A Brief Look at the History and Features of Japanese Cuisine | by Miranda Suarez | Medium

A Brief Look at the History and Features of Japanese Cuisine

Miranda Suarez
20 min readNov 15, 2017
Ramen purchased from a small ramen shop called Takabashi; Hirakata, Osaka

Introduction

Long before questionable sushi began popping up at American gas stations, and before ramen became the staple of a struggling college student’s diet, Japan was merely an uninhabited vessel — ready and waiting for great things.

It is widely believed that the earliest Japanese settlers came from the northern steppes of Asia.[1] The verdant land of the islands they found inspired these early settlers to live in harmony with nature, worshiping a vast pantheon of nature spirits. This paganist nature worship eventually evolved into what we now know as Shintoism — a religion still widely followed in modern Japan. Given that one of the most venerated of the goddesses was Ukemochi-no-kami, the goddess of food, this early and intense onset of nature worship in ancient Japan created a deep-rooted and intrinsic respect for food and the nature from which it comes.[2] However, it wasn’t until the Meiji period (1868–1912) that the Japanese people developed a more nationalistic food identity. This is generally marked by the introduction of Japanese words crafted to create a distinction between Japanese food and foreign food: Nihon ryōri, meaning Japanese cuisine, and wagashi, meaning Japanese sweets (to name just a couple).[3]

The Japanese have always alternated between two extremes: either they keep their doors wide open for free flow of foreign cultural influence, or they isolate themselves from the rest of the world — sometimes for centuries at a time.[4] This policy has allowed for the cultivation of a unique national culture. When the doors are open, ideas flood in, allowing the Japanese to pick and choose which aspects of each idea they admire. After they draw back into isolation, these ideas are carefully refined to assimilate into the Japanese way.

Over the years, this repetitive blending and refining of cultural differences and national norms has created an incredibly distinctive Japanese food identity.

Ingredients of Japanese Cuisine and the Significance of Rice

Part of what makes Japanese food as notoriously delicious as it is, is the unstinting freshness of their ingredients. Fresh, quality ingredients are absolutely crucial to their cuisine. There are two key words in understanding the importance of freshness: shun and hashiri. Shun translates to “peak season” or “tastiest time,” and it refers to the time frame in which a particular fish, fruit, or vegetable is at its best. Hashiri essentially means “first of the season,” which is more or less self-explanatory. Hashiri is also referred to as hatsu-mono, meaning “first things,” signifying the anticipation of something new and tasty.[5]

In the preface to Practical Japanese Cooking, Shizuo Tsuji claims that the two most important ingredients of Japanese cuisine are dashi and soy sauce, as they are both used in nearly every dish.[6]

Dashi is a delicate broth made from kelp and bonito (bonito is dried, fermented, and smoked fish flakes). It makes sense that a fish-based broth would be most common considering Japan is an archipelago surrounded by water teeming with fish.

Soy sauce on the other hand, is a different story. Soy was introduced to Japan by China around 300 B.C. and it has since become a major player in the Japanese diet.[7] There are three different types of soy sauce: dark, light, and tamari. Dark soy sauce is the most popular in Japan. It has a sweet, fruity aroma, and a salt content of around 18 percent. Light soy sauce is a bit saltier and is fermented for a shorter period of time than dark soy sauce. The addition of a sweet drink made from fermented rice, called amazake, results in a milder flavor. Finally, tamari soy sauce uses almost no wheat and has the longest fermentation period of the three. This results in a distinct, rich flavor that many people find to be an acquired taste.[8] (It may also be worth noting that the sugar used in soy sauce is another ingredient which was introduced to Japan from a foreign country — Taiwan — and must be imported, as Japan lacks the climate necessary to grow it.[9])

Another interesting facet of Japanese ingredients is what is known as sansai, a catch-all term for mountain vegetables — the edible vegetation that grows naturally in Japan’s highland forests. These include but are not limited to ostrich fern fiddleheads (kogomi), giant butterbur (fuki), hostas (urui), and angelica tree buds (taranome). Sansai were once considered famine relief food after the devastation of World War II; today, however, they are regarded as a national symbol of perseverance and are a reflection of refined food sensibilities.

