Introduction

The prevalence rate of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is currently estimated to be 1 in 68 (Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 2014). Meanwhile, the Zimbabwean Constitution Amendment Number 20 of 2013 section 75, Education Act of 1987 as revised in 2006, the Disabled Persons Act of 1996, the Secretary’s Circular number 2 of 2000 and the Director’s Circular number 7 of 2005 mandates the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream primary school classrooms (Mugweni and Dakwa 2013). The aforementioned policies and legislation are in compliance with civil rights movements as expressed in international conventions and human rights charters, including the Salamanca Statement (UNESCO 1994) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations 2006) (Chireshe 2013; Mpofu et al. 2007; Mutepfa et al. 2007). Since the paradigm shift from exclusivity to inclusivity in education in 1994 in Zimbabwe, the number of children with ASD taught in inclusive classrooms is significantly increasing.

In spite of the several benefits to an inclusive setting, including access to mainstream education curricula and opportunities for peer interactions, the inclusive setting can present numerous challenges for key role players including principals, teachers and children with and without ASD and their parents (Barnes 2009; Eldar et al. 2010; Humphrey 2008). Owing to their social communication and interaction deficits, navigating peer relationships and other inclusive settings social situations can be challenging to children with ASD (Jones and Frederickson 2010; Lynch and Irvine 2009). Children with ASD struggle with academic success even when they have average to above average cognitive skills because of challenges in social cognition (Park et al. 2010; Symes and Humphrey 2010).

Key characteristics of children with ASD including social skills deficits and communication with restricted interests and/or repetitive behaviours (Chandler-Olcott and Kluth 2009; Finke et al. 2009; Lynch and Irvine 2009; Mandell et al. 2007; Mandell and Novak 2005; Mandell et al. 2005) are dissonant with social success in pedagogical settings (Boutot 2007). In school, active participation and involvement of children in group work and unstructured, child-directed play activities is expected (Bowe 2004). However, children with ASD struggle with cooperation, assertion, self-control, hyperactivity and/or internalizing behaviour (Macintosh and Dissanayake 2006). Numerous studies reveal that children with ASD are less likely than their peers to respond aloud to questions, make in-class presentations or work collaboratively with their peers (Horrocks et al. 2008; Vakil et al. 2009). In educational settings, children with ASD also confront several challenges including changing schedules and unstructured times such as lunch and the time before and after school (Humphrey 2008; Humphrey and Parkinson 2006). Children with ASD further struggle with transitions and lack of structure (McGregor and Campbell 2001; Morton and Campbell 2008; Robertson et al. 2003).

Although several international conventions and human rights charters and Zimbabwean policies and legislation mandates the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms, research reveals that physical integration does not necessarily equate to full social inclusion (Mushoriwa and Gasva 2008; Mandina 2012). Numerous factors including social practices of typically developing children can either include or isolate their peers with ASD (Bowe 2004; National Autism Society 2003). According to literature, diagnosis disclosure may influence children’s attitudes regarding their peers with ASD. For instance, in elementary pedagogical settings, children who fully disclose their diagnosis to their peer group have been established to receive more social support from peers (Ochs et al. 2001). Similarly, the provision of descriptive and explanatory information about children with ASD to their peers without developmental delays at the middle school level results in more positive attitudes toward children with ASD, in comparison with lack of provision of information or dissemination of descriptive or explanatory information alone (Campbell 2007).

