УНИВЕРЗИТЕТ „Св. КИРИЛ И МЕТОДИЈ“ ВО СКОПЈЕ Ss. CYRIL AND METHODIUS UNIVERSITY IN SKOPJE ШУМАРСКИ ФАКУЛТЕТ ВО СКОПЈЕ FACULTY OF FORESTRY IN SKOPJE ISSN 0585-9069 УДК / UDC 630 УДК / UDC 635.9 УДК / UDC 674 ШУМАРСКИ ПРЕГЛЕД FOREST REVIEW МЕЃУНАРОДНО НАУЧНО СПИСАНИЕ INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL Шум. преглед (Šum. pregled) Год. 43 Стр. 1-76 Скопје, 2012 For. review Vol. 43 Pag. 1-76 Skopje, 2012  ШУМАРСКИ ПРЕГЛЕД FOREST REVIEW Меѓународно научно списание International Scientific Journal Год. 43 / Стр. 1-76 Vol. 43 / Pag. 1-76 Скопје, 2012 Skopje, 2012 ISSN 0585-9069 ISSN 0585-9069 УДК 630 UDC 630 УДК 635.9 UDC 635.9 УДК 674 UDC 674 Издавач Publisher Универзитет „Св. Кирил и Матодиј“ во Скопје Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Шумарски факултет во Скопје Faculty of Forestry in Skopje Декан Dean Д-р Александар Трендафилов Aleksandar Trendafilov PhD Главен и одговорен уредник Editor in chief Д-р Љупчо Несторовски Ljupčo Nestorovski PhD Уредувачки одбор Editorial board Д-р Марилена Иџојтиќ (Загреб, Хрватска) Marilena Idžojtić PhD (Zagreb, Croatia) Д-р Милосав Анѓелиќ (Подгорица, Црна Гора) Milosav Anđelić PhD (Podgorica, Montenegro) Д-р Милорад Даниловиќ (Белград, Србија) Milorad Danilović PhD (Belgrade, Serbia) Д-р Роберт Брус (Љубљана, Словенија) Robert Brus PhD (Ljubljana, Slovenia) Д-р Ирена Папазова Анакиева (Скопје, Македонија) Irena Papazova Anakieva PhD (Skopje, Macedonia) Д-р Чиприан Палагиану (Сучава, Романија) Ciprian Palaghianu PhD (Suceava, Romania) М-р Бојан Симовски (Скопје, Македонија) Bojan Simovski MSc (Skopje, Macedonia) Технички уредник Technical editor М-р Бојан Симовски Bojan Simovski MSc Д-р Чиприан Палагиану Ciprian Palaghianu PhD Корица и насловна фотографија Cover page and photography М-р Бојан Симовски, Quercus cerris Bojan Simovski MSc, Quercus cerris Тираж: 500 Copies: 500 Излегува еднаш годишно Published once a year Печати Printed by Печатница Европа 92, Кочани Print House Evropa 92, Kočani Адреса на издавачот Publisher’s address УКиМ Шумарски факултет во Скопје UKiM Faculty of Forestry in Skopje Редакција на Шумарски преглед Editorial Board of the Forest Review Бул. Александар Македонски бб Bul. Aleksandar Makedonski bb (П. фах 235) (P.O. box 235) 1000 Скопје MK-1000 Skopje Република Македонија Republic of Macedonia E-пошта: sumpregled@sf.ukim.edu.mk E-mail: sumpregled@sf.ukim.edu.mk www.sf.ukim.edu.mk www.sf.ukim.edu.mk Шум. преглед (Šum. pregled) Год. 43 Стр. 1-76 Скопје, 2012 For. review Vol. 43 Pag. 1-76 Skopje, 2012  ШУМАРСКИ ПРЕГЛЕД FOREST REVIEW Меѓународно научно списание International Scientific Journal Год. 43 / Стр. 1-76 Vol. 43 / Pag. 1-76 Скопје, 2012 Skopje, 2012 ISSN 0585-9069 ISSN 0585-9069 УДК 630 UDC 630 УДК 635.9 UDC 635.9 УДК 674 UDC 674 Научен и рецензентски одбор Scientific and reviewers board Д-р Борут Вршчај (Љубљана, Словенија) Borut Vrščaj PhD (Ljubljana, Slovenia) Д-р Васка Сандева (Штип, Македонија) Vaska Sandeva PhD (Štip, Macedonia) Д-р Јане Ацевски (Скопје, Македонија) Jane Acevski PhD (Skopje, Macedonia) Д-р Јасминка Р. Атанасовска (Скопје, Македонија) Jasminka R. Atanasovska PhD (Skopje, Macedonia) Д-р Кирил Крстевски (Скопје, Македонија) Kiril Krstevski PhD (Skopje, Macedonia) Д-р Љиљана Дошеновиќ (Бања Лука, БиХ) Ljiljana Došenović PhD (Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina) Д-р Марко Зебец (Загреб, Хрватска) Marko Zebec PhD (Zagreb, Croatia) Д-р Матиас Дис (Фрајбург, Германија) Matthias Dees PhD (Freiburg, Germany) Д-р Ненад Чуприќ (Белград, Србија) Nenad Čuprić PhD (Belgrade, Serbia) Д-р Петра Хлавачкова (Брно, Чешка Република) Petra Hlaváčková PhD (Brno, Czech Republic) Д-р Стефанка Хаџи Пецова (Скопје, Македонија) Stefanka Hadji Pecova PhD (Skopje, Macedonia) М-р Иван Минчев (Скопје, Македонија) Ivan Minčev MSc (Skopje, Macedonia) Адреса на издавачот Publisher’s address УКиМ Шумарски факултет во Скопје UKiM Faculty of Forestry in Skopje Редакција на Шумарски преглед Editorial Board of the Forest Review Бул. Александар Македонски бб Bul. Aleksandar Makedonski bb (П. фах 235) (P.O. box 235) 1000 Скопје MK-1000 Skopje Република Македонија Republic of Macedonia E-пошта: sumpregled@sf.ukim.edu.mk E-mail: sumpregled@sf.ukim.edu.mk www.sf.ukim.edu.mk www.sf.ukim.edu.mk Шум. преглед (Šum. pregled) Год. 43 Стр. 1-76 Скопје, 2012 For. review Vol. 43 Pag. 1-76 Skopje, 2012 For. review 43: 1 - 76. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje CONTENTS Foreword Original Scientific Papers: Anđelić M. MONTENEGRO FORESTRY SECTOR IN TRANSITION 1 Danilović M., Đorđević Z., Nestorovski Lj. OPERATING EFFICIENCY OF TIMBERJACK 1210B IN TRANSPORTING SOFT DECIDUOUS ROUNDWOOD 7 Nestorovski Lj., Nacevski M., Trajkov P., Trajanov Z., Danilovic M. ANALYSIS OF THE ASH QUANTITY DURING BEECH WOOD COMBUSTION 12 Palaghianu C. INDIVIDUAL AREA AND SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF SAPLINGS 15 Singh K. A., Singh S. S. EXPLORING THE SPATIO-TEMPORAL DYNAMICS OF FOREST LAND USE/LAND COVER CHANGES IN AHIRAN SUB WATERSHED OF CENTRAL INDIA 19 Teofilovski A., Mandzukovski D., Simovski B., Acevski J. CHOROLOGY AND HABITATS OF SOME PLANTS IN THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA 24 Trajanov Z., Nestorovski Lj., Trajkov P. INFLUENCE OF SOME FACTORS ON THE DENSITY OF FOREST ROADS IN THE SKIDDING WITH ANIMALS 33 Vukin M., Zivanovic M. THE CONCEPT OF LANDSCAPING THE PARK ZONE OF THE ARBORETUM OF THE FACULTY OF FORESTRY IN BELGRADE 37 Preliminary Communications: Andreevski M., Mukaetov D. CONTENT OF EXCHANGEABLE CATIONS IN ALBIC LUVISOLS IN REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA UNDER DIFFERENT VEGETATIVE COVER 42 Todorov V., Stavrevska – Panajotova A., Petrovski S., Kampen P. INTRODUCING FAST GROWING TREE SPECIES FOR AGRO-FORESTRY PRACTICES ON AGRICULTURAL LAND IN MACEDONIA 46 Professional Papers: Brndevska V., Rizovska Atanasovska J. SOME SHADE TOLERANT PLANTS USED IN LANDSCAPE DESIGN IN MACEDONIA 51 Galev E., Sandeva V., Despot K. AESTHETIC EVALUATION OF FOREST LANDSCAPES WITHIN THE TRAINING AND EXPERIMENTAL FOREST RANGE (TEFR) YUNDOLA, R. BULGARIA 57 Galev E., Sandeva V., Despot K., Acevski J., Simovski B. CREATING A DATABASE FOR THE DENDRARIUM USING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS TECHNOLOGIES – EXAMPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL FOREST DEPARTMENT “PETROHAN”, R. BULGARIA 62 Kanareva N., Rizovska Atanasovska J. THE USAGE OF CLIMBING PLANTS IN FAÇADE GREENING IN TODAY’S URBAN LIVING WITH EXAMPLES OF THE CENTRAL URBAN REGION OF SKOPJE, R. MACEDONIA 65 For. review 43: 1 - 76. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje Micevska A., Rizovska Atanasovska J. SOME NEW FLOWER PLANTS USED IN DESIGNING OF GARDENS AND BALCONIES IN STRUMICA (R. MACEDONIA) 70 Rantaša B. THE SENSE OF PLACE RESEARCH APPROACH TO FORESTS 73 Instructions to Authors For. review 43: 1 - 76. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje  FOREWO ORD Dear Colleagues and a Friends,, It is a great pleassure to annouunce the pub t 43rd Scieentific Journa blication of the al Forest Reeview. Past 42 issues of o the Foresst Review were w mostly reserved r forr publishing g forestry sccientific papeers from reseearches from m Republic of Macedoniaa, and on M Macedonian la anguage. Beeginning witth this numbeer, the journal is becomiing internatioonal, with innternational Editorial E annd Scientificc bodies. Neearly sixty years y of trad dition publisshing the sccientific worrk in the Foorestry area of the Statee and Regionnal researches, gave us the right to go step forw ward and beecome internnational foresstry journal. This year, y we havee collected 16 papers, fro om 6 differennt countries, and we hopee that the neext edition will w be even more diversse. Papers treat t differennt forestry isssues, and are a peer- reeviewed by thhe significantt forestry autthorities from m even moree countries. We hoope that Foreest Review will w fill the arrea of severaal scientific jjournals in this t field, annd it will be an opportunnity for the reesearchers too publish theeir scientific papers in th he future, ass well as to become b a leadding scientiffic journal in n the field of Forestry F in tthe region. Great thanks to alll authors, members m of th he Editorial and Scientiffic boards, as well as to all peer – reeviewers for the great eff ffort and suppport. On behalf off the Editoria al Board, Prof. Ljuupčo Nestoroovski PhD, Chairman C For. review 43: 1 - 76. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje For. review 43: 1 - 6. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 UDC: 630*9(497.16) Original scientific paper Paper submission: May, 2012 MONTENEGRO FORESTRY SECTOR IN TRANSITION ANĐELIĆ M. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Podgorica, Montenegro Correspondig author e-mail address: milosav.andjelic@mpr.gov.me ABSTRACT: This paper presents the results we have come to on the basis of five-year' work in legislative and new organizational structure of the forestry sector in Montenegro. The ultimate goal of this activity is to provide for permanent conservation and improvement of existing areas under forests and forest land as well as their functions within the defined frameworks. The principal prerequisites for this are: implementation of measures of prevention and monitoring of forests, their sustainable multi-functional utilization with substantial and more intense implementation of silvicultural works, conservation and improvement of biological and landscape diversity of forests and their environmental quality. Keywords: Forestry in transition, permanent conservation and improvement of forests, sustainable multi-functional utilization. 1 INTRODUCTION 73.8%, 94.6% Romania: 5.4%, Slovenia 30.0%: 70.0%, 28.9% Finland: 71.1% (TBFRA, 2000). Total area of Montenegro covers 1.381.200 ha, and Since forests are resources of general / public according to the first National Forest Inventory, forests interest, it is in the national interest to legally regulate and forest land cover 832.900 ha or 59.9% of the conditions for improvement of the current status of these territory. Other categories (urban areas, water bodies, forests to ensure a balance between protection, agricultural land plots, barren land, etc.), which are not ecological, social and economic functions of forests, and forests and forest land, occupy 135.800 ha or 9.8%, to ensure sustainability. On the other hand, Article 1 of which together make up for 968.700 ha1 or 69.7% of the the Constitution prescribes that, inter alia, Montenegro is territory. ecological state, which relies on its official Declaration of State forests and forest land cover 436,641 ha or 52.6 Ecological State adopted back in 1991 (Declaration of %, while private forests and forest land cover 393,839 ha Ecological State of Montenegro). or 47.6% of the territory. Total stock in forests of Montenegro changed its forestry legislation three Montenegro is estimated at around 117,433 million m3, times in the last twenty years (1990, 2000 and 2010). of which 31,478 million m3 in private forests and 85,954 Having regained state independence, the Government of million m3 in state forests. In total volume, hardwood Montenegro committed further to reforming forestry accounts for 59.8% and conifer trees account for 40.2%. sector and, for the first time in its history, adopted the Conifer forests have a special role in terms of their National Forest Policy in 2008. The National Forest and multipurpose functions. Forest Land Policy is actually only the first step in the Forests and forestry provide a very important process of implementing the National Forest Programme contribution to our society and economy given that of Montenegro, and the basis for this is created by around 60% of population is linked to villages and rural institutional reform defined by the 2000 Forest Law, areas rich in forests. successfully implemented 2003 Programme for According to the relevant data of the National Forest Rebuilding of Forestry and Wood Processing and Inventory, ecological, social and economic values of the restitution process which is still ongoing. Based on these Montenegrin forests, including their diversity and impact reforms, privatization of forestry and wood-processing on the environment, taking into account the areas enterprises was launched and created conditions for damaged in the past, places the forests of Montenegro starting a new cycle of investments, which should result amongst the finest forests in Europe. If we take into in stronger competitiveness of timber products from account the number of inhabitants, the forest coverage is Montenegro at regional and European markets. 1.3 ha / capita, and that places Montenegro in the group Institutional reform created Forest Administration as a of European countries with the largest forest cover, public forest service, which is undergoing a training together with Scandinavian countries. process for fulfilling public interest in forests and If we take into account that the world's forest cover is forestry. 30%, and 46% of European (TBFRA, 2000) then by Although the 2000 Law established a clear distinction forests Montenegro (59.9%) is in third place, just behind between administrative and operational functions in Finland (86%) -4.5 ha / capita and Sweden (67% ), and forestry, this act has had the Forest Administration face ahead of Slovenia, which has the forest coverage of 58% many limitations, given that regulating relations in (0.6 ha / capita), Croatia 37% (0.47 ha / capita), Serbia forestry was not based on market principles. On the other 29.1% (0.3 ha / capita), Bosnia and Herzegovina 41%, hand, multipurpose forests, relation between state and Spain 30%, Austria 38%. private ownership was not balanced, and bureaucratic The ratio between state and private forests in some barriers posed limitations before the Forest European countries is the following: Austria 17.5%: Administration in developing the sector. For this reason, 82.5%, Bosnia and Herzegovina 78.4%: 21.6%, 75.5% there was an objective need for some of its provisions to English: 24.5% Czech 84.1%: 15.9%, France 26.2%: be improved and harmonized with new goals of forest and forestry development, including: 1 The results of the National Forest Inventory • clearer definition of forest functions and principles Montenegro - Summary of sustainable forest management, 1 For. review 43: 1 - 6. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje • a new improved management planning system in - develop programmes for development of forestry sector forestry, which ensures a more transparent (strategy and budget), procedure in developing planning documents, - frequent participatory monitoring (monitoring) of the • a clearer definition of provisions related to forest programme implementation, exploitation and more transparent methods of - reform state institutions and services in forestry sector, selling timber, which should leave sufficient - build human capacities at all levels, flexibility to public services for more - support establishment of sustainable private sector in comprehensive and multipurpose benefits of forest forestry. functions, The main principles of existing National Forest • establishment of more flexible provisions related to Programmes in Europe (participation; inter-sectoral tree markation and the use of available allowable approach; frequent process with long-term obligations; cut at annual level, capacity building; consistence with national legislation • removing barriers related to dispatching wood and policy; integration with national strategies of assortments from private and state forests, sustainable development; compliance with international • building competitiveness in the sector, commitments, having in mind common actions of • public support to associations of private forest international initiatives and conventions related to owners and their engagement in decision-making forests; institutional and political reform; ecosystem process, approach; partnership in implementation and raising awareness) are directly integrated in new Forest Law, • establishing protected areas in forests within which certainly is a step ahead in integrating the best ecological network NATURA 2000 where forest European practices in forestry. management will be in line with goals of protection With all the above reasons in mind, we think that and conservation of such areas, i.e. their habitat adopting of the new Forest Law of 2010 and its efficient types, enforcement will speed up the whole reform of the sector • incentive policy which is achieved by which made significant steps in the previous period as implementing measures in line with the European well, which ultimately resulted in a positive trend in Union policy for rural development, almost all activities, starting from: reducing illegal • monitoring of all processes in forests and logging, better planning, revitalizing seed and nursery coordination through National Council and local production, developed network of protected areas in Forest Councils. forests, equal treatment of forest owners, established mechanisms of coherent control in the process of The establishment of these mechanisms will provide decision-making, more efficient and more competitive for better forest management, higher investments and economic entities in both forestry and wood-processing, creating employment opportunities in forestry, improving which resulted in substantially higher financial effects financial operations of both private and public compared to the previous period and provided new institutions, better ecological protection and improved employment and training opportunities. management of protected areas and higher benefits for civil society. 2 FOREST POLICY, LEGISLATION AND Towards the new Forest Law of 2010, within a process of harmonization of legislation with the EU, a INSTITUTIONALISATION OF GOVERNANCE number of other regulations have been adopted and they impact regulation of relations in forestry sector such as: As a part of recent reforms, and in the view of the EU Law on Strategic Environmental Impact Assessment integrations, the forestry sector of Montenegro has started (2005); Law on Spatial Planning (2005); Law on Forest addressing matters that are crucial for good governance Reproductive Material (2006); Law on Agricultural Land in modern forestry, such as transparency, accountability, (2006); Law on Environmental Protection (2008); Law rule of law etc. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and on Game and Hunting (2008); Spatial Plan of Water Management, now the Ministry of Agriculture and Montenegro until 2020; Law on Waters (2007); Law on Rural Development, recognized how important it was to Agriculture and Rural Development (2009); Law on develop strategic documents, and thus started National Parks (2009); Law on State Property (2009); implementing a systematic top-down approach to forestry Law on Property and Legal Relations (2009); Law on development. Financing of Local Government (2008); National Strategy of Sustainable Development (2007); National 1. Forest Policy in Montenegro is a document which Forest and Forest Land Administration Policy (2008); was passed/adopted in 2008. As a contribution to Concession Law (2009). meeting the goals and priorities of the National Within the process of reform of forestry sector, Strategy of Sustainable Development, the special attention is paid to matters related to improved document of the National Forest Policy prioritizes permanent forest management as defined by Helsinki five general goals: Ensure and improve long-term Resolution H1 and to contributing to sustainable resistance and productivity of forests and other development (Ministerial Conference on the Protection of ecosystems, and maintain plant and animals Forests in Europe, Vienna Resolution 1). In the context of species; these initiatives, Montenegro committed to implementing 2. Management of forests and forest resources ensures the following activities through the process of National sustainable implementation of social, economic and Forest Programme and in line with the National Forest ecological forest functions; and Forest Land Administration Policy: 3. Forests contribute to sustainable social and - develop National Forest Policy, economic development of rural areas; - develop forestry and hunting legislation, 4. Ensure long-term development and competitiveness of wood industry; 2  ANĐELIĆ M. MONTENEGRO FORESTRY SECTOR IN TRANSITION 5. Long-term development of forest profession and • building competitiveness in the sector, effectiveness of forestry. • public support to associations of private forest owners and their engagement in decision-making It contains 35 statements, with a list of tasks under process, each statement. This umbrella document covers issues • establishing protected areas in forests within ranging from the quality status and needs, through social ecological network NATURA 2000 where forest and economic development of the society in the field of management will be in line with goals of protection forestry and related sectors, together with a vision of a and conservation of such areas, i.e. their habitat modern and competitive forestry sector. The Forest types, Policy document is especially valuable given that it was • incentive policy which is achieved by not prepared in the office, it does not assume simple implementing measures in line with the European adoption of expert thoughts and experiences from abroad, Union policy for rural development, but is based on the work of seven Working Groups with • comprehensive monitoring of all processes in 49 members representing different organizations, 14 local forests. and international consultants, a number of workshops, preliminary public hearings. It was reviewed twice by the The establishment of these mechanisms provided for Government Commissions before the Government better forest management, higher investments and adopted its Draft, and this was followed by a broad public creating employment opportunities in forestry, improving hearing. Forest Policy fits the framework defined by the financial operations of both private and public following documents: Strategy of Sustainable institutions, better ecological protection and improved Development, Strategy of Poverty Reduction, Strategy of management of protected areas and higher benefits for Balanced Regional Development, Economic Policy, and civil society. The main principles of existing National National Programme of European Integrations. These Forest Programmes in Europe (participation; inter- documents result from one another, they are sectoral approach; frequent process with long-term complementary and conditional. The National Forest and obligations; capacity building; consistence with national Forest Land Administration Policy will be implemented legislation and policy; integration with national strategies through the National Forest Strategy, which along with of sustainable development; compliance with this Policy relies on recommendations of the Ministerial international commitments, having in mind common Conference on the Protection of European Forests in actions of international initiatives and conventions related relation to National Forest Programmes. The Strategy to forests; institutional and political reform; ecosystem defines short-term, mid-term and long-term objectives approach; partnership in implementation and raising and programmes for areas of work and regions, addresses awareness) are directly integrated or their concept is critical prioritized issues, defines multi-year budgetary clearly presented in the Forest Law, which certainly is a programme and lays the foundation for detailed annual step ahead in integrating the best European practices in work plans and budgets. Forest Strategy is a document forestry. It is the Law which was passed with which is missing at the moment, but it will be drafted participation of broad forest audience, within the process under ongoing IPA project. which involved local and international experts. The process of drafting and passing of several by- • Special attention is given to the new Forest Law, laws, in the light of the new Law is under way. At this the relation between state and private ownership particular moment, when the theoretical vision becomes which was not balanced, and bureaucratic barriers practical guideline, it is necessary for concrete steps and were a limiting factor for the Forest Administration activities to be defined as simply as possible. That is why in developing the sector. For this reason, there was the implementation of the Improved Methodology of an objective need for some of its provisions to be Forest Management Planning, as a base for most of the improved and harmonized with new goals of forest forestry related activities that require a lot of efforts, and forestry development, including: clearer especially considering new approaches in planning definition of forest functions and principles of documentation development and also in practical / sustainable forest management, technical sense. Adopting new planning methodology • a new improved management planning system in should contribute to more transparent and more forestry, which ensures a more transparent responsible forest management, which will be based on procedure in developing planning documents, principles of sustainable forest management in • a clearer definition of provisions related to forest compliance with ecological, economic and social forest exploitation and more transparent methods of functions. selling timber, which should leave sufficient “Old school” foresters need to refresh their flexibility to public services for more knowledge of participatory techniques and skills needed comprehensive and multipurpose benefits of forest to work with new devices (GPS, GIS, new methodology functions, planning, Natura sites management, extension service, • establishment of more flexible provisions related to etc...), and this process is ongoing. Forest Management tree markation and the use of available allowable Planning in Montenegro is performed at several levels. cut at annual level, Forest Development Plan implies planning at a level of a • removing barriers related to dispatching wood municipality, and its development and adoption involves assortments from private and state forests, public participation, which was not the case before. according to the Regulation (EC) No. 995/2010 of Forest Development Plan is enacted by the Government the European Parliament and the Council of 20 for the period of 10 years, based on previously obtained October 2010 laying down the obligations of opinion of the state administrative authority competent operators who place timber and timber products on for environmental protection and tourism and local self- the market, government unit whose area is covered by the respective 3 For. review 43: 1 - 6. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje plan. A particularly important provision, which complies 3 TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE BETWEEN EU with the principle of participation of professional and COUNTRIES AND MONTENEGRO, THROUGH wider audience in the process of adopting of planning DIFFERENT FUNDS documents, was addressed through participation of stakeholders in drafting and adopting of plans, based on With the EU membership in view, Montenegro could the relevant EU Directive and Regulation, which proved benefit from regional cooperation with other Balkan to be very good in adopting of the National Forest Policy countries, especially with member states and other in 2008. In relation to this, private forest owners, candidate countries. The lessons learned and exchange of stakeholders and wider public have the right to experiences in forestry development in these countries participate in the process of preparation and adopting of could be useful for development of the forestry sector in all planning documents in forestry, which they consider Montenegro. Improved regional and international to be of interest to them. The procedure for participation cooperation in forestry, especially in education, research of stakeholders in preparing and adopting development and training is considered to be an important instrument plans and Forest Management Plans are further for achieving strategic goals in forestry sector. The matter elaborated (starting from the drafting, implementation of of forest education and training is addressed in a way that public hearings and a method of their adoption) and competent administrative authority and users of state deadlines for giving opinion about forest development forests are obliged to create conditions for professional plans and forest management plans as well. It is defined development of employees (courses, exchange, etc.) in that prior to defining opinions on submitted objections, silviculture, protection, exploitation of forests in proposals and suggestions to the proposed plan, a compliance with appropriate plans, which are adopted by competent administrative authority is obliged to obtain a competent administrative authority and users, in opinion from the National or Local Forest Council about cooperation with various stakeholders. Limited and a Forest Development Plan and a Forest Management focused partnership, rather than a comprehensive general Plan. The Law on Local Government does not define programmes, are ensuring a successful academic municipal responsibility for forests and forestry, but partnership. In Montenegro there are several active generally prescribes that municipalities are responsible international projects/organization in the field of forestry, for environment protection, municipal services and which are contributing to the development of Forestry. spatial planning. The Law on Public Administration also FODEMO Project (Forestry Development in prescribes that certain functions of the state Montenegro) is a donor project, which is establishing administration, for the purpose of their more efficient and communication between international experts and local more economic implementation, are legally decentralized institutions (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural to local government, i.e. entrusted to the local Development, Forest Administration , environmental government, institutions and legal entities. According to institutions, etc.), and supporting the development of the Law on Local Government, municipalities receive various legislation (Forest Law, Forest Policy, by-laws, 70% of fees paid for exploitation of forests on their etc.) and methodological papers/documents territory. These funds are considered to be a share in (Methodology of the National Forest Inventory, FMP natural resources benefits and the support to building and Methodology). A lot of international experts and maintenance of local infrastructure in forest areas. The consultants have been engaged in the project communication between state institutions and the wider implementation and they were (and still are) contributing public should go both ways, should be open and with to the development of the sector in Montenegro. Forestry clearly defined communication channels for some of the forum is an event which has taken place twice (2010 and target groups. Better mutual understanding and 2012) in Montenegro, and it represents a place for cooperation between all partners in forestry exchange of ideas and knowledge, and for presentation of (Government, NGO, private sector, interested achievements and activities over the previous year. IPA international organisations) are achieved through training funds are also present in Montenegro, and they are used, programmes for all stakeholders and by regular open in particular, for the development of the new Forest forums aimed at exchanging information between Information System in Montenegro, but also for the partners in the forestry sector. Next level