“[Sansai] epitomize a food culture that prizes ‘seasonal flavor.’ Unlike the four seasons … shun is reckoned by the division of months into an early season, middle season, and late season during which quality of fruits, vegetables, fish, and flowers peak.”[10]

For a long time, the Japanese refrained from eating meat due to the influence of Chinese Buddhism, thus why fish and tofu were so heavily relied on. However, once Japan opened up to Western influence, red meat and poultry became more popular — although most of it had to be imported from other nations due to the lack of space to herd cattle.[11] The cattle that is raised in Japan is renowned for its quality and is known as wagyu beef — an expensive purchase due to its limited quantity. Wagyu is genetically predisposed to have more intra-muscular fat cells, exemplified by the beautiful marbling seen in a cut of the meat.[12] The Japanese typically season their meat and poultry differently than Westerners to better suit their pallet. They’re fond of Worcestershire sauce as they find it similar to soy sauce. Additionally, the meat is often cut into smaller, bite-sized pieces as opposed to slabs in order to make it more manageable with chopsticks.[13]

Because Japan is primarily mountainous, the little space they do have for agriculture is reserved for the honored and venerable rice paddy. “From the ancient period, the Japanese were engaged in the ‘reclamation’ of wilderness for rice farming.”[14] One of the many gods worshipped during the ancient periods was known as Inari, the rice god, and Inari was held in very high esteem. Offerings would be made to him as a prayer for a fruitful harvest and/or as a plea for general good fortune.[15] And rice wasn’t just food either. Along with being used in the production of rope and sandals, “From ancient times until the mid-19th century, rice was used as currency for paying taxes and wages. Like the rank of the feudal lords were all measured by how much rice they had, rice was a ruler which indicated one’s economic status.”[16]

Seafood and Tomato Cream Omurice; Hirakata, Osaka

Rice is the staple of the Japanese diet. It is consumed daily; sometimes for breakfast, often for lunch, and always for dinner.[17] In fact, the words for rice and meal (go-han and sokuji, respectively) are used interchangeably in the Japanese language. Traditionally, a Japanese meal will feature rice as the staple with two or three sides to complement it; however, rice consumption has been dropping since the 1960s in favor of new flavors, and today is approximately half of what it was 50 years ago.[18] Even still, rice is the foundation upon which the Japanese empire was built.

Iconic Japanese Fare and Popular Street Food

It will come as no surprise then that the rice shortage post-World War II led to dietary upheaval. Much of the rice consumed by Japan was imported from other Eastern countries, so once the trade ceased, the rice supply dwindled. To further the problem, returnees from warzones as well as U.S. occupation in Japan raised the population to numbers higher than those of pre-war levels.[19] “Poor rice harvests in 1944 and 1945 due to weather and war compounded the direness of the situation, resulting in widespread malnutrition and starvation, particularly among children,”[20] as exemplified in Isao Takahata’s 1988 film, Grave of the Fireflies.

This suffering, however, ended up having a silver lining. During the U.S. occupation of Japan following World War II, the United States government supplied Japan with large quantities of wheat flour to rehabilitate the Japanese economy as a strategic move during the Cold War. This wheat flour served as a substitute for rice, and was used mainly to make wheat noodles for Chinese noodle soup — at the time referred to as shina soba or chuka soba.[21] This noodle soup, often sold in Japanese black markets from yatai — or small food carts — later became known as ramen.

Yes; ramen was, in fact, Chinese in origin. However, despite its origins, ramen has become largely divested from its roots and has turned into a beloved national dish with many regional variations — spanning from Hokkaido’s capital Sapporo in the far north, to Hakata on the southernmost island of Kyūshū. Ramen broths vary widely among the regions. There exist such broths as shio (salt-based), tonkatsu (pork-based), shōyu (soy sauce-based), and miso (tofu-based), as well as myriad toppings ranging from hard-boiled egg, to bean sprouts, to nori (seaweed).[22] It wasn’t until 1958 that instant ramen became a reality through Andō Momofuku — inventor of Oodles of Noodles and Cup Ramen, and founder of Nissin Foods Corporation. Momofuku claims he was inspired by images of starved customers of all ages lined up by a yatai for the Chinese noodle soup.[23] There are many other popular Japanese recipes of Chinese origin (for example, gyoza, or pan-friend dumpling, is one particularly popular here in the States), but it would take forever to list them all.

