Synonyms

Sustainable development planning in cities

Definition

Planning is the “process for determining appropriate future actions through a sequence of choices” (Davidoff and Reiner 1962). Sustainable urban planning is the “development strategies and practices in cities that ensure livable, self-sustaining communities over long term” (Academic Partnerships 2016).

Introduction

In this entry, sustainable urban planning is discussed critically. At the outset, the concepts of urban planning and sustainable urban planning are defined, and the meaning of sustainable urban planning is discussed. There has been rapid urbanization and unbalanced growth of cities with many physical, social, economic, and environmental consequences. Rapid urbanization has posed serious environmental degradation in cities challenging to quality of life and environment. The cities/towns have become centers of environmental crisis and degradation leading to urban unsustainability. The challenges are how to make cities livable and sustainable? In other words, how to make urban planning sustainable in achieving sustainable (urban) development? The design of sustainable cities plays a catalytic role for change and improvement of quality of life and environmental sustainability. The contemporary urban planning has emerged as a movement for urban reform. Sustainable Development Goal 11 focuses on the theme Sustainable cities and Communities under the heading “Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilience and sustainable” (United Nations 2013).

In terms of content arrangement, the main text is organized into six sections. The section “Introduction” provides an introduction to sustainable urban planning. The section “Urban Planning” focuses on philosophical basis and theories of urban planning. Section “Sustainable Urban Planning” covers the principles, strategies, and challenges of sustainable urban planning. Section “Role of Urban Planning in Sustainable (urban) Development” deals with linkages and role of urban planning in sustainable development. Section “Way Forward” provides an account of way forward in sustainable urban planning. The section “Conclusions” is the conclusion of the chapter.

Urban Planning

Urban planning is a technical and political process concerned with the control of the use of land and design of the urban environment, including transportation networks, to guide and ensure the orderly development of settlements and communities. It includes land use planning/zoning, layout, and design and deals with organization, development, or restoration of existing facilities in urban areas. It simply refers to an orderly sequence of operations designed to lead to achievement of either a single goal or several goals. Urban planning process is an exercise involving at least three levels of activity, i.e., value formulation, identification of means whereby value ends are achieved, and implementation of policy. The contemporary urban planning exists in various forms and addresses several issues including land use, urban poverty alleviation, basic urban services and infrastructure, urban renewal and redevelopment, environmental protection, climate change adaptation, and building resilient communities in cities.

Methods/Approaches to Urban Planning

There are three methods/approaches to urban planning. These are (a) physical determinism approach, (b) system approach, and (c) rational programming approach. Physical determinism approach includes the planning process, which is mainly physical/land-use planning (zoning). The concept of master planning, based on (a) physical determinism approach, is a traditional planning practice that is concerned with production of a plan that is a “blueprint” for growth of city. The traditional practice of master planning still dominates urban planning in the developing countries. The goal of this planning is to limit “urban sprawl” or the haphazard growth of the city. (b) System approach to planning emerged as a need-based approach, and the planning process is no longer envisaged as a master plan but as a set of development programs. Physical determinism, which dominated traditional master planning process, was replaced by system approach dealing with causes of urban problem. Land use (zoning) is less relevant in system approach, and it is geared toward survey of behavior and attitude of urban populace. (c) Rational programming approach is more concern toward social processes and urban economic functions. It involves several disciplines for understanding social behavior and attitude including operational research, cost-benefit analysis, decision theory, input-output studies, information theory, simulation models, and manpower analysis.

Philosophical Basis of Urban Planning

There has never been a clear philosophical basis to planning (Riddell 2004). Many authors focused on philosophical basis of planning (Smart 1972; Sandel 1982; Habermas 1984; Friedmann 1987; Udy 1991; Harper and Stein 1992; Healey 1996; Brooks 2002). Riddell (2004) identified some traditional (modernist) and radical (neo-modernist) theories as the philosophical basis. These are as follows:

  1. (a)

    Utilitarian (positivist) theory (Smart 1972) – a traditional theory which was a philosophical basis especially to local development planning in Anglo-influenced world and it mainly attached to community.

  2. (b)

    Negative rights theory (Nozick 1974) – a traditional theory which is aligned to “utilitarian theory” but attaches to individuals than to community.

