“Let’s Talk About Sex”: How Sexual Health Dimensions are Integrated into Verbal Discourses in Teen Dramas Available on Video on Demand

Abstract

This paper examines references to romantic relationships, gender and sexuality (RRGS) in popular teen drama, specifically focusing on the series Sex Education, Euphoria, Thirteen Reasons Why, and Elite. A lexicometric analysis was applied to the transcribed subtitles of these four series. While previous research has identified sexual health messages in subscribing video on demand platforms, their completeness, accuracy, and alignment with prosocial or antisocial behaviours must be questioned. Romantic relationships, gender and sexuality are three dimensions related to sexual health issues tackled in recent TV series. We analysed what specific terms are used to refer to RRGS; and what are the other themes linked to it, in order to determine whether the references convey prosocial or antisocial references, regarding sexual health recommendations. The findings of the study demonstrate RRGS are intricately woven into the overall narrative and are interconnected with various other themes like violence and adolescents’ daily lives. However, TV series often depict a concerning image of sexuality and intimate relationships, indicating a prevalence of antisocial messages in their verbal discourses. Moreover, TV series employs a nuanced and strategic combination of language levels, to establish a sense of legitimacy and proximity with the audience. The study highlights the need for a more balanced approach between prosocial and antisocial presentations of RRGS, in TV series verbal discourses to foster potentially empowering messages in line with sexual health recommendations and entertainment education theories.

Introduction

Since the 1990s, teenagers and young adults have increasingly become key audiences for TV series (Glevarec, 2014; Lacoue, 2023).¹ This shift intensified in the early 2010s² with the rise of subscription Video-on-Demand platforms, offering multi-device access and freeing content from traditional TV constraints (Lotz, 2007, 2022). Contemporary TV series, exploring bold themes like adolescent sexuality, have grown in number and explicitness, often tackling complex sexual topics (Biscarrat, 2019; Bragg & Buckingham, 2009; Brown et al., 1990; Masanet, 2020).³

This paper examines teen dramas, which specifically cater to teenage audiences, delving into their journey to adulthood and their varied life experiences (Boutang, 2013). These shows serve as gateways to deeper questions about life and societal roles (Julier-Costes et al., 2014; Pasquier, 1996). They address various teenage issues, aligning with the World Health Organization's sexual health dimensions: romantic relationships, gender, and sexuality (2021) and are reflected on screen (Gruber & Grube, 2000; Kunkel et al., 1999).⁴ As the directors of the Serie Mania festival, Herszberg and Zielniak, noted, “many teen dramas are distinguished by their focus on sexuality” This leads them to conclude that “coming-of-age narratives about teen sexuality have become a genre in their own right” (Herszberg & Ziemniak, 2021). Moreover, TV series' narrative structure, unfolding over long periods, allows for in-depth exploration of themes linked to intimacy. They convey crucial information and social messages that are pertinent to the daily lives of adolescents (Greenberg et al., 1993). Our research aims to investigate TV series from the perspective of sexual health due to their compelling influence and audience engagement within broadcasting.

Contextualisation: Interdisciplinary Foundations of the Study

This study is anchored in a public health perspective. Hence, our approach explores sexual health concerns within the examined series, acknowledging and investigating them as potential adjunct resources for sustaining sexual health promotion. Sexual health encompasses reproductive health, the prevention of STIs and unplanned pregnancies, as well as the cultivation of healthy and tolerant relationships (among peers, family, and other adults), gender competencies, addressing gender inequality, violence prevention, understanding the influence of values, and considering the significance of culture and law in shaping sexual and relational experiences. Our theoretical background aligns with the UNESCO key concepts of sexual health promotion, advocating for Complete Sexual Education (CSE) (Herat et al., 2018) (“Appendix 1”). Given its broad scope, we have narrowed our focus to three fundamental dimensions of sexual health: romantic relationships, gender, and sexuality (RRGS), which are foundational to all the key concepts.

According to WHO and UNESCO, sexuality must be approached in a positive, tolerant, respectful, and holistic manner, and the promotion of sexual health must foster the development of:

• health-promoting attitudes through the acquisition of personal, civic, and social skills,

• critical thinking skills through the acquisition of a critical view of one's environment, the ability to ask questions and not to take literally mediated values,

• stable knowledge about one’s own body, health, behaviours, and their effects.

In short, it is about helping adolescents and young adults adopt a critical attitude towards their environment by understanding it (UNESCO, 2018). Those institutions advocate for promoting youth prosocial behaviours in relation to sexuality.

Furthermore, this study aligns with an extensive body of research indicating that sexual content on television can shape young viewers' attitudes towards sex and relationships (Brown & Newcomer, 1991; Brown et al., 1990; Huston et al., 1998; Peterson et al., 1991); this alignment draws upon interdisciplinary perspectives, particularly within sexual health promotion, psychology, sociology, and communication studies. While TV series could be a powerful tool for positive learning about sexuality (Strasburger, 1989), they often depict sex in a risk-free manner and overemphasize its role in male–female relationships (Huston et al., 1998; Ward & Rivadeneyra, 1999). However, recent TV series have portrayed negative consequences of sexuality, with a growing number of shows including messages about risk and responsibility (Kunkel et al., 2005). The question now is: how do teen dramas on subscribing video on demand (S-VoD) platforms approach romantic relationships, sexuality, and gender? Teen dramas on platforms offer a more complex portrayal of the initiation of love and sexuality than older TV series and address social issues such as gender identity, economic inequality, and family conflict (e.g., Euphoria, Elite, Sex Education and Thirteen Reasons Why). While older TV series tended to romanticize relationships (Pasquier, 1996), newer ones encourage youth to face the difficulties of adulthood. Moral endings are now darker, and storylines are controversial (Demangeot, 2022; Evans et al., 2021). The importance of faithfulness is now negotiated with issues like violence, addiction, responsibility, and health (Berridge, 2010, 2013b; Yu et al., 2023). Moreover, contemporary TV series extend beyond American productions. In our study, we scrutinize four distinct series: two American (Euphoria and 13 Reasons Why), one British (Sex Education), and one Spanish (Elite). Notably, while these series originate from different cultural contexts, they all remain rooted in Western culture. Nevertheless, each have distinctive approach to addressing themes such as RRGS influenced by the country culture (Agocha et al., 2014).

Literature Review and Research Justification

This study follows previous research examining sexual content in teen dramas. However, most of them have predominantly concentrated on traditional television⁵ (Dillman Carpentier et al., 2017; Gruber & Grube, 2000; Malacane & Martins, 2017; Strasburger, 1989), thereby neglecting an essential aspect of contemporary adolescent media consumption, namely Video-on-Demand (VoD) platform productions. Although recent studies exploring the content of TV series on VoD platforms exist, they rely on a close reading of the scenarios and/or audiovisual content and are guided by a research question (Aruah, 2021; Maes & Vandenbosch, 2022; Yu et al., 2023). As a consequence, most of them choose some episodes, focus on one season, or concentrate on one TV series. Only Yu's paper provides a detailed analysis of audio transcripts from all seasons of eight adolescent-oriented series (seasons available at the time of the analysis, in 2019). However, our study, based on a lexicometric analysis of the English subtitles of fourteen dramas, offers the possibility to take a step back and provide global perspectives on the structure of verbal discourses in TV series. Lexicometry analysis involves examining textual data to reveal patterns, relationships, and structures present in the text. By identifying and categorizing these patterns, researchers can delve into the semantic associations and distributions of words, facilitating the extraction of meaning and insights from extensive textual datasets.

Concentrating on the spoken language in TV series is an intentional and selective choice. However, the authors acknowledge this aspect should not be considered separately from the overall, multimodal composition of TV series, which are intricate works combining audio and visual elements. Despite this, focusing specifically on the text is particularly relevant for discussions of sexual health. Sexuality often remains a taboo subject and is sometimes challenging to express in words. Media representations, including those in TV series or even pornography, play a significant role in shaping our perceptions of sexuality (Arnett, 2002; Brey, 2018). However, these media portrayals frequently fall short in providing in-depth discussion or verbalization of these issues. Yet, such verbalization is crucial, as it forms a key component in promoting sexual health. Recent TV series, by openly addressing themes related to sexual health, particularly RRGS, help to articulate these often unspoken topics and encourage dialogue (Brey, 2018). They provide a framework for young people (and adults) to discuss these subjects. This is the underlying assumption of our study.

One distinguishing feature of this study is its grounding in public health principles. We propose that references to RRGS (romantic relationships, gender, and sexuality) in TV series may align with the concepts and values articulated in the World Health Organization's definition of sexual health, potentially disseminating information consistent with UNESCO's fundamental concepts of sexual health. However, they can also perpetuate preconceived notions, stereotypes, and contribute to the continuum of violence and inequalities. TV series can serve a preventive role by functioning as cautionary tales, presenting both positive and negative experiences.