Literature reveals that children with ASD in inclusive pedagogical settings have fewer friendships than their peers without developmental delays (Maich and Belcher 2012; Marks et al. 2003; Smith and Brown 2000). For instance, in a study of children with and without ASD, children with ASD were nominated fewer times as a friend by peers, had fewer reciprocal friendships and reported poorer friendship quality (Kasari et al. 2011). As children grow, friendships become selective and navigating peer relationships often become more challenging (Mugweni and Dakwa 2013). Children with ASD, who often already have difficulty with social relationships, developing friendships as they grow, may be even more challenging (Connor 2000; Hinton et al. 2008; Jones and Frederickson 2010). Verily, a study of adolescent children with and without ASD in mainstream education drama class revealed adolescents with ASD experienced more loneliness, had poorer friendship quality in relation to companionship and helpfulness and had lower social network status compared to their typically developing peers (Locke et al. 2010). Apart from the struggling of some of these children to develop friendship, children with ASD across elementary, middle and high school levels have been reported to experience alarmingly high rates of bullying victimization (Sreckovic et al. 2014). Explicit instructions, targeted interventions and authentic opportunities to foster friendships are required to assist children with ASD to establish positive peer relationships (Finke et al. 2009; Lynch and Irvine 2009; Smith and Brown 2000). However, many mainstream education teachers feel inadequately prepared to meet the multifaceted needs of children with ASD in inclusive settings (Finke et al. 2009; Segall and Campbell 2012; McCray and McHatton 2011).

Although administrators, parents, teachers and support staff concur that interventions addressing the social skill deficits of learners with ASD are needed in order to optimize independence and success of these children (Brown et al. 2001; U.S. Department of Education 2003; Mandell et al. 2013), studies reveal that mainstream education teachers feel ill-prepared to implement such interventions. Some mainstream teachers do not support inclusive model of teaching because of their lack of training preparation for teaching in inclusive settings (Ross-Hill 2009). In one study, both elementary and secondary mainstream education teachers reported concerns about their lack of confidence in teaching in an inclusive setting and feelings of low self-efficacy in working with children with special educational needs (McCray and McHatton 2011). Even after completion of a course in inclusionary practices, the pre-service teachers indicated that although the course was helpful, they still needed support in instructional strategies and understanding characteristics of children with different types of disabilities (Chireshe 2013). Mainstream teachers have specifically noted concerns about their lack of training knowledge and training related to ASD (Finke et al. 2009) and some even have misconceptions on ASD (Segall and Campbell 2012). Specific training in intervention methods will likely enhance self-efficacy related to teaching children with ASD (Siu and Ho 2010). Similarly, Pellecchia et al. (2015) reveal that comprehensive intervention for children with ASD require significant staff training.

Apart from concerns about their lack of preparation, some educators have reported that they lack adequate support and resources within their schools (Mandell et al. 2013; Ross-Hill 2009). Teachers have particularly indicated a desire for collaboration to support inclusion (Finke et al. 2009). Although school staff holds that collaboration between mainstream and special education teachers is beneficial, teachers lament the lack of planning time, the incompatibility of teachers, lack of training, varying learner skills and lack of administrative support (Scruggs et al. 2007). Research reveals that even when teachers feel collaborative practices are institutionalized in schools, the use of such practices is not always implemented. For instance, in a study of 118 special and mainstream education teachers, 92 % believed collaborative practices were present in their schools, but only 57 % indicated actual use of such practices (Damore and Murray 2009). Collaboration can become more especially challenging or non-existent when educators diverge in their philosophies of teaching learners with disabilities (Carter et al. 2009). Studies have established that educators with more professional development opportunities related to co-teaching experienced significant increases in their confidence and interest in co-teaching and they were hopeful for the potential of collaborative relationships (Pancsofar and Petroff 2013).

The current study investigated social barriers and enablers of inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream primary school classrooms in Zimbabwe according to the perspectives and experiences of regular teachers. Unlike in the international fraternity, there is a dearth of empirical research on inclusion of children with ASD in education in Zimbabwe. Despite the accelerated placement of children with ASD in mainstream primary school classrooms in Zimbabwe, there are also no studies on social barriers and enablers of inclusion of these children. Such information is fundamental in informing intervention programmes and services development and implementation in inclusive classrooms and providing support to teachers and children with and without ASD in mainstream primary school classrooms. Specifically, the current study addressed the following research questions:

  1. 1.

    What are the social barriers to inclusion of children with ASD in Zimbabwean mainstream primary school classrooms?

  2. 2.

    What are the enablers of inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream primary school classrooms in Zimbabwe?