Mochi filled with azuki and a strawberry (left); traditional dango (right); Arashiyama Bamboo Forest, Kyoto, Japan

Mochi is a common type of wagashi, which — as aforementioned — means Japanese sweets, and it is a national favorite. Mochi is a special dough made from pounded sticky rice. In contemporary cuisine, the fillings of mochi vary, but the traditional filling is a sweet red bean paste known as azuki. Mochi has a spiritual history of being used as offerings to the gods. The rice is believed to have symbolized either the rice harvest or the spirits of the dead, and the red bean paste — or rather, the red color — was thought to dispel calamity or misfortune.[24] There is even a legend in Japan about a rabbit who makes mochi on the moon. The legend comes from perceived shapes in the moon’s craters which loosely resemble a rabbit pounding mochi in a pestle. The rabbit is fondly referred to in Japan as Tsuki no Usagi which directly translates to Moon Rabbit.[25]

Another great Japanese delicacy is known as the fugu, or pufferfish. Fugu is in season from early October to late March, and is said to be one of the tastiest and most delectable of fishes; however, it also has the potential to be deadly if incorrectly prepared, as the liver and ovaries of a pufferfish contain a poison fatal to humans. Fugu is generally eaten raw and in thin slices, referred to as sashimi. Chefs require special license to prepare the dish, the final test of which is to eat fugu prepared by oneself. About 200 people a year die from consuming it, and believe it or not, this is actually quite impressive. Over the course of a year, millions will risk their lives dining on the deadly fish.[26]

Although fugu hasn’t quite caught on in the West, other forms of sashimi most certainly have. The invention of sushi is a process that began thousands of years ago when a village along the Mekong River came up with the idea to preserve fish by packing it in jars with cooked rice. The following fermentation of the rice resulted in alcohol and acids which kept the fish fresh. Eventually, people began to eat the sour rice with the preserved fish — in other words, a primitive sushi. Around the turn of the Edo period (circa 1600 A.D.), rice vinegar was invented, meaning the preferred sour flavor of sushi rice could now be achieved without the long fermentation process. 200 years later toward the end of the Edo period, Japanese people were beginning to eat fresh raw fish over rice flavored with sugar, salt, and rice vinegar — or what we now know as modern sushi.[27]

Although there are a few different types of sushi, the most common is known as nigiri — thin slices of raw fish over hand pressed rice, with toppings. The word nigiri comes from the Japanese word meaning ‘to squeeze,’ which is in reference to the squeezing and molding of the rice on which the sashimi is placed.[28] It is said that there are two marks of expertly made sushi: absolutely fresh ingredients, and “rice just firm enough to hold together but loose enough so that it crumbles as if by itself when eaten.”[29]

The interesting thing about sushi in the United States is that the first producers and customers of American sushi were Japanese-Americans. Unlike the Americanized Chinese, Mexican, and Indian fare which are more or less bastardizations of the original cuisines, sushi in America is about as authentically Japanese as it can get, regardless of any subsequent corruptions following its rise in popularity.[30]

As mentioned in the introduction, sushi has become so popular in the United States that one can even buy it at some gas stations (though this is not recommended for what I hope are obvious reasons.) There are many Japanese foods, however, that are much more difficult to find here — namely, the fare typically found on Japanese city streets.

Taiyaki purchased from a street vendor; Nara, Japan

Japanese street food is a consistently awe-inspiring piece of culture for Western tourists, as Japanese street food isn’t the typical dollar hotdog one would find on the streets of New York City. Instead, one is more likely to find things like yaki imo, or wood-fire baked sweet potato; ikayaki, grilled squid on a stick; takoyaki, small pancake balls with octopus at the center, generally topped with mayonnaise and pickled vegetables; taiyaki, a cute fish-shaped sweet cake filled with chocolate, custard, or cheese; dango, or Japanese dumplings on a stick; and shioyaki, which is baked mackerel on a stick, and humorously quoted as being “saltier than salt itself.”