In this paper, positive experiences are identified through prosocial references, which reflect socially desirable behaviours that benefit oneself, others, or society (Lowery & DeFleur, 1995) and align with recommendations. On the other hand, negative experiences are referred to through antisocial references, encompassing socially undesirable or harmful behaviour that can have adverse impacts on oneself, others, or society (Zinovyeva et al., 2020). Antisocial references encompass various forms, including insults, threats, personal attacks, the use of harmful, rude, or offensive language, and instances of abuse depicted in TV series.

This study forms a part of a broader exploration of the potential of TV series as tools for promoting the sexual health of young people. It represents an initial comprehensive approach that offers a global overview, revealing the intersections of sexual health topics (RRGS) with other significant themes prevalent in adolescent-oriented series. Ultimately, our goal is to understand how TV series could be harnessed to promote youth sexual health.

In light of this, the objective of this paper is to investigate how adolescent TV series reference RRGS. Specifically, we aim to analyse the subtitle transcriptions of a sample of four series to address three key questions: (1) What specific terms are employed to refer to RRGS? (2) What themes are associated with these references? (3) Do the subtitles predominantly convey prosocial or antisocial representations of RRGS concerning sexual health recommendations?

Method

The present study is based on a lexicometry analysis of English subtitle transcriptions from four popular series among young people in France. The aim is to examine the extent to which topics related to sexual health are addressed in the verbal discourses. Lexicometry analysis is a statistical method used to study and analyse large bodies of text. It involves employing software to process and scrutinize textual data, with the objective of uncovering patterns. This analysis focuses on the co-occurrence of words. By identifying and categorizing patterns, lexicometry analysis aids in comprehending how terms relate to each other, thereby revealing underlying structures and themes within the text. This method enables researchers to extract meaning and insights from extensive textual datasets. However, it's important to note that this text-based approach is incomplete, as it overlooks significant aspects of the series, including audiovisual elements, motion, and the range of emotions and connotations that can arise from actors' interpretations, sound, and other factors. While quantitative and statistical methods facilitated by lexicometry have their limitations, they can serve as valuable complements to a comprehensive analysis of these works. By situating them within their broader context, through close examination of each TV series, this approach aids in exploring the verbal dimensions of the themes of sexuality presented in these series.

The Sample

Selection of the Sample

Previous studies have shown that sexual health topics are mainly featured in shows that highlight related topics in their synopsis (Tauty et al., 2021). Therefore, the authors have chosen to focus on TV series that directly address sexual health dimensions. Since the number of popular teen dramas dealing with these topics available in France on S-VoD platforms was too extensive, four series were selected using a criteria grid (“Appendix 2”). According to this grid, series must be recent fictional works featuring adolescent characters, targeting TYA (adolescents and young adults), addressing issues related to sexuality, romantic relationships, and gender, and must be available on S-VoD platforms. Their popularity was then determined based on their presence on various pop2019ularity lists on the internet. Finally, four shows were selected: Sex Education (by Laurie Nunn, 2019–2023), Euphoria (by Sam Levinson, 2019-), Thirteen Reasons Why (by Bryan Workey, 2017–2020) and Elite (by Carlos Montero and Dario Madrona, 2018-).

Presentation of the Sample

Sex Education is a British coming-of-age comedy-drama series that follows the life of Otis Milburn, a socially awkward teenager with a sex therapist mother. Together with his rebellious classmate Maeve Wiley, Otis provides their fellow students with sex education and relationship advice, leading to humorous and heartwarming situations. The show blends humour, teenage struggles, and important discussions about sex and relationships.

Elite is a Spanish teen drama thriller set in a prestigious Spanish private school. The series explores the lives of wealthy students and the arrival of three working-class teenagers who disrupt the social hierarchy. Elite delves into murder mysteries, love triangles, and the secrets hidden beneath the surface. It's known for its high-stakes drama, complex characters, and suspenseful storyline.

13 Reasons Why is an American drama mystery from Jay Asher’s book. The series revolves around the aftermath of a high school student named Hannah Baker's suicide. Through a series of cassette tapes she left behind, she explains the reasons that led to her decision, affecting the lives of her classmates as they grapple with guilt, secrets, and the search for truth. The show tackles sensitive topics like bullying and mental health, sparking important conversations.

Euphoria is an American adaptation of an Israëli drama coming-of-age series that portrays the lives of a group of high school students as they navigate the challenges of drugs, sex, identity, and trauma. The series is known for its visually stunning cinematography and raw portrayal of adolescent struggles. It stands out for its visually captivating scenes, bold storytelling, and a strong ensemble cast.

Data Analysis

We collected the subtitles’ transcriptions of the full series episodes into one file per series.⁶ The texts were coded, with episodes separated by season, resulting in a corpus of 24 texts for SE,⁷ 32 texts for Elite,⁸ 48 texts for 13RW,⁹ 16 texts for Euphoria.¹⁰ Each series was analysed using its English subtitles, including Elite, which is originally in Spanish, to maintain the coherence of the corpus, as different languages convey unique meanings and cultural elements.

We conducted an analysis of the transcriptions using a quantitative content analysis method, assisted by the Iramuteq software. This software, developed by Pierre Ratinaud (Ratinaud & Déjean, 2009; Ratinaud & Marchand, 2012), is designed for analyzing texts and questionnaires. It performs automatic language analysis by reducing words to their lexical root or lemmas (e.g., sex, sexual, sexuality are grouped under the lemma sex). These lemmas are linguistic units. First, the text underwent lemmatization. Then, the text was divided into context units (classes), composed of linguistic units (lists of words), based on their frequency of occurrence. We employed a Descending Hierarchical Classification (DHC) following Reinert's method description (1983), which has previously proven to be effective in capturing social representations (Aubert-Lotarski & Capdevielle-Mougnibas, 2002; Kalampalikis & Moscovici, 2005). To reveal salient meaning, co-occurrence calculations were performed (Leblanc, 2015), as repetition in verbal discourse holds significance for speakers (Lejeune, 2010; Montalescot et al., 2021). Only content words such as nouns and verbs were considered for constructing classes, while grammatical words like articles and pronouns were treated as complementary. In the second phase, Iramuteq computed the links between classes and words expressing grammatical relations to maintain verbal discourse consistency. The DHC method reorganized the text into classes (groups of words), which can be further analysed in terms of social representations and patterns (Jodelet, 2006).

So, the lexicometry analysis enables us to associate groups of words (linguistic units) and form classes (context units) that can be employed to describe which subjects are most prominent in the narratives and their interconnections. This facilitates the identification of the frequency of appearance of RRGS by analysing the vocabulary and the related subjects to which these topics are integrated. To achieve this, researchers applied an interpretive process through brainstorming to analyse the classes. An iterative process was implemented to develop themes emerging from the analysis of the classes. From these classes, researchers aimed to derive meaning and discern what the groups of words convey, ultimately identifying the underlying subject matter. To minimize the influence of the principal researcher's representations (Thomas, 2006), a group of 11 researchers from different disciplines was assembled for the interpretative process.¹¹ Some participants had prior experience watching the shows, while others did not. During the brainstorming sessions, each class was individually examined. The researchers shared their thoughts and associations related to the classes. Following that, the main ideas were summarized, further discussed, and challenged to establish a common understanding. In a subsequent phase, each class was assigned a name that captured its overarching concept. After completing this analysis, the researchers validated the findings by engaging two volunteer classes of high school students in the same interpretative process. After an hour of brainstorming, their collective understanding of the classes closely aligned with that of the researchers, confirming the relevance of the interpretation.¹²

Results

The findings presented are primarily based on lexicometry analysis. However, to enhance our understanding, we have incorporated insights gained from an overall viewing of the series and from supplementary sources such as interviews with the showrunners in the media. This integration of different perspectives ensures that the results, which might be less informative when viewed in isolation, are placed in a more meaningful context. By situating the lexicometry findings within the broader narrative and thematic framework of each series, we not only achieve a deeper understanding of the analytical method but also acknowledge the multimodal essence of the series. This approach enables a more nuanced comprehension of both the lexicometry data and the series themselves.

Before conducting lexicometry analysis on each series' subtitle transcriptions, the subtitles from all series were compiled into a single corpus to analyse the frequency of linguistic units, providing insights into the prominence of RRGS in the verbal discourse of these four series. Focusing specifically on terms directly related to RRGS,¹³ our analysis revealed love as the most frequently occurring word in this context,¹⁴ with 1,339 instances across all series. This is followed by sex, with 435 occurrences, and kiss, appearing 223 times. Notably, love also ranks as the twelfth most common word overall when considering the entirety of the four subtitle transcriptions, followed by feel 1269 occurrences, underscoring the significance of emotional themes in teen dramas. These findings indicate a significant presence of RRGS-related terminology, with love emerging as a predominant theme both within the specific context of RRGS and in the general dialogue of the series.

The results of lexicometry are presented below in dendrograms representing word classes. The analysis highlights 6 classes in Sex Education, 7 in Euphoria, 7 in 13RW, and 8 in Elite, which covered 88.4%, 85.13%, 95.7%, and 93.19% of the corpus, respectively. The researchers have labelled each class and provided a brief description of the classes in purple, which are those that deal with RRGS topics.¹⁵

Sex Education

Sex Education is the series that addresses sexuality, romantic relationships, and gender topics the most according to the results (4/6 classes) (Fig. 1). This reflects the ambition expressed by the showrunner Laurie Nunn, who wanted the series to start a fresh dialogue on adolescence and sexuality. The aim was authenticity and innovation, updating discussions on teen sexuality (Nunn, 2023).

