Keywords

22.1 Introduction

Since the prehistoric era, plants are considered as a big treasure for managing health problems. For example, Hippocrates said “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food” and he pointed at the plants in this sentence. Since the industrial revolution, human beings are seeking to find new raw materials for designing effective drugs (Khan et al. 2021). In this sense, many raw materials from nature for drugs have been discovered and they have been marketed in the pharmacy shelf. However, because the fact has been restricted by several reasons such as increasing population, high cost, or short shelf life, synthetics have been still popular in the applications. Recent studies have shown that the utilization of synthetics is linked to several health problems in the long term and human beings have to find alternative raw materials to replace synthetic ones. Taken together, in the twenty-first century, scientists have focused on novel and effective compounds from nature, especially plants to find potential compounds (Atanasov et al. 2021; Mathur and Hoskins 2017; Newman and Cragg 2016). In this sense, the discovery of artemisinin is considered as a cornerstone and this case is encouraging the scientist to more focus on nature (Su and Miller 2015).

The Hyoscyamus genus is an important genus of the family Solanaceae and the genus is represented by 17 species worldwide, especially Asia, Europe, and North Africa (Akbar 2020). The name of Hyoscyamus (Henbane) is derived from the Anglo-Saxon Hen (chicken) and Bana (murderer); when fowls consumed the plants (especially seeds), they got paralyzed and died (Haas 1995). Generally, the members of Hyoscyamus are known as toxic plants and even small levels can lead to significant anticholinergic effects such as dizziness and delirium (Akbar 2020). In Greek ancient times, the plants were known as narcotic plants. In this sense, more attention need to be given while consuming the plants or their preparations. H. niger is the most known species in the genus and it is 30–80 cm tall with 15–20 cm alternate leaves (Fig. 22.1). Flowers have lurid yellow corolla and densely hairy calyx. The plants have flowering time from April to August (Akbar 2020). In ethnobotanical views, the members of Hyocysamus, especially H. niger, have been widely used as traditional purposes such as stomachache, asthma, neuralgia, and sedative. Phytochemical studies have indicated that alkaloids especially tropane alkaloids (hyoscyamine and scopolamine) are the main secondary metabolites in the Hyoscyamus genus and the above-mentioned effects could be attributed to the presence of alkaloids (A Sajeli Begum et al. 2009; S. Begum et al. 2010; Sengupta et al. 2011). This chapter gives a quick overview of medicinal and nutraceutical properties of H. niger. Furthermore, current information and applications with H. niger have been explored. This chapter will provide a new scientific starting point on H. niger.

Fig. 22.1
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Hyoscyamus niger in the flowering season

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22.2 Origin, Distribution, and Local Names

It is believed that Hyoscyamus niger is originated in northern hemisphere, especially Asia, Europe, and north Africa. This distribution is shown in Fig. 22.2. The plant has a large distribution in different environment such as wayside, waste places, sandy or arid soils, and high altitude (as 3000 m above of sea level). Some records have indicated that the plants have been distributed from Europe to other continents, namely Asia and north Africa (Akbar 2020).

Fig. 22.2
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Distribution of Hyoscyamus niger in the world. (Green: Native; Purple: Cultivated) (http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:815932-1#source-KBD)

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The plant is known by different names in the worldwide. Henbane is the most common name and other names from different language are listed below (Akbar 2020):