  3. (c)

    Communitarian theory (Sandel 1982) – a theory that is based on a “traditionalist” pattern on the presumption that policy positions should arise via individual discovery of community attachments.

  4. (d)

    Conscience-raising theory (Habermas 1979, 1984) – a radical theory in which Habermas (1979, 1984) emphasized on “communicative action” in association with “instrumental action” and concerned with connecting improved and undistorted communication. For planning, this means raising the level of social conscience for planners, and this positions planners as both mediators and critics.

  5. (e)

    Liberty-equality theory (Rawls 1972) – a radical view and the most “ethical” of the philosophies which transect with planning, because it incorporates the dominant moral ideals of “liberty and justice.” According to Harper and Stein (1992), Rawls offers the most promising procedural normative ethical theory for planners.

  6. (f)

    Social transaction theory (Popper 1974) – a radical approach of Popper (1974), which is dialectical, involving “piecemeal social engineering” as a transactive process.

Several epistemological considerations relevant to planning theory and improvement of planning practices are (a) positivism, (b) idealism, (c) rationalism, and (d) realism. Positivism is a philosophy that says science provides the only valid form of knowledge and the facts are the only possible objects of knowledge (Kieran 1997). Idealism is a philosophy, which makes a fundamental distinction between explanation of human and natural events. Realism on the other hand, is a philosophical doctrine that views world of physical things existing independently of people’s perception. Realists seek to find cause and effect in nature and society. Rationalism is a subcategory of idealism and is widely used in urban planning. Urban planner and policy makers face with problem of choice in order to realize their goals. They make rational decisions to select choices in certain way. They consider all of alternatives that are open to them. The urban planners identify and evaluate all consequences of each alternative and then select alternative, whose probable consequences are most preferable in terms of goals. The method of planning is a mixture of rationalism and positivism.

Types of Urban Planning

Urban planning is of several types: (a) general vs. physical planning, (b) single vs. multi-level planning, (c) operational vs. restorative planning, and (d) comprehensive planning. Based on design, urban planning is categorized as physical planning that refers to physical design, growth, and development of physical environment. General planning on the other hand, includes physical, social, economic, and environmental components. Based on objectives, urban planning can be single-object planning, e.g., urban transport planning or housing planning, or multi-objective planning with two or more objectives, e.g., planning for urban water supply, sanitation drainage, and solid waste disposal. Operational planning is the day-to-day urban operation and for better operation of the component parts of the existing city. A part of operational planning is restorative planning, e.g., urban redevelopment. A comprehensive planning is most commonly used and is a long-term urban planning. The goals of a comprehensive urban planning include provision of services and facilities, public transportation, public safety, public health, economic and fiscal goals, and environmental protection.

Theories of Urban Planning

There are two perspectives in urban planning theories: (a) theories of planning as a process and (b) advocacy planning. Theories of planning (Faludi 1973; Friedmann and Hudson 1974; Forester 1980; Campbell and Fainstein 2003) as a process include two interrelated theories, i.e., substantive theory and procedural theory (Faludi 1973). Substantive theory refers to theory in planning, while procedural theory is theory about act of planning. Substantive theory includes substantive background/ideas/models about how the world works. There is a need to have substantive ideas to form procedural theories.