Fig. 1

DHC results from sex education

The most explicit class is C6se, an isolated class in which two main themes are intertwined: sexuality (sexual, vagina, dick, fetish, partner, sre) and education (teach, student, education, class, campus, curriculum, correct, sre “sexual and relational education”). It's about learning sexuality and the appropriation of sexual health norms. This class sums up the theme of the series and highlights how to bring education and sexuality together. In this category, sexuality is little linked to affects as there is no vocabulary about feelings or emotions. There is a cross-over between formal and informal knowledge, in reference to the mix of biological terms and slang from young people’s language. So, they speak of vagina (and not of pussy or clit') but of dick (and not of penis).

Feelings are otherwise present in the other classes as C1se (mess, confused, angry, difficult, believe), C5se (heart, afraid, hard, love, fear, fault). Those two are linked to each other and are mainly about romantic and sexual relationships difficulties. Also, fault, contains a notion of responsibility. C1se refers to relational difficulties and settle the context of adolescence and romantic and sexual expectations: girlfriend, virginity, wank, are linked to doubt (confuse, mess), difficulties (fight, difficult, angry) and belief, drawing an overall atmosphere of uncertainty. C5se is more about romantic feelings (heart, love, fall used as “fall in love”) and the global changes it brings in life (life, change, time). Life appears as a flow or a perpetuation (child, baby). C5se can be seen as the continuity of relationships and appears tightly linked to C1se and C2se. This class enforces the idea of an uncertain future that prompt reflexion, questioning, and difficulties linked to transition to adulthood (change, life, long, time, birth, child, baby, live) and convey a vision of consequences of intimate relationships. The emotions evoked primarily centre on the complexities of these transitions (hard, afraid, fear, fault). This emphasis is largely a result of the episodic structure, which is designed to not only showcase the struggles faced by adolescents but also to explore solutions, provide guidance for overcoming or coping with these issues, and ultimately facilitate the establishment of a new equilibrium. This narrative approach is evident in C2se which depicts a journey of self-discovery, characterized by questioning. It deals with global relational wonderings during adolescence and evokes someone who is discovering oneself, asking questions, feeling strange and setting limits with the others (gay, person, ready, weird, stop). This category revolves around personal construction in the context of interpersonal relationships. Both C1se and C2se delve into the complexities of identity, self-desire, and one's position within a peer group. In line with this perspective, the series introduces a diverse array of characters that allow the audience to relate, especially when depicting queer characters. The portrayal goes beyond mere identity labels, emphasizing their emotional journeys and life experiences. (Nunn, 2021).

In C1se, C2se, C5se, we can find elements about reflection and hardship. In Sex Education, topics such as sexuality, romantic relationships, and gender are intricately interwoven with education, interpersonal challenges, and personal growth. However, these categories may not fully convey the overall ambiance of the series. The most joyful elements of the show are predominantly found in C3se and C4se, which emphasize friendship and family dynamics rather than delving into the vocabulary of love, gender, and sexuality. These two categories contribute significantly to portraying the positive essence of the series, aligning with the showrunner's vision of authentic relationships. They depict scenes rooted in everyday life and highlight positive interactions. The series incorporates tenderness, which is discernible in the lexicometry analysis. However, the use of humour, while substantial in the series, presents a more elusive aspect in lexicometry interpretation.

Notably, the series features open and frank conversations about sexuality, employing specific and precise terminology. RRGS are depicted as integral aspects intertwined with the challenges of adolescence, fostering introspection and dialogue, all within a predominantly positive context. Although this positive tone may be challenging to fully capture through lexicometry analysis, it is vividly evident on-screen, as the series consistently maintains a warm and optimistic approach to various challenges faced by adolescents. This is accentuated through music and image. The use of lively colours such as pink, blue, and yellow, not only add visual appeal but also contribute to a slightly retro aesthetic, particularly in scenes set in the English countryside. The picturesque Welsh landscapes provide a striking contrast to the typical urban American teen series backdrop, imbuing the show with a dreamlike quality. By avoiding specific locations both in lexicometry and audiovisual features, the series creates an almost utopian atmosphere. In essence, Sex Education strikes a harmonious balance between comfort and contemplation, depth and lightness, capturing the essence of adolescence through a blend of familiar and eclectic cultural influences.

Euphoria

In Euphoria, four classes out of seven tackle love, sexuality, or gender topics (Fig. 2). C4eu gathers the words: sexual, porn, rape, boyfriend, straight.¹⁶ It is about sexuality seen through the prism of violence and risky behaviours. Communication tools (phone, text, conversation, pics) reflect youth current practices related to sexuality and media as sexting. In this category, sexuality is linked to social interactions but not to feelings. Even if elements of communication between peers can be found, relationships and situations exude uneasiness. A slight notion of gender also appears through straight.

Fig. 2

DHC results from Euphoria—Marie Potvain

Then, C1eu is about adolescent’s relational considerations. This class is about introspection (think, feel, mine). Love is associated with negative feelings such as anger (angry), possessiveness (mine), but also reflexivity (think, person). Ambivalence is prevalent, as words like good, bad or other words that can be associated with positive or negative elements depending on the context and intent as favor and intention. This ambivalence adds authenticity to the show. In "Euphoria," the showrunner, Sam Levinson (2019), diligently focused on achieving authenticity by accurately portraying the complex emotions of youth and cultivating empathy for the characters as they navigate the challenges of adolescence (Levinson & Zendaya, 2019). This is particularly evident in C3eu, which delves into the concerns of adolescents, such as the sensation of strangeness and self-reflective and interpersonal questioning (weird, thing, situation, deserve). Romance in this category is implied through date and interest (referring to ‘be interested in someone’), so through sociability. It exhibits a connection to positive aspects like being cool or kind and enjoying social gatherings (carnival), but it also carries an element of ambivalence, entwined with words like weird, situation, suck. Personal qualities like smart, kind, cool, emerge as values within the teenage world. The show underscores the significance of self-discovery and the value of friendship, offering a distinctive perspective on American teenage life. On-screen, the series crafts an intense atmosphere, navigating through drama, passion, despair, moments of joy, and awakening.

In contrast, C2eu exudes violence and dominance. The portrayal of aggressive relationships extends to encompass the theme of drug use, which emerges as a significant subject within the series (also evident in C6eu). In this class, the vocabulary is coarse and aggressive (fuck, shit, bitch, slut, loser, ass) alongside actions that appears as injunctions (fuck, come, question, listen, shut, stop, check). Misogynistic language damages femininity, drawing a connection between violence, gender, and sexuality (bitch, slut, fuck). These words carry various connotations in an American context, ranging from expressions of camaraderie to outright hostility. Set in the United States, the series vividly portrays typical American suburbs and settings from the 2020s. This cultural context is reflected in the results, which unveil a raw mode of communication among the youth, suggesting tumultuous friendships. This dynamic is further mirrored in the series' soundtracks, which seamlessly blend modern pop, hip-hop, R&B, and electronic music. Language and music intertwine in this series, echoing the contemporary culture of young people. Moreover, Euphoria uses dreamlike sequences to delve into the characters' minds, often linked to drugs or anxiety. Night scenes contrast with bright, strobe-lit visuals, creating an almost psychedelic atmosphere.

The subtitles of the series shed light on adolescent concerns, focusing on relational issues and introspection, closely linked to peer interactions and romances (C3eu, C1eu). Key terms convey a sense of unease and confusion. The narrative delves into the challenges of self-identity and emotional growth within complex social dynamics. Adolescence is portrayed as a period fraught with conflict, touching on themes like violence, risky sexuality, and moral dilemmas. The show depicts adolescents as actively navigating these challenges, yet also being shaped by their social and emotional contexts. The results indicate the creators' intention to thoroughly and vividly portray the diverse and complex challenges encountered by adolescents, including the navigation of controversial issues such as addictions (Levinson, 2019; Levinson & Zendaya, 2019).

Thirteen Reasons Why

As the results shows (Fig. 3), in Thirteen Reasons Why among the seven classes, two tackle love, sexuality, or gender topics. C5rw is about emotional and love life (love, kiss, like, feel, sense) as well as feelings and their associated issues (lose, afraid, jealous, fall). In this class love and feelings are linked to short temporality and to ambivalent feelings: lose and jealous vs love and beautiful. This class is strongly linked to C3rw and C2rw which are about trouble, death, and violence. The series verbal discourse depicts adolescence as a journey through love and romantic relationships, marked by fleeting experiences and a spectrum of emotions. It illustrates adolescents engaging in group interactions, seeking joy and connection with peers beyond the school environment (C4rw).

Fig. 3

DHC results from Thirteen Reasons Why – Marie Potvain

While C5rw centres on love and relationships, C7rw delves into sexuality (sexual, assault) and describes violent events perpetrated between highschoolers (bully, assault, suicide). Sexuality is linked to violence (assault, suicide, bully) and law (honor, president, objection, witness) but responsibility does not appear. In this class, we can feel the showrunner, Brian Yorkey aims to address challenging topics, emphasizing the realities often silenced but faced by young people like bullying and suicide (Yorkey, 2018).