Methodology

In order to establish the social barriers and enablers of inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream primary school classrooms, the current study used a qualitative methodology. Qualitative methodologies are used when information about a researched phenomenon is limited (Silverman 2009) and when the purpose of the study is to describe experiences through identification of themes and developing theories based on the participant’s perception of events (Corbetta 2003; Lewis 2003). Ethical approval to execute the present study was obtained from the Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture of Zimbabwe.

Data Collection

According to Pierce (2008), conducting interviews with participants is among the methods of collecting data in qualitative research. Thus, the present study used semi-structured interviews with open ended questions to provide a framework for the interview, but encouraged participating regular teachers to describe social barriers and enablers of inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. According to Lewis (2003), semi-structured interviews guide the interviewer to ask questions about each desired research topic while allowing each participant to elaborate his/her experiences.

Participants

A sample of 21 regular teachers purposively drawn from mainstream primary schools participated in the study. Inclusion criteria were established so as to generate a pool of regular teachers who were relatively homogeneous and who were hypothesized to have experiences relevant to the research questions. Regular teachers needed to meet the following inclusion criteria in order to participate in the current study:(1) had at least a 3 year mainstream primary school teachers’ diploma; (2) had at least 3 years of teaching experience in mainstream primary school classroom with children with ASD; and (3) teaching in a mainstream primary school classroom with children with ASD in a public primary school in Harare educational province of Zimbabwe. The adequacy of the sample of regular teachers was determined when theoretical saturation was reached which occurred when no new or relevant data emerged regarding a category and categories were well developed with respect to their properties, dimensions and variation (Corbetta 2003). The sample for the current study comprised 21 regular primary school teachers (9 males and 12 females) who were aged between 27 and 65 years and taught a wide range of primary school level classes. Their teaching experience ranged from 4 to 20 years. Eight of the participants had additional qualifications, post-graduate degrees in education.

Procedure

The researcher conducted individual in-depth interviews between January 2013 and October 2014, each lasting an average of 41 min. Prior to the beginning of the interview, informed consent was obtained from the participant. The interviews followed an in-depth semi-structured format that explored regular teachers’ perspectives and experiences regarding the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream primary school classrooms. Participating regular teachers were asked about their experience of working with children with ASD within mainstream primary school classes and their advice about establishing and reinforcing an inclusive environment for these children. The individual in-depth interview questions were structured around: (a) How are children with ASD similar to or different from other children in your classroom? (b) What are your concerns regarding children with ASD in your classroom? (c) How would you help the social development of children with ASD in your classroom? (d) How would the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms be supported? (e) Do you have the professional competence to include children with ASD in your classroom?

Data Analysis

Individual in-depth interviews were transcribed verbatim. The transcriptions were read numerous times and coded. Cross-case analysis was subsequently performed for each individual in-depth interview (Lewis 2003) and pattern coding was followed. In pattern coding, interview transcripts were reviewed and themes emerging from each interview cross checked while identifying emerging patterns or themes. During the coding process, negative or contrasting cases and frequencies of themes were identified. Emerging themes were subsequently organised around the aforementioned research questions. How regular teachers contextualised and explained their perspectives was established in order to examine inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms from a wide range of perspectives and personal experiences, within and across case analyses.

Member checking of data collected was conducted so as to establish rigour and trustworthiness in the findings (Pierce 2008). This involved taking interview transcripts to participating individual regular teachers who read them to validate their contents and the meanings generated from them. In the current study, data analysis was a reciprocal process between the researcher and an external reader who had expertise in qualitative research. Analysis documents were presented to the external reader to examine their credibility.

Findings

Analysis of the individual in-depth interview transcripts revealed several social barriers and enablers of inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms presented below.

