Challenges and Strategic Approaches for Waste Management During and Post Covid Pandemic

Abstract

Covid 19 was one of the most cliff edges turn that the entire world has taken. In the end of the year 2019, the world encountered one of the deadliest pandemics ever that took lives of millions and trillions of people around the globe, which was later called as Corona virus. It not only took lives of people but also had an adverse impact on environment that made emergence of new environmental challenges and deteriorated the existing challenges. One such challenge was solid waste management. With the emergence of pandemic, the medical sector was seen at a chaotic instance. The increase in number of patients hospitalization has resulted in higher solid or biomedical waste production, with addition to that, the use of Personal Protective Equipment also known as PPE kits was at a rapid pace. SARS-COV-2 or the Novel Corona virus had made the entire world to kneel on lockdown situations. This has led to shutting down of hospitality industries affecting restaurants, hotels etc. The entire business came online and the public started ordering food instead of moving out. This has led to an increase use of plastic and polythene for food packaging and other cutlery which is also made of plastics. Ultimately, this has lead to increased pollutants that has also affected the water bodies. These plastics slowly decompose and lead to accumulation of microplastic pollutants in the environment. The ultimate question is leads to the cause of its affect. Here comes the failure of solid waste management system. The waste production that is a result of certain unavoidable environmental havoc is not in our hands. So, we need to have a robust solid waste management system and a well-planned strategic approach to combat environmental issues that could not be avoided and leads to high waste production.

7.1 Origin of Coronavirus

Corona virus are a group of RNA related viruses that cause acute respiratory syndromes or severe infections in the upper respiratory tract of animals and humans was initially recorded for the animal race in the late 1920s when an acute respiratory infection of chickens emerged in the northern American continent. The mortality rates were as high as 40–90% with symptoms of gasping and listlessness in the new born chicks. The first detailed report was made by M.C. Hawn and Arthur Schalk in 1931. The virus later came to be known as infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) when Leland David and Carl Alfred Brandly isolated the virus. Gradually in the late 1940s, two more animal corona viruses i.e. JHM that cause murine encephalitis and Mouse Hepatitis Virus (MHV) that cause hepatitis in mice were discovered (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus).

7.1.1 Approaching Tentacles Towards the Human Race

The first strain of corona virus i.e. an unknown beta corona virus was initially recorded 18 years ago in China which subsequently spread to 29 other countries, therefore invoking a near pandemic with mortalities as high as 813 of 8809 people with confirmed infection until it was controlled by stringent public health measures. This strain was termed as SARS-CoV or Severe Acute Respiratory syndrome—Corona virus. Silence grasped until another outbreak of beta corona virus in the year 2012 which was coined as MERS-CoV or Middle East Respiratory syndrome—Corona virus emerged that showed up with high fatality rates in the middle east region and was closely related to SARS-CoV. This strain was not as contagious as compared to the previous one due to its poor human-to-human spreading capabilities, therefore limiting its spread to the Middle East only. Sooner before its largest tentacles to cover the human race in 2019, in the year 2016, another novel bat origin alpha corona virus emerged in China which resulted in a novel epizootic disease in pigs termed as SADS-CoV or Swine Acute Diarrhea Syndrome—Corona virus (Morens 2020).

The biggest and the third fatal bat virus associated human disease i.e. SARS-CoV-2 or Severe Acute respiratory syndrome—Coronavirus-2 emerged in late November 2019 that invoked a global pandemic we are still battling with. The first case of SARS-CoV-2 or Covid-19 was suspected from Wuhan, China. Failure in attempts to contain it there itself lead to a widespread pandemic throughout the globe causing uncountable fatalities as high as 6.65 million and more than 649 million cases till date i.e. 11 December 2022, which makes it one of the deadliest viruses in the history ever (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covid-19_pandemic). Gradually the Nation’s public administration and Government started declaring lockdown throughout the nation with mandatory Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) to be followed by each and every responsible citizen of the nation, which includes use of surgical masks and specialized masks like N92 to prevent the spread of virus since the medium of spread was mainly through air, Personal Protective Kits (PPEs) and face shields for the healthcare workers who are in a continuous touch with the Covid 19 affected patients. The healthcare industry was seen in a chaotic scenario since despite the SOPs and preventive measures, the spread of corona virus was at a rapid pace due to the demand and supply of medical equipment like syringes, PPE Kits, Face Shield, face masks etc. increased (Mohanty et al. 2023). This ultimately led to a boost in biomedical and healthcare waste generation. In order to understand the rapid spread, we need a deeper study of the structure of virus and interaction mechanism with human body which is further discussed in Sect. 1.2

7.1.2 Basic Structural Analysis of SARS-CoV-2

SARS-CoV-2 has a roughly spherical structure with unique circumferential spike-like projections called spike proteins or peplomer protein. The entire viral envelope is made up of lipid bilayer that anchors Membrane (M), Envelope (E) and Spike (S) structural proteins. The M protein forms the major structural protein and is a type III membrane protein that provides overall shape to it whereas the E protein is a minor structural protein that is responsible for virion assembly, intercellular trafficking and morphogenesis (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus). Spikes proteins or S proteins are the most important part of the Viral envelope that gives them the key to lock for replication and transmission inside a host cell (Fig. 7.1).