According to Van Assche et al. (2012), the procedural planning theory includes several planning approaches such as (1) rational comprehensive approach, (2) incrementalism, (3) transactive approach, (4) communicative approach, (5) equity approach, (6) radical approach, and (7) advocacy approach. The rational comprehensive planning approach emerged prior to the 1950s as “blueprint planning” that emphasized the improvement of built environment based on key spatial factors. The idea behind this planning was to make planning process as rational and comprehensive as possible. The rational planning approach (Rothblatt 1971) however lacked greater professional training and failed to provide public participation and, therefore, did not succeed (Van Assche et al. 2012). A synoptic planning model emerged in the late 1950s involving greater public participation. Both blueprint and synoptic planning were based on rational paradigm (ibid.). A participatory planning emphasized community involvement in the strategic and management processes of planning. The incremental approach, which was emerged with Lindblom’s (1959) incrementalism, described planning as a process “muddling through” and those practical planning required decisions to be made incrementally. Lindblom’s (1959) disjointed incrementalism is an alternative view of planning process, reaching agreement on goals, and making incremental adjustments by the planners. The planners and policy makers are strongly influenced by precedent and experience. Transactive planning focuses on interpersonal dialogue that develops ideas, which will be turned into action. The urban planner gets more information on the community and citizens become more educated about planning issues. Communicative planning approach engages stakeholders in a process to make decisions, and it is also called collaborative planning among planning practitioners (Van Assche et al. 2012). In equity planning urban planners working within the government use their analytical and organizing skills to influence opinion and implement policies and programs that redistribute resources to the poor (ibid.). Radical planning seeks to manage development in an equitable and community-based manner. Davidoff and Reiner (1962) proposed a choice theory of planning, and they asserted that planning is a process for determining appropriate future actions through a sequence of choices, and values are inescapable elements of rational decision-making process or any exercise of choice. Advocacy planning developed by Paul Davidoff (1965) is a pluralistic and inclusive planning theory where planners seek to represent the interests of various groups within society. The theory takes the perspective that there are large inequalities between groups that result in large number of people unrepresented in the process. It ensures that all people are equally represented in the planning process by advocating for the interests of underprivileged and seeking change (ibid.).

Sustainable Urban Planning

Sustainable urban planning (Amado et al. 2009; Batty 2009; Batty et al. 2001; Riddell 2004; Calthorpe 2017) is simply the development strategies and practices in cities for improving quality of life and environment. The concept is used synonymously with sustainable development planning in cities in order to achieve sustainability.

Principles of Sustainable Development Planning

The United Nations Conference in June 1972 in Stockholm provided the guiding principles of stewardship of world environment. It affirmed that environmental quality is a fundamental human right and emphasized a global responsibility toward protecting environment for future generation. The three major pillars of sustainability include environmental, social, and economic sustainability. These pillars are commonly referred to as three Ps: planet, people, and profit or progress. These are alternatively described as three Es of sustainable development: environment, economy, and equity.

According to Ahmadi and Toghyani (n.d.), the basic principles of sustainable development or the five dimensions of sustainable development are the economic stability, social sustainability, ecological sustainability, sustainable spatial development, and cultural continuity. Riddell (2004) noted that a structural depiction of sustainability includes links between social well-being, economic growth, and ecological conservancy. Their interaction is crucial in achieving sustainability. According to Riddell (2004), a fourfold interaction emerge, i.e., social-economic interaction, ecological-social interaction, economic-ecological interaction, and conservation with development.

The underlying values and motivating factors of development planning and conservancy practices are a “social secureness with lifestyle diversity and variety, material wellbeing and a healthy habitat” (Riddell 2004: 25). The integration of conservation and development is the core to planning practice. Planned development and conservation is “to aspire to an equitable material growth, harmonious social wellbeing and environmental balance.”

For sustainable cities, ecosystem services in and around the city are key assets that provide a wide range of values: environmental, economic, social, and cultural (WWF Sweden 2019). Ecological and social values should develop as city grows. Ecosystem services include all products, processes, services, and values that are provided by nature (ibid.). The various eco-products include food, medicines, timber, and biofuel; processes include photosynthesis and release of oxygen to environment, soil formation, water purification, and pollination; and emotional and spiritual values include recreation, aesthetic, and spiritual experiences (ibid.). A city or urban area has a certain ecological capacity threshold after which the environmental degradation begins and leads to unsustainability.

In the United States, the President’s Council for Sustainable Development, 1997, had mandated a number of basic principles that decision-makers ought to follow to ensure sustainable development (cited in Al-Shihri 2013). Al-Shihri (2013) noted that these principles include the following:

  1. (a)

    Use of long-term horizon in planning – Sustainable development requires the use of a long-term horizon for decision-making in which society would pursue long-term aspirations.

  2. (b)

    Considering interdependence of factors – Sustainable development should recognize the interdependence of economic, environmental, and social well-being factors.

  3. (c)

    Ensuring public participation – Sustainable development depends on decision-making process that is inclusive, participatory, and transparent. The sustainable planning process must ensure the input of the stakeholders.