in FMP is incorporation of NATURA 2000 into standard FMP Forest Management Plan, which is adopted for the period documents and into practice. of 10 years, and prior to its adoption, it is required to obtain opinion of the Agency for Environmental 4 NATIONAL FOREST INVENTORY AS A Protection, at the same time containing the guidelines PROJECT PROVIDING SUSTAINABILITY AND required by the Natura 2000 network. This level also FUTURE PROSPECTS requires cooperation with the Ministry of Tourism and Environment, which is responsible for nature protection, The first National Forest Inventory of the forests of including, establishment of Natura 2000 network, Montenegro was undertaken in order to create realistic environment protection and tourism development in grounds for quality strategic planning in forestry. In Montenegro. Operational programs, as a bottom planning methodological terms, this Inventory is compliant with level, are adopted yearly and they include intensive the standards used by countries with long forestry communication with private forest owners and their tradition. The results of the first National Forest associations. Inventory show substantial differences with these elements compared to previous (available) figures on forests resources of Montenegro. Forests cover 59.9% and forest land covers 9.8% (69.7% altogether) of the territory of Montenegro. Standing volume amounts to around 118 mil m³ with current volume increment of 2.8 4  ANĐELIĆ M. MONTENEGRO FORESTRY SECTOR IN TRANSITION million m³. The reliability and comprehensiveness of Forests (Official Gazette of Montenegro 74/10) referred these and other results of the National Forest Inventory to the implementation of criteria and indicators of create realistic grounds for macro-economic planning, sustainable forest management. The Article 6 of the Law provide for correspondence with associations performing defines that “Forests and forest land, as ecosystem, shall monitoring of forest ecosystems at regional and global be administered and managed in a sustainable and levels, and place Montenegro amongst countries that multifunctional manner in accordance with the criteria have established their Forest Policy on reliable and and indicators defined by the Ministry”. This results in methodologically appropriate grounds. This data will the commitment to develop and adopt the criteria and provide an establishment of the new dimension of the indicators as general standards of sustainable forest quality of the Forest Policy, considering the Forest management in Montenegro. Administration ct that Montenegro is among top forest Criteria and indicators of sustainable forest covered European countries. The data will provide a management in accordance with the Law on Forests base for clear definition of the contribution of (Article 6 paragraph 5) for the needs of management, Montenegrin forests to climate changes mitigation, and monitoring and evaluation of sustainability are adopted will provide high standards of international reporting. by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development Also, the determination of the forest potential of (Ministry of agriculture and rural development). These Montenegro for the definition of the biomass energy, criteria and indicators determine, inter alia, the extent of with a cooperation of the Ministry of Economy is silvicultural works (compared to the volume of cutting) ongoing. which forest owners and beneficiaries are obliged to do (Article 50 paragraph 3). 5 CRITERIA FOR SUSTAINABLE FOREST The Criteria provide general guidelines, norms and MANAGEMENT manners of action, work and conduct (in forestry profession, of forest owners and beneficiaries and third Sustainable forest management is one of major persons as beneficiaries of forest functions) in the forest contributions which forestry as a sector can give towards and toward the forest, and relate to all aspects of the accomplishment of the defined goals of sustainable sustainability of forest administration and management. development of any country. Therefore, these criteria represent general standards of The UNCED, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, set the sustainable forest administration and management and basic principles for sustainable forest management in can be further linked to specific (more detailed) technical terms of contribution to sustainable development. “Forest standards for specific fields. Principles” and Chapter 11 of Agenda 21, adopted at the Indicators represent quantitative and qualitative Conference, included the commitment “to implement parameters which show the progress i.e. changes in sustainable management and utilisation of forests in accomplishment of specific criteria. compliance with national development policies and Criteria, and especially indicators, serve as overall priorities, as well as in compliance with environmentally parameters for monitoring and evaluation of forest defined national guidelines which take into consideration, conditions as well as the quality and sustainability of as needed and if applicable, relevant internationally forest management. agreed methodologies and criteria” (Principle 8 d). Verification sources are documents (analyses, We can conclude that this Conference, i.e. the insights, reports, minutes, etc.) which contain evaluations documents adopted at the Conference, vitally influenced of certain indicators in terms of related criteria. In the launch of numerous international and national addition to these documents, the main verification source initiatives for the development of criteria and indicators will be the Report on Sustainability of Forest of sustainable forest management. International Tropical Administration and Management which will be Timber Organisation (ITTO) was among the first to developed in compliance with the related annual develop the criteria and indicators for sustainable monitoring programme adopted by MINISTRY OF management of natural tropical forests. Subsequently, the AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), (Article 47 paragraph 1 of the Law on Forests). United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and Essentially, the criteria and indicators of sustainable World Conservation Union (IUCN) were significantly forest administration and management in Montenegro involved in providing technical support to the represent the framework for the future Forest and development and implementation of criteria and Forestry Development Strategy. This Strategy should be indicators for sustainable forest management. We developed before them, so that these criteria and particularly emphasise the importance of Ministerial indicators could serve as parameters for monitoring and Conferences on the Protection of Forests in Europe evaluation of implementation of this Strategy. However, (MCPFEs), i.e. the resolutions adopted at such since the case here is opposite, the development of this Conferences, which commit Montenegro both morally Strategy - based on the previously defined and adopted and politically, for the development of criteria and criteria and indicators which include all the necessary indicators of sustainable forest management in Europe in aspects of sustainability of forest administration and compliance with the mentioned UNCED principles. In management - will be much Forest Administration this context, the most important document is the Lisbon facilitated. Resolution L2 (1998), entitled “Pan-European Criteria, Indicators, and Operational Level Guidelines for 9 INSTEAD OF A CONCLUSION Sustainable Forest Management, which presents commitments and frameworks for the development of Based on all relevant Forest Administration acts, it national criteria and indicators. can be stated that the New Forest Law is prepared in line It was the first case in our legislation, in compliance with international and national principles of sustainable with the Pan-European guidelines, that the Law on development and standards of modern reforms of legal 5 For. review 43: 1 - 6. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje framework of forest sector, such as sustainability, 10 REFERENCES AND OTHER SOURCES multifunctionality, comprehensive and ecosystem approach, participation of stakeholders and public, [1] Anđelić, M. et al. 2012. The development of the service orientation of the national Forest Administration, forest sector and forest policy in Montenegro in opportunity of entrusting and privatizing state recent period. 14th International Symposium On administration operations, privatization of state forest Legal Aspects of European Forest Sustainable exploitation / concessions, introducing incentive policies Development; Belarus Minsk, and support to private sector, introducing innovative [2] Anđelić, M. et al.2012. Status of forest resources of income of the budget for protection and improvement of Montenegro, Congress-Role of research in forests, etc. Due to this, the New Law is comprehensive, sustainable development of agriculture and rural ambitious and offers opportunities for remaining in force areas - Agriculture and Forestry p 23 Podgorica, for a long time. Montenegro, In order to have better, i.e. more efficient forest [3] Anđelić, M. et al.2012. Funding studies of forests management and at the same time dedicate ourselves to and forestry Montenegro, Ministry of Agriculture nature conservation, it will be necessary to set up the and rural development, Podgorica, transparent system which will, first of all, comply with [4] Anđelić, M. 2011. Forestry and Hunting the administrative needs and staff potentials. Challenges Legislation in Montenegro, Ministry of Agriculture such as massive state administration, overlapping of and rural development, Podgorica, competencies, impact of politics and still non-market [5] Anđelić, M. et al.2012. Criteria and indicators for economy in this area, as well as negative public sustainable forest management in Montenegro, perception regarding the forest valorisation are problems Ministry of Agriculture and rural development, that have to be overcome by specific system measures, as Podgorica, soon as possible. [6] Dees, M., anđelić, M. 2011. Metodology of the At the end, it should be emphasized that continuation national Forest inventory of Montenegro, of the forestry reforms will significantly change the Podgorica, ultimate results/outcomes if they are not followed by [7] Ferlin, F. 2004. Comparison of the Central wider reform of institutions and forest resources European state’s forestry organisation models and management. Formal institutional changes in the form of numbers of forestry officers and servants with the new laws or organizations are not sufficient because if situation in Slovenia), Study report, Slovenia there are no changes in manner people behave, it is Forestry Institute, Ljubljana, 79 p. (in Slovene), difficult to talk about getting to crucial system changes. available at: The attempt of transferring ‘the best practices’ in http://www.gozdis.si/departments/silviculture/silvic institutional reform is significant in the research phase, ulture_dept.htm. but do not always meet all of our expectations. It is the [8] Ferlin, F. 2008. Mission report to Montenegro, Forest Administration ct they will give certain assistance SNV Montenegro, Ljubljana, August 2008, 19 pp., understanding how and when institutions should Annex: Proposals and recommendation to implement reforms. But we should obligatory know that development of new Forest law, 61 pp. institutional arrangements that have proven successful in [9] Gerely, F. 2009. Personal communication, one country have both positive and negative effects for Podgorica, May 2009. other countries. Good reforms take time, and it should be [10] Golob, A. 2008. Support New Forest Law Drafting provided in order to implement this process without and Contribution to Private Forest Information disturbances. Consequently, when speaking about Concept Development, Brief report on the mission changes to the system, we can say that there are no – Forest Law in Montenegro, SNV Montenegro, revolutions in forestry and it is unlikely that effective December 2008, 7 pp. with Annex 4, 14 pp. organizational changes will take place without previously [11] Stritih, J. 2008a. Legal and Institutional Framework identified and carefully considered bottle necks and in Montenegro. Forestry Development in appropriate schedule of system measures which must be Montenegro (FODEMO) Project – Phase II, Lux- implemented in correlation. The fact is that, despite the Development, June 2008, 28 pp., Annex 2, 29 pp. scope of reforms, there is no uniform “model” or [12] Stritih, J. 2008b. Inputs for development of new methodology for reforms guaranteeing success. The Forest law in Montenegro – silviculture, forest solution will largely depend on the number of specific utilisation and state forest management parts. Forest Administration actors within the state that involve Forestry Development in Montenegro (FODEMO) historical context of forest utilization but also public Project – Phase II, Lux-Development, December perception defined through traditions/customs and 2008, 7 pp. culture. We should not forget that Montenegro declared itself officially as an Ecological State back in 1991 (Article 1 of the Constitution prescribes that, inter alia, Montenegro is ecological state, which relies on its official Declaration of Ecological State back in 1991 (Declaration of Ecological State of Montenegro), and it is obvious that the forest ecosystems are playing important role in the society, which is becoming more and more opened toward nature. 6 For. review 43: 7 - 11. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 UDC: 630*37(497.11) Original scientific paper Paper submission: May, 2012 OPERATING EFFICIENCY OF TIMBERJACK 1210B IN TRANSPORTING SOFT DECIDUOUS ROUNDWOOD 1 DANILOVIĆ M., 2ĐORĐEVIĆ Z., 3NESTOROVSKI Lj. 1 University of Belgrade Faculty of Forestry, Belgrade, Serbia 2 PE Vojvodinašume, Petrovaradin, Serbia 3 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Faculty of Forestry in Skopje, Skopje, Macedonia Correspondig author e-mail address: milorad.danilovic@sfb.bg.ac.rs ABSTRACT: This article presents the results of a research concerning the operating efficiency of John Timberjack 1210 B forwarder in transporting soft deciduous roundwood following a clear cut conducted by John Deere 1470D ECO III. The evaluation of operating efficiency was based on 70 transport cycles. The wood was transported over the felling site, on the trail and finally by a truck road. This article also presents an analysis of the impact of ruts on the operating efficiency of the forwarder. Rut depth ranged between 17 and 40 cm.On the basis of the results of conducted data recordings, the operating efficiency was evaluated depending on the used harvesting technology.The forwarder achieved greater efficiency in comparison to the efficiency achieved when harvesting was conducted by chainsaws. Average time needed for loading the assortments in the felling site where the harvest was conducted by the John Deere 1470D ECO III harvester is shorter than the time needed for loading the assortments in the felling site where the chainsaws were used. Also, the passage time during loading and the moving time between loading and unloading stations are significantly shorter. Greater efficiency is the result of assortment grouping when the harvester is used and reduced overlapping of assortments. These results are very important for evaluating the usage of modern technologies for forestry utilization in lowland regions of Serbia. Keywords: forwarder Timberjack 1210 B, harvester John Deere 1470D ECO III, first phase of transport, poplar, efficiency 1 INTRODUCTION The choice of instruments of labour in the first phase "Sremska Mitrovica" since 2008. After felling and of wood transport is very important from the economic, crosscutting of assortments using the chain saw, evenly ecological and ergonomic points of view. Factors spaced assortments remain in the felling site. Transport of affecting the production effects of the instruments of these assortments is carried out by tractor equipages or labour in wood transport are numerous, and their forwarders, depending on the operating conditions, type importance varies depending on the operating conditions. of felling and transport distance. After felling and The operating conditions of the first phase of transport in crosscutting of assortments with a harvester, overlapping Serbian forestry significantly differ in lowland and of assortments is fairly reduced. This creates an highland areas. The operating conditions of the first opportunity for a more efficient use of the instruments of phase of transport in lowland areas are characterized by a labour used in the first phase of transportation, i.e. the low carrying capacity of the terrain, as opposed to the assortments produced remain in small piles positioned hilly and mountainous areas, where the dominant factor is along the row that is being cut, which provides easier the slope of the terrain and its dissected relief. forwarder manipulation and reduced passing time during Instruments of labour imposed as a logical solution in loading, quicker loading and faster movement of the lowland areas are forwarders and tractor equipages. On instrument vehicles over the felling site. This was one of the other hand, the instruments of labour used in hilly and the reasons to investigate the production effects of mountainous areas, depending on the forest purpose and forwarders in these operating conditions. harvestable volume and slope, are animal-drawn carts, Accordingly, the goal of this paper is to investigate agricultural tractors adapted for use in forest operations, the effects of production of the Timberjack 1210 B as well as forwarders specialized for such operating forwarder following a clear-cutting with the John Deere conditions. 