Social Barriers to Inclusion

‘Self-Imposed’ Social Isolation

All teachers reported that ‘self-imposed’ social isolation interfered with the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms, as highlighted by the following selected excerpts (pseudonyms used):

Children with ASD prefer to be alone whether in the mainstream classrooms or playgrounds. They are not interested in what takes place around them. (#21)

Instead of socializing with peers of their own age in their mainstream classrooms, children with ASD prefer to be in the company of elders. (#5)

They [Children with ASD] are in a fantasy world. They rarely communicate to and share observations or experiences with their mainstream classroom peers. (#14)

Children with ASD respond to social interactions in their mainstream classrooms but rarely initiate them. They have complications in maintaining relationships. (#6)

Behaviour

Nineteen participants revealed that the behaviour of children with ASD interfered with the inclusion of these children in mainstream classrooms, as confirmed in the following selected excerpts:

Children with ASD exhibit repetitive, ritualistic or compulsory behaviour patterns such as rocking and sucking. (#2)

Obsessions with desires and ideas as well as unusual attachment to objects characterize children with ASD. (#13)

Children with ASD are overly possessive of peers who befriend them. They always need the company of such peers. (#18)

They [children with ASD] talk excessively about one or two topics. They exhibit obsessive behaviour, routines and rituals. I teach a boy who opens and closes his bag frequently, wants to sit on the same chair every school day and asks the same questions and always requires a specific answer. (#4)

Bullying

Thirteen participants reported that bullying of children with ASD by their typically developing peers hampered the inclusion of these children in mainstream classrooms, as highlighted in the following selected excerpts:

They [children without developmental delays] threaten and physically attack their peers with ASD primarily because of their aberrant behaviours. (#16)

Children without developmental delays frequently make gestures behind their counterparts with ASD. (#7)

Offensive names are used by children without disabilities to insult their peers with ASD. (#1)

Rule-Bound

Fifteen participants revealed that the rule-bound nature of children with ASD interfered with their inclusion in mainstream classrooms, as confirmed in the following selected excerpts:

Children with ASD do not understand the feelings of their typically developing peers. They expect them to abide by their practices and principles. (#3)

They [children with ASD) do not acknowledge others. All typically developing children must be their disciples. They do not recognize turn-taking, for instance in a queue. (#11)

So rule-bound are children with ASD. They do not tolerate individuality. (#7)

If children with ASD are good at school, sport or whatever, they want their peers to be like them. (#17)

Transition

Seventeen teachers reported that transition restrained the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms, as highlighted in the following selected excerpts:

Children with ASD have complication transitioning from one academic or social activity or environment to another. They even have difficulty changing from one floor to another, for instance from cement to carpet floor. (#10)

Expectations and interests of children with ASD do not change with age. Typically developing children exclude them from growth-related social culture because of their rule-bound disposition. They cannot cope with adolescent stage expectations. (#19)

The failure of children with ASD to adapt to changing and different educational environments is an impediment to their inclusion in mainstream classrooms. (#9)

They [children with ASD] are static as regards social skills and interests. The girl I have in my grade 6 class has the same interests and expectations as she had when she was in grade 3. (#20)

Social Rejection

Sixteen teachers revealed that typically developing children’s lack of understanding and acceptance of their peers with ASD impeded inclusion of these children in mainstream classrooms, as confirmed in the following selected excerpts:

Children without developmental delays avoid being associated with their counterparts with ASD. This is mainly a result of stigmatic cultural standards towards disabilities. (#15)

Typically developing children ostracize their peers who befriend children with ASD. They lack positive attitudes, knowledge and information about ASD. (#19)

Most children without developmental challenges view ASD as a sign of bad omen. They even think ASD is communicable. (#12)

Some children without disabilities associate with their peers with ASD in classrooms only. They do not want the whole school to realize such association. (#11)

Typically developing children need space to be away from their peers with ASD out of the classroom. They purposely isolate them. (#2)

Enablers of Inclusion

Teacher Professional Preparation and Development

All participants reported that regular teacher professional preparation and development would facilitate the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms, as confirmed in the following selected excerpts:

As a regular teacher, professional support and assistance would help me to include children with ASD in my classroom. Workshops on inclusion content and strategies are critical. (#18)

Conferences are foundational in aiding us [regular teachers] to include children with ASD in our classrooms. Inclusion of these children is expertise-oriented. (#5)

Without in-service training, I am finding it challenging to include children with ASD in my classroom. (#8)

I am failing to effectively include children with ASD in my classroom because of professional incompetence. School, district and national staff development can help me to teach children with ASD in my classrooms. (#21)