Fig. 7.1

Structure of SARS-CoV-2 showing the Spike proteins (S),Membrane protein (M), Envelope protein (E) along with positive sense single stranded RNA with nucleocapsid i.e. (+)ssRNA + N. The figure also demonstrates hemagglutinin esterase (HE) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus) and Electron microscopy image of SARS-CoV, with the arrow pointing at a single virion. Photo credit to Dr. Fred Murphy. This media comes from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) Public Health Image Library (PHIL) (https://phil.cdc.gov/Details.aspx?pid=15523)

Spike proteins or peplomer proteins not only give the viral envelope a corona- or halo- like surface but also play a key factor in the receptor binding mechanism inside a host cell. On an average a single coronavirus particle has about 74 Circumferential Spike proteins that are 20 nm long in size. These spike proteins are further divided into two subunits i.e. the S1 and S2 proteins. S protein being a class 1 fusion protein facilitates receptor binding and membrane fusion between the virus and the host cell. S1 forms the head of the spike and is responsible for receptor binding in hostel cells since it has the Receptor Binding Domain (RBD) whereas the S2 forms the tail or stem of the Spike. Again the S1 protein has two major domains i.e. N-terminal Domain (NTD) that recognizes and binds sugar on the surface of host cell and C-terminal Domain (CTD) that recognizes different protein receptors like amino peptidase N (APN), angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4). Apart from this in beta corona virus subgroup A, short spike-like surface protein was found called hemagglutinin esterase (HE) which were responsible for attachment and detachment of viral envelope from the host cell. Inside the viral envelope, there is a layer of nucleocapsid formed from multiple copies of nucleocapsid (N) protein that are bound to the positive sense single stranded RNA genome in a continuous beads-on-a-string type formation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus) (Fig. 7.2).

Fig. 7.2

Structure of Spike glycoprotein i.e. S protein showing both S1 (RBD) and S2 unit along with N-terminal domain (NTD) (https://directorsblog.nih.gov/2021/05/18/human-antibodies-target-many-parts-of-coronavirus-spike-protein/)

7.1.3 Modus Operandi of SARS-CoV-2 into a Human Cell

SARS-CoV-2 or novel corona virus has several stages during its lifecycle. Like any other virus has their own way of spreading infection, the corona virus does have its own.

7.1.3.1 Viral Entry Stage

This is the first and foremost stage where viral corona particles from the surroundings make their way to a human body. There could be numerous ways through which viral particles can enter a human body. For instance, it could spread from an already infected person to a healthy person while inhaling and exhaling or coughing and sneezing where the viral droplets enter through the throat or nostrils. It could also enter by touching an infected area or object and making direct contact to sensitive organs like eyes or mouth.

7.1.3.2 Key Locking for Virus to Host Connection

The viral particle then finds its way to receptors in the throat, lungs or nostrils. The most common receptor it binds with is angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors. The peplomers or spike glycoproteins act like a key to the receptors, thus forming a key to lock connection between the host and the virus.

7.1.3.3 Entry and Replication Stage

Once the receptors of the host cell are locked with the spike proteins of the virus, the virus gets transferred into the host cell through a process called endocytosis. ssRNA(+) Inside the cytoplasm of the host cell, the viral envelope opens up the viral positive single stranded Ribonucleic Acid genome i.e. (+)ssRNA genome. This genome need not get into the cell membrane sac or the cell nucleus, it can directly hijack into the cell’s machinery of the host cell to make its own replica. The viral genome uses the endoplasmic reticulum to replicate its M protein outer layer as well as the S proteins.

7.1.3.4 Exit and Infection Stage

Once a replica of the virus is made, it exits the golgi bodies and cell membrane through a process called exocytosis. Meanwhile, the virus keeps on making its own copies, these replicas get spread into the host body to cause severe infections and thus infect other cells. The stress of viral production on the endoplasmic reticulum could eventually lead to cell death or apoptosis.

7.1.3.5 Host-to-Host Spread

Now since the virus has spread into a host’s body, the infected host can help the virus to find its next target host through several contact mechanisms like entry through nostrils when an infected host sneezes, coughs or talk or through dermal contact i.e. skin-to-skin contact. The same cycle is now carried for this new host and it keeps on repeating like a chain reaction.

