Contents Illustrations Acknowledgements Acknowledgements for play texts Copyright © 2001. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved. General Introduction ix xi xiii 1 1 Judith Thompson Introduction Pink (Canada 1986) 8 10 2 Maishe Maponya Introduction The Hungry Earth (South Africa 1979) 12 16 3 Jane Taylor, with William Kentridge and the Handspring Puppet Company Introduction Ubu and the Truth Commission (South Africa 1997) 25 29 4 Wole Soyinka Introduction The Strong Breed (Nigeria 1964) 48 52 5 Femi Osofisan Introduction Once Upon Four Robbers (Nigeria 1978) 69 73 6 Ama Ata Aidoo Introduction Anowa (Ghana 1970) 97 101 7 Derek Walcott Introduction Pantomime (Trinidad 1978) 128 132 8 Sistren Theatre Collective Introduction QPH (Jamaica 1981) 153 157 9 Girish Karnad Introduction Hayavadana (India 1971) 179 183 10 Manjula Padmanabhan Introduction Harvest (India 1997) 214 217 11 Kee Thuan Chye Introduction 1984 Here and Now (Malaysia 1985) 250 254 vii Postcolonial Plays : An Anthology, edited by Helen Gilbert, Taylor & Francis Group, 2001. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uql/detail.action?docID=1397222. Created from uql on 2020-10-02 22:50:38. CONTENTS 273 276 13 Louis Nowra Introduction Inside the Island (Australia 1980) 286 290 14 Jimmy Chi and Kuckles Introduction Bran Nue Dae (Australia 1990) 320 324 15 Briar Grace-Smith Introduction Nga Pou Wahine (New Zealand 1995) 348 352 16 Victoria Nalani Kneubuhl Introduction The Conversion of Ka‘ahumanu (Hawai’i 1988) 364 367 17 Tomson Highway Introduction The Rez Sisters (Canada 1986) 390 394 18 Guillermo Verdecchia Introduction Fronteras Americanas (American Borders) (Canada 1993) 419 423 19 Charabanc Theatre Company Introduction Somewhere Over the Balcony (Northern Ireland 1988) 443 447 Copyright © 2001. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved. 12 Chin Woon Ping Introduction Details Cannot Body Wants (Singapore 1992) viii Postcolonial Plays : An Anthology, edited by Helen Gilbert, Taylor & Francis Group, 2001. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uql/detail.action?docID=1397222. Created from uql on 2020-10-02 22:50:38. General Introduction Copyright © 2001. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved. Against the inert silence which autocrats seek to impose upon their subjects, the dissenting artist can triumph through the gift of metaphor and magic, parody and parable, masking and mimicry. (Osofisan 1998: 11) Femi Osofisan’s assessment of theatre’s particular capacity to beguile autocratic systems of power, giving expression to the hopes and concerns of the dispossessed, aptly conveys the achievement of some of the most exciting dramatic work performed across the world in recent decades. A great deal of this work, developed within nations formerly colonised by Western imperial powers, exhibits a strong urge to recuperate local histories and local performance traditions, not only as a means of cultural decolonisation but also as a challenge to the implicit representational biases of Western theatre. At the same time, there has been a widespread engagement with Western texts and performance idioms, to the extent that critics have often categorised theatre in postcolonial cultures as inherently syncretic (see Balme 1999). Vibrant, energetic and often provocative, this diverse and powerful body of work, segments of which have long been the subject of critical study in the regions from which they derive, has now reached a critical mass that demands broader acknowledgement, both in academic and theatrical realms. To assemble any body of creative work under the descriptor ‘postcolonial’, as this anthology does, is to enter into contentious but productive debates, not only about which texts should be accorded some kind of canonical value but also about the constitution of the critical field in which they are intended to circulate. Although a relatively new force in academic circles, postcolonialism has rapidly expanded its conceptual reach over recent years so that it now describes, in Stephen Slemon’s words, ‘a remarkably heterogeneous set of subject positions, professional fields, and critical enterprises’ (1994:16). In many contexts, the term indicates a degree of agency, or at least a programme of resistance, against cultural domination; in others, it signals the existence of a particular historical legacy and/or a chronological stage in a culture’s transition into a modern nation-state; in yet others, it is used more disapprovingly to suggest a form of co-option into Western cultural economies. What is common to all of these definitions, despite their variant implications, is a central concern with cultural power. For those less interested in staking out disciplinary boundaries, ‘postcolonial’ has become a convenient (and sometimes useful) portmanteau term to describe any kind of resistance, particularly against class, race and gender oppressions. My particular take on the field is considerably more specific, focusing on cultural practices which have both a historical and a discursive relationship to Western imperialism, whether that phenomenon is treated critically, ambivalently or collusively. Hence, the following plays, as well as deriving from cultures which have been colonised by European or American powers, respond in demonstrable ways to the legacy of that experience. Their responses – whether passionate, angry, detached, cynical, humorous, celebratory, ambivalent or even whimsical – may be manifest in thematic motifs, narrative structures and/or performative features, all of which are coded in culturally specific ways, taking into account the resources available in a particular theatrical milieu. My positioning of Western imperialism as one of the common historical denominators of postcolonial studies may (justly) beg 1 Postcolonial Plays : An Anthology, edited by Helen Gilbert, Taylor & Francis Group, 2001. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uql/detail.action?docID=1397222. Created from uql on 2020-10-02 22:51:51. Copyright © 2001. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved. POSTCOLONIAL PLAYS debate for some readers. As Gary Boire argues in relation to the British Empire, ‘The superficial crime of superimposition may have been the same in all colonies, but given the specificities of history, ethnicity, gender, culture and geography, there are significant and subtle variations between each repetition and amongst the multiple reactions to it’ (1990: 306). Boire’s caution against homogenisation is well heeded, particularly given the ongoing inequities between, and within, formerly colonised nations; yet his view is premised on the assumption that those interpreting cultural artefacts (fictional or historical) will not sufficiently attend to their particularised locations. Although this has sometimes been the case, the best broad-based postcolonial projects inevitably entail a careful accounting of differences and divisions even in the service of comparative analysis. The plays gathered here tend to insist on such processes of differentiation even while they are brought together in ways that allow opportunities for fruitful dialogue. Deeply embedded in specific cultures and historical circumstances, these texts elicit curiosity and challenge ignorance, encouraging readers to do the intellectual legwork necessary to generate an informed response. Anthologising a range of plays under the broad umbrella of postcolonial theatre necessarily involves some narrowing of a potentially enormous field. In this instance, I have selected texts deriving from geographical areas directly affected by the British imperial project and circulated within English-language theatre, either in their own countries or internationally. This excludes significant and exciting bodies of work from the French- and Spanish-speaking postcolonial regions, whose study would add particular inflections to an understanding of the field. The time-span from which the chosen plays are drawn is restricted to the recent era of decolonisation, even though some compelling arguments have been made for applying a postcolonial analysis to preindependence texts. These exclusions are driven by the need to provide such a massive project with some coherence. By focusing on theatre inflected by a broadly comparable set of historical circumstances, I hope to enable productive analysis of both similarities and differences, parallels and divergences, and lines of continuity and disjunction. Hence, the indigenous plays drawn from Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Hawai‘i might be examined as products of dispossessed minorities in various stages of struggle to attain agency within ‘Western’ settler cultures. On a very different tack, one might trace connections between specific African performance idioms and their diasporic transformations in Caribbean theatre. Alternatively, it is possible to consider the effect of global developments such as the Black Consciousness Movement on both of these groupings. Nationalism, communalism and multiculturalism are also issues that cut across regional boundaries; likewise, the recent implementation of official reconciliation processes designed to deal with histories of cultural genocide in, for example, South Africa, Australia and Canada. The legacy of Western orientalism, itself enmeshed with the British imperial project in India as well as in Malaysia and Singapore, suggests another possible area for comparative analysis. How questions of chronology intersect with postcoloniality is also a relevant consideration, though it is not possible (or desirable) to establish complex postcolonial chronologies with the limited number of texts that can be represented in one book. The actual date of independence from British colonial rule is not the only issue here, especially since various countries have approached that event and experienced its aftermath in very different ways, sometimes peacefully, sometimes in the ravages of war. In terms of theatre, it seems that explicitly anti-imperial texts emerged earlier in Africa and the Caribbean than in the settler nations, probably because it was only in the aftermath of the 1960s to 1970s transnational civil-rights movements that majority groups in Canada and Australia, for instance, began to seriously debate issues relating to indigenous sovereignty. Earlier nationalist, and often aggressively masculinist, texts that (arguably) might be studied within postcolonial frameworks in these countries are not included here because they tend to ignore the internal racial divisions on which their cultures have been founded. The geographical, social and racial limits of postcolonialism continue to shift depending on the perspectives of particular scholars and commentators. Some critics argue, for 2 Postcolonial Plays : An Anthology, edited by Helen Gilbert, Taylor & Francis Group, 2001. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uql/detail.action?docID=1397222. Created from uql on 2020-10-02 22:51:51. Copyright © 2001. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved. GENERAL INTRODUCTION instance, that Northern Ireland, as a Western nation implicated in British systems of power, does not fall under the ambit of postcolonial inquiry, while others accept this categorisation but caution against simplistic interpretations of Irish nationalism as driven by anti-colonial impulses. The Irish play included here, Charabanc’s Somewhere Over the Balcony, adds complexity but also clarity to such debates by anchoring them firmly in the lived reality of a Belfast community. There is also much argument about whether settler cultures in Canada, Australia or South Africa should be considered within postcolonial studies, given their past and ongoing role in the colonisation of indigenous populations. Yet it is evident that such oppressions trouble both settler and indigenous playwrights alike, though their perspectives on colonial history are necessarily charged by the politics of their particular communities, sometimes in surprising ways. For instance, Jimmy Chi and Kuckles’ Aboriginal musical, Bran Nue Dae, is far more forgiving in its treatment of Australia’s past and current race-relations than many recent white-authored plays. My inclusion of works drawn from the contested ‘settler’ groupings is based on a belief that their engagement with imperialism, however ambivalent, is none the less valuable to an understanding of the field. Moreover, to exclude these texts would be to suggest that colonial relations impact only on the dispossessed, which, judging by the wealth of settler theatre that engages critically with imperialism, is clearly not the case. Louis Nowra’s haunting account of colonial Australian society and Jane Taylor’s multimedia tour de force investigating post-apartheid politics in South Africa are powerful examples to the contrary. In a different way, Guillermo Verdecchia’s Fronteras Americanas, a Canadian ‘settler’ text of sorts, adds immeasurably to a sense of the cultural and racial complexities of this increasingly multi-ethnic nation. While this anthology brings together a broad-ranging selection of texts from the particular field as outlined, there are many other excellent postcolonial plays that could not be included, whether through lack of space, copyright difficulties, limited access to texts preserved in publishable forms, or the simple failure of communication technologies. Kenya, Uganda, Zimbabwe and Zambia have all produced topical contemporary theatre that might be studied in tandem with the plays in this collection. Texts from these areas on my wider ‘wish list’ include Alex Mukulu’s 30 Years of Bananas (Uganda), Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s I Will Marry When I Want (Kenya) and Andrew Whaley’s The Nyoka Tree (Zimbabwe). Equally, Shamsul Haq’s historical drama, Nuraldeen’s Life (Bangladesh), Anton Juan’s Princess of the Lizard Moon (Philippines) or Marianne Ackerman’s L’Affaire Tartuffe (Québec) would enrich a study of the field. Readers are also encouraged to engage with the works of Athol Fugard and Brian Friel, whose reputations in the postcolonial field should have guaranteed a place in this collection, except that I was unable to gain permission to reprint any of their plays in full. Other dramatists prominent within their specific regions but not featured here include Jack Davis, widely lauded as the ‘father’ of Aboriginal theatre in Australia; Dennis Scott, whose influential work as a writer and director has been central to the development of Jamaican performance idioms; Michel Tremblay, the first Québecois playwright to challenge Canada’s predominantly Anglo-centric canon; Vijay Tendulkar, author of Ghasiram Kotwal, a stunning allegory of political corruption in India; and Hone Kouka, currently a driving force in contemporary Māori theatre. Such omissions, however regrettable, opened up exciting possibilities for alternative texts. Some were already targeted for this project; others, brought to my notice by experts in the field, demanded attention because of their arresting theatricality or their bold interventions in topical debates. The final selection does not attempt to deliver an in-depth survey of the field or to represent only paradigmatic texts/authors from each region – both futile projects in an anthology of this kind – but rather to suggest the vast range of work that might be considered under the rubric of postcolonial theatre. To this end, I have put together both high-profile and lesser known plays that vary not only in scale and subject matter but also in style, processes of authorship, and modes of production and consumption. In many cases, these are also texts that speak to key political struggles; in others, they express more subtle, and sometimes surprising, concerns. 3 Postcolonial Plays : An Anthology, edited by Helen Gilbert, Taylor & Francis Group, 2001. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uql/detail.action?docID=1397222. Created from uql on 2020-10-02 22:51:51. Copyright © 2001. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved. POSTCOLONIAL PLAYS The effort to represent a wide variety of genres within a field of theatre that tends to eschew narrow conceptions of dialoguedependent performance has presented problems of its own. Some of the most vibrant and popular postcolonial performances are not easily textualised without extensive pictorial documentation not possible within the parameters of this project. Hence, I have chosen works such as Ubu and the Truth Commission and Bran Nue Dae with some trepidation, hoping that the few illustrations supplied or other available audiovisual resources might help to convey a little of their theatrical magic. In most other cases, a sense of the performance style can be gleaned from a careful reading of the script in tandem with relevant research on the conventions invoked. Understanding at least the basics of particular styles and their local articulation, whether through storytelling, folk forms, ritualised enactments, agit-prop theatre, performance art, farce or Western-style realism, is crucial to a complex engagement with many of the texts. It is also important to remember that the mode in which any kind of art is (re)produced is crucially affected by the demographics of its consumption. In this respect, particular performance styles have been fashioned to speak to specific audiences, many of whom may not participate in a literary culture. The work of popular theatre proponents such as Jamaica’s Sistren Theatre Collective falls into this category. Language itself is a crucial issue in postcolonial theatre, raising questions about which texts might be anthologised and how their particular languages are to be presented for audiences outside the societies for which they were originally produced. Because of its colonial legacy and its ongoing role in maintaining neo-colonial hierarchies through foreign education, the English language (or any language, for that matter) can never be a neutral medium. However, dramatists such as Wole Soyinka and Derek Walcott maintain that this fact should initiate not a paralysis but a newly invigorated sense of the complexities of the linguistic sites from which postcolonial artists speak. For Soyinka, one of the key dramaturgical tasks is thus to forge a culturally matrixed language adapted to particularised local circumstances: When we borrow an alien language to sculpt or paint in, we must begin by co-opting the entire properties in our matrix of thought and expression. We must stress such a language, stretch it, impact and compact, fragment and reassemble it with no apology, as required to bear the burden of experiencing. (Soyinka 1988: 107) In some postcolonial regions, such a project has led to the formation of Creole and Pidgin variants of English that now claim status as separate languages and indeed function as such in many contexts. As Edward Brathwaite says of ‘nation language’ in the Caribbean, ‘English it may be in terms of some of its lexical features. But in its contours, its rhythm and timbre, its sound explosions, it is not English, even though the words, as you hear them, might be English to a greater or lesser degree’ (1984: 13). Collectively, the plays gathered here demonstrate the malleability of the English language as well as suggesting some of its biases and limitations. With the exception of Girish Karnad’s Hayavadana (first written in Kannada and then translated by the author), all have been written predominantly in some version of English, though many incorporate other languages to better convey certain culturally specific concepts, or, alternatively, to subvert the hegemony of the imperial tongue. For those playwrights born (or forcibly resettled) into monolingual English-speaking communities, working in/with this language is more or less a given; for others, it has been a strategic choice, governed by factors such as target audience. Soyinka and Ama Ata Aidoo, for instance, have been part of a conscious effort to forge an English-language theatre in West Africa while also attempting to gain the ear of a Western audience. Also hoping to circulate her work internationally, Manjula Padmanabhan, who speaks several languages, deliberately wrote Harvest in English despite the lack of a suitable English-language theatre culture through which to showcase the play in her home country, India. Karnad, on the other hand, produced his play in two Indian languages as well as in English, each translation involving a different kind of ‘play-making’ exercise. A slightly different situation pertains to Kee Thuan Chye, whose choice of English reflects its position as the 4 Postcolonial Plays : An Anthology, edited by Helen Gilbert, Taylor & Francis Group, 2001. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uql/detail.action?docID=1397222. Created from uql on 2020-10-02 22:51:51. Copyright © 2001. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved. GENERAL INTRODUCTION lingua franca for communication between different cultural groups within a multi-ethnic nation. If the use of English is a strategic choice for many of the playwrights, so too is the switch to other languages, which, in some cases, are meant to exclude part of the audience from their linguistic reach. This has raised complex questions about translations and glosses, particularly since theatre is a medium that often relies on intonation, pitch and gesture to communicate across language barriers. While postcolonial critics may feel that any kind of glossing is a Eurocentric practice, it has seemed necessary to annotate some of the texts included here in order for them to effectively cross cultural boundaries. I have attempted to gloss in accordance with the ‘spirit’ of each text, opting for minimal translations and explanations when a play has been written for a particular constituency different from the likely readership of this book. No glosses are supplied when the specific project of the dialogue is to make a point about language usage or where authors felt that their meaning could be gleaned with a little extra interpretive effort. While most explanatory material has been adopted from original publications or compiled in consultation with the respective playwrights, or experts in their field, these glosses are not intended to be exhaustive or to replace the textual and/or performative functions of the given languages. Among other things, such languages remind us that the scripts themselves are ineluctably inscribed with the oral traces of their performance. The following plays are not grouped thematically or stylistically, on the grounds that readers will find their own connecting motifs. I have, however, loosely ordered them according to region, beginning with works that speak to African political issues, followed by those drawn from cultures occupied but not predominantly settled by Britain, then moving to indigenous and nonindigenous plays from ‘Western’ settler nations, to end with a fascinating example from Northern Ireland, often positioned as Britain’s oldest colony, albeit contentiously. One of the features of the collection as a whole is the predominance of plays that tend to work either wholly or partly in nonnaturalistic modes. This should not be surprising given that many of the cultures represented have powerful indigenous performance traditions/rituals that are antithetical to Western-style realism, which, in any case, is increasingly viewed as unsuitable for political theatre because of its tendency to reproduce the status quo. While I have deliberately chosen a mix of texts that might provoke readers to consider how stylistic devices can articulate postcoloniality, the bias against naturalism is, in fact, fairly typical of the broader field from which these scripts are drawn. While non-naturalistic modes are often chosen to facilitate criticism of particular regimes, as in farce, satire or agit-prop theatre, they may also be a response to the available theatrical resources, as, for instance, in monodrama and other kinds of theatre modelled on storytelling techniques. Above all, non-naturalistic theatre presumes a specific kind of relationship with its audience, one that avoids illusionism in favour of more explicit engagement with its interpretive community. All but a few of the following plays explicitly acknowledge their audiences, whether by telling them stories, inviting them to discuss philosophical problems, confronting them directly with controversial material, exhorting them to participate in the action, or suddenly transforming them into ‘players’ as Tomson Highway’s The Rez Sisters does in its climactic Bingo fantasia. The most extreme versions of explicit audience address, as evident in the closing scenes of Osofisan’s Once Upon Four Robbers and Kee’s 1984 Here and Now, would seem to align with techniques derived from Brazilian director and theorist Augusto Boal, whose model of an organic ‘forum theatre’ firmly contextualises theatrical practice within community structures and current political struggles, so that performance becomes one kind of ‘rehearsal’ for social change. It is important to consider, however, that the precise degree of political leverage gained by this type of theatre may be compromised in countries where mass poverty prevents the vast majority of the population from participating in paid theatre activities, and where the status of English as the tongue of the highly educated lends certain kinds of experimentalism a distinctly coterie air. Osofisan has worked against these limitations by translating his plays into Yoruba and touring them outside the metropolitan areas. The issue of audience reception entails different kinds of traps for 5 Postcolonial Plays : An Anthology, edited by Helen Gilbert, Taylor & Francis Group, 2001. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uql/detail.action?docID=1397222. Created from uql on 2020-10-02 22:51:51. Copyright © 2001. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved. POSTCOLONIAL PLAYS readers of this anthology. As Alan Filewod cautions in relation to mainstream productions of native Canadian plays, it can be dangerous to isolate particular texts from their ‘inter-productive’ communities, which ‘constitute a discourse of material practice’ that can ‘absorb and synthesise contradictions’ (1994: 372). This is a valid point that reiterates the importance of studying not just the texts represented here but also their production histories and particular cultural contexts. This brief introduction can suggest only a few of the different reception issues, thematic concerns and performative strategies manifest in the plays collected here. Individual readers, teachers and students will undoubtedly develop their own ideas about various texts’ treatment of tradition, religion, politics, gender, race, identity, class, history, myth, sexuality and cultural location, to point to some of the recurrent motifs in the field. This project has proceeded on the assumption that an anthology cannot and should not do the bulk of the cognitive