Children with ASD are unique. I need staff development to afford them needs assessment based teaching and learning. (#14)

We [regular teachers] were only exposed to special needs education theory in college. We used to imagine children with ASD. (#3)

Individualized Instruction

Fifteen participants articulated that individualized teaching and learning would facilitate the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms, as highlighted in the following selected excerpts:

Like their typically developing peers, children with ASD are individuals. Thus, individualized teaching and learning is foundational in their inclusion in mainstream classrooms. (#4)

We [regular teachers] should have profiles of children with ASD. These profiles can serve as a baseline for individualized instruction. (#1)

Individualized educational plans are core to effective teaching of children with ASD. There should be alignment between teaching and learning strategies and the unique needs of individual children with ASD. (#16)

Collaboration

All participants revealed that collaboration between mainstream teachers and other stakeholders would facilitate the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms, as highlighted in the following selected excerpts:

Inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms requires us [regular teachers] to consult and partner with our peers, specialist teachers and other stakeholders. Consultation and partnership would pool expertise for inclusion in mainstream classrooms. (#6)

Central to the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms is the use of a multi-disciplinary approach. We [regular teachers] need to work collaboratively with therapists, psychologists, social workers, school counsellors and parents to include children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. (#7)

Our [regular teachers] collaboration with other stakeholder individuals, organizations and institutions would facilitate the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. It is through collaboration with other stakeholders that we would pool resources for inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. (#10)

It takes a whole village to a raise a child. It is only through the active involvement of other stakeholders that we [regular teachers] can socially mould and include children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. (#13)

Academic/Social Development

Nine participants indicated that teachers need to diagnostically and prescriptively attend to academic or social development of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms, as highlighted in the following selected excerpts:

Both the academic and social facets of children with ASD are foundational in their holistic development. Teachers need to a let child with ASD continue with his/her work when concentrating but making noise such as humming. (#20)

When children with ASD are noisy but on-task it is not necessary to intervene if that can result in them being off-task. However, if they make weird noise during a social activity such as drama, intervene. (#8)

Let the child with ASD engage in his/her behaviour as long as he/she in the community of his/her peers. Teacher training is needed to this end. (#17)

Teaching and Learning Strategies

All participants articulated that their acquaintance with effective teaching and learning strategies would facilitate the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms, as confirmed in the following selected excerpts:

Teaching and learning strategies used in mainstream classrooms should be responsive to the unique needs of children with ASD. The use of mixed, expert or ability grouping in mainstream classrooms need to be consistent with the individuality of these children. (#2)

Learner-responsive teaching and learning strategies propels the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream settings. Children with ASD work best if they are grouped with their typically developing peers who are committed to schooling. (#1)

Gifted children understand and accommodate children with ASD. Use of learner responsive teaching and grouping strategies pays off. (#4)

Children with ASD are individuals. Teachers only need to be responsive to their individual needs such as temperament and attention span when approaching their teaching and learning. (#19)

Structure

Eighteen teachers reported that structured schedules would support the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms, as highlighted in the following selected excerpts:

Inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms requires careful scheduling of the programmes and services of school days. Daily academic and social work needs to be patterned. (#12)

Structure in the schedule of children with ASD is at the heart of inclusion of these children. Classrooms require to be routinely structured. (#3)

In order to avoid distraction and anxiety of children with ASD, the structure and routine of mainstream classrooms should be commensurate with the ‘order’ needed by these children. Mainstream classrooms structure and routine need to adjust and adapt to the ‘order’ of these children and not vice versa. (#11)

ASD Awareness

Seventeen participants articulated that typically developing children’s understanding of children with ASD would facilitate inclusion of these children in mainstream classrooms, as confirmed in the following selected excerpts:

Children without developmental delays patronize their peers with ASD. ASD awareness campaigns are critical. (#14)

They [typically developing children] stigmatize their peers with ASD. Their sensitization on ASD is vital. Hence, ASD needs to be ingrained in the school curriculum. (#7)