In contrast to preceding series, this one place less emphasis on introspection and self-discovery. Instead, it delves deeply into themes of violence and trauma (C6rw, C3rw, C2rw). This exploration extends beyond language, permeating the series' overall ambiance, which exudes a dark and serious tone, aspiring for realism. This deliberate choice was made by the creative team, with the primary objective of prioritizing authenticity to foster compassion and understanding among viewers (Jamet, 2018). The design choices (dark and serious tone, reflecting its heavy themes through minimal contrast and predominant blue-grey hues) meticulously craft an atmosphere that transitions seamlessly between melancholy, intimacy, drama, and occasional brutality, mirroring the tumultuous emotions of adolescence, as inferred from the word analysis. This aesthetic plays a pivotal role in conveying the overarching message of the series. As articulated by Brian Yorkey, the producer, the series is purposefully designed to draw attention to and raise awareness about the pervasive issue of daily assaults in U.S. schools (Yorkey, 2018).

Elite

In Elite, three classes over eight answer our concerns, forming closely intertwined themes centering on youth sociability and sexuality (Fig. 4). C6el vividly exemplifies an exuberant and extravagant form of sociability characterized by lively parties (light, party, amaze, alcohol, dance,) and a strong undercurrent of sexuality (kiss, sex, hot,). Elite indulges in opulent visuals, presenting viewers with lavish parties and luxurious settings that are deliberately adorned with rich colours and shiny textures. These visual elements accentuate the opulence on screen, mirroring the opulence found within the lexicometry analysis as well. The vocabulary frequently centres on appearance, encompassing aspects like clothing and attire (wear, cloth, dress). This emphasis on appearance is attributed to the meticulous intent of the showrunners, Carlos Montero and Darío Madrona, who sought both coherence and dynamism. They carefully curated characters' appearances and narratives, aiming to weave together compelling stories. The directors introduce characters that are instantly recognizable, gradually revealing unexpected depths and intricacies that extend beyond their initial appearances (Granada, 2019). Relationships are mainly approached in this series through seduction and excitement (hot, turn used mostly as ‘turn on’), the word sex is highlighted and not “sexual” or “sexuality”, referring to the action of “having sex”. Feelings, much like communication, appear to be absent as they are never explicitly mentioned. Interactions manifest primarily through actions (dance, kiss, sex, wear). The only emotion explicitly referenced is fear, which may appear incongruent with the predominant atmosphere of enjoyment. However, the context does raise questions about safety, consent, and respect, particularly due to the presence of the word alcohol. Sexuality is intertwined with nightlife.

Fig. 4

DHC results from Elite – Marie Potvain

C2el places greater emphasis on the everyday interactions of adolescents, while still maintaining a connection to nightlife and parties (drink, game, fun, play). Sociability within this category is intertwined with nighttime activities, radiating with joy and celebration. Some words used here suggest a playful form of sociability, characterized by a lack of sincerity and interactions driven by seduction (e.g., play and game). Seduction and sexuality continue to be prominent themes, with certain words used figuratively to allude to sexual encounters (hook, bed, sleep). These are common expressions used to reference sexuality indirectly. This category establishes the playful and festive aspect of sexuality, as well as the broader social norms and conventions observed among youth, including their attire and activities. It employs a vocabulary that, while not explicitly centered on sexuality, effectively conveys these underlying themes.

Finally, C4el is about managing critical situations. Only two words convey a link with RRGS: fuck and girlfriend. This class imparts the sense that confronting a crisis (trouble, warn, steal, rid (get rid of), bastard) demands emotions to be contained (listen, calm, and down). In Elite, sexuality is little linked to love and feelings in the verbal discourses at least: the characters seem to hardly express themselves in the restless atmosphere of the series.

While exploring themes of sexuality, the series primarily focuses on social class clashes, portraying how inequalities shape relationships and rebellions (C8el). It serves as a mirror to modern Spanish society, tackling corruption alongside themes of religion, sexuality, drugs, and first love against a backdrop of societal struggles (Montero & Madrona, 2020). On screen, despite parties and luxury, the overall atmosphere remains dark and mysterious, reflecting the characters' complex lives. The show's crime scenes are meticulously staged for suspense. It openly explores sex dynamics and features intense drama arising from socio-economic disparities and complex character relationships. Moreover, the plots are often presented through a non-linear narrative structure, alternating between the present and the past to slowly unveil the details of key events through flashbacks, flash-forwards, and parallel storylines. The modern soundtrack, blending pop, electronic, and Spanish music, complements scenes and character emotions. Overall, Elite uses its aesthetic not just to captivate but also to deepen the portrayal of characters' intricate lives.

Summary of the Results

In conclusion, the lexicometry analysis highlights three key dimensions: adolescence, sexuality and love, and violence. It becomes evident that the daily lives of adolescents play a pivotal role in shaping the narrative structures. This is apparent through their family dynamics, social interactions among peers, and experiences within the school environment. Moreover, it is reflected in the characters' introspection regarding their own identities and their place in the world (C2se, C4se, C3se, C7eu, C5eu, C1eu, C5rw C4rw, C1rw, C6rw, C2el, C4el, C1el). Furthermore, it's worth noting that violence and pain emerge as prevailing themes in three of the series within the sample: 13RW, Euphoria and Elite (C4eu, C5eu, C6eu, C2eu, C3rw, C2rw, C6rw, C7rw, C4el, C3el, C7el). These themes are often intricately connected to RRGS (as seen in categories C1se, C4eu, C2eu, C7rw). Additionally, romantic relationships, sexuality, and to a lesser extent, gender, constitute significant subjects in each series. However, each show approaches these topics in a distinctive manner (C6se, C2se, C1se, C5se, C4eu, C3eu, C1eu, C2eu C5rw, C7rw, C6el, C2el): Sex Education focuses on self-reflection and personal growth, Euphoria delves into darker aspects including violence and complex social dynamics, 13RW explores ambivalent emotions and harmful behaviours, and Elite presents a nightlife-driven exploration of desires and relationships.

Discussion

In this discussion, we will scrutinize the findings in conjunction with existing literature and the audiovisual composition of these shows. Our aim is to comprehend the degree to which TV series integrate RRGS from the verbal discourse analysis while also considering how other elements can introduce a more balanced portrayal.

The Languages of RRGS in Teen Dramas

One objective of our study was to identify the terms used to refer to sexual health topics within the narrative of TV series and provide an analysis thereof. Our first research question is: What specific terms are employed to refer to RRGS? Our study reveals that RRGS are approached using specific linguistic units that belong to various linguistic registers, each playing a role in the verbal discourse structure.

• Everyday Language (kiss, partner, love, gay, girlfriend, boyfriend, date, jealous, assault, sexual, sex, porn, rape): present in all four series, they use relatable language to reflect everyday situations, establishing a connection with the audience and raising awareness about love, gender, and sexuality. Everyday language is the most frequently used to refer to RRGS.

• Metaphorical/Symbolic Language (heart, bed, sleep): it adds depth and emotion to the storytelling, allowing abstract concepts to be expressed through concrete elements that viewers can understand (Amado & Guittet, 2012). These symbolic constructs are embedded within shared culture and hold significance as humans are interconnected within networks of meaning (Lévi-Strauss, 2013). This creates familiarity for the viewer, as the symbols conveyed through language are commonly understood. However, its understanding and symbolism are context dependent. Solely relying on words may not fully capture the intricate context, as the audiovisual and global essence of the series extends beyond dialogues. Moreover, this comprehension is significantly shaped by the cultural context intertwined with the language.

• Informal Language: this style of language can be found in all four series of the panel. It includes the use of contracted words (e.g., pics, porn), familiar or slang terms (e.g., dick, wank, fuck, ass), and some strong language expressions (slut, bitch). The interpretation of these expressions may vary depending on the context in which they are used. The series incorporate slang commonly used by young people (Poglia Mileti & Ischer, 2012), providing authenticity and insight into societal attitudes and power dynamics surrounding sexuality.

• Expert Language: through lexicometry, precise terms like vagina and sre (sexual and relational education) appear, notably in Sex Education, along with the incorporation of concepts like straight in Euphoria. Expert terms are occasionally employed to enhance credibility and realism (Nguyen et al., 2012), as they carry authoritative weight, particularly in matters of health (Oger, 2021).

The utilization of diverse linguistic strategies in addressing RRGS is evident in the use of different registers. Series employ a variety of narrative techniques to provide viewers with a comprehensive and in-depth exploration of these themes in a realistic manner (Chalvon-Demersay, 1999). However, it is essential to examine the significance of employing these distinct registers in shaping the discourse of series aimed at adolescents. Existing literature suggests that language functions as an institution that facilitates the symbolic mediation of social belonging (Boutang, 2013; Lamizet, 2004). Through language, identities gain coherence and become subject to recognition and identification.