work for its readers but rather supply basic information and interpretive cues that will entice them to find out more (and more again). In bringing together plays which generally lie outside the purview of Euro-American theatrical canons, my aim has been to assemble a teaching text that will be flexible enough to serve a range of pedagogical needs even though it is undeniably marked with my subjective imprimatur. The following plays confirm that postcolonial theatre, though differently configured in different places, is currently a major force reshaping the ways in which we can think about performance as social praxis. In this respect, it may be the exemplary art form through which to understand patterns of identity, oppression, migration, political negotiation, economics and global communication in the new millennium. General notes In this anthology, dates given in parentheses after plays refer to the first performance except in those few cases where publication preceded the script’s premiere production. Orthography for each of the scripts follows the original publication unless otherwise requested by the playwright. Hence, in some instances, I have omitted various diacritics that might be used customarily in local contexts. Yoruba words, for example, are not accented, while Māori and Hawaiian terms are. Apparent inconsistencies in the spelling of various Jamaican Creole words in Sistren’s play generally reflect the subtle inflections of their usage. Select bibliography Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G. and Tiffin, H. (eds) (1995) The Post-Colonial Studies Reader, London: Routledge. Balme, C. (1999) Decolonizing the Stage: Theatrical Syncretism and Post-Colonial Drama, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Banham, M., Hill, E. and Woodyard, G. (eds) (1994) The Cambridge Guide to African and Caribbean Theatre, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Boire, G. (1990) ‘Sucking Kumaras’, Canadian Literature 124/125: 301–6. Boon, R. and Plastow, J. (eds) (1998) Theatre Matters: Performance and Culture on the World Stage, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brathwaite, E. (1984) History of the Voice: The Development of Nation Language in Anglophone Caribbean Poetry, London: New Beacon. Breitinger, E. (ed.) (1994) Theatre and Performance in Africa: Intercultural Perspectives, Bayreuth: Bayreuth University African Studies Series. Childs, P. and Williams, P. (1997) An Introduction to Post-Colonial Theory, London: Prentice Hall. Connolly, L.W. (ed.) (1995) Canadian Drama and the Critics, rev. edn, Vancouver: Talon. Crow, B. with Banfield, C. (1996) An Introduction to Post-Colonial Theatre, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Davis, G.V. and Fuchs, A. (eds) (1996) Theatre and Change in South Africa, Amsterdam: Harwood Academic. Dunton, C. (1992) Make Man Talk True: Nigerian Drama in English since 1970, London: Zell. Filewod, A. (1994) ‘Receiving Aboriginality: Tomson Highway and the crisis of cultural authenticity’, Theatre Journal 46, 3: 363–73. Gainor, J.E. (ed.) (1995) Imperialism and Theatre: Essays on World Theatre, Drama and Performance, London: Routledge. 6 Postcolonial Plays : An Anthology, edited by Helen Gilbert, Taylor & Francis Group, 2001. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uql/detail.action?docID=1397222. Created from uql on 2020-10-02 22:51:51. GENERAL INTRODUCTION Olaniyan, T. (1995) Scars of Conquest/Masks of Resistance: The Invention of Cultural Identities in African, African-American, and Caribbean Drama, New York: Oxford University Press. Orkin, M. (1991) Drama and the South African State, Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press. Osofisan, F. (1998) ‘“The revolution as muse”: drama as surreptitious insurrection in a post-colonial, military state’, in R. Boon and J. Plastow (eds) Theatre Matters: Performance and Culture on the World Stage, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 11–35. Slemon, S. (1994) ‘The scramble for postcolonialism’, in C. Tiffin and A. Lawson (eds) De-scribing Empire: Post-Colonialism and Textuality, London: Routledge, 15–32. Soyinka, W. (1988) Art, Dialogue and Outrage: Essays on Literature and Culture, Ibadan: New Horn. Stone, J. (1994) Theatre: Studies in West Indian Literature, London: Macmillan. Copyright © 2001. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved. Gilbert, H. (ed.) (1999) (Post)Colonial Stages: Critical and Creative Views on Drama, Theatre and Performance, Hebden Bridge, UK: Dangaroo. Gilbert, H. and Tompkins, J. (1996) Post-Colonial Drama: Theory, Practice, Politics, London: Routledge. Gunner, L. (ed.) (1994) Politics and Performance: Theatre, Poetry and Song in Southern Africa, Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press. Kelly, V. (ed.) (1998) Our Australian Theatre in the 1990s, Amsterdam: Rodopi. King, B. (ed.) (1995) Post-Colonial English Drama: Commonwealth Drama since 1960, London: Macmillan. Murray, C. (1997) Twentieth Century Irish Drama, Manchester: Manchester University Press. Plastow, J. (1996) African Theatre and Politics: The Evolution of Theatre in Ethiopia, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, Amsterdam: Rodopi. 7 Postcolonial Plays : An Anthology, edited by Helen Gilbert, Taylor & Francis Group, 2001. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uql/detail.action?docID=1397222. Created from uql on 2020-10-02 22:51:51.