1470D Eco III harvester. The effects of the instruments of labour in the first The production effects of a forwarder are affected by phase of wood transport are most affected by the average a number of factors, including: the intensity of felling, transport distance and the average volume of a piece, and field conditions, operator skills (Lageson 1997, Karha these are the basic inputs into the norms of work in the 2003, Poršinsky 2005) and the silvicultural treatment first phase of wood transport. (Eliasson, 2000, Glode and Sikstrrom, 2001, et al.). The largest quantity of assortments poplar is concentrated in the forelands of major rivers passing 2 METHOD AND RESEARCH OBJECT through the province of Vojvodina. Clear cutting is applied in poplar plantations at the end of nearly twenty- This study was performed in the areas of FE year-long production cycles. "Sremska Mitrovica" , FA “Klenak” and FMU "Senajske Clear cutting is highly suitable from a technological bare-Krstac", compartment 26 (Fig. 1 and 2). point of view, given the possibility of larger technological freedom. Under these conditions a large amount of assortments, usually over 300 m3/ha, is concentrated on a small area. Felling and crosscutting are mostly performed using the chain saw in the 1M + 1R organizational form of work. In addition to felling and crosscutting of assortments with the chain saw, the John Deere 1470D Eco III Harvester has been in use in the FE 7 For. review 43: 7 - 11. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje Statistics 6.0 statistical program was used to statistically process the data, i.e. this paper employs conventional statistical and mathematical methods (regression, correlation, descriptive statistics, etc.). 3 RESEARCH RESULTS The total volume of timber transported during the recording period was 899 m3, i.e. the average volume of a transport cycle was 13.0 m3. Timber transport by the Timberjack 1210 B forwarder in the studied conditions was carried out on roads that belonged to very different categories. Following transport over the felling site, the assortments were transported by a dirt road and finally by a hard (macadam) road. The unloading of assortments was performed in two piles for sorting purposes. The average transport distance by dirt road was Figure 1: Loading of assortments 492m, and the average speed at which the forwarder moved amounted to 63.5 m·min-1. The average transport distanc e over the felling site was 163m at the average speed of 42.9 m·min-1. The duration of loading and unloading is directly dependent on the average volume of a piece and load volume tui = f ( m). tl 22,0 21,0 20,0 19,0 18,0 17,0 16,0 15,0 t, min 14,0 13,0 12,0 11,0 10,0 9,0 8,0 7,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 Average volume of log, m3 Figure 2: Ruts The recording was performed in November and December of 2009. A total of about 70 transport cycles Figure 3: Correlation between loading and unloading were recorded. time and the average volume of a piece The transport of wood was carried out in winter conditions. During the recording period, the weather was The loading time decreases with an increase in the changeable with rainy and snowy intervals. A 5-10 cm average volume of a piece (R-0.167, p-0.164) (Fig. 3). high snow cover was formed. The average air The correlation between the loading time and the temperature during the recording period was between 2 average volume of a piece is presented by the formula and 17 º C. , and the sum of loading and The soil types were III / 1 and IV/15. Ruts with a , , · depth of 17 to 40 cm were formed during wood unloading time by the function 23,7 8,17 · transport, depending on the recording period (Fig. 2). Rut . depth was measured for each transport cycle at three The time of movement of a transportation means different measurement points. depends on the terrain characteristics, the speed of that The recording was performed using transportation means and the transport distance ts=f (V,S). photochronometry, i.e. work time study was applied. The time flow method was employed to measure the duration of the operations using a chronometer with an accuracy of up to one second. In the course of forwarder application the following operations were recorded: manipulation at the temporary landing, drive to uplift the load, manipulation in the felling site, loading of wood assortments, passing during loading, and return from the felling site to the unloading station. All downtime periods during operation were recorded. The assortment landing was located on a truck road. The number of transport cycles needed for the analysis was calculated using variation statistics. The 8  DANILOVIĆ M., ĐORĐEVIĆ Z., NESTOROVSKI Lj. OPERATING EFFICIENCY OF TIMBERJACK 1210B IN TRANSPORTING SOFT DECIDUOUS ROUNDWOOD The share of additional time that was used to tre trf tlue tluf calculate the work norms in this study was 18%. In this study, the distance over the felling site was 15,00 taken as the calculated transport distance. The 10,00 coefficients for converting the distance on a dirt road and t,min hard truck road into the distance over the felling site were 5,00 kz- 0.68 and kk-0.52, respectively, and the calculated 0,00 transport distance under the conditions that were the object of this research was 547.5 m. 0 200 400 600 800 The daily costs of operation of the Timberjack 1210 B forwarder were calculated using standard calculations, and they amounted to € 370.1·day-1. Average transport distance, m The purchase price of a forwarder is 285,000 EUR, and the amortization period is 5 years at the annual usage Figure 4: Correlation between forwarder movement time of 1,600 operating hours and the fuel price of and average transport distance 1.31 EUR·L-1. The average output achieved by the Timberjack 1210 The average movement time of a loaded transport B forwarder was 92.8 m3 • day-1. The unit costs, which vehicle on all categories of roads is shorter than the time amounted to 3.99 euros • m-3, were calculated on the achieved by an empty transport vehicle. The difference is basis of direct labor costs and actual performance. most pronounced in the movement over the felling site These costs were directly correlated with the average (Fig. 4). transport distance and the average volume of a piece. The correlation between the average time spent on Figure 5 shows the unit costs in correlation with the the movement of an empty forwarder over the felling site transport distance and the volume of a piece. and the average transport distance is represented by the linear regression equation tlue = 0,527 + 0, 0151⋅ S , (R- Series1 Series2 Series3 0.882, p-0.000), and the full rounds, i.e. the same correlation for a loaded forwarder by the regression equation, tluf = 1, 025 + 0, 022 ⋅ S , (R-0.913, p-0. 000). The correlation between the average time spent on 10,0 Unit costs, EUR/m3 the movement an empty forwarder on a dirt road and the 5,0 average transport distance is represented by the equation 0,0 1 , (R-0.723, p-0.000), and the full tre = 0 1002003004005006007008009001000 56,1 0, 035 + S Average transpor t distance, m rounds, i.e. the same correlation for a loaded forwarder by the regression equation, 1 , trf = Figure 5: Correlation between unit costs, transport 53,5 0, 0093 + distance and the volume of a piece S (R - 0.770, p-0. 000). Rut depth was measured at four points, i.e. two on the IV/15 soil type and another two on the III/1 soil type. On The participation of downtime in the total forwarder the III/1soil type, rut depth was measured at distances of work time amounted to 1.5 min / round. The low 120 m and 300 m from the landing, while on the IV/15 percentage of downtime at work is the result of several soil type it was measured at distances of 220 m 435 m factors, including: the skills of a forwarder driver, good from the landing. The measurement was conducted in organization of the field work, proper functioning of November, at the air temperatures ranging from 6 to17 º machinery, field conditions, etc. (Danilovic, 2010). The C and in December, at the air temperatures ranging from basic norms of work under the studied conditions were 2 to 6 º C. In addition, out of the six days in December calculated on the basis of the performed recordings. three were characterized by a relatively light rainfall. Rut depth was measured in the same place after each The basic norms are the following: forwarder pass. With the growing number of repetitions the number of cycles and rut depth increased. Maximum • Average speed on a dirt road (Vz) 63.5 m·min-1 rut depth was 40 cm at both measurement points. This • Average speed on a hard truck road (Vk) 83.3 depth was measured on the III/ 1 soil type in rainy m·min-1 weather, after 49 cycles along the same rut, while on the • Average speed in the felling site (Vs) 42.9 IV/15 soil type the measured depth amounted to 38 cm m·min-1 and 35 cm, at the first and second measurement points, • Manipulation time (tm) 3.9 min·turi-1 respectively. This interval was followed by a chilly • Loading time (tu) 0.88 min·m3 period with a decrease in temperature. Movement of the • Unloading time (ti) 72 min· m3 forwarder changed, and new measurements were • Downtime(tz) 1.5 min·turi-1 performed at the same distances from the landing. After • Average volume of a round (Q) 13.0 m3·turi-1 14 transport cycles, the maximum rut depth was about 34 cm on the III/1 soil type, and about 30 cm on the IV/15 soil type. 9 For. review 43: 7 - 11. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje According to previous research the limit distance to 40 which it is economically viable to use a forwarder is about up to 1 km, or often much less. In Serbia, the Rut dept, cm 30 openness of forests with a network of roads is insufficient 20 in lowland areas, which directly affects the applicability of forwarders. Hence, the presence of tractor equipages is 10 higher. The situation is somewhat different in the FE 0 "Sremska Mitrovica", where the average transport 0 10 20 30 40 50 distance is shorter than 500 m, which imposes the Number of transport cycles application of forwarders as a logical solution. Under these conditions, it is necessary to pay special attention to Figure 6: Correlation between rut depth and the number the size of the chosen forwarders. It is economical to of transport cycles apply small forwarders for thinning, preferably without a thrust washer, and in major cuttings medium and heavy Along with the growing number of repetitions or forwarders should be used (Danilovic 2010). At very cycles, rut depth also increased. The correlation between difficult terrains, with low carrying capacity, it is the number of transport cycles and rut depth is necessary to mount half-tracks. For example, half-tracks represented by the function Dr = 5,55 ⋅ N 0,493 are often used year round in Finland, regardless of field , conditions (Suvinen, 2006). The advantage of half-track (R-0. 981, p-0. 000) (Fig. 6). application is reflected in the reduction of pressure on the surface, due to the larger contact area between the tires 4 DISCUSSION and the ground. Due to the low density of forest roads in the lowland The results of this study indicate that the Timberjack areas of Serbia tractor equipage will continue to be a very 1210 B forwarder achieves great outputs under the important instrument of labour in roundwood transport. investigated conditions, and that its effects are greater The annual forwarder output under the conditions than the effects achieved by this or similar forwarders that are typical for this study is approximately 20,000 m3, realized when performing felling with the chain saw. The which means that the transport of technical roundwood reason for this could be the fact that the overlapping of from regular harvesting of poplar plantations that is assortments in felling and crosscutting with the harvester carried out by harvesters can be performed by two was reduced, which enabled shorter duration of forwarder forwarders. Good organization of work is necessary if loading. In addition, there are fewer obstacles in the that is to be achieved. felling site, causing a lower coefficient of bypassing an There was little difference regarding certain obstacle, i.e. shorter transport distances. The speed of correlations between the effects of forwarders observed movement of empty and full forwarders over the felling in this study and those obtained by other authors site is higher than the maximum speed achieved by the (Ghaffarian et al. 2007, 1999, etc. Jezdić, Danilovic, same vehicles in the felling sites where felling and 2010), except to the extent dictated by terrain conditions. crosscutting were performed using the classical The average speed of a forwarder in the felling site procedure, especially when long cordwood is not and on a soft summer road obtained in this study is produced. In that case, the branches are scattered across slightly higher than the speed obtained in the research of the felling site which hinders forwarder movement. transport of soft broadleaf roundwood using the However, under the conditions that characterized this Timberjack 1210 B Forwarder under similar operating research, the branches were grouped in the middle of a conditions (Jezdić et al., 1999). Also, loading and row and they did not represent a major obstacle for the unloading time expressed per piece is shorter than the forwarder. At higher humidity these branches have a time obtained for the Timberjack 1210 B forwarder. positive effect on the work of a forwarder, because they prevent the formation of large ruts. The efficiency of this 5 CONCLUSIONS instrument of labour was reflected in the high outputs that resulted from a small share of downtime, good The following conclusions can be reached on the manipulation skills, etc. Similar conclusions were basis of the analysis performed: obtained in previous studies of the Timberjack 1210 B and John Deere 1710D forwarders (Jezdić et al, 1995, • Vehicle loading and unloading times are directly Jezdić et al., 1999, Poršinsky 2005). Most of the paper correlated with the average volume of a piece and authors point out that the key factors affecting the the volume of load, and this correlation is linear; production effects are the transport distance, the average • The correlation between the average time spent on volume of a piece and field operating conditions. In empty and full forwarder movement over the felling lowland areas the chosen instruments of labour in the first site and the average transport distance is linear; phase of roundwood transport can be tractor equipages or • The movement of forwarders over the felling site forwarders. From the economic point of view, tractor where felling was performed with a harvester is equipages are preferable at larger transport distances. The much easier compared to their movement over the limit distance of the cost-effective application of a felling site, where felling was performed using the forwarder instead of a tractor equipage varies widely, due chain saw, primarily due to the reduced overlapping to its dependence on several factors. This limit distance is of stems during felling; significantly shorter under favourable operating • Full utilization of a forwarder capacity, which can conditions, than under unfavourable ones, characterized be achieved by good organization of work, and by a small carrying capacity of the terrain, large amount hiring drivers trained for operation and maintenance of shrubby vegetation, etc. (Danilovic 2010). of these vehicles, will increase production effects; 10  DANILOVIĆ M., ĐORĐEVIĆ Z., NESTOROVSKI Lj. OPERATING EFFICIENCY OF TIMBERJACK 1210B IN TRANSPORTING SOFT DECIDUOUS ROUNDWOOD • The construction of forest roads will reduce the average transport distance and create conditions for an economic use of forwarders; • In areas unprotected from floods, with pronounced depression and low carrying capacity, the forwarder is the best choice from the technical, economic and environmental points of view, and • The correlation between the number of transport cycles and rut depth is represented by the power function model. 