Now, this isn’t to say there aren’t any Western-inspired street foods in Japan. The Japanese are actually quite fond of cotton candy and other American-style carnival fare like caramel apples. They call these snacks watame and they’re often sold packaged in bags decorated with popular cartoon characters and J-pop bands. French fries are common as well — the Japanese call them poteto.[31]

Inside a Japanese Kitchen: Cookware and Utensils

In David Wells’ essay, Irretrievably in Love with Japanese Cuisine, he writes about his experiences as a Japanese culinary school student and apprentice. He quotes, “The first year of culinary school starts off with the basics of cleanliness. Before you begin to cook, you clean. While you cook, you clean. And once you finish, you leave your workspace cleaner than it was before you began.”[32] So in addition to the ingredients being fresh, so too must be the surfaces on which they are prepared.

The Japanese are very fond of their knives. Wells lists three primary types of knives used in Japanese cooking: usuba, deba, and yanagiba. The usuba is essentially a vegetable cutting knife with a wide, thin blade; deba is used for boning fish; yanagiba, also known as a sashimi knife, is for slicing fish into razor thin strips. The yanagiba is typically stored in a scabbard. Using the right hand with these knives is important, as it is improper to bump elbows with another chef while in preparation, and it’s also for the sake of presentation as well. Wells uses the example of sashimi — if a chef prepared it with his left hand (assuming he used proper safety procedure), the top of the fish could not be picked up with chopsticks by a diner using their right hand.[33]

Also typically found in Japanese kitchens are knives specifically for slicing tofu, serrated mixing bowls known as suribachi (often used in tandem with a wooden pestle), and a skimmer for removing grease and foam from boiling oil. Additionally, instead of using circular frying pans for their omelets, the Japanese use special rectangular frying pans for that specific purpose. Graters are important for garnishes, and bamboo mats called sodare are used to roll various foods (but primarily sushi). Modern kitchens are unsurprisingly equipped with rice cookers, and Western influence has inspired an appreciation of coffee, calling for coffee makers. Sometimes blenders and food processors are used as well, but these are less typical. Specialized gadgets like a takoyaki maker aren’t unusual either. It’s common to own a pair of elongated metal chopsticks for cooking purposes; however, the Japanese don’t usually eat with metal chopsticks — that’s more common in Korea where the natural resources to make wooden chopsticks are limited.[34]

Chopsticks are of course the primary eating utensil favored throughout most of East Asia, although Vietnam and Thailand to a lesser extent. Chopsticks originated in China, where Confucius claimed their use inhibited men from fighting during meals — indicating the previous utensils were likely belt knives. Japanese chopsticks are typically made of wood or bamboo, although plastic has become more popular over the last couple decades, and porcelain chopsticks are reserved for very special occasions. Japanese chopsticks also have a tendency to be shorter than their Chinese counterpart and taper toward the point, whereas Chinese chopsticks are generally cylindrical.[35]

Beef Udon; Kyoto, Japan

Bowls and plates are typically made of lacquered wood or ceramics of various colors to match the season and mood.[36] And of course, one can’t forget the beloved bentō box.

Bentō is the much higher quality and higher maintenance Japanese equivalent of the American brown paper bag lunch. The beautiful containers in which bentō is packed are just as important as what is inside. The bentō is said to be eaten by the eye and not the mouth, and as such, the crafting of these edible pieces of art place pressure on the people who make them — mainly, housewives and mothers. “In the world of kindergarten, a bentō becomes a legitimate and crucial symbol of whether or not motherly affection is genuine.”[37] This is a good Segway into the next section.