7.1.4 Genetic Mutations of SARS-CoV-2

At times, when the uncontrollable spread of coronavirus was becoming a global challenge, mutation in viral particles of SARS-CoV-2 puts another challenge for the world when the entire globe is battling on its knees. Mutations are like evolution or change in the viral genome during replication. The exact cause of mutation could vary from errors during replication to some unknown circumstances. But exactly how mutations in Covid 19 have affected the globe? Mutations lead to change in viral genome thus involving a change in structure of particles as well, it could have led to more spike proteins that must have resulted in a strong bonding between receptor and spikes thus leading to more severe infection and high transmission rate (Mishra et al. 2019, 2020). After the end of an Covid infection, the host body develops immunity and antibodies that helps to prevent a reinfection against the same strain or less mutated version of Covid 19 for a stipulated period of time. But in case of a strongly mutated version, the protection against reinfection drops. Mutation in Covid 19 had also put a challenge over the medical researchers and scientists to develop an efficient vaccine against it.

The World Health organization (WHO) has classified different mutated versions under the following Variants.

• Variant of Concern (VOCs): These are the variants associated with high transmissibility or virulence, reduced neutralization by natural antibodies or vaccines, ability to evade detection or a decrease in vaccine effectiveness along with evidences that justifies it (like high mortality rates, higher hospitalization, etc.). Currently, as of data collected by World Health Organization (WHO) on 11 December 2021, there are five variants of concern i.e. Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta and Omicron (Aleem 2022).

• Variants of Interest (VOIs): These are the variants with specific genetic markers with changes to receptor binding, reduced neutralization rate with vaccine or natural antibodies, reduced efficacy of treatments or predicted increase in transmissibility of disease severity. Currently as of April 2022, there are no VOIs listed by WHO (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2021). But at the beginning of the pandemic, there were eight VOIs listed by the World Health Organization and they are Epsilon, Zeta, Eta, Theta, Kappa, Lambda and Mu (Aleem 2022).

• Variants being monitored (VBMs): These are the variants that pose a higher risk of increased transmissibility or severity in terms of infection but are no longer detected or are under circulation at a low pace. Currently there is no data available under VBMs. But at the beginning of the pandemic almost every variant was a variant under Variant being monitored (VBM) category (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2021).

7.1.5 Waste Generated During Pandemic

The Covid-19 pandemic had shaken the entire globe along with the healthcare industries. With the increase in number of Covid-19 patients, the hallway getting queued up with no vacant beds in hospitals, the demand and supply of medical equipment and inventory had necessarily boosted up. People with pre-existing multiple medical conditions like diabetes, Ischemic Heart diseases (IHD), Corona Artery Diseases (CAD), Hypertension etc. were most likely to be hospitalized upon getting succumbed to Covid-19 and were under several procedures that demands specialized medical equipments like oxygen cylinders for oxygen therapy. Due to high risk of infection and transmission, doctors had to wear personal protective (PPE) Kits, rubber boots, plastic face shields, hand gloves and specialized filter masks at their workspace. Apart from patients who were hospitalized, healthcare and frontline workers, the patients who were under quarantine and the general public had to wear protective face masks and take immunity boosters and multivitamin capsules in order to prevent themselves from Covid 19.

This has ultimately led to an increase in biomedical wastes. Apart from a rise in biomedical wastes, as soon as the entire globe went to lockdown situations, people started ordering foods online which comes in plastic and polyethene packaging instead of having dine in which was practically impossible at that instance, which resulted a rise in overall solid waste, most of which were inorganic and non recyclable.

The Covid cases were out of control. While the struggle was on its knees with the pandemic, where the economy had drastically gone down with as high as death counts in millions, scientists were finally able to invent vaccines for Covid 19. The first ever vaccine was invented by china on 24 June 2022 naming it as canSino Vaccine followed by Russian inventing its first vaccine named SputnikV on 11 August 2022 for emergency use only which was approved after a lot of clinical trials (https://www.who.int/news/item/01-02-2022-tonnes-of-covid-19-health-care-waste-expose-urgent-need-to-improve-waste-management-systems). Sooner and Sooner different pharmaceutical companies around the globe started inventing their own vaccine. Before a vaccine is completely approved for human use, it has to undergo certain trails phase by phase. In clinical trials and even after approval during the vaccination drive, a lot of syringes were generated as biomedical wastes. As per a report by World Health Organization (WHO), Over 8 billion doses of vaccine have been administered globally producing 144,000 tonnes of biomedical wastes in forms of syringes, needles and safety boxes (Das et al. 2015a). As per a report by World Health Organization, tens of thousands of extra medical waste as a response from Covid 19 pandemic was generated that had put a tremendous strain on the healthcare waste management system. Around 87,000 tonnes of personal protective kit (PPE) was supplied between March 2020 to November 2021 to different countries through a joint UN emergency initiative. Most of this equipment was expected to end up as a waste. Over 140 million test kits with a potential to generate as high as 2600 tonnes of non infectious waste and 731,000 L of chemical waste which is equivalent to one-third of an Olympic size swimming pool have been shipped (Das et al. 2015a).