Educating children without developmental delays on ASD is needed. Specialist teachers and other professionals can help in this regard. (#18)

Advocacy

All teachers reported that stakeholders’ advocacy would facilitate inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms, as highlighted in the following selected excerpts:

Every stakeholder needs to be an advocate for inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. We [regular teachers] and typically developing children and their parents need to lobby for the practice of the philosophy. (#20)

One voice by professionals, parents, non-professionals and para-professionals’ would result in effective inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. (#17)

The government, non-governmental organizations, and universities should join hands in ensuring inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. (#1)

Parents of children with ASD require to campaign for inclusion of their children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. As primary socialization agents of these children, their active involvement and participation is integral in inclusion. (#13)

Discussion

Consistent with findings of studies by Campbell (2007) and Ochs et al. (2001), the present study revealed that, although there are several benefits to an inclusive pedagogical setting, including access to mainstream education curriculum and opportunities for numerous peer interactions, the inclusive classroom presents several challenges and opportunities for children with and without ASD and their teachers. Teachers revealed that ‘self-imposed’ social isolation, behaviour, bullying, rule-bound nature, transition and social rejection of children with ASD impeded the inclusion of these children in mainstream primary school classrooms. This finding aligns with previous studies that have established that multiple needs and characteristics of children with ASD interfere with the inclusion of these children in mainstream classrooms (Finke et al. 2009; Lynch and Irvine 2009). Participants also reported that embodying key characteristics and management of children with ASD in regular teacher preparation programmes’ design and implementation would equip teachers with the professional competence to include these children in mainstream classrooms. This finding concurs with previous studies which have found that, in order to include children with ASD in mainstream classrooms, teachers need formal professional training in designing and implementing classroom-based instruction grounded in the teaching and learning characteristics, interests and needs of these children (Roberts 2007; Kozleski et al. 2002; Siu and Ho 2010). Teachers further reported that individualisation of teaching and learning would facilitate inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. This finding resonates with previous studies that found that teachers need training in specific differentiation strategies to accommodate the needs of children with ASD in inclusive educational settings (Jung 2007; Finke et al. 2009; Segall and Campbell 2012).

Teachers articulated that ‘self-imposed’ social isolation, social skills deficits, engagement in fantasy worlds and lonely play hampered the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. This finding aligns with previous studies that have established that, because of deficits in social communication and interaction, navigating peer relationships and other classroom social situations challenges children with ASD (Barnes 2009; Frombonne 2003; Humphrey 2008). Participants also reported that premising professional development of regular teachers on strategies and content to establish and reinforce responsive social accommodations for children with ASD would facilitate the inclusion of these children in mainstream classrooms. This finding concurs with previous studies which have established that regular teachers need professional preparation to support the personal/social development and inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms (Carter et al. 2014; McCray and McHatton 2011; Kozleski et al. 2002; Siu and Ho 2010). Participants further revealed that in-service training of regular teachers in teaching and learning strategies of children with ASD would facilitate the inclusion of these children in mainstream classrooms. This finding aligns with previous studies which have found that teachers need professional development in order to be informed and knowledgeable about ASD and about individualisation strategies for children with ASD in mainstream classrooms (Allday et al. 2013; Humphrey and Parkinson 2006; Lynch and Irvine 2009; Sheffield 2008; Winn and Blanton 2005). Similarly, Humphrey (2008), Lindsay and McPherson (2012), and Maich and Belcher (2012) found that grounding teacher in-service training in the unique needs of children with ASD facilitates inclusion of these children in mainstream classrooms.