6 REFERENCES [1] M. Danilović, I. Tomašević, Efekti pri privlačenju tehničkog oblog drveta mekih lišćara forvarderom VKS 904, Šumarstvo, Vol 1, (2000). [2] M. Danilović, Transport šumskih sortimenata u ravničarskom području, Traktori i pogonske mašine Vol. 12. No. 3, (2007), str. 68-74. [3] M. Danilović, Transport oblovine mekih lišćara forvarderom John Deere 1410 D u ravničarskim područjima, Poljoprivredna tehnika Vol 1, (2010), 99 – 111. [4] M. R. Ghaffarian, K. Stampfer, J. Sessions, Forwarding productivity in Southern Austria, Croatian Journal of Forest engineering Vol 2, (2007), 169-175. [5] P. Đoković, D. Jezdić, Prilog izboru transportnog sredstva za prvu fazu transporta sortimenata mekih lišćara, Toipola, (1980), 127-128. [6] D. Jezdić, Mehanizovano iznošenje tehničke oblovine i celuloznog drveta u ravničarskim šumama, (1979), Beograd. [7] D. Jezdić, G. Janjatović, Ž. Rukavina, Primena forvardera u transportu drvnih sortimenata, Šumarstvo Vol 1-2, (1995), 47-60. [8] D. Jezdić, G. Janjatović, S. Mrđenović, Ispitivanje forvardera Timberjack 1210 B 6×6 u transportu drnih sortimenata, Topola, (1999), 163-164. [9] S. Martin dos Santos, C. Machado, H. Leite, Technoeconomical analysis of the eucalyptus sxtraction with forwarder in flat terrain, revista arvore, Vicosa 19 (2), (1995), 213-363. [10] S. Nikolić D., Jezdić, Tehničke norme i normativi u šumarstvu, (1993) pag., 240. [11] S. Nikolić, D. Jezdić, Izbor transportnog sredstva za prevoz šumskih sortimenata u uslovima SAP Vojvodine, Topola, (1983), 137-138. [12] T. Nordfjell, D. Athanassiadis B., Talbot, Fuel consumption in forwarders, International joutnal of forest engineering, 14(2), (2003), 11-20. [13] T. Poršinsky, Djelotvornost i ekološka pogodnost forvardera Timberjack 1710 pri izvoženju oblovine iz nizinskih šuma Hrvatske, Doktorska disertacija, (2005), Šumarski fakultet Zagreb. [14] S. Sever, Proizvodnost i performanse forvardera na radovima privlačenja drva, Mehanizacija šumarstva 5-6, (1988), Zagreb. [15] A. Suvinen, M. Saarilahti, Measuring the mobility parametars of forwarders using GPS and CAN Bus Techniques, Journal of Terramechanics, 43(2), (2006),237-252. [16] UK Forestry Commision, Terrrain classification, Tecnihal Note 16/95, (1995). 11 For. review 43: 1 - 76. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje For. review 43: 12 - 14. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 UDC: 662.632:674.031.632.2 Original scientific paper Paper submission: May, 2012 ANALYSIS OF THE ASH QUANTITY DURING BEECH WOOD COMBUSTION 1 NESTOROVSKI Lj., 2NACEVSKI M., 1TRAJKOV P., 1TRAJANOV Z., 3DANILOVIC M. 1 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Faculty of Forestry in Skopje, Skopje, Macedonia 2 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Faculty of Design and Technology of Furniture and Interior in Skopje, Skopje, Macedonia 3 University of Belgrade Faculty of Forestry, Belgrade, Serbia Correspondig author e-mail address: nestorovski@sf.ukim.edu.mk ABSTRACT: The subject of investigation in this paper is the ash residue during combustion of the beech wood that is one of the most common forest species in Republic of Macedonia, and one of the most usable as fire wood in the households. The purpose of this investigation was to establish the amount of ash, as one of the biggest problems during energy production with forest biomass. The material for this investigation is collected from two different regions of the State, in order to eliminate or to emphasise the influence of the stand conditions. The results from the investigation show that during the beech wood combustion the wood is producing less ash than wood with bark, and the bark is producing highest amounts of ash. Keywords: biomass, ash, residue, alternative energy 1 INTRODUCTION Republic of Macedonia is the south-eastern European developing country with low level of energy resources The availability of energy is becoming a major issue, and lack of capacities for energy production. It has no and the demand for energy is growing every day. natural gas and fossil fuel resources, and has limited Concerning that fact, as well as the fact that the reserves lignite reserves. Its total annual energy production is of fossil fuels, such as oil coal and natural gas are limited, around 122.000 TJ, and the total annual energy the world is turning towards discovering and using consumption is around 218.000 TJ. 56% of the needs are alternative, environmentally friendly, and renewable covered from domestic sources, and 44% of the needs are energy resources. satisfied importing expensive energies. The main energy One of these resources is biomass from forests. Wood production is from coal (around 70.000 TJ), than from oil has been used as energy source since the early days. (around 40.000 TJ) and Forestry biomass (around 7.000 While in Western Europe the use of firewood decreased TJ). in favour of fossil fuels, large parts of the human About 85% of the electricity production is population in South-Eastern Europe (SEE) still depend on concentrated in two lignite fired thermal power plants wood as energy source. In the wake of Kyoto Protocol (TPP), and the rest is covered by the hydro power plants. the use of renewable resources for energy production has The system’s electricity generating capacity is around become a major issue in climate change mitigation 7.500 GW/year [7]. (IPCC, 2007). Forest biomass plays a major role in the The goal of this investigation is to estimate the EU energy action plan (2020), as well as in most national quantity of ash residue during wood combustion of Beech policies in Europe. This interest in increased utilization of (Fagus moesiaca), from different parts of the wood, to forest biomass resources raised questions on the establish if there is a difference in ash deposit between potentials and limitations of forest ecosystems to produce wood and bark, and emphasize the problem with its biomass in a sustainable way. The importance of forests deposition or possible usage for other purposes. as a major source of global biodiversity has become well known during the recent decade. Not only as a source for 3 APPROACH utilization of wood and other non-wood products, but4 also for providing a multitude of other ecosystem Forests in Republic of Macedonia are mostly coppice, services and functions. with low quality and very diverse in species. The first task was to establish two different stands of beech (Fagus 2 OBJECTIVE OF THE INVESTIGATION moesiaca) in the Country, in order to eliminate eventual stand and ecological condition influence on the results. Forests contribute a substantial share of the energetic Samples were collected from different parts of the trees balance in Republic of Macedonia, where a significant (1,3m, 5,3m, branches, bark and small branches) in order share of the population is heating with firewood or other to investigate eventual differences in the ash production. biomass source (75% of the heating energy is coming Collected samples were then brought in the from firewood). The analysis of the World Bank predicts laboratory, where the ash deposit in absolute dry that the Balkan region is, or will be very soon, in a condition was established for pure wood, mixed wood position where the energy availability will be restricted and bark and pure bark, and statistically processed. due to the lack of investments in the energy sector (World Bank Report, 2004) [6]. 4 RESULTS The objective of this paper is to estimate the potential residue in the form of ash, during wood combustion for 4.1 Ash residue from Mavrovo stand energy purposes, as one of the major obstacles, and main There were 34 samples taken from the beech from deposition problem, and contribute to a more rational Mavrovo stand. On 12 of them, the ash residue was discussion about prospects and problems of forest analyzed on pure wood (wood without bark), on 14 of biomass as a source of energy. them the ash deposit was analyzed on wood with bark (approximately as their percentile share in the wood 12 For. review 43: 12 - 14. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje volume), and on 8 of them the ash residue was analyzed on pure bark. Results of the analysis show that the most Ash residue - Ohrid stand ash residue is produced during the combustion of bark, 6 and the less ash residue is produced during pure wood combustion (Figure 1). 5 Ash residue - Mavrovo stand 4 w 6 3 5 w 2 w+b 4 1 b 3 0 w+b 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 Figure 2: Ash residue from Ohrid stand 0 b The ash residue from bark from Ohrid stand was in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 the outskirts between 4,15% and 4,82%, averaging 4,406±0,115352, with standard deviation of Figure 1: Ash residue from Mavrovo stand 0,257934±0,081566 and variation of 0,06653±0,021039. The results also show that there is no significant The ash residue from pure wood from Mavrovo stand statistical difference in ash deposition during combustion was in the outskirts between 0,06% and 0,65% of the of pure wood and wood with bark in both stands and burned volume, averaging 0,31166±0,05251, with between the stands, but that there is statistically standard deviation of 0,181901±0,03713 and variation of significant difference during bark combustion. 0,033088±0,006754. The ash residue from wood and bark from Mavrovo 4.3 Ash residue for the beech as species stand was in the outskirts between 0,16% and 0,76%, Since there were no statistically significant averaging 0,452857 ±0,056641, with standard deviation differences in ash deposition during combustion of beech of 0,21193±0,040051, and variation of wood between the two stands, we will present the 0,044914±0,008488. average ash deposition for the beech as species (Figure The ash residue from bark from Mavrovo stand was 3). in the outskirts between 2,39% and 5,66%, averaging 3,90375±0,34976, with standard deviation of Ash deposition - beech (species) 6 0,98927±0,247318 and variation of 0,978655±0,244664. 5 4.2 Ash residue from Ohrid stand 4 w There were 21 samples taken from the beech from 3 w+b Ohrid stand. On 8 of them, the ash residue was analyzed 2 b on pure wood (wood without bark), on 8 of them the ash deposit was analyzed on wood with bark (approximately 1 as their percentile share in the wood volume), and on 5 of 0 them the ash residue was analyzed on pure bark. Results 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 of the analysis show that the most ash residue is produced during the combustion of bark, and the less ash residue is produced during pure wood combustion (Figure 2). Figure 3: Ash deposition for the beech as species The ash residue from pure wood from Ohrid stand was in the outskirts between 0,04% and 0,14% of the The average ash residue of pure wood from both burned volume, averaging 0,0,1025±0,010815, with stands was in the outskirts between 0,04% and 0,65% of standard deviation of 0,030589±0,007647 and variation the burned volume, averaging 0,228±0,03909, with of 0,000936±0,000234. standard deviation of 0,1748±0,02764 and variation of The ash residue from wood and bark from Ohrid 0,030055±0,004831. stand was in the outskirts between 0,11% and 0,26%, The ash residue from wood and bark from both averaging 0,1975±0,034161, with standard deviation of stands was in the outskirts between 0,11% and 0,76%, 0,096622±0,024155, and variation of averaging 0,360 ±0,05461, with standard deviation of 0,044914±0,008488. 0,2162±0,03259, and variation of 0,0467±0,0070. The ash residue from bark from both stands was in the outskirts between 2,39% and 5,66%, averaging 4,0969±0,2249, with standard deviation of 0,8110±0,1591 and variation of 0,6577±0,1290. As it is presented in the Figure 3, there is no significant statistical difference while burning wood or wood with bark (T=2,41413), but there is statistically 13  NESTOROVSKI Lj., NACEVSKI M., TRAJKOV P., TRAJANOV Z., DANILOVIC M. ANALYSIS OF THE ASH QUANTITY DURING BEECH WOOD COMBUSTION significant difference while burning only bark (T=14,886). 5 CONCLUSION According to the results from this investigation the following conclusions can be drawn: • There are no statistically significant differences in ash deposition during combustion of beech wood from different stands, so we can conclude that the stand conditions don’t influence the amount of ash deposition; • There are no statistically significant differences in ash deposition while burning wood with or without bark in normal natural ratio. • There is statistically significant difference while burning only bark, and this condition gave more ash than burning wood. 6 REFERENCES [1] Laponche, B., Jamet, B, Colombier, M., Attali, S.: Energy efficiency for a sustainable world, ICE editions, Paris,1997. [2] van der Hem,A.B., Hoogsteen, R., Wetzels, F.J.B.: Energy and environment in Macedonian industry, PSO programme, Skopje, 2000. [3] Lj. Nestorovski, Comparative Analysis of the energetic potential of forests as an renewable resources and the possibilities for its utilization in Republic of Macedonia, Skopje 2004 [4] F. Chiani, C. Corradi, L. Perugini, V.Rappuoli, R. Valentini, E.Angelova, Lj. Nestorvoski,: Biomass Availability in the Territory of Republic of Macedonia, 2010; [5] Nacevski M.,Vasilevski K.: Influence of the age of annual tree ring on the amount of ash from the Black pine (P. nigra) wood from artificial stands, Skopje 1993; [6] Nacevski M., Nestorovski Lj., Iliev B., Trajanov Z.: Quality analysis of the wood from domestic and foreign tree species, Skopje 2002. [7] FYR Macedonia energy policy paper, World Bank, July 23, 2004 [8] Energy Balance 2009, Ministry of economy, 2009 [9] Second National Communication of R Macedonia under UNFCCC, 2008 14 For. review 43: 1 - 76. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje For. review 43: 15 - 18. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 UDC: 630*232(498) Original scientific paper Paper submission: May, 2012 INDIVIDUAL AREA AND SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF SAPLINGS PALAGHIANU C. Ştefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Forestry Faculty, Suceava, Romania Correspondig author e-mail address: cpalaghianu@usv.ro ABSTRACT: Forest regeneration is a spatial multifaceted process with numerous unknown variables. The individual area or the area potentially available (APA) to an individual plant embodies an idea widely used in population ecology but it has fewer applications in forest research. It was used a Voronoi/ Thiessen tessellation in order to determine the individual area of each sapling. The study was conducted in a naturally regenerated area; using data collected from over seven thousands saplings positioned in a network of permanent rectangular sampling plots. The Voronoi/ Thiessen polygons were used to characterize spatial pattern of sapling distribution as well as the competition relations between the individuals. It is obvious that, at least from the mathematically point of view, the Voronoi tessellation represents one of the best solutions to determine neighbouring competitors of a tree. There were studied the correlations between APA values and the main biometrical attributes, height growth and competition indices. Furthermore, it is shown that APA coefficient of variation is a straight-forward indicator with positive results as an indicator of spatial pattern. The statistical significance of this indicator was evaluated by comparing the results with the values of a 95% confidence envelope generated by Monte-Carlo simulations. Two practical software tools were produced using Visual Basic (VORONOI and ARIA VORONOI) in order to simplify the analyses. Keywords: individual area, area potentially available, Voronoi/ Thiessen polygons, spatial pattern, spatial distribution 1 INTRODUCTION not on its biometrical attributes. That’s why it is called “potentially”. Researches used many times mathematical and The objective of this study is to elucidate what kind especially geometrical techniques in their effort to of information APA can offer regarding sapling explain individual competition. populations. Can APA characterize the relationships The area potentially available (APA) concept between saplings? A subsidiary objective is producing represents an uncommon, but rather promising approach, software tools for Voronoi analysis. introduced in plant ecology by Brown [2]. The same concept was independently developed by Mead [7], but 2 METHODOLOGY early investigations in the field of plants growing space were conducted also by Konig, mentioned in his book 2.1 What is APA? „Die Forst-Mathematik” [6]. The area potentially available of a tree has From the biological point of view, APA generally experienced different forms of interpretation and use, defines the area used by an individual to access vital analogous to Brown concept. For example, Staebler [16] resources, the available area for a plant to satisfy its Bella [1] and Moore [9] used in their researches a similar needs in water, nutrients and light. So APA is very concept named “influence zone”. Polygon areas were appealing to researchers interested in growth modelling, used as descriptive tool of spatial plant arrangement or as in their effort to solve an everlasting problem: “Do trees predictive tool of plant performance. grow faster because they are larger? Or they are larger The most correct interpretation remains although the because they have been growing faster?” [17][4]. one based on the mathematical concept of space Considering the difficulty of the analysis there are partitioning using Voronoi or Thiessen tessellation. So it few researches using this approach [8][9]. Smith [15] is generally admitted that APA of an individual is considers that this approach is ignored or even avoided equivalent to area of the Voronoi/ Thiessen polygon due to misapprehend of APA geometrical foundation and which is associated to that individual. computing difficulties. The late period is well-known for In the bi-dimensional space, a Voronoi polygon of an its computer development and also numerous and various element includes all the points closer to that specific algorithms were produced. So, the APA re-enters in element than to any other element (Figure 1). researcher’s attention as a promising investigation tool. The APA was used to solve not only competition issues but also mortality and dynamics of seedlings [12] or spatial pattern [8]. Regarding spatial pattern, Garcia [4] considers the interaction between neighbouring growing areas as a result of autocorrelation. Two neighbours who are closer than average, will both have APA undersized values and vice versa. Winsauer and Mattson [18] have mentioned some advantages to make use of APA in forest researches – potentially available areas are not intersecting each other, there are sensitive to population dynamics and they are correlated with growth rates. This final remark represents the key aspect of APA utilisation as a competition evaluation tool because if an individual has a large APA, the competition pressure will Figure 1: Voronoi / Thiessen polygon affect it less. There is, of course, a drawback – the APA is based exclusively on the position of the individual and The edges of a polygon contain the points located at 15 For. review 43: 15 - 18. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje equal distance from two elements. The vertices of such a It was taken into account the edge effect, so the polygon are equally located from minimum three saplings with incomplete APA were eliminated from the generating elements. Considering these properties, two analyses. elements are considered to be neighbours if their User can specify a value for the buffer zone – in this associated Voronoi polygons share an edge. way the APA is calculated only for the saplings located It is quite difficult to obtain a Voronoi partitioning in the core area, even if the APA extends outside the core for a large set of points, that’s why this process is area. If the buffer zone is too small, in some exceptional frequently done using specific algorithms and a cases, there might be saplings located in the core area computer. Algorithms were poorly optimized and the with incomplete APA (Figure 3). The algorithm computers were very slow few decades ago, so the computes also the convex hull and all the points process was not pleasant and quick. The last years arrived (saplings) located on the convex hull are eliminated. The with great improvements regarding the algorithms and recommended size of the buffer zone is the average the computer instruments, giving a new chance to distance between neighbours corrected with the Voronoi based applications. coefficient of variation (20 cm in this study). 2.2 Developing the software tools In order to study the area potentially available to saplings I have developed specific software tools, using Microsoft Visual Basic. For the first tool, called VORONOI (Figure 2), I have used an algorithm presented by Ohyama [11] with O(n2) complexity. VORONOI is stand-alone software which is drawing the Voronoi diagrams using as input data the saplings coordinate placed in a spreadsheet. The user can obtain information regarding sapling neighbours by diagrams analyses. The Voronoi tessellation represents a natural method to select neighbouring trees, a difficult issue in assessing competition indices. The diagrams also offer information about spatial pattern of saplings – it’s easier to determine if a pattern is aggregate or uniform. The second software tool, named ARIA VORONOI, Figure 3: Correcting the edge effect computes the area of each Voronoi polygon. These areas, equivalent to APA values, might be used as competition 2.3 Material and analyses or aggregation index. Small values of APA might The study area is located in Flămânzi Forest District, indicate competition pressure and great values of APA parcel 50A, near Cotu, a small settlement situated in coefficient of variation might indicate aggregation of Botoşani County, Romania. The topography is almost saplings for the analysed plot. flat, with a slope average of 2-3% and the altitude is This software was also developed in Microsoft Visual around 140 meters. The area of the stand studied is 21.5 Basic. The input data represents the saplings Cartesian hectares and the species composition consists of 30% coordinates, extracted from a spreadsheet. The sessile oak, 20% oak, 30% common hornbeam, 10% programme computes area of Voronoi polygons and small-leaved linden and 10% common ash. The area is several statistic indicators - the average, standard regenerated naturally and the regeneration gaps were deviation and coefficient of variation of APA values. It is created in 2001-2002 and were enlarged in 2007. Within generated a grid and each cell of the grid is analysed to this stand a 2.5 hectare homogenous area covered in asses which the generator point (sapling) is. The user can saplings was selected for further investigation. choose a grid size step in order to increase accuracy of I installed a network of ten permanent rectangular determining APA values. sampling plots (7 x 7 m) where I measured the characteristics of all saplings and seedlings (Figure 4). Figure 2: Voronoi software interface Figure 4: Location of the study 16  PALAGHIANU C. INDIVIDUAL AREA AND SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF SAPLINGS I used a GPS receiver in order to record the developing stage is very unstable regarding spatial coordinates of the centre of each plot and I labelled every distribution of the individuals so APA is a factor with a sapling and seedling inside the plot. The features of 7253 smaller impact on height growth. individuals were determined. The attributes assessed are: Some authors [8] point out there is a relation between species, location of the individuals (x, y Cartesian APA values or APA coefficient of variation and the coordinates), diameter, total height, crown insertion spatial pattern of a population of mature trees. This seems height, two crown diameters along the directions of axes to be relevant to sapling populations, because of the APA and the latest annual height growth. correlations with spatial pattern indicators – Morisita (r = The analyses were based on areas of generated 0.70 *) and Clark-Evans (r = -0.84 **). The APA Voronoi polygons. There were studied the correlations coefficient of variation is also correlated with spatial between APA values and the main structural attributes pattern indicators Morisita (r = 0.88 **) and Clark-Evans (dimensional attributes, density), height growth and (r = -0.58). Aggregated patterns lead to higher values of competition indices – Hegyi [5] and Schutz [14]. APA coefficient of variation (Figure 5 a, b). APA it was also used as a potentially spatial pattern indicator. There are several studies [4][8] that point out there is a relation between APA values or APA coefficient of variation and the spatial pattern of a population of mature trees. This fact might be relevant to sapling populations, too. In this case it was analysed the APA coefficient of variation for each plot in relation with Morisita [10] and Clark-Evans [3] spatial pattern indicators. APA coefficient of variation might be an indicator of spatial distribution. In order to find a relationship between aggregation and APA coefficient of variation values I have used a statistical test to establish if there is a significant deviation from Poisson spatial distribution (from the complete spatial randomness - CSR hypothesis). I have generated 19 Monte-Carlo simulations for each plot, using SpPack software [13] to simulate a CSR distribution for the same area and the same number of saplings. The extreme values of APA coefficient of variation produced the 95% confidence envelope of CSR hypothesis. Higher values of APA coefficient of variations would indicate significant deviations from CSR towards aggregation. 3 RESULTS At first I have studied the relation between APA and the main biometrical attributes. There were identified very significant correlations with low intensity of APA Figure 5: APA coefficient of variation related to Clark- with sapling diameter (r = 0.23***) and crown diameter Evans (a) and Morisita (b) index (r = 0.21***). This is an expected result because several researchers [9], [15], [18] mentioned correlations of This detail shows that APA coefficient of variation mature trees APA with the diameter or basal area. might be used as an indicator of spatial distribution. The Obviously there is a strong negative correlation Monte-Carlo simulations indicate significant deviations between APA and sapling density (r = - 0.99 ***) and from CSR towards aggregation - the values of APA even between APA coefficient of variation and density (r coefficient of variation overcome the 95% confidence = - 0.72 *). The uniformity tendency is more evident at a envelope for all the plots (Figure 6). higher density. Several studies [9], [18] indicate that APA might be correlated with growth and competition. Competition is one of the processes that shape the saplings spatial distribution. Consequently there were analysed the correlations between APA and competition indices – Schutz index and Hegyi index computed in respect to diameter, height, crown volume and crown external surface. The strongest correlation is between APA and the Hegyi index calculated in respect to diameter (r = - 0.32 ***) and height (r = - 0.27 ***). In order to evaluate the performance of growth it was analysed the correlation between APA and sapling height growth. Surprisingly, there is no correlation between these parameters (r = 0.08 *). Other studies indicated significant correlations between mature trees growth (diameter growth) and APA but sapling populations seem Figure 6: APA coefficient of variation values showing to be more dynamic than mature trees. This initial aggregation of saplings in all the ten plots 17 For. review 43: 15 - 18. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje 4 CONCLUSIONS the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Commission or any other institution or The results indicated that saplings APA have poor organisation. relationships with biometrical attributes, at least in saplings populations. The reason might be the fact that 6 REFERENCES APA takes into account only sapling position and no other biometrical feature. There is a solution - the [1] Bella, I.E., A new competition model for individual generation of Voronoi weighted diagram in respect to trees, Forest Science (1971), 17: 364–372. some biometric parameter (Figure 7). VORONOI [2] Brown, G.S., Point density in stems per acre, New software has the capability to generate such diagrams. Zealand Forestry Service Research Notes (1965), Still, there is one problem because it’s very difficult to 38: 1-11. compute the area of the resulted cells. [3] Clark, P. J., Evans, F. C., Distance to nearest APA can be described as a low performance indicator neighbour as a measure of spatial relationships in of competition in saplings population because there is no populations. Journal of Ecology (1954), 35: 445-453. relation to height growth and there are low intensity [4] Garcia, O., Plant individual-based modelling: More correlations with competition indices. There might be a than meets the eye, World Conference on Natural possibility to use APA in competition analyses in Resource Modeling Warsaw (2008), http:// combination with other attributes, but not as a stand- forestgrowth.unbc.ca/warsaw.pdf. alone indicator. However, one important aspect in [5] Hegyi, F., A simulation for managing jack-pine assessing competition is that the non-weighted diagrams stands, Growth Models for Tree and Stand are the best mathematical solution to establish the Simulation. Royal College of Forestry, Stockholm neighbours of a sapling or tree. So APA might be used as (1974), Sweden, 74–90. a criterion for selecting neighbours. [6] Konig, G., Die Forst-Mathematik in den Grenzen A remarkable result is that APA coefficient of wirtschaftlicher Anwendung nebst Hülfstafeln für die variation represents a straight-forward indicator with Forstschätzung und den täglichen Forstdienst, 4th Ed positive results as an indicator of spatial pattern. The – 1854 [1835], pg. 830. significance of this indicator might be evaluated by [7] Mead, R., A relationship between individual plant- comparing the results with the values of a confidence spacing and yield. Annals of Botany (1966) 30: 301- envelope as it was shown in the paper. 