIEW

W

hen Katya Cengel, a Rwandan tour guide, was hired by a white American photographer to show him around Rwanda and Uganda, he recognized his own stereotypes of white people when the photographer tried to leave him without paying about $1000. His surprise was based on his notions of white people. How much of this image is the result of colonization? How much is due to his limited contact with white people? How widespread is white privilege around the world? When I was a child, we were taught only good things about white people: mzungus are always on time, mzungus always treat people fairly, mzungus are to be trusted. […] I had this image that all white people were perfect.

Source: From K. Cengel, “A sudden breach in Uganda,” The New York Times Magazine, April 15, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/17/magazine/a-sudden-breach-in-uganda.html?rref =collection%2Fsectioncollection%2Fmagazine&action=click&contentCollection=magazine®ion =stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=30&pgtype=sectionfront

by that very precise operation which I have called interpellation or hailing, and which can be imagined along the lines of the most commonplace everyday police (or other) hailing: “Hey you there!” . . . Experience shows that the practical telecommunication of hailings is such that they hardly ever miss their man: verbal call or whistle, the one hailed always recognizes that it is really him who is being hailed. And yet it is a strange phenomenon, and one which cannot be explained solely by “guilt feelings.” (p. 163) This hailing process that Althusser describes operates in intercultural communication interactions. It establishes the foundation from which the interaction occurs. For example, occasionally someone will ask Tom if he is Japanese, a question that puts him in an awkward position. He neither holds Japanese citizenship nor has he ever lived in Japan. Yet the question probably doesn’t mean to address these issues. Rather, the person is asking what it means to be “Japanese.” How can Tom reconfigure his position in relation to this question? The Dynamic Nature of Identities The social forces that give rise to particular identities are never stable but are always changing. Therefore, the critical perspective insists on the dynamic nature of identities. For example, the emergence of the European Union has given new meaning to the notion of being ­“European” as an identity. This larger political context can reshape many identities. For example, the recent influx of refugees into Germany has changed how Germans think of their country, their culture, and their place in the world: In the past five years, as the number of people displaced worldwide by conflict and persecution has reached a level not seen since the end of World War II, many Germans have expressed pride that their nation—which unleashed the violence that prompted the earlier mass flight—has now become a beacon of safety and opportunity for imperiled and dispossessed people around the world. The degree to 167

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which many Germans embraced this new identity became exceedingly clear last summer, when Hungary tried to stop the mass of Germany-bound migrants traveling through the country by cutting off their access to trains. Migrants stranded outside Budapest’s Keleti train station chanted: “Germany! Germany!” And within days, roughly a thousand of them had set out on foot from Hungary and across Austria to Germany, some of them holding posters of the German chancellor, Angela Merkel. Merkel, fearing chaos, should she turn the migrants away, instead sent German trains to pick them up, a decision she later called a “humanitarian imperative.” As migrants arrived at Munich’s central station, local residents greeted them with cheers and applause. Some handed out chocolate and balloons. Germans spoke of their strong Willkommenskultur, or “Welcome Culture,” and German politicians portrayed the warm reception as a moral achievement, a further step toward redefining modern Germany as a benevolent nation that has moved beyond the ignominy of its ultranationalist past (Angelos, p. 43). While these refugees may change German culture and identity, Germans are also changing German culture and identity as they demonstrated that many of them embrace their “Welcome Culture.” Aside from these larger contexts for identity, identities are also dynamic on the individual level because of someone’s own experiences. One of our students explains how his personal identity has changed over the past few years: I will say I am 100% Chinese, but after I came abroad, studying in the United States for a couple of years, learning a different language, interacting with international students, and assimilating into this new environment for quite a while, I feel my selfidentity is changed a little, as part of me did have to integrate into this new culture. It is important to remember that identities—whether national, cultural, or personal— are always changing. For another example, look at the way that identity labels have changed from “colored” to “Negro” to “Black” to “Afro-American” to “African American.” Although the labels seem to refer to the same group of people, the political and cultural identities of those so labeled are different. The term “Negro” was replaced by “Black” during the civil rights movement in the 1960s because it stood for racial pride, power, and rejection of the status quo. “Black is beautiful” and “Black power” became slogans during this time. In the late 1980s, Black leaders proposed that “Black” be replaced with “African American,” saying that this label would provide African Americans a cultural identification with their heritage and ancestral homeland. The changes in these labels have worked to strengthen group identity and facilitate the struggle for racial equality (Smith, 1992). Currently, both terms are used—depending on people’s preference—and “Black” is preferred by some because it shows commonality with people of African descent who are not U.S. American (e.g., Caribbean ­Islanders) (Sigelman, Tuch, & Martin, 2005; Why Black . . . , 2008).

IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT ISSUES People can identify with a multitude of groups: gender, age, religion, nationality, to name only a few. How do we come to develop a sense of identities? As we noted earlier,

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our identities develop over a period of time and always through interaction with others. How an individual’s identity develops depends partly on the relative position or location of the identity within the societal hierarchy. Some identities have a higher position on the social hierarchy. For example, a heterosexual identity has a more privileged position than a homosexual identity; a Christian religious identity is generally more privileged than a Jewish or ­Muslim religious identity in the United States. To distinguish among the various positions, we label the more privileged identities “majority identities” and label the less privileged “minority identities.” This terminology refers to the relative dominance or power of the identity position, not the numerical quantity. Social science researchers have identified various models that describe how minority and majority identities develop. (See Table 5-2.) Although the models center on racial and ethnic identities, they may also apply to other identities, such as class, gender, or sexual orientation (Ponterotto & Pedersen, 1993). It is also important to remember that, as with any model, these represent the experience of many people, but the stages are not set in stone. Identity development is a complex process, not everyone experiences these phases in exactly the same way. Some people spend more time in one phase than do others; individuals may experience the phases in different ways, and not everyone reaches the final phase.

Minority Identity Development In general, minority identities tend to develop earlier than majority identities. For example, straight people tend to not think about their sexual orientation identity often, whereas gay people are often acutely aware of their sexual orientation identity being different from the majority and develop a sense of sexual orientation identity earlier than people who are straight. Similarly, while whites may develop a strong ethnic identity, they often do not think about their racial identity, whereas members of racial minority groups are aware of their racial identities at an early age (Ferguson, 1990). Minority identity often develops in the following stages (as shown in Table 5-2): Stage 1: Unexamined Identity This stage is characterized by the lack of exploration of identity, be it racial, ethnic, sexual orientation, gender, or whatever. At this stage, individuals may simply lack interest in the identity issue. As one African American woman put it: “Why do I need to learn about who was the first Black woman to do this or that? I’m just not too interested.” Or minority group members may initially accept the values and attitudes of the majority culture, expressing positive attitudes toward the dominant group and negative views of their own group. Gay young people may try very hard to act “straight” and may even participate in “gay bashing.” Stage 2: Conformity This stage is characterized by the internalization of the values and norms of the dominant group and a strong desire to assimilate into the dominant culture. Individuals in this phase may have negative, self-deprecating attitudes toward both themselves and their group. As one young Jewish woman said: “I tried very hard in high school to not let anyone know I was Jewish. I’d talk about Christmas shopping and Christmas parties with my friends even though my parents didn’t allow me to participate at all in any Christmas celebration.”

minority identity  A sense of belonging to a nondominant group.

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TABLE 5-2  MAJORITY, MINORITY, AND BIRACIAL IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT STAGES

Minority

Majority

1. Unexamined identity • Lack of exploration of ethnicity • Acceptance of majority group values • Positive attitudes toward the majority group • Lack of interest in issues of ethnicity

1.   Unexamined identity • Lack of exploration of ethnicity • Acceptance of majority group values • Positive attitudes toward the majority group • Lack of interest in issues of ethnicity

Biracial

1. May cycle through three stages of identity development • Awareness of differences and resulting dissonance • Awareness that they are different from other children • Sense that they don’t fit in anywhere Acceptance 2. Struggle for acceptance • Internalization of a racist ideology (passive or active • May feel that they need to choose one acceptance) race or another • The key point is that individuals are not aware that they have been programmed to accept this worldview. Resistance 3 . Self-acceptance and self-assertion • Moving from blaming minority members for their situations and beginning to blame their own dominant group

2 . Conformity 2 .  • Internalization of dominant group norms; desire for assimilation into this group • Negative attitudes toward themselves and their groups until an experience causes them to question the dominant culture attitudes 3. Resistance and separatism 3 .  • Growing awareness that not all dominant values are beneficial to minorities • Often triggered by negative events • Blanket endorsement of one’s group’s values and attitudes • Rejection of dominant group values and norms 4 . Integration 4 .  Redefinition • Ideal outcome of identity • Nonacceptance of society’s development—achieved definition of white identity • Able to see positive • Strong sense of their own aspects of being white group identity and an • Becoming comfortable with appreciation for being in dominant group other cultural groups 5. Integration • Ideal outcome of identity development—achieved identity • Strong sense of their own group identity and an appreciation for other cultural groups

STUDENT VOICES My father is American and my mother is Singaporean. I grew up in Singapore and identify more with my Asian side. However, since my father is white, Singaporeans do not see me as a fellow Singaporean but as a foreigner. It has been difficult to deal with my multiracial identity because I don’t see myself as 100% American or 100% Singaporean. In Singapore, the country I identify more with, Singaporeans see me as a foreigner. Having moved to America for college, Americans do not identify me as an American either. —Lauren Whenever I tell people that I am Canadian, one of the first things they ask is if I can speak French. I have even had people start speaking French to me right away. I think they realize once I look at them with big bug eyes that no, I am not fluent in French, and that only a select portion of the Canadian population can speak French. —Ainsley

Individuals who criticize members of their own ethnic or racial group may be given negative labels such as “Uncle Tom” or “oreo” for African Americans, “banana” for Asian Americans, “apple” for Native Americans, and “Tio Taco” for Chicanos. Such labels condemn attitudes and behaviors that support the dominant white culture. This stage often continues until they encounter a situation that causes them to question predominant culture attitudes, which initiates the movement to the next stage. Stage 3: Resistance and Separatism Many kinds of events can trigger the move to the third stage, including negative ones such as encountering discrimination or namecalling. A period of dissonance, or a growing awareness that not all dominant group values are beneficial to minorities, may also precede this stage. International students sometimes develop their national identity as a minority identity when they study overseas. Dewi, an Indonesian student, reported that when she first arrived in the United States, she thought little of her national identity (because this was a majority identity in her country). She told everyone she thought the United States was the greatest place and really tried hard to use American slang, dress American, and fit in. After several experiences with discrimination, she moved to a more separate stage where she only socialized with other Indonesian or other international students for a time. For writer Ruben Martinez (1998), a defining moment was when he was rather cruelly rejected by a white girl whom he had asked to dance at a high school prom: I looked around me at the dance floor with new eyes: Mexicans danced with Mexicans, blacks with blacks, whites with whites. Who the hell did I think I was? Still, it would take a while for the gringo-hater in me to bust out. It was only a matter of time before I turned away from my whiteness and became the ethnic rebel. It seemed like it happened overnight, but it was the result of years of pentup rage in me. (p. 256)

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Sometimes the move to this phase happens because individuals who have been denying their identity meet someone from that group who exhibits a strong identity. This encounter may result in a concern to clarify their own identity. So the young woman who was ashamed of being Jewish and tried hard to act “Christian” met a dynamic young man who was active in his synagogue and had a strong Jewish faith. Through their relationship, she gained an appreciation of her own religious background, including the Jewish struggle for survival throughout the centuries. As often happens in this stage, she wholeheartedly endorsed the values and attitude attributed to the minority ( Jewish) group and rejected the values and norms associated with the dominant group—she dropped most of her Christian friends and socialized primarily with her Jewish friends. This stage may be characterized by a blanket endorsement of one’s group and all the values and attitudes attributed to the group. At the same time, the person may reject the values and norms associated with the dominant group. Stage 4: Integration According to this model, the ideal outcome of the identity development process is the final stage—an achieved identity. Individuals who have reached this stage have a strong sense of their own group identity (based on gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and so on) and an appreciation of other cultural groups. In this stage, they come to realize that racism and other forms of oppression occur, but they try to redirect any anger from the previous stage in more positive ways. The end result is individuals with a confident and secure identity characterized by a desire to eliminate all forms of injustice, and not merely oppression aimed at their own group. Jack: I have a very diverse ethnic background. I am 50% Armenian, 25% Italian, and 25% Irish. Throughout my childhood, people were only surprised when I mentioned I had Irish ethnicity. Due to the other ethnicities I have a darker skin tone, I realized that people had judged my ethnicity based on my physical appearance. Once explaining my interesting family history and ethnic background, people said it was interesting that I come from multiple different ethnicities and it made me feel unique and happy to have such a diverse background.

Majority Identity Development majority identity  A sense of belonging to a dominant group.

Rita Hardiman (1994, 2003), educator and pioneer in antiracism training, pre‑­ sents a model of majority identity development that has similarities to the model for minority group members. Although she intended the model to represent how white people develop a sense of healthy racial identity, it can also be helpful in describing how other majority identities develop—straight sexual orientation, Christian religious identity, male gender identity, middle-class identity, and so on. Again, remember that majority identity, like minority identity, develops through a complex process. And this model—unlike some other identity development models—is prescriptive. In other words, it outlines the way some scholars think a majority identity should develop, from accepting societal hierarchies that favor some identities and diminish others to resisting these inequities.

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Hardiman (1993, 2004) outlines the following five stages: Stage 1: Unexamined Identity This first stage is the same as for minority identities. In this case, individuals may be aware of some physical and cultural differences, but they do not fear the other or think much about their own identity. There is no understanding of the social meaning and value of gender, sexual orientation, religion, and so on. Although young boys may develop a sense of what it means to be a male by watching their fathers or other males, they are not aware of the social consequences of being born male over female. Those with majority identities, unlike those with minority identities, may stay in this stage for a long time. Stage 2: Acceptance The second stage represents the internalization, conscious or unconscious, of a racist (or otherwise biased) ideology. This may involve passive or active acceptance. The key point is that individuals are not aware that they have been programmed to accept this worldview. In the passive acceptance stage, individuals have no conscious identification with being white, straight, male, and so forth. However, they may hold some assumptions based on an acceptance of inequities in the larger society. In ­general, the social hierarchy is experienced as “normal” for the dominant group, and they may view minority groups as being unduly sensitive and assume that if the minority members really wanted to change their lot in life they could. Here are some possible assumptions. Being male in this stage may involve the following (sometime unconscious) assumptions: ▪▪ Men and women may be different, but they are basically equal. Kyle, a student, tells us, “I never heard so much whining from ‘feminists’ until I came to college. Frankly, it is a little much. Although women may have faced barriers in the past, that’s in the past. Women can pretty much do whatever they want in society today. If they want to be doctors, lawyers, police officers, firefighters, or anything else, they just need to set their minds to it and do it.” ▪▪ If women really want to make it professionally, they can work as hard as men work and they will succeed. Being straight may involve these assumptions: ▪▪ Gay people choose to be gay. ▪▪ Gay people whine a lot, unfairly, about discrimination. There is no recognition of the many privileges given to those who are straight. ▪▪ Gay people put their gayness in straight people’s faces. At this stage there is no recognition of the vast societal emphasis on heterosexuality. Being white may involve these assumptions: ▪▪ Minority groups are culturally deprived and need help to assimilate. ▪▪ Affirmative action is reverse discrimination because people of color are being given opportunities that whites don’t have.

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▪▪ White culture—music, art, and literature—is “classical”; works of art by people of color are folk art or “crafts.” ▪▪ People of color are culturally different, whereas whites have no group identity or culture or shared experience of racial privilege. Individuals in this stage usually take one of two positions with respect to interactions with minorities: (1) They avoid contact somewhat with minority group members or (2) they adopt a patronizing stance toward them. Both positions are possible at the same time. In contrast, those in the active acceptance stage are conscious of their privileged position and may express their feelings of superiority collectively (e.g., join male-only clubs). Some people never move beyond this phase—whether it is characterized by passive or active acceptance. And if they do, it is usually a result of a number of cumulative events. For example, Judith gradually came to realize that her two nieces, who are sisters—one of whom is African American and one of whom is white—had very different experiences growing up. Both girls lived in middle-class neighborhoods, both were honor students in high school, and both went to Ivy League colleges. However, they often had very different experiences. On more than one occasion, the African American girl was followed by security while shopping; she also was stopped several times by police while driving her mother’s sports car. Her white sister never had these experiences. Eventually, awareness of this reality prodded Judith to the next stage. This model recognizes that it is very difficult to escape the societal hierarchy that influences both minority and majority identity development because of its pervasive, systemic, and interlocking nature. The hierarchy is a by-product of living within and being impacted by the institutional and cultural systems that surround us. Stage   3: Resistance The next stage represents a major paradigm shift. It involves a move from blaming minority members for their condition to naming and blaming their own dominant group as a source of problems. This resistance may take the form of passive resistance, with little behavioral change, or active resistance—trying to reduce, eliminate, or challenge the institutional hierarchies that oppress. In reference to one’s own identity, this stage is often characterized by embarrassment about one’s own privileged position, guilt, shame, and a need to distance oneself from the dominant group. Our student, Kayla, says: I was raised as a Christian, so I was never taught to question our beliefs. Since I’ve left home, I have met gay and lesbian students and I no longer understand why my church has such a problem with homosexuality. I get angry and sometimes I speak out when I’m at home and my parents get upset, but I don’t want to stand around and let bigots take over my church. I have begun to question my Christian values, as I no longer know if they are compatible with my sense of right and wrong. Stage 4: Redefinition In the fourth stage, people begin to refocus or redirect their energy toward redefining their identity in a way that recognizes their privilege and works to eliminate oppression and inequities. They realize that they don’t have to accept uncritically the definitions of being white, straight, male, Christian, U.S.

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American that society has instilled in them. For example, Nick tells us, “As a straight white guy, I often find myself in social situations in which people feel free to make offhand remarks or jokes that are somewhat racist, heterosexist, or sexist. They assume that I would agree with them, since I’m not a minority, gay, or a woman, but I don’t. I am happy to be who I am, but this doesn’t mean that being a straight white man means I need to be racist, sexist, or homophobic. I am proud to be who I am, but I don’t think that means I have to put down others.” Stage 5: Integration As in the final stage of minority identity development, majority group individuals now are able to internalize their increased consciousness and integrate their majority identities into all other facets of their identity. They not only recognize their identity as white but also appreciate other groups. This integration affects other aspects of social and personal identity, including religion and gender. Hardiman (2003) acknowledges that this model is rather simplistic in explaining the diverse experiences of people. It does not acknowledge the impact of diverse environments and socialization processes that influence how people experience their dominant identities or the realities of interlocking identities. Systems of privilege are complicated; this is one reason why people can belong to a privileged category and not feel privileged. You may have several identities that are more privileged and several that are less privileged. So, for example, a middle-class white lesbian, benefiting from and yet unaware of the privileges of race or class, may think that her experience of sexual orientation and gender inequality enables her to understand what she needs to know about other forms of privilege and oppression. Or a straight working-class white man may be annoyed at the idea that his sexual orientation, whiteness, and maleness somehow gives him access to privilege. As a member of the working class, he may feel insecure in his job, afraid of being outsourced, downsized, and not at all privileged (Johnson, 2018). To make it more complicated, our multiple identities exist all at once in relation to one another. People never see us solely in terms of race or gender or nationality— they see us as a complex of identities. So it makes no sense to talk about the experience of one identity—being white, for example—without looking at other identities. A dialectical perspective helps here in avoiding falling into the trap of thinking we are or are not privileged. Most of us are both.

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL IDENTITIES People can identify with a multitude of groups. This section describes some of the major types of groups.

Gender Identity Most of us begin life with gender identities. Parents are told that they now have a boy or a girl, and the newborn’s birth certificates are marked as either male or female. Names are chosen that correspond to that gender identity. Yet, not all people identify as either male or female. On January 2, 2019, Germany began to give legal recognition

gender identity  The identification with the cultural notions of masculinity and femininity and what it means to be a man or a woman.

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cisgender  A person whose gender identity matches the biological sex that she or he was born into. transgender  Identifi cation with a gender that does not match one’s biological gender

to “divers”—a gender identity that is neither male, nor female. Along with Australia, “Several other countries have provided gender-neutral options on passports and official documents such as the census or ID cards, including Argentina, Bangladesh, Canada, Denmark, India, Malta, Nepal, the Netherlands, New Zealand and Pakistan” (Schmidt & Fox, 2018). What it means to be a man or a woman in our society is heavily influenced by cultural notions. For example, some activities are considered more masculine or more feminine. Thus, whether people hunt or sew or fight or read poetry can transform the ways that others view them. Similarly, the programs that people watch on television—soap operas, football games, and so on—affect how they socialize with others, contributing to gendered contexts. Our notions of masculinity and femininity change continually, driven by commercial interests and other cultural forces. For example, there is a major push now to market cosmetics to men. In the United Kingdom, almost half of men use facial skincare products daily and the sales of men’s beauty products has grown faster than women’s since 2010 (Jones, 2018). Our expression of gender not only communicates who we think we are but also constructs a sense of who we want to be. Initially, we learn what masculinity and femininity mean in our culture. Communication scholar Julia T. Wood (2005) has identified feminine and masculine themes in U.S. society. These are the femininity themes: appearance still counts, be sensitive and caring, accept negative treatment by others, and be a superwoman. The masculinity themes are don’t be female, be successful, be aggressive, be sexual, and be self-reliant. Masculinity themes are often the opposite of what it means to be a woman or a gay man. According to Wood, U.S. American men are socialized first and foremost that being a man is about not being a woman. Then, through various media, we monitor how these notions shift and negotiate to communicate our gendered selves to others. Gender identity is also demonstrated by communication style. For example, women’s communication style is often described as supportive, egalitarian, personal, and disclosive, whereas men’s is characterized as competitive and assertive (Wood, 2005). However, these differences may be more perception than fact. Results of recent research suggest that women’s and men’s communication styles are more similar than they are different (Canary & Hause, 1993; Pennebaker, Mehl, & Niederhoffer, 2003). And yet these stereotypes of gender differences persist, maybe partly because of the stereotypical depictions of men and women in magazines, on television, and in movies. The ways that we identify our gender can be complex. Those people who identify their gender that matches their biological bodies are called cisgender. A cisman, for example, is someone who identifies as a male or man and was born into a male body. People can identify as cisgendered, cis-males, cis-females, cis-women, and so on. Transgender refers to identification with a gender that differs from the biologically assigned gender at birth. Like cisgendered people, transgendered people can identify with any of a number of sexual identities. Thus, if someone is transgendered, it does not mean that this person is gay or lesbian. They may identify as heterosexual or some other sexual identity. Some countries recognize transgender people, others do not. Some countries include transgender or third gender

POINT of VIEW

I

dentity terms for gender and sexualities are rapidly changing to meet the diversity of how people experience these identities. There is no comprehensive list that remains fixed and stable, as people are identifying in a myriad of ways to meet different needs. Facebook, for example, allows people to self-identify their gender in an open manner, without preset categories. While there is no definitive list of gender identity terms, the American Psychological Association, the Human Rights Campaign and the Safe Zone Project, for example, offer similar frameworks for their gender identity terms, but because they have different interests, the terms are not always the same. For example, the American Psychological Association’s “Key Terms and Concepts in Understanding Gender Diversity and Sexual Orientation Among Students” (located at: https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/programs/safe-supportive/lgbt/key-terms.pdf) includes “pushout” to refer to students who didn’t drop out of school, but were pushed out. In their “Glossary of Terms,” the Human Rights Campaign (located at: https://www. hrc.org/resources/glossary-of-terms) includes “non-binary” and “pansexual,” which are not in the APA guide. The Safe Zone’s “LGBTQ+ vocabulary and glossary of terms” (located at: https://thesafezoneproject.com/resources/vocabulary/) includes “demisexual” and “gynephilic.” Explore these lists and more to learn about the many ways that people identify their genders. As these terms are changing rapidly, due to rapid cultural changes in how we think about gender and sexuality, do you feel it is necessary to keep up with these terms?

(identifying as neither male nor female) in their national census forms. Recently, for example, “Nepal’s Central Burueau of Statistics is giving official recognition to gay and transgender people” (Shrestha, 2011). Also, in the 2011 census, India gave respondents the choice of a third gender in the census questions about gender. The third gender has roots in Indian culture: “The transgender community, which has long hoped for more social acceptance, is being given an ‘other’ option under gender apart from ‘male’ and ‘female.’ The results will give India a firm count for its ‘third-gender’ hijra community—the origins of which go back millennia to a time when transsexual, eunuch and gays held a special place in society backed by Hindu myths of their power to grant fertility” (Associated Press, 2011). The official count of the census revealed about 490,000 “people identified themselves as belonging to the third gender, despite the fact that the census counting happened well before the Supreme Court order gave legal recognition to the third gender in April” of 2014 (Nagarajan, 2014). In contrast, the most recent U.S. Census in 2020 gave two gender choices—male and female—so there is no national census data on the number of people who identify as transgender. However, attitudes may be changing as activists continue to work on these issues, prominent media figures, such as Laverne Cox from Orange is the New Black, and political battles over the status of transgendered people emerge, such as North Carolina’s HB 2, among other states. The future of transgendered identity is contested in the United States and transgendered identity may gain more recognition.

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However, what it means to be feminine and masculine are not stable, clear-cut identity categories. Rather, these notions are created, reinforced, and reconstructed by society through communication and overlap with our other identities.

Sexual Identity sexual identity  One’s identification with various categories of sexuality.

Sexual identity refers to one’s identification with various categories of sexuality. You are probably most familiar with heterosexual, gay or lesbian, and perhaps bisexual categories; however, sexual identity categories vary from culture to culture and have been variously viewed throughout history (Foucault, 1988). Also, views on sexual identities differ in various historical contexts. Same-sex activities were not always looked down upon, pedophilia was accepted in some eras and cultures, and on the occasions when children were born with both male and female sexual organs, they were not necessarily operated on or forced to be male or female (Foucault, 1988). Our sexual identities influence our consumption, which television shows we watch, which magazines we read, which Internet sites we visit. Some assume a certain level of public knowledge about sexual identities or stereotypes; for example, Glee, Modern Family, and Grey’s Anatomy assumed viewers were familiar with stereotypes of gays. What are some cultural products that assume knowledge of heterosexual culture? Official recognition of gay, lesbian, and transgender people varies around the world. As people begin to communicate more openly about sexuality, new and emerging sexual identities have been emerging. On the one hand, there are many countries where same-sex activities are illegal with some having the death penalty. On the other hand, some countries embrace same-sex relationships and allow public, legal recognition of same-sex marriages.

Age Identity age identity  The identification with the cultural conventions of how we should act, look, and behave according to our age.

As we age, we also play into cultural notions of how individuals our age should act, look, and behave; that is, we develop an age identity. As we grow older, we sometimes look at the clothes displayed in store windows or advertised in newspapers and magazines and feel that we are either too old or too young for that “look.” These feelings stem from an understanding of what age means and how we identify with people that age. Some people feel old at 30, others feel young at 40 or 50. Nothing inherent in age tells us we are young or old. Rather, our notions of age and youth are all based on cultural conventions. The United States is an age-conscious society. One of the first things we teach children is to tell their age. And children will proudly tell their age, until about the mid-20s on, when people rarely mention their age. In contrast, people older than 70 often brag about their age. Certain ages have special significance in some cultures. Latino families sometimes celebrate a daughter’s 15th birthday with a quinceañera party—marking the girl’s entry into womanhood. Some Jewish families celebrate with a bat mitzvah ceremony for daughters and a bar mitzvah for sons on their 13th birthday (Allen, 2004). These same cultural conventions also suggest that it is inappropriate to engage in a romantic relationship with someone who is too old or too young. Our notions of age often change as we grow older ourselves. When we are quite young, someone in college seems old; when we are in college, we do not feel

STUDENT VOICES I am half Qatari and half Emirati. My father comes from Qatar; my mother is from Dubai, although they are in some complicated way related (it is normal for people in the gulf to marry their cousins). My father’s side of the family originates back to Saudi Arabia, a specific tribe (al-Gahtani). The tribe eventually expanded and began migrating around the gulf, to Bahrain, then to Dubai, and lastly to Qatar. I still have family in those areas; my grandfather is the only one who migrated to Qatar. In general, this is a typical story for anyone who is from the gulf. Arabian families are quite big in numbers, are related to other bigger families, and have family all over the gulf, but usually originating from Saudi Arabia—that I would say is the typical structure or format of an Arabian background. —Najla

so old. Yet the relative nature of age is only one part of the identity process. Social constructions of age also play a role. Different generations often have different philosophies, values, and ways of speaking, based upon very different generational experiences. Those people who went through the Great Depression, the Vietnam War, or 9/11, were shaped by these shared experiences in ways that are different from others who did not. The Pew Research Center defines generations as: (1) Silent Generation (born between 1928 and 1945), (2) Baby Boomers (born between 1946 and 1964), (3) Generation X (born between 1965 and 1980), (4) Millennials (born between 1981 and 1996), and (5) Generation Z (born after 1996) (Parker, Graf, & Igielnik, 2019). These generational differences are not same in other countries that have experienced different external forces that shape each generation. So while they might use similar terms, the years may not correspond to the U.S. generational years. Statistics Canada, for example, defines Generation Z as those born from 1993 to 2011 (Generations in Canada, 2015). These generational differences arise over many issues, such as same-sex marriage, gender pronouns, and whether they believe that the U.S. is better than other nations: “While pluralities of nearly all generations (with the exception of the Silent Generation) say the U.S. is one of the best countries in the world along with some others, Gen Zers and Millennials are the least likely to say the U.S. is better than all other countries” (Parker, Graf, & Igielnik, 2019). While Millennials may have felt unfairly stereotyped by Baby Boomers, Generation Z has embraced the term, “Ok, Boomer!” as a communicative response to looking at the world differently from older generations: “‘Ok boomer’ has become Generation Z’s endlessly repeated retort to the problem of older people who just don’t get it, a rallying cry for millions of fed up kids. Teenagers use it to reply to cringey YouTube videos, Donald Trump tweets, and basically any person over 30 who says something condescending about young people— and the issues that matter to them” (Lorenz, 2020). This is a handy communicative response to different views on climate change and income inequality.

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Although not all people in any generation are alike, the attempt to find trends across generations reflects our interest in understanding age identity.

Racial and Ethnic Identities racial identity  Identifying with a particular racial group. Although in the past racial groups were classified on the basis of biological characteristics, most scientists now recognize that race is constructed in fluid social and historical contexts.

Racial Identity Race consciousness, or racial identity, is largely a modern phenomenon. In the United States today, the issue of race is both controversial and pervasive. It is the topic of many public discussions, from television talk shows to talk radio. Yet many people feel uncomfortable talking about it or think it should not be an issue in daily life. Perhaps we can better understand the contemporary issues if we look at how the notion of race developed historically in the United States. Current debates about race have their roots in the 15th and 16th centuries, when European explorers encountered people who looked different from themselves. The debates centered on religious questions of whether there was “one family of man.” If so, what rights were to be accorded to those who were different? Debates about which groups were “human” and which were “animal” pervaded popular and legal discourse and provided a rationale for slavery. Later, in the 18th and 19th centuries, the scientific community tried to establish a classification system of race based on genetics and cranial capacity. However, these efforts were largely unsuccessful. Most scientists have abandoned a strict biological basis for classifying racial groups, especially in light of recent genetic research. To date, researchers have found only 55 genes out of almost 3 million that differentiate various groups. Their conclusions about the implications of their research: “All in all, the school of thought which holds that humans, for all their outward variety, are a pretty homogenous species received a boost” (“Human races or human race,” 2008, p. 86). Rather than adhere to the rather outdated notion of a biological basis for racial categorization, most scholars hold a social science viewpoint—agreeing that racial categories like white and Black are constructed in social and historical contexts. Several arguments refute the physiological basis for race. First, racial categories vary widely throughout the world. In general, distinctions between white and Black are fairly rigid in the United States, and many people become uneasy when they are unable to categorize individuals. In contrast, Brazil recognizes a wide variety of intermediate racial categories in addition to white and Black. These variations indicate a cultural, rather than a biological, basis for racial classification (Omi & Winant, 2001). Terms like mulatto and Black Irish demonstrate cultural classifications; terms like Caucasoid and Australoid are examples of biological classification. Second, U.S. law uses a variety of definitions to determine racial categories. A 1982 case in Louisiana reopened debates about race as socially created rather than biologically determined. Susie Phipps applied for a passport and discovered that under Louisiana law she was Black because she was 1/32 African (her greatgrandmother had been a slave). She then sued to be reclassified as white. Not only did she consider herself white, inasmuch as she grew up among whites, but was also married to a white man. And because her children were only 1/64 African, they were legally white. Although she lost her lawsuit, the ensuing political and popular

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discussions persuaded Louisiana lawmakers to change the way the state classified people racially. It is important that the law was changed, but this legal situation does not obscure the fact that social definitions of race continue to exist (Hasian & Nakayama, 1999). A third example of how racial categories are socially constructed is illustrated by their fluid nature. As more and more southern Europeans immigrated to the United States in the 19th century, the established Anglo and German society tried to classify these newcomers (Irish and Jewish, as well as southern European) as nonwhite. However, this attempt was not successful because, based on the narrower definition, whites might have become demographically disempowered. Instead, the racial line was drawn to include all Europeans, and people from outside of Europe (e.g., immigrants from China) were designated as nonwhite (Roediger, 2005). We intentionally use the term nonwhite here to highlight the central role of whiteness in defining racial identity in the United States. Racial categories, then, are based to some extent on physical characteristics, but they are also constructed in fluid social contexts. It probably makes more sense to talk about racial formation than racial categories, thereby casting race as a complex of social meanings rather than as a fixed and objective concept. How people construct these meanings and think about race influences the ways in which they communicate. Ethnic Identity In contrast to racial identity, ethnic identity may be seen as a set of ideas about one’s own ethnic group membership. It typically includes several dimensions: (1) self-identification, (2) knowledge about the ethnic culture (traditions, customs, values, and behaviors), and (3) feelings about belonging to a particular ethnic group. Ethnic identity often involves a shared sense of origin and history, which may link ethnic groups to distant cultures in Asia, Europe, Latin America, or other locations. Having an ethnic identity means experiencing a sense of belonging to a particular group and knowing something about the shared experience of group members. For instance, Judith grew up in an ethnic community. She heard her parents and relatives speak German, and her grandparents made several trips back to Germany and talked about their German roots. This experience contributed to her ethnic identity. For some U.S. residents, ethnicity is a specific and relevant concept. They see themselves as connected to an origin outside the United States—as Mexican American, Japanese American, Welsh American, and so on—or to some region prior to its being absorbed into the United States—Navajo, Hopi, and so on. As one African American student told us, “I have always known my history and the history of my people in this country. I will always be first African American and then American. Who I am is based on my heritage.” For others, ethnicity is a vague concept. They see themselves as “American” and reject the notion of hyphenated Americans. One of our students explains: I don’t necessarily identify with my ethnicity. I am Italian American and Irish American but I am three or more generations removed from when either side immigrated to the United States. I also don’t look noticeably Italian or Irish. I still tell people that I am half Irish and half Italian, but the only time I really connect and identify with my ethnic heritage is for holidays and for certain traditional meals or styles of cooking.

ethnic identity  (1) A set of ideas about one’s own ethnic group membership and (2) a sense of belonging to a particular group and knowing something about the shared experience of the group.

hyphenated Americans  U.S. Americans who identify not only with being U.S. citizens but also as being members of ethnic groups.