7.2 Smart Intelligent Waste Management System

Despite many models proposed by researchers, efficient solid waste management has always been a significant challenge in society. In a materialistic era that involves high demand and supply of materials, it is not feasible to completely eradicate waste production. But we can implement innovative and procedural methods that can facilitate collection and disposal of waste in a sustainable eco-friendly manner. In this section, we have proposed a smart intelligent waste management system that involves proper collection, segregation and disposal of all types of wastes including biomedical and hazardous wastes which requires proper disinfection before disposal (Fig. 7.3).

Fig. 7.3

Smart Intelligent waste management prototype

Our model is a collection of smart and futuristic technologies like Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), Robotics and Blockchain. The entire system involves the following authorities and modules:

Smart bins involving Smart waste Management (SWM) Module.

• Rapid Response Authority (RRA)

• Logistic Management Authority (LMA)

• Smart Waste collection Truck involving AI based Solid waste segregation (SWS) module.

• Waste Disposal Authority

• Central Authority for smart waste management system

We need to understand each module and authority in depth.

7.2.1 Smart Bins

Smart bins are not something new but also not something in trend as well. Many researchers have already worked upon smart dustbins that are connected through the internet. These IoT based devices are equipped with ultrasonic sensors attached inside on the top that sends ultrasonic waves to detect the level of waste filling inside the container or the dustbins and signals to the rapid response authority when the distance between the sender and the object is minimum. These bins are equipped with GPS modems that facilitate tracking of exact coordinates of bins and also come with solar cells and solar panels that make it a complete eco-friendly based IoT device.

The problem with the smart bins proposed earlier was that although it was discussed as a phase of the waste management system, no collective idea was given on waste segregation; waste disposal and recycling nature of it which could have helped transform wastes into wonders. Our model or waste management system gives a collective idea involving complete integrity and authenticity of the system.

These Smart bins are connected to the rapid response authority via respective gateways through the internet.

7.2.2 Rapid Response Authority (RRA)

The rapid response authority is again divided into two units i.e. the cloud platform and the system administration.

7.2.2.1 System Administration

This unit is mainly responsible for monitoring real time data and generating alerts for waste collection to the logistic management authority. Well this could be either a manual input or a fully automated system. Manual inputs will eventually require more labor force and a lot of workers have to be involved. In contrast, an automated system will be more efficient and secure in terms of integrity and authenticity of work. A signal may be generated from the smart bin sensors upon which an alert could be automatically rendered to the Logistic management unit.

7.2.2.2 Cloud Platform

This is another important part of the entire system. The cloud platform facilitates database storage i.e. the data of every alert generated and processed to the logistic management team, the GPS coordinates from where the alert is generated etc. It also houses the Web server and google map API. Since it is entirely a smart and intelligent system of waste management, it must be available to the entire public for use in the form of mobile based applications and web based applications. Waste management is not a responsibility of a single authority or Government but, it should be a duty of every responsible citizen of the nation. These applications connected via internet, will allow the general public to report any malfunction in their nearby waste collection smart bins or maybe they can monitor the nearest available vacant smart bins through google maps so that they don’t have to rush from one bin to another with pounds of garbage on the hand, or to contact the customer care cell for any grievances. This ultimately demands the presence of a secured web server to manage requests and responses from the client system.

7.2.3 Logistic Management Authority

The Logistic management authority is mainly responsible for receiving waste collection alerts from the Rapid Response Authority. This Authority is divided into two units i.e. The Transportation Management unit and the Concurrency Control & Transaction Management (CCTM) unit.

7.2.3.1 Transportation Management Unit

This unit deals with an AI enabled smart waste collection truck that is responsible for collecting waste materials from the smart bins which is further discussed in Sect. 2.4. Transportation management unit is yet another significant part of the entire system since it not only deals with waste collection but also aids waste segregation through Smart Waste Segregation (SWS) Module attached in the waste collection trucks.

7.2.3.2 Concurrency Control and Transaction Management (CCTM) Unit

This could also be considered as a vital organ of the entire system that helps in maintaining the transparency of the system. In a system that requires even a percentage of manual workforce, there is always a chance of dishonesty between the workers. For instance, in a generation where petrol rates are increasingly high, why would one want to lose his penny on fuels for the waste collection truck? The trucks could also be made battery operated or solar energy could be harnessed for the same. But what if the person who is driving the vehicle is dishonest by nature and seeks his own monetary benefits. There is a high chance that the truck could be halted somewhere in between its actual route to the destination and illegal works could take place. For example, the driver could sell some recyclable wastes like plastic bottles to a third party to resell the waters into it. There could be millions of such cases in the very proposed system.