  • Arabic name: Bazrul-banj

  • Czech name: Blin cerny

  • Finish name: Hullulkaali

  • Germanic name: Schwarzes bilsenkraut

  • Italian name: Alterco

  • French name: Hannebane

  • Russian name: Belena ernaja

  • Turkish name: Ban otu

22.3 Ethnobotanical Uses

The Hyoscyamus genus has great potential in terms of ethnobotanical and traditional uses. Since the ancient Greek era, H. niger has been used to alleviate toothache and manage sleep disorders, including insomnia. Also, the plant is known as an important anesthetic for the respiratory systems and mental disorders. Because of the anesthetic effects, the plant was usually used in religious rites in the ancient area (Fatur 2020). Ethnobotanical studies have reported different uses for H. niger and they are summarized in Table 22.1. The uses have been indicated as a large variation from heavy coughs to manic psychosis. In addition, the plant has been also recommended by several researchers for urinary problems, rheumatoid, and dental pains. The above-mentioned large ethnobotanical uses of H. niger could be explained by its analgesic, antispasmodic, sedative, anticonvulsant, antimuscarinic, and contraceptive effects. As can be seen in Table 22.1, seeds of H. niger are the most used parts and followed by flowers and leaves. Kunwar et al. (2021) have reviewed the ethnobotanical uses and phytochemical composition of H. niger in Himalayas and they have reported several uses including diphtheria, spams of bladder, some tumors (cervix, rectum, or urethra), Parkinson disease, and diarrhea.

Table 22.1 Ethnobotanical uses of Hyoscyamus niger
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nm: not mentioned.

22.4 Phytochemistry

In the phytochemical studies, the Hyoscyamus genus is rich in terms of alkaloids, especially hyoscyamine and scopolamine. Most of pharmacological effects of the members of this genus can be linked to the presence of these compounds. These compounds are shown in Fig. 22.3. The leaves of H. niger contain different levels of alkaloids (0.012–0.161% dry weight) and several studies have been performed to increase the levels of alkaloids. In addition to alkaloids, several compounds, including rutin, vanillic acid, β-sitosterol, withanolides, or lignanamides, are isolated from H. niger seeds. Bahmanzadegan et al. (2009) investigated hyoscyamine and scopolamine levels of four Hyoscyamus species and their levels were the highest in seeds when compared with leaf, stem, and roots. In addition, atropine content in the seeds of H. niger was found to be 0.004% w/w in an earlier paper (Pundarikakshudu et al. 2019). Jan, Kamili, Parray, Bedi, and Ahmad et al. (2016) investigated the levels of tropane alkaloids of H. niger at two different sites and hyoscyamine was the main component (4.7–5.6 mg/g extract) in these locations (Table 22.2).

Fig. 22.3
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Several compounds isolated from H. niger

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Table 22.2 Several compounds isolated from H. niger
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22.5 Biological Activities

H. niger exhibits different biological activities such as spasmolytic, hallucinogenic, sedative, and antidiarrheal properties (Ghorbanpour et al. 2010; Gilani et al. 2008). H. niger extracts or compounds could competitively inhibit acetylcholine and generally muscarinic receptors are more sensitive than nicotinic or ganglionic ones.

Sengupta et al. (2011) investigated antiparkinsonian effect of H. niger seed as well as monoamine oxidase inhibitory (MAO) and hydroxyl radical scavenging potential. Especially, the aqueous methanol extract administration significantly improved motor functions. Also, the extract had promising MAO inhibition and quenching hydroxyl radical scavenging abilities. In the study, the extract was characterized by using HPLC and the presence of hyoscyamine, scopolamine, cleomicosin B, venkatasin, daturalactone4, hyoscyamal, balanophonin, and hyoscyamide was reported. The observed activities might be explained with these compounds.

Reza et al. (2009) tested the methanol extract of H. niger as anticonvulsant activity against picrotaxin-induced mice. In the study, different concentration (12.5–400 mg/kg) extracts were applied and 300 mg/kg dose was noted most active. The extract exhibited remarkable anticonvulsant ability.

Gilani et al. (2008) investigated the spasmolytic, antidiarrheal, antisecretary, branchodilatory, and urinary bladder relaxant abilities of H. niger seed extracts. The extract exhibited remarkable relaxation of spontaneous contractions of rabbit jejunum. Also, the extract displayed a Ca2+ channel blocking mechanism in addition to anticholinergic effect. The extract had antidiarrheal and antisecretory effects in mice. Altogether, the ethnobotanical uses of H. niger were confirmed by this study.