Teen dramas primarily target young audiences and, as a result, leverage specific social codes to enhance audience engagement (Pasquier, 1996). It is imperative for these series to resonate with the youth. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that youth identity is heterogeneous and characterized by its transitory nature. Still, teen dramas use these diverse linguistic registers to some extent to embrace the values and preferences of their target audience. During adolescence, social belonging is fluid and subject to change, as individuals engage in “unstable cultural and symbolic practices that assume different social spaces of belonging and sociability, contingent upon practices, relationships, and desires”¹⁷ (Lamizet, 2004). Consequently, series must effectively navigate these multiple spaces by addressing relevant themes, employing appropriate staging, and using suitable discourse. Thus, both within the realm of series and in reality, the construction of young identity revolves around a set of social imperatives and cultural norms, thereby lending legitimacy to the experiences of the characters. Consequently, series disseminate experiential knowledge (Cartron et al., 2021), which carries significant impact, particularly through an initiatory dimension that prompts introspection about the meaning of life and an individual's place within society (Julier-Costes et al., 2014). TV series can be likened to live experiments, offering test scenarios for adolescents through the presentation of various situations. They serve as a versatile toolbox for exploring social relationships and behaviours. TV series function as a laboratory for experimenting with social dynamics.

Moreover, it is imperative to understand the cultural influence of each production country on the series' language. Differences in word usage between American and British English, such as bitch and slut exist. They carry stronger connotations in British English than in American English (Dewaele, 2015; Grossman & Tucker, 1997). Bitch in British English is often derogatory, while it can be used playfully between young peers in the United States. This linguistic contrast influences how American series like13 Reasons Why and Euphoria, are used to reflect everyday teenage sociability specifically in America, while it is absent from sociability in the British Sex Education (Dewaele, 2015). This sociability rooted in sexist language contributes to a pervasive atmosphere of violence, particularly towards women (Grossman & Tucker, 1997). The broader social context, including coarse sexist language, profoundly shapes the atmosphere and portrayal of school relationships in these series. Verbal discourse, along with mise en scene, acting, and audiovisual elements, sustains and reinforces this global atmosphere while perpetuating cultural values. Culture significantly influences our understanding of sexuality, and societal influences shape gender and sexual norms (Agocha et al., 2014). As scholars have highlighted, language, in particular, holds a central position in shaping these representations, impacting our realities, including our perceptions, behaviors, and communication styles, all of which are strongly influenced by our cultural backgrounds (Martin & Nakayama, 2009).

This is particularly evident in the Spanish series Elite, which is imbued with Spanish culture and its perspective on sexuality (such as the treatment of HIV, highlighting social class dynamics through the disease). However, some nuances can be lost in the English translation. The Spanish version tends to use more offensive language (similar to 'Euphoria' and '13 Reasons Why'), such as “puta” derived from various expressions like “hijo de puta”, often used to express anger, outrage, or disdain towards someone. While it literally means “son of a bitch”, its meaning is closer to the word bastard (C4el) or “motherfucker” to express contempt towards someone. The same applies to the expression “puta madre”, which is highly contextual and can vary in meaning depending on the situation and usage. Sometimes it's used to express something very positive or exceptional, often translated as “amazing” (lemma amaze C6el). However, it can also convey feelings of frustration, irritation, or anger, similar to “damn it”, shit (C2el) and crap. Additionally, it can be used as an insult to express anger, outrage, or disdain towards something or someone, much like “hijo de puta” and which can be translated as bastard (C4el) or “motherfucker”. Translations take into account the context associated with the language, allowing viewers to better understand the situation by selecting appropriate words. In English, the literal translations of “hijo de puta” and “puta madre” are notably forceful and aggressive, potentially missing the nuanced dimensions present in the original language. These nuances are well emphasized in the English subtitle transcription that was studied. Furthermore, this context is effectively conveyed through staging, the actors' performances, and the tone used in the series.

The Key Themes Related to RRGS in Series

In exploring sexual health themes (RRGS) across TV series, our study emphasizes their interconnectivity rather than isolation. This approach aligns with M. Ward's research, which found 29–50% of interactions in 1990s TV series contained sexual references (Ward, 1995). Notably, Sex Education and Euphoria predominantly feature RRGS themes, integrating them more thoroughly into their narratives compared to 13 Reasons Why and Elite. These findings corroborate previous literature, suggesting a greater emphasis on RRGS themes in series that explicitly address sexual health in their synopses¹⁸ (Tauty et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2023).

Our second research question explores themes linked to RRGS. Lexicometry analysis reveals intersections with education, sociability, risky behaviours, and violence. Love-related themes intertwine with introspection, youth sociability, relational challenges, and emotional pain. Gender-focused narratives address sexism, sexual orientation, and gender identity, often coupled with introspection or violence. Contrasting with Krongard and Tsay-Vogel's findings on violence in Netflix series (2020), our study underscores the prevalent sexual violence in teen dramas (Berridge, 2011, 2013b). Our results reassert the connection between sexuality and violence conveyed by adolescent-oriented series, as it is discussed in the literature (Berridge, 2010, 2013a, 2013b; Brüning, 2022; Rodenhizer & Edwards, 2019; Signorielli & Bievenour, 2015; Tauty et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2023). While confirming some aspects of prior studies, our analysis also reveals distinctions. For example, Tauty's research (2021) highlighted a focus on harassment, and STIs and contraception, in Elite and Sex Education, yet our broader analysis found less emphasis on STIs and contraception. This discrepancy may stem from Tauty's episodic focus compared to our comprehensive broader approach.

While previous studies noted a scarcity of sexual risk references in TV series, our analysis identified associations of sex with alcohol in Elite and drugs in Euphoria. From a sexual health standpoint, we interpreted these behaviours as risky. These depictions do not explicitly portray the consequences of these behaviours on screen and remain ambiguous, aligning with earlier literature's observations of narrative complexity (Kunkel et al., 1999, 2005; Malacane & Martins, 2017; Pasquier, 1996; Signorielli & Bievenour, 2015; Yu et al., 2023). Interestingly, Sex Education uniquely addressed responsibility, standing out in our sample.

So, our findings suggest a dominant representation of antisocial rather than prosocial sexuality. Only the results from Elite merged sexuality with amusement and social gatherings, underscoring a pleasurable sexuality, while depicting risky behaviours as the association with alcohol suggest. This ambivalence mirrors Maes and Vandenbosch's observations (2022), as they identified both prosocial and antisocial sexual messages in the series. Despite lexicometry findings prioritizing education, relational challenges, and introspection, a pleasurable dimension of sexuality emerges in Sex Education. Meanwhile Thirteen Reasons Why and Euphoria incorporate positive elements amidst their antisocial themes, highlighting consent, respect (Trapier, 2017), and emotional attachment in LGBTQ relationships (Demangeot, 2022).

Our analysis shows that while RRGS themes are prominently featured in verbal discourses, their portrayal is multifaceted, blending pleasure with challenges. Audiovisual elements like staging, acting, music, and set design enrich the narrative, shaping viewers' reception. These elements actively play a role in shaping the meaning of the messages broadcast and their reception by the viewers, depending on their sensitivity. They can both soften or enhance the messages by bringing context and allowing emotional engagement. The observation of the series also highlights how staging and performances alone, without verbal communication, can convey or entirely alter messages, as we will explore in the following chapter. Despite the lack of explicit indications in the lexicometry analysis, the series sometimes portrays sexuality as pleasurable and conveys prosocial messages, but these appear subtly in the overall narratives. Comparing the results of the lexicometry analysis of the four series, the narrative portrays RRGS as multifaceted constructs encompassing pleasure, introspection, interpersonal sharing, and emotional engagement. Simultaneously, it showed violence, risky behaviours, anxiety, and pain associated with sexual encounters. However, the series do not necessarily provide sufficient analytical tools for young people to navigate these multiple representations, which take shape in audiovisual contexts that can sometimes challenge, reinforce, or coexist with stereotypes. The lack of guidance in TV series' sexual content emphasizes the importance of education in this domain to enhance youth autonomy and literacy concerning TV series content dealing with health topics (Maes & Vandenbosch, 2022). From a public health perspective, we argue that providing young people with the analytical tools to understand and work on more positive representations of intimate life could promote healthy attitudes and the development of psychosocial skills through the acquisition of personal, civic, and social skills, as recommended by the institutions. This could be possible because of the nature of TV series characters, who can be considered as pseudo-social actors and super-peers (Brown et al., 2005; Chalvon-Demersay, 1999, 2011, 2015).

Representing Sex Beyond Words

In this section, we delve into a comprehensive analysis of two distinct scenes from the series Elite and Sex Education. Utilizing a mosaic of images as citations, a method commonly employed in series analysis (Campion, 2022; Crémieux & Hudelet, 2020), we provide a concise yet precise examination of the key elements within these excerpts. These scenes were selected for their defining characteristics: one exemplifies non-verbal communication, while the other is predominantly driven by verbal discourse. This juxtaposition aims to underscore how the comprehensive audiovisual dimensions of television series effectively contribute to the portrayal and communication of themes related to sexuality. Through this analysis, we explore how both verbal and non-verbal elements in these scenes synergistically work to convey nuanced messages about sexuality, reflecting the complexity and diversity of human experiences and interactions. Furthermore, this analysis underscores how these elements, when combined, craft a distinct tone and atmosphere unique to each series, a feature highlighted by their distinctive audiovisual identities.