  4. (d)

    Promoting equity – Sustainable development should promote equity between generations and different groups in society.

  5. (e)

    Promoting proactive prevention – Sustainable development planning is anticipatory, and it must promote efforts to prevent problems.

In 2000, the American Planning Association (APA) emphasized that planning for sustainability requires a systematic, integrated approach that brings environmental, economic, and social goals together (Al-Shihri 2013).

Importance of Sustainable Urban Planning

Cities and towns have become primary living space today. It is an urban world. Today, half of the global population is living in cities and towns, and by 2050, an estimated 70% of humanity will be urbanized. Cities account for 75% of world’s energy use, and over 70% of world’s carbon dioxide emissions. With growing city population, the social, economic, and environmental challenges are growing in urban areas as well. Concerns over urban environmental quality including clean air and water, climate change-induced events like flooding and cyclone and its impact on cities, efficient energy and water use, renewable energy, affordable housing, urban drainage and sewerage, and basic urban infrastructure draw attention toward sustainable urban development planning.

Sustainable urban planning develops innovative and practical approaches to land use and its impact on natural resources. Good sustainable land-use planning helps improve the welfare of people and their communities, shaping their urban areas and neighborhoods into healthier, more efficient spaces (Academic Partnership 2016).

Sustainable urban planning and development aims at solving urban sprawl and bringing an orderly city expansion, expanding employment opportunities and offering sustainable livelihoods, expanding urban infrastructure, improving living standards and quality of life, increasing efficiency in energy and environmental resource uses, increasing economic growth, and reducing poverty and inequity. The main concern is to minimize the negative effects of urban lifestyles on environment and human beings and to enhance quality of life and environment. Sustainable urban planning thus allows reducing negative impact on the urban environment, minimizing the natural resource consumption and increases the utilization of renewable resources, minimizes wastes, and reduces operational costs. Sustainable urban planning can enhance urban biocapacity and create opportunities for urban residents to make sustainable choices that can improve their quality of life. It can reduce urban ecological footprints. Sustainable urban planning can also reduce carbon footprint per person from food, transport, housing, and other consumption and can help building cities and communities’ resilience to climate change.

Scope of Sustainable Urban Planning

Sustainable urban planning is multidisciplinary and involves disciplines such as architecture, engineering, economics, geography, governance studies, urban design, environmental science, accounting and finance, and many others. Sustainable urban planning connotes process that is practiced and delivered (Riddell 2004).

Urban housing, public streets, drainage and sewerage, squares, parks, and urban spaces as well as waste management practices and environmental quality and health in cities are vital aspects of sustainable living. A sustainable urban living includes the use of renewable resources, energy efficiency, and use of public transport, accessible resources, and services. Urban renovation and restoration through sound urban planning help preserve the cultural heritage and identity of a city. Sustainable urban planning can help reducing urban sprawl, regulating urban density, protecting landscape, reducing urban footprint, promoting urban renewal and redevelopment, promoting quality of life and environment, and providing the balance between the city and natural environment, thus help achieving urban sustainability. Environmental planning (Buckingham-Hatfield and Evans 1996), urban planning, and sustainability go hand in hand. Yigitcanlar and Dizdaroglu (2015) noted that the role of ecological planning is vital in achieving sustainable cities.

Role of Urban Planners in Sustainability

The US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) (2012) noted that “the environmental aspect of sustainability focuses on the goals of protecting the environment and the conservation of natural resources for current and future generations.” To accomplish these goals, sustainability professionals, in particular urban and regional planners, create solutions and implement policies and strategies to help communities manage their resources, lower their consumption of natural resources, manage their wastes, and reduce their overall impact on the environment. To fulfill social aspect, sustainability professionals including urban planners must attempt to minimize the social and economic negative effects and maximize the positive effects on communities and other stakeholders. Professional urban and regional planners rely on a collaborative process that includes community officials along with citizens. They gather community input on land use and sustainability and, relying on data and expert analysis, develop, implement, and monitor long-term sustainability (Academic Partnership 2016).