To prevent such a scenario, the concurrency control and transaction management unit or the CCTM unit has been introduced. CCTM Unit Monitors the truck mobility through GPS navigational system via GPS modems installed on the Smart waste collection truck. This unit not only monitors the truck mobility but also monitors the real time functioning of truck waste tank doors that allows exit of waste through it. It also ensures that every truck dispatched from the Logistic Management Authority collects the target waste and is safely transported to the destination center without any fail. In case of any unusual activity reported, a thorough investigation is to be carried and the driver is questionable.

Despite such measures, there still exists a chance of third party intervention and any substance could be leaked out of the truck if a higher rate of dishonesty is involved between different stakeholders. For instance, there is a possibility that the one who is monitoring the truck’s mobility could also be dishonest and be a left hand of the driver, thus allowing third party interventions easily. To prevent this, our system involves a very authentic and technical method that uses the concept of block chain technology to eradicate such scenarios. This could be well understood in Sect. 2.5.

7.2.4 Smart Waste Collection Truck

This is the main technical organ of the entire system that uses Artificial Intelligence based smart waste segregation modules to segregate different types of waste collected from the smart bins. The wastes are mostly divided into the following types:

Biomedical Waste that includes all hazardous waste, radioactive wastes, etc.

• Metallic Waste that also includes e-waste or electronic wastes like old cell phones, batteries, etc.

• Wet Wastes that mainly include wastes generated from kitchen like vegetable peels, etc.

• Dry waste that mainly include non-biodegradable waste or wastes that do not have any moisture content like plastics, paper packaging, papers, glass, etc.

The Smart Waste Segregation Module consists of different layers of separation. The first layer of separation is main and important for the biomedical wastes since it separates biomedical waste from other wastes. The biomedical wastes are sent to a completely different chamber which is further sorted into different categories in the Sorting unit of Waste Disposal Authority which is discussed further in Sect. 2.5. We can develop some sort of AI screening which will help to identify only biomedical wastes from the entire piece of garbage and this could be further automated with robotics technologies that could pick them up and throw them in a separate chamber. Researchers and scientists are currently working upon it. Biomedical and Covid related waste could be easily identified using artificial neural networks, Support Vector Machine (SVM) and KNN Classifiers (Kumar 2021).

The second layer segregation now aims at segregating the biomedical free waste into wet and dry waste using AI and Moisture sensors that can determine the presence of water content which helps to segregate dry wastes from the wet waste. A proper robotic mechanism may be introduced to segregated dry wastes and wet waste into two different chambers. A pre-initialized threshold value for the moisture sensor could help trigger the entire robotic mechanism to segregate the wastes. Now the wastes are segregated into dry waste, wet waste and biomedical waste.

The third layer introduces the electromagnetic zone where the wastes are introduced to a strong electromagnetic field as a result of which the metal waste including electronic waste are strongly attracted towards the wall of the chambers except the insulated bottom layer which has an opening flap that again allows the waste to move into two separate chambers except the metal ones. Now the wastes are classified into Metallic wastes that includes electronic waste and other miscellaneous metal objects, metal free dry and wet wastes, and the biomedical wastes.

The truck now heads towards the Waste Disposal Authority for further processing of waste. Separated waste inside the truck allows waste segregation during the transit between collection bins to waste disposal unit thus, allowing us to save a lot of time. In addition, the entire module is powered with solar energy through solar panels and backup solar cells.

7.2.5 Waste Disposal Authority

The waste disposal authority is mainly responsible for proper treatment and sustainable disposal of waste that causes no harm to the environment and doesn’t challenge environmental sustainability. The waste disposal authority is divided into the following units.

• Biomedical Waste Treatment Unit

• Waste Sorting Unit

• Waste Labeling Unit

• Waste Disposal Unit

• Waste Recovery Unit

Let us discuss each unit in depth to understand the uniqueness and the integrity of the proposed prototype or system.

7.2.5.1 Biomedical Waste Treatment Unit

The sole purpose of this unit is to perform smart disinfection of biomedical waste to kill any harmful pathogens, viruses or bacteria present in them without which it could have made their way to soil, water or air thus leading to pollution or contamination of soil, water and air. Only the segregated biomedical waste from the waste collection truck enters this unit while the rest is directly introduced to the Waste sorting unit which is further discussed in Sect. 2.5.2.