Elite: A Non-verbal Narration of Sexual Health Awareness

In Elite S2E6,¹⁹ a key scene unfolds, marking Ander and Omar's first intimate on-screen moment. The visual composition makes use of shadows and blurred imagery. This approach not only lends an air of mystery and dreamlike quality to the scene but also serves as a metaphor for the characters' complex emotional states. Their bodies are fragmented and elusive, mirroring the fragility of this first sexual relationship, while conveying erotism. Close-up shots are employed strategically, bringing the viewer into the intimate sphere of the characters, making their emotional vulnerability and burgeoning desire palpable. The dynamic staging of the scene, with its initial quick-paced editing, reflects the characters' urgency and chaotic movements, symbolizing the rawness and immediacy of their interaction. As the scene progresses, the camera movements become smoother, mirroring a transition from their initial haste to a deeper and more profound connection. This shift subtly suggests a maturing of their intercourse from mere physical urgency to a more emotionally grounded bond. A crucial moment is when the camera intentionally focuses on a condom placed in the foreground, and then positioned between Ander and Omar. This visual emphasis on the condom, lingering for a significant duration of 18 s, carries dual symbolic weight. The condom underscores the importance of safe sex and consent, integrating these themes seamlessly into the narrative. This scene stands as a compelling example of how visual storytelling can intricately capture and express the complexities of human relationships. It showcases the art of using filmic techniques not merely as a means of representation, but as a powerful tool to engage and draw the audience into the emotional realm of the characters. Moreover, by integrating the condom into the narrative, the scene goes beyond storytelling, contributing to a broader discourse on responsible sexual behaviour. This thoughtful inclusion demonstrates how visual media can subtly yet effectively weave in critical social messages without detracting from the storyline or the emotional impact of the moment. In a scene devoid of dialogue, the reliance on visual cues, ambient music, and the actors' performances becomes paramount in conveying the intended message. The transformation of the condom from a simple protective device to an essential and playful aspect of the scene enables the series to communicate the importance of safe sex to a younger audience. This approach retains the scene's erotic nature while simultaneously imparting a powerful message about desire, consent, and responsibility. The excerpt underscores how, beyond spoken words, the audiovisual elements play a vital role in delivering messages of prevention and awareness. Through this approach, the series demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of how to address and communicate crucial topics to its audience (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5

Images’ mosaic from Elite S2E6 (35 min 43 s to 36 min 54 s). Zeta Producciones, Netflix

Sex Education: Employing Humour to Instil Sexual Health Messages

In Sex education S1E6, the series depicts Aimee and Steve's first sexual intercourse. This scene unfolds during a therapy session between Aimee and Otis, the 'sex therapist kid' at their school. Presented as a flashback, Aimee narrates her experience, transitioning from the impersonal setting of a chemistry classroom to the warm, intimate atmosphere of her bedroom. During this scene, the dialogue between Aimee and Steve serves to underscore their emotional disconnect. In their exchange, it seems as though the inner thoughts of each character are vividly translated into their dialogue, serving as a pivotal narrative tool. Aimee asks Steve about what he would like her to do in their intercourse, but her inquiries, influenced by misconceptions about ‘normal’ sexual behaviour and males’ desires, seem unusual or even out of place to Steve. This dialogue opens a window for viewers to grasp the characters' differing perceptions and expectations. While Aimee's perspective is shaped by notions probably coming from pornography (as facial or breast ejaculations suggest), Steve's approach is grounded in mutual desire, respect, and shared pleasure. Notably, Steve's reluctance to engage in certain acts, justified by his comment “I like your face”, brings to light the idea that some behaviours can be perceived as disrespectful or inappropriate. The scene's direction cleverly integrates a comedic element, with the dialogue hinting at exaggerated elements yet executed with a nuanced, expressive performance from the actors. The visual narrative, using shot-reverse-shot, effectively gives the impression that the characters are looking at each other’s emphasizing their conversation. This technique allows the audience to observe their reactions, thereby understanding both viewpoints more clearly. While this intercourse should show deep engagement with each other, the actors' expressiveness, portraying surprise and confusion, illustrates the clash between two very different understandings of intimacy. This subverts typical expectations and leads the narrative in an unexpected direction: it prompts Aimee to question her desires and realize she has never explored her own preferences, nor discussed them with previous partners. This scene illuminates her underlying distress and reveals her surprisingly limited understanding of sexuality, despite her initial portrayal as one of the more sexually experienced characters of the show (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6

Images’ mosaic from Sex Education S1E6 (19 min 5 s to 20 min 29 s), Eleven Film, Netflix

Analysing lexicometry alongside a more holistic approach of the audiovisual works of TV series, drawn from viewership illuminates the intricate complexity inherent within these shows. Beyond their verbal content, these series encapsulate intentional layers orchestrated by showrunners, encompassing aesthetic choices, overarching thematic messages, tonal qualities, sensory components, and emotional resonance. This comprehensive analysis aligns the series' verbal content with their broader narrative direction, demonstrating that TV series have multiple ways to promote prosocial discourses on sexual health, notably by conveying implicit meanings to their target audience.

More Balanced Representation of Sexual Health Issues

Focusing on our third main question -3) do the subtitles predominantly convey prosocial or antisocial representations of RRGS concerning sexual health recommendations?—we argue that the portrayal of RRGS in TV series tends to exhibit ambivalence, leaning towards negative portrayals with antisocial messages, sometimes overshadowing prosocial ones. This does not imply that positive aspects are absent, but rather that they receive less emphasis and discussion within the overall narrative. Our study through lexicometry but also across literature shows that there is a prevailing tendency to imbue themes concerning RRGS with a heightened sense of drama in TV series. Adolescents’ feelings are depicted in a dramatic way, disregarding the fact that these intense feelings during adolescence can also have positive aspects. The adolescent experience encompasses both happiness and confusion (Bailen et al., 2019).²⁰ So, these series tend to focus heavily on the negative aspects of adolescence, thereby creating a skewed perception of this developmental stage.

The key point here is that these verbal discourses primarily originate from adults. Despite their apparent efforts to bridge the gap with youth culture and adopt a "youthful way of speaking" that addresses TYA concerns (Poglia Mileti & Ischer, 2012) and their attempts to achieve realism (Levinson & Zendaya, 2019; Montero & Madrona, 2020; Nunn, 2021; Yorkey, 2018), television often dramatizes current events, resulting in a scripted and exaggerated portrayal of social and political realities (Esquenazi, 2017). In other words, TV series craft an illusion of reality, an intensified ersatz (Campion, 2019). Actually, series are cultural representations shaped by the perspectives and imaginations of the creative teams behind them. Rather than providing an authentic portrayal of young individuals, these depictions offer glimpses into how adults conceptualize the lives of adolescents. Consequently, they reveal more about the moral preoccupations and anxieties of the adult population than they do about the genuine experiences and challenges faced by adolescents and young adults. As Morin aptly suggests, “the series inform us less on the real practices of the teenagers than on the representations that societies make of them […]”²¹ (Morin, 2014, p. 76). Thus, our study sheds light on a concerned and disquieting vision of adolescence and sexuality, aligning with the observations made by Bozon that “the relationship of adults, the media, and prevention institutions to youth sexuality is marked by anxiety and concern.”²² (Bozon, 2012).

It's essential to recognize that adolescent intimate relationships can encompass fulfillment, safety, and pleasure, as highlighted by the World Health Organization. While many series targeting TYA often sensationalize negative aspects of love and sexuality, shows like Sex Education or the recent Heartstopper (created by Alice Oseman, 2022-) offer a refreshing contrast by presenting these themes positively, without negating the associated challenges. Sex Education notably achieves a balanced representation of sexuality, despite occasionally presenting incomplete or context-specific information about sexual health, as highlighted by Tauty et al. (2021). Its strength lies in its nuanced portrayal, skillfully interweaving light-hearted elements with serious themes, such as sexual assault. A prime example is the so-called ‘bus scene’ (S2E3), which evolves over two seasons, poignantly demonstrating the enduring effects of such trauma. The series exemplifies a balanced approach, with characters actively engaging in problem-solving and facing a spectrum of situations that lead to both positive and humorous, as well as potentially harmful outcomes. This dynamic portrayal not only acknowledges the complexities and risks associated with sexuality but also emphasizes viable solutions and positive outcomes. In doing so, Sex Education aligns with the principles of entertainment education (Dillman Carpentier et al., 2017; Orozco-Olvera et al., 2019), which utilizes media as a tool for imparting knowledge and influencing behaviour (Moyer-Gusé & Nabi, 2011; Orozco-Olvera et al., 2019).