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We will discuss the issues of ethnicity for white people later. What, then, does American mean? Who defines it? Is there only one meaning, or are there many different meanings? It is important to determine what definition is being used by those who insist that we should all simply be ­“Americans.” If one’s identity is “just American,” how is this identity formed, and how does it influence communication with others who see themselves as hyphenated Americans (Alba, 1985, 1990; Carbaugh, 1989)? Racial Versus Ethnic Identity Scholars dispute whether racial and ethnic identity are similar or different. Some suggest that ethnic identity is constructed by both selves and others but that racial identity is constructed solely by others. They stress as well that race overrides ethnicity in the way people classify others (Cornell & Hartmann, 1998). The American Anthropological Association has suggested that the U.S. government phase out use of the term race in the collection of federal data because the concept has no scientific validity or utility. On the one hand, discussions about ethnicity tend to assume a “melting pot” perspective on U.S. society. On the other hand, discussions about race as shaped by U.S. history allow us to talk about racism. If we never talk about race, but only about ethnicity, can we consider the effects and influences of racism? Bounded Versus Dominant Identities One way to sort out the relationship between ethnicity and race is to differentiate between bounded and dominant (or normative) identities (Frankenburg, 1993; Trinh, 1986/1987). Bounded cultures are characterized by groups that are specific but not dominant. For most white people, it is easy to comprehend the sense of belonging in a bounded group (e.g., an ethnic group). Clearly, for example, being Amish means following the ordnung (community rules). Growing up in a German American home, Judith’s identity included a clear emphasis on seriousness and very little on communicative expressiveness. This identity differed from that of her Italian American friends at college, who seemed much more expressive. However, what it means to belong to the dominant, or normative, culture is more elusive. Normative means “setting the norm for a society.” In the United States, whites clearly are the normative group in that they set the standards for appropriate and effective behavior. Although it can be difficult for white people to define what a normative white identity is, this does not deny its existence or importance. It is often not easy to see what the cultural practices are that link white people together. For example, we seldom think of Thanksgiving or ­Valentine’s Day as white holidays. Our sense of racial or ethnic identity develops over time, in stages, and through communication with others. These stages seem to reflect our growing understanding of who we are and depend to some extent on the groups we belong to. Many ethnic or racial groups share the experience of oppression. In response, they may generate attitudes and behaviors consistent with a natural internal struggle to develop a strong sense of group identity and self-identity. For many cultural groups, these strong identities ensure their survival.

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Characteristics of Whiteness What does it mean to be white in the United States? What are the characteristics of a white identity? Is there a unique set of characteristics that define whiteness, just as other racial identities have been described? It may be difficult for most white people to describe exactly what cultural patterns are uniquely white, but scholars have tried to do so. For example, scholar Ruth Frankenburg (1993) says that whiteness may be defined not only in terms of race or ethnicity but also as a set of linked dimensions. These dimensions include (1) normative race privilege, (2) a standpoint from which white people look at themselves, others, and society, and (3) a set of cultural practices (often unnoticed and unnamed). More recently, communication scholar Dreama Moon has argued that white identity is a process of becoming white through a process of social pressure and control “utilized in white communities to produce the next generation of ‘white-thinking’ Whites” (2016, p. 299). Much of this pressure to be “white” in a particular way comes from family and friends, as well as observing public performances of whiteness. Normative Race Privilege Historically, whites have been the normative (dominant) group in the United States and, as such, have benefited from privileges that go along with belonging to the dominant group. However, not all whites have power, and not all have equal access to power. In fact, at times during U.S. history, some white communities were not privileged and were viewed as separate, or different, if not inferior. Examples include the Irish and Italians in the early 20th century and German Americans during World War II. And as scholars point out, the memory of marginality outlasts the marginality. For example, memories of discrimination may persist in the minds of some Italian Americans, although little discrimination exists today. There also are many white people in the United States who are poor and so lack economic power. There is an emerging perception that being white no longer means automatic privilege, particularly as demographics change in the United States and as some whites perceive themselves to be in the minority. This has led some whites to feel threatened and “out of place.” A Chicago college professor tells the story of how her white students thought that 65% of the population near their university was African American; they perceived themselves to be in the minority and based their estimate on their observations and anecdotes. When she corrected them, they were stunned. In fact, according to the 2000 U.S. Census, the percentage of blacks in Chicago was only 37% (Myers, 2003, p. 130). Students’ perceptions affected their sense of identity, which, in turn, can affect intercultural communication. Some white young people today are very aware of their whiteness (Frankenburg, 2001). Further, they believe that being white is a liability, that they are sometimes prejudged as racist and blamed for social conditions they personally did not cause, and that they are denied opportunities that are unfairly given to minority students. One of our white students describes this feeling: When I was trying to get into college I had to fight for every inch. I didn’t have a lot of money to go to school with, so to get a scholarship was of great importance to me.

POINT of VIEW

I

dentities can be valued and devalued in different ways in different cultures. The African American rap artist and poet Saul Williams, who now lives in Paris, France, explains how African American identity functions differently in France than in the United States: If you want to know, as a Black American, what white privilege feels like, you needn’t endure the laborious process of donning a wig and sitting to have gummy makeup applied to your face by a professional. No, you only need a passport. […] An American passport is a magical piece of paper. It will allow you entry into a country where Nina Simone lyrics are used to teach the national language, where Christmas is synonymous with James Brown, where John Cassavetes and Kristen Stewart are prized as cinematic treasures. That country, of course, is France. […] “Hey, if you want to experience white privilege, hop on a plane and go anywhere with your American passport and you will experience American privilege and you’ll be able to understand exactly what it’s like to have certain doors opened for you and back rooms opened for you and privileges given to you just as a result of what happens when you open your mouth and people realize where you’re from.” […] Williams recounted how his Black American friends would come to visit him in Paris. They had questions reflective of decades of personal experiences living in an environment where an undercurrent of hostility toward blackness lurks ever-present. The baggage they brought with them was a special sort of skepticism, fueled by feeling like a lessee of one’s place in your own country, even when the Constitution and your birth certificate guarantee a slice of the mortgage. Source: From S. N. McDonald (2015, September 23), “American in Paris: Saul Williams critiques his home country from the outside looking in,” The Washington Post. Retrieved May 4, 2016, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/arts-and-entertainment/wp/2015/09/23/american-in -paris-saul-williams-critiques-his-home-country-from-the-outside-looking-in/

So I went out and bought a book titled The Big Book of Scholarships. Ninety percent of the scholarships that this book contained didn’t apply to me. They applied to the so-called minorities. . . . I think this country has gone on so long with the notion that white equals wealth or with things like affirmative action, that it has lost sight of the fact that this country is not that way any longer. In addition, because of corporate downsizing and the movement of jobs overseas in recent decades, increasing numbers of middle-aged white men have not achieved the degree of economic or professional success they had anticipated. They sometimes blame their lack of success on immigrants who will work for less or on the increasing numbers of women and minorities in the workplace. 184

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In these cases, whiteness is not invisible; it is a salient feature of the white individuals’ identities. The point is not whether these perceptions are accurate. Rather, the point is that identities are negotiated and challenged through communication. People act on their perceptions, not on some external reality. As the nation becomes increasingly diverse and whites no longer form a majority in some regions, there will be increasing challenges for all of us as we negotiate our cultural identities. How can whites in the United States incorporate the reality of not belonging to a majority group? Will whites find inclusive and productive ways to manage this identity change? Or will they react in defensive and exclusionary ways? One reaction to feeling outnumbered and being a “new member” of an ethnic minority group is to strengthen one’s own ethnic identity. For example, white people may tend to have stronger white identities in those U.S. states that have a higher percentage of nonwhites (e.g., Mississippi, South Carolina, ­Alabama). In these states, the white population traditionally has struggled to protect its racial privilege in various ways. As other states become increasingly less white, we are beginning to see various moves to protect whiteness. Although it had been discussed for a while, the U.S. Census Bureau predicted in 2015 that the United States population would become majority–minority in 2044. In other words, non-Hispanic whites would become a minority with less than 50% of the population. Charles ­Gallagher, a sociologist who studies white identity, notes: “We went from being a privileged group to all of a sudden becoming whites, the new victims . . . You have this perception out there that whites are no longer in control or the majority. Whites are the new minority group” (quoted in Blake, 2011). Although they are not numerically a minority group, their experiences may be shaping what white identity means. Tim Wise, a writer, says: “For the first time since the Great Depression, white Americans have been confronted with a level of economic insecurity that we’re not used to. It’s not so new for Black and brown folks, but for white folks, this is something we haven’t seen since the ­Depression” (quoted in Blake, 2011). Fears about the loss of white America drive much of this discussion. Yet, as a Vassar College professor prefers to see it: “This moment was not the end of white America; it was not the end of anything. It was a bridge, and we crossed it” (Hsu, 2009). A Standpoint from Which to View Society Opinion polls reveal significant differences in how whites and blacks view many issues, including President Obama. For example, a Pew Research Center study conducted one year after President Obama’s election found that blacks were more likely to view President Obama as Black (55%) rather than mixed race (34%). For whites, the responses were reversed: 53% of whites saw President Obama as mixed race and 24% as Black. When asked if opposition to Obama’s policies is racially motivated, 52% of blacks thought so, whereas only 17% of whites felt that way. And since the election of President Obama, blacks and whites feel that blacks are better off than five years ago (see Figure 5-2), but a 10 percentage point difference remains (“Blacks upbeat about black progress, prospects,” 2010).

186  Part II / Intercultural Communication Processes 275,000

256,500

250,000

247,500

225,000 200,000 175,000 150,000 125,000 100,000 75,000 50,000 25,000 0

700

8 U.S. Black

1,724

0 Dominican

3,020 3,020 Puerto Rican Total Assets

12,000 12,000 15,000 Carribean Black

2,700

Other Hispanic

White

Net Worth

FIGURE 5-2   When the Boston Globe posted its headline: “That was no typo: The median net worth of Black Bostonians really is $8” (Johnson, 2017), they drew attention to the enormous wealth gap between whites and blacks. The report from the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston with Duke University and the New School showed that white households had media wealth of $247,500, while U.S. Black households had only $8 and Dominican households had $0. Concerns about inequality are growing. What can be done? Source: Muñoz, A. P., Kim, M., Chang, M., Jackson, R. O., Hamilton, D., & Darity, W. A. Jr. (2015, March 25). The Color of wealth in Boston. Federal Reserve Bank of Boston. Retrieved February 19, 2020, from https://www.bostonfed.org/publications/one-time -pubs/color-of-wealth.aspx

A Set of Cultural Practices Is there a specific, unique “white” way of viewing the world? As noted previously, some views held consistently by whites are not necessarily shared by other groups. And some cultural practices and core symbols (e.g., individualism) are expressed primarily by whites and significantly less by members of minority groups. We need to note here that not everyone who is white shares all cultural practices. (See Figure 5-3.) For example, recent immigrants who are white, but not born in the United States, may share in the privilege accorded to all white people in the United States. However, they might not necessarily share in the viewpoints or the set of cultural practices of whites whose families have been in the United States for many generations. It is important to remember that some whites may identify fairly strongly with their European roots, especially if their families are more recent immigrants and they still have family members in Europe; other whites may not feel any connection to Europe and feel completely “American.” These cultural practices are most clearly visible to those who are not white, to those groups who are excluded (Bahk & Jandt, 2004). For example, in the fairy tale of Snow White, the celebration of her beauty—emphasizing her beautiful, pure white skin—is often seen as problematic by people who are not white.

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FIGURE 5-3   White culture is difficult to define. White people do not often think of some of their activities as white cultural practices, such as sunbathing, a common leisure activity among many white people. Not all cultural groups place a high value on suntans. In this photo, a Chinese man holds an umbrella to shield his wife from the sun as she takes a photo of her parents at Tiananmen Square. In this culture, darker skin, particularly on a woman, is seen as more negative than light skin. Gender and racial identities function together to place a low cultural value on suntanning. (Kristina Blokhin/Alamy Stock Photo)

Religious Identity Religious identity can be an important dimension of many people’s identities, as well as an important site of intercultural conflict. Religious identity often is conflated with racial or ethnic identity, which makes it difficult to view religious identity simply in terms of belonging to a particular religion. For example, when someone says, “I am Jewish,” does it mean that he practices Judaism? That he views Jewish identity as an ethnic identity? Or when someone says, “She has a Jewish last name,” is it a statement that recognizes religious identity? With a historical view, we can see Jews as a racial group, an ethnic group, and a religious group. Drawing distinctions among various identities—racial, ethnic, class, national, and regional—can be problematic. For example, Italians and Irish are often viewed as Catholics, and Episcopalians are frequently seen as belonging to the upper classes. Issues of religion and ethnicity have come to the forefront in the war against Al-Qaeda and other militant groups. Although those who carried out the attacks against the Pentagon and the World Trade Center were Muslims and Arabs, it is hardly true that all Muslims are Arabs or that all Arabs are Muslims (Feghali, 1997).

religious identity  A sense of belonging to a religious group.

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Religious differences have been at the root of contemporary conflicts from the Middle East to Northern Ireland, and from India and Pakistan to Bosnia-Herzegovina. In the United States, religious conflicts caused the Mormons to flee the Midwest for Utah in the mid-19th century. More recently, religious conflicts have become very real for some Arab Americans as the U.S. ­government presses the war against terrorism, with many of those people subject to suspicion if not persecution. And militant Muslims in the Middle East and elsewhere see their struggle against the United States as a very serious endeavor and are willing to die for their religious beliefs. A big change in religious identity is taking place in the United States. Younger people are much less identified with religion than older U.S. Americans. Generation Z is even less religious than millennials who are less religious than previous generations. The connection between U.S. American identity and religious identity is melting away: “in the early 1990s, the historical tether between American identity and faith snapped. Religious non affiliation in the United States started to rise—and rise, and rise” (Thompson, 2019). While some people are concerned about this cultural shift, others are embracing it. Phil Zuckerman, a sociologist, notes that prison statistics show that non religious people commit far fewer crimes and this is true cross-culturally as well: “Democratic countries with the lowest levels of religious faith and participation today—such as Sweden, Denmark, Japan, Belgium, and New Zealand—have among the lowest violent crime rates in the world and enjoy remarkably high levels of societal well-being” (Zuckerman, 2015). But many U.S. Americans remain firmly committed to their religious identities, which is rapidly changing as well: “White Christians, once the dominant religious group in the United States, now account for fewer than half of all adults living in the country” (Cox & Jones, 2017). Among religious U.S. Americans, many are affiliated with a wider diversity of religions than ever before. People in some religions communicate and mark their religious differences by their clothing. For example, Hassidic Jews wear traditional, somber clothing, and Muslim women are often veiled according to the Muslim guideline of female modesty. Of course, most religions are not identified by clothing. For example, you may not know if someone is Buddhist, Catholic, Lutheran, or atheist based upon the way he or she dresses. Because religious identities are less salient, everyday interactions may not invoke religious identity. We live in a world of many different religions and it is important to respect others’ beliefs and identities (see Figure 5-4).

Class Identity We don’t often think about socioeconomic class as an important part of our identity. Yet scholars have shown that class often plays an important role in shaping our reactions to and interpretations of culture. For example, French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1987) studied the various responses to art, sports, and other cultural activities of people in different French social classes. According to Bourdieu, working-class people prefer to watch soccer, whereas upper-class individuals like tennis, and middle-class people prefer photographic art, whereas upper-class individuals favor less representational art. As these findings reveal, class distinctions are real and can be linked to actual behavioral practices and preferences.

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FIGURE 5-4   Although you may not be a member of a particular religion, why is it important to show respect for other people’s religions? (T. K. Nakayama)

English professor Paul Fussell (1992) shows how similar signs of class identity operate in U.S. society. According to Fussell, the magazines we read, the foods we eat, and the words we use often reflect our social class position. At some level, we recognize these class distinctions, but we consider it impolite to ask directly about a person’s class background. Therefore, we may use communication strategies to place others in a class hierarchy. Unfortunately, these strategies don’t always yield accurate information. For example, people may try to guess your class background by the foods you eat. Some foods are seen as “rich folk’s food”—for instance, lamb, white asparagus, brie, white truffles, goose, and caviar. Do you feel as if you are revealing your class background if you admit that these foods are unfamiliar to you? Perhaps not admitting your unfamiliarity is a form of “passing,” of representing yourself as belonging to a group you really don’t belong to. Another strategy that people may use to guess a person’s class background is to ask where that person did her or his undergraduate work. Most people in the United States recognize class associations even as they may deny that such class divisions exist. What does this apparent contradiction indicate? Most importantly, it reveals the complexities of class issues, particularly in the United States. We often don’t really know the criteria for inclusion in a given social class. Is membership determined by financial assets? By educational level? By profession? By family background? These factors may or may not be indicators of class. Another reason for this apparent contradiction is that people in the majority or normative class (the middle class) tend not to think about class, whereas those in the working class are often reminded that their communication styles and lifestyle choices are not the norm. David Engen (2004), a communication scholar, describes his own experience of entering college from a working-class background and feeling like he

class identity  A sense of belonging to a group that shares similar economic, occupational, or social status.

POINT of VIEW

H

igher education is another area where income inequality influences admissions to more selective colleges and universities. A recent study (Giancola & Kahlenberg, 2016) found that, in the past ten years, the number of lowincome students with high academic achievements were not enrolling at elite institutions has not really increased or changed, despite lots of rhetoric and interest in doing so. They conclude that “these young people have enormous potential, yet are by passed by a system that honors legacy and wealth more than hard work and talent” (p. 37). As you think about your own experience in the college admissions process, what kinds of structural policies led you to your college or university? Aside from how this affects you personally, how does the current situation impact our society? When very bright students are not able to attend top institutions, is our society losing out on their potential to do great things in the future for all of us? How much mobility is there in the United States, not only in higher education, but also in society more generally?

Source: From J. Giancola, & R. D. Kahlenberg (2016). True merit: Ensuring our brightest students have access to our best colleges and universities. Available at http://www.jkcf.org/assets/1/7/JKCF_True _Merit_Report.pdf

had entered a new culture. For one thing, the working-class communication style he was accustomed to was very different from the proper English required in his classes. “I vividly recall coming to college saying things such as ‘I seen that,’ ‘I ain’t worried about that’ and ‘that don’t mean nothing to me.’ I am glad my professors and friends helped me acquire a language that allowed me to succeed in mainstream American society” (p. 253). And the philosophical conversations expected in class were a challenge. As he describes it, working-class communication is about getting things done, very different from the abstract conversations he was expected to participate in—designed to broaden perspective rather than to accomplish any particular task. In this respect, class is like race. For example, terms like trailer trash and white trash show the negative connotations associated with people who are not middle class (Moon & Rolison, 1998). A central assumption of the American dream is that, with hard work and persistence, individuals can improve their class standing, even in the face of overwhelming evidence to the contrary. And the American dream seems alive and well. An estimated 94% of Americans still think that “people who work full time should be able to earn enough to keep their families out of poverty” (Allen, 2004, p. 105). The American dream, however, has come under serious scrutiny in the wake of the Great Recession. Recent poll data show a huge swing in how people feel about their children doing better than them. In 1999, “two thirds of Americans predicted that children would grow up to have it better than their parents,” but recent polls show that almost 63% of Americans now feel that their children won’t be better off than them (Cillizza, 2014). The American dream does not have the same pull as it did in previous eras. 190

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Perhaps this has led to a rethinking of class identity, advanced in part by social movements, such as the Occupy Wall Street movement, from the more traditional class structure into two categories: the 1% and the 99%. Public debates about income inequality may change how we think about class identity in the future. Recent reports indicate that the mortality rates for white Americans has been dramatically increasing, while every other group is seeing a decline. In addition, “a new analysis from the Commonwealth Fund suggests there’s more to the story. The report, by David Squires and David Blumenthal, notes that between 1999 and 2014, mortality rates in the United States rose for white Americans aged 22 and 56. Before that, death rates had been falling by nearly 2 percent each year since 1968” (Khazan, 2016). Squires and Blumenthal think that the reason behind this increasing mortality rate is economic: “They have lower incomes, fewer are employed, and fewer are married” (quoted in Khazan, 2016). Others have speculated that it is also due to the emphasis on individualism in American culture where one’s successes and failures are individual, rather than societal. The point is that although class identity is not as readily apparent as, say, gender identity, it still influences our perceptions of and communication with others. Race, class, and sometimes gender identity are interrelated. For example, statistically speaking, being born African American, poor, and female increases one’s chances of remaining in poverty (Mishel, Bernstein, & Allegretto, 2006). But, of course, race and class are not synonymous. There are many poor whites, and there are increasing numbers of wealthy African Americans. In this sense, these multiple identities are interrelated but not identical.

National Identity Among many identities, we also have a national identity, which should not be confused with racial or ethnic identity. Nationality, unlike racial or ethnic identity, refers to one’s legal status in relation to a nation. Many U.S. citizens can trace their ethnicity to Latin America, Asia, Europe, or Africa, but their nationality, or citizenship, is with the United States. People who do not hold citizenship in any country are called stateless. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees notes that “the exact number of stateless people is not known, but UNHCR estimates that there are millions globally” (Stateless, n.d.) Many people end up stateless as some countries only allow people from some ethnic groups to become citizens, laws restricting women passing nationality to their children, children born out of wedlock, the disappearance of some countries where people held citizenship, and more. Without legal recognition from any nation, stateless people are particularly disadvantaged in access to education, jobs, and more. Citizenship for many people is a very important part of their identity (see Point of View, p. 192). While most U.S. Americans are proud to be citizens of the United States, these sentiments can shift. In a recent Gallup poll, only 47% of respondents said that they were “extremely proud to be Americans,” which “is a new low” (Jones, 2018). In many other countries, people are also proud to be citizens of their countries but don’t feel the need to wave flags or hang flags from their residences.

national identity  National citizenship.

stateless person  Someone who does not hold citizenship in any country

POINT of VIEW

N

ational identities are complex creations that are influenced by many factors. When the United States was founded, a sense of belonging to a larger collectivity needed to be created. One way to do this was the creation of stories, such as George Washington chopping down the cherry tree, or Betsy Ross sewing the first flag. But creating these narratives is not the only influence in building national identity. Benedict Anderson (1983) is famous for his work on understanding national identity as what he called “imagined communities.” People feel a connection with others of their nation. Communication plays an important role in constructing national identity, especially at particular events, for example, the World Cup. In the 2018 FIFA World Cup tournament, the Belgian team did particularly well and ended up in third place. As they won match after match, Belgian national pride in their team began to rise rapidly in a country where national identity is relatively weak: “One of the world’s least nationalist nations, riven by language and ethnicity, is briefly united behind its Diables Rouges (if you’re a francophone Walloon) or Rode Duivels (for Dutch-speaking Flemings). […] Even winning the World Cup probably wouldn’t spark much Belgian nationalism” (Kuper, 2018). But for a brief moment, the cheering crowds at bars didn’t care if you were speaking Dutch or French, as sports brought people together as Belgians. In their study of the role of sports in developing a national identity, Doupona Topič & Coakley (2010) focused on the case of Slovenia which gained its independence in 1991 from Yugoslavia. As a new nation, Slovenia was interested in using sports to help develop its new national identity and communicate it to the world. As every nation has its own history, the case of Slovenia may be quite different from older nations, such as Japan or India. As you think about your own national identity, what role do sports play in promoting and reinforcing that identity? Are some sports or sporting events more important than others in communicating your national identity? Sources: From B. Anderson (1983). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. New York: Verso. From S. Kuper (2018, July 9). Belgium unites briefly behind the globalized Red Devils. Financial Times. Retrieved February 20, 2020, from https://www.ft.com/content/22f9e286-838a-11e8-96dd -fa565ec55929 From M. Doupona Topič & J. Coakley (2010). Complicating the relationship between sport and national identity: the case of post-socialist Slovenia. Sociology of sport journal, 27(4), 371–389.

As a legal status, as well as an identity, nationality can be revoked or denied. In 2019, a federal judge ruled that Hoda Muthana who was born in the United States was not a U.S. citizen. After leaving Alabama to join ISIS, she now wants to return to the United States with her child. Since the U.S. government no longer recognizes her as a citizen (it had earlier issued her a U.S. passport), her child is also not a U.S. citizen and neither can enter the United States (Savage, 2019). 192

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Similarly, Shamima Begum lost her British citizenship after she left the United Kingdom to join ISIS when she was 15 years old. In February 2020, a British court rejected her appeal to have her British citizenship reinstated. She noted that “When my citizenship got rejected, I felt like my whole world fell apart right in front of me” (quoted in Sabbagh, 2020). There are thousands of people in similar situations who left their home countries to join ISIS and there is an ongoing debate about what to do with them. Some people argue that they should be allowed to go home and face justice there. Others do not want them to return. In any case, how you identify your nationality (avowed) may not match what the government says (ascribed). In sum, people have various ways of thinking about nationality, and they sometimes confuse nationality and ethnicity. Thus, we have overheard students asking minority students, “What is your nationality?” when they actually meant, “What is your ethnicity?” This confusion can lead to—and perhaps reflects—a lack of understanding about differences between, say, Asian Americans (ethnic group) and Asians (nationality groups). It can also tend to alienate Asian Americans and others who have been in the United States for several generations but are still perceived as foreigners.

Regional Identity Closely related to nationality is the notion of regional identity. Many regions of the world have separate, but vital and important, cultural identities. The Scottish Highlands is a region of northern Scotland that is distinctly different from the Lowlands, and regional identity remains strong in the Highlands. Here in the United States, regional identities remain important, but perhaps less so as the nation moves toward homogeneity. Southerners, for example, often view themselves, and are viewed by others, as a distinct cultural group. Similarly, Texas advertises itself as “A Whole Other Country,” promoting its regional identity. Although some regional identities can fuel national independence movements, they more often reflect cultural identities that affirm distinctive cuisines, dress, manners, and language. These identities may become important in intercultural communication situations. For example, suppose you meet someone who is Chinese. Whether the person is from Beijing, Hong Kong, or elsewhere in China may raise important communication issues. After all, Mandarin is not understood by Cantonese speakers, although both are dialects of the Chinese language. Indeed, there are many dialects in China, and they certainly are not understood by all other Chinese speakers. Regional identities can become important in the debates over what to do with the Confederate statutes that are all over the South. Some places have chosen to take them down, such as New Orleans, and others have kept them in place, such as Richmond, VA. For some white Southerners, their Southern identity is intimately related to these statutes, the Confederate flag and other symbols of the past. For others, these are symbols and ideals from a white supremacist past that should be left in the past.

regional identity  Identification with a specific geographic region of a nation.

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PERSONAL IDENTITY personal identity  Who we think we are and who others think we are.

Many issues of identity are closely tied to our notions of self. Each of us has a personal identity, which is the sum of all our identities, but it may not be unified or coherent. A dialectical perspective allows us to see identity in a more complex way. We are who we think we are; at the same time, however, contextual and external forces constrain and influence our self-perceptions. We have many identities, and these can conflict. For example, according to communication scholar Victoria Chen (1992), some Chinese American women feel caught between the traditional values of their parents’ culture and their own desire to be Americanized. From the parents’ point of view, the daughters are never Chinese enough. From the perspective of many people within the dominant culture, though, it is difficult to relate to these Chinese American women simply as “American women, born and reared in this society” (p. 231). The dialectical tension related to issues of identity for these women reveals the strain between feeling obligated to behave in traditional ways at home and yet holding a Western notion of gender equality. A dialectical perspective sees these contradictions as real and presenting challenges in communication and everyday life. Our personal identities are important to us, and we try to communicate them to others. We are more or less successful depending on how others respond to us. We use the various ways that identity is constructed to portray ourselves as we want others to see us.

MULTICULTURAL PEOPLE Multicultural people, a group currently dramatically increasing in number, are those who live “on the borders” of two or more cultures. They often struggle to reconcile two very different sets of values, norms, worldviews, and lifestyles. Some are multicultural as a result of being born to parents from different racial, ethnic, religious, or national cultures, or they were adopted into families that are racially different from their own family of origin. Others are multicultural because their parents lived overseas and they grew up in cultures different from their own, or because they spent extended time in another culture as an adult, or married someone from another cultural background. Let’s start with those who are born into biracial or multiracial families. Some contemporary examples of multiracial individuals include Barack Obama, Carmelo Anthony, Derek Jeter, Freddie Prinze Jr., Jordin Sparks, Mariah Carey, Norah Jones, Tiger Woods, and Vanessa Williams (multiracial celebrities). According to the 2010 Census, the United States has almost 9 million multiracial people—that is, people whose ancestry includes two or more races (Saulny, 2011). This number has increased about 32% from the 2000 Census, which was the first time people were given the option of selecting several categories to indicate their racial identities. This rapidly growing segment of our population must be understood in its historical context. The United States has a long history of forbidding miscegenation (the mixing of two races). The law sought not to prevent any interracial marriage but to protect “whiteness”;

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interracial marriage between people of color was rarely prohibited or regulated (Root, 2001). Thus, in 1957, the state of Virginia ruled the marriage of Mildred Jeter (African American and Native American heritage) and Peter Loving (white) illegal. The couple fought to have their marriage legalized for almost 10 years. Finally, in 1967, the Supreme Court ruled in their favor, in Loving v. Virginia, overturning 200 years of antimiscegenation legislation. As shown in Table 5-2, the development of racial identity for the children of parents like the Lovings is a fluid process of complex transactions between the child and the broader social environment (Nance & Foeman, 2002). Whereas majority and minority identities seem to develop in a fairly linear fashion, biracial children may cycle through three stages: (1) awareness of differentness and resulting dissonance, (2) struggle for acceptance, and (3) self-acceptance and self-assertion. And as they mature, they may experience the same three phases with greater intensity and awareness. In the first stage, multiracial children realize that they are different from other children—they may feel that they don’t fit in anywhere. Tiffany, whose mother is white and father is Black, describes her experience: Growing up I had kids make fun of me because they said I did not know what color I was. That really hurt me as a kid because even at a young age, I started questioning my own race. At the next stage, struggle for acceptance, multiracial adolescents may feel that they have to choose one race or the other—and indeed this was Tiffany’s experience: During my teenage years I still was a little confused about my race because I would only choose one side. When people asked me what color I was I would tell them I was Black because I was embarrassed about being mixed. I was afraid of not being accepted by the Black community if I said I was mixed. . . . I would go around telling people that I am Black and would get mad if someone said I was white. I never thought about being mixed with both Black and white. After being torn between the two (or more) races, multiracial individuals may reach the third stage of self-acceptance and self-assertion. Tiffany describes how this happened to her: I can recall a time when I had to spend Christmas with my mother’s side of the family. This was the first time I met her side of the family and I felt myself being scared. Honestly, I have never been around a lot of white people, and when I was there I realized that I am mixed and this is who I am and I cannot hide it anymore. . . . From then on I claimed both sides. And she goes on to demonstrate her self-acceptance and self-assertion: Being mixed is wonderful, and most importantly, being mixed taught me many things especially growing up. It taught me how to be strong, not to worry about what other people think and to just be myself. It also taught me not to like only one color and that all colors are beautiful. My race made me who I am today. I am strong and I know my race. I no longer have to deny what my race is or who I am.

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As you might imagine, many positive aspects are associated with having a biracial identity. In one recent study, the majority of biracial respondents “did not express feelings of marginality as suggested by traditional theories of bicultural identity. Instead, these youth exhibited a clear understanding and affiliation with both groups’ cultures and values” (Miller, Watling, Staggs, & Rotheram-Borus, 2003, p. 139). Later in the chapter, we will discuss further the important role that multi­ cultural people can play in intercultural relations. Biracial or multiracial identities can be more complex, depending on the racial configuration involved. Sociologist Richard Alba (2015) explains: “About 60 percent of multiracial Americans who have some Black ancestry reported discrimination by restaurants or other businesses, and 40 percent reported being unfairly stopped by the police.” In contrast, “adults from mixed white and Asian backgrounds feel they have more in common with whites than they do with Asians; almost half have friendship circles that are mostly made up of whites; and two-thirds live in mostly white neighborhoods.” The various racial configurations and how people respond in various contexts point to the complexities of multiracial identity—in the United States and around the world. But multiracial identity can also be more complex. Korean adoptees who were adopted by white families do not seem to have had an easy reconciliation of these identities. In the Hongdae section of Seoul, South Korea: “The neighborhood is also a popular spot for the approximately 300 to 500 adoptees who have moved to South Korea—primarily from the United States but also from France, Denmark and other nations. Most lack fluency in the language and possess no memories of the country they left when they were young. But they are back, hoping for a sense of connection—to South Korea, to their birth families, to other adoptees” (Jones, 2015, p. 32). The rejection that they felt in the United States and elsewhere was due to acceptance: “In a 2009 survey of adult adoptees by the Donaldson Adoption Institute, more than 75 percent of the 179 Korean respondents who grew up with two white parents said they thought of themselves as white or wanted to be white when they were children. Most also said they had experienced racial discrimination, including from teachers. Only a minority said they felt welcomed by members of their own ethnic group” (Jones, 2015, p. 34). Some reported having parents who dismissed the racism that their children experienced or couldn’t discuss race and white privilege with their children. In other words, the complexities of interracial families, racial identities, in the context of racism and racial thinking can create complex family relationships as we can see in the case of interracial adoptions. Not all international adoptions end badly, but some do and we should acknowledge the complexity of race and racism as larger contexts for understanding identities and identity development. In addition to multicultural identities based on race and ethnicity, there are multicultural identities based on religion, sexual orientation, or other identities. For example, children growing up with a Jewish and a Christian parent may feel torn between the two and follow some of the same identity development phases as biracial children—where they feel different, forced to choose between one or the other. Teresa says, “My father is Mexican American and my mother is white, so I have a Latino last name. When I was younger, some kids would tease me with racial slurs about

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Mexicans. My mother totally didn’t understand and just said that I should ignore them, but my father understood much better. He faced the same taunting as a child in Indiana.” A straight child of gay parents may have similar feelings of needing to negotiate between straight and gay worldviews. Individuals develop multicultural identities for other reasons. For example, global nomads (or third-culture kids—TCKs) grow up in many different cultural contexts because their parents move around a lot (e.g., missionaries, international business employees, and military families). According to a recent study, these children have unique challenges and unique opportunities. They move an average of about eight times, experience cultural rules that may be constraining (e.g., in cultures where children have less freedom), and endure periods of family separation. At the same time, they have opportunities not provided to most people—extensive travel, living in new and different places around the world. As adults, they settle down and often feel the need to reconnect with other global nomads (easier now through technologies such as the Internet) (Ender, 2002). President Barack Obama is a good example of a global nomad—his father was an African exchange student and his mother a U.S. American college student. He spent his childhood first in Hawaii and then in Indonesia when his mother and his Indonesian stepfather moved there. Like many TCKs, he was separated from his family during high school when he returned to Hawaii to live with his grandparents. His stepsister credits his ability to understand people from many different backgrounds to his many intercultural experiences as a child and adolescent—like many global nomads, these experiences “gave him the ability to . . . understand people from a wide array of backgrounds. People see themselves in him . . . because he himself contains multitudes” (“Obama’s sister talks about his childhood,” 2008). Children of foreign-born immigrants may also develop multicultural identities. Foreign-born immigrants in the United States represent one of the fastestgrowing segments—almost a third of the current foreign-born population arrived in the United States since 1990. These include refugees from war zones like Syria and Iraq and migrants who come to the United States to escape dire economic conditions. They often struggle to negotiate their identities, torn between family expectations and their new American culture. Melanie, a student of ours, is not a refugee but is an example of a TCK. Having lived in a number of countries, she explains how she feels: As a global nomad, I am grateful for all of the experiences I was lucky enough to experience a lot from a young age; however, the downfall for me is that I have a little bit of many cultures and identities. I have never stopped for long enough to learn about one culture or identity because it was constantly changing. I was born in Argentina and my family has kept a lot of Argentine traditions but I know very little about Argentine history and my Spanish has slowly worsened. I grew up in France where I developed my family identity as I was surrounded with family but I didn’t associate myself as a “French” person. I lived in New Zealand for 10 years where I learned a lot about the history and social norms but I was missing my family identity.

global nomads (third-culture kids)  People who grow up in many different cultural contexts because their parents relocated.