Incineration is one of the most common methods of waste disposal and in case of traditional biomedical waste management systems, wastes are directly incinerated but this has an adverse impact on the environment due to its high rate of ash production which allows the entry of micro plastics into the air and water. Incineration also aids the release of secondary pollutants like dioxin, furans, etc. Other methods like chemical treatment of waste results in release of anthropogenic aerosols which can further penetrate into the alveoli during inhalation thus involving a higher risk of carcinogenic disease (Ilyas 2020).

So we need to be highly selective while choosing a disinfection mechanism. There are methods like microwave treatment or microwave irradiation that involves treating the waste with energy transmitted in the form of microwaves that burn the pathogens inside a wet waste. But not all biomedical waste is wet waste which makes this method a fallacy too. In order to overcome this, we can perform irradiation with gamma rays and ultraviolet (UV) rays that can kill pathogens and viruses irrespective of their dry or wet nature. When UV is used for disinfection, the radiation in the UV-C which is germicidal is employed. UV-C disinfection systems exploit the effects of this radiation on the DNA and RNA, breaking the helical chain and preventing the replication of the genetic code: The affected microorganism is then inactivated and unable to reproduce (Collection, Storage and Treatment of Medical Wastes Malsparo).

Other methods like vitrification can be used for radioactive biomedical waste. Vitrification means turning something into glass. The solid waste is mixed in when glass is formed (vitrification means production of glass). The high temperatures kill pathogens and some combustible material may burn or pyrolyze, resulting in an off-gas. Remaining material is encapsulated in glass, which has a very low diffusivity (Collection, Storage and Treatment of Medical Wastes Malsparo).

So we need to be highly selective while choosing a disinfection mechanism. There are methods like microwave treatment or microwave irradiation that involves treating the waste with energy transmitted in the form of microwaves that burn the pathogens inside a wet waste. But not all biomedical waste is wet waste which makes this method a fallacy too. In order to overcome this, we can perform irradiation with gamma rays and ultraviolet (UV) rays that can kill pathogens and viruses irrespective of their dry or wet nature. When UV is used for disinfection, the radiation in the UV-C which is germicidal is employed. UV-C disinfection systems exploit the effects of this radiation on the DNA and RNA, breaking the helical chain and preventing the replication of the genetic code: The affected microorganism is then inactivated and unable to reproduce (Collection, Storage and Treatment of Medical Wastes Malsparo).

Other methods like vitrification can be used for radioactive biomedical waste. Vitrification means turning something into glass. The solid waste is mixed in when glass is formed (vitrification means production of glass). The high temperatures kill pathogens and some combustible material may burn or pyrolyze, resulting in an off-gas. Remaining material is encapsulated in glass, which has a very low diffusivity.

This unit also comes with a weight sensor and density sensor that monitors the weight and density of the entered waste into this specific chamber.

7.2.5.2 Waste Sorting Unit

After proper disinfection, the biomedical waste enters this chamber or unit of the waste disposal authority while the other segregated wastes directly make their way to this unit without being merged or mixed with one another. In this unit, the wastes are again sorted into more specific subcategories. For instance, the biomedical wastes could be further categorized into infectious waste, sharp object wastes, pharmaceutical wastes, cytotoxic wastes, radioactive wastes, chemical wastes and general wastes as per World Health organization (WHO) (https://www.iotchallengekeysight.com/2019/entries/smart-land/201-0515-002718-a-i-waste-sorting-system). Re-segregating them or sorting them could allow us to explore and achieve a more sustainable way of disposing of them off. Similarly other waste like dry waste could be classified into paper wastes, glass wastes and plastic wastes, each of which demands separate methods of disposal.

This sorting could be achieved using proper application of Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and deep learning. Certain cameras may be used to capture images of the waste upon which a robotic system may be developed which identifies the type of waste and picks and throws them into the desired chamber. A subset of which has been already proposed by researchers that identifies waste using image and weight of the object. The system uses Artificial intelligence to sort the waste into different categories (https://thepeninsulaqatar.com/article/31/12/2022/world-cup-waste-recycled-converted-into-green-energy). This system could be further improved using robotic technologies and making it a multi-advanced system capable enough of classifying all types of waste into their subgroups or sub-categories.

This unit also comes with a weight sensor and density sensor that captures total weight of the waste and density of each sorted item, the sum of which gives the total density of waste. Since these are a part of an IoT based system, all the data are stored in the database server.

7.2.5.3 Waste Labelling Unit

Only the wastes sorted and marked as recyclable in the waste sorting unit are moved into this chamber where each recyclable item is labelled with an unique identification number (UID). These labelling could be done with laser engraving so as to maintain their permanence. These UIDs are recorded in a block chain. Recording these UIDs in a block chain ensures that the recyclable wastes are not released into the market for reselling of the same product. For instance, a plastic bottle which is quite recyclable could be misutilized for reselling and some third party could intervene and take advantage to sell unhygienic water in the market to fulfil his own monetary needs.