City and regional planning is integrally related to human development and resource use. Urban and regional planners play crucial role in making a region livable for its residents and more attractive to new businesses. As cities, suburban areas and municipalities change demographically and environmentally, urban planning professionals must create revitalization projects and address population growth, environmental degradation, and resource scarcity (US BLS 2012). Planners are also necessary in new and existing communities, which require extensive development and improved infrastructure, including housing, roads and highways, water and sewer systems, schools, healthcare facilities, and parks.

Urban planners and designers are inherently generalists; they must integrate across issues, disciplines, and interest groups (Calthorpe 2017). Specialists like architects especially landscape architects, engineers, urban designers, and planners play a significant role in sustainable urban planning and achieving sustainable development in cities and creating appropriate conditions for higher quality of life (Leyzerova et al. 2016). Urban planning professionals must create revitalization projects and address the issues of population growth, environmental degradation, and resource scarcity. Planners do play a crucial role in improving the sustainability of communities and the resources that support them (McDonald et al. 2009). According to Calthorpe (2017), urban planners and designers, together with the support of environmental policy makers, analysts, NGOs, and advocates can lead the way in building smart and sustainable communities.

Strategies for Sustainable Urban Planning

Calthorpe (2017) noted that cities are self-adjusting, homeostatic, and autonomous today. According to Calthorpe (2017), the urban planners need to adopt seven key strategies for building smart and sustainable cities that include (1) making connections – to people, data/information, aspirations, needs, opportunities, futures, and outcomes. The act of creating an urban design, a plan, framing right infrastructure, or public policy involves enhancing connections, (2) integrating data to reveal patterns and educate stakeholders, (3) designing for multiple futures, (4) building a scenario planning, (5) seeking consensus and coalitions, and (6) being generalists. Planners and designers must integrate issues, disciplines, and interest groups and (7) think beyond horizons by stretching boundaries and expanding timeframes. Calthorpe (2017) further stated that urban landscape is shaped by environment, history, culture, and economy.

To create sustainable cities, there is a need to change human consumption patterns and minimize the wastes. There is also a need to reduce the area of human-induced land and to change large part of developed and polluted areas into their natural state (Leyzerova et al. 2016). This can be achieved through sustainable urban design and construction and making urban areas green and by creating biopositive facilities (ibid.).

Sustainable strategies of urban planning include sound design and planning of residential areas, green buildings, and approaches to different demands: social, economic, and sanitary and hygienic demands (Leyzerova et al. 2016). Social demands aim at creating network and placing buildings to create favorable conditions for their use, and economic demands include rational utilization of area territories (ibid.). Similarly, sanitary and hygienic demands can create sustainable urban areas by establishing favorable insulations and air conditions as well as protection of buildings from external noises (ibid.), for example, protection of buildings from noise of air traffic.

City planners and decision-makers need to make use of an integrated model for environmental management, where use of land, water, and air is planned across sectors (WWF Sweden 2019). Investment on city’s ecosystem services, ecological infrastructure, and nature conservation is vital. Urban land is a vital natural resource. Effective land-use planning in cities has long-term social, economic, and environmental consequences, and it has a close bearing on urban sustainability and sustainable development. Sustainable urban planning focuses on using urban land effectively, reducing and managing urban solid wastes, strengthening urban areas as centers of health and well-being, and keeping people at the heart of urban development.

Challenges to Sustainable Urban Development and Planning

Cities are evolving faster than ever before and encountering unprecedented demographic, environmental, economic, and social challenges. Rapid urbanization is increasing the environmental load on cities, making them environmentally unsustainable. A resource-intensive consumer society drives urban lifestyles, contributing much to ecological unsustainability. Humanity’s ecological footprint exceeds the world’s carrying capacity by 50% (WWF Sweden 2019). The unsustainable development of cities poses key challenges for urban planning and management. Sound design and planning of residential areas and neighborhoods is especially a major challenge when creating a sustainable urban environment (Leyzerova et al. 2016). The challenge is based on the “principles of integrated approach to different demands: social, architectural, artistic, economic, sanitary and hygienic” (ibid.).