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James explains the complexity of identity and communicating his identities: My parents are British but I was born in Amsterdam. We later moved to Greece, South Africa and now they live in Singapore. I have never lived in the U.K. but I am only a British citizen. When people ask me where I am from, I want to say that I am a combination of all of these places, but I’m also just British. Now that the U.K. is leaving the European Union, I don’t know what my future holds. In contrast, Anna, another student, who was born in Russia, does not feel that she is really Russian because of her international experiences: I have always strongly disliked the question, “where are you from?” What do you mean by that? Are you asking me where I was born, or where I have lived throughout my life? I could tell you where I was born, but that does not necessarily mean that I feel any connection to that place or that I strongly identify with that particular city. I have always had a tough time truly defining who I am. However, I do believe that identity is not static; it constantly evolves and changes. My identity is made up of the cultures that I have been exposed to throughout my life. Every place that I have lived in has shaped me into the person I am today. The interaction that I have had with individuals from different backgrounds have also influenced my identity. I do not consider myself Russian. In fact, I consider myself Russian-Swedish-American, as strange as that may sound. All of these students have negotiated their identities in various cultural and national contexts. Multicultural identities can be quite complex, but are becoming increasingly common in an era of globalization. A final category of multicultural people includes those who have intense intercultural experiences as adults—for example, people who maintain long-term romantic relationships with members of another ethnic or racial group or who spend extensive time living in other cultures. Miguel tells us, “My father is an American, but my mother is from Chile. Because they divorced when I was young and my father returned to the United States, I spent a lot of time traveling back and forth and learning to adapt to two different cultures and languages. I don’t feel completely Chilean or American, but I feel like I am both. I have family and friends in both places and I feel connected in different ways.” We will discuss these multicultural identities more in Chapter 8, “Understanding Intercultural Transitions.” All multicultural people may feel as if they live in cultural margins, struggling with two sets of cultural realities: not completely part of the dominant culture but not an outsider, either. Social psychologist Peter Adler (1974) describes the multicultural person as someone who comes to grips with a multiplicity of realities. This individual’s identity is not defined by a sense of belonging; rather, it is a new psychocultural form of consciousness. Milton Bennett (1993) describes how individuals can develop an “ethnorelative” perspective based on their attitudes toward cultural differences. The first, and most ethnocentric, stage involves the denial or ignoring of difference. The next stage occurs when people recognize difference but attach negative meaning to it. A third stage occurs when people minimize the effects of difference—for example, with statements like “We’re really all the same under the skin” and “After all, we’re all God’s children.” Bennett recognizes that minority and majority individuals may

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experience these phases differently. In addition, minority individuals usually skip the first phase. They don’t have the option to deny difference; they are often reminded by others that they are different. The remainder of the stages represents a major shift in thinking—a paradigm shift— because positive meanings are associated with difference. In the fourth phase (acceptance), people accept the notion of cultural difference; in the fifth phase (adaptation), they may change their own behavior to adapt to others. The final phase (integration) is similar to Peter Adler’s (1974) notion of a “multicultural person.” According to Adler, multicultural individuals may become culture brokers— people who facilitate cross-cultural interaction and reduce conflict, which we’ll discuss in more detail in Chapter 12. For example, TCKs/global nomads often develop resilience, tolerance, and worldliness, characteristics essential for successful living in an increasingly diverse and global social and economic world (Ender, 1996). And, indeed, there are many challenges and opportunities today for multicultural people, who can reach a level of insight and cultural functioning not experienced by others. However, Adler (1974) also identifies potential stresses and tensions associated with multicultural individuals:

culture brokers  Individuals who act as bridges between cultures, facilitating cross-cultural interaction and conflict.

They may confuse the profound with the insignificant, not sure what is really important. They may feel multiphrenic, fragmented. They may suffer a loss of their own authenticity and feel reduced to a variety of roles. They may retreat into existential absurdity. (p. 35) Communication scholar Janet Bennett (1993) provides insight into how being multicultural can be at once rewarding and challenging. She describes two types of multicultural individuals: (1) encapsulated marginals, who become trapped by their own marginality, and (2) constructive marginals, who thrive in their marginality. Encapsulated marginals have difficulty making decisions, are troubled by ambiguity, and feel pressure from both groups. They try to assimilate but never feel comfortable, never feel “at home.” In contrast, constructive marginal people thrive in their marginal existence and, at the same time, they recognize the tremendous challenges. They see themselves (rather than others) as choice makers. They recognize the significance of being “in between,” and they are able to make commitments within the relativistic framework. Even so, this identity is constantly being negotiated and explored; it is never easy, given society’s penchant for superficial categories. Writer Ruben Martinez (1998) describes the experience of a constructive marginal: And so I can celebrate what I feel to be my cultural success. I’ve taken the farflung pieces of myself and fashioned an identity beyond that ridiculous, fraying old border between the United States and Mexico. But my “success” is still marked by anxiety, a white noise that disturbs whatever raceless utopia I might imagine. I feel an uneasy tension between all the colors, hating and loving them all, perceiving and speaking from one and many perspectives simultaneously. The key word here is “tension”: nothing, as yet, has been resolved. My body is both real and unreal, its color both confining and liberating. (p. 260)

encapsulated marginal  a person who feels trapped by their marginalization constructive marginal  a person who thrives in their marginalization

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IDENTITY, STEREOTYPES, AND PREJUDICE

stereotypes  Widely held beliefs about a group of people. model minority  A stereotype that characterizes all Asians and Asian Americans as hardworking and serious and so a “good” minority.

The identity characteristics described previously sometimes form the basis for stereotypes, prejudice, and racism. We will see in the next chapter that these can be communicated verbally, nonverbally, or both. The origins of these have both individual and contextual elements. To make sense out of the overwhelming amount of information we receive, we necessarily categorize and generalize, sometimes relying on stereotypes—widely held beliefs about some group. Stereotypes help us know what to expect from others. They may be positive or negative. For example, Asian Americans have often been subjected to the positive model minority stereotype, which characterizes all Asians and Asian ­Americans as hardworking and serious. This stereotype became particularly prevalent in the United States during the civil rights movement of the 1960s and 1970s. At that time, Asian Americans were seen as the “good” minority—in contrast to African Americans, who were often confrontative and even militant in their fight for equality. Even positive stereotypes can be damaging in that they create unrealistic expectations for individuals. Simply because someone is Asian American (or pretty, or smart) does not mean that he or she will excel in school or be out­ going and charming. Stereotypes become particularly detrimental when they are negative and are held rigidly. Research has shown that, once adopted, stereo­types are difficult to discard. In fact, people tend to remember information that supports a stereotype but may not retain information that contradicts it (Hamilton, Sherman, & Ruvolo, 1990). We pick up stereotypes in many ways, including from the media. In TV shows and movies, older people often are portrayed as needing help, and Asian Americans, African Americans, or Latinos / as rarely play leading, assertive roles. Current research also shows that although obvious negative stereotypes of Native American Indians are less common in the media, they are still commonly represented in print media as degraded outsiders, often “corrupt, alcoholic and doomed objects of pity” (Miller & Ross, 2004, p. 255) or as either the “good” or “bad” Indians. Communication scholar Bishetta D. Merritt (2000) analyzes portrayals of African American women on television shows and decries the lack of multi­dimensional roles. She identifies the kinds of roles that perpetuate stereotypes: Portrayals that receive little or no attention today are the background characters that merely serve as scenery on television programs. These characters include the homeless person on the street, the hotel lobby prostitute, or the drug user making a buy from her dealer. They may not be named in the credits or have recurring roles, but their mere appearance can have an impact on the consciousness of the viewer and, as a result, an impact on the imagery of the African American women. (p. 52) We may learn stereotypes from our families and peers. One student described how she learned stereotyping and prejudice from her classmates: One of my earliest experiences with a person ethnically diverse from me was when I was in kindergarten. A little girl in my class named Adelia was from Pakistan. I noticed that Adelia was a different color from me, but I didn’t think it was a

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bad thing. I got along with her very well. We played the same games, watched the same cartoons, and enjoyed each other’s company. Soon I discovered that my other friends didn’t like Adelia as much as I did. They didn’t want to hold hands with her, and they claimed that she was different from us. When I told them that Adelia was my friend, they didn’t want to hold hands with me either. They started to poke fun at me and excluded me from their games. This hurt me so much that I stopped playing with Adelia, and I joined my friends in avoiding her. As a result, Adelia began to resent me and labeled me prejudiced. Stereotypes can also develop out of negative experiences. If we have unpleasant encounters with people, we may generalize that unpleasantness to include all members of that group, whatever group characteristic we focus on (e.g., race, gender, or sexual orientation). This was demonstrated repeatedly after the attacks of September 11, 2001. Many people of Middle Eastern descent became victims of stereotyping, particularly when traveling. Although we do not know how often such events happen, stereotypes and prejudice can work together to thwart the everyday workings of airlines. Recently, a University of Pennsylvania faculty member who was flying from Philadelphia to Syracuse, New York was questioned about the writing he was doing, as a woman became concerned about him and asked to be rebooked on another flight. She left the plane and the flight was delayed over two hours as her concerns were investigated. The professor Guido Menzio is Italian. “That’s right: He’s Italian, not Middle Eastern, or whatever heritage usually gets ethnically profiled on flights these days” (Rampell, 2016). His writing was not Arabic, but mathematical equations relevant to his work as an economist. The U.S. Department of Homeland Security does ask all of us, “If you see something, say something,” and they tell us that: “So if you see something you know shouldn’t be there—or someone’s behavior that doesn’t seem quite right—say something. Because only you know what’s supposed to be in your everyday” (Department of Homeland Security, n.d.). This system relies on people seeing things that don’t seem right, which can play into stereotypes and prejudice against certain groups. A dialectical approach asks us to balance our concerns about odd behaviors of others with the recognition that we may be engaging in racial or ethnic profiling. Because stereotypes often operate at an unconscious level and so are persistent, people have to work consciously to reject them. First, they must recognize the stereotype, and then they must obtain information to counteract it. This is not easy because, as noted previously, we tend to “see” behavior that fits our stereotypes and to ignore which doesn’t. For example, if you think that most women are bad drivers, you will tend to notice when a female motorist makes a mistake but to ignore bad male driving. To undo this stereotype, you have to be very vigilant and do something that isn’t “natural”—to be very conscious of how you “see” and categorize bad driving and to note bad driving by both males and females. Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a cultural group based on little or no experience. It is a prejudgment of sorts. Whereas stereotypes tell us what a group is like, prejudice tells us how we are likely to feel about that group (Newberg, 1994). Scholars disagree somewhat on the origins of prejudice and its relationship to stereotyping. Prejudice may arise from personal needs to feel positive about our own groups and

prejudice  An attitude (usually negative) toward a cultural group based on little or no evidence.

STUDENT VOICES I fell in love with a first-generation Mexican American. It took many arguments and lots of time before he was accepted into my family. Once everyone saw what an incredible person Gabe is, I think they favored him more than me. . . . He and I had been together for a year and a half and the time had come for me to meet his family. I was extremely nervous because his parents spoke only Spanish and I only spoke English. How was I going to communicate with my boyfriend’s family? To my surprise, this was the least of my worries. When we were introduced, I thought his parents were going to faint. I am “white.” I am not the same race as this family, and they resented my having a relationship with their son. I must be very naive, but I never thought prejudices would be directed toward me. This was quite an eye-opener for me. . . . Unfortunately, Gabriel’s sisters spoke English. They made quite a point to be rude and neglect me in every conversation they had. I felt terrible. Before I knew it, Gabe’s sister, Amelia, pulled me into her room. She began explaining to me how I would never be part of their family. Because I was not of Hispanic descent, I was not worthy to be with her brother. She went on to tell me that her parents hated me. . . . This was really difficult for me to swallow. This family hated me because of something I have absolutely no control over, my race. I sat there, not sure of what to say or do. I was so hurt and upset, I stood up and yelled. I told her that this is the problem with society. Why, when we have a chance to change what we hate, do we resist? How can we consciously continue doing these things? Basically, the same countless arguments I had with my parents, I had with Gabe’s sister. Whatever happened in that room was the most rewarding experience. We continued discussing the problem. By the end of the conversation, we were such good friends. Shortly after that, Gabe’s family felt like my family. The slight taste of prejudice I felt has to be minimal compared to other people’s experiences. I am thankful I was fortunate enough to have such an experience early in my life. I honestly have to admit, Amelia changed me for the better. —Jennifer

microaggression  Subtle insults directed toward cultural groups often unconsciously.

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negative about others, or it may arise from perceived or real threats (Hecht, 1998). Researchers Walter Stephan and Cookie Stephan (1996) have shown that tension between cultural groups and negative previous contact, along with status inequalities and perceived threats, can lead to prejudice. One communicative practice in which people express their prejudices is called microaggressions. Microaggressions “are subtle insults (verbal, nonverbal, and/or visual) directed toward people of color, often automatically or unconsciously” (Solórzano, Ceja, & Yosso, 2000, p. 60). Although the term “microaggression” was initially used to describe behavior directed against

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African Americans decades ago, it has been expanded to include aversive behavior directed against other identities, including gender, sexuality, and disability. Unlike other more explicit expressions of prejudice, such as hate crimes, cross burnings, explicit use of racial (or other) terms, microaggressions are subtle, but serve to communicate prejudice against particular cultural groups. Why do people hold prejudices? Psychologist Richard Brislin (1999) suggests that just as stereotyping arises from normal cognitive functioning, holding prejudices may serve understandable functions. These functions may not excuse prejudice, but they do help us understand why prejudice is so widespread. He identifies the following four such functions: 1. The utilitarian function. People hold certain prejudices because they can lead to rewards. For example, if your friends or family hold prejudices toward certain groups, it will be easier for you simply to share those attitudes, rather than risk rejection by contradicting their attitudes. 2. The ego-defensive function. People hold certain prejudices because they don’t want to believe unpleasant things about themselves. For example, if either of us (  Judith or Tom) is not a very good teacher, it will be useful for us to hold negative stereotypes about students, such as that they are lazy and don’t work hard. In this way, we can avoid confronting the real problem—our lack of teaching skills. The same kind of thing happens in the workplace: It is easier for people to stereotype women and minorities as unfit for jobs than to confront their own lack of skill or qualifications for a job. 3. The value-expressive function. People hold certain prejudices because they serve to reinforce aspects of life that are highly valued. Religious attitudes often function in this way. Some people are prejudiced against certain religious groups because they see themselves as holding beliefs in the one true God, and part of their doctrine is the belief that others are wrong. For instance, Judith’s Mennonite family held prejudices against Catholics, who were viewed as misguided and wrong. This may also be operating today as some U.S. Americans search for validation of prejudices again Muslims. A more extreme example involves the atrocities committed against groups of people by others who want to retain the supposed values of a pure racial stock (e.g., “ethnic cleansing” by Serbs against Muslims in the former Yugoslavia). 4. The knowledge function. People hold certain prejudices because such attitudes allow them to organize and structure their world in a way that makes sense to them—in the same way that stereotypes help us organize our world. For example, if you believe that members of a certain group are flaky and irresponsible, then you don’t have to think very much when meeting someone from that group in a work situation. You already know what they’re like and so can react to them more automatically. Prejudices can serve several of these functions over the life span. Thus, children may develop a certain prejudice to please their parents (utilitarian) and continue to hold prejudice because it helps define who they are (value-expressive). Brislin (1999) points out that many remedial programs addressing the problem of prejudice fail

STUDENT VOICES I would have to say that the most important identity to me is being Pakistani and being a Muslim. My religion and culture are both very important to me. I have not really had too many experiences in which I thought that my identity was not being affirmed. However, there have been some minor experiences that I have faced. We all know that after that incident, Muslims really got a bad name. People used to associate all Muslims with being terrorists. During that time, that seemed to be the subject of discussion in every single class. I remember in one of my classes, a guy said that all Muslims are terrorists. That really hurt me and I took offense to that. I spoke up and said that if you are not a Muslim then you have no right to say that. I said that if you are not a Muslim, then you really do not know what it means to be one, and you do not know the true values and beliefs of the religion. I am a practicing Muslim, and I know my religion very well, and I know that the religion of Islam does not teach anything but to love one another. I did not care if someone did not believe me because everyone is entitled to their own opinion, but my main purpose was to say that it was wrong for the guy to say something that big about a whole group of people. It would be best if people could keep comments like that to themselves. If the guy just kept that comment to himself, it would not have hurt him and it would have not hurt me for sure. That was one time, that I thought that my identity was not being affirmed. But other than that, most people that I have come across and most people who I tell that I am a Muslim do not react with any sort of hostility. That makes me feel really good and accepted in a society in which most people are not Muslims. —Shazim

because of a lack of recognition of the important functions that prejudice fulfills in our lives. Presenting people with factual information about groups addresses only one function (knowledge) and ignores the more complex reasons that we hold prejudices. Prejudice and stereotypes can also lead to acts of discrimination, which will be discussed in Chapter 7.

IDENTITY AND COMMUNICATION

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Identity has a profound influence on intercultural communication processes. We can employ some of the dialectics identified in earlier chapters to illuminate this relationship. First, we can use the individual–cultural dynamic to examine the issues that arise when we encounter people whose identities we don’t know. In intercultural communication interactions, mistaken identities are often exacerbated and can create communication problems.

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Sometimes we assume knowledge about another person’s identity based on his or her membership in a particular cultural group. When we do so, we are ignoring the individual aspect. Taking a dialectical perspective can help us recognize and balance both the individual and the cultural aspects of another’s identity. This perspective can guide the ways that we communicate with that person (and conceivably with others). “The question here is one of identity: Who am I perceived to be when I communicate with others? . . . My identity is very much tied to the ways in which others speak to me and the ways in which society represents my interests” (Nakayama, 2000, p. 14). Think about the assumptions you might make about others based on their physical appearance. What do you “know” about people if you know only that they are from, say, the South, or Australia, or Pakistan? Perhaps it is easier to think about the times that people have made erroneous assumptions about you based on limited information— assumptions that you became aware of in the process of communication. Focusing solely on someone’s nationality, place of origin, education, religion, and the like, can lead to mistaken conclusions about the person’s identity. Another way to understand how we communicate our identities comes from the study of performance. Although we can look at someone’s individual performance of identity to better understand how they understand who they think they are, we can also look at cultural performance to understand cultural identities. One part of U.S. history often hidden is the horrific practice of lynching. Yet we must acknowledge that lynching was a widespread and common practice in U.S. culture, and we can often be confused when we see many of the perpetrators smiling in these photos because it seems incomprehensible that they were not horrified by this event. Performance studies scholar Kirk Fuoss (1999) suggests that a performance perspective can help us better understand how people can participate in these atrocities and the purpose of these lynchings for the perpetrators. For example, Fuoss argues that lynching in the United States functioned as a cultural performance that served to reinforce a particular kind of racial order for those who participated in or heard about the lynching. Lynchings took place outside of the legal system, and therefore a belief in the evilness of the victim substituted for a proof or evidence of guilt. This inversion of right and wrong served to relieve the group identity of the lynchers from their own evil behavior. These murders reflect aspects of our culture that have deep historical roots. By examining these performative acts, we can begin to see what they communicate to others and the kinds of social order they encourage. Thus, lynchings are a public act that serve to communicate the positions of various cultural groups in society. It is important to remember that performances not only are artistic and interesting but can also be horrific. In both cases, performances of identity can offer insights into our culture. Now let’s turn to the static–dynamic dialectic. The problem of erroneous assumptions has increased during the information age, due to the torrent of information about the world and the dynamic nature of the world in which we live. We are bombarded daily with information from around the globe about places and people. This glut of information and intercultural contacts has heightened the importance of developing a more complex view of identity.

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Given the many identities that we all negotiate for ourselves in our everyday interactions, it becomes clear how our identities and those of others make intercultural communication problematic. We need to think of these identities as both static and dynamic. We live in an era of information overload, and the wide array of communication media only serves to increase the identities we must negotiate. Consider the relationships that develop via e-mail, for example. Some people even create new identities as a result of online interactions. We change who we are depending on the people we communicate with and the manner of our communication. Yet we also expect some static characteristics from the people with whom we communicate. We expect others to express certain fixed qualities; these help account for why we tend to like or dislike them and how we can establish particular communication patterns with them. The tensions that we feel as we change identities from e-mail to telephone to mail to fax and other communication media demonstrate the dynamic and static characters of identities. Finally, we can focus on the personal–contextual dialectic of identity and communication. Although some dimensions of our identities are personal and remain fairly consistent, we cannot overlook the contextual constraints on our identity.

INTERNET RESOURCES http://www.whitenessproject.org https://www.facebook.com/whitenessproject Whitney Dow’s Whiteness Project is an ongoing project to interview whites about being white. The project has a webpage with the interviews posted in which whites speak about being white. There is also a Facebook page, if you are interested in reading what others are discussing about the interviews or adding your own comments. http://pewforum.org/ The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life website provides research, news, and discussions regarding topics related to religious identity, for example, college students’ beliefs about religion, the role of religion in debates on gay marriage, science education, politics, and so forth. The site also provides religious demographic profiles for different countries. www.pbs.org/race/001_WhatIsRace/001_00-home.htm This website provided by PBS is a comprehensive exploration of myths and constructions of race. It has some interesting interactive links, such as “Sorting People,” which allows a person to categorize pictures of people based on contemporary U.S. racial categories and then see how the government would classify the pictures. It also provides a “race timeline”—how the notion of race developed through history. www.intermix.org.uk/word_up/index.asp This British web page was developed to benefit mixed-race families and multiracial individuals. It contains news stories about Mariah Carey, Halle Berry, Craig David, and other multiracial celebrities.

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SUMMARY There are three approaches to identity: social science, interpretive, and critical. ▪▪ A dialectical view of identity emphasizes that identities are both static (as described by the social science perspective) and dynamic (described by the interpretive and critical perspectives), as well as personal and contextual. ▪▪ Identities also develop in relation to minority and majority group membership. ▪▪ Identities are multiple and reflect gender, sexuality, age, race, ethnicity, religion, class, nationality, regionality, and other aspects of our lives. ▪▪ Increasing numbers of multicultural people live “on the borders” between two or more cultures—based on race, ethnicity, religion, and nationality. ▪▪ Identity characteristics sometimes form the basis for stereotypes and prejudice. ▪▪ Communication plays an important role in identity—identities are formed and expressed through communication.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How do our perceptions of our own cultural identity influence our communication with others? 2. What are some ways in which we express our identities? 3. How does being white affect one’s experience in the United States? 4. What are the roles of avowal and ascription in the process of identity formation? 5. What are some of the ways in which members of minority cultures and members of majority cultures develop their cultural identities?

ACTIVITIES 1. Stereotypes in Your Life. List some of the stereotypes you have heard about U.S. Americans. Then answer the following questions: a. How do you think these stereotypes developed? b. How do they influence communication between U.S. Americans and people from other countries? 2. Stereotypes in Prime-Time TV. Watch four hours of television during the next week, preferably during evening hours when there are more commercials. Record the number of representatives of different identity groups (ethnic, racial, gender, age, class, and so on) that appear in the commercials; also record the role that each person plays. Answer the following questions: a. How many different groups were represented? b. What groups were most represented? Why do you think this is so?

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c. What groups were least represented? Why do you think this is so? d. What differences (if any) were there in the roles that members of the various groups played? Did one group play more sophisticated or more glamorous roles than others? e. In how many cases were people depicted in stereotypical roles—for example, African Americans as athletes, or women as homemakers? f. What stereotypes were reinforced in the commercials? g. What do your findings suggest about the power of the media and their effect on identity formation and intercultural communication? (Think about avowal, ascription, and interpellation.) 3. Communication of white Identity. Go to the website: whitenessproject.org. There are two groups of people speaking from Dallas, TX and Buffalo, NY. Listen to a number of these entries, and then be ready to discuss how whiteness, racism, stereotyping, and identity function in society. KEY WORDS age identity (178) ascription (164) avowal (164) cisgender (176) class identity (189) constructive marginal (199) core symbols (165) culture brokers (199) encapsulated marginals (199) ethnic identity (181) familial identity (162) gender identity (175)

global nomads (thirdculture kids) (197) hyphenated Americans (181) identity (159) identity negotiation theory (163) impression management theory (159) individualized identity (162) interpellation (166) majority identity (172) microaggression (202)

minority identity (169) model minority (200) national identity (191) personal identity (194) prejudice (201) racial identity (180) regional identity (193) religious identity (187) sexual identity (178) spiritual identity (163) stateless person (191) stereotypes (200) transgender (176)

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Saulny, S. (2011, March 24). Census data presents rise in multiracial population of youths. The New York Times. Retrieved May 24, 2011, from nytimes.com /2011/03/25/us/25race.html. Savage, C. (2019, November 19). American-born women who joined ISIS is not a citizen, judge rules. The New York Times. Retrieved February 18, 2020, from https:// www.nytimes.com/2019/11/14/us/hoda-muthana-isis -citizenship.html Schneier, M. (2020, February 13). Jews must set an example in resisting coronavirus anti-Chinese racism. The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved February 18, 2020, from https:// www.jpost.com/Opinion/Jews-must-set-an-example-in -resisting-coronavirus-anti-Chinese-racism-617537 Schmidt, N., & Fox, K. (2018, December 29). Germany’s third gender law is celebrated as a revolution. But some say it’s just the first step. CNN. Retrieved on February 18, 2020, from https://www.cnn.com/2018/12/29 /health/third-gender-law-germany-grm-intl/index.html Sigelman, L., Tuch, S. A., & Martin, J. K. (2005). What’s in a name? Preference for “Black” versus “African American” among Americans of African descent. Public Opinion Quarterly, 69, 429–438. Shrestha, M. (2011, May 31). Nepal census recognizes “third gender.” CNN. Retrieved July 20, 2020, from http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/05/31 /nepal.census.gender/index.html Smith, T.W. (1992). Changing racial labels: From “Colored” to “Negro” to “Black” to “African American.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 56(4), 496–514. Solórzano, D., Ceja, M., & Yosso, T. (2000). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate: The experiences of African American college students. Journal of Negro Education, 69(1/2): 60–73. Statelessness around the world. (n.d.) United National High Commissioner on Refugees. Retrieved February 18, 2020, from https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/statelessness -around-the-world.html Stephan, W., & Stephan, C. (1996). Predicting prejudice: The role of threat. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20, 409–426. Strauss, W., & Howe, N. (1997). The fourth turning: American Prophecy. New York: Broadway Books. Tajfel, H. (1978). Social categorization, social identity and social comparison. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Differentiation between social groups (pp. 61–76). London: Academic Press. Tajfel, H. (1981). Human categories and social groups. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tajfel, H. (1982). Social identity and intergroup relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tanno, D. (2000). Names, narratives, and the evolution of ethnic identity. In A. González, M. Houston, & V. Chen (Eds.), Our voices: Essays in ethnicity, culture,

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and communication (3rd ed., pp. 25–28). Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury. Tedeschi, J. T., Lindskold, S., & Rosenfeld, P. (1985). Introduction to social psychology. St. Paul, MN: West. Thompson, D. (2019, September 26). Three Decades Ago, America Lost Its Religion. Why? The Atlantic. Retrieved February 21, 2020, from https://www .theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/09/atheism -fastest-growing-religion-us/598843/Z Ting-Toomey, S. (1993). Communication resourcefulness: An identity negotiation perspective. In R. Wiseman & J. Koester (Eds.), Intercultural communication. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Ting-Toomey, S. (2005). Identity negotiation theory: Crossing cultural boundaries. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural communication (pp. 211–233). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Trinh, T. M. (1986/1987). Difference: A special third world women issue. Discourse, 8. U.S. Census Bureau (2015, March 3). New Census Bureau report analyzes U.S. population projections. Retrieved

May 3, 2016, from https://www.census.gov /newsroom/press-releases/2015/cb15-tps16.html. Why Black and not African American? (20 April 2007). Retrieved February 16, 2008, from http:// theangryblackwoman.wordpress.com/2007/04/20 /why-black-and-not-african-american/. Witteborn, S. (2004). Of being an Arab woman before and after September 11: The enactment of communal identities in talk. Howard Journal of Communications, 15, 83–98. Wood, J. T. (2005). Gendered lives: Communication, gender and culture (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. World Health Organization. (2020, February 11). Breaking. Twitter. Retrieved on February 18, 2020, from https://twitter.com/WHO/status/ 1227248333871173632 Zuckerman, P. (2015, January 14). Op-Ed: How secular family values stack up. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 21, 2020, from https://www.latimes.com /nation/la-oe-0115-zuckerman-secular-parenting -20150115-story.html

CREDITS [page 129, text] O. Alnatour, quote from “Muslims are not terrorist: A factual look at terrorism and Islam.” from The World Post (December 9, 2015). [page 162–163, text] M.-S. Kim, quote from Non-western perspectives on human communication. Sage. [page 163, text] A. Roland, excerpt from In search of self in India and Japan: Towards a cross-cultural psychology. Princeton University Press. [page 163, text] S. E. Cross, quote from “What does it mean to “know thyself” in the United States and Japan?: The cultural construction of the self” in Self and identity through the life course in cross-cultural perspective, edited by T. J. Owens. JAI Press. [page 164, text] C. McGreal, quote from “Rachel Dolezal: ‘I wasn’t identifying as black to upset people. I was being me’ ” from The Guardian (December 13, 2015). [page 166, text] M. J. Collier, excerpt from “Theorizing cultural identification: Critical updates and continuing evolution” in Theorizing about intercultural communication, edited by W. B. Gudykunst. Sage. [page 167, text] L. Althusser, excerpt from “Ideology and ideological state apparatuses (notes toward an investigation)” in Lenin and philosophy and other essays, (trans.). B. Brewster. NLB. [page 167–168, text] J. Angelos, excerpt from “Becoming European” from The New York Times Magazine (April 10, 2016): 40–47, 54, 57, 59. [page 167, text] K. Cengel, excerpt from “A Sudden Breach in Uganda” from The New York Times Magazine (April 15, 2016). [page 171, text] R. Martinez, excerpt from “Technicolor” in Half and half: Writers on growing up biracial 1 bicultural, edited by C. C. O’Hearn. Pantheon Books. [page 171, text] Lauren, excerpt from “Student Voice: My father is American

. . . an American either.” Original work; [page 171, text] Ainsley, excerpt from “Student Voice: Whenever I tell . . . can speak French.” Original work; [page 172, text] Jack, excerpt from “I have a very diverse ethnic background.” Original work.; [page 172–175, text] R. Hardiman, excerpt from “White racial identity development in the United States” in Race, ethnicity and self: Identity in multicultural perspective, edited by E. P. Salett & D. R. Koslow. National MultiCultural Institute. [page 180, text] The Economist, quote from “Human races or human race?” from The Economist. [page 183, text] D. Moon, quote from “ “Be/coming” White and the myth of White ignorance: Identity projects in White communities” from Western Journal of Communication (2016): 282–303. [page 184, text] S. N. McDonald, excerpt from “American in Paris: Saul Williams critiques his home country from the outside looking in” from The Washington Post (September 23, 2015). [page 185, text] J. Blake, quote from “Are whites racially oppressed?” from CNN (March 4, 2011). [page 185, text] J. Blake, quote from “Are whites racially oppressed?” from CNN (March 4, 2011). [page 185, text] H. Hsu, quote from “The end of white America?” from The Atlantic (January/February, 2009). [page 189–190, text] D. Engen, quote from “Invisible identities: Notes on class and race” in Our voices: Essays in culture, ethnicity and communication, edited by A. Gonzalez, M. Houston, and V. Chen. Roxbury. [page 190, text] B. Allen, quote from Difference matters: Communicating social identity. Waveland Press. [page 190, text] J. Giancola & R. D. Kahlenberg, excerpt from True merit: ensuring our

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brightest students have access to our best colleges and universities. Jack Kent Cooke Foundation [page 191, text] O. Khazan, quote from “Why are so many middle-aged white Americans dying?” from The Atlantic (January 29, 2016). The Atlantic. [page 194, text] V. Chen, quote from “The construction of Chinese American women’s identity” in Women making meaning, edited by L. F. Rakow. Routledge. [page 196, text] R. L. Miller, J. R. Watling, S. L. Staggs, and M. J. Rotheram-Borus, quote from “Growing up biracial in the United States” in Race, ethnicity and self, edited by E. P. Salett and D. R. Koslow. National MultiCultural Institute. [page 196, text] R. Alba, quote from “The myth of a white minority” from The New York Times (June 11, 2015). [page 196, text] M. Jones, quote from “Why a generation of adoptees is returning to South Korea” from The New York Times Magazine (January 14, 2015): 30–37, 51. [page 197, text] Quote from Obama’s sister talks about his childhood from CBSNews.com (February 14, 2008). [page 198, text] P. Adler, excerpt from “Beyond cultural identity: Reflections on cultural and multicultural man” in Topics in culture learning. East-West Center. [page 199, text] R. Martinez, excerpt from “Technicolor” in Half and half: Writers on growing up biracial 1 bicultural, edited by C. C. O’Hearn. Pantheon Books.

[page 200, text] A. Miller, and S. D. Ross, quote from “They are not us: Framing of American Indians by the Boston Globe” from Howard Journal of Communications (2004): 245–259. [page 200, text] B. D. Merritt, excerpt from “Illusive reflections: African American women on primetime television” in Our voices: Essays in culture, ethnicity and communication, edited by A. Gonzalez, M. Houston, and V. Chen. Roxbury. [page 202, text] Jennifer excerpt from “Students Voices: I fell in love . . . me for the better.” Original work; [page 202, text] D. Solórzano, M. Ceja, and T. Yosso, quote from “Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate: The experiences of African American college students” from Journal of Negro Education (2000): 60–73. [page 203, text] R. Brislin, excerpt from Understanding culture’s influence on behaviour, Secound Edition. Wadsworth. [page 205, text] T. K. Nakayama, quote from “Dis/orienting identities: Asian Americans, history, and intercultural communication” in Our voices: Essays in ethnicity, culture, and communication, edited by A. González, M. Houston, and V. Chen. Roxbury. [page 204, text] Shazim, excerpt from “Students Voices: I would have . . . are not Muslims.” Original work;

6

CHAPTER

LANGUAGE AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVE ON LANGUAGE

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

Language and Perception Language and Thought: Metaphor Cultural Variations in Communication Style Influence of Interactive Media Use on Language and Communication Style Slang and Humor in Language Use

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

INTERPRETIVE PERSPECTIVE ON LANGUAGE

Variations in Contextual Rules CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE ON LANGUAGE

Co-Cultural Communication Discourse and Social Structure The “Power” Effects of Labels MOVING BETWEEN LANGUAGES

Multilingualism Translation and Interpretation LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY

Language and Cultural Group Identity Code Switching LANGUAGE POLITICS AND POLICIES LANGUAGE AND GLOBALIZATION INTERNET RESOURCES

1. Define the Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis 2. Explain the nominalist, relativist, and qualified relativist positions on language and perception. 3. Describe the role of metaphor in understanding intercultural communication. 4. Identify cultural variations in communication style. 5. Give examples of variations in contextual rules. 6. Explain the power of labels. 7. Understand the challenges of multilingualism. 8. Explain the difference between translation and interpretation. 9. Understand the phenomenon of code switching and interlanguage. 10. Discuss the complexities of language policies.