Commensality: Artistic Presentation and Ritual Etiquette

Mango Raspberry Cake; Osaka, Japan

Food presentation in Japan is ritualistic, and people go to painstaking efforts to achieve perfection.[38] “The Japanese belief that ‘man eats with his eyes as well as his mouth’ is demonstrated by the place setting of a typical five-course family dinner. The portions are delicate, and the colors, shapes, and textures are as carefully balanced as the flavors.”[39]

This ritualization of food presentation is a result of the old Japanese practice of haikai. Haikai was a popular social activity involving poetry and art; but really, it was more than just an activity — it was a way of life. Haikai was heavily influenced by the beauty of nature. Per this tradition, sight, sound, and smell were considered elegant sensations, as they were more easily exemplified by the four seasons; however, taste was found to be vulgar. It was in the Edo period (1603–1868) that a shift of opinion occurred, and soon the preparation and presentation of food became a significant part of the Japanese culture. A wide array of foods were seasonalized in haikai. It is for this reason that so many seasonal Japanese words are derived from food.[40]

The seasonalization of food is also spiritually significant. “Eating egg soup and eating strawberries in season may not be a mystical experience for us, but by responding to the rhythm of the seasons, the Japanese unite themselves with the divine forces of the universe.”[41] It also explains why it is common to have certain elements of a meal be inedible and only for decoration. These inedible pieces are purely aesthetic and are placed to emphasize whatever season it is at the time and thus create a mood. For example, in autumn, a maple leaf might be floated in a bowl of soup, and the color of the ceramic or lacquered wood in which it is served will also be considered.

Color is an incredibly important facet in the presentation of a Japanese meal, not just in regard to the dishes, but in regard to the food itself. After retiring from the Ministry of Public Welfare, Kondo Toshiko, a nutritionist and former bureaucrat who founded the Association for the Improvement of Nutrition in 1953, created a system called the tricolor movement. The tricolor movement was aimed at promoting eating balanced and attractive meals. Each color represented a category of food. Red being protein to form blood and muscles, yellow for carbohydrates and oils to supply strength and maintain body temperature, and green for fruits and vegetables, to promote fitness.[42] Additionally, “…color combinations of foods were used to evoke a sense of patriotism during wartime, as exemplified by the National Flag Bentō (hinomaru bentō) that places a red pickled apricot (umeboshi) in the center of white boiled rice to represent the Japanese flag.”[43]

Portions are another important point to consider. While Japanese food is usually served in in small portions, there are enough of them to approach an average Western meal in all.[44] It’s becoming more and more common for Americans to eat just one course for their dinner, at least on a normal day. In Japan, this would be unheard of. The concept of a heaping Sloppy Joe for dinner would likely be repulsive to a Japanese person for more than one reason, despite the fact that many Americans consider it a comfort food.

The Japanese equivalent of American comfort food would likely be furusato no aji, or ‘the taste of native place.’ “‘The taste of native place’ is a nostalgic reference to foods that evoke the warm human networks, local traditions, and healthful environments associated with quintessential old villages in Japan.”[45]

On the opposite end of the spectrum though would be the famous kaiseki cuisine, commonly known to be the food served at a traditional Japanese tea ceremony. Kaiseki is more or less the Japanese equivalent of the French haute cuisine. Many restaurants claim to serve kaiseki, but it is said that unless the food is served in accompaniment with the tea ceremony, one is missing out on the full esthetic experience. The roots of the tea ceremony date back to the 13th century when Buddhist monks would drink tea ceremonially during their devotions.[46]

“The tea ceremony remains to this day a cultural ideal that has to do with how people live and what they consider important. It is concerned with tea, of course, and with food, but it is also concerned with the setting in which the two are served — the room, the plates, the utensils — and with the manners and conversation of the participants.”[47]

“Every aspect of their lives, from their amorous affairs to their dining habits, was governed by an almost incredibly elaborate code of etiquette.”[48] There are a ridiculous amount of rules to be followed in traditional Japanese etiquette. One of the most important is to start the meal by thanking the host by saying itadakimasu, and again at the end of the meal with goshisosama. Other various rules are as follows: remove the rice bowl lid with the left and always place it to the left facing upward; remove soup bowl cover with the right hand and always place it to the right; leave a small amount of rice in your bowl to indicate you would like more — never serve yourself; if you are finished, you may not leave even a single grain of rice in your bowl; never, ever, leave your chopsticks sticking directly upward in your rice — this is disrespectful to the dead; never place food with liquid sauces in your rice bowl; and don’t eat any more meat after pickles and tea have been consumed.[49] This is why dining in Japan as a tourist is often dreaded as a very daunting task.

