Before the pandemic, cruise ships took tourists to some of the most beautiful destinations in the world in ever-increasing numbers.
In 2019, nearly 30 million passengers stepped aboard a cruise ship, almost double the passenger numbers of a decade earlier, according to the Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA).
With the largest cruise ship ever built — a floating city housing more than 9,000 guests and crew — currently cruising the Mediterranean, and Australia lifting its COVID-19-induced cruise ship ban, the industry is confident of a quick recovery.
But behind the dreamy photos and blue horizons lies a less glamorous reality — a growing concern about environmental violations, carbon emissions and the benefits to local economies.
In Vanuatu, one of the largest cruise markets in the South Pacific, a date is yet to be set for the return of international cruises.
When they do return, Tourism Vanuatu wants to see some changes to how international cruise lines operate.
"We would want to see the increase in sales of Vanuatu-made products on the ship … and inclusion of traditional food experiences as part of any tours on offer once cruises return to Vanuatu," Adela Issachar, CEO of the Vanuatu Tourism Office, said.
Ms Issachar said she was excited to see international cruises return to Vanuatu, adding they were an important part of the country's tourism market.
She said Tourism Vanuatu was in discussions with the major cruise lines Carnival Corporation — the owner of P&O Cruises — and Royal Caribbean.
John Connell, professor of human geography at the University of Sydney, said generally cruise ships were "designed to trap the money on board".
However, he said the average spend of tourists who disembarked in Vanuatu and Fiji, the next largest cruise market among Pacific nations, was still significant to these countries' economies.
Loading...Time for a 'new normal'
Professor Connell said now was a good time for countries in the Pacific to establish a "new normal" for the industry for both economic and environmental reasons.
"The regulations are only beginning to emerge as the cruise ship industry hasn't been going all that long in the Pacific," he said.
Johanna Loehr from the Griffith Institute for Tourism said cruise ships were particularly "energy intense".
"The cruise sector is only part of the emissions associated with tourism and transport, [but] cruise ship passengers have a considerably large carbon footprint," Ms Loehr said.
"[Cruise ships are] obviously larger than hotels, and they have to float, and they have to move, and that is just really energy intense."
In 2018 the CLIA, along with the major cruise companies, committed to reducing emissions by 40 per cent – compared to 2008 levels — by 2030 and reaching net-zero by 2050.
According to the CLIA, emission reductions will be achieved through initiatives such as connecting ships to local power grids in ports, switching future vessels to liquefied natural gas (LNG), and installing exhaust gas cleaning systems.
"Cruise lines are investing many billions of dollars in ships that offer greater efficiency and achieve significant emission reductions," Joel Katz, managing director of CLIA Australasia, said.
"We're also seeing investment and joint ventures in future alternative fuels and power sources like biofuel, methanol, ammonia, hydrogen, and electric batteries."
Mr Katz added the NSW government had recently announced a partnership with cruise lines and other maritime organisations to introduce shore power facilities at Sydney's White Bay Cruise Terminal, powered by renewable electricity.
A spokesperson for Carnival Corporation said while none of its three P&O vessels travelling Australia and the South Pacific could use LNG fuel, they could use shore power when docked.
However, there were no ports in the region currently equipped to provide this service, they said.
Dr Loehr said LNG should only be seen as "a stepping stone to more environmentally friendly and more efficient fuels".
"Also, when we talk about targets … we need the sector to achieve a net reduction," she said.
"They're really not focused on net reduction, but on the reductions that are achieved on a per passenger or per kilometre base … that then still allows for the total footprint of the sector to grow."
But carbon is not the only consideration when looking at the environmental impact of cruise ships.
'Pay their fines then violations start again'
Marcie Keever, director of Friends of the Earth's ocean and vessels project, has been watching the cruise industry in the United States since its rapid growth in the early 2000s.
"We saw all of these cruise companies getting cited by the federal government for pollution," Ms Keever said.
"They would pay their fines, and then once they're off federal probation, the violations would start again, the most recent example of that is Carnival Corporation."
In January, the Associated Press reported Princess Cruises, a subsidiary of Carnival Corporation, pleaded guilty in a Miami federal court to violating its probation in relation to previous environmental crimes.
"The corporate defendant here ignored the court, choosing instead to thwart the compliance plan that was put in place to protect our environment," US attorney for the Southern District of Florida Juan Antonio Gonzalez said in a statement.
In 2017, Princess Cruises was fined $US40 million ($55.6 million) after pleading guilty to charges stemming from its deliberate dumping of oil-contaminated waste from one of its vessels and intentional acts to cover it up.
Two years later, the company was convicted of six probation violations and fined an additional $US20 million.
Ms Keever said she wanted to see increased monitoring of the industry and stronger regulations established in the US and internationally to protect marine environments and residents near ports from pollution.
A Carnival Corporation spokesperson did not respond directly to the ABC's question about the legacy of violations in the US but did say the company was building on its history of strong achievements in decarbonisation.
"Our carbon footprint [peaked] more than a decade ago, we have delivered a significant reduction in carbon intensity through 2019," the spokesperson said.
"[We] have also made great strides in our circular economy focus area through food waste and single-use plastic reductions, which are now tracking well ahead of our goals."
The ABC also approached Royal Caribbean Cruises for comment on its progress to reduce carbon emissions and its environmental footprint.
A spokesperson for the organisation said its efforts were outlined in its 'Seastainability' report.
In Vanuatu, a committee has been established to "better manage the cruise tourism segment under sustainable tourism principles", Geraldine Tari, acting director of the Vanuatu Department of Tourism, said.
Ms Tari said strengthening the legislation around maritime environmental protection and cruise ship capacity would benefit the industry in the long term.
She said the current focus was on finalising standard operating procedures for the cruise industry before borders reopened.
Ms Tari added Vanuatu was expanding its focus to expedition and yachting tourism "as a way to redress the social, economic and environmental challenges of cruise tourism".
A spokesperson for Carnival Corporation said P&O Cruises Australia had "a deep relationship with the people of Vanuatu and, prior to COVID, had demonstrated its commitment to finding ways to share the economic benefits of the industry".
"P&O Cruises Australia is the only cruise line that has a Vanuatu enterprise as part of its supply chain," the spokesperson said, adding they bought handcrafted dark chocolate from the country.