309. As a final conclusion, APA is a complex and useful [8] Mercier, F., Baujard, O., Voronoi diagrams to model tool for characterizing population structure regarding forest dynamics in French Guiana, GeoComputation spatial distribution, but seems more suited to mature trees ‘97 & SIRC ‘97 Proceedings, University Otago, New than sapling populations. I hope the development of Zealand (1997), 161-171. software tools VORONOI and ARIA VORONOI will [9] Moore, J.A., Budelsky. C.A., Schlesinger, R.C., A simplify and support further studies. new index representing individual tree competitive status, Canadian Journal of Forest Research (1973) 3: 495-500. [10] Morisita, M., Iδ index, a measure of dispersal of individuals. Researches on Population Ecology (1962) 4: 1-7. [11] Ohyama, T., Voronoi diagram (2008), http:// www.nirarebakun.com/eng.html; [12] Owens, M.K., Norton, B.E., The impact of ‘available area’ on Artemisia tridentata seedling dynamics. Vegetatio (1989) 82: 155-162. [13] Perry, G.L.W., SpPack: spatial point pattern analysis in Excel using Visual Basic for Applications (VBA), Environmental Modelling & Software (2004) 19: 559–569. [14] Schutz, J.P., Zum Problem der Konkurrenz in Mischbeständen. Schweiz. Z. Forstwes (1989) 140: 1069–1083. [15] Smith, W.R., Area potentially available to a tree: a research tool, The 19th Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference (1987), Texas, pg. 29. [16] Staebler, G.R., Growth and spacing in an even-aged Figure 7: Weighted Voronoi diagram in respect to height stand of Douglas fir, Master’s thesis, University of generated by VORONOI software Michigan (1951), pg. 46. [17] Wichmann, L., Modelling the efects of competition 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS between individual trees in forest stands, PhD Thesis, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, This work has been mainly supported by the Copenhagen (2002), pg. 112. European Commission under the theme "Environment" [18] Winsauer, S.A., Mattson, J.A., Calculating of the 7th Framework Programme for Research and Competition In Thinned Northern Hardwoods, Res. Technological Development (FP7), Grant agreement no. Paper NC-306, St. Paul, USDA (1992), pg. 10. 226544 (MOTIVE project). The views expressed herein are exclusively those of 18 For. review 43: 19 - 23. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 UDC: 630*114(540) Original scientific paper Paper submission: May, 2012 EXPLORING THE SPATIO-TEMPORAL DYNAMICS OF FOREST LAND USE/LAND COVER CHANGES IN AHIRAN SUB WATERSHED OF CENTRAL INDIA SINGH K. A., SINGH S. S. Department of Forestry, Wildlife & Environmental Sciences, Guru Ghasidas University, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India Correspondig author e-mail address: aks.ggu@gmail.com ABSTRACT: This study analyzed spatio - temporal changes in forest land use/land cover of Ahiran sub watershed (a part of Hasdeo watershed) situated in Chhattisgarh of Central India. In the present study, Landsat Thematic Maper False Colour Composite images of the year 1999, 2006 and 2009 were interpreted for detecting the changes on forest land use/land cover. The dynamics of changes within forest land use/ land cover categories has been assessed by creating the database of the maps and subsequent analysis under GIS domain. The ground realities of changes and impact of those changes have been verified and ascertained respectively through field observations. The study revealed a total change of dense forest decrease 8.77% and non forest increase 20.9% during the year 1999 - 2009. The changes have mainly taken place in the form of its depletion/degradation of forest land cover and expansion of settlements. It is significant to note that most of the changes (70% out of total change) have occurred in the specified mining areas and among all the types of changes, forest degradation is the highest one. The impact of changes has been severe for the existing agro-ecosystem, as the productivity of agricultural crops has gone down considerably with the passage of time. Keywords: Ahiran sub watershed, Spatio-temporal changes, Forest land use/land cover, RS & GIS. 1 INTRODUCTION spectral resolution of satellite images are the most important reasons for their use. Forest land use/land cover change is a key driver of The aim of change detection process is to recognize global change [1-3]. To meet the demands of large LULC on digital images that change features of interest population means the need for more food production, between two or more dates [22, 23]. There are many more requirement of energy, more water requirement, techniques developed in literature using post better civic amenities for a reasonable quality of urban classification comparison, conventional image life, more infrastructure development to sustain differentiation, using image ratio, image regression, and increasing pressure and increased per capita expenditure manual on-screen digitization of change principal for maintaining quality of life. This requires prudent use components analysis and multi date image classification of land use/ land cover in the area. Land use refers to [24]. A variety of studies have addressed that post- man’s activities and various uses, which are carried on classification comparison was found to be the most land (such as agriculture, settlements, industry etc). Land accurate procedure and presented the advantage of cover refers to the material present e.g. vegetation, water indicating the nature of the changes [25-26]. In this study, bodies, rocks/soils and other resulting from land change detection comparison (pixel by pixel) technique transformations. Although land use is generally inferred was applied to the Forest land use\land cover maps based on the cover, yet both the terms land use and land derived from satellite imagery. cover being closely related are interchangeable [4-7]. The growing population and increasing socio- economic necessities creates a pressure on forest land use/ land cover (FLULC). This pressure results in unplanned and uncontrolled changes in land use/ land Ahiran Sub Watershed cover [8-12]. The FLULC alterations are generally caused by mismanagement of agricultural, urban, range and forest lands which lead to severe environmental Chhattisgarh problems such as landslides, floods etc [13]. Remote sensing and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) is one of the powerful tool to derive India Hasdeo River Basin accurate and timely information on the spatial distribution of forest land use/land cover changes (FLULCC) over large areas past and present studies Hasdeo River conducted by organizations and institutions around the world, mostly, has concentrated on the application of Ahiran River FLULC changes. GIS provides a flexible environment Hasdeo for collecting, storing, displaying and analyzing digital Barrage data necessary for change detection [14-18]. Satellite imagery is used for recognition of synoptic data of Korba earth’s surface [19-21]. Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS), Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) data have been broadly employed Ahiran Sub Watershed in studies towards the determination of land cover since 1972, the starting year of Landsat program, mainly in Figure 1: Location map of Ahiran Sub Watershed in forest and agricultural areas [13]. The rich archive and Hasdeo River Basin 19 For. review 43: 19 - 23. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje The climate of the study site is monsoonic. The rainy through field visit to define how closely the classification season occurs during mid-June to September and about agrees with the actual field situation. It involved the 80% of the total annual rainfall occurs during this period selection of samples of identified locations on the map, [29]. The period between December and February is which were then checked in the field. In carrying field characterized by cold and dry weather conditions. The validation, GPS coordinates of 25 locations together with summer season i.e., March to mid-June is the warm their respective cover classes were picked. The period. The annual rainfall ranges from 890 to 1240 mm coordinates were geocoded in the classified maps and per year. The mean minimum and maximum temperature then the classified map was compared with the actual ranges from 7.8°C (January) to 24.5°C during field situation. December-January and average relative humidity is maximum during August (93%) and minimum (25.5%) 2.3 Change Detection of FLULC during April. The most commonly used forest land use/land cover change detection methods includes : image overlay, 2 METHODOLOGY classification comparisons of forest land use/ land cover statistics, change vector analysis and image rationing 2.1 Image Processing [19]. The method used in this study was the classification LandSat TM and ETM images of scene 142/45 of and comparison of forest land use/land cover statistics. year 1999, 2006 and 2009 and thematic maps were used This method was adopted because the study needs to find for the study. Erdas Imagine version 10.0 and ArcGIS out the quantitative changes in the sub watershed areas of version 9.5 were used for the processing of the images. the various forest land use/land cover categories. Using The raw satellite images were converted from Tag Image the post-classification procedure, the area statistic for file format (Tiff) to img format using Erdas in order to each of the land cover classes was derived from the be compatible with other Erdas Imagine files. The layers classifications of the images for each date (1999, 2006 were stacked and sub-set to delineate the catchment area and 2009) separately, using Erdas Imagine software. The for classification. This was followed by georeferencing areas covered by each forest land use/land cover type for using the TM projection with reference units in square the various periods were compared. Then the directions kilometer to allow compatible positioning of other of the changes (positive or negative) in each land cover themes such as forest, roads, settlement and drainage. type 1999 and 2006, 2006 and 2009, and 1999 and 2009 Landsat images for assessment of the impact of Forest were determined [21]. Land Use and Land Cover Changes on the Ahiran sub watershed which were already digitized in that format. 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The band combination of red, blue and green was used to display the raw images in standard colour 3.1 Results of land cover classification composites. The spectral band combination for A total of five forest land use/land cover categories displaying images often varies with different were identified and classified in the study. These were applications [30]. This was necessary for the visual Dense forest (DF), Non forest (NF), Open forest (OF), interpretation of the images. A band combination of red, Scrubland (SBL) and Waterbodies (WBD) area as shown blue and green (RGB) is often used to display images in in Figure 2. standard colour composites for forest land use/land cover and vegetation mapping [30]. In this study, the LandSat TM and ETM images were displayed in a band DF DF DF C combination of 1, 2 and 3 (red, blue and green) which is O A A standard for visual interpretation of vegetation mapping L R in the tropics. M I E A N 2.2 Forest Land Cover Classification E The unsupervised classification method was used to S classify the images into the various land cover categories. The unsupervised classification is a method NTPC of clustering. It is self-organizing in that the image data are first classified by being aggregated into natural 1999 2006 2009 spectral groupings or clusters present in the scene. It enables the specification of parameters that the computer DF (Dense Forest) Agriculture land with crop uses to determine statistical patterns in the data. The procedure begins with a specified number of cluster NF (Non Forest) Agriculture land without crop means, and then it processes the image data repetitively, OF (Open Forest) assigning each of the pixels to one of the class means. SBL (Scrubland) Settlement areas After each iteration the initial cluster shifts to represent WBD (Waterbodiers) Coal mines area the new statistical means of the clusters in the data. This happens until there is no significant change of cluster Figure 2: Spatio- temporal changes shows in Ahiran sub means. Then the land cover identities of these spectral watershed in year 1999, 2006 and 2009 groupings were determined by comparing the classified image to the ground reference data. 3.2 Extent of forest land use/ land cover (FLULC) The statistics of the various classes were generated categories using the Erdas Imagine. Finally maps were composed, Table I shows that the most extensive forest land using ArcGIS (Version 9.5) and the maps were validated use/ land cover category of the Ahiran sub watershed as in the field to assess its accuracy. This was conducted 20  SINGH K. A., SINGH S. S. EXPLORING THE SPATIO-TEMPORAL DYNAMICS OF FOREST LAND USE/LAND COVER CHANGES IN AHIRAN SUB WATERSHED OF CENTRAL INDIA at 1999 was dense forest which covered about 11295.51 DF and WBD was lost from 51.329 sq kms (5.67%) and hectares (56.57%). The second most extensive forest 112.503 sq kms (12.43%) area whereas, NF, OF and land use/ land cover category was non forest, which SBL was gained as 136.492 sq kms (15.09%), 20.838 sq covered 7131.91 hectares (35.59%). Open forest covered kms (2.29%) and 6.522 sq kms (0.72%) area. about 823.59 hectares (4.11%). This is followed by Finally, the order of magnitude of the FLULCC of water bodies, which covered about 352.58 hectares the Ahiran sub watershed in 1999-2009 (10 years), (1.72%) and open area/town which covered 16.55 interprets that DF and WBD area lost in high intensity of hectares (0.82%). 79.4 sq kms (8.77%) and 146.366 sq kms (16.16%) whereas, NF, OF and SBL were area gained with Table I: Forest land use/ land cover classes of the Ahiran 189.133 sq kms (20.9%), 29.224 sq kms (3.22%) and sub watershed as in 1999, 2006 and 2009 7.409 sq kms (0.81%) respectively. F 1999 2006 3.4 Causes of the land cover changes L 2009 The major cause identified in the study of the sub U Area (%) Area (%) Area (%) L (Km2) (kms2) (kms watershed is the population growth. Population growth is C 2) widely recognized as a key force behind environmental D 205.613 22.71 177.542 19.61 126.21 13.94 change, especially in developing countries [8]. The total F 3 population of the Ahiran sub watershed is distributed in N 310.379 34.29 363.020 40.10 499.51 55.19 F 2 three tehsils viz. Katghora, Pali and Korba tehsils. In O 105.768 11.69 114.154 12.62 134.9 14.91 Figure 3 white colour shows the high population area F 92 and black colour as low population area. The Korba S 1.004 0.11 1.891 0.20 8.413 0.92 tehsil has clear indication of high population area in B L compare to Katghora and Pali tehsil. W 282.466 31.20 248.603 27.47 136.10 15.0 B 0 D Table I summarizes the forest land use/land cover Katghora tehsil classes of the Ahiran sub watershed. Moreover, as shown in Table I, the order of magnitude of the spatial extent of the forest land use/land cover categories in 2009 is different from that in 1999 and 2006. 