S. Begum et al. (2010) tested anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic activities of H. niger. The methanol extract exhibited remarkable analgesic effects in hot plate. In acute and chronic inflammation process, the extract had great potential. In this study, several compounds were isolated from this extract and cleomiscoin A was noted as an anti-inflammatory compound.

Dulger et al. (2010b) tested antifungal abilities of H. niger seed extract against Candida albicans, C. tropicalis, C. guilliermandii, C. krusei, C. glabrata, C. parapsilosis, and two Cryptococus (C. neoformans and C. laurentii). The extract displayed strong antifungal abilities. Giordani et al. (2020) also confirmed the antifungal effects of H. niger. In addition, Dulger et al. (2010a) examined the antibacterial activities of H. niger seed extract against Bacillus subtilis, B. cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Proteous vulgaris, Salmonella typhimurium, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The extracts displayed significant antibacterial activity on S. aureus. Other bacteria were not affected by the extract. Similar to this study, Turker et al. (2018) reported that H. niger extracts did not exhibit any antibacterial effects.

Zhang et al. (2012) tested phytotoxic effect of lignanamides from H. niger seeds. All lignanamides exhibited remarkable inhibition and germination and radical elongation of Allium fistulosum, especially lignanamide 3 was the most active at 10−4 M concentration.

Deniz et al. (2017) investigated cytotoxic effects of some medicinal plants and one of them was H. niger. The leaves and seeds exhibited moderate cytotoxic effects on A-549, CCC-221, K-562, MCF-7, and PC-3 cell lines. The extract ability ranged from 10% to 30%.

Küpeli Akkol et al. (2020) investigated the insecticidal effect of H. niger on Lucilia sericata and the extract obtained from seed exhibited remarkable activities with those values of 8.04, 8.49, and 7.96 μg/ml in first, second, and third instar, respectively. The authors observed also weak cuticle and small damaged larvae. In their study, hyoscyamine and scopolamine were detected as main compounds and they might be responsible for the observed insecticidal effects.

In a recent study, Kosari et al. (2021) investigated anti-COVID-19 effect of H. niger with propolis. One syrup was prepared and it contained 1.6 g methanolic extract with 450 mg propolis in 10 ml. The syrup decreased COVID-19 clinical symptoms and the authors suggested that H. niger could be a potential agent for designing anti-COVID-19 formulations.

22.6 Toxic Effects

Because of high concentrations of tropane alkaloids, the high concentration of H. niger may result in poisoning. Generally, the central nervous system is affected by these alkaloids and these effects are restlessness, hallucinations, delirium, and manic-depressive attacks. Because all parts of this plant contain significant levels of these alkaloids, especially scopolamine, all parts could be poisoned (Verstraete 2010). In addition, any drying or boiling process could not reduce the alkaloid concentrations and thus the uses of the plant have to be more careful. Animals don’t prefer the leaves of this plant, because the leaves don’t have a good odor, but humans could use the root accidentally and this could result in poisoning (Grieve 1913).

When higher concentration of the plant parts was administered, symptoms including tachycardia, arrhythmia, agitation, convulsion, and coma could be observed (Vidović et al. 2005). In addition, dry mouth, headache, vomiting, blurred vision, and urinary problems could be observed with the administration of toxic levels of the plants.

For example, in Canada, a married couple consumed mistakenly the plant as cooked roots and then they were hospitalized. They had serious effects including mydriasis, urinary problems, hallucinations, and tachycardia and were discharged on day 2 (women) and 3 (men) (Shams et al. 2017). As another example in Croatia, an 18-year-old male consumed the seeds as swallowed and euphoric effects were observed. The man was hospitalized and agitation, vision problems, hallucinations, dry oral mucosa, and incoherent speech were observed. The man was discharged on fourth day (Vidović et al. 2005). In Turkey, an elderly male consumed the leaves as tea and hallucinations and speech problems were observed. The elderly male was hospitalized in intensive care and discharged on the same day (Erkal et al. 2006). Daneshvar et al. (1992) reported 900 patients in a case study and most of them were children. In the study, most of the patients had hallucinations and convulsion as intoxication signs.