In essence, these series operate as live experiments, presenting scenarios that adolescents can readily relate to as real-life trials. They offer a practical toolkit for young viewers to navigate the complexities of RRGS, providing them with valuable insights and guidance. Within this context, offering positive examples is just as vital as depicting potential pitfalls. Such an approach in television serves to bolster critical thinking, presents a diverse range of situations, and prompts viewers to engage in critical assessment and reflection on the content. As a result, it could contribute significantly to a more informed and nuanced understanding of sexual health issues.

Perspectives

This paper is a part of a broader study considering that TV series could be studied as potential effective tools for sexual health promotion. Since TV series create an illusion of reality (Campion, 2019), they win viewers’ adhesion, and can be turned into powerful pedagogical tools to reach TYA (Bréda, 2020; Dreyfuss & Rascol-Boutard, 2018; Larchevêque, 2015). What sets TV series apart is their capacity for emotional engagement, making it easier to capture the viewers' attention. They could be strategically incorporated into sexual health policies based on entertainment education theories (Trapier, 2017) wherein “the persuasive effects of EE [entertainment education] derive from its engaging narrative structure. Thus, viewers may become so absorbed in the narrative that they accept embedded health-related messages with little resistance” (Scull et al., 2015, p. 2). However, understanding how TYAs assimilate experiences from TV series can be valuable for shaping public health policies. These series create a pool of experiences irrigating those of TYA.

As previous studies have indicated (Gerbner et al., 2002; Saito, 2007), while they may not radically alter the way young adults perceive love and sexuality, they can offer more balanced and diversified representations. Given the wide array of situations presented in these series, they also have the potential to challenge prevailing script of sexuality and even provide them scripts for safer sex (Gagnon et al., 2008; Kyes, 1990). Nevertheless, there is a risk that TV series may not necessarily develop diversified representations but merely introduce variations that align with current trends, inadvertently contributing to the homogenization of how TYAs view RRGS.

Furthermore, considering the characters in these series as pseudo-peers (Brown et al., 2005), establishes mechanisms of social comparison. When sexual health messages are conveyed through pseudo-peers in teen dramas, it is akin to a form of peer education. Adolescent characters convey experiential knowledge to real-life adolescents, potentially empowering them. Building on this theory, the next phase of our study seeks to comprehend how TYAs receive and perceive sexual health references in teen dramas, aiming for a more comprehensive understanding of the interactions between TV series content and their audience. This will enable us to reflect on how to effectively utilize TV series to promote sexual health.

Strengths and Limitations of the Study

This study showcases significant strengths and potential for media analysis:

• Uniformity and coherence: the DHC findings indicate a strong uniformity and coherence across the sampled text corpora, covering 85–95% of each series' corpus. This extensive coverage underscores the integration of RRGS (romantic relationships, gender, and sexuality) as central themes in the narratives. The 5–15% not analysed typically involves specific topics unique to each series and not part of the broader themes.

• Potential for further research: the results open avenues for further exploration in areas like friendships, family dynamics, and identity construction, all of which are pertinent to Teens and Young Adults (TYA). The DHC allows for diverse analyses based on specific research interests, thus broadening the scope of media analysis.

• Methodological advantages: the methodology employed is both replicable and adaptable for various samples, promoting comparative analyses. It offers a systematic and reproducible framework for analysing TV series and other media, both verbally and textually. This method can be extended to examine popular series from different eras, facilitating the exploration of changing discourses and cultural values over time.

• Broader perspective on sexual content: while most studies focus on close textual and audiovisual analysis of sexual content in media, this study's approach provides a more comprehensive perspective. It examines predominant messages in teen-oriented TV series and their narrative drivers. Unlike studies predominantly grounded in psychological theories, this study's focus on sexual health offers a unique lens for content examination, highlighting the potential of TV series in promoting sexual health.

This study demonstrates a novel approach to media analysis, particularly in the context of understanding and promoting sexual health through television series. But this study also has some weaknesses and limitations.

• Limitation due to the focus on verbal discourses: the main limitation of this study lies in its focus on verbal discourses, which constrains its ability to capture nuances of sexual behaviours that are more effectively conveyed through visual representation. Focusing on subtitles transcriptions allowed to ‘streamline’ the works, providing a clear, focused approach. This choice, while beneficial in distancing the analysis from viewers' emotional responses, inherently limits the scope of exploration. However, we acknowledge that although our methodology enables us to analyse the structure of dialogues, to have a meta-analysis of how RRGS are referred to in the series, it falls short in capturing how sexuality is visually depicted or implied as they interact to shape the viewers perception of the discourse. We aimed to reintroduce contextual elements from the TV series and acknowledge the importance of blocking, mise-en-scene, performance, setting, music, sound definition, and the representation of bodies and behaviour. These elements, in conjunction with our analysis of verbal language, are vital for highlighting potential discrepancies between the spoken content and visual presentation of sexuality in these audiovisual works.

• Content access and social inequalities: another limitation is that we focused on S-VOD platforms popular teen drama. This excludes TYAs that don’t have access to these series. Access to TV series is socially determined and our study does not take in account these inequalities. Exploring a different corpus of TV series available on other media or targeting different groups could provide new insights into how series address RRGS.

• Geographical divide with audience and interpretation: considering the geographic disparity between where the series are produced and their diverse audiences, we acknowledge the study's limitations in fully understanding the potential cultural gaps in comprehension and interpretation. Future phases will address this gap within the study's target audience in France through interviews with young individuals. These interviews aim to better understand their perceptions of romantic relationships, gender, and sexuality (RRGS) as depicted in the series. Our study takes a global approach, using a methodology that identifies overall trends rather than delving into specific nuances or unique scenarios. Consequently, the series' content is often generalized, enabling an analysis that highlights trends in how gender and sexuality issues are addressed. With these trends identified, we can conduct a more detailed analysis of the series, focusing on their audiovisual content to extract elements that could be beneficial for promoting sexual health.

• Interdisciplinarity challenges: the interdisciplinary nature of our work often challenges the authors in defining their stance within the domains of film studies, social science, and public health. However, we aim to turn this obstacle into an asset, fostering a different approach to TV series through the amalgamation of lexicometry analysis with meticulous examination and analysis of the content. This methodology enables us to identify patterns prevalent in adolescent series. By adopting this approach, we introduce an innovative and reproducible methodology for scrutinizing TV series narratives.

• Risk of overinterpretation: finally, one of our concerns was the potential risk of overinterpreting when working with fiction, as it often evokes strong emotional reactions and we may lack full context regarding its production (Olivier de Sardan, 1996). To mitigate this bias, our methodology employs a multidisciplinary approach that combines quantitative and qualitative methods. It allows us to confront diverse points of view and associate several disciplines and methods, crossing public health, communication studies and gender studies.

Conclusion

The findings of this study demonstrate the prominent presence of RRGS topics within TV narratives, as they are intricately interwoven into the plotlines. Moreover, the specific terminology employed to depict these topics serves as an indicator of the linguistic register used to significantly influences the construction of the narrative. These registers not only contribute to the portrayal of realism but also establish a sense of proximity with the viewers and enhance the overall legitimacy of the content. Furthermore, the study showed that various thematic elements are related to sexual health dimensions, such as violence, self-reflection, education, challenges, youth sociability, and risky behaviours. We advocate for the juxtaposition of antisocial and prosocial references to sexual health topics in a more balanced way, in order to get even closer to TYA experiences which are not only geared around dramatic events. This approach could contribute to fostering a more positive representation and experience of adolescence. With more balanced messages, youth could be equipped with coping strategies and negotiation skills: “Given the centrality of emotional experiences during adolescence, providing youth with healthy coping and negotiating strategies within sexual education curricula may be especially timely” (Adams & Williams, 2011, p. 1876). As TV series are highly popular among young adults today, they can provide a repertoire of scenarios and actions, empowering them with potential autonomy and agency.

This study proposes an original, reproducible method to study media content, and emphasizes the need to take distance with TV series narratives, to comprehend the orientations of the storylines. This aligns with the idea that promoting sexual health should be supported by media sensibilisation notably through entertainment education. The objective is to raise awareness among adolescents about the constructed nature of media representations and how these depictions shape their perceptions of romantic relationships, gender and sexuality.

Appendices

Appendices

Appendix 1: Key Concepts of Sexual Health

See Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

The revised international technical guidance on sexuality education—a powerful tool at an important crossroads for sexuality education (Herat et al., 2018)

Appendix 2: Series’ Selection Criteria Grid

Step one

First, TV series must have a large audience among youth, so we wanted to choose very popular shows. For this we picked up the ones that come up the most in the following lists:

• TV Series (sorted by ascending popularity)²³ on IMDb (Internet Movie Database).

• Most popular Netflix Shows and Movies on Times²⁴ website

• The best teen shows on Netflix according to Thrillist²⁵

• Oh These? Just the 40 best teen shows of all time in Cosmopolitan²⁶

• Best new teen shows + High school drama in 2021&2020 (Netflix, Prime, Hulu&TV List) for TheVore²⁷

• Best LGBTQ + TV Shows of 2020 in Gay Times²⁸

• 16 high school teen dramas on Netflix, Disney + , Hotstar and Amazon Prime Video that will take you back to the good old days from Vogue²⁹

• Les 10 séries incontournables des ados en 2020 according to Ouest France³⁰

Step two

Then, we applied to the series sorted in these lists five criteria:

• it must be available on one of the subscription video-on-demand platforms: Netflix, Amazon prime, Disney + . To these three world leaders we added OCS which is a French platform distributing TV series from American channels such as HBO.