Recording these UIDs in a block chain could ensure that there are no such third party interventions. But exactly how will it ensure the same? So let us assume that a plastic bottle is somehow leaked out of the labeling unit or maybe in the waste recovery unit which is further discussed in Sect. 2.5.5. So someone might have sold the bottle again with water filled and someone will use it and throw it again as a waste. This will allow the entry of waste in this waste management system again, which means the UID will be recorded in the same block chain again which will lead to redundancy of data in the block chain, thus alerting the concerned authorities i.e. the legal unit of the central authority for smart waste management, discussed in Sect. 2.6.4 to probe an investigation regarding the same.

This unit also has a weight sensor and a density sensor. The reason of which is further discussed in Sect. 2.5.6.

7.2.5.4 Waste Disposal Unit

The waste disposal unit carries out operations for disposing off the segregated waste. The wastes other than the recyclable waste enter this unit from the waste sorting unit. Before disposal, the weight of wastes and material density of wastes are monitored thoroughly. Since the wastes are already segregated, the waste disposal could be achieved sustainably without causing much harm to the environment. An automated waste disposal system could be made so that it takes the segregated wastes, monitors its weight and density just before the disposal.

7.2.5.5 Waste Recovery Unit

Waste recovery unit is the last unit of waste disposal authority that ensures and commands over the proper recycling of wastes. Recycling of waste means conversion of old materials into new materials and objects. Proper recycling of waste could lead to a control over waste production since wastes can be converted into wonders. For instance, plastic bottles could be used as a raw material for beautiful crafts. This is why most schools and colleges host a contest called “best out of waste” where students create wonderful crafts and decorations out of the wastes. The recovery unit could also try to figure out innovative ways to attract more people to come and join hands for waste recycling. It can inspire thousands of unemployed and orphans who are begging on roads to come and recycle wastes to earn their daily bread and butter.

Apart from these, waste could be recycled to harness green energy. Recently, there was a news article that stated how well the waste generated at the FIFA world cup Qatar 2022 has been converted into green energy, thus producing 558,340 kWh green energy (https://www.forescout.com/research-labs/r4iot/; worldbank.org; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covid-19_vaccine#History; https://www.who.int/news/item/01-02-2022-tonnes-of-covid-19-health-care-waste-expose-urgent-need-to-improve-waste-management-systems; Das et al. 2014, 2015a, b, c; Das and Ghosh 2018; Das and Mishra 2008, 2010; Das and Singh 2011).

7.2.5.6 Reason Behind Density Sensors and Weight Sensors in Almost All Units

As you must have noticed that almost in all the units of waste disposal authority, weight and density sensors are installed. But what is the need of these sensors in all units? Well it is just for monitoring purposes. For instance, let us assume a hypothetical situation, where someone inside the waste disposal authority tries to intervene the system and take some waste out of it may be for their own personal gain or there may be some malfunction in the system due to which the waste are not completely moved from one chamber to other, in that case the data collected from these sensor will help to figure out the malfunction. In Sect. 2.5.3, we discussed waste labelling with UIDs and blockchain technologies to prevent third party interventions but what if someone from inside the labelling unit intervenes the recyclable products before labelling is done?

In order to avoid such hypothetical situations, we need to check the following operation in the database.

• Total weight (in Sorting unit) = Total weight (in labelling unit) + total weight (in disposal unit)

• Total density (in Sorting unit) = Total density (in labelling unit) + total density (in disposal unit)

• Total density (recyclable waste in sorting unit) = Total density (in labelling unit after labelling)

If any of the above mentioned conditions doesn’t match, an alert is directly generated to the central authority which probes investigation regarding the matter. The use of weight sensors appears clear and logical but why density sensors are used? As we discussed above, there could be a hypothetical situation where one could intervene with some recyclable waste just before labelling. For instance, one can replace a plastic bottle weighing 100 g with a stone weighing 100 g. If there would have been no density sensors, it would have been difficult for us to find the flaw since the weight of the plastic bottle was equal to weight of the stone but densities of both the objects vary.

7.2.6 Central Authority for Smart Waste Management System

This is nothing but an organization that controls, supports and manages the working of entire smart waste management system. The authority is divided into 4 units I.e.

• Administrative Unit

• Technical Unit

• Management Unit

• Legal Unit

Let us have a brief understanding of each unit.

7.2.6.1 Administrative Unit

This unit ensures that all the works are carried smoothly inside and outside the central authority and keeps a constant watch over all the other stakeholders involved in the entire process.

7.2.6.2 Technical Unit

Technical unit comprises all the technical staff who are responsible for installation, solving technical grievances, network administrators, database administrators etc.