Building urban infrastructure with ecological sustainability is a challenge. Developing resource-efficient infrastructure based on green or renewable energy sources in cities is a challenge to sustainable urban planning. In cities, there is conflict between conservation and development, so decision-makers must act effectively to preserve, restore, and create urban greenery (WWF Sweden 2019). This requires them to implement tough, innovative, and proactive planning, with a holistic perspective (ibid.). The WWF Sweden (2019) identified five challenges for sustainable cities: (a) ecological footprints, (b) ecosystem services and biodiversity, (c) investments and innovations, (d) welfare and quality of life, and (e) leadership and cooperation.

Urban transportation is a critical element in urban planning. There are many facets in the relations between urban transportation and urban planning. There also exists a critical relationship between urban and land-use planning and transportation. Achieving sustainable land use and urban transportation is a challenge. The greatest challenge is integrating transport and environmental planning with urban planning. Gibson et al. (2005) developed criteria for sustainability to integrate environmental evaluation practice into a perspective of sustainable development. Another challenge of sustainable urban planning is achieving a sustainable urban footprint. Creating sustainable urban communities including physical, social, economic, environmental, and political aspects poses many challenges. Building resilient urban community and creating sustainable communities in the face of climate change is a challenge to sustainable urban planning.

Urban Planning and Sustainable (Urban) Development

Development is a process, which sets out to achieve progressive advancement to the human condition, involving action and fulfillment over time (Riddell 2004:12). According to United Nations’ (1987) World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), sustainable development is defined as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” According Brundtland Commission Report titled “Our Common Future,” “sustainable development is not a fixed state of harmony, but rather a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional changes are made consistent with future as well as present needs” (United Nations 1987). Sustainable development recognizes that sound economic and social development is not possible without a healthy environment, and conversely, a healthy environment is threatened by development that is not sound (Riddell 2004:15). Sustainable development thus links conservation with development. Conservation with development is the resulting effect of interaction of social well-being, economic growth, and ecological conservancy (ibid.). Beer (1993) noted that a proper landscape planning is required to achieve urban environmental sustainability. The principles and concepts of sustainable development are applied to sustainable urban development as well. Sustainable urbanization can be achieved when the social, economic, and environmental needs of people are met. According to Riddell (2004), sustainable urban development is that “urban provisioning which indefinitely meets the need for access to employment, education, entertainment and recreation at a socially acceptable environmental cost.” This is possible through sustainable urban planning.

Robinson et al. (1990) expressed beyond sustainable development and defined a “sustainable society.” However, they established that there is “no single version of a sustainable society” and expressed that “sustainability can never be said to be completely achieved” (Riddell 2004:15). The neo-modern paradigm according to Riddell (2004) viewed that “we can say more about what is not sustainable than what is sustainable, a position what sustainable urban development entails.”

Sustainable development of cities or sustainable urban development is aimed at creating a healthy and ecological city satisfying the residents’ needs. “Sustainable urban development is perceived as improving the quality of life in a city, including ecological, cultural, political, institutional, social, and economic components without leaving a burden, and thus forming the sustainable city” (Flint and Raco 2012). Sustainable urban development links environmental conservation to development. The goal of sustainable urban development is to achieve sustainable and resilient urban communities. Advancement of human conditions and improvement of quality of life and environment in urban arena can be achieved through sustainable urban planning. Sustainable urban planning and sustainable urban development go hand in hand. Sustainable urban development can help revitalized sustainable urban planning practices and vice versa. They reinforce each other.

The concept of “healthy city” (WHO 1998; Kenzer 2000), “sustainable city” (Girardet 1990, Haughton and Hunter 2003), “livable city” (Wheeler 2004), “conscious city” (Palti 2016), “inclusive city,” “compact city” (Jenks and Burgess 2000), “eco city” (Wong and Yuen 2011), and “green city” is synonymously used with the concept of “sustainable urban development” that can be achieved through sustainable urban planning and development. WHO (1998) defined a healthy city as “one that is continually creating and improving those physical and social environments and expanding those community resources, which enable people to mutually support each other in performing all the functions of life and developing to their maximum potential.”