Consistent with the findings of studies by Kasari et al. (2011) and Locke et al. (2010), the current study established that social isolation of children with ASD by their typically developing peers interfered with the inclusion of these children in mainstream classrooms. Children without developmental delays socially isolated children with ASD primarily because of their anti-social behaviour, lack of communication, exhibition of aberrant behaviours, overly possessiveness and obsessive behaviour, routines and rituals. This finding is consistent with Macintosh and Dissanayake (2006) and Newman (2007) who also found that children with ASD struggle with cooperation, assertion and self-control, hyperactivity and/or internalising behaviour. Similarly, Kasari et al. (2011) found that children with ASD in inclusive classrooms have fewer reciprocal friendships and poorer friendship quality in comparison with their peers without developmental challenges. In the same vein, a study by Locke et al. (2010) established that children with ASD experience more loneliness and poorer friendship quality in relation to companionship and helpfulness. They also have a lower social network status than their peers without developmental delays. Teachers also reported that dissemination of information on ASD would foster positive attitudes in typically developing children towards the inclusion of their peers with the condition in mainstream classrooms. This finding concurs with studies that have established that awareness programmes improve learners’ knowledge about disabilities and their attitudes toward peers with disabilities (Campbell 2007; Lindsay and Edwards 2013). Participants further revealed that infusion of disability studies in the primary school curriculum would assist typically developing children understanding and appreciating human diversity and ultimately accepting the inclusion of their peers with ASD in mainstream classrooms. This finding is consistent with previous research which established that peers’ attitudes and knowledge are influential in the quality and frequency of interactions that children with ASD have with their peers (Carter et al. 2001).

Consistent with the findings of a research by Sreckovic et al. (2014), the present study revealed that bullying and victimisation of children with ASD interfered with the inclusion of these children in mainstream classrooms. Typically developing children psychologically, physically and verbally abused their peers with ASD. Participants also lacked competencies and skills to promote social acceptance of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. This finding resonates with previous research which found that mainstream teachers have specifically noted concerns about their lack of knowledge and training related to ASD (Finke et al. 2009). Participants further indicated that their exposure to specialist training and consultation and partnership with other school personnel would assist the social acceptance of children with ASD by their peers. This finding is consistent with previous studies that have found that collaboration and discourse between regular teachers and specialist teachers enhances the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms (Crais et al. 2004; Pancsofar and Petroff 2013). Similarly, Harvey et al. (2010) found that collaboration across disciplines is the foundation of successful inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms.

Participants reported that the rule-bounded nature of children with ASD interfered with the inclusion of these children in mainstream classrooms. As a result of this, children with ASD were convinced that their life styles and principles universally applied to all people and were ultimately non-accommodative of their peers in mainstream classrooms. This finding is consistent with a previous study that established that, even when children with ASD have average to above average cognitive skills, they struggle to achieve success at school because of challenges in social cognition (Stichter et al. 2010). Teachers also revealed that transitions interfered with the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. Children with ASD had static expectations, social skills and interests and were therefore excluded from growth-related social culture by their typically developing peers in mainstream classrooms because they failed to adjust and adapt to changing educational environments. This finding resonates with previous research that found that rigidity and routine adherence are coping qualities of ASD that tend to make transition situations much more difficult (Barnard-Brak and Fearon 2012; Siu and Ho 2010). Participants further reported that typically developing children’s lack of understanding and acceptance of their peers with ASD interfered with their inclusion in mainstream classrooms. Owing to stigmatic cultural standards toward people with disabilities, coupled with a lack of knowledge and information, children without developmental delays avoided association with their peers with ASD because they thought that the disability was communicable. Children without developmental challenges were also ostracised for playing with their peers with ASD. This finding is consistent with previous studies which have established that typically developing children’s lack of disability awareness interferes with inclusion in mainstream classrooms (Kasari et al. 2011; Locke et al. 2010).

Research Limitations and Future Research

Regular teachers who participated in the current study were drawn from one educational province of the country. As inclusive education is practised the country over, a nationally representative sample exploring social barriers and enablers of inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms would be needed in Zimbabwe. The informants of the current study were also volunteers whose choice to participate may have been a result of their previous positive or negative perspectives and experiences with children with ASD in mainstream classrooms, which may have potentially influenced their expressions. Consequently, the extent of accuracy and precision of generalization of the findings of the current study to mainstream primary school classrooms that are inclusive of children with ASD in the country is unknown.