7.2.6.3 Management Unit

Like any other organization, this system also has a management unit that is responsible for project management, human resource management, etc.

7.2.6.4 Legal Unit

The legal unit is responsible for handling any legal disputes or legal related external matters such as litigation, investigations, compliance, mergers and acquisitions. In this system, the legal unit gets activated when a “redundant data” alert indicating reuse of recyclable waste is generated from the block chain database.

7.2.7 Feasibility Check of the System

Like every system has its own pros and cons, our system also has its own pros and cons.

7.2.7.1 Advantages of Smart Waste Management System

Traditional waste management system has an adverse impact on our environment. To combat the increasing waste productivity, we have introduced a smart waste management system that is nothing but applications of different emerging technologies like block chain, Internet of Thing, Artificial Intelligence, etc. This section mainly elaborates some advantages of the proposed system.

7.2.7.1.1 Use of Block Chain Technology Reduces the Risk of Third Party Interventions

Our system uses block chain technologies to record the data of waste disposal thus ensuring that no recyclable product was left non recycled and was released into the market for resell. This helps to achieve the one of the 3Rs i.e. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.

7.2.7.1.2 Transparency of the System

Since our system is connected via the internet and is available to the public through web based applications and mobile based applications, it promotes openness and integrity of work between the general public as nothing is kept private.

7.2.7.1.3 For the Public Motto

As already mentioned that waste management is not just the work of a single organization or Government, the entire system is available in the form of a mobile application that helps the general public to locate the nearby empty smart bin so that they don’t get wayward and throw garbage near the houses or empty lands.

7.2.7.1.4 Smart Waste Segregation Module Reduces Time Complexity

Waste segregation is an important part of the waste management process and is crucial for proper sustainable waste disposal that causes almost no harm to the environment. In the case of a traditional system, the time involved to do so may be much higher as compared to the system proposed in this chapter. Smart waste segregation module comes embedded with the smart waste collection truck and is powered with solar panels and solar cells which initiates the process of waste segregation then and there itself. The wastes are nearly sorted once the truck is in transit and reaches the destination i.e. the waste disposal authority.

7.2.7.1.5 Presence of a Central Authority Ensures Proper System Functionality

Since there is a central authority that controls, guides and supports the entire system in terms of administration, management, technical aid and legal support, failure of such a system is not that easy.

7.2.7.2 Disadvantages of the System

As compared to the traditional waste management system, the proposed system is far better but not much wiser as well. Every system and plan of action has its own demerits and this has too.

7.2.7.2.1 Not the Best System in Terms of Economies

Since the proposed system demands a lot of robotic equipment, technologies and authorities like smart bins, smart waste collection trucks, etc. the cost of producing a single set could be really high and demands high work skill. For instance the driver, who needs to operate the truck, must possess some minimal technical skills.

7.2.7.2.2 Security Vulnerabilities Still Remain a Question

Anything on the internet is not that safe and could be hacked easily. For instance, the proposed system uses block chain technologies which are still vulnerable to 51% attack and so there still exists a very little chance of third party interventions. The Internet of things (IoT) is an emerging future technology but is that really safe in terms of security and system breach? Ransom ware for IoT (R4IoT) is something that puts a question over the safety of the entire system (worldbank.org).

7.3 Discussion and Future Applications

The waste management sector is really in a tough situation now. As per a report by the World Bank, the waste production rates are flying above the sky. The global waste generation was estimated to be 2.24 billion tons of solid waste, amounting to a footprint of 0.79 kg per person per day in 2020. But with rapid urbanization and uncontrollable population growth, annual waste generation is expected to rise by 73% from the 2020 levels to 3.88 billion tons in 2050. The Covid 19 pandemic added some fuels to the fire, taking the biomedical waste production at burning rates (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covid-19_vaccine#History). The very proposed system in this chapter focuses on the key negligence during the waste management process and tries to solve it with a technological touch. The smart waste management system proposed in this chapter is an amalgamation of applications of emerging technologies like Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, deep learning, block chain, cloud computing, robotics, etc. Right from the collection phase to the waste disposal phase, it keeps a watch on the entire process keeping in mind that the environment is not compromised in any scenario at any cost. The chances of any third party interventions or corrupt practices has been neutralized using redundant UID check through block chain technology and weight/density sensors ensuring that 100% wastes are disposed of properly without any leakage. It is true that by 2050 the waste generation rates could be a sensational topic round the corners as per the World Bank reports. We cannot guarantee a 100% waste reduction but at least we could try to implement this proposed system in the future which may reduce the rates of waste production by half the prediction. Covid 19 was a phase where we realized that the waste management sector is still a toddler and needs to be upgraded as soon as possible. Covid 19 is not yet over with new variants on the news. The waste management sector needs to tighten the knots as quickly as possible.