Conclusion

“The Japanese refer to [their cuisine] as sappari — clean, neat, light, sparkling with honesty.”[50] No longer can Japan hide the secrets of their kitchens behind the mysterious and misty Bamboo Curtain.

“The Japanese cuisine that emerged was not xenophobic; rather, it was indicative of the spirit of the times in that it sought to preserve and develop key elements of the past while incorporating foreign foods and modern cooking methods.”[51]

The digitization of information and greater access to the World Wide Web has allowed for the democratization of knowledge on Japanese cuisine. That, in addition to the hundreds of thousands of Japanese cookbooks available for purchase, have spread the love around the globe.

Nachos in Japan? GLADIOS restaurant; Sendai, Japan

Of course, Japan is not the only country which has taken and refined foreign influence in their cuisine. With the democratization of knowledge via the digital revolution, this is something happening all over the world, creating an almost literal global melting pot. However, it’s probably safe to say that most countries also boast a certain pride in their cultural heritage, which will keep traditional recipes alive for centuries to come.

While there will always be political animosity between nations, “The pleasure of good company and good food is something shared among all countries everywhere.”[52] And that notion is something so deeply-rooted in the human spirit that it will likely never change.

Bibliography

Aradmin. “Japanese Dining History.” Asian Recipe. September 8, 2012. Accessed October 24, 2016. http://www.asian-recipe.com/japan/japanese-dining-history.html.

Jacob, Jeanne, and Michael Ashkenazi. The World Cookbook for Students. Vol. 3. Iraq to Myanmar. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing, 2007.

“Japan.” Food in Every Country. Accessed October 24, 2016. http://www.foodbycountry.com/Germany-to-Japan/Japan.html.

Naomichi, Ishige. “Food: Another Perspective on Japanese Cultural History.” Nipponia, March 15, 2006.

“Ramen Explained.” Everything Explained. Accessed October 24, 2016. http://everything.explained.today/Ramen/.

Rath, Eric C., and Stephanie Assmann, eds. Japanese Foodways Past & Present. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, 2010.

Shirane, Haruo. Japan and the Culture of the Four Seasons: Nature, Literature, and the Arts. New York City, NY: Columbia University Press, 2012.

Slack, Susan Fuller. Japanese Cooking For the American Table: The Complete Guide to Preparing Classic Japanese Cuisine with Basic Cooking Instructions. New York City, NY: Berkley Publishing Group, 1996.

Spacey, John. “29 Japanese Street Foods.” Japan Talk. June 15, 2009. Accessed November 1, 2016. http://www.japan-talk.com/jt/new/japanese-street-food.

Steinberg, Rafael. The Cooking of Japan. Foods of the World. New York City, NY: Time-Life Books, 1969.

“The Moon Rabbit in Legend and Culture.” Owlcation. August 16, 2016. Accessed November 1, 2016. https://owlcation.com/social-sciences/moon-rabbit.

Thring, Oliver. “Consider Sushi.” The Guardian. July 26, 2011. Accessed November 1, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2011/jul/26/consider-sushi.

Tsuji, Shizuo, and Koichiro Hata. Practical Japanese Cooking: Easy and Elegant. New York City, NY: Kodansha America, 1986.

“What Is Wagyu?” American Wagyu Association. Accessed November 01, 2016. http://wagyu.org/breed-info/what-is-wagyu/.

[1] Steinberg, Rafael. The Cooking of Japan. Foods of the World. (New York City, NY: Time-Life Books, 1969), 12.

[2] Ibid, 13.

[3] Rath, Eric C., and Stephanie Assmann, eds. Japanese Foodways Past & Present. (Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, 2010), 7.

[4] Steinberg. The Cooking of Japan, 16.

[5] Shirane, Haruo. Japan and the Culture of the Four Seasons: Nature, Literature, and the Arts. (New York City, NY: Columbia University Press, 2012), 184.