SUMMARY DISCUSSION QUESTIONS ACTIVITIES KEY WORDS REFERENCES 215

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I communicate with my friends around the world, like my friends from Germany and from Venezuela—I keep in touch with them by WhatsApp or Facebook, and sometimes Instagram. For the most part, I feel English is a power language, since a lot of people speak English or at least know it somewhat. So when I message my friends, they can understand me, but there are a lot of times when I talk with them, I have to use basic English because they don’t understand some words, especially slang. Another thing is my friends from Venezuela are only three hours ahead of us but my German friends are eight hours ahead, and they usually want to talk after they finish their school work and dinner—which is the middle of the night for me. Here in America it seems that everyone is on their phones all the time. —Monica As our student, Monica discovered, language is a central element in intercultural communication, whether face-to-face or online. There are often challenges, like understanding slang, and the issue of power is always present—why does Monica use English rather than German or Spanish in communicating with her friends? In online communication, timing and time zones can also be a challenge. Recent communication technologies and global health concerns highlight another important challenge of language—it is constantly changing. Consider the words that have become part of English (and other languages): clickbait, selfies, podcasts—all created because of technology; social distancing, contactless delivery, super spreader, flatten the curve, quarentini—created or used more commonly during the pandemic; other words enter the English language from our interaction with other cultures: avatar, tsunami, sudoku. Some of these words may remain in use while others may disappear when no longer relevant. How can we begin to understand the important role of language in intercultural communication in today’s world, with more people on the move and technological connectivity to every corner of the earth? First, the sheer number of languages spoken in the world today, approximately 6500 is staggering. Experts estimate that 800 languages are spoken in New York City alone (Strochlic, 2018). How can people possibly communicate given all these different languages? Is intercultural communication easier online or face-to-face? Do we use language differently online? What are the difficulties in interpreting and translating? Should everyone learn a second or third language? In this chapter, we focus on language-related issues in verbal communication processes; the next chapter focuses on the nonverbal elements. The social science approach generally focuses on individual aspects of language in relation to intercultural communication, the interpretive approach focuses on contextual uses of language practices, and the critical approach emphasizes the relations between discourse and power. This chapter uses a dialectical perspective to explore how language works dynamically in intercultural contexts. With the personal–contextual dialectic, we can consider not only how language use operates on an individual level but also how it is influenced by context. We also use the static–dynamic dialectic to distinguish between language and discourse, to identify the components of language, and to explore the relationship among language, meaning, and perception. Although it may seem that the components of language are static, the use of language is a dynamic process. In this chapter, we also explore cultural variations of language and some of the barriers presented by these variations. Then we discuss the relationship between language

POINT of VIEW FRENCH LANGUAGE WATCHDOGS SAY ‘NON’ TO GENDER NEUTRAL STYLE As you read the following news report, consider the underlying assumptions about language use and perception. Which of the positions (nominalist? relativist?) is represented by the “middots move”? by the French Prime Minister? Perhaps in reaction to news stories of sexual harassment, there has been a recent move in France to be more inclusive in language, to refer to both genders in the plural form—inserting “middots” in gendered words. “For example, the word for a mixed-gender group of readers is usually written as  lecteurs, even if the women outnumber the men, rather than with the feminine plural, lectrices. Using inclusive writing, the word would be written as lecteur·rice·s.” However, the French prime minister, Édouard Philippe (along with the language watchdog, the Académie Française) is appalled at the idea, and he has banned the practice on all official texts: “The masculine [form] is a neutral form, which should be used for terms liable to apply to women.” The Académie agrees, saying that the “punctuated ‘aberration’ would make French too complex, putting it ‘in mortal danger.’” Many ministries, university and trade union continue to use the gender-neutral form, because “the French language must keep up with changing times.” The debate continues. Source: From https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/nov/21/no-more-middots-french-pm -clamps-down-on-gender-neutral-language

and power, and between language and identity, and examine issues of multilingualism, translation, and interpretation. Finally, we look at language and identity, language policies and politics, and globalization.

SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVE ON LANGUAGE The social science perspective focuses on the individual aspects of language use: language perception and thought, the way cultural groups use language in different ways, and the barriers presented by these ­variations. People around the world speak many different languages and some scholars think that the particular language we speak influences how we see the world. Before we address the question of how to reduce language barriers in intercultural communication, we need to ask the following questions: Do speakers of Japanese, Chinese, Arabic, and other languages actually perceive the world differently, depending on the particular ­language they speak? Or do we all experience the world in the same way but have ­different ways of expressing our experiences? We tackle these questions in the next section. 217

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STUDENT VOICES My co-worker, Nam, who moved to the US from Vietnam with his parents when he was a child, talked with me about his difficulties with learning ­English. He indicated that he learned English about 10 years ago and that the first difficulty he encountered while learning English was the way we structure our words while forming sentences. He indicated to me that in English we have more “continuous tense” sentences compared to Vietnamese or Chinese. For example, the straight translation of Vietnamese to English without the reordering of words would turn “The phone rang while I was taking a bath” into “I had a bath when the phone rang.” —Jason

Language and Perception nominalist position  The view that perception is not shaped by the particular language one speaks. (Compare with relativist position and qualified relativist position.) relativist position  The view that the particular language individuals speak, especially the structure of the language, shapes their perception of reality and cultural patterns. (Compare with nominalist position and qualified relativist position.) Sapir–Whorf hypothesis  The assumption that language shapes our ideas and guides our view of social reality. This hypothesis was proposed by Edward Sapir, a linguist, and his student, Benjamin Whorf, and represents the relativist view of language and perception.

218

The question of how much of our perception is shaped by the particular language we speak is at the heart of the “political correctness” debate. We can address these questions from two points of view: the nominalist and the relativist. The Nominalist Position According to the nominalist position, perception is not shaped by the particular language we speak. Language is simply an arbitrary “outer form of thought.” Thus, we all have the same range of thoughts, which we express in different ways with different languages. This means that any thought can be expressed in any language, although some may take more or fewer words. The existence of different languages does not mean that people have different thought processes or inhabit different perceptual worlds. After all, a tree may be an arbre in French and an arbol in Spanish, but we all perceive the tree in the same way. The Relativist Position According to the relativist position, the particular language we speak, especially the structure of that language, determines our thought patterns, our perceptions of reality, and, ultimately, important cultural components (see Figure 6-1). This position is best represented by the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis— proposed by Edward Sapir (1921), a linguist, and his student, Benjamin Whorf (1956), based on their research on Native American languages. According to the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, language defines our experience. For example, there are no possessives (his/her/our/your) in the Diné (Navajo) language; we might conclude, therefore, that the Diné think in a particular way about the concept of possession. Another example is the variation in formal and informal forms. Consider that ­English speakers do not distinguish between a formal and an informal you (as in German, with du and Sie, or in Spanish, with tu and usted). In Japanese, formality is not simply noted by you, it is part of the entire language system. Nouns take the honorific “o” before them, and verbs take more formal and polite forms. Thus, “Doitsu-go ga dekimasen” [I—or you, he, she, we, they—don’t speak German] is more polite and formal than “Doitsu-go ga dekinai.” Does this mean that English, German, and Spanish speakers think about formality and informality differently?

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FIGURE 6.1   Language is an important aspect of intercultural communication. The particular symbols used in any language are arbitrary and communicate meaning only when used in particular contexts. (David Rubinger/Getty Images)

As a final example, note that some languages are gendered and others are not. Thus, in English you could tell your friend, “I had dinner with a neighbor last night,” and the friend would not know if the neighbor was male or female. However, if you were speaking French, you would have to indicate the gender of your neighbor: voisine (female) or voisin (male). The same is true for the many other “­gendered” languages, including Spanish, German, and Russian. In these languages, not only are people gendered, but also inanimate objects—the clock, the bridge, the chair, and so forth—are all either masculine or feminine. And while speakers of gendered languages obviously know that inanimate objects do not really have biological sex, the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis would suggest that using gendered language can shape the feelings and associations speakers have concerning objects around them. Thus, this hypothesis would support “political

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language acquisition  The process of learning language.

qualified relativist position  A moderate view of the relationship between language and perception. Sees language as a tool rather than a prison (compare with nominalist position and relativist position).

correctness”—the notion that language is powerful, shapes our perception, e.g., gender fluid persons asking to be referred to as “they” rather than “him” or “her.” A nominalist position would argue that the language used doesn’t impact how we perceive a person’s gender identity (see Point of View, p. 217). The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis has had tremendous influence on scholarly thinking about language and its impact on everyday communication. It ­questions the basic assumption that we all inhabit the same perceptual world, the same social reality. However, the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis has been critiqued by a number of studies that challenge the connection between language and how we think (Deutscher, 2010). For example, if according to Sapir–Whorf, language structures thought, then language must precede and only subsequently influence thought. This raises the question whether it is possible to think without language. Studies of children’s language acquisition seem to suggest that language and thought are so closely related that it is difficult to conclude that one initiates influence over the other—not supporting the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis. Findings from studies of cross-cultural differences in language suggest similar conclusions. The question here is, do different language groups perceive the world completely differently? The answer, according to most experts is—probably not. So even if there is no single word for the “foot” in Japanese, it does not mean that Japanese and English speakers would perceive a foot in very different ways. Given these and findings from other studies, most contemporary language experts advocate a middle ground, the qualified relativist position, suggesting that while not a “prison,” the language habits that our culture has instilled in us from the time we first learn to speak probably does shape our perceptions and orientation to the world and the people and objects we encounter (Deutscher, 2010). This view allows for more freedom than the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis. As you read the research findings that follow, you may see the wisdom of the qualified relativist position.

Language and Thought: Metaphor One way of thinking about the relationship between language and thought is to look at metaphors. A metaphor is an expression where a word (or words) is used outside of its normal conventional meaning to express a similar concept (Lakoff, 1992). For example, “you are my sunshine.” Although an ­individual cannot ­literally be sunshine, comparing someone to sunshine expresses a ­particular ­positive meaning. Experts used to think that metaphors are about language, or literary writing, not useful for understanding everyday speech. A famous cognitive scientist and linguist George Lakoff disagrees and proposes that metaphors are part of thinking, one way we organize our thoughts, in everyday living. In fact, metaphors are “a major and indispensable part of our ordinary conventional way of conceptualizing the world, and that our everyday behavior reflects our metaphorical understanding of experience” (p. 203). Understanding a culture’s metaphors, then, helps us understand something about the culture itself. Consider the English metaphor of likening love to a journey: Our relationship has hit a dead-end street. Look how far we’ve come. It’s been a long, bumpy road. We’re spinning our wheels. Our relationship is off the track. These are ordinary, everyday English expressions. They are not poetic, nor are they necessarily used for special rhetorical effect, but for reasoning about our relationships (Lakoff, 1992, p. 205).

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Metaphors can also be a useful way to understand other cultures. Some metaphors are universal, like the metaphor of an angry person as a pressurized container, for example (Kövecses, 2005). Consider these English phrases: “His pent-up anger welled up inside him. Billy’s just blowing off steam. He was bursting with anger. When I told him he just exploded.” Other languages have similar expressions. The universality of the metaphor may rest in the universal human physiology—since physical bodily changes actually occur when we are angry (blood pressure rises, pulse rate increases, temperature rises). In English, metaphors for happiness seem to center on a feeling of being up, light, fluid in a container (She was floating on air, bursting with happiness). However, the Chinese have a metaphor that does not exist in English—that happiness is flowers in the heart. Experts suggest that metaphors reflect cultural beliefs and values; in this case, the metaphor reflects the more restrained Chinese communication style, whereas the English metaphor of “happiness is being off the ground” reflects the relatively expressive English communication style (­Kövecses, 2005, p. 71).

Cultural Variations in Communication Style What else do we need to understand in order to reduce the language and verbal barriers in intercultural communication? In addition to cultural differences in metaphor use, social science scholars also identify differences in the way people use language in everyday conversations. By this, we mean that even if people are speaking the same language, there can be misunderstandings due to differences in communication style. Communication style combines both language and nonverbal communication. It is the metamessage that contextualizes how listeners are expected to receive and interpret verbal messages. A primary way in which cultural groups differ in communication style is in a preference for high- versus low-context communication. A high-context communication style is one in which “most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message” (Hall, 1976, p. 79). This style of communication emphasizes understanding messages without direct verbal communication. People in long-term relationships often communicate in this style. For example, one person may send a meaningful glance across the room at a party, and his or her partner will know from the nonverbal clue that it is time to go home. In contrast, in low-context communication, the majority of meaning and information is in the verbal code. This style of communication, which emphasizes explicit verbal messages, is highly valued in many settings in the United States. Interpersonal communication textbooks often stress that we should not rely on nonverbal, contextual information. It is better, they say, to be explicit and to the point, and not to leave things ambiguous. However, many cultural groups around the world value high-context communication. They encourage children and adolescents to pay close attention to contextual cues (body language, environmental cues), and not simply the words spoken in a conversation (Gudykunst & Matsumoto, 1996). William Gudykunst and Stella Ting-Toomey (2003) identify two major dimensions of communication styles: direct versus indirect and elaborate versus understated.

communication style  The metamessage that contexualizes how listeners are expected to accept and interpret verbal messages. metamessage  The meaning of a message that tells others how they should respond to the content of our communication based on our relationship to them. high-context communication  A style of communication in which much of the information is contained in the contexts and nonverbal cues rather than expressed explicitly in words. (Compare with low-context communication.) low-context communication  A style of communication in which much of the information is conveyed in words rather than in nonverbal cues and contexts. (Compare with high-context communication.)

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POINT of VIEW

C

ultural differences in communication style can have important implications in business and political negotiations. Consider the rocky trade negotiations over tariffs between Chinese and Americans. At one point, Americans assumed initial phases were completed, and were ready to move on, only to discover that the Chinese disagreed! Business scholars Akgunes and Culpepper, explain that for high-context Chinese, negotiations are never final, but rather a starting point, a way to build solid trusting relationships over long extended periods of time, to be revisited every now and then. The Columbia University business professor Shang-Jin Wei describes their attitude toward negotiations as “nothing is agreed until everything is agreed.” This cultural practice presents huge challenges for low-context Americans, who believe that the written contract or legal document is what counts and holds no ambiguity. Another cultural difference relevant for trade negotiations concerns direct and indirect styles. Global business consultant Sue Bryant points out that Chinese executives, preferring an indirect style, will often avoid giving a straight answer in order to save the other person’s face. “The worst thing you can do in negotiations with Chinese colleagues is to go out of your way to prove a point, regardless of the effect it has on others” (Bryant, 2019). Americans, who tend to be very direct and literal, find this confusing and frustrating.

Sources: From A. Akgunes & R. Culpepper (2012). Negotiations between Chinese and Americans: Examining the cultural context and salient Factors.The Journal of International Management Studies, 7(1), 191-200. From S. Bryant (2019, July 17). Identifying cultural differences and similarities: China vs. the US. https://countrynavigator.com/blog/global-talent/cultural-differences-us-vs-china/ From S.-J. Wei (2019, May 14). Why the US and China see negotiations differently, Columbia Business School, https://www8.gsb.columbia.edu/articles/chazen-global-insights/why-us-and-china-see -negotiations-differently

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Direct Versus Indirect Styles This dimension refers to the extent to which speakers reveal their intentions through explicit verbal communication and emphasizes lowcontext communication. A direct communication style is one in which verbal messages reveal the speaker’s true intentions, needs, wants, and desires. An indirect style is one in which the verbal message is often designed to camouflage the speaker’s true intentions, needs, wants, and desires (Gudykunst, Ting-Toomey, & Chua, 1988). Most of the time, individuals and groups are more or less direct depending on the context. Many English speakers in the United States favor the direct speech style as the most appropriate in most contexts. This is revealed in statements like “Don’t beat around the bush,” “Get to the point,” and “What exactly are you trying to say?” Although “white lies” may be permitted in some contexts, the direct style emphasizes honesty, openness, forthrightness, and individualism. However, some cultural groups prefer a more indirect style, with an emphasis on high-context communication. Preserving the harmony of relationships has a higher priority than being totally honest. Thus, a speaker might look for a “soft” way to communicate that there is a problem in the relationship, perhaps by providing

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contextual cues, which again has relevance for the Chinese American trade negotiations, since Chinese tend to prefer a more indirect style (see Point of View, p. 222). Some languages have many words and gestures that convey the idea of “maybe.” For example, three Indonesians studying in the United States were invited by their advisor to participate in a cross-cultural training workshop. They did not want to participate, nor did they have the time. But neither did they want to offend their professor, whom they held in high regard. Therefore, rather than tell him they couldn’t attend, they simply didn’t return his calls and didn’t show up at the workshop. An international student from Tunisia told Judith and Tom that he had been in the United States for several months before he realized that if someone was asked for directions and didn’t know the location of the place, that person should tell the truth instead of making up a response. He explained that he had been taught that it was better to engage in conversation, to give some response, than to disappoint the person by revealing he didn’t know. Different communication styles are responsible for many problems that arise between men and women and between persons from different cultural groups. These problems may be caused by different priorities for truth, honesty, harmony, and conflict avoidance in relationships, and can have significant implications in personal as well as in business and political contexts. Elaborate Versus Understated Styles This dimension of communication styles refers to the degree to which talk is used. The elaborate style involves the use of rich, expressive language in everyday talk. For example, the Arabic language has many metaphorical expressions used in everyday speech. In this style, a simple assertive statement means little; the listener will believe the opposite. In contrast, the understated style values succinct, simple assertions, and silence. Amish people often use this style of communication. A common refrain is, “If you don’t have anything nice to say, don’t say anything at all.” Free self-expression is not encouraged. Silence is especially appropriate in ambiguous situations; if one is unsure of what is going on, it is better to remain silent. The exact style falls between the elaborate and the understated, as expressed in the maxim “Verbal contributions should be no more or less information than is required” (Grice, 1975). The exact style emphasizes cooperative communication and sincerity as a basis for interaction. Differences between elaborated and understated styles can present challenges in international political negotiations. Compare the two speeches of President Obama and Libyan leader Muammar Gaddaffi in 2011, when President Obama sent troops to help manage a citizen uprising in Libya (see Figure 6-2). Obama explained his reason for sending in a very concise dispassionate manner: We knew that if we waited one more day, Benghazi—a city nearly the size of Charlotte—could suffer a massacre that would have reverberated across the region and stained the conscience of the world. It was not in our national interest to let that happen. I refused to let that happen. And so nine days ago, after consulting the bipartisan leadership of Congress, I authorized military action to stop the killing and enforce UN Security Council Resolution 1973.

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FIGURE 6-2   Libyans in the capital city of Tripoli celebrate after toppling their government in summer 2011. (Francisco Leong/AFP/Getty Images)

Gaddafi addressed his people in a long, 75-minute speech, full of metaphors, and in a more indirect and elaborated style: I am bigger than any Rank, I am a Revolutionary, I am the Bedouin from oasis that brought victory to enjoy it from generation to generation. Libya will remain at the top and will lead Africa and South America. We cannot hinder the process of this revolution from these greasy rats and cats. I am paying the price for staying here and my grandfather, Abdus Salam Bomanyar, who fell a martyr in 1911. I will not leave the country and I will die as a martyr in the end. https://docs.google.com /document/d/10dy5oLJY2QL7k2VuwKonUpSgCUX-_9ATQ-134Xka9fs /edit?hl=en&pref=2&pli=1# While some analysts were quick to point out that Gaddafi was prone to extreme language and not held in high regard by many Arab leaders, other experts point to the particular challenges of the Arab language as it is spoken today. Each Arab country region has its own local dialect, making communication within the Arab world a distinct challenge. A former British ambassador to Libya notes that Gaddafi’s personal speaking style was in a Libyan dialect and clearly reflected his Bedouin background—where elaborated speech is commonplace, people talk for hours at a time, and Gaddafi’s speeches regularly went on for three or four hours at a stretch (Miles, 2011).

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Influence of Interactive Media Use on Language and Communication Style Some experts wonder about the influence of communication technologies on communication style. In general, e-mail, text messaging, and especially Twitter emphasize low-context, direct and understated written communication. In these media, precision, efficiency, and making sure that the meaning is clearly conveyed are priorities. However, these interactive media provide many ways to send contextual information along with our words; we add emojis, gifs, and stickers to our texts as well as photos and videos in order to convey more emotional meanings to our messages. For example, emojis are often used to fine-tune our messages, to enhance or adjust our messages or more subtly—to express irony (Hu et. al., 2017). Thus, it’s possible that non-native speakers may have difficulty in interpreting the subtlety of emoji use. Not everyone adopts or uses all available technologies. Business experts report that in many countries where high-context, indirect communication is preferred, even though digital communication is prevalent and available (and used in marketing), some business people prefer face-to-face contact or telephone (especially for initial contacts) or use video conferencing more than e-mail and text messaging in order to incorporate more contextual information (http://www .aperianglobal.com). For example, in Kenya, many people have cell phones, young people use social media, texting is common as it is quicker and cheaper than a phone call, and conducting financial transactions via phone is common. However, most Kenyans prefer face-to-face communication versus virtual communication in business contexts, especially when dealing with serious issues (Virtual communication in Kenya, 2020). Similarly, while China is a huge telecom market and the majority of its population is online, technology has not replaced face-to-face communication. This is still an essential piece to developing and maintaining interpersonal relationships, so important there. Moreover, people may adopt the technologies in their own style. For example, high-context communicators may prefer videoconferencing rather than e-mail because video and audio allow for more contextual cues. However, while they may prefer the “richer” communication technologies, there is some evidence that they may be perceived as less than competent by more direct, low context communicators, that “the typically indirect communication style in China can also lead to misunderstandings during virtual encounters.” Thus experts recommend that “lean” media may be more desirable in some cases or followup after a virtual interaction (http://www.aperianglobal.com; Bazarova & Yuan, 2013). In addition to highlighting cultural differences in language, interactive media also have an enormous impact on slang and humor, discussed in the following section.

Slang and Humor in Language Use Another cultural variation in language use that can present barriers is slang. According to language expert Tom Dazell (2005), slang is generally wittier and cleverer than standard language. It’s inventive and creative and serves an ­important

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function—it establishes a sense of community identity among its users, often in opposition to standard language users. Slang, then, can be perceived as a barrier to those outside the language group. Slang is particularly important for youth cultures; it’s almost imperative to invent slang that belongs to each generation and is unintelligible to parents and other adults. International students struggle to learn slang (see Point of View, p. 227), as well as parents and grandparents who are mystified by the language of their children. What makes it particularly challenging is the fact that slang is dynamic and can be fleeting: here today, gone tomorrow, largely due to social media influence. Communication accommodation theory (CAT) suggests that there is an optimum use of slang by an outsider accommodating to the slang of a particular culture. Using too much slang, or using it in inappropriate contexts, can sound awkward to the “native” listener, like when your parents try to use your slang or foreign students use lots of slang, but make mistakes in grammar and pronunciation. Humor can be another cultural language variation that presents challenges, even when two cultural groups speak the same language. For example, some say that British humor is nuanced and subtle and often relies on irony, whereas American humor tends to be more obvious and straightforward—much like U.S. Americans themselves. However, these differences don’t seem to present much of a barrier— comedy TV sitcoms have been adapted between the two countries for many years (e.g., The Office). Trying to use humor in a foreign language can be really challenging because the basis of humor is so often linked to particular cultural experiences (or history). For example, understanding Chinese sarcasm requires a thorough understanding of Chinese history and politics; sarcasm is often used in a very subtle way to criticize someone (often politicians) without losing face. So one way to mock present politicians is by criticizing an ancient Chinese emperor who was evil because he killed scholars and oppressed the peasants. A foreigner might not get the true humor (sarcasm) at all, but Chinese listeners would understand (www.quora.com/How-is-Chinese-sarcasm-different -from-Western-sarcasm). The best advice to cultural outsiders or language learners is to use humor and slang fairly sparingly, if at all. Another type of humor that presents a barrier in intercultural communication is humor at the expense of another. For example, individuals sometimes mock another’s accent or language use—a situation encountered by one of our students, Alejandro: I am extremely proud of my Mexican heritage, and I usually feel offended when my identity is not respected. I have a slight accent and occasionally when I go out and mispronounce something people crack jokes. They think that it is all in good humor but it can be offensive. As he goes on to say, it’s especially hurtful because the humor usually reflects (and perpetuates) negative stereotypes: People connect too many stereotypes to Hispanics; society must learn to stop stereo­typing minorities. When this happens then everyone can truly be united and respected, without preconceived notions based off a person’s race.

POINT of VIEW

K

nowing another language isn’t necessarily enough to communicate well. Consider all the slang used by speakers in every language. Here’s some U.S. American slang from a website for students trying to learn English (and these are just the beginning of the alphabet)! Amped: I’m so amped for tonight’s game. Basic: Let’s get out of here. This party is basic. Bro: What’s up, bro? Chill: We’re done with exams, so let’s just chill tonight. Cray (or cray cray): The new Beyonce album is cray. Ditch: I had to ditch study group because my dad called. Dude: Hey dude, how’s it going? Epic: Did you see that movie? So epic.

Source: From https://shorelight.com/student-stories/a-guide-to-american-college-slang-words -in-2020/

British English slang terms—How many of these do you know? All right? Arse over elbow Baccy Bees Knees Belt up Biggie Bladdered Blimey Source: From https://www.effingpot.com/chapters/slang/

These different uses of language communicate different things to their culturally disparate audiences. As they also demonstrate, it is not easy to interpret language use from other people’s perspectives. Taking a dialectical perspective, though, should help us avoid stereotyping specific groups (such as Arabic or English speakers) in terms of communication style. We should not expect any group to use a particular communication style all the time. Instead, we might recognize that style operates dynamically and is related to context, historical forces, and so on. Furthermore, we might consider how tolerant we are when we encounter others who communicate in very different ways and how willing or able we are to alter our own style to communicate better. 227

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INTERPRETIVE PERSPECTIVE ON LANGUAGE The interpretive perspective focuses on an in-depth understanding of communication use in context and how communication practices may vary from one cultural context to another.

Variations in Contextual Rules A dialectical perspective reminds us that the particular communication style we use may vary from context to context. Think of the many contexts in which you communicate during the day—classroom, family, work, and so on—and about how you alter your communication to suit these contexts. You may be more direct with your family and less direct in classroom settings. Similarly, you may use high-context informal communication in interaction with friends and more low-context formal with your professors. These same cultural variations can apply to written communication. You probably write in more formal language when communicating with professors by e-mail than when texting to your friends. Many research studies have examined the rules for the use of socially situated language in specific contexts. They attempt to identify contexts and then “discover” the rules that apply in these contexts for a given speech community. For example, several studies examined gender differences in the interpersonal communication “rules” of text messaging for men and women in India. In one study, through in-depth interviews, Indian women reported receiving negative reactions from parents, extended family members, husbands, and male friends when sending or reading text messages in their presence. The study also revealed the creative strategies used by Indian women to deal with these limitations placed on them by others: storing phone numbers of male friends under female names, erasing all text messages daily, and communicating through social media rather than texting. The study concludes that these differential “textiquettes” (text messaging rules) for women and men in India reflect the unequal power relations between men and women in India, and that women texting represents a threat to male patriarchy (Shuter, 2012). A related study examined the communication patterns involved in the common practice of “nagging” in U.S. American family contexts (Boxer, 2002). Nagging (repeated requests by one family member to another) usually concerns household chores and is often a source of conflict. More importantly, the communication practice seems to be related to issues of gender, power, and control. To be more specific, men are rarely perceived as the naggers; in this study, only six of the seventy sequences involved men nagging women. The researcher suggests that this is because they are perceived as having more power and, therefore, able to successfully request and gain compliance from another family member without resorting to nagging. This also means that children can have power (if they refuse to comply with a request despite lacking status), and parents can lack power despite having status. If our styles constrain how we request and respond to requests, then by nagging we lose power. Without power, we are forced into nagging, and so it seems a vicious cycle.

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Other studies compare communication styles used by different speech communities. For example, researchers have examined how communication style varies from generation to generation. One study, based on interviews with 40 gay men of various ages, investigated how communication with younger men contributed to older men’s positive self-concept. They discovered that older men: (1) had a more refined and nuanced verbal communication style, sensitive to nonverbal cues, contrasted to younger men’s more blunt expressive style—maybe because they came of age in a time when it was more difficult to be out and so communicated “in code”; (2) were more oriented to face-to-face communication, seeing this as more genuine and nuanced, whereas younger men were oriented to online/ mediated communication—e.g., with sexual hookup apps and texting; and (3) saw their more masculine expression as positive—in contrast to their perceptions of younger men’s somewhat feminine style (Hajek, 2018). People communicate differently in different speech communities. Thus, the context in which the communication occurs is a significant part of the meaning. Although we might communicate in one way in one speech community, we might change our communication style in another. Understanding the dynamics of various speech communities helps us see the range of communication styles.

CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE ON LANGUAGE A critical perspective on language suggests that, in order to use language effectively in intercultural encounters, we need to understand the role of power and power differentials in these encounters. Recall that discourse refers to ­language in use. This means that all discourse is social. The language used—the words and the meanings that are communicated—depends not only on the context but also on the social relations that are part of that interaction. For example, bosses and workers may use the same words, but the meanings communicated are not always the same. A boss and a worker may both refer to the company personnel as a “family.” To the boss, this may mean “one big happy family,” whereas to a disgruntled employee, it may mean a “dysfunctional family.” To some extent, the disparity is related to the inequality between boss and worker, to the power differential. In Chapter 2, we introduced communication accommodation theory. There are different ways that people accommodate or resist accommodating, depending on the situation. One such theory that encompasses various approaches is co-cultural communication, which we examine next.

Co-Cultural Communication The co-cultural communication theory, proposed by communication scholar Mark Orbe (1998), describes how language works between dominant and nondominant groups—or co-cultural groups. Groups that have the most power (white, male, cisgender) consciously or unconsciously formulate a communication system that supports their perception of the world. This means that co-cultural group members (ethnic minorities, women, LGBTQ indivdiduals) must function in communication systems

co-cultural groups  Nondominant cultural groups that exist in a national culture, such as African American or ­Chinese American.

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TABLE 6-1  CO-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION ORIENTATIONS

Assimilation

Nonassertive

Assertive

Aggressive

Emphasize commonalities

Extensive preparation

Dissasociating

Developing positive face

Overcompensating

Mirroring

Censoring self

Manipulating stereotypes

Strategic distancing

Averting controversy

Bargaining

Ridiculing self

Communicating self

Confronting

Intragroup networking

Gaining advantage

Accomodation Increasing visibility Dispelling stereotypes

Using liaisons Educating others Separation

Avoiding

Exemplifying strengths

Attacking

Maintaining interpersonal barriers

Embracing stereotypes

Sabotaging others

Source: From M. Orbe, & T. Roberts, “Co-Cultural Theorizing: Foundations, Applications & Extensions,” Howard Journal Of Communications, 23 (4), 2012: 295–296.

that often do not represent their experiences. Nondominant groups thus find themselves in dialectical struggles: Do they try to adapt to the dominant communication style, or do they maintain their own styles? There seem to be three general answers to the question of how co-cultural groups can relate to the more powerful (dominant) groups: they can communicate nonassertively, assertively, or aggressively. Within each of these communication postures, co-cultural individuals may emphasize assimilation—trying to become like the dominant group—or they can try to accommodate and adapt to the dominant group. They can also try to remain separate from the dominant groups as much as possible. These three sets of orientations result in nine types of communication strategies (Table 6-1). The strategy chosen depends on many things, including preferred outcome, perceived costs and rewards, and context. The point here is that there are both costs and benefits for co-cultural members when they choose which of these strategies to use. Because language is structured in ways that do not reflect their experiences, they must adopt some strategy for dealing with the linguistic framework. For example, if Mark wants to refer to his relationship with Kevin, does he use the word boyfriend, friend, r­ oommate, husband, partner, or some other word? If Mark and Kevin are married, he might

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choose to refer to Kevin as his husband in some contexts; in others (e.g., Thanksgiving dinner with disapproving family, or at work), he may choose a different term, depending on how he perceives costs and benefits in each situation. Let’s look at how these strategies might work, and the costs and the benefits of each. Assimilation Strategies The three assimilation strategies are nonassertive, assertive, and aggressive. Nonassertive strategies emphasize trying to fit and be accepted by the dominant group. Such strategies might emphasize commonalities (“I’m not that different”), be self-monitoring and, above all, avoid controversy. There are potential costs to this approach because these co-cultural individuals may feel they cannot be honest about themselves and may also feel uncomfortable reinforcing the dominant group’s worldview and power. A co-cultural individual taking an assertive assilimation strategy may downplay co-cultural differences and try to fit into the existing structures but also let people know how she or he feels from time to time. However, this strategy can promote an us-versus-them mentality, and some people find it difficult to maintain this strategy for very long. Aggressive assimilation strategies emphasize fitting in, sometimes going to great lengths to prove they are like members of the dominant group. Sometimes this means distancing themselves from other members of their co-culture, mirroring (dressing and behaving like the dominant group), hoping they are not seen as “typical” of members of that co-culture. However, other members of that co-culture may accuse this individual of acting white, or “straight.” Thus, these strategies involve constantly negotiating position with the dominant group while being isolated from one’s own co-cultural group. Accommodation Strategies Nonassertive accommodation strategies emphasize blending into the dominant culture but tactfully challenging the dominant structure to recognize co-cultural practices. For example, a Jewish co-worker may want to put up a menorah near the company’s Christmas tree as a way of challenging the dominant culture. By gently educating the organization about other religious holidays, the cocultural member may be able to change their presumptions about everyone celebrating Christmas. Using this strategy, the co-cultural individual may be able to influence group decision making while still showing loyalty to the larger organization’s goals. The cost of this strategy may be that others feel that she or he is not pushing hard enough to change larger structural issues in the organization. Also, this strategy does not really promote major changes in organizations to make them more inclusive and reflective of the larger society. Assertive accommodation strategies try to strike a balance between the concerns of co-cultural and dominant group members. These strategies involve communicating self, doing intragroup networking, using liaisons, and educating others. For example, Asian American co-workers may share information about themselves with their coworkers, but they also share information about words that are offensive, such as Oriental and slope. Aggressive accommodation strategies involve moving into the dominant structures and then working from within to promote significant changes—no matter how

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high the personal cost. Although it may seem as if co-cultural workers who use these strategies are confrontational or self-promoting, they also reflect a genuine desire to work with and not against dominant group workers. For example, a disabled co-worker may consistently remind others that facilities need to be more accessible, such as door handles, bathrooms that can accommodate wheelchairs, and so on. Co-cultural members with this orientation may periodically use assertive as well as aggressive accommodation strategies and so may be perceived as genuinely committed to the larger group’s good. However, co-cultural members who consistently use aggressive accommodating strategies may find themselves alienated from both other co-cultural members and from dominant group colleagues for being too confrontational. Separation Strategies Nonassertive separation strategies are often used by those who assume that some segregation is part of everyday life in the United States. This is generally easier for the dominant group than for co-cultural members. Some co-cultural individuals regard segregation as a natural phenomenon but also use subtle communication practices to maintain separation from the dominant group. Perhaps the most common strategy is simply avoiding interactions with dominant group members whenever possible. Thus, gay people may spend their social time with other gay people. Or women may prefer to use professional women’s services (having a female doctor, dentist, and attorney) and socialize with other women. The benefits are obvious but the cost is that they cannot network and make connections with those in power positions. Assertive separation strategies reflect a conscious choice to maintain space between dominant and co-cultural group members. One benefit is that it promotes co-cultural unity and self-determination, but it also means trying to survive without having access to resources controlled by the dominant group. Aggressive separation strategies (attacking and sabotaging others) are used by those for whom co-cultural segregation is an important priority and entails confronting pervasive, everyday, assumed discriminatory practices and structures. The cost may be that the dominant group retaliates against this open exposure of the presumed way of doing things. Again, when confronted with various situations, dominant and co-cultural group members need to think carefully about how they wish to respond. There are benefits and costs to all of the decisions made. A real-life example of this framework is a recent study investigating communication strategies used by Black female airline pilots (a co-cultural group) to navigate the white male ranks of legacy airline pilots. It turns out that these female pilots used a variety of strategies, including assimilation (e.g., extensively preparing for every flight/eventuality), accommodating (e.g., increasing visibility by dressing in full uniform with pilot stripes visible), and separation (e.g., choosing to sometimes not hang with the male pilots off-duty). In addition, the researchers identified a new strategy: “strategic alliance building,” where the female pilots strategically interacted to gain the support from respected male pilots, which in turn helped them gain the deserved respect from other pilots (Zirulnik & Orbe, 2019). There are no easy answers; the pilots could have chosen other strategies, e.g., when confronting some hostility from others—with a different

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set of costs and benefits. It is important to consider what verbal communication strategies you may want to use when interacting in intercultural communication situations. An extension of co-cultural theory--dominant group theory--identifies four types of strategies that dominant group members use in responding to the concerns of cocultural group members: (a) strategies that reinforce their privilege, (b) strategies that reflect an awareness of their privilege, (c) strategies that express support for cocultural groups, and (d) strategies that disrupt practices of oppression. Of course, as we emphasized in Chapter 5, individuals identities are complex and can include membership in both co-cultural and dominant groups (Razzante, 2018; Razzante & Orbe, 2018).