Sustainable urban development is a global priority; however, most cities lack the capacity and resources to ensure that the city develops in a sustainable manner. Sustainable urban planning plays a critical role in achieving sustainable urban development (Blowers 1993; Berke and Conroy 2000; Eden et al. 2001). Ahmadi and Toghyani (n.d.) identified some important considerations in the sustainable urban development planning that include social and cultural, economic, physical, and environmental aspects and management, decision-making, and practical methods. The social and cultural considerations include, e.g., reducing population growth, poverty and inequalities, changing behavior for the uncontrolled consumption pattern, and strengthening values of local culture (ibid.). The economic considerations include, e.g., changing patterns of production, distribution, and consumption of materials, reducing per capita costs of urban services to improve the economic efficiency of city administration, and providing support for the growth and development of urban economy. Some physical considerations are, e.g., optimal design and planning for new towns, enhancing productive ecosystems in the city, spatial planning, design of energy saving building, integrated public transportation, distributing adequate space for urban facilities, building codes and standards, and creating suitable ways for bicycle traffic (Ahmadi and Toghyani n.d.). The management, decision-making, and practical methods include, e.g., reforming the methods of urban planning, participation of urban institutions, and promoting community awareness and knowledge (ibid.). Participatory urban planning that emphasizes the involvement of the community in the process of urban planning is key to achieve sustainable urban development.

Way Forward

New sustainable solutions to urban planning problems include a mixed land-use development, walkability, open spaces, green buildings, green housing, green infrastructure, green investment, green energy, greenways, and green or smart city development. Building sustainable cities requires investment in green or renewable energy sources; efficiency in the use of water and electricity; design and implementation of compact cities; increase in green areas; fast, reliable, and affordable public transport; and improved waste disposal and management with proper recycling systems. Sustainable urban planning must ensure livable and self-sustaining urban communities over the long term. The future of city depends on consensus and coalitions, it is essentially a political act, for which strong political will is required.

A better city future can be built by smart or sustainable urban planning. Land and finance are the two key instruments in urban planning, therefore, management of land and finance are vital in the context of sustainable development planning in cities. Cities need to tailor financing models based on public and private funding. Cities need to place demands on financial market to bring about sustainable change (WWF Sweden 2019). The practitioners must dedicate themselves to the practice of building mutually beneficial communities (Calthorpe 2017). Green building design, green construction, and green urban architecture contribute much to sustainable urban planning, and these are way forward to achieve sustainable development in cities. There is a greater need to develop integrated approach to create sustainable architecture (Kilbert 2012). “Sustainable architecture represents the unity of aesthetic, socio-economic, engineering and technology, natural and ecological demands based on the principles of sustainable development” (Leyzerova et al. 2016). Sustainable architecture produces social, ecological, and economic benefits (Finco and Nijkamp 2001). Sustainable design and urban architecture deals with problems relevant to sustainable urban development.

Sustainable cities require new ways of thinking for meeting the city’s needs, functions, and infrastructure. It is vital that basic urban infrastructure is built in a sustainable way. Investment on green infrastructure is crucial element in sustainable urban planning. Cities must attract large-scale investments to help address the environmental and climate change challenges and develop sustainably. Cities can create more green jobs by stimulating innovative projects for climate solutions, environmental protection, and nature conservation (WWF Sweden 2019). Cities need to develop tools for use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in urban planning and in transport and energy systems in order to have resource-efficient systems (ibid.). An inclusive city planning is vital in achieving sustainable urban development. Urban decision-makers and planners need to involve citizens and stakeholders in the urban planning and development processes. In order to be effective and sustainable, urban planners must include underrepresented social groups in planning processes especially the urban poor, women, youth, ethnic minority groups, and the socially marginalized groups (Amado et al. 2009).

Conclusions

Sustainable urban planning plays a critical role in achieving sustainable urban development. Sustainable urban design and planning can build smarter and sustainable cities. Sustainable lifestyle and well-being are key dimensions of sustainable urban development. If planned sustainably, cities have great potential to create opportunities for a better life and quality environment and act as an engine of economic growth. Cities are prime drivers of green and smart economy that can be developed through sustainable urban planning. However, sustainable urban development planning requires an integrated approach. There is a greater need for close integration of urban and regional, transportation, and environmental planning. An integration of urban spatial planning and transport planning is vital in order to achieve urban sustainability. There is a greater need to integrate “sustainable development principles” in urban planning strategies, policies, and programs. The greatest challenge of sustainable urban planning is achieving a sustainable urban footprint.

Cross-References