The current study also excluded the perspectives and experiences of principals, both children with and without ASD and their parents/guardians and specialist teachers. It cannot, therefore, be ascertained whether their perspectives and experiences on social barriers and enablers of inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms resonates with those expressed by regular teachers. In order to glean diverse perspectives, that would assisting determining comprehensive support strategies, programmes and services for inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream primary school classrooms, future studies would focus on the perspectives and experiences of both children with and without ASD and their parents/guardians, principals and specialist teachers. Gleaning diverse perspectives would comprehensively inform professional preparation and development of both general and specialist primary school teachers. The present study further investigated social barriers and enablers of inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream primary school classrooms, yet, academic variables could also influence such inclusion. Consequently, future research could dwell on academic barriers and facilitators of inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms from the perspectives of regular teachers. Since teachers in the present study were concerned about their knowledge, skills, competencies and understandings with respect to the provision of necessary accommodations for children with ASD in mainstream classrooms, future studies would further focus on effective models of mainstream pre-service and in-service teacher preparation and development for inclusion of children with ASD. Future studies would also focus on best models of inside-out and outside-in collaborative structures and cultures between regular and specialist teachers to optimize inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms.

Conclusion

The current study ‘heard and listened to the grassroots voices’ because the researcher felt the perspectives and experiences of regular teachers were fundamental in determining their professional development needs with respect to successful and effective inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream primary school classrooms. A study of such a nature is integral in teacher education as it serves as a springboard for synchronizing daily practices and perspectives of regular teachers with their professional preparation and development for inclusion. Apparently, although Zimbabwe shifted from exclusive to inclusive education in 1994, comparable to the countries cited herein, the country lacks in ensuring participation and achievement of “all” children, including those with ASD in mainstream primary school classrooms in compliance with its national and international mandate, infringing the right of these children to inclusive pedagogy.

Individual and institutional capacity building initiatives which are premised on realizing learning of all children including those with ASD in the community of the mainstream pedagogical setting, dispelling deterministic notions about the ability of these children as being fixed and the associated idea that their presence in mainstream education would hold back the progress of their typically developing peers and perceiving difficulties in teaching and learning of children with ASD in inclusive pedagogical settings as professional challenges for educators instead of deficits in these children which can support innovative management of the pedagogical process, content and assessment, culminating in learning for all. These initiatives can include the passage and enforcement of clear and concise legal framework for inclusive pedagogy which can support inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms in the country. Such a framework can inform planning, development, management, implementation and evaluation of inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms which can support learning for all. Additional research on inclusion of children with ASD in order to obtain more information about social barriers and enablers coupled with advocacy by people with and without ASD and organizations of and for people with ASD can assist in institutionalization of pro-inclusion legal framework in the country.

Since Zimbabwean regular teachers were mind-boggled about their professional competence to meet the full range of needs of both children with and without ASD in mainstream education settings, institutionalization of professional preparation and development which is responsive to their needs can aid inclusion in education. Such professional preparation and development can constitute coursework with applied experience in child diversity/disability categories, differentiation of instruction, classroom and behaviour management and collaboration in order to foster in pre-service and in-service teachers positive attitudes, skills, knowledge, competencies and understandings in inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. Pre-service and in-service preparation and development can also help in equipping teachers with positive attitudes, competencies and skills in advocacy for them to lobby for the right of children with ASD to inclusive education as well as institutionalize ASD awareness campaigns to support the social acceptance of these children by their typically developing peers and other stakeholders.

Pooling of appropriate resources including specialist personnel, materials, technology and finance can facilitate the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. Since teachers’ roles and the models of support needed for inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms is apparently complex, content and expertise from regular and special needs education can be fundamental in service delivery. Consequently, a collaborative approach can be instrumental in teachers’ solving of problems capitalizing on their individual disciplinary experience and professional grounding which can assist in inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. Similarly, establishment and reinforcement of inside-out and outside-in collaborative cultures and structures including networks can support the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms. This can constitute regular teachers’ consultation and partnership with stakeholder individuals, organizations and institutions inside and outside the school system including parents, professionals, non-professionals and para-professional to support the inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream classrooms through synergy and syllogism. The present study illuminated on individual and institutional support for inclusion of children with ASD in mainstream primary school classrooms.