Rehabilitation
The most recently formulated theory of punishment is that of rehabilitation—the idea that the purpose of punishment is to apply treatment and training to the offender so that he is made capable of returning to society and functioning as a law-abiding member of the community. Established in legal practice in the 19th century, rehabilitation was viewed as a humane alternative to retribution and deterrence, though it did not necessarily result in an offender receiving a more lenient penalty than he would have received under a retributive or deterrent philosophy. In many cases rehabilitation meant that an offender would be released on probation under some condition; in other cases it meant that he would serve a relatively longer period in custody to undergo treatment or training. One widely used instrument of rehabilitation in the United States was the indeterminate sentence, under which the length of detention was governed by the degree of reform the offender exhibited while incarcerated.
Although rehabilitation was widely criticized in the United States in the 1970s, it gained greater acceptance once research in the 1980s and ’90s demonstrated that a carefully implemented rehabilitation program could reduce recidivism. Critics nonetheless objected to rehabilitation and sentencing programs that gave significant discretion to the prison administrator, who could decide to release or further detain an offender depending on his assessment of the offender’s progress (which could itself be vaguely defined). At issue were cases in which this authority led to gross abuses, such as the lengthy detention of an offender guilty of only a minor crime, simply because of his inability or refusal to adopt a subservient attitude toward prison officials or other persons in positions of authority.
Theories in conflict
In the practical operation of a sentencing or penal system, theories of punishment often come into conflict. A lenient sentence (such as probation) designed to rehabilitate an offender may fail to express society’s rejection of the behaviour or to provide an effective deterrent to others; a sentence that requires the offender to submit to a compulsory program of treatment or training for a long period may conflict with the idea of retribution as a limiting principle (a constraint on excessive or unfair punishment); a sentence of unusual severity, designed to make an example of the offender as a warning to others, conflicts with the principles of rehabilitation and proportionality; and a sentence whose object is incapacitation may fail to satisfy those who favour rehabilitation and proportionality. The operation of any sentencing system requires officials to choose between different theories in different cases; no single theory provides a system suitable for all cases.
Punishment in non-Western societies
Punishment in Islamic law
Starting in the 19th century, most Muslim countries adopted Western criminal codes patterned after French, Swiss, or English systems of justice. Traditional Islamic law (Sharīʿah) divides crimes into two general categories. Several serious offenses, known as ḥadd crimes, are specifically mentioned, along with their appropriate penalties, in the Qurʾān; the ḥadd punishment for theft, for example, was amputation of a hand. In practice, however, many such punishments are mitigated by social and political constraints. Thus, a person who is caught stealing might negotiate a lenient punishment by offering to pay for the item in question, often at a much higher price.
Most other offenses in Islamic law are called taʿzīr crimes (discretionary crimes), and their punishment is left to the discretion of the qāḍī (judge), whose options are often limited to traditional forms (imprisonment or corporal punishment) but who may also feel obliged to enforce punishments dictated by local customs and mores. The imposition of fines is a traditional punishment that has grown more common in some areas.
Murder within Islamic societies has traditionally been treated not as a crime against the people but as a dispute between family or tribal groups. The murdered man’s kin might demand the death of the malefactor (they might even carry out the execution themselves), but they may also settle for diyah (wergild; literally, “man payment”) at a rate determined by social convention. Such arrangements reflect the general belief in Islamic societies that the life of the individual belongs to the group rather than to the individual himself or to society as a whole.
Within many Islamic countries the extra-judicial killing of persons by members of their own families for real or perceived moral infractions has been relatively common. Such “honour killings” are in fact violations of both civil and Islamic law, but perpetrators frequently use religious reasons to defend their actions, thereby giving the crime a veneer of justification. Murders of this type are seldom punished, particularly when they involve the alleged sexual transgressions of a female, but when punishment is mandated, the sentences are generally light.
Asia
After the communists took power in China in 1949, the chief goal of criminal punishment in the country became reform. This policy was founded, according to authoritative Chinese criminal-law textbooks, on the historical mission of the proletariat to reform society and humanity. The notion that an offender incurs a debt to society that can be paid merely by serving a prison term was alien to Chinese penology. Because the state was keenly interested in changing the offender’s thinking, imprisonment was generally accompanied by labour and political study.
The primacy of reform over deterrence changed in the 1970s, when China began to decentralize sectors of its economy. The resulting economic liberalization was accompanied by substantial increases in crime, to which the government responded with a series of deterrence campaigns based on swift, certain, and public punishments. Notwithstanding these efforts, which had limited success, China’s imprisonment rate remained moderate. The country applied the death penalty widely, executing thousands of people every year—far more than the combined annual sum of executions occurring in other countries.
Other Asian countries exhibited very different patterns. Japan maintained a very low crime rate and one of the lowest imprisonment rates in the world, though some moderate increases in the severity of punishments, including incarceration, created conditions of overcrowding in its prisons starting in the 1990s. Singapore maintained a severe criminal code and a very high imprisonment rate despite having a very low crime rate. Indonesia, the most populous country in Southeast Asia, also imposed harsh penalties for many crimes, including the death penalty for drug trafficking. South Korea had a low crime rate and a moderate imprisonment rate, and it placed some emphasis on thought reform in its prisons. In the early 21st century Hong Kong was unique in housing the largest proportion of female prisoners worldwide: more than 20 percent of the total prison population was female, compared with a global average of about 5 percent.
Effectiveness of punishment
There is considerable controversy over the effectiveness of punishment in reducing crime. For example, most researchers have failed to find any systematic relationship between crime rates and imprisonment rates: it is equally probable for regions with high imprisonment rates to have high or low crime rates, while increases or decreases in rates of imprisonment are equally likely to be followed by increases or decreases in crime, and so on. Thus, the “three strikes” legislation passed in many U.S. states in the 1990s, which imposed mandatory prison sentences after three convictions, was found to have no effect on crime rates. Even the death penalty, as noted above, appears to do little to reduce murder rates, since most jurisdictions that use it (including several U.S. states and various other countries) have substantially higher murder rates than jurisdictions that do not. Among Western industrialized countries, the United States has the highest murder rate and is virtually alone in using the death penalty. The state of Texas accounts for a very high proportion of all executions within the country (roughly half in the early years of the 21st century), yet it has continued to experience relatively high rates of murder and violent crime. In general, criminologists believe that severe punishments are not particularly effective in reducing high crime rates.
David A. Thomas Antony Nicolas Allott Ian David Edge Donald C. Clarke Thomas J. Bernard