[6] Tsuji, Shizuo, and Koichiro Hata. Practical Japanese Cooking: Easy and Elegant. (New York City, NY: Kodansha America, 1986), 7.

[7] “Japan.” Food in Every Country. Accessed October 24, 2016. http://www.foodbycountry.com/Germany-to-Japan/Japan.html.

[8] Tsuji. Practical Japanese Cooking, 148.

[9] Rath. Japanese Foodways Past & Present, 9.

[10] Ibid, 228.

[11] “Japan.” Food in Every Country.

[12] “What Is Wagyu?” American Wagyu Association. Accessed November 01, 2016. http://wagyu.org/breed-info/what-is-wagyu/.

[13] Naomichi, Ishige. “Food: Another Perspective on Japanese Cultural History.” Nipponia, March 15, 2006.

[14] Shirane. Japan and the Culture of the Four Seasons, 13.

[15] Ibid, 160.

[16] Aradmin. “Japanese Dining History.” Asian Recipe. September 8, 2012. Accessed October 24, 2016. http://www.asian-recipe.com/japan/japanese-dining-history.html.

[17] Jacob, Jeanne, and Michael Ashkenazi. The World Cookbook for Students. Vol. 3. Iraq to Myanmar. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing, 2007), 31.

[18] Naomichi, Ishige. “Food: Another Perspective on Japanese Cultural History.” Nipponia, March 15, 2006.

[19] Rath. Japanese Foodways Past & Present, 195.

[20] Ibid, 189.

[21] Ibid, 186.

[22] “Ramen Explained.” Everything Explained. Accessed October 24, 2016. http://everything.explained.today/Ramen/

[23] Rath. Japanese Foodways Past & Present, 197.

[24] Shirane. Japan and the Culture of the Four Seasons, 161.

[25] “The Moon Rabbit in Legend and Culture.” Owlcation. August 16, 2016. Accessed November 1, 2016. https://owlcation.com/social-sciences/moon-rabbit.

[26] Steinberg. The Cooking of Japan, 85.

[27] Thring, Oliver. “Consider Sushi.” The Guardian. July 26, 2011. Accessed November 1, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2011/jul/26/consider-sushi.

[28] Ibid

[29] Tsuji. Practical Japanese Cooking, 110.

[30] Thring, Oliver. “Consider Sushi.” The Guardian.

[31] Spacey, John. “29 Japanese Street Foods.” Japan Talk. June 15, 2009. Accessed November 1, 2016. http://www.japan-talk.com/jt/new/japanese-street-food.

[32] Rath. Japanese Foodways Past & Present, 275

[33] Ibid, 276–277.

[34] Steinberg. The Cooking of Japan, 50.

[35] Jacob, Jeanne, and Michael Ashkenazi. The World Cookbook for Students. Vol. 3. Iraq to Myanmar. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing, 2007), 30.

[36] Ibid

[37] Rath. Japanese Foodways Past & Present, 210.

[38] Ibid, 202.

[39] Steinberg. The Cooking of Japan, 110.

[40] Shirane. Japan and the Culture of the Four Seasons, 183.

[41] Steinberg. The Cooking of Japan, 26.

[42] Rath. Japanese Foodways Past & Present, 207–208.

[43] Ibid, 9.

[44] Steinberg. The Cooking of Japan, 8.

[45] Rath. Japanese Foodways Past & Present, 229.

[46] Steinberg. The Cooking of Japan, 137.

[47] Ibid, 138.

[48] Ibid, 17.

[49] Slack, Susan Fuller. Japanese Cooking For the American Table: The Complete Guide to Preparing Classic Japanese Cuisine with Basic Cooking Instructions. (New York City, NY: Berkley Publishing Group, 1996), 6–7.

[50] Steinberg. The Cooking of Japan, 10.

[51] Rath. Japanese Foodways Past & Present, 7.

[52] Tsuji. Practical Japanese Cooking, 7.

All photos were taken by myself during my semester abroad in Japan.

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Miranda Suarez

A writer fond of video games, poetry, tattoos, Japanese culture, and cats.

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