Discourse and Social Structure Just as organizations have particular structures and specific positions within them, societies are structured so that individuals occupy social positions. Differ­ences in  social positions are central to understanding intercultural communication. For one thing, not all positions within the structure are equivalent; everyone is not the same. When men whistle at an attractive woman walking by, it has a different force and meaning than if women were to whistle at a man walking by. Power is a central element, by extension, of this focus on social position. For instance, when a judge in court says what he or she thinks freedom of speech means, it carries much greater force than when a neighbor or a classmate gives an opinion about what the phrase means. When we communicate, we tend to note (however unconsciously) the group membership and positions of communication participants. To illustrate, consider the previous example. We understand how communication functions, based on the group membership of the judge (as a member of the judicial system) and of the neighbors and classmates; we need to know nothing about their individual identities. Groups also hold different positions of power in the social structure. Because intercultural contact occurs between members of different groups, the positions of the groups affect communication. Group differences lend meaning to intercultural communication because, as noted previously, the concept of differences is key to language and the semiotic process.

The “Power” Effects of Labels We often use labels to refer to other people and to ourselves. Labels, as ­signifiers, acknowledge particular aspects of our social identity. For example, we might label ourselves or others as “male” or “female,” indicating sexual identity. Or we might say we are “Canadian” or a “New Englander,” indicating a national or regional identity. The context in which a label is used may determine how strongly we feel about the label. On St. Patrick’s Day, for example, someone may feel more strongly about being an Irish American than about being a woman or a student or a Texan. Sometimes people feel trapped or misrepresented by labels. They might complain, “Why do we have to have labels? Why can’t I just be me?” These complaints

social positions  The places from which people speak that are socially constructed and thus embedded with assumptions about gender, race, class, age, social roles, sexuality, and so on.

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STUDENT VOICES Growing up in Pakistan, my first languages were Urdu and Gujarati and learning English was a struggle when I came to the U.S. Grammar was especially difficult for me and I would often say things like “I ranned there” or “I supposed” (I was supposed to). One of the things one can do when trying to speak with someone who does not speak English fluently is be sensitive and not treat them like they’re dumb. When I first came to America people would talk to me very loudly as if I were completely incapable of understanding. —Amir My native language is Spanish. Since I was a little kid, I’ve been learning English so I already knew the language when I moved to the U.S. However, even to this day, I have trouble understanding slang. I feel uncomfortable when situations arise where I don’t understand what is being said because of slang. . . . I think that when speaking with someone from another culture, specifically with someone who speaks (American) English as a second language, one must be more considerate toward that person’s needs; e.g., speaking slower, repeating oneself if necessary, explaining and/or avoiding slang terms. —Sergio

belie the reality of the function of discourse. It would be nearly impossible to communicate without labels. People rarely have trouble when labeled with terms they agree with—for example, “man,” “student,” “Minnesotan,” or “Australian.” Trouble arises, however, from the use of labels that they don’t like or that they feel describe them inaccurately. Think about how you feel when someone describes you using terms you do not like. Labels communicate many levels of meaning and establish particular kinds of relationships between speaker and listener. Sometimes people use labels to communicate closeness and affection for others. Labels like “friend,” “lover,” and “partner” communicate equality. Sometimes people intentionally invoke labels to establish a hostile relationship. Labels like “deplorables” and “anchor babies” intentionally communicate inequality. Sometimes people use labels that are unintentionally offensive to others. Many times, these labels are spoken without any knowledge or understanding of their meanings, origin, or even current implications and can demonstrate prejudicial feelings (Cruz-Janzen, 2002). For example, many descendants of Spanishspeaking people living in the United States reject the term “Hispanic” since it was a term mandated by the U.S. government and never used by the people themselves. Similarly, “Oriental” is a term rejected by many Asians and Asian Americans, and “homosexual” communicates negative characteristics about the speaker and establishes a distance between the speaker and listener. Similarly, many indigenous people reject the term “Native American”—saying that it is only used by white people—­preferring their more specific tribal name or the terms “American 234

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Indian” or “Indian.” Many prefer “First Nations” people—to underscore the fact that tribes are in fact nations, recognized by the U.S. government (Bird, 1999). And you can probably think of many other labels (“bitch,” “ho,” “faggot,” etc.) that are sometimes casually uttered that could be considered offensive by the targeted group. Discourse is tied closely to social structure, so the messages communicated through the use of labels depend greatly on the social position of the speaker. If the speaker and listener are close friends, then the use of particular labels may not lead to distancing in the relationship or be offensive. But if the speaker and listener are strangers, then these same labels might invoke anger or close the lines of communication. Cultures change over time, as do languages. It is important that you stay aware of these changes as much as possible so you do not unintentionally offend others. Regardless of the intentions of the speaker, negative labels can work in small but powerful ways: Each utterance works like a grain of sand in sedimentary rock or like one roll of snowball going down a hill—small in itself but said over and over serves to reproduce systems of sexism, racism, homophobia, and the like. Furthermore, if the speaker is in a position of power, then he or she has potentially an even greater impact. For example, when politicians use discourse that invokes racist, anti-Semitic, or other ideologies of intolerance, many people become concerned because of the influence they may have. These concerns have been raised recently over anti-immigrant, anti-Semitic, anti-Islam comments by many of the leaders of the growing right-wing populism in Europe, for example, Austria’s Norbert Hofer of the Freedom party, France’s Marine Le Pen of the National Rally, Poland’s Jaroslaw Kaczynski of the Law and Justice party, and others (Europe and Right-Wing Nationalism, 2019). Similar concerns have arisen over the political discourse of U.S. President Donald Trump and others that openly and explicitly voice anti-Muslim and anti-immigrant views, and Minnesota representative Ilhan Omar also criticized for anti-semitic and anti-Israel remarks. Of course, political office is not the only powerful position from which to speak. Fundamentalist Christian leaders have caused concern with their anti-LGBTQ discourse, and celebrities like actors Mel Gibson, YouTube stars PewDiePie, and Jack Maynard have been criticized for racist, homophobic, and/or anti-semitic discourse.

MOVING BETWEEN LANGUAGES Multilingualism Why do some people choose to learn foreign languages and others do not? Given the choice, some people, particularly in the United States, do not feel the need to learn a second language. They assume that most people they encounter either at home or abroad will be able to speak English (see Figure 6-3). Or perhaps they feel they have been successful so far without learning another language, so why start now? If the need arises in a professional context, they can always hire an interpreter. In fact, a recent survey of Canadian and U.S. professionals concluded that a foreign language

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FIGURE 6-3   French/English stop sign. (T. K. Nakayama)

was not essential in doing business abroad and that language was not that crucial (Varner & Beamer, 2011). In a similar survey, U.S. students said they SHOULD learn another language but didn’t really see it as necessary; a few were adamant that no American should need to know a for­eign language—because of the prevalence of English as a worldwide language (Demont-Heinrich, 2010). While the advantage of being an English speaker may make it easier for Americans to travel overseas, there may be some downsides. As shown in the Point of View on p. 237, some think that being monolingual makes Americans less cosmopolitan and more provincial—compared to others we’re competing against in the current global economy. The fact is that a person who only knows one language may be understood by others, but that person can never understand what others are saying in their own languages and will always have to rely on translators and are more likely to misunderstand what others are saying. Perhaps more importantly, such people miss the opportunity to learn about a culture. As we have described it, language and culture are so inextricably

POINT of VIEW PARLEZ-VOUS ANGLAIS? YES, OF COURSE Almost everyone in Europe’s cities speak English! Most European students now study English for years. Europeans are now binge-watching English-language TV shows and movies, and multicultural work teams converse in almost native sounding English. All good for us U.S. Americans and Brits, right? NYTimes writer, Pamela Druckerman is not so sure. While she admits some benefits (traveling is easier for English speakers, social movements can spread faster worldwide [remember Greta Thunberg’s speeches—in English]), she also describes the downsides, for us: “Universities in the United States should watch out.” U.S. college students will soon find out that the best European schools offer increasingly more and more undergraduate and graduate degrees taught in English, all for a fraction of the cost of a U.S. education. “In 2009, there were about 55 English B.A.s offered in Continental Europe; by 2017, there were 2,900.” “We’re a target.” Now that almost everyone everywhere speaks very good English, English-speaking societies become easier to manipulate. Investigators pointed out that the young Russians recruited by the Kremlin before the 2016 U.S. elections spoke such good English that they mostly passed for Americans on social media. “Natives are losing their competitive edge.” A few jobs still require perfect English, but in most businesses worldwide, speaking basic English is a basic requirement—like being able to use Microsoft Word—a skill that everyone has. And finally, the most important downside, “Crucially, the ubiquity of English lulls us Anglophones into thinking that it’s O.K. to be monolingual.” She insists that it’s not, that she’s been at dinners in Amsterdam, for example, where the conversation is in perfect English, as long as she’s at the table, but the minute she leaves the table, “they switch back to Dutch. If all we know is English, we won’t know what the rest of the world is saying about us.” Adapted from: P. Druckerman (2019, August 10). Parlez-Vous Anglais? Yes, of Course. nytimes.com .https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/10/opinion/sunday/europeans-speak-english.html

intertwined that to learn a new language is to gain insight into another culture and another “way of thinking and feeling of people who speak and write a language that is different from ours. . . . and so to learn to empathize with them” (Anderson, 2016). Language acquisition studies have shown that it is nearly impossible for individuals to learn the language of a group of people they dislike. For instance, Tom was talking to a student about meeting the program’s foreign language requirement. The student said, “I can’t take Spanish. I’m from California.” When Tom said that he did not understand what she meant, she blurted that she hated Mexicans and wouldn’t take Spanish under any circumstances. As her well-entrenched racism suggested, she would indeed never learn Spanish.

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While some learn a foreign language in order to compete in global markets or to navigate the increasingly global village, more personal imperatives also drive people to learn languages. For example, while our student Katarina already speaks three languages (English, Spanish, and Serbian), she is not satisfied with this. She says, “With an expanding world, Americans have to be more aggressive in their pursuit of cultural knowledge. I feel that learning a fourth language, specifically Chinese, would greatly benefit me in my job prospects as well as in my ability to communicate with more of the world.” Many people use foreign languages to escape from a legacy of oppression in their own languages. Consider the case of Sam Sue, a Chinese American born and raised in Mississippi, who explains his own need to alter his social reality—often riddled by stigmatizing stereotypes—by changing the way he speaks: Northerners see a Southern accent as a signal that you’re a racist, you’re stupid, or you’re a hick. Regardless of what your real situation is. So I reacted to that by adapting the way I speak. If you talked to my brother, you would definitely know he was from the South. But as for myself, I remember customers telling my dad, “Your son sounds like a Yankee.” (Lee, 1991, p. 4)

bilingual  The ability to speak two languages fluently or at least competently. multilingual  The ability to speak more than two languages fluently or at least competently.

Among the variations in U.S. English, the southern accent unwittingly communicates many negative stereotypes. Escaping into another accent is, for some, the only way to escape the stereotypes. People who speak two languages are often called bilingual; people who speak more than two languages are considered multilingual. Rarely do bilinguals speak both languages with the same level of fluency. More commonly, they prefer to use one language over another, depending on the context and the topic. Sometimes entire nations are bilingual or multilingual. Belgium, for example, has three national languages (Dutch, German, and French), and ­Switzerland has four (French, German, Italian, and Romansh). Fifty percent of the world’s population is bilingual (Mathews, 2019) and although we lag far behind, the United States has a growing number of bilinguals and multilinguals. According to a recent report, the number of people who speak a language other than English has more than doubled in the last three decades. The 10 most popular languages in the United States are: 1. Spanish 2. Chinese 3. Tagalog 4. Vietnamese 5. Arabic 6. French 7. Korean 8. Russian 9. German 10. Haitian Creole (https://www.accreditedlanguage.com/languages/the-10-most -popular-languages-in-the-us/)

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On either the individual or the national level, multilinguals must engage in language negotiation. That is, they need to work out, whether explicitly or implicitly, which language to use in a given situation. These decisions are sometimes clearly embedded in power relations. For example, French was the court language during the reign of Catherine the Great in 18th-century Russia. French was considered the language of culture, the language of the elite, whereas Russian was considered a vulgar language, the language of the uneducated and the unwashed. Special-interest groups in 21 states (including Arizona, Utah, and Alabama) have statutes declaring English the official language. These attempts reflect a power bid to determine which language will be privileged. Sometimes a language is chosen as a courtesy to others. For example, Tom joined a small group going to see the fireworks display at the Eiffel Tower on Bastille Day one year. (Bastille Day is a French national holiday, celebrated on July 14, to commemorate the storming of the Bastille prison in 1789 and the beginning of the French Revolution.) One woman in the group asked, “Alors, on parle français ou anglais?” [“Are we speaking French or English?”]. Because one man felt quite weak at English, French was chosen as the language of the evening. An interesting linguistic phenomenon known as interlanguage has implications for the teaching and learning of other languages. Interlanguage refers to a  kind of communication that emerges when speakers of one language are ­speaking in another language. The native language’s semantics, syntactics, pragmatics, and phonetics often overlap into the second language and create a third way of communicating. For example, many English-speaking female students of German might say, “Ich bin ein Amerikanerin,” which is incorrect German but is structured on the English way of saying, “I am an American.” The correct form is “Ich bin Amerikanerin.” The insertion of “ein” reveals the English language overlap. In his work on moving between languages, Tom has noted that this creation of other ways of communicating can offer ways of resisting dominant ­cultures. He notes that “the powerful potential of translation for discovering new voices can violate and disrupt the systemic rules of both languages” (Nakayama, 1997, p. 240). He gives the example of “shiros,” which is used by some Japanese Americans to refer to whites. Shiro is the color white, and adding an s at the end is the English grammatical way to pluralize words. Tom explains, Using the color for people highlights the overlay of the ideology of the English language onto Japanese and an odd mixing that probably would not make sense to people who speak only English or Japanese, or those who do not live in the spaces between them. (p. 242n) Different people react differently to the dialectical tensions of a multilingual world. Some work hard to learn other languages and other ways of communicating, even if they make numerous errors along the way. Others retreat into their familiar languages and ways of living. The dialectical tensions that arise over different languages and different systems of meaning are played out around the world. But these dialectical tensions never disappear; they are always posing new challenges for intercultural communicators.

interlanguage  A kind of communication that emerges when speakers of one language are speaking in another language. The native language’s semantics, syntactics, pragmatics, phonetics, and language styles often overlap and create a third way of communicating.

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Translation and Interpretation

translation  The process of producing a written text that refers to something said or written in another language. source text  The original language text of a translation. (See also target text.) target text  The new language text into which the original language text is translated. (See also source text.) interpretation  The process of verbally expressing what is said or written in another language.

equivalency  An issue in translation, the condition of being equal in meaning, value, quantity, and so on.

Because no one can learn all of the languages in the world, we must rely on translation and interpretation—two distinct but important means of communicating across language differences. The European Union (EU), for example, has a strict policy of recognizing all of the languages of its constituent members. Hence, many translators and interpreters are hired by the EU to help bridge the linguistic gaps. Translation generally refers to the process of producing a written text that refers to something said or written in another language. The original language text of a translation is called the source text; the text into which it is translated is the target text. Interpretation refers to the process of verbally expressing what is said or written in another language. Interpretation can either be simultaneous, with the interpreter speaking at the same time as the original speaker, or consecutive, with the interpreter speaking only during the breaks provided by the original speaker. As we know from language theories, languages are entire systems of meaning and consciousness that are not easily rendered into another language in a wordfor-word equivalence. The ways in which different languages convey views of the world are not equivalent, as we noted previously. Consider the difficulty involved simply in translating names of colors. The English word brown might be translated as any of these French words, depending on how the word is used: roux, brun, bistre, bis, marron, jaune, and gris ( Vinay & Darbelnet, 1977, p. 261). Issues of Equivalency and Accuracy Some languages have tremendous ­flexibility in expression; others have a limited range of words. The reverse may be true, however, for some topics. This slippage between languages is both aggravating and thrilling for translators and interpreters. Translation studies traditionally have tended to emphasize issues of equivalency and accuracy. That is, the focus, largely from linguistics, has been on comparing the translated meaning with the original meaning. However, for those interested in the intercultural communication process, the emphasis is not so much on equivalence as on the bridges that people construct to cross from one language to another. Many U.S. police departments are now hiring officers who are bilingual because they must work with a multilingual public. In Arizona, like many other states, Spanish is a particularly important language. Let’s look at a specific case in which a police detective for the Scottsdale (Arizona) Police Department explained an unusual phrase: Detective Ron Bayne has heard his share of Spanish phrases while on the job. But he recently heard an unusual expression. A suspect said, “Me llevaron a tocar el piano” [They took me to play the piano]. “I knew it couldn’t mean that,” said Bayne, a translator for the Scottsdale Police Department. “But I had no idea what it really meant.” (Meléndez, 2002, p. B1) This slang term, popular at the time with undocumented aliens, highlights the differences between “street” Spanish and classroom Spanish. It also points to the

STUDENT VOICES These students describe the best strategies for communicating with someone who is trying to learn a foreign language: I think it’s important to be patient with people. When I was in Tanzania trying to learn Swahili and trying to not use English, everyone was so helpful. Every time I made a mistake they would correct me in a positive way. They would not be rude or judge how bad it was. This was very constructive for me. It helped me have a positive outlook that I really could learn the language. —Rachel It’s important to speak in short, simple sentences. For example when I was visiting my Aunt Josephina (from Mexico), usually around the holidays when lots of cooking is involved, I would ask her, “Can I help you with that?” rather than “Would you rather I help cook or should I just wait and do the dishes after?” A longer sentence with multiple questions usually wound up with a questionable smile. Second, I also find that “using visual aids to support what you are saying—for example, write down key words or numbers, or use simple gestures” like pointing to specific things. And third, of course, speaking slowly and being patient with the person you are speaking to who is not fluent in English. Showing frustration is only going to embarrass and ultimately leads them to pull back and stop communicating all together. —Carrie Source: From Carrie, excerpt from “Students Voices: It’s important to . . . all together” Original work.

importance of context in understanding meaning. In this context, we know that the police did not take a suspect to play a piano. Instead, this suspect was saying that the police had fingerprinted him. The varieties of expression in Spanish reflect social class and other differences that are not always communicated through translation or interpretation. Yet the context for interpreters and translators must also be recognized. The need for Spanish speakers in the U.S. Southwest represents only the tip of the “linguistic iceberg.” The continuing “war on terror” has created another need for translators and interpreters who are fluent in Arabic, Farsi, Urdu, Punjabi, Pashto, and Dari. The changing context for intelligence work has changed the context for translators and interpreters as well, to say nothing of the languages that are highly valued. These issues, although beyond the scope of equivalency and accuracy, are an important part of the dynamic of intercultural communication. The Role of the Translator or Interpreter We often assume that translators and interpreters are “invisible,” that they simply render into the target language whatever they

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POINT of VIEW

T

ranslation can create amusing and interesting intercultural barriers. Consider the following translation experiences:

▪▪ When McDonald’s brought its big Mac to France, it translated to the name “Gros mec” which actually means “big pimp” ▪▪ Frank Perdue’s Chicken hit Spanish markets, its tagline “It takes a strong man to make a tender chicken” to “it takes an aroused man to make a chicken affectionate” ▪▪ Coors’ “Turn it loose” campaign in Spain was translated to “you will suffer from diarrhea” ▪▪ Clairol didn’t realize when it marketed its “Mist Stick” curling iron in Germany that “mist” is slang for manure in German ▪▪ Schweppes campaign tried to sell Italian consumers “toilet water” instead of “tonic water” ▪▪ Hunt-Wesson introduced its baked beans in French Canada as “Gros Jos” not realizing that’s slang for “big breasts” ▪▪ KFC mistakenly translated its “Finger-lickin good” tagline to “eat your fingers off” in Chinese ▪▪ “Got Milk” campaign was less successful among Latinos since the literal translation was “Are you lactating?”

Source: From K. Weinmann (2011, October 17), “13 Slogans that got hilarious when they were lost in translation.” Available at http://www.businessinsider.com/13-hilarious-slogans-lost-in -translation-2011-10.

hear or read. The roles that they play as intermediaries, however, often regulate how they render the original. Tom believes that it is not always appropriate to translate everything that one speaker is saying to another, in exactly the same way, because the potential for misunderstanding due to cultural differences might be too great. Translation is more than merely switching languages; it also involves negotiating cultures. Writer Elisabeth Marx (1999) explains, It is not sufficient to be able to translate—you have to comprehend the subtleties and connotations of the language. Walter Hasselkus, the German chief executive of Rover, gave a good example of this when he remarked: “When the British say that they have a ‘slight’ problem, I know that it has to be taken seriously.” There are numerous examples of misunderstandings between American English and British English, even though they are, at root, the same language. (p. 95)

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It might be helpful to think of translators and interpreters as cultural brokers who must be highly sensitive to the contexts of intercultural communication.

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We often assume that anyone who knows two languages can be a translator or an interpreter. Research has shown, however, that high levels of fluency in two languages do not necessarily make someone a good translator or interpreter. The task obviously requires the knowledge of two languages. But that’s not enough. Think about all of the people you know who are native English speakers. What might account for why some of them are better writers than others? Knowing English, for example, is a prerequisite for writing in English, but this knowledge does not necessarily make a person a good writer. Because of the complex relationships between people, particularly in intercultural situations, translation and interpretation involve far more than linguistic equivalence, which traditionally has been the focus (see Point of View, p. 242). With the continued growth and progression of translation apps such as Google Translate, iTranslate 3 (voice to voice), Say hi (voice to text), and Textgrabber (reads signs and menus and translates), many people wonder if we soon will no longer need to teach foreign languages in schools. Language educators think not, and give several reasons: (1) Instant translators aren’t always accurate, as you probably already know. (2) Instant translation ignores context, so the sarcastic comment you mean to be a joke is put through an instant translator, the translation might come across as serious or even offensive—distorting your meaning. (3) Of course, instant translation tools do not know all the idioms and slang of most languages, so if you try looking for a “chill” restaurant, you might end up at a place that blasts air conditioning. While the field of translation studies has much to contribute to intercultural communication, foreign language programs are being eliminated at an alarming rate; a record 651 disappeared in past three years. The decline started with recession and decreasing college enrollment and is continuing, due to fewer language requirements and more emphasis on STEM courses. Perhaps also the worldwide spread of English as lingua franca (Johnson, 2019) (see Point of View, p. 237).

LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY In the previous chapter, we discussed cultural identity and its complexities. One part of our cultural identity is tied to the language(s) that we speak. As U.S. Americans, we are expected to speak English. If we travel to Nebraska, we assume the people there speak English. We expect Russians to speak Russian, Koreans to speak Korean, and Indonesians to speak Indonesian. But things get more involved, as we noted in Chapter 4, when we consider why Brazilians speak Portuguese, Congolese speak French, and Australians speak English. The relationship between language and culture becomes more complicated when we look at the complexity of cultural identities at home and abroad.

Language and Cultural Group Identity When Tom was at the Arizona Book Festival recently, a white man held up a book written in Chinese and asked Tom what it was about. “I don’t read Chinese,” Tom replied. “Well, you should,” he retorted and walked away. Two assumptions seem to be

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at work here: (1) Anyone who looks Asian must be Chinese, and (2) Asian Americans should be able to speak their ancestral languages. This tension has raised important identity questions for Asian Americans. Writer Henry Moritsugu (1992), who was born and raised in Canada and who later immigrated to the United States, explains: There is no way we could teach our children Japanese at home. We speak English. It wasn’t a conscious effort that we did this. . . . It was more ­important to be accepted. . . . I wish I could speak the language better. I love ­Japanese food. I love going to Japanese restaurants. Sometimes I see Japanese groups enjoying themselves at karaoke bars . . . I feel definitely Western, more so than Asian. . . . But we look Asian, so you have to be aware of who you are. (p. 99) The ability to speak another language can be important in how people view their group membership. Many Chicana/os also have to negotiate a relationship to Spanish, whether or not they speak the language and 76% of Latinos ages 18–33 say they speak only English at home or “very well” (Krogstad, 2016). Communication scholar Jacqueline Martinez (2000) explains: It has taken a long time for me to come to see and feel my own body as an ethnic body. Absent the capacity to express myself in Spanish, I am left to reach for less tangible traces of an ethnic self that have been buried under layers of assimilation into Anglo culture and practice. . . . Yet still there is a profoundly important way in which, until this body of mine can speak in Spanish, gesture in a “Spanishly” way, and be immersed in Spanish-speaking communities, there will remain ambiguities about its ethnic identification. (p. 44) Although some people who migrate to the United States retain the languages of their homelands, many other U.S. American families no longer speak the language of their forebears. Historically, bilingualism was openly discouraged in the United States. Writer Gloria Anzaldúa (1987) recalls how she was discouraged from speaking Spanish: I remember being caught speaking Spanish at recess—that was good for three licks on the knuckles with a sharp ruler. I remember being sent to the corner of the classroom for “talking back” to the Anglo teacher when all I was trying to do was tell her how to pronounce my name. If you want to be American, speak “American.” If you don’t like it, go back to Mexico where you belong. (p. 53) Even today we often hear arguments in favor of making English the official language of the nation. The interconnections between cultural identity and language are indeed strong. Another intersection between identity and language occurred in 2006, when a controversy arose over the release by some Latino pop stars of a Spanish version of the U.S. national anthem (“Star Spangled Banner”), with somewhat different lyrics (“The time has come to break the chains”), called Nuestro Himno (Our Anthem). For the song’s producer and singers, it was about trying to help engage immigrants, as a tribute to the United States. For others, the national anthem was a symbol of unity that should be sung only in English. Here, we see the importance of contexts. What many people don’t know is that the national anthem was translated into Spanish (and

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many other languages) by the Bureau of Education and has been available in those languages since 1919—with no controversy until the issue becomes related to the current immigration debate (Goldstein, 2006). What about the challenges facing cultural groups whose languages are nearing extinction? Although millions of people speak Chinese, Japanese, and Spanish, some languages are spoken by only a handful of people. Consider that every 14 days, one of the world’s nearly 7,000 languages “dies” (Strochlic, 2018). Linguists say that each language is a unique lens, a unique way of viewing the world, and they are increasingly concerned about what is being lost when a language goes extinct. What knowledge is lost forever? In Tuvan (spoken in Republic of Tuva, in southern Siberia), for example, the past is always spoken of as ahead of one, and the future is behind one’s back. It makes total sense if you think of it in a Tuvan sort of way: If the future were ahead of you, wouldn’t it be in plain view? When language disappears so does significant aspects of cultural diversity. “The disappearance of a language deprives us of knowledge no less valuable than some future miracle drug that may be lost when a species goes extinct. Small languages, more than large ones, provide keys to unlock the secrets of nature, because their speakers tend to live in proximity to the animals and plants around them, and their talk reflects the distinctions they observe” (Rymer, 2012). Many Native American tribes are currently working to save their tribal languages, but they face enormous challenges. Yet it is their culture and identity that are at risk. The languages we speak and the languages others think we should speak can create barriers in intercultural communication. Why might some U.S. Americans assume that someone whose ancestors came from China continues to speak Chinese, whereas someone whose ancestors came from Germany or Denmark is assumed to no longer speak German or Danish? Here, again, we can see how identity, language, and history create tensions between who we think we are and who others think we are.

Code Switching Code switching is a technical term in communication that refers to the phenomenon of changing languages, dialects, or even accents. People code switch for several reasons, as shown in Point of View (p. 250). Linguistics professor Jean-Louis Sauvage (2002) studied the complexity of code switching in Belgium, which involves not only dialects but languages as well. He explains the practical side of code switching: For example, my house was built by a contractor who sometimes resorted to Flemish subcontractors. One of these subcontractors was the electrician. I spoke Dutch to him but had to use French words when I referred to technical notions that I did not completely understand even in French. This was not a problem for the electrician, who knew these terms in Dutch as well as in French but would have been unable to explain them to me in French. (p. 159) Given the complex language policies and politics in Belgium, code switching takes on particularly important political meaning. Who code switches and who does not is a frequent source of contestation.

code switching  A technical term in communication that refers to the phenomenon of changing languages, dialects, or even accents.

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In her work on code switching of Black women, communication scholar Karla Scott (2013) discusses how choice of language style is often strategic as Black women in predominantly white environments are called on to constantly “shift” between white and Black vernacular style, “changing outward behavior, attitude, and tone, and adopting an alternate pose or voice—without thinking” (p. 315). Through discussions in focus groups with 30 Black women, she found that their primary communicative goals were to dispel stereotypes and be seen as competent. This often involves code switching, as one participant describes it, “In communicating with people, I work very hard at using code switching. So I talk proper English that I learned in school, especially in the classroom or around people I attend school with. And I’m learning to avoid certain behaviors, such as resting my hand on my hip or roll my eyes, when in certain environments” (Scott, 2013, p. 320). There are similar examples of code switching between English and Spanish, as increasing numbers of U.S. Americans speak both languages. Scholar Holly Cashman (2005) investigated how a group of bilingual women code switched during a game of lotería (Mexican bingo). She makes the point that code switching does not just demonstrate linguistic competence but, as in Scott’s (2000) study, also communicates important information about ethnic identities and social position. Throughout the game, the women’s choices to speak Spanish and/or English demonstrated various identifications and social places. When they preferred to speak Spanish, they were identifying inclusively with both English and Spanish speakers. In correcting other’s language choices, they were also identifying as not just bilingual, but as arbiters of the spoken language. And in rejecting others’ corrections of their language use, they were also asserting certain identifications, as when one woman in refusing another’s correction of her Spanish “categorizes herself as ‘Chicana,’ bringing about a bilingual, oppositional social identity, and rejecting the social structures previously talked into being” (p. 313). This discussion of code switching and language settings brings up the question of how does a bilingual person decide which language to speak in a setting where there are multiple languages spoken? Is it rude to switch between two languages when some people in the room only understand one language? As our student Liz describes (in the Student Voices box on the following page), this is not always an easy question to answer. A helpful theory here is communication accommodation theory (CAT), discussed in Chapter 2. As you might remember, this theory posits that in some situations individuals change their communication patterns to accommodate others— depending on the situation and the attitude of the speaker toward other people. So, for example, if the situation is a neutral one and the speaker feels positively toward others, they will more likely accommodate others. This seems to be the case in Liz’s family. Her father instructed her to accommodate everyone in the situation. Liz’s experience at a recent party was different. Here, the Serbian speakers did not want to accommodate Liz. At the Salsa party, she tried to accommodate everyone, but it was difficult and her friends did not follow her lead. What is important to remember is that the outcome of accommodation is usually a positive feeling. However, in some situations (like high threat) speakers may not want to accommodate, may even want to accentuate their linguistic differences, or perhaps, as in Liz’s Salsa party experience, the effort of accommodating is too challenging.