• it must be recent enough to address current issues and echo the experiences of young people. Given the rapid evolution of the "youth culture", we took the arrival of Netflix in France (2014) as a starting point. This is justified mostly by the changes it has generated in terms of production, distribution, and consumption of series (Barker and Wiatrowski 2017; Jenner 2018).

• it must target teenagers or young adults (series labelled as teen dramas and such). They should feature young people who are supposed to be between 11 and 24 years old. We choose this age range because it is the latest defined for adolescence in papers (Sawyer et al., 2018).

• it must be fictions, not reality shows. They can be completed or in production.

• it must explicitly address sexuality, love, and gender issues. In fact, according to the study conducted by Philippe Martin and Solenne Tauty, most sexual health promotion messages are laid out in series dealing with these themes (Tauty et al., 2021).

Step three

Finally, we came back to eight lists of step one and selected the series that were the most cited:

• 1. Sex Education (appears 8/8 times)

• 2. Riverdale, The Chilling adventure of Sabrina and Elite (appears 6/8 times)

• 3. 13 reasons why and Euphoria, (appears 5/8 times)

• 4. Never Have I Ever and Atypical (appears 4/8 times)

We note that the period in which this criteria grid was set up have an important impact on the selection of the shows. Series popularity vary in time and the lists are shifting following series realising. But we also paid attention that the chosen series were quite stable in time and not one shots success so that the link between the viewers and the characters could develop through the seasons.³¹

Step four

As the number of series was still too high, the series appearing less often: Never Have I ever and Atypical were automatically left out. Then I watched closely the first seasons of each of these shows. I focused on the first season because of feasibility but also because the first season sets up the overall universe of the series and carry the seeds of future plots that may or may not be subsequently cultivated in the next seasons (Lifschutz, 2018). It sets the main narrative, thematic and aesthetic features and establishes a ‘contract’ with the viewer.

While watching I picked-up every mention or representation of sexual health content I could encounter, including relationship, sexuality, or gender issues. I also did a detailed summary of each episode: what I retained at the end of the episode plus my impressions, comments, feelings. The method thus combined film analyses (content, music, atmosphere, shots, editing, acting…) and ethnography (what is seen, what it makes me feel, reflexivity upon myself as viewers). Then, two series appeared of lesser importance and were eliminated: Riverdale and The Chilling adventures of Sabrina because both have poorer references to sexual health issues compared to the others and Riverdale was described by TYA as “nonsense” (during interviews with young people some argued that “they spin out of control”, “they blow a fuse” and they all stopped to watch it before the end). So we went on the next step of the analysis with four teen dramas: Sex Education, Elite, Thirteen Reasons Why and Euphoria.

Appendix 3: Table Describing the Classes Content of the Fours Series

	Theme	Sexuality and Education	Love and sexual relationships: difficulties, expectations, experimentations, reflexivity and consequences			A depiction of adolescents' daily and social lives through family life and friendships
	Classes	C6se 13,8%	C2se (20,4%)	C1se (8,2%)	C5se (17%)	C4se (23,1%)	C3se (17,4%)
Sex education	Subtheme	Sexuality and education	Self-reflexivity linked to relationships and identity	Relational difficulties and sentimental regulation regarding expectations about the entry into sexuality	Global and long-term impact of romantic relationships: changes and continuities	Daily life interactions	Depiction of youth extra-curricular life
	Description	This class is totally apart. It's about learning sexuality and the appropriation of sexual health norms. Sexuality and education are intertwined. This class sums up the theme of the series and highlights how to bring education and sexuality together. In this category, sexuality is little linked to affects. There is a cross-over between formal and informal knowledge (in reference to the mix of biological terms and argot from young people language)	It deals with global relational wonderings during adolescence and evokes someone who is discovering oneself, asking questions, felling strange and setting limits with the others. This category is based on personal construction in relation with others	It refers to relational difficulties and settle the context of adolescence and romantic and sexual expectations. All of it happening in an overall atmosphere of doubt, anger, and uncertainty	Life appears as a flow or a perpetuation. C5se can be seen as the continuity of relationships and appears tightly linked to C1se and C2se. This class inforces the idea of an uncertain future that prompt reflexion, questioning, difficulties linked to transition to adulthood	It takes us to a banal reassuring everyday life, simple, known, predictable. Temporality is short and immediate; the vocabulary is even trivial. We can figure the social network with friends and family. There is a feeling of familiarity and proximity	It recalls the importance of the collective and group life during adolescence and puts forward the social environments where young people evolve. It is about adolescents sociability

	Theme	Depiction of adolescence: relationships, concerns and attitudes		Daily difficulties in adolescence: relationships with yourself, others and family			Context of violence in adolescent lives
	Classes	C4eu (10,3%)	C3eu (12%)	C7eu (19,8%)	C5eu (5,5%)	C1eu (21,3%)	C6eu (9,7%)	C2eu (21,4%)
Euphoria	Sub theme	Love and sexual relationships through the prism of violence and risk	Adolescents' attitudes and reactions to relational concerns	Daily life as a refuge	Social expectations thwarted by risky behaviour	Reflexivity and individual feelings linked to relationships	Drugs and its consequences	Aggressive sociability and relation of domination
	Description	It is about sexuality and romantic relationships. Sexuality is not linked to feelings in this category but more of violence. There are still elements of communication between peers. But a feeling of something risky remains	This class is about adolescents concerns like the feeling of strangeness, relational doubts, or troubles. Certain values of the teenage world emerge as the personal qualities that matter	It expresses a daily routine. The environment described is common. There is a notion of withdrawal from the outside world, turned toward the inside	It associates drug and relationships. A moral dimension appears from it with the draw of social expectations and what happened when you don't fill it	It is about individuality in a social context. Feelings are expressed as self-reflexivity. People's intentions are raised. It draws a complex way to engage with other persons based on ones inner experience of it	This class is about drug through its trade, use and consequences. Time accelerates and there is a feeling of urgency with strong reactions while facing violence	Here are depicted violence with coarse vocabulary. Sociability are aggressive and actions appears as injunctions

	Theme	Dramatic event: violence, feelings, and pain			Contextualization and everyday life places, activities, and relations		The school’s responsibility for violence perpetration and youth pain
	Classe	C5rw (14,6%)	C3rw (7,7%)	C2rw (16,6%)	C4rw (13,1%)	C1rw (19%)	C6rw (14,3%)	C7rw (14,8%)
Thirteen reasons why	Sub theme	Beginning of love relationships	Strong reactions facing troubles	Violence, death and search for truth	After class sociability	Daily life interactions	Description of harassement	The Trial: where, who, what happened
	Description	In this class love and feelings are linked to short temporality and to ambivalent feelings loss, jealousy vs love and beautiful	It is about reactions to dramatic events and violence. The vocabulary is rude and evoke urgency. There is also a notion of morality	It is about the depiction of death and violence leading to truths-seeking. It gives an impression of reported facts eliciting different points of view	It's about adolescents' daily activities linked to school and sports. It is mainly group sociability. There is a sense of proximity and fun	It is a factual class recounting daily family life through times, communication tools and movements. It recalls a narration as it is descriptive and in the past	This class gather elements evocating school and its atmosphere through material and physical elements. Linked to the content of the series, it can be associated with bullying at school	It refers to the trial occurring in the show. It described violent events perpetrated between highschoolers (bully, sexual assault, leading to suicide)

	Theme	Youth sociability and sexuality		The plot base: murder, crisis and its management			Setting the context: A high school for wealthy adolescents
	Classes	C6el (9,8%)	C2el (18,9%)	C4el (17,1%)	C3el (9,9%)	C7el (6,2%)	C8el (11,8%)	C1el (20,6%)	C5el (5,6%)
Elite	Sub theme	Night life: party and sexuality	Night out: fun and sexual life	Managing a critical situation	Reactions in the context of murder	Description of arguments during parties	Wealth: financial and economic dimensions	Setting the environment: first day at high school	Path to academic excellence
	Description	This category depicts a festive and extravagant social life based on appearance and pomp and related to sexuality and seduction. Feelings have little rooms as communication does. Sexuality is incorporated in party spaces with risky behaviour	It plunges us into cool parties between highschoolers. Sociability seems joyful and funny as sexual relationships do	Facing a crisis emotions need to be contained so actions can be taken	Here are exposed the main elements of the series' plot: murders. We can see the different reactions possibles of taken by the characters. In the context of the show, it also could recall the police investigation	It uses places, material elements and action verbs to describe a scene. Negative feelings are also presents. We need to precise here that viewing the show it closely describes a crime scene during a party	It sets out the socio-economical context of the series. But Money and problems are linked in this category evocating fraudulent activity	It is like an opening scene describing arrival of new students at school	This category present scholar institution’s expectations. Values are depicted and normativity appears. School is presented as a springboard