STUDENT VOICES Is it rude to code switch between languages when someone in the room only understands one of the languages? Growing up in a household that predominately spoke Spanish was challenging when I brought friends over. Not everyone in my family spoke English and not all of my friends spoke Spanish. For as long as I can remember, my father expected me to translate everything that my friends and I said when family members were around us, even if they were not a part of the conversation. My father instilled the importance of respecting people around me by ensuring that everyone was included in the conversation, and to be sensitive to those around me who do not understand the language by giving them a general idea of what was being said. The first time that I really thought about this was when I attended a dinner at a friend’s house. All of the people, excluding myself, were from Serbia. When one of the guests realized that I did not speak Serbian, she said, “Oh, so we will have to speak English all night?” My immediate reaction was that I did not think that everyone had to adjust to my needs. After all, this was their time to share food and conversations in their language. However, I recently went Salsa dancing with a friend who did not speak Spanish. Knowing that most of the people around us were bilingual, I asked people if they could speak in English so that we did not exclude my friend. Most people would start speaking in English, but then break out into conversations in Spanish, which frustrated me. I ended up interpreting conversations for him and felt bad that he was excluded from the conversation. As I apologized to him, my friend said, “Don’t feel bad. It is my fault that I do not speak Spanish.” Reflecting on these situations, I wondered when is it appropriate to code switch between languages when someone in the room only understands one of the languages? Why did I not think it was offensive in a situation where I was the one who did not understand and offensive when it was a friend of mine who did not? —Liz

LANGUAGE POLITICS AND POLICIES Nations can enact laws recognizing an official language, such as French in France or Irish in Ireland (despite the fact that more Irish speak English than Irish). Some nations have multiple official languages. For instance, Canada has declared English and French to be the official languages. Here in the United States, there is no official national language, although English is the de facto national language. Yet the state of Hawai’i has two official languages, English and Hawaiian. Other U.S. entities have also declared official languages, such as Guam (Chamorro and English), New Mexico (English and Spanish), and Samoa (English and Samoan). Laws or customs that determine which 247

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language policies  Laws or customs that determine when and where which language will be spoken.

language is spoken where and when are referred to as language policies. These policies often emerge from the politics of language use. As mentioned previously, the court of Catherine the Great of Russia used not Russian but French, which was closely tied to the politics of social and economic class. The history of colonialism also influences language policies. Thus, Portuguese is the official national language of Mozambique, and English and French are the official national languages of Cameroon (see Figure 6-4). Language policies are embedded in the politics of class, culture, ethnicity, and economics. They do not develop as a result of any supposed quality of the language itself. There are different motivations behind the establishment of language policies that guide the status of different languages in a place. Sometimes nations decide on a national language as part of a process of driving people to assimilate into the national culture. If the state wishes to promote assimilation, language policies that encourage everyone to speak the official language and conduct business in that language are promoted. One such group, U.S. English, Inc., has been advocating for the establishment of English as the official language of the United States. Sometimes nations develop language policies as a way of protecting minority languages so these languages do not disappear. Welsh in Wales is one ­example, but Irish in Ireland and Frisian in Germany and the Netherlands are legally protected languages. Some language policies recognize the language rights of its citizens wherever they are in the nation. One example of this is Canada (English and

FIGURE 6-4   Tensions between English and French speakers—shown by this photo taken near Montreal’s Olympic Stadium—have led to the creation of language policies in Quebec. Some U.S. states have attempted to implement language policies as “English-only” laws. Do these language policies reduce or exacerbate intercultural communication problems? Why do some languages face more difficulty in their survival than others? (T. K. Nakayama)

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French). Another is Kenya (Swahili and English). Government services are available in either language throughout the nation. Other language policies are governed by location. In Belgium, Dutch (Flemish) is the official language in Flanders in the north part of the country. French is the official language in Wallonia in the South, and German is the official language in the Eastern Cantons bordering Germany. Thus, if you are boarding a train to go from Antwerp to Liège, you would need to look for “Luik” in the Antwerp train station. When you returned to the train station in Liège to go back, you would look for the train to “Anvers.” The signs would not be posted in both languages, except in the Brusselscapital region (the only bilingual part of the nation). In Quebec, Canada, Law 101—passed in the early 1980s—required all Quebec students to attend French-speaking schools (unless their parents went to an Englishspeaking school in Quebec). Years later, these former students talked about this experience and how this law is changing Quebec. It’s creating a more multicultural identity in contrast to previous years when most immigrants would choose English, leaving French to be spoken only by a small, relatively isolated group (Roy, 2007). Similarly, while there were some complaints that the “language police” (OQLF -Office québécois de la langue française) went too far when Air Canada was fined because signs and instructions were not provided in French on a recent flight (Air Canada fined, 2019), most citizens agreed with their list of English words that are acceptable to use (e.g., grilled cheese, which is so universally understood, why require  sandwich au fromage fondant  on menus?). There is also some support for their translations for English words that don’t exist in French (e.g., hashtag = mot-clic), thus providing French speaking Quebeckers (especially unilingual ones) with a reality of words they actually understand (Yakabuski, 2017). Sometimes language policies are developed with language parity, but the implementation is not equal. In Cameroon, for example, English and French are both official languages, although 247 indigenous languages are also spoken. Although Germany was the initial colonizer of Cameroon, Britain and France took over in 1916—with most of the territory going to France—and these “new colonial masters then sought to impose their languages in the newly acquired territory” (Echu, 2003, p. 34). At independence in 1960, French Cameroon established French as its official language and English became the official language in the former British Cameroon areas once they joined together to form Cameroon. Once united in 1961, Cameroon established both languages as official languages. Because French speakers are far more numerous than English speakers, “French has a de facto dominance over English in the areas of administration, education and the media. In fact, it is not an exaggeration to say that French influence as expressed in language, culture and political policy prevails in all domains” (p. 39). So although Cameroon is officially bilingual, French dominates in nearly all domains because most of the people are French speakers. Thus, “what appears to be a language policy for the country is hardly clearly defined, in spite of the expressed desire to promote English-French bilingualism and protect the indigenous languages” (p. 44). European colonialism has left its mark in this African nation, and the language policy and language realities remain to be worked out. We can view the development of language policies as reflecting the dialectical tensions between the nation’s history and its future, between the various language

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POINT of VIEW

N

ational Public Radio recently conducted an informal survey, asking people about their experiences in code switching. The survey revealed five primary motivations for code switching:

1. Lizard brains take over. Sometimes people just switch to another language or accent without thinking about it. One young Japanese American woman described an experience she had while visiting relatives in Japan. They all went to a popular Japanese horror house and she got so frightened, she dropped her fluent Japanese and started screaming in English (much to the amusement of staff and her relatives). 2. To fit in. People often code switch to talk and act more like those around them. A Spanish teacher in Nashville who picked up the Southern, African American English dialect of his students forgot to switch to standard English when his boss asked him if he had forgotten to return a book and the teacher replied, “Nah, you flaugin’ bruh, I put that on your desk yesterday.” 3. To get something. People in the service industry report that a Southern accent is a “surefire way to get tips,” and almost everyone working in their restaurant starts using “you’all” from day one. Also, an American woman living in Ireland discovered she got better prices as a shopper if she talked in the local Irish accent. 4. To say something in secret. A U.S. woman reported that she and a friend would speak French to each other on their train commute in Chicago if they wanted to comment on other passengers. One day they commented on how good looking a fellow commuter was and he answered in perfect French, “Merci.” 5. To help convey a thought. Sometimes only a particular word in a particular language will get the point across. An example was given of staff at a bilingual school. Since nonprofit fundraising is a very American idea, the French speakers tend to switch to English when that’s the topic. Similarly, when discussing technology topics—if they learn about a particular software product in English, it’s hard to discuss it in the other language.

Source: From M. Thompson, “Five reasons why people code-switch.” NPR Blog—CodeSwitch: Race and Identity Remixed, April 13, 2013. From http://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch /2013/04/13/177126294/five-reasons-why-people-code-switch.

communities, and between economic and political relations inside and outside the nation. Language policies can help resolve or exacerbate these tensions.

LANGUAGE AND GLOBALIZATION

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In a world in which people, products, and ideas can move easily around the globe, rapid changes are being made in the languages spoken and learned. Globalization has sparked increased interest in some languages while leaving others to disappear,

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and with increasing language hybridity, has called into question stability, purity, and authenticity of language (Kramsch, 2014). In addition, communication technologies, along with globalization, have tremendous impact on how languages are used (and misused). Let’s look more closely now at these impacts. Linguists estimate that half of the world’s 6,000 languages of today will be gone within the next century. Some language loss, like species loss, is natural and predictable. No language exists forever. Languages are disappearing more quickly today for various reasons. Sometimes, small, unindustrialized communities are forced to choose between their language and participation in the larger world—due to global economic pressures. East Africans speak Swahili; many feel they need to speak English. On the other hand, disappearing languages can make a comeback. Cornish (a language spoken in southwestern England) ­disappeared in 1777 when the last speaker died. Recently, working from old written ­documents, descendents of Cornish speakers began to learn the language and speak it; now there are more than 2,000 Cornish speakers. Modern Hebrew is another example. For centuries, it was a religious and scholarly language; in the late 19th century, it was revived in Palestine and is now taught in the schools and is the common language of Israeli citizens. Global forces can sometimes produce changes in language use, like producing a new dialect—the multicultural London English, which is emerging among the young in England and replacing the traditional cockney. Or Colonial powers developing a new dialect to communicate with the indigenous people they conquered, a dialect eventually transformed by its speakers into a symbol of resistance (see Point of View, p. 265). The dream of a common international language has long marked Western ways of thinking. Ancient Greeks viewed the world as filled with Greek speakers or those who were barbaroi (barbarians). The Romans attempted to establish Latin and Greek, which led to the subsequent establishment of Latin as the learned language of Europe. Latin was eventually replaced by French, which became the lingua franca of Europe. More recently, English has become the lingua franca of international communication. Having a common language also facilitates intercultural communication, but it can also create animosity among those who must learn the other’s language. Dominique Noguez (1998) explains: In these language affairs, as in many other moral or political affairs—tolerance, for example—is the major criteria for reciprocity. Between comparable languages and equal countries, this must be: I speak and learn your language and you speak and learn mine. Otherwise, it’s sadomasochism and company—the sadist being simply the one with the gall to say to another: “I am not speaking your language, therefore speak mine!” This is what Anglo-Saxons have been happily doing since at least 1918. (p. 234) (En ces affaires de langue, comme en bien d’autres affaires morales ou ­politiques—la tolérance, par exemple—le critère majeur, c’est la réciprocité. Entre langues comparables et pays égaux, ce devrait être: je parle et enseigne votre langue et vous parlez et enseignez la mienne. Autrement, c’est sadomasochisme et compagnie—le sadique étant tout simplement celui qui

lingua franca  A commonly shared language that is used as a medium of communication between people of different languages.

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l’aplomb de declarer à l’autre: “Je ne parle pas votre langue, parlez donc la mienne!” C’est ce que font, avec assez de bonheur, les Anglo-Saxons depuis au moins 1918.) What is the relationship between our four touchstones and this contemporary linguistic situation? That is, how do culture, communication, power, and context play out in the domination of English? First, the intimate connections between language and culture mean that the diffusion of English is tied to the spread of U.S. American culture around the world. Is this a new form of colonialism? If we consider issues of power, what role does the United States play in the domination of English on the world scene? How does this marginalize or disempower those who are not fluent in English in intercultural ­communication? What kinds of resentment might be fostered by forcing people to recognize their disempowerment? In what intercultural contexts is it appropriate to assume that others speak English? For English speakers, this is a particularly unique context. Latvians, for example, cannot attend international meetings and assume that others will speak Latvian, and Albanians will have difficulty transacting international trade if they assume that others know their language. This brings up the question of what languages U.S. Americans should be studying in order to communicate better with others in global contexts. For many years, the most studied languages in high schools and colleges in the United States were French, Spanish, and German. However, some suggest that, in order for the United States to remain a key player on the global stage, its citizens should be studying Chinese and Arabic. Experts observe that China is very close to overtaking United States as the predominant actor in the major power system. In his study of the developing use of English in Switzerland, Christof DemontHeinrich (2005) focused on Switzerland in global and local contexts, cultural and national identity issues, power, and communication. The nation recognizes four national languages—French, German, Italian, and Romansh. Three of these are recognized as official languages—German, French, and Italian—which means that all national government materials are available in the three official languages. Some of the power differences among these language communities are reflected in the demographics from the 2000 Census in which “63.9% of respondents named German, 19.5% listed French, 6.6% claimed Italian, and 0.5% named Romansh as their first language” (p. 72). In this context, English has become more influential, not only among the banking and financial sectors but increasingly in “consumer and pop culture” (p. 74). Recently, at the initiation of the Zürich canton, a proposal was made to allow English to be the first foreign language taught in school (rather than one of the national languages), and eight other German-speaking cantons quickly aligned themselves with this idea. The Swiss Conference of Cantonal Ministers of Education decided that by 2012 all Swiss students must study two foreign languages, but only one must be a national language. Given the value of English in the global economy and the use of English to communicate with other Swiss, one can see why there would be support for the Zürich position. Given the importance of Swiss national identity and their multilingual identity that is shaped by the languages spoken by other Swiss, one can also see why some French-speaking politicians preferred a

POINT of VIEW Colonial histories have influenced how people communicate. In Brazil, colo­ nialists developed their own language to communicate across the many indig­ enous communities they colonized, but today this language is used as a tool of resistance. As you read the following, consider these questions: how can a language serve political ends? What are the politics of speaking English in the world today? According to a New York Times report, there is one language, thriving today that was artificially constructed more than 500 years ago. That language is the “lingua geral” (general language), now spoken only in a remote Amazon region where Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela intersect. It was developed by the colonizing Portuguese when they arrived in Brazil in the 1500s, as a way to communicate with the indigenous people they had conquered—who spoke more than 700 different languages. With the help of educated Jesuits priests, they constructed a linguistic mixture of Indian, Portuguese, and African words and called it called “língua geral,” or the “general language.” They then mandated that (only) this language be spoken by all the colonized peoples. Over the centuries, the language mostly died out except in one remote area where it not only survived but is actually making a comeback. It is now called Nheengatú and is spoken by almost 30,000 people. In fact, in one municipality, São Gabriel da Cachoeira, the local council voted to recognize it as one of the official languages, along with Portuguese and two local Indian languages. This means that Nheengatú can now be used in legal matters and taught in local schools. While the language was originally the language of the colonizers, in modern times, the language acquired a very different signifi­cance. As the dominion of Portuguese advanced and those who originally imposed the language instead sought its extinction, Nheengatú became “a mechanism of ethnic, cultural and linguistic resistance,” said Persida Miki, a professor of education at the Federal University of Amazonas. Source: From L. Rohter, “Language born of colonialism thrives again in Amazon,” The New York Times, August 28, 2005, p. A6.

policy where one of the other national languages would be the first foreign language. Zürich and other cantons are now proposing a ballot initiative that would “require just one foreign language to be taught, ideally English, at the primary school level” (p. 76), which would leave the other national language to be taught in secondary school. Demont-Heinrich concludes by noting that Romansh is likely headed for linguistic extinction, but what will happen to Switzerland? Can Swiss national identity be maintained with English? And what about the world? “Can such a colossal human social order sustain the diverse forms of human linguistic expression” (p. 81), or must humanity reduce its linguistic expression to a few dominant languages that facilitate economic trade? In the era of globalization, where economic growth is driven by external relations and trade, should we be studying Chinese?

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INTERNET RESOURCES https://www.newseum.org/todaysfrontpages/ This website provides a global view on news events, with links to the first pages of various newspapers from all over the world. https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/files/lsa-stmt-language-rights.pdf This website presents language rights information from the Linguistic Society of America. This information is not provided to counter English-only policies, but it is a strong advocate of a multilingual society. https://www.babelfish.com/ This website is an example of one type of translation services. The “Babel” feature translates from a great number of languages to a great number of languages. What opportunities and challenges does automated translation present for intercultural communication?

SUMMARY ▪▪ The social science approach focuses on individual aspects of language. The interpretive approach focuses on contextual aspects of language. The critical approach emphasizes the role of power in language use. ▪▪ There are different positions on the relationship between language and our perceptions. The nominalist position feels that our perception is not shaped by the language we speak. The relativist position, represented by the Sapir– Whorf hypothesis, argues that our perception is determined by the language we speak. The qualified relativist position argues that language influences how we perceive. ▪▪ Communication styles can be high context or low context, more direct or indirect, or more elaborate or understated. ▪▪ Interactive media influences language use and communication style in several ways. ▪▪ Slang and humor are two additional variations in language use. ▪▪ Co-cultural groups may use one of three orientations to dealing with ­dominant groups—assimilation, accommodation, or separation. Within each of these approaches are nonassertive, assertive, and aggressive strategies. Each of these strategies comes with benefits and costs to the co-cultural individual. ▪▪ We use language from our social positions, and the power of our language use and labels comes from that social position. ▪▪ People have various reasons for learning or not learning new languages. ▪▪ People can be bilingual or multilingual, and they may engage in code ­switching or changing languages in different situations, depending on the contexts.

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▪▪ Translation refers to expressing what was said in another language in a written text. Interpretation is the same process but is oral rather than written. ▪▪ Language policies are instituted with different goals. Sometimes language policies are meant to encourage assimilation into a language and national identity. Sometimes language policies are meant to provide protection to minority languages. Sometimes language policies regulate language use in different parts of a nation. ▪▪ Globalization, along with technology, has affected how languages are used or not used. Globalization has meant that English has not only become more important worldwide but also has created other intercultural communication conflicts. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Why is it important for intercultural communication scholars to study both language and discourse? 2. What is the relationship between our language and the way we perceive reality? 3. What are some cross-cultural variations in language use and communication style? 4. In what ways do social media and online communication affect language use and communication style? 5. What aspects of context influence the choice of communication style? 6. What does a translator or an interpreter need to know to be effective? 7. Why is it important to know the social positions of individuals and groups involved in intercultural communication? 8. Why do some people say that we should not use labels to refer to people but should treat everybody as individuals? Do you agree? 9. Why do people have such strong reactions to language policies, as in the “English-only” movement? 10. In what ways is the increasing and widespread use of English around the world both a positive and a negative change for U.S. Americans?

ACTIVITIES 1. Regional Language Variations. Meet in small groups with other class members and discuss variations in language use in different regions of the United States (accent, vocabulary, and so on). Identify perceptions that are associated with these variations.

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2. “Foreigner” Labels. Meet in small groups with other class members and generate a list of labels used to refer to people from other countries who come to the United States—for example, “immigrants” and “aliens.” For each label, identify a general connotation (positive, negative, mixed). Discuss how connotations of these words may influence our perceptions of people from other countries. Would it make a difference if we referred to them as “guests” or “visitors”? 3. Values and Language. Although computer-driven translations have improved dramatically over earlier attempts, translation is still intensely cultural. Communication always involves many layers of meaning, and when you move between languages, there are many more opportunities for misunderstanding. Try to express some important values that you have (e.g., freedom of the press) on this website, and see how they are retranslated in five different languages: www.tashian.com/multibabel/

KEY WORDS bilingual (238) co-cultural groups (229) code switching (245) communication style (221) equivalency (240) high-context communication (221) interlanguage (239) interpretation (240)

language acquisition (220) language policies (248) lingua franca (251) low-context communication (221) metamessage (221) multilingual (238) nominalist position (218)

qualified relativist position (220) relativist position (218) Sapir–Whorf hypothesis (218) social positions (233) source text (240) target text (240) translation (240)

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Marx, E. (1999). Breaking through culture shock. ­London: Nicholas Brealey. Mathews, J. (2019, April 25). Half the world is bilingual. What’s our problem? washingtonpost.com. Meléndez, M. (2002, April 7). Police try to connect, reach out in Spanish. The Arizona Republic, p. B1. Miles, O. (2011, February 24). How Gaddafi’s words get lost in translation. BBC News Africa. Retrieved June 2, 2011, from www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa -12566277?print=true. Moritsugu, H. (1992). To be more Japanese. In J. F. J. Lee (Ed.), Asian Americans (pp. 99–103). New York: New Press. Nakayama, T. K. (1997). Les voix de l’autre. Western Journal of Communication, 61(2), 235–242. Noguez, D. (1998). La colonisation douce: Feu la langue française, carnets, 1968–1998. Paris: Arléa. Orbe, M. P. (1998). Constructing co-cultural theory: An explication of culture, power, and communication. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Orbe, M. P., & Roberts, T. L. (2012). Co-Cultural Theorizing: Foundations, applications & extensions. Howard Journal Of Communications, 23(4), 293–311. Razzante, R. (2018). Identifying dominant group strategies: A phenomenological study. Communication Studies, 69(4), 389–403. Razzante, R., & Orbe, M. (2018). Two sides of the same coin: Conceptualizing dominant group theory in the context of co-cultural theory. Communication Theory, 28(3), 354–375. Roy, J-H. (2007, September 15). Les enfants de la loi 101 (Children of Law 101). L’actualite, 32(14), 34–50. Rymer, R. (2012, July). Vanishing languages. National Geographic.com. Retrieved May 26, 2016, from http://ngm .nationalgeographic.com/2012/07/vanishing -languages/rymer-text. Sapir, E. (Ed.). (1921). Language: An introduction to the study of speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. Sauvage, J.-L. (2002). Code-switching: An everyday reality in Belgium. In J. N. Martin, T. K. Nakayama, & L. A. Flores (Eds.), Readings in intercultural communication: Experiences and contexts (2nd ed., pp. 156–161). New York: McGraw-Hill. Scott, K. D. (2000). Crossing cultural borders: “Girl” and “look” as markers of identity in Black women’s language use. Discourse & Society, 11(2), 237–248. Shuter, R. (2012). When Indian women text message; ­culture, identity and emerging interpersonal norms of new media. In P. H. Cheong, J. N. Martin, & L. P. ­Macfadyen (Eds.), New media and intercultural communication. New York: Peter Lang. Social media speeds up language evolution. (2015, May). languagemagazine.com. Retrieved May 30, 2016, from http://languagemagazine.com/?page_id=123684.

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Strochlic, N. (2018, April). The race to save the world’s disappearing languages. nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved February 18, 2020, from https://www.nation algeographic.com/news/2018/04/saving-dyingdisappearing-languages-wikitongues-culture/#close. Varner, I., & Beamer, L. (2010). Intercultural communication in the global workplace. 5th ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Vinay, J. P., & Darbelnet, J. (1977). Stylistique comparée du français et de l’anglais: Méthode de traduction. Paris: Marcel Didier. Virtual communication in Kenya. learning.aperianglobal. com. Retrieved May 30, 2016, from http://learning .aperianglobal.com/web/globesmart/locale/topic.cfm? topicid=E4177268C037B7C6A8E6ACA660495393. Wei, S-J (2019, May 14). Why the US and China see negotiations differently, Columbia Business School,

https://www8.gsb.columbia.edu/articles/chazen -global-insights/why-us-and-china-see-negotiations -differently. Whorf, B. L. (1956). Language, thought and reality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Yakabuski, K. (2017, September 21). Yes, the Quebec “language” police does serve a purpose. theglobeandmail.com. Retrieved February 18, 2020, from https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion /yes-the-quebec-language-police-does-serve-a-purpose /article36329861/ Yellow B. M. (1999). What we want to be called. American Indian Quarterly, 23(2), 1–20. Zirulnik, M. L., & Orbe, M. (2019). Black female pilot communicative experiences: Applications and extensions of Co-Cultural Theory, Howard Journal of Communications, 30(1), 76–91.

CREDITS [page 216, text] Monica, excerpt from “I communicate with my friends . . . online all the time.” Original work; [page 218, text] Jason, excerpt from “Student Voices: My co-worker, Nam . . . the phone rang.” Original work; [page 220, text] G. Lakoff, quote from “The contemporary theory of metaphor” in Metaphor and thought, Second edition, edited by A. Ortony. Cambridge University Press. [page 221, text] Z. Kövecses, quote from Metaphor in culture: Universality and variation. Cambridge University Press. [page 221, text] E. T. Hall, quote from Beyond culture. Doubleday. [page 223, text] H. Grice, quote from “Logic and conversation” in Syntax and semantics: Vol. 3, edited by P. Cole, and J. Morgan. Academic Press. [page 235, text] D. Alexander, quote from “Why-are-face-to-face-in -person-meetings-so-important-when-doing-business-in -China”(March 29, 2014). Quora.com. [page 236, text] Quote from “Social media speeds up language evolution.” languagemagazine.com. [page 237, text] Cool American English, excerpt from “American-English -slang” (May 27, 2016). Cool American English. [page 237, text] E. Sinmaz, excerpt from “Is this the end of Cockney?” from dailymail.com (November 10, 2013). dailymail.com. [page 234, text] Amir, excerpt from “Students Voices: Growing up in Pakistan, . . . incapable of understanding.” Original work; [page 234, text] Sergio, excerpt from “Students Voices: My native language . . . avoiding slang terms.” Original work; [page 237, text] B. Anderson, quote from A life beyond boundaries: A memoir. Verso. [page 238, text] Excerpt from “The 10 Most Popular Languages in the US.” Accredited Language

Services. [page 239, text] voix de l’autre” from Western Journal of Communication (1997): 235–242. [page 240, text] M. Meléndez, excerpt from “Police try to connect, reach out in Spanish” from The Arizona Republic (April 7, 2002): B1. [page 241, text] Rachel, excerpt from “Students Voices: I think it’s important . . . learn the language.” Original work; [page 241, text] Carrie, excerpt from “Students Voices: It’s important to . . . all together” Original work; [page 242, text] E. Marx, excerpt from Breaking through culture shock. Nicholas Brealey. [page 242, text] K. Weinmann, excerpt from “13 Slogans that got hilarious when they were lost in translation” from businessinsider.com (October 17, 2011). [page 244, text] H. Moritsugu, excerpt from “To be more Japanese” in Asian Americans, edited by J. F. J. Lee. New Press. [page 236, text] C. Demont-Heinrich, excerpt from “Linguistically privileged and cursed? American university students and the global hegemony of English” from World Englishes (2010): 281–298. [page 244, text] J. Martinez, excerpt from Phenomenology of Chicana experience and identity: Communication and transformation in praxis. Rowan & Littlefield. [page 256, text] G. Anzaldúa, excerpt from Borderlands/la frontera: The new mestizo. Spinsters/Aunt Lute. [page 235, text] R. Rymer, quote from “Vanishing languages” from National Geographic (July, 2012). [page 245, text] J.-L. Sauvage, excerpt from “Code-switching: An everyday reality in Belgium” in Readings in intercultural communication: Experiences and contexts, Second edition, edited by J. N. Martin, T. K. Nakayama, and L. A. Flores. McGrawHill. [page 247, text] Liz, excerpt from “Students Voices:

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Growing up in a . . . mine who did not?” Original work; [page 246, text] K. D. Scott, quote from “Crossing cultural borders: “Girl” and “look” as markers of identity in Black women’s language use” from Discourse & Society (2000): 237–248. [page 250, text] M. Thompson, excerpt from “Five reasons why people code-switch” from NPR Blog— CodeSwitch: Race and Identity Remixed (April 13, 2013). NPR Blog—CodeSwitch: Race and Identity Remixed. [page 249, text] G. Echu, quote from “Coping with multilingualism: Trends in the evolution of language policy in Cameroon” from PhiN (2003): 31–46. [page 251, text]

C. Kramsch, quote from “Teaching foreign languages in an era of globalization: Introduction” from The Modern Language Journal (2014): 296–311. [page 251, text] D. Noguez, excerpt from La colonisation douce: Feu la langue française, carnets, 1968–1998. Arléa. [page 253, text] L. Rohter, excerpt from “Language born of colonialism thrives again in Amazon” from The New York Times (August 28, 2005): A6. [page 253, text] C. Demont-Heinrich, quote from “Language and national identity in the era of globalization: The case of English in Switzerland” from Journal of Communication Inquiry (2005): 66–84.

7

CHAPTER

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Understand how verbal and n ­ onverbal communication differ. 2. Discuss the types of messages that are communicated nonverbally. 3. Identify cultural universals in ­nonverbal communication. 4. Explain the limitations of some cross-cultural research findings. 5. Define and give an example of cross-cultural differences in facial expressions, proxemics, ­gestures, eye contact, paralanguage, ­chronemics, and silence. 6. Discuss the relationship between nonverbal communication and power. 7. Define cultural space. 8. Describe how cultural spaces are formed. 9. Explain why it is important to understand cultural spaces in i­ ntercultural communication. 10. Understand the differences between the modernist and ­postmodern views of cultural spaces.

260

NONVERBAL CODES AND CULTURAL SPACE

THINKING DIALECTICALLY ABOUT NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION: DEFINING NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Comparing Verbal and Nonverbal Communication What Nonverbal Behavior Communicates THE UNIVERSALITY OF NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR

Recent Research Findings Nonverbal Codes Stereotype, Prejudice, and Discrimination Semiotics and Nonverbal Communication DEFINING CULTURAL SPACE

Cultural Identity and Cultural Space Changing Cultural Space Postmodern Cultural Spaces INTERNET RESOURCES SUMMARY DISCUSSION QUESTIONS ACTIVITIES KEY WORDS REFERENCES

Chapter 7 / Nonverbal Codes and Cultural Space 261

Nonverbal elements of cultural communication are highly dynamic and play an important role in understanding intercultural communication. Our Kenyan student Gladys describes a nonverbal misstep when she first arrived in the United States: Back at home women love touching and patting each other’s hair as a way of admiring it. When I moved to the United States, there was this lady who attended the same church we did. The lady was fairly friendly and even talked of inviting me to her apartment. She had long blonde hair. One day, I made the mistake of patting her hair as a way of admiring how long it was. She was so mad at me, and that occurrence strained our relationship which never recovered. Since then I became afraid of patting anyone’s hair again. Consider expected spatial distance. A colleague recently observed that walking on the sidewalks in ­England, she found herself frequently bumping into oncoming pedestrians—and figured out it was because people tend to walk on the same side of the pavement as they drive on the road. So walking in England, as they approached her and she steps to her left, they step to their right. While the consequences for these encounters may be a bit awkward, in some other instances, understanding nonverbal communication can be more consequential. For example, consider nonverbal norms for interactions with police. Cultural experts warned tourists visiting Japan for the recent Rugby World Cup that police there have every legal right to stop citizens and foreigners and ask for ID. In fact, even raising your voice can be interpreted as noncompliance, with serious consequences. Japanese citizens, when stopped by police, will stand perfectly still and speak calmly. “No sudden moves. No surprises. Nobody goes to jail” (Richards, 2019) . You may never need to know the appropriate nonverbal behavior for encounters with Japanese police, but you certainly will find yourself in many intercultural communication situations and cultural spaces. Your own nonverbal communication may create additional problems and, if the behaviors are inappropriate for the particular cultural space, may exacerbate ­existing tensions. In other cases, your use of nonverbals might reduce tension and confusion. The first part of this chapter focuses on the importance of understanding nonverbal aspects of intercultural communication. We can examine nonverbal communication in terms of the personal–contextual and the static–dynamic dialectics. Although nonverbal communication can be highly dynamic, personal space, gestures, and facial expressions are fairly static patterns of specific nonverbal communication codes. These patterns are the focus of the second part of this chapter. Finally, we investigate the concept of cultural space and the ways in which cultural identity is shaped and negotiated by the cultural spaces (home, neighborhood, and so on) that people occupy. There are no guidebooks for reading everyday nonverbal behaviors, and nonverbal communication norms vary from culture to culture; therefore, we believe it is useless to list nonverbals to memorize. Instead, it will be more beneficial for you to learn the framework of nonverbal communication and cultural spaces so you can tap into the nonverbal systems of whatever cultural groups become relevant to your life. Understanding communication is a matter of understanding how to think dialectically

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FIGURE 7-1

Nonverbal behavior can communicate status and power. How are these elements expressed in the nonverbal behavior of these border-crossers and border guards? (Johan ORDONEZ/AFP/Getty Images)

about systems of meaning, and not discrete elements. Nonverbal intercultural communication is no exception.

THINKING DIALECTICALLY ABOUT NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION: DEFINING NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

cultural space  The particular configuration of the communication that constructs meanings of various places.

In this chapter, we discuss two forms of communication beyond speech. The first includes facial expression, personal space, gestures, eye contact, paralanguage, use of time, and conversational silence. (What is not said is often as important as what is spoken.) The second includes the cultural spaces that we occupy and negotiate. Cultural spaces are the social and cultural contexts in which our identity forms—where we grow up and where we live (not necess­arily the physical homes and neighborhoods, but the cultural meanings created in these places). In thinking dialectically, we need to consider the relationship between the nonverbal behavior and the cultural spaces in which the behavior occurs, and between the nonverbal behavior and the verbal message. Although there are patterns to nonverbal behaviors, they are not always culturally appropriate in all cultural spaces. Remember, too, that some nonverbal behaviors are cultural, whereas others are idiosyncratic, that is, peculiar to individuals.

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Comparing Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Recognizing Nonverbal Behavior Both verbal and nonverbal communication are symbolic, communicate meaning, and are patterned—that is, they are governed by contextually determined rules. Societies have different nonverbal ­languages, just as they have different spoken languages. However, some differences between nonverbal and verbal communication codes have important implications for intercultural interaction. Let’s look at some examples of these differences. The following incident occurred to Judith when she was new to Algeria, where she lived for a while. One day she stood at her balcony and waved to one of the young Algerian teachers, who was walking across the school yard. Several minutes later, the young teacher knocked on the door, looking expectantly at Judith, as if summoned. Because Judith knew that it was uncommon in Algeria for men to visit women they didn’t know well, she was confused. Why had he come to her door? Was it because she was foreign? After a few awkward moments, he left. A few weeks later, Judith figured it out. In Algeria (as in many other places), the U.S. “wave” is the nonverbal signal for “come here.” The young teacher had assumed that Judith had summoned him to her apartment. As this example illustrates, rules for nonverbal communication vary among cultures and contexts. Let’s consider another example. Two U.S. students attending school in France were traveling by train to Germany, when the conductor walked into their compartment and berated them in English for putting their feet on the opposite seat. They wondered how he had known that they spoke English. As these examples suggest, nonverbal communication entails more than gestures—even our appearance can communicate loudly. The students’ appearance alone probably was a sufficient clue to their national identity. One of our students described a recent experience she had as a tourist in Berlin: Even though I had read that it was considered impolite to call the server in a restaurant by raising a hand/finger, I found myself doing it without thinking! Until a German friend pointed it out. While some nonverbal behaviors are very conscious (like wearing/not wearing a facial mask during a pandemic), as these examples show, nonverbal behavior mostly operates at a subconscious level. We rarely think about how we stand, what gestures we use, and so on. Occasionally, someone points out such behaviors, which brings them to the conscious level. When misunderstandings arise, we are more likely to question our verbal communication than our nonverbal communication. We can search for different ways to explain verbally what we mean. We can also look up words in a dictionary or ask someone to explain unfamiliar words. In contrast, it is more difficult to identify nonverbal miscommunications or misperceptions. Learning Nonverbal Behavior Although we learn rules and meanings for language behavior in grammar and language arts lessons, we learn nonverbal meanings and behaviors by more implicit socialization. No one explains, “When you talk with someone you like, lean forward and smile frequently, because that will communicate that you really care about him or her.” In many contexts in the United States, such

STUDENT VOICES I have a couple of good friends who are deaf, and it is evident that body ­language, eye contact, and visual communication are far more important in our conversations than between two hearing people. I found that both of my friends, who lived very close to me, would much rather stop by my house than call me on the relay. I can see the cultural implications of space and distance. We keep in touch mostly by using WhatsApp. It’s funny because the messages that I get from those guys have more commonly used slang words than most of my hearing friends use. The question is: Do my friends understand the slang, make it a part of their language, and create a sign for it, or do they know the words through somewhat of a verbal exchange with the hearing? —Andrea

behaviors communicate immediacy and positive meanings (Ray & Floyd, 2006). But how is it interpreted if someone does not display these behaviors? Sometimes, though, we learn strategies for nonverbal communication. Have you ever been told to shake hands firmly when you meet someone? You may have learned that a limp handshake indicates a weak person. Likewise, many young women learn to cross their legs at the ankles and to keep their legs together when they sit. These strategies combine socialization and the teaching of nonverbal codes. Coordinating Nonverbal and Verbal Behaviors Generally, our nonverbal behaviors reinforce our verbal behaviors. For example, when we shake our heads and say “no,” we are reinforcing verbal behavior, and not surprisingly, consistency between verbal and nonverbal behaviors usually translates into perceptions of credibility and positive first impressions (Weisbuch, Ambady, Clark, Achor, & Weele, 2010). However, nonverbal behaviors can also contradict our verbal communication. If we tell a friend, “I can’t wait to see you,” and then don’t show up at the friend’s house, our nonverbal behavior is contradicting the verbal message. Because nonverbal communication operates at a less conscious level, we tend to think that people have less control over their nonverbal behavior. Therefore, we often think of nonverbal behaviors as conveying the “real” messages.

What Nonverbal Behavior Communicates relational messages  Messages (verbal and nonverbal) that communicate how we feel about others. status  The relative position an individual holds in social or organizational settings.

264

Although language is an effective and efficient means of communicating explicit information or content, every communication also conveys relational messages— information on how the talker wants to be understood and viewed by the listener. These messages are communicated not by words, but through nonverbal behavior, including facial expressions, eye gaze, posture, and even our tone of voice (Bello, Brandau-Brown, Zhang, & Ragsdale, 2010). Nonverbal behavior also communicates status and power. For example, employees tend to look at supervisors for cues to interpreting instructions, whereas supervisors direct their eye gaze at subordinates less often; U.S. men, with historically higher status, tend to take up more space than women when seated (“manspreading”), a pattern that some are resisting now

Chapter 7 / Nonverbal Codes and Cultural Space 265

Respeta el espacio de los demás

Dude… Stop the Spread, Please It’s a space issue.

FIGURE 7-2

  Signs in public transportation in Madrid and New York City signal a cross-cultural resistance to “manspreading.” (Sources: The Independent and The Guardian)

(see Figure 7-2). Relatedly, a Korean student explained that in Korea, at family, social or business setting meals, it is customary to wait for the oldest person (with highest status) to start eating, then others can start eating. What are the consequences when people do not follow these “rules”; when women sprawl when seated or subordinates do not direct their gaze at a supervisor who is giving instructions? In addition, many people believe that nonverbal behavior communicates deception, and scholars have spent years investigating this assumption—using sophisticated research methodologies, including computer-assisted observational tools, experimental (lab) studies, and in-depth interviews with interrogators and suspects—with few conclusive results. Some suggest that people from different cultural groups exhibit different behaviors when lying (Vrij, Granhag, & Mann, 2010). Still others suggest that deception is better detected by looking at language use—at how consistent people are in their speech (Blair, Reimer, & Levine, 2018; Dunbar et al., 2019). However, scholars now conclude that the nonverbal cues to deception are “faint and unreliable and that people are mediocre lie catchers” (Vrij, Hartwig, & Granhag, 2019, p. 19). Most nonverbal communication about affect, status, and deception happens at an unconscious level. For this reason, it plays an important role in intercultural interactions. Both pervasive and unconscious, it communicates how we feel about each other and about other cultural groups. A useful theory in understanding nonverbal communication across cultures is expectancy violations theory. This theory suggests that we have expectations (mostly subconscious) about how others should behave nonverbally in particular situations. When these expectations are violated (e.g., when someone stands too close to us), we will respond in specific ways. If an act is unexpected and interpreted negatively, for example, when someone stands too close to us at a religious service, we tend to regard the person and the relationship rather negatively. However, if the act is unexpected and interpreted positively (e.g., an attractive person stands close at a party), we will probably regard the relationship rather favorably. In fact, more favorably than if someone stands the exact “expected” distance from us at a religious

deception  The act of making someone believe what is not true.

expectancy violations theory  The view that when someone’s nonverbal behavior violates our expectations, these violations will be perceived positively or negatively depending on the specific context and behavior.

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service or party. Because nonverbal communication occurs at a subconscious level, our negative or positive feelings toward someone may be due to the fact that they violated our expectations—without our realizing it (Burgoon, 1995; Floyd, Ramirez, & Burgoon, 2008).

THE UNIVERSALITY OF NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR Most traditional research in intercultural communication focuses on identifying cross-cultural differences in nonverbal behavior. How do culture, ethnicity, and gender influence nonverbal communication patterns? How universal is most nonverbal communication? Research traditionally has sought to answer these questions. As we have observed in previous chapters, it is neither beneficial nor accurate to try to reduce individuals to one element of their identity (gender, ethnicity, nationality, and so on). Attempts to place people in discrete categories tend to reduce their complexities and lead to major misunderstandings. However, we often classify people according to various categories to help us find universalities. For example, although we may know that not all ­Germans are alike, we may seek information about Germans in general to help us communicate better with individual Germans. In this section, we explore the extent to which nonverbal communication codes are universally shared. We also look for possible cultural variations in these codes that may serve as tentative guidelines to help us communicate better with others.

Recent Research Findings Research investigating the universality of nonverbal communication has fo­­cused on four areas: (1) the relationship of human behavior to that of primates (particularly chimpanzees), (2) nonverbal communication of sensory-deprived children who are blind or deaf, (3) facial expressions, and (4) universal functions of nonverbal social behavior. Chimpanzees and humans share many nonverbal behaviors. For example, both exhibit the eyebrow flash—a slight raising of the eyebrow that communicates recognition—one of the most primitive and universal animal behaviors. Primates and humans also share some facial expressions, and recent research reveals another gesture shared by chimps and humans—the upturned palm, meaning “gimme.” There do seem to be compelling parallels between specific facial expressions and gestures displayed by human and nonhuman primates, universally interpreted to hold similar meanings. However, it still remains true that communication among nonhuman primates, like chimps and monkeys, appears to be less complex than among humans (Preuschoft, 2000). Studies have also compared the facial expressions of children who were blind with those of sighted children and found many similarities. Even though the children who were blind couldn’t see the facial expressions of others to mimic them, they still made the same expressions. This suggests some innate, genetic basis for these behaviors (Galati, Sini, Schmidt, & Tinti, 2003).

Chapter 7 / Nonverbal Codes and Cultural Space 267

Indeed, many cross-cultural studies support the notion of some universality in function of nonverbal communication, particularly in facial expressions; for example, the eyebrow flash just described, the nose wrinkle (indicating slight social distancing), and the “disgust face” (a strong sign of social repulsion). It is also possible that grooming behavior is universal (as it is in animals), although it seems to be somewhat suppressed in Western societies (Schiefenhovel, 1997). Although research may indicate universalities in nonverbal communication, some variations exist. The evoking stimuli (i.e., what causes the nonverbal behavior) may vary from one culture to another. Smiling, for example, is universal, but what prompts a person to smile may be culture specific. Similarly, there are variations in the rules for nonverbal behavior and the contexts in which nonverbal communication takes place. For example, people kiss in most cultures, but there is variation in who kisses whom and in what contexts. When French friends greet each other, they often kiss on both cheeks but never on the mouth. Finally, it is important to look for larger cultural patterns in the nonverbal behavior, rather than trying simply to identify all of the cultural differences. Researcher David Matsumoto (2006) suggests that although cultural differences in nonverbal patterns are interesting, noting these differences is not sufficient. Studying and cataloging every variation in every aspect of nonverbal behavior would be an overwhelming task. Instead, he recommends studying nonverbal communication patterns that vary with other cultural patterns, such as values. For example, recent research links cultural patterns of individualism and collectivism to differences in facial cues and ultimately to different uses of emoji. A study analyzing one month of emoji usage of 3.88 million active users from 212 countries/ regions found that cultural groups that emphasize individualism (e.g., Australia, France) and encourage expressions of happiness over sadness do use more happy emoji (Lu et al., 2016). Might people from collectivist cultures misinterpret or think others overuse these smiley emojis?

Nonverbal Codes Physical Appearance Physical appearance is an important nonverbal code. It includes physical characteristics like height, weight, and body shape, as well as personal grooming (including body hair, clothing choices) and personal artifacts such jewelry, glasses, and backpacks/briefcases/purses, medical facial masks. Of course, physical attractiveness is dynamic and variable—beauty is in the eye of the beholder, to some extent (Swami et al., 2010). However, are there any universal measures of attractiveness? Do different cultures have different standards for beauty? It turns out that two aspects of beauty seems to be present in many cultures: (1) There is more emphasis on female attractiveness than male, and (2) men consistently express stronger preferences for attractive mates than women (Gottschall, 2008). Japanese seem to prefer smaller-bodied women than the British, and in general, prefer small-headed and longer-legged women—the so-called hattou shin beauty (Swami, Caprario, & Tovée, 2006). Our Japanese students tell us that, generally, Japanese find thinner lips more attractive than do U.S. Americans. Concerning

facial expressions  Facial gestures that convey emotions and attitudes.

POINT of VIEW Whether women must wear a headscarf as a matter of faith is controversial, even among Muslims, and there are many reasons why Muslim women do or do not wear hijab. Communication scholar Steve M. Croucher (2008) asked Muslim women in France their reasons for wearing the hijab. Their reasons included: it provides a feeling of security, a shield from public eyes, it demonstrates their commitment to their religious community, it is an expression of their identity, or sometimes even a protest against a secular (French) government. In contrast, Asra Q. Nomani and Hala Arafa (2015) reject the interpretation that wearing the hijab is a “pillar” of Islam. They point out that hijab literally means “curtain” in Arabic, “hiding” and “isolating” someone or something, and is never used in the Koran to mean headscarf. They suggest that this interpretation is a wellfinanced effort by conservative Muslims to dominate modern Muslim societies and spread an ideology of political Islam, called “Islamism.” For information about the difference between the various forms of covering (the Hijab, Niqab, and Burka) in different world regions, visit https://theculturetrip.com/middle-east/articles/the -difference-between-the-hijab-niqab-and-burka/

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male attractiveness, in one study, Greek women showed a preference for smaller men and smaller overall body weight—than did British women (Swami et al., 2007). How do clothing choices and artifacts like purses and backpacks figure in? We might argue that these can be individual choices that express elements of one’s personality and affiliation with particular social groups—for example, goth clothing versus jock or preppie. Some clothing may reflect religious affiliation and expressions of religious identity, as we discussed in Chapter 5 (see Figure 7-3). For example, some orthodox Jewish women cover their heads at all times with scarves or hats; some of Judith’s relatives wear prayer bonnets that cover the head and “cape” dresses (modest, shirtwaist dresses with an extra layer of material designed to deemphasize the female shape); Muslim women in many countries wear the Islamic hijab (headscarf) or burqa (sheet-like covering of the entire body with only eyes showing) (See Point of View on this page). As you might expect, women have various reasons for their clothing choices. Sometimes these choices conflict with secular society or norms in other cultures. For example, on a visit to Saudi Arabia where Sharia law dictates that women cover their heads in public, First Lady Melania Trump dressed modestly but without a headscarf, as did Trump’s daughter Ivanka. Other leaders have also shunned the scarf including German Chancellor Angela Merkel, former British Prime Minister Theresa May, and former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton (Downes, 2019). In 2010, the French parliament made it illegal for ­Muslim women to wear the full veil, a law supported by a majority of French citizens, and there are similar sentiments in Britain (Thompson, 2011). Most U.S. Americans are not in favor, and some suggest that values of tolerance and religious freedom should prevail—banning the burqa in very limited contexts (schools, courts) where faces need to be seen. Some compare the ban to the French requiring Jews to wear a Star of David

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FIGURE 7-3

Muslim women in many countries wear the Islamic burqa as an expression of religious identity. (philipjbigg/Alamy Stock Photo)

during World War II, emphasizing the underlying intolerance and prejudice (Zaretsky, 2010), which will be discussed later in this chapter. The context and people involved may call for different choices. During Iranian President Rouhani’s 2016 trip to Europe where he made $18 billion worth of business deals, the Italians decided to cover some of their famous nude statues during his visits to art museums, in deference to Rouhani’s strict theocratic sensibilities. They placed plywood boxes and panels around the nudes to obscure them from the president’s vision, or at least in photo-ops (Tharoor, 2016). Facial Expressions As noted earlier, there have been many investigations of the universality of facial expressions. During the past 60 years, psychologist Paul Ekman (2003) and colleagues, through extensive and systematic research, have maintained that there are six basic emotions expressed through universal facial expressions: happiness, sadness, disgust, surprise, anger, and fear. And in a recent essay in Psychology Today, Ekman (2019) reports that he suspects, although he hasn’t investigated it, that contempt may also be a universal emotion. Using sophisticated computergenerated digital measurement, other research found that the six basic emotions suggested earlier held true for Western Caucasians. However, East Asians showed less distinction, and more overlap between emotional categories, particularly for surprise, fear, disgust, and anger, specifically showing “signs of emotional intensity with the eyes, which are under less voluntary control than the mouth, reflecting restrained facial behaviors as predicted by the literature” (Jack, Garrod, Yub, Caldarac & Schyns, 2012, p. 7242). So this research refutes the notion that human emotion is universally represented by the same set of six distinct facial expression signals, and

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early research probably neglected expressions of shame, pride, or guilt, fundamental emotions in East Asian societies. While a smile may signal a universally positive emotion, there are cultural variations in how much and how often people are expected to smile. Recent studies show that eastern Europeans tend to smile less than western Europeans, and North Americans tend to smile more often than any other cultural group, and many Americans find it disconcerting that wearing facial masks hides their smiles. Communication experts suggest that these differences stem from deeply held cultural preferences involving friendliness and sincerity. America is a “culture of affirmation,” where friendliness reigns and people should be happy, or at least appear to be happy. In comparison, French, German, and eastern European cultures place a strong emphasis on sincerity and presenting one’s feelings “truthfully,” so people are expected to smile only when they are truly feeling happy. In fact, someone who smiles a lot is seen as a bit loony or perhaps insincere; after all, who is truly happy all the time? In most cultures women tend to smile more than men, probably reflecting the social expectations that women are supposed to be more affiliative and communal, and smiling is a way to express these attributes (Szarota, 2010).

proxemics  The study of how people use personal space.

contact cultures  ­ Cultural groups in which people tend to stand close together and touch frequently when they interact—for example, cultural groups in South America, the Middle East, and southern Europe. (See noncontact cultures.) noncontact cultures  Cultural groups in which people tend to maintain more space and touch less often than people do in contact cultures. For instance, Great Britain and Japan tend to have noncontact cultures. (See contact cultures.)

Proxemics Unlike facial expressions, the norms for personal space seem to vary considerably from culture to culture. Proxemics is the study of how people use various types of space in their everyday lives: fixed feature space, semifixed space, and informal space. Fixed feature space is characterized by set boundaries (divisions within an office building); semifixed feature space is defined by fixed boundaries such as furniture. Informal space, or personal space, is characterized by a personal zone or “bubble” that varies for individuals and circumstances. The use of each of these spatial relationships can facilitate or impede effective communication across cultures; the area that humans control and use most often is their informal space. Are there cultural variations in how people use personal space? A recent study of personal distances in six countries did find some cultural differences as well as some universals (Høgh-Olesen, 2008). First, the universal norms: We tend to place ourselves further away when we are standing near to more than one stranger, we narrow down our personal space when we are in control of our own “territory” (personal space) and expand it when we arrive in someone else’s territory. Now for the cultural variations—you probably know from personal experience that when someone stands too close to you or too far in conversation, you tend to feel uncomfortable and may even move to shorten or widen the space. The same study found that people from Northern countries of Greenland, Finland, and Denmark systematically kept larger distances between them and their conversational partner than did Italians, Indians, and Cameroonians. These results support Edward Hall’s 1966 observations about personal space. Hall distinguished contact cultures from noncontact cultures. He described contact cultures as those societies in which people stand closer together while talking, engage in more direct eye contact, use face-to-face body orientations more often while talking, touch more frequently, and speak in louder voices. He suggested that societies in South America and southern Europe are contact cultures, whereas those in northern Europe, the United States, and the Far East are noncontact cultures— in which people tend to stand farther apart when conversing, maintain less eye

STUDENT VOICES Our students describe their experiences with contact/noncontact cultural behavior: “I went to a great lecture by an Italian scholar last semester (at PSU) so I decided to talk with him after the lecture. While I was talking with him, he stood so close to me that I could even feel his breath and it made me feel really uncomfortable; sometimes he even put his hand on my shoulder. I watched him after and saw he stood close to everyone who talked to him.” —Emma In my home country of Peru, it’s normal to have more contact and less distance when talking with people. I remember going to Camp at UCLA during middle school. When greeting other girls, I’d approach and try to say hi like we did back home, but they would back off and ask what I was doing. After that I figured out the people here are more used to having space. —Magda When I first saw people here hugging each other as greeting, I was shocked! In China, we’re not used to hugging people. We shake hands, wave hands, nod heads but not hug. I’m now getting used to it. —Wei In my Muslim school in Indonesia, hugging is not permissible and still considered as taboo and having to experience that clash of nonverbal action (like when I went to a more permissive school in Singapore), and then here, it gives me the perspective of the more lenient side of showing affection. —Atok

contact, and touch less often. Subsequent research seems to confirm Hall’s observations, see Student Voices above. Of course, many other factors besides regional culture determine how far we stand from someone. Gender, age, ethnicity, context, and topic all influence the use of personal space. In fact, some studies have shown that regional culture is perhaps the least important factor. For example, in many Arab and Muslim societies, gender may be the overriding factor, because unmarried men and women rarely stand close together, touch each other, or maintain direct eye contact. In contrast, male friends may stand very close together, kiss on the cheek, and even hold hands—reflecting loyalty, great friendship, and, most important, equality in status, with no sexual connotation (Fattah, 2005; Khuri, 2001). Religion may also be a factor in influencing (and regulating) proxemic behavior. Several flights were delayed in 2019 amid controversy when groups of Ultra Orthodox Jewish men refused to sit beside women—based on their interpretation of Jewish religious law prohibiting physical contact with women (https://www.haaretz .com/israel-news/.premium-el-al-flight-delayed-because-haredim-wouldn-t-sit-next-to -women-1.6200187). 271

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FIGURE 7-4 In many Asian countries, the traditional greeting is a bow. The depth of the bow signals the status relationship of the two individuals. (Andersen Ross/Blend Images LLC)

Gestures Gestures, perhaps even more so than personal space, vary greatly from culture to culture (see Figure 7-4), even though social media can quickly spread particular gestures throughout the world, e.g., the “finger heart” that originated in Korea (Boboltz, 2018). The consequences for this variation can be quite dramatic, as former First Lady Michele Obama discovered when she threw her arm around Her Majesty The Queen and shocked the Queen and the British media. One of the classic British rules of contact is that you never touch the Queen. Researcher Dane Archer (1997) describes his attempt to catalog the various gestures around the world on video. He began this video project with several hypotheses: First, that there would be great variation, and this he found to be true. However, more surprising, his assumption regarding the existence of some universal gestures or at least some universal categories of gestures (e.g., every culture must have an obscene gesture) was not confirmed.

POINT of VIEW SHAKE HANDS? OR BOW? Handshakes and bows are important nonverbal greetings around the world. In many Asian countries, the traditional greeting is a bow. It does not signal subservience, but rather humility and respect. The most important guideline here is to observe the other’s bow carefully and try to bow to the same depth. The depth of the vow signals the status relationship of the two individuals. Too deep a bow will be seen as ingratiating, too shallow a bow will seem arrogant. In many countries now, particularly in a business context, people may combine the bow and handshake: a slight bow or nod accompanied with a handshake. Handshakes can vary in frequency and firmness. Some Europeans shake hands at each encounter during the day and may spend as much as 30 minutes a day shaking hands. Here are some guidelines: Germans:

Firm, brisk, and frequent

French:

Light, quick, and frequent

Latin American:

Firm and frequent

North America:

Firm and infrequent, compared to France and Latin America

Arabs:

Gentle, repeated and lingering (may place hand over heart after)

Koreans:

Moderately firm

Most other Asians:

Very gentle and infrequent

Sources: From R. E. Axtell, Essential Do’s and Taboos: Complete Guide to International Business and Leisure Travel (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2007), p. 20; T. Morrison and W. A. Conaway, Kiss, Bow, Shake Hands (Avon, MA: Adams Media, 2006).

He gathered his information by visiting English as a Second Language classes and asking international students to demonstrate gestures from their home cultures.  He drew several conclusions from his study: First, that gestures and their meanings can be very subtle. His work “often elicited gasps of surprise, as ESL students from one culture discovered that what at first appeared to be a familiar gesture actually means something radically different in another society” (p. 87). For example, in Germany, and many other European cultures, the gesture for “stupid” is a finger on the forehead; the American gesture for “smart” is nearly identical, but the finger is held an inch to the side, at the temple. Similarly, the American raised thumb gesture of “way to go” is a vulgar gesture, meaning “sit on this” in Sardinia and “screw you” in Iran. Second, Archer emphasizes that gestures are different from many other nonverbal expressions in that they are accessible to conscious awareness—they can be explained,

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illustrated, and taught to outsiders. Finally, as noted earlier, he had assumed there would be some universal categories—a gesture for “very good,” a gesture for “crazy,” an obscene gesture. Not so. A number of ­societies (e.g., the Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland) have no such gesture. In the end, he concludes that through making the video, “We all acquired a deeply enhanced sense of the power, nuances, and unpredictability of cultural differences” (p. 87). And the practical implication of the project was to urge travelers to practice “gestural humility”—assuming “that we cannot infer or intuit the meaning of any gestures we observe in other cultures” (p. 80). eye contact  A non­verbal code, eye gaze, that communicates meanings about respect and status and often regulates turn-taking during interactions.

Eye Contact Eye contact often is included in proxemics because it regulates interpersonal distance. Direct eye contact shortens the distance between two people, whereas less eye contact increases the distance. Eye contact communicates meanings about respect and status and often regulates turn-taking. Patterns of eye contact vary from culture to culture. In many societies, avoiding eye contact communicates respect and deference, although this may vary from context to context. For many U.S. Americans, maintaining eye contact communicates that one is paying attention and showing respect. When they speak with others, most U.S. Americans look away from their listeners most of the time, looking at their listeners perhaps every 10 to 15 seconds. When a speaker is finished taking a turn, he or she looks directly at the listener to signal completion. However, some cultural groups within the United States use even less eye contact while they speak. For example, some Native Americans tend to avert eye gaze during conversation, as a sign of respect.

paralinguistics  The study of vocal behaviors includes voice qualities and vocalization.

Paralinguistics Paralinguistics refers to the study of paralanguage—vocal behaviors that indicate how something is said, including speaking rate, volume, pitch, and stress. Saying something very quickly in a loud tone of voice will be interpreted differently from the same words said in a quieter tone of voice at a slower rate. There are two types of vocal behavior—voice qualities and vocalizations. Voice qualities—or the nontechnical term, tone of voice—mean the same thing as vocal qualities. Voice qualities include speed, pitch, rhythm, vocal range, and articulation; these qualities make up the “music” of the human voice. There do appear to be some universal meanings for particular vocal qualities. A recent study found that vocalizations (e.g., screams, laughter, tone of voice showing disgust, fear) communicating the six basic emotions were recognized equally by two dramatically different cultural groups: European native English speakers and residents of remote, culturally isolated Namibian villages. The researchers conclude that some emotions are psychological universals, communicated by vocal signals that can be broadly interpreted across cultures that do not share language or culture (Bänziger, Patel, & Scherer, 2014; Sauter, Eisner, Ekman, & Scott, 2010). We all know people whose voice qualities are widely recognized. For example, actor Harvey Fierstein’s raspy voice or James Earl Jones’ deep resonant voice, especially in his Darth Vader role. Paralinguistics often lead people to negatively evaluate speakers in intercultural communication contexts even when they don’t understand the language. For example, Chinese speakers often sound rather musical and nasal to English speakers; English speakers sound rather harsh and guttural to French speakers.

voice qualities  The “music” of the human voice, including speed, pitch, rhythm, vocal range, and articulation.

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Vocalizations are the sounds we utter that do not have the structure of l­anguage and include vocal cues such as laughing, crying, whining, and moaning as well as the intensity or volume of one’s speech. They also include sounds that aren’t actual words but that serve as fillers, such as “uh-huh,” “uh,” “ah,” and “er.” The paralinguistic aspects of speech serve a variety of communicative functions. They reveal mood and emotion; they also allow us to emphasize or stress a word or idea, create a distinctive identity, and (along with gestures) regulate conversation. Paralanguage can be a confusing factor in intercultural communication. For example, Europeans interpret the loudness of Americans as aggressive behavior, whereas Americans might think the British are secretive because they talk quietly. Finnish and Japanese are comfortable having pauses in their conversations, whereas most U.S. Americans are seen to talk rapidly and are pretty uncomfortable with silences.

vocalizations  The sounds we utter that do not have the structure of language.

Chronemics Chronemics concerns concepts of time and the rules that govern its use. There are many cultural variations regarding how people understand and use time. Edward Hall (1966) distinguished between monochronic and polychronic time orientation. People who have a monochronic concept of time regard it as a commodity: Time can be gained, lost, spent, wasted, or saved. In this orientation, time is linear, with one event happening at a time. In general, monochronic cultures value being punctual, completing tasks, and keeping to schedules. Most university staff and faculty in the United States maintain a monochronic orientation to time. Classes, meetings, and office appointments start when scheduled; faculty members see one student at a time, hold one ­meeting at a time, and keep appointments except in the case of emergency. Family problems are considered poor reasons for not fulfilling academic obligations—for both faculty and students. In contrast, in a polychronic orientation, time is more holistic, and perhaps more circular: Several events can happen at once. Many international business negotiations and technical assistance projects falter and even fail because of differences in time orientation. For example, U.S. businesspeople often complain that meetings in the Middle East do not start “on time,” that people socialize during meetings, and that meetings may be canceled because of personal obligations. Tasks often are accomplished because of personal relationships, not in spite of them. International students and business personnel observe that U.S. Americans seem too tied to their schedules; they suggest that U.S. Americans do not care enough about relationships and often sacrifice time with friends and family to complete tasks and keep appointments. Time orientation can differ even for different ethnic/language groups. For example, an American businessman scheduled a meeting with French-speaking and Flemish speaking Belgian media personnel; the Flemish delegation arrived on time and asked pointed and direct questions about the project efficiency. In contrast, the Frenchspeaking Belgian delegation slowly trickled in 15 to 20 minutes late and were more concerned about the project’s team synergies and creativity (Pant, 2016).

chronemics  The concept of time and the rules that govern its use.

Silence Cultural groups may vary in the degree of emphasis placed on silence, which can be as meaningful as language (Acheson, 2007). One of our students recalls his childhood:

monochronic  An orientation to time that assumes it is linear and is a commodity that can be lost or gained.

polychronic  An orientation to time that sees it as circular and more holistic.

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I always learned while growing up that silence was the worst punishment ever. For example, if the house chore stated clearly that I needed to take the garbage out, and I had not done so, then my mother would not say a word to me. And I would know right away that I had forgotten to do something. In most U.S. American contexts, silence is not highly valued. Particularly in developing relationships, silence communicates awkwardness and can make people feel uncomfortable. According to scholar William B. Gudykunst’s (1985, 2005) uncertainty reduction theory, the main reason for communicating verbally in initial interactions is to reduce uncertainty. In U.S. American contexts, people employ active uncertainty reduction strategies, such as asking questions. However, in many other cultural contexts, people reduce uncertainty using more passive strategies—for example, remaining silent, observing, or perhaps asking a third party about someone’s behavior. Scholar Covarrubias has described the important role of silence in many traditional Native American communicative practices where silence is not seen “as an absence, but, rather, as a fullness of opportunity for being and learning” (2007, p. 270) and she suggests that these American Indian perspectives can contribute to our knowledge of communication in many cultural contexts. Recent research has found similar patterns in other cultures. For example, the asiallinen (matter-of-fact) verbal style among Finnish people that involves a distrust of talkativeness as “slickness” and a sign of unreliability (Carbaugh & Berry, 2001; Sajavaara & Lehtonen, 1997). Silence, for Finns, reflects thoughtfulness, appropriate consideration, and intelligence, particularly in public discourse or in educational settings like a classroom. In an ethnographic study investigating this communication pattern, Wilkins (2005) reports two excerpts from interviews that illustrate this pattern—one interview with a Finnish student and one with an American student: Excerpt 1 Finnish Student: I have been to America. Wilkins: Can you tell me what the experience was like? Student: The people and the country were very nice. Wilkins: Did you learn anything? Student: No. Wilkins: Why not? Student: Americans just talk all the time. Excerpt 2 Wilkins: Do you like Finland? American Student: Oh yes, I like it a lot. Wilkins: How about the people? Student: Sure, Finns are very nice. Wilkins: How long have you been at the university? Student: About nine months already.

STUDENT VOICES Giving gifts seems to be a universal way to please someone, if the gift is appropriate. One colleague of mine, Nishehs, once tried to impress our boss, Joe. Nishehs brought a wellwrapped gift to Joe when they first met with each other in person. Joe was indeed pleased as he received the gift from Nishehs, but his smile faded away quickly right after he opened the gift. Joe questioned Nishehs angrily, “Why is it green?” Shocked and speechless, Nishehs murmured, “What’s wrong with a green hat?” The miscommunication resulted from the cultural differences between them. Nishehs is an Indian, whereas Joe is Chinese. For the Chinese, a green hat means one’s wife is having an extramarital affair. —Chris

Wilkins: Oh, have you learned anything? Student: No, not really. Wilkins: Why not? Student: Finns do not say anything in class. In addition to a positive view of silence, nonverbal facial expressions in the Asiallinen style tend to be rather fixed—and expressionless. The American ­student, of course, did not have the cultural knowledge to understand what can be accomplished by thoughtful activity and silence. Scholars have reported similar views on talk and silence in Japanese and Chinese cultures influenced by Confucianism and Taoism. Confucius rejected eloquent speaking and instead advocated hesitancy and humble talk in his philosophy of the ideal person (Chang, 1997; Kim, 2001). As one of our Taiwanese students told us, “In America, sometimes students talk about half the class time. Compared to my classes in Taiwan, if a student asked too many questions or expressed his/her opinions that much, we would say that he or she is a show-off.” In a review of scholarly research on silence, communication scholar Kris Acheson (2007) acknowledges that silence in the United States has often been associated with negative, unhealthy relationships, or with disempowerment; for example, when women and/or minorities feel their voices are not heard. However, like Covarrubias, Carbaugh (1999) and other scholars, Acheson encourages us to consider the contribution of positive and sometimes powerful uses of silences in certain contexts. For example, nurses and doctors are encouraged to honor silent patients and learn to employ silence in their ethical care; young people are advised to seek out silence in their lives for the sake of health and sanity, to even noise-proof their homes in an attempt to boost health. In business contexts, sometimes keeping quiet is the best strategy and talking too much can kill a business deal. In education, teachers can create a space for understanding rather than counterarguments by asking for silent

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reflection after comments or performances. In religion, the Quakers have a long tradition of approaching silence as a deeply meaningful communicative event and important part of decision making (Molina-Markham, 2014). Finally, she admits that in some contexts, like politics and law, silence is still seen as completely negative; for example, pleading the Fifth equates silence with guilt, and silence by politicians is often viewed as too much secrecy.

Stereotype, Prejudice, and Discrimination As noted previously, one of the problems with identifying cultural variations in nonverbal codes is that it is tempting to overgeneralize these variations and stereotype people. For example, researchers in the early 1970s identified certain nonverbal behaviors associated with African Americans—“getting and ­giving skin,” the stance and strutting walk of pimps and “players,” and the “Afro-style” hairdo (Cooke, 1972; ­Kochman, 1972). Since then, these nonverbal behaviors have been used to stereotype all Blacks—still seen in pop culture images on television and film. In any case, we would be wise to be careful about generalizations. Cultural variations are tentative guidelines that we can use in intercultural interaction. They should serve as examples, to help us understand that there is a great deal of variation in nonverbal behavior. Even if we can’t anticipate how other people’s behavior may differ from our own, we can be flexible when we do encounter differences in how close someone stands or how she or he uses eye contact or conceptualizes time. While explicit racial slurs are less common today, a series of recent studies showed that bias (both negative and positive) is demonstrated through subtle facial expressions and body language in popular television programs. They also showed that the more viewers watched shows that had pro-white nonverbal bias, the more biased viewers became—even though they could not consciously identify the biased behaviors they had seen in the programs. Overall, the findings suggest that these “hidden” patterns of biased nonverbal behavior influence bias among viewers (Weisbuch, Pauker, & Ambady, 2009). These same researchers conducted similar studies regarding (positive) nonverbal biases toward slim women (Weisbuch & Ambady, 2009). Prejudice is often based on nonverbal aspects of behavior. That is, the negative prejudgment is triggered by physical appearance or behavior. For example, prejudice is sometimes expressed toward ­Muslim women who wear the hijab, or toward men from the Middle East or South Asia wearing turbans, or even toward people who appear to belong to a particular ethnic group. Asian-appearing individuals experienced hostility directed at them during the COVID-19 pandemic, and FBI reports that hate crimes against Latinos increased in 2019 for the third straight year as well as reports of individuals who are targeted just for the color of their skin (Kaleem, 2019). Like Lizette Flores, a Latina and native Arizonan, walking back from lunch one day, passing a group of protesters at the Phoenix Capitol building. One of the them yelled “Go back to Mexico!” directed at her—and not the two lightskinned Latinas with her (Mejia, 2018).

STUDENT VOICES A close friend I used to have in high school took honors classes and did great in school. He was Hispanic and dressed more or less like a “cholo,” with baggy pants and long shirts. When he went to speak with his counselor upon entering university, the counselor came to the conclusion that my friend was going to take easy classes rather than honors classes. His mother, who had accompanied him to the advising meeting, couldn’t believe what the counselor was saying! My friend’s appearance obviously caused the counselor to come to a conclusion about who and what type of person my friend was. —Adriana

There is also evidence that people draw conclusions about men and women as gay or straight based their vocal pitch, a characteristic beyond control of the speaker. More importantly, these stereotypes can lead to prejudice and discrimination—in social and professional settings (Fasoli et al., 2017). From these kinds of experiences with prejudice, victims can often spot prejudicial behavior and people with surprising accuracy. In an interesting study, Blacks were able to detect prejudiced people (identified previously by objective survey measurement) after only 20 seconds of observation, with much higher accuracy than whites (Richeson & Shelton, 2005). Victims may also then develop imaginary “maps” that tell them where they belong and where they are likely to be rejected. They may even start to avoid places and situations in which they do not feel welcome (Marsiglia & Hecht, 1998). Can you identify places you’ve been where you or others were not welcome? Stereotyping or prejudice can lead to overt nonverbal actions to exclude, avoid, or distance and are called discrimination. Discrimination may be based on race (racism), gender (sexism), or any of the other identities discussed in Chapter 5. It may range from subtle, nonverbal behavior such as lack of eye ­contact or exclusion from a conversation, to verbal insults and exclusion from jobs or other economic opportunities, to physical violence and systematic exclusion. To see how exclusion and avoidance can be subtle, consider all the communication choices people can make that affect whether other people feel welcome or valued or like outsiders who don’t belong (Johnson, 2017): ▪▪ Whether we look at people when we talk with them ▪▪ Whether we smile at people when they walk into the room or stare as if to say “What are you doing?” or stop the conversation with a hush they have to wade through to be included in the smallest way ▪▪ Whether we listen and respond to what people say, or drift away to someone or something else; whether we talk about things they know about, or stick to what’s peculiar to the “in-group” ▪▪ Whether we acknowledge people’s presence, or make them wait as if they weren’t there; whether we avoid touching their skin when giving or taking something; how closely we watch them to see what they’re up to

discrimination  ­ Behaviors resulting from stereotypes or prejudice that cause some people to be denied equal participation or rights based on ­culturalgroup ­membership, such as race.

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As described in Chapter 5, more assertive expressions are called “microaggressions”: brief subtle denigrating messages sent by well-intentioned people who are unaware of the hidden messages being communicated. While these messages may be sent verbally (“You speak good English.”—said to an Asian American whose family is been in the States for 100 years), many times they’re sent nonverbally (clutching one’s purse more tightly) or environmentally (symbols like the confederate flag or using American Indian mascots). Such communications are usually outside the level of conscious awareness of perpetrators. Often people who send these messages believe they are acting with the best of intentions and would be aghast if someone accuses them of committing microaggressions. Psychologist Derald Wing Sue’s research (2010) suggests that most people have unconscious biases and prejudices that leak out in many interpersonal situations and decision points. While these microaggressions may seem somewhat trivial taken one at a time, the cumulative results of constant and continuing (almost daily) microaggressions have a tremendous impact on the targets of these messages: they assail self-esteem, produce anger and frustration, deplete psychic energy, lower feelings of well being and worthiness, produce physical health problems, and career costs (O’Keefe & Greenfield, 2019; Pitcan, Park, & Hayslett, 2018). Discrimination may be interpersonal, collective, or institutional. Interpersonal racism is expressed subtly and indirectly as well as more overtly, but also more persistent. Equally persistent is institutionalized or collective discrimination whereby individuals are systematically denied equal participation in society or equal access to rights in informal and formal ways. An example of institutionalized discrimination may be when women wearing hijabs are subject to extra scrutiny by TSA security. Our student described the experience of traveling to the Middle East with a group of American women, some of whom were covered: “I watched the way that TSA agents interacted with women who were covered. They seemed often skeptical and spent an increased amount of time questioning and talking to these women. The forced choice of whether to cover or not before moving through the U.S.’s TSA was a tough one, and a choice that we all wished no one had to make. I saw firsthand the reality of stigma and prejudice based on nonverbal appearance/behavior.’’ Another example can be evidenced in hiring practices where resumes (and applicants) with “foreign” or “non-white” names are routinely rejected, leading some applicants to “whiten” their resumes. This entails eliminating language in resumes that reveals race. Recently researchers tested the effect of whitened resumes. They created two sets of resumes, one whitened and the other not, and randomly sent them in response to 1,600 job postings in 16 U.S. cities. They found that whitened resumes were twice as likely to get callbacks—a pattern that held even for companies that emphasized diversity. “The most troubling part is that we saw the same kind of rates for employers who said that they were pro-diversity [in job postings] and the ones that didn’t mention it,” said Kang. Thus the statements of self-described “pro-diversity employers” aren’t really tied to any real change in the discriminatory practices” (Lam, 2016). semiotics  The analysis of the nature of and relationship between signs.

Semiotics and Nonverbal Communication The study of semiotics, or semiology, offers a useful approach to examining how different signs communicate meaning. While semiotics is often used for analyzing language/discourse, we find it more useful in analyzing nonverbals and cultural spaces.

POINT of VIEW POLAND’S LGBT-FREE ZONES Nonverbal spaces are created by cultural biases and can be contested, as shown in this recent Washington Post news report; cities and even entire provinces in Poland are now declared as LGBT-free zones. Consider how this might be similar or different from created cultural spaces in the United States where certain groups have been excluded: “Sundown Towns,” neighborhoods or clubs exclusively for whites: In Spring 2019, the popular Law and Justice leader, Jarosław Kaczyński turned from anti-immigrant rhetoric to a new target: LGBT community. This new focus was partly in reaction to Warsaw’s mayoral support for sex education curriculum in schools— which Kaczyński referred to as “an attack on the family” and as “LGBT ideology”. He further declared it a “threat to Polish identity, to our nation, to its existence and thus to the Polish state.” Some parts of the Catholic church and some media agree. Poland has always been a socially conservative country but not all Poles agree with this recent ramped-up rhetoric. In fact, a 2017 survey showed traditionally antigay attitudes softening and some fear that the intense rhetoric may lead to increased homophobia and hate crimes. It’s a divided society. At one Polish city’s first-ever LGBT rights march in July 2019, “the music could barely drown out the boos from bystanders.” Adapted from Noack, R. (2019, July 19). Polish towns advocate LGBT-free zones while the ruling party cheers them on. washingtonpost.com, Retrieved February 20, 2020, from https://www .washingtonpost.com/world/europe/polands-right-wing-ruling-party-has-found-a-new-targetlgbt -ideology/2019/07/19/775f25c6-a4ad-11e9-a767-d7ab84aef3e9_story.html

A particularly useful framework comes from literary critic Roland Barthes (1980). In his system, semiosis is the production of ­meaning and is constructed through the interpretation of signs—the combination of signifiers and signified. Signifiers are the culturally constructed arbitrary words or symbols we use to refer to something else, the signified. For example, the word man is a signifier that refers to the signified, an adult male human being. Obviously, man is a general signifier that does not refer to any particular man. The relationship between this signifier and the sign (the meaning) depends on how the signifier is used (e.g., as in the sentence, “There is a man sitting in the first chair on the left.”) or on our general sense of what man means. The difference between the signifier man and the sign rests on the difference between the word man and the meaning of that word. At its most basic level, man means an adult human male, but the semiotic process does not end there. Man carries many other layers of meaning. Man may or may not refer to any particular adult male, but it provides a concept that you can use to construct particular meanings based on the way the sign man functions. What does man mean when someone says, “Act like a real man!”

semiosis  The process of producing meaning. signs  In semiotics, the ­meanings that emerge from the combination of the signifiers and signifieds. signifiers  In semiotics, the culturally constructed arbitrary words or symbols that people use to refer to something else. signified  In semiotics, anything that is expressed in arbitrary words or signifiers.

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What do you have in mind when you think of the term man? How do you know when to use this signifier (and when not to use it) to communicate to ­others? Think of all of the adult males you know. How do they “fit” under this signifier? In what ways does the signifier reign over their behaviors, both verbal and nonverbal, to communicate particular ideas about them? We are not so much interested in the discrete, individual signifiers, but rather the ways that signifiers are combined and configured. The goal is to establish entire systems of semiosis and the ways that those systems create meaning. Semiotics allows us one way to “crack the codes” of another cultural framework. The use of these semiotic systems relies on many codes taken from a variety of contexts and places: economic institutions, history, politics, religion, and so on. For example, when Nazi swastikas were spray-painted on synagogue steps in Lincoln, Nebraska in 2020, and a noose was pinned to a Black student’s dorm room door at Michigan State University in 2019, the messages they communicated relied on semiotic systems from the past. The history of the Nazi persecution of Jews during World War II and the terrible history of murderous lynchings of Blacks in the U.S. are both well-known. The power behind the signifiers—the swastika and the noose—comes from that historical knowledge and the codes of anti-semitism/racism that it invokes to communicate the message. Relations from the past influence the construction and maintenance of intercultural relations in the present. Semiotics is a useful tool for examining the various ways that meaning is created in advertisements, clothing, tattoos, and other cultural artifacts. Semioticians have been attentive to the context in which the signifiers (words and symbols) are placed to understand which meanings are being communicated. For example, wearing certain kinds of clothes in specific cultural contexts may communicate unwanted messages (see Adriana’s example in the Student Voice box, p. 279). The meanings can vary from culture to culture. For example, in China, the color red symbolizes good luck and celebration; in India, it denotes purity; however, in South Africa, red is the color of mourning. In Egypt, yellow is the color of mourning; and in Japan, yellow symbolizes courage (Kyrnin, 2008). In the United States, black clothing can hold various meanings depending on the context: in some high schools, black is considered to denote gang membership; an elegant black dress is suitable for a formal dinner event but probably has a different meaning if worn by a bride’s mother at her wedding. Yet cultural contexts are not fixed and rigid. Rather, they are dynamic and fleeting, as Marcel Proust (1981) noted in writing about Paris in Remembrance of Things Past: The reality that I had known no longer existed. . . . The places we have known do not belong only to the world of space on which we map them for our own convenience. None of them was ever more than a thin slice, held between the contiguous impressions that composed our life at that time; the memory of a particular image is but regret for a particular moment; and houses, roads, avenues are as fugitive, alas, as the years. (p. 462) As this excerpt shows, there is no “real” Paris. The city has different meanings at different times for different people, and for different reasons. For example, executives of multinational corporations moving into Paris see the city quite differently from

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immigrants arriving in Paris for personal reasons. Remember the 1400 immigrants evicted from a Paris “shantytown” in 2020? Therefore, to think about cultural contexts as dynamic means that we must often think about how they change and in whose interests they change.

DEFINING CULTURAL SPACE At the beginning of this book, we provided some background information about where we grew up. Our individual histories are important in understanding our identities. As writer John Preston (1991) explains, “Where we come from is important to who we are” (p. xi). There is nothing in the rolling hills of Delaware and Pennsylvania or the red clay of Georgia that biologically determined who Judith and Tom are. However, our identities are constructed, in part, in relation to the cultural milieu of the Mid-Atlantic region or the South. Each region has its own histories and ways of life that help us understand who we are. Our decision to tell you where we come from was meant to communicate something about who we think we are. So, although we can identify precisely the borders that mark out these spaces and make them real, or material, the spaces also are cultural in the ways that we imagine them to be. The discourses that construct the meanings of cultural spaces are dynamic and ever-changing. For example, the Delaware that Judith left behind and the Georgia that Tom left behind are not characterized by the same discourses that construct those places now. In addition, the relationship between those cultural spaces and our identities is negotiated in complex ways. For example, both of us participated in other, overlapping cultural spaces that influenced how we think about who we are. Thus, just because someone is from, say, Rhode Island or Samoa or India does not mean that his or her identity and communication practices are reducible to the history of those cultural spaces. What is the communicative (discursive) relationship between cultural spaces and intercultural communication? Recall that we define cultural space as the particular configuration of the communication (discourse) that constructs meanings of various places. This may seem like an unwieldy definition, but it underscores the complexity of cultural spaces. A cultural space is not simply a particular location that has culturally constructed meanings. It can also be a metaphorical place from which we communicate. We can speak from a number of social locations, marked on the “map of society,” that give added meaning to our communication. Thus, we may speak as parents, children, colleagues, ­siblings, customers, Nebraskans, and a myriad of other “places.” All of these are cultural spaces.

Cultural Identity and Cultural Space Home Cultural spaces influence how we think about ourselves and others. One of the earliest cultural spaces we experience is our home. As noted previously, nonverbal communication often involves issues of status. The home is no exception. As English professor Paul Fussell (1983) notes, “Approaching any house, one is bombarded with

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class signals” (p. 82). Fussell highlights the semiotic system of social class in the American home—from the way the lawn is maintained, to the kind of furniture within the home, to the way the television is situated. These signs of social class are not always so obvious from all class positions, but we often recognize the signs. Even if our home does not reflect the social class to which we aspire, it may be a place of identification. We often model our own lives on the patterns from our childhood homes. Although this is not always the case, the home can be a place of safety and security. African American writer bell hooks (1990) describes the “feeling of safety, of arrival, of homecoming” when as a child she would arrive at her grandmother’s house, after passing through the scary white neighborhood with “those white faces on porches staring down at us with hate” (p. 42). Home, of course, is not the same as the physical location it occupies or the building (the house) at that location. Home is variously defined in terms of specific addresses, cities, states, regions, and even nations. Although we might have historical ties to a particular place, not everyone has the same relationship between those places and their own identities. Indeed, the relationship between place and cultural identity varies. We all negotiate various relationships to the cultural meanings attached to the particular places or spaces we inhabit. Consider writer Harlan Greene’s (1991) relationship to his hometown in South Carolina: I often think longingly of my hometown of Charleston. My heart beats faster and color rushes to my cheek whenever I hear someone mentioning her; mirages rise up, and I am as overcome and drenched in images as a runner just come from running. I see the steeples, the streets, the lush setting. (p. 55) Despite his attachment to Charleston, Greene does not believe that Charleston feels the same way toward him. He explains, “But I still think of Charleston; I return to her often and always will. I think of her warmly. I claim her now, even though I know she will never claim me” (p. 67). Perhaps gay individuals in Poland today may feel as Greene did, since some towns there, supported by the ruling party, have advocated LGBT-free zones (Noack, 2018) (see Point of View, p. 281). The complex relationships we have between various places and our identities resist simplistic reduction. These writers—hooks and Greene—have negotiated different sentiments toward “home.” In doing so, each demonstrates the complex dialectical tensions that exist between identity and location. Neighborhood One significant type of cultural space that emerged in U.S. cities in the latter 19th and early 20th centuries was the ethnic or racial neighborhood (see Figure 7-5). Historical studies show, however, that the ethnic neighborhoods of the European immigrants were rarely inhabited by only one ethnic group, despite memories to the contrary. According to labor historian D. R. Roediger (2005), even the heart of Little Italy in Chicago was 47% ­non-Italian, and “No single side of even one square block in the street between 1890 and 1930 was found to be 100% Italian. . . . The percentage of Russians, Czechs, Italians and Poles living in segregated neighborhoods ranged from 37% to 61%” (p. 164). However, this type of real segregation was reserved for the African Americans—where 93% of African Americans

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FIGURE 7-5  Many cities abound with multiple cultural spaces. In this photo, several different cultural contexts are adjacent and emphasize the increasing significance of multiculturalism. How would people in this urban place experience cultural spaces differently from people who live in less diverse cultural spaces? How might it influence their intercultural communication patterns? (Robert Brenner/PhotoEdit)

lived in ghettos. By law and custom, and under different political pressures, some cities developed segregated neighborhoods. Malcolm X (Malcolm X & Haley, 1964), in his autobiography, tells of the strict laws that governed where his family could live after their house burned down: In those days Negroes weren’t allowed after dark in East Lansing proper. There’s where Michigan State University is located; . . . East Lansing harassed us so much that we had to move again, this time two miles out of town, into the country. (pp. 3–4) The legacy of “white-only” areas pervades the history of the United States and the development of its cultural geography. The segregation of African Americans was not accidental. Beginning in 1890 until the late 1960s (when fair-housing laws were passed), whites in America created thousands of whites-only towns, commonly known as “sundown towns,” a reference to the signs often posted at their city limits that warned, as one did in Hawthorne, California, in the 1930s: “Nigger, Don’t Let the Sun Set on YOU in Hawthorne.” In fact, historian J. Loewen (2005) claims that during that 70-year period, “probably a majority of all incorporated places [in the United States] kept out African Americans.”

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Neighborhoods exemplify how power influences intercultural contact. Thus, some cultural groups defined who got to live where and dictated the rules by which other groups lived. These rules were enforced through legal means and by harassment. For bell hooks and Malcolm X, the lines of segregation were clear and unmistakable. In San Francisco, different racial politics constructed and isolated ­Chinatown. The boundaries that demarcated Chinatown—the acceptable place for Chinese and Chinese Americans to live—were strictly enforced through violence. Newly arrived immigrants were sometimes stoned as they left the piers and made their way to Chinatown or those who wandered into other neighborhoods could be attacked by “young toughs” who amused themselves by beating Chinese (Nee & Nee, 1974, p. 60). In contrast to Malcolm X’s exclusion from East Lansing, the Chinese of San Francisco were forced to live in a marked-off territory. Yet we must be careful not to confuse the experience of Chinese in San Francisco with the experiences of all Chinese in the United States. For example, newly arrived Chinese immigrants to Savannah, Georgia were advised to live apart from each other. They were told of the whites’ distrust of Chinatowns in San Francisco and New York. So no Chinatown developed in Savannah (Pruden, 1990). Nor should we assume that vast migrations of Chinese necessarily led to the development of Chinatowns in other cities around the world. The settlement of Chinese immigrants in the 13th Arrondissement of Paris, for example, reflects a completely different intersection between cultures: “There is no American-style Chinatown [Il n’y a pas de Chinatown à la américaine]” in Paris (Costa-Lascoux & Yu-Sion, 1995, p. 197). Within the context of different power relations and historical forces, settlement patterns of other cultural groups created various ethnic enclaves across the U.S. landscape. For example, many small towns in the Midwest were settled by particular European groups. Thus, in Iowa, Germans settled in Amana, Dutch in Pella, and Czechs and Slovaks in Cedar Rapids. Cities, too, have their neighborhoods, based on settlement patterns. South Philadelphia is largely Italian American, South Boston is largely Irish American, and Overtown in Miami is largely African American. Although it is no longer legal to mandate that people live in particular districts or neighborhoods based on their racial or ethnic backgrounds, the continued existence of such neighborhoods underscores their historical development and ongoing functions. This is especially true in Detroit, Michigan—one of the most segregated metropolitan region in the country—where the eight-mile road was made famous by the title and the location of the film starring Detroit hip-hop artist Eminem. The eight-mile, eight-lane road separates one city that is 91% white from the other that is overwhelmingly African American. (See the Point of View box on the following page) Economics, family ties, social needs, and education are some factors in the perpetuation of these cultural spaces. Similar spaces exist in other countries as well. Remember the terrorist attacks in Paris in November 2015? A number of terrorists came from the same Brussels neighborhood, Molenbeek. There is a relationship between place and human relations, as one expert described Molenbeek as one of the segregated suburbs, isolated from the wider Belgium society, where “there are problems with failed integration, socioeconomic problems, and crime that can be exploited for the jihadists” (Robins-Early, 2016).

POINT of VIEW EIGHT MILE ROAD Sometimes called Detroit’s mini Berlin Wall, sometimes called the Wailing Wall, this seemingly innocent looking wall in Joe Louis Park does little to betray its shameful past. After World War I, some Black residents of Detroit moved into a then rural and vacant area near the intersection of Wyoming and Eight Mile. In 1940, a developer sought to build homes for middle income whites in a nearby area. However, the Federal Housing Administration’s policies of that era precluded their approving loans in racially mixed areas. To secure FHA approval, this developer put up a wall six feet high, one foot in width and one half mile in length, to clearly demark the white and Black areas. His wall led the FHA to approve loans for his project.

Built in 1940, this wall presaged the racial divisions that have come to be symbolized by Eight Mile Road. (John Ruberry/Alamy Stock Photo) Source: From http://detroityes.com/webisodes/2002/8mile/021106-04-8mile-berlin-wall.htm.

The relationships among identity, power, and cultural space are quite complex. Power relations influence who (or what) gets to claim who (or what), and under what conditions. Some subcultures are accepted and promoted within a particular cultural space, others are tolerated, and still others may be unacceptable. Consider Jerusalem, one of the most important contested cultural spaces in world. For Muslims, Jews and

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Christians, it is not just a location, for many it is at the very core of their religious identities. The access to these holy places for each of these groups has waxed and waned depending on powerful political forces. Most recently, Trump’s announcement that the U.S. embassy would be moved there, effectively confirming it as the Jewish/ Israeli capital, led to protests and violence (Schulson, 2017). Sometimes residents fight to keep their neighborhood from being changed by powerful outsiders. This is the case in Boyle Heights, a low-income Latino community of small shops, mariachis, and taco stands that is the last holdout to L.A. gentrification. Property values are skyrocketing and posters offering cash for homes are there. The residents fear that the new money and outsiders will erase their communal Chicano identity. They have organized, and their efforts, criticized by some for being violent/radical/relentless, have been successful in closing down arts galleries and businesses they see as guilty of gentrification. There is some ambivalence as some of the upwardly mobile new residents are Latinx, but the organizers say they reject all “gentrifiers” regardless of race—anyone who demands amenities that don’t address community needs and causes rents to rise (Hurtado, 2019). Identifying with various cultural spaces is a negotiated process that is difficult (and sometimes impossible) to predict and control. The key to understanding the relationships among culture, power, people, and cultural spaces is to think dialectically.

regionalism  Loyalty to a particular region that holds significant cultural meaning for that person.

Regionalism Ongoing regional and religious conflicts, as well as nationalism and ethnic revival, point to the continuing struggles over who gets to define whom. Such conflicts are not new, though. In fact, some cultural spaces (such as Jerusalem) have been sites of struggle for many centuries. Although regions are not always clearly marked on maps of the world, many people identify quite strongly with particular regions. Regionalism can be expressed in many ways, from symbolic expressions of identification to armed conflict. Within the United States, people may identify themselves or others as southerners, New Englanders, and so on. In Canada, people from Montreal might identify more strongly with the province of Quebec than with their country. Similarly, some Corsicans might feel a need to negotiate their identity with France. Sometimes people fly regional flags, wear particular kinds of clothes, celebrate regional holidays, and participate in other cultural activities to communicate their regional identification. However, regional expressions are not always simply celebratory, as the conflicts in Kosovo, Chechnya, Eritrea, Tibet, and Northern Ireland indicate. National borders may seem straightforward, but they often conceal conflicting regional identities. To understand how intercultural communication may be affected by national borders, we must consider how history, power, identity, culture, and context come into play. Only by understanding these issues can we approach the complex process of human communication.

Changing Cultural Space Chapter 8 discusses in greater detail the intercultural experiences of those who traverse cultural spaces and attempt to negotiate change. In this chapter, however, we want to focus on some of the driving needs of those who change cultural spaces.

STUDENT VOICES

T

his student explains her difficulty in knowing when she is in Japan as she moves through the airport and onto the airplane. How are these cultural spaces different from national borders?

Whenever I am at LAX [Los Angeles International Airport] on the way back to Japan, my sense of space gets really confused. For example, I fly into LAX from Phoenix, and as I line up at the Korean Air check-in counter, I see so many Asian-looking people (mostly Japanese and Koreans). Then, as I proceed, getting past the stores (e.g., duty-free shops) and walk farther to the departure gate, I see a lot less Americans and, eventually and practically, NOBODY but Asian-looking people (except for a very limited number of nonAsian-looking passengers on the same flight). So, when I wait at the gate, hearing Japanese around me, I get confused—“Where am I? Am I still in the U.S.? Or am I already back in Japan?” This confusion gets further heightened when I go aboard and see Japanese food served for meals and watch a Japanese film or TV program on the screen. So, to me, arriving at the Narita International Airport is not the moment of arriving in Japan. It already starts while I am in the U.S. This is just one of the many examples of postmodern cultural spaces that I have experienced in my life. —Sakura

Travel We often change cultural spaces when we travel. Traveling is frequently viewed as an unimportant leisure activity, but it is more than that. In terms of intercultural communication, traveling changes cultural spaces in ways that often transform the traveler. Changing cultural spaces means changing who you are and how you interact with others. Perhaps the old saying “When in Rome, do as the Romans do” holds true today as we cross-cultural spaces more frequently than ever. On a recent trip to Belgium, Tom flew nonstop on British Airways from Phoenix to London and then on to Brussels. Because the entire flight was conducted in English, Tom did not have a sense of any transition from English to French. Unlike flying the now defunct Sabena (Belgian National Airlines) from the United States to Belgium, flying British Airways provided no cultural transition space between Arizona and Belgium. Thus, when he got off the plane in Brussels, Tom experienced a more abrupt cultural and language transition, from an English environment to a Flemish/French environment. However, globalization and cyberspace can change the way we experience changing cultural spaces. In recent travels, Judith and Tom are struck by the similarities of big cities around the world. Shopping areas in Shanghai, Las Vegas, and Capetown have the same upscale shops: Prada, Louis Vuitton, Tommy Hilfiger, etc. with the same upscale products. In traversing these spaces one can forget that he/she is not at home. Some think that cyberspace and mobile technology may be changing the way we experience travel. For example, tourists sometimes stay in hotel rooms watching Netflix films they’ve downloaded, just like at home—“traveling without seeing” (Bruni 2013), or taking photo after photo, moving around, trying to get the best angle—and not really seeing or remembering what’s in front of them. Cognitive

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psychologists call this “the photo taking impairment effect,” since it turns out that when the brain is preoccupied with camera angles, etc. the camera captures the moment, but the brain doesn’t (Henkel, 2014). Do you alter your communication style when you encounter travelers who are not in their traditional cultural space? Do you assume they should interact in the ways prescribed by your cultural space? These are some of the issues that travel raises. Migration People also change cultural spaces when they relocate. Moving, of course, involves a different kind of change in cultural spaces than traveling. In traveling, the change is fleeting, temporary, and usually desirable; it is something that travelers seek out. However, people who migrate do not always seek out this change. For example, in recent years, many people have been forced from their strife-torn homelands in Syria and Iraq and have settled elsewhere. Many immigrants leave their homelands simply so they can survive. But they often find it difficult to adjust to the change, especially if the language and customs of the new cultural space are unfamiliar. Even within the United States, people may have trouble adapting to new surroundings when they move. Tom remembers that when northerners moved to the South they often were unfamiliar with the custom of traditional New Year’s Day “good luck foods” of black-eyed peas for health and collards (for money). Ridiculing the customs of their new cultural space simply led to further intercultural communication problems.

Postmodern Cultural Spaces

postmodern cultural spaces  Places that are defined by cultural p ­ ractices— languages spoken, identities enacted, rituals performed— and that often change as new people move in and out of these spaces.

Space has become increasingly important in the negotiation of cultural and social identities, and so to culture more generally. As Leah Vande Berg (1999) explains, scholars in many areas “have noted that identity and knowledge are profoundly spatial (as well as temporal), and that this condition structures meaningful embodiment and experience” (p. 249). Postmodern cultural spaces are places that are defined by cultural practices—languages spoken, identities enacted, rituals performed—and they often change as new people move in and out of these spaces. Imagine being in a small restaurant when a large group of people arrives, all of whom are speaking another language. How has this space changed? Whose space is it? As different people move in and out of this space, how does the cultural character change? Think about how the same physical place might have a different meaning to someone from a different cultural group. Scholar Bryce Peake (2012) does just that. He examines the relationship between listening, cultural identity, and power negotiation in the British overseas territory of Gibraltar. He describes the interrelationships of the language soundscapes of English, Spanish, and Llanito—a local Gibraltarian creole of Spanish, Genoese, Hebrew, English, Maltese, and Arabic, particularly as demonstrated on a day of the British nationalistic parade. Llanito allows Gibraltarians to imagine themselves as a buffer between Spanish and British—a soundscape that “can be listened to in such a way that sounds like Spanish to the uninformed, and signifies ‘not British’ to Gibraltarians.” In the frictions between the British-ness and Spanishness of Gibraltarians, Main Street on parade is a site where listening is used as a means to reproduce the strategies by which power is maintained and operationalized.

POINT of VIEW An example of a postmodern cultural space is the mobile massively multiplayer online real-time strategy (MMMORTS) game Lords Mobile—where players develop their own bases, build armies, attack and destroy enemy bases, seize resources, and capture enemy leaders. Communities of players (guilds) from many different countries are formed across cultural, linguistic and time zone differences. As researchers Hommodova Lu and Carradini (2019) discovered, after investigating a guild with members from 25 countries, these players support each other in various ways. For example, players’ defenses can be attacked—resulting in monetary and resource loss—even when they are not online. When this happens, if the player is not online, other players jump in to defend (even in the middle of the night!). The members also form social bonds, engaging in conversations on many topics, using translators. The researchers point out that, although these rather fleeting online intercultural relationships provide important support, because of the mobile, real-time nature of the game, they sometimes interfere with work and personal obligations. Source: From L. A. Hommadova, & S. Carradini, “Work–Game Balance: Work Interference, Social Capital, and Tactical Play in a Mobile Massively Multiplayer Online Real-Time Strategy Game,” New Media & Society, (2019): 1–24.

“In this way, Gibraltarians speak into existence the spaces in which they speak; the codes they use—Llanito, Spanish, or English-both simultaneously construct spaces in particular ways, while being intimately affected by and tied to other noises within the soundscape—all of which are intimately tied to the construction and performance of the self” (p. 187). It will be interesting to see the effect of a recent political conflict, as residents here have voted to remain in the E.U. even as their English government has exited the E.U. Another set of postmodern spaces that are quite familiar are those on interactive media. There are MMORPG’s (massively multiplayer online role-playing games like World of Warcraft, Final Fantasy, Elder Scrolls Online), virtual worlds like Smeet, Kaneva, and Oz World where people meet in real time and interact primarily for recreational purposes and with mobile devices, these games are truly postmodern intercultural encounters, where participants from multiple countries, cultures, and backgrounds play across time zones and in cultural, physical, and cyber spaces (Hommadova Lu & Carradini, 2019) (see Point of View, above). As we discussed in Chapter 1, there are other media spaces like blogs and online discussion groups where people meet for fun, to gain information, or experience a supportive community (e.g., transgender people, ethnic communities). Of course, there are now almost 3 billion people who use social networking sites and some scholars question the effect on relationships of so much time spent in these cultural spaces. While these sites offer opportunities for connection, learning and support, and empowerment, results of one study suggest the longer someone spends on Facebook, the worse their mood gets (Hunt et al., 2018). The reasons may be jealousy that comes from constant comparisons (my friends are having such good times, traveling to exotic places, parties I’m not invited to, etc.) 291

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In addition, they can be hostile cultural places of harassment and exclusion. As we mentioned in Chapter 1, LGBTQ individuals are more likely to be the targets of bullying than heterosexual and cisgender individuals. Women gamers and game developers are also subjected to harassment by male gamers, violent threats, and rampant misogyny (#gamergate) (Dougherty & Isaac, 2016). In addition, some experts suggest that the new digital divide may be between those who have and don’t have access to the new “shared, collaborative, and on-demand” gig economy, of Uber and Lyft ride sharing, Airbnb and VRBO home sharing, and crowdfunding sites. These appear to be used mostly by the educated, urban, and young (under age 45) (Smith, 2016), whereas many who are employed in this economy tend to be ethnic/racial minorities, who work part time, and are financially insecure (Gig Economy, 2018). The fluid and fleeting nature of cultural space stands in sharp contrast to the 18th- and 19th-century notions of space, which promoted land ownership, surveys, borders, colonies, and territories. No passport is needed to travel in the postmodern cultural space because there are no border guards. The dynamic nature of postmodern cultural spaces underscores its response to changing cultural needs. The space exists only as long as it is needed in its present form. Postmodern cultural spaces are both tenuous and dynamic. They are created within existing places, without following any particular guide. There is no marking off of territory, no sense of permanence, or official recognition. The postmodern cultural space exists only while it is used. An example of the postmodern cultural spaces is the classroom building at the Technical University of Denmark. The rooms and walls are fluid, can be moved to accommodate the needs of any particular day’s activities— classes, meetings, study groups, and a digital neon sign on the outside of the building notes the particular rooms and room numbers that will be in use that day. The ideology of fixed spaces and categories is currently being challenged by postmodernist notions of space and location. Phoenix, for example, which became a city relatively recently, has no Chinatown, or Japantown, or Koreatown, no Irish district, or Polish neighborhood, or Italian area. Instead, people of Polish descent, for example, might live anywhere in the metropolitan area but congregate for special occasions or for specific reasons. On Sundays, the Polish Catholic Mass draws many people from throughout Phoenix. When people want to buy Polish breads and pastries, they can go to the Polish bakery and also speak Polish there. Ethnic identity is only one of several identities that these people negotiate. When they desire recognition and interaction based on their Polish heritage, they can meet that wish. When they seek other forms of identification, they can go to places where they can be Phoenix Suns fans, or community volunteers, and so on. Ethnic identity is neither the sole factor nor necessarily the most important one at all times in their lives. The markers of ethnic life in Phoenix are the urban sites where people congregate when they desire ethnic cultural contact. At other times, they may frequent different locations in expressing aspects of their identities. In this sense, the postmodern urban space is dynamic and allows people to participate in the communication of identity in new ways (Drzewiecka & Nakayama, 1998).

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Cultural spaces can also be metaphorical, with historically defined places serving as sources of contemporary identity negotiation in new spaces. In her study of academia, Olga Idriss Davis (1999) turns to the historical role of the kitchen in African American women’s lives and uses the kitchen legacy as a way to rethink the university. She notes that “the relationship between the kitchen and the Academy [university] informs African American women’s experience and historically interconnects their struggles for identity” (p. 370). In this sense, the kitchen is a metaphorical cultural space that is invoked in an entirely new place, the university. Again, this postmodern cultural space is not material but metaphoric, and it allows people to negotiate their identities in new places.

INTERNET RESOURCES http://nonverbal.ucsc.edu/ This website provided by the University of California–Santa Cruz allows students to explore and test their ability to read and interpret nonverbal communication. The site provides videos that examine nonverbal codes, including personal space and gestures, to better understand cross-cultural communication. https://www.lifewire.com/visual-color-symbolism-chart-by-culture-4062177 This website is dedicated to providing information pertaining to the color symbolism that exists throughout different cultures. Its purpose is to allow Web page designers to understand how their usage of color might be interpreted by different groups and world regions. The page also provides informative links on how gender, age, class, and current trends also play a factor in the meaning of color.

SUMMARY ▪▪ Nonverbal communication differs from verbal communication in two ways: It is more unconscious and learned implicitly. ▪▪ Nonverbal communication can reinforce, substitute for, or contradict v­ erbal communication. ▪▪ Nonverbal communication communicates relational meaning, status, and deception. ▪▪ Research investigating the universality of nonverbal behaviors includes comparison of primate behavior, behavior of deaf/blind children, cross-cultural studies, and search for universal social needs filled by nonverbal behaviors. ▪▪ Nonverbal codes include physical appearance, facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, paralanguage, chronemics, and silence. ▪▪ Sometimes cultural differences in nonverbal behaviors can lead to stereotyping of others and overt discrimination.

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▪▪ Cultural space influences cultural identity and includes homes, neighborhoods, regions, and nations. ▪▪ Two ways of changing cultural spaces are travel and migration. ▪▪ Postmodern cultural spaces, like cyberspace, are tenuous and dynamic.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How does nonverbal communication differ from verbal communication? 2. What are some of the messages that we communicate through our nonverbal behaviors? 3. Which nonverbal behaviors, if any, are universal? 4. How do our cultural spaces affect our identities? 5. What role does power play in determining our cultural spaces? 6. What is the importance of cultural spaces to intercultural communication? 7. How do postmodern cultural spaces differ from modernist notions of cultural space?

ACTIVITIES 1. Cultural Spaces. Think about the different cultural spaces in which you participate (clubs, churches, concerts, and so on). Select one of these spaces and describe when and how you enter and leave it. As a group, discuss the answers to the following questions: a. Which cultural spaces do many students share? Which are not shared by many students? b. Which cultural spaces, if any, are denied to some people? c. What factors determine whether a person has access to a specific cultural space? 2. Nonverbal Rules. Choose a cultural space that you are interested in studying. Visit this space on four occasions to observe how people there interact. Focus on one aspect of nonverbal communication (e.g., eye contact or proximity). List some rules that seem to govern this aspect of nonverbal communication. For example, if you are focusing on proximity, you might describe, among other things, how far apart people tend to stand when conversing. Based on your observations, list some prescriptions about proper (expected) nonverbal behavior in this cultural space. Share your conclusions with the class. To what extent do other students share your conclusions? Can we generalize about nonverbal rules in cultural spaces? What factors influence whether an individual follows unspoken rules of behavior?

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KEY WORDS chronemics (275) contact cultures (270) cultural space (262) deception (265) discrimination (279) eye contact (274) expectancy violations theory (265) facial expressions (267)

monochronic (275) noncontact cultures (270) paralinguistics (274) polychronic (275) postmodern cultural spaces (290) proxemics (270) regionalism (288) relational messages (264)

semiosis (281) semiotics (280) signified (281) signifiers (281) signs (281) status (264) vocalizations (275) voice qualities (274)

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