3.3 Forest Land Use/Land Cover Changes (FLULCC) Pali tehsil Table II: Land cover changes of the Ahiran sub watershed for the periods between (1999 and 2006, 2006 and 2009 and 1999 and 2009). High population area Korba tehsil Low population area F 1999-2006 2006-2009 1999-2009 L Area (%) Area (%) Area (%) Population extension U (Km2) (Km2) (Km2) indicator, 1999 L C Population extension C indicator, 2009 D -28.071 -3.1 -51.329 -5.67 -79.4 -8.77 F (Source: CoI, 2001) N +52.64 +5.81 +136.4 +15.0 +189.133 +20.9 F 1 92 9 Figure 3: Population status of Ahiran sub watershed in O +8.386 +0.93 +20.838 +2.29 +29.224 +3.22 year 2009 F S +0.887 +0.09 +6.522 +0.72 +7.409 +0.81 The population extension indicator indicates that in B L Katghora tehsil of the sub watershed has maximum W -33.863 -3.73 -112.503 -12.43 -146.366 -16.16 variation of population extension between years 1999- B 2009 in compare to other two tehsils. The main reason of D population extension in this tehsil has been recorded as rich coal mines and forest availability in the forest area. Table II shows the changes in the various forest land The total population of Ahiran sub watershed was use and land cover categories (in km2 and %) during the recorded 413262 (CoI, 2001). In which the population of periods between 1999 and 2006, 2006 and 2009, and Kotghora tehsil, Pali tehsil and Korba tehsil in Ahiran 1999 and 2009. sub watershed were 251645, 55649 and 105968 In 1999-2006 the most extensive FLULCC to DF respectively. But in recent years the population area which lost 28.071 sq kms (3.1%). It was followed extension indicator already shows that the population is by WBD with 33.863 sq kms (3.73%). Meanwhile, NF increasing mostly from traditional settlement area to area gains 52.641 sq kms (5.81%), OF 8.386 sq kms forest area due to extensive population pressure and coal (0.93%) and SBL 0.887 sq kms (0.09%). The landsat mines extension (upto 70%) in forest areas. 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Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 UDC: 581.9(497.7) Original scientific paper Paper submission: May, 2012 CHOROLOGY AND HABITATS OF SOME PLANTS IN THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA 1 TEOFILOVSKI A., 1MANDZUKOVSKI D., 2SIMOVSKI B., 2ACEVSKI J. 1 Public enterprise for managing forests Makedonski sumi, Skopje, Macedonia 2 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Faculty of Forestry in Skopje, Skopje, Macedonia Correspondig author e-mail address: acoteofilovski@hotmail.com ABSTRACT: In this article are disclosed chorologycal and habitat data for 17 taxa in the flora of the Republic of Macedonia. Chamaecytisus absinthioides subsp. absinthioides, C. absinthioides subsp. absinthioides var. multiflorus and Solidago virgaurea subsp. minuta are recorded for the first time in the flora of the Republic of Macedonia, while new finding sites are added for: Juniperus sabina, Dianthus diffusus, D. formanekii, D. leucophoeniceus, Cotoneaster mariana, Genista subcapitata var. holosericea, G. subcapitata var. mariovoensis, Vicia pisiformis, Alkanna graeca, Hyssopus officinalis, Morina persica, and Knautia longifolia. The presence of Juniperus sabina and Dianthus haematocalyx subsp. pindicola on the Nidže mountain is confirmed and also for the first time concrete data for their finding sites and habitats on this mountain are given. The lowest finding site in the Republic of Macedonia of Abies borisii-regis is recorded. Keywords: chorology, habitat, flora, dendroflora, taxa, new finding sites 1 INTRODUCTION 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS The Republic of Macedonia is situated in During the field research herbarium specimens and southwestern part of Balkan Peninsula. Its rich flora, also habitat data were collected for each taxa. Herbarium developed as a result of its diverse climate and geological specimens are deposited in the private herbarium of composition, was the main reason for extensive botanical colectors. In some cases herbarium material was not researches carried out since the first half of the 19th collected and finding sites are designated based only on century. observation or photos which is indicated in the text. The Our field floristic and vegetation explorations of specimens was determined according The Flora of the vascular flora, during the last two decades, encompassed Republic of Macedonia (Micevski, 1995-2010), Flora different regions of the Republic of Macedonia, Europaea (Tutin et al. eds., 1964-1980), Prodromus florae predominately mountain in its western, southern and peninsulae Balcanicae (Hayek, 1927-1933), Mountain eastern part (Mt Shar Planina, Mt Suva Gora, Mt Bistra, flora of Greece (Strid & Tan, eds., 1987, 1991), Flora Mt Nidze, Mt Kozuf, Mt Plackovica, Mt Osogovo etc.). Helenica (Strid & Tan, eds., 1997, 2002) and also some Plants of different systematic groups were collected and other floras and monographic works. observed whereby taxa which previously was not known as well as new finding sites for certain rare taxa were 3 RESULTS discovered. Such discoveries show that Macedonian flora is still insufficient known and require further 3.1 Abies borisii-regis Mattf. investigations. Mt Kožuf - Konska Reka gorge, 310-360 m, 8.2011, Chamaecytisus absinthioides subsp. absinthioides, C. observation D. Mandzukovski. absinthioides subsp. absinthioides var. multiflorus and In the Konska Reka gorge were found two Solidago virgaurea subsp. minuta are discovered for the individuals about 5 m tall, one on 310 m altitude and first time in Macedonia. New finding sites are discovered other one on 360 m. Both localities represent a small for: Juniperus sabina, Dianthus leucophoeniceus, D. thermo-mezophilous refugium in area of thermo- formanekii, D. diffusus, Cotoneaster mariana, Genista xerophilous community Phyllireo - Carpinetum orientalis subcapitata var. holosericea, G. subcapitata var. arbutosum andrachnis Em at all. prov. Alongside with mariovoensis, Vicia pisiformis, Alkanna graeca subsp. both these individuals of A. borisii - regis grow Fagus graeca, Hyssopus officinalis, Morina persica, and silvatica subsp. moesiaca, Taxus baccata, and Platanus Knautia longifolia. Juniperus sabina and Dianthus orientalis. This is the lowest finding site so far known in haematocalyx subsp. pindicola are rediscovered on Mt Macedonia. Previously known lowest finding site was Nidže and for the first time concrete finding sites and also on Mt Kožuf - near Petrovo Selo, in the area of ass. habitats are presented. Also were discovered the lowest Orno-Quercetum petraeae on altitude between 490 and finding site of Abies borisii-regis in the Republic of 520 m (Gudevski & Rizovski, 1968). Macedonia. Balkan endemic species widespread in mountains of For each taxon are provided literature distribution Macedonia, Greece and Bulgaria. (Fig. 5) data in Macedonia which alongside with newly discovered finding sites are presented on distribution 3.2 Juniperus sabina L. map. Some taxonomic issues regarding Dianthus Mt Nidže - Dolgiot Rid, stony places, on dolomitic leucophoeniceus, D. haematocalyx subsp. pindicola, D. marble, 1790 m, 23.7.2010, observation and photos D. diffusus, Genista subcapitata and Solidago virgaurea Mandzukovski & A. Teofilovski. subsp. minuta are shortly discussed. Approximate general range of distribution for each taxon is cited. 24 For. review 43: 24 - 32. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje Figure 1: Distribution of Juniperus sabina in Macedonia (▲new finding sites, ● literature data) Figure 2: Dianthus leucophoeniceus (Bukovo) Mt. Kožuf - Mala Rupa, steep rocky places, limestone supstrate, 1770 m, 27.7.2011, observation and photos D. Mandzukovski. According Em (1965) occures on Mt Bistra, Mt Stogovo, Mt Korab and Mt Rudoka with isolated finding sites on Mt Jakupica, Mt Galičica (Mala Galičica - Poljce) and Mt Kožuf. Micevski (1985) quoted this species as very frequent on Mt Bistra, Mt Korab, Mt Krčin (Dešat), Mt Galičica, Mt Koža, Mavrovska Reka, Radika and Adžina Reka, Acevski (2000) for Mt Galičica (Stara Galičica) and also Mandzukovski (2009) for Mt Kožuf - Čiči Kaja and Ešek Burun. Velenovský (1922) quoted this species for Mt Nidže without concrete locality so it is unclear whether he found this species on Macedonian or on Greek territory of this mountain. The new finding site Dolgiot Rid is first and concrete confirmation of this general record for Mt Nidže. Areal of this species includes mountains of C & S Europe and W & C Asia, from Spain to E Siberia. (Fig. Figure 3: Distribution of Dianthus leucophoeniceus in 1) Macedonia (▲new finding sites, ● literature data) 3.3 Dianthus leucophoeniceus Dörfl. & Hayek 3.4 Dianthus haematocalyx Boiss. & Heldr. subsp. Resen - 0,4 km west from the pass Bukovo, dry pindicola (Vierh.) Hayek grassy place, siliceous substrate, 1230 m, 23.6.2010, leg. Mt Nidže - area from the right side of Suvi Dol to the A. Teofilovski. top of Belo Grotlo, rocky places, limestone supstrate, Tetovo - 2,5 km NE from Orashje village, grassy 1780-2120 m, 24.7.2010, leg. A. Teofilovski & D. place, serpentine supstrate, 450 m, 6.6.2009, leg. A. Mandzukovski, 7.7.2011, leg. D. Mandzukovski. Teofilovski. This taxon was already recorded for Mt Nidze Previously recorded for: Skopje - Osinčani (Rohlena, (Todorovski, 1970) but without concrete finding site. 1935); Veles (Bornmüller, 1933); Skopje - Mt Žeden, Despite this record, Micevski (1993) in the "Flora of Žeden gorge, Raduša, Katlanovska Banja; Taor gorge; Republic of Macedonia" do not mention this subspecies Mavrovo - Mavrovi Anovi, Vrben; Mt Korab - Žužnje; at all. Records of some autors for subsp. sibthorpii Mt Stogovo - Gari (Micevski, 1993); Mt Suva Gora - (Vierh.) Hay. in S Macedonia (see Micevski, 1993) may Stanika, Gaber, Lokva, Novo Selo (Teofilovski, 2011). referes to subsp. pindicola. Petals length of collected specimens fits to subsp. brachypetalum Acht. et Lindtner but it is a doubtful taxon. Balkan endemic species occurs in: Kosovo, Albania, Macedonia, and Greece - N Pindus. (Fig. 2 and 3) 25  TEOFILOVSKI A., MANDZUKOVSKI D., SIMOVSKI B., ACEVSKI J. CHOROLOGY AND HABITATS OF SOME PLANTS IN THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA (Bornmüller, 1925), "Kokaleny" (Velenovský, 1922); Bitola - Mojno, Črničani, Armatuš (Vandas, 1909), Lopatica (Micevski, 1993). This species is endemic to S Macedonia and NW Greece. All previously known finding sites in both countries were on relative low altitude, between 500 and 800 m. (Fig. 5 and 6) Figure 4: Dianthus haematocalyx subsp. pindicola (Mt Nidže) Figure 6: Dianthus formanekii (Bitola - Bel Kamen) Figure 5: Distribution of Dianthus haematocalyx subsp. pindicola in Macedonia (▲new finding sites, ● literature data) and the lowest finding site in Macedonia of Abies borisii-regis (◘) All collected and observing plants on Mt Nidže have glaucous stem and leafs which do not fit with the description in protolog (Vierhapper jun., 1897) and some older floras (Hayek, 1927; Tutin, 1964). However Strid (1986, 1997) and Constantinidis (1999) do not consider Figure 7: Distribution of Dianthus formanekii in this feature when delimit subsp. pindicola, which Macedonia (▲new finding sites, ● literature data) probably implies its taxonomical irrelevance regarding this subspecies. Plants from Mt Smolikas (NW Greece) 3.6 Dianthus diffusus Sipth. et Sm. which belong to this subspecies, according several photos Mt Nidže - right site of Suvi Dol, in Pinus sylvestris in Greek Mountain Flora (2006-), are also glaucous. forest, limestone supstrate, 1820 m, 19.7.2010, leg. D. Some specimens from Nidže have almost linear leafs, Mandzukovski & A. Teofilovski. thus approaching to subsp. chaematocalyx. A rare species in Macedonia, previously recorded Balkan endemic taxon occurs in: S Macedonia - only for: Mt Skopska Crna Gora; Straža - between Nidze, S Albania, and NW Greece. (Fig. 4 and 5) Gostivar and Kičevo; Mavrovo - Koža, Vrben (Micevski, 1993). 3.5 Dianthus formanekii Borbás ex Formanek The range of this species includes S & SE parts of Bitola - Bel Kamen peak, grassy place, siliceus Balkan Peninsula and some Aegean islands. It is closely supstrate, 1350 m, 17.6.2009, leg. A. Teofilovski. related to another Balkan endemic D. pubescens Sipth. et Bitola - 2,6 km NW from Gorno Srpci village, grassy Sm., which acording some autors represent a synonim of places, siliceus supstrate, 1060 m, 17.6.2009, leg. A. D. difusus (Strid, 1997). Our comparative examinations Teofilovski. on one colection of D. pubescens from Mt Jakupica - near Previously recorded for: Kavadarci - Vataša; Prilep - Kadina Reka (15.8.2010, leg. A. Teofilovski, Treskavec, Rasim-Bej (Micevski, 1993), Kanatlarci 26 For. review 43: 24 - 32. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje unpublished) and the specimen of D. difusus from Mt Nidže support their separate specific status. (Fig. 8) Figure 8: Distribution of Dianthus diffusus in Macedonia (▲new finding sites, ● literature data) Figure 9: Cotoneaster mariana (v. Gradešnica) 3.7 Cotoneaster mariana And. A. et And. V. Mt Bistra – atop Volkovija village, clearing in fir forest, 23.8.2010, leg. J. Acevski & B. Simovski. Mariovo - near road between Gradešnica and Staravina villages (only one individual discovered), dry pasture on siliceus supstrate, 890 m, 23.7.2010, observation and photo D. Mandzukovski & A. Teofilovski, 7.7.2011 leg. D. Mandzukovski & J. Acevski. Long time overlooked species relatively recently described from Mt Galičica where its distribution is common on elevation belt between 1400 and 1800 m, on limestone thermophilous habitats (Andonoski & Andonovski, 1996). There is also some another records for Mt Galičica (Acevski, 2000; Matevski & al., 2011). Ours investigations show also relatively common presents of C. mariana on this mountain (several collections and photos from different parts on elevation beetwen 1250 and 1500 m, leg. and photogr. A. Figure 10: Distribution of Cotoneaster mariana in Teofilovski & D. Mandzukovski, Jun-July, 2010, Macedonia (▲new finding sites, ● literature data) unpublished). Another known finding sites in Macedonia are: 3.8 Chamaecytisus absinthioides (Janka) Kuzm. subsp. Mariovo - Manastir village (Andonoski, 1997), Mt absinthioides Gradištanska Planina - between Malino and Alakince Mt Suva Gora - area between Merovo village, Novo villages (Mandzukovski, 2001; Mandzukovski & Selo village and locality Jablanica, road sites, forest Acevski, 2007), Poreče - a relatively large finding site clearings, and oak forests, 600-1000 m, 14.6.1998, near Krapa village (Mandzukovski, 2009). 5.9.1998, 16.6.2011, leg. A. Teofilovski. Morphologically well defined species so far known Mt Osogovo - c. 1km NW from Sasa village, sunny only for Macedonia, but probably occurs also in some places on siliceus supstrate, 950 - 1200 m, 28.5.2012, leg. other S Balkan country, at least Albania. (Fig. 9 and 10) D. Mandzukovski Mt Osogovo - southern slopes , widespread in atop of Novo Selo, Nebojani Kostin Dol villages, sunny places on siliceus supstrate, 800 - 1400 m, 03.12.2012, leg. D. Mandzukovski Specimens from Mt Osogovo are closest to var. absinthioides, while specimens from Mt Suva Gora represent var. multiflorus Kuzm. Subsp. absinthioides, respectively var. multiflorus, is new for Macedonia. C. absinthioides s.l. is known for several finding sites in Macedonia, mostly in its west part [several autors, sub C. absinthioides s.l. or its lower taxa (see Teofilovski, 2011)]. C. absinthioides s.l. [(probably belonging to subsp. rodopaeus (Wagn.) Kuzm.] recently was discovered also on Mt Šar Planina - 2,5 km W from 27  TEOFILOVSKI A., MANDZUKOVSKI D., SIMOVSKI B., ACEVSKI J. CHOROLOGY AND HABITATS OF SOME PLANTS IN THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA Rakovec village, 1290 m, (25.5.2011, leg. A. Teofilovski, unpublished). Differences between C. absinthioides and W Anatolian species C. eriocarpus (Boiss.) Rothm. are not quite clear. Here we accept approach of Kuzmanov (1976) who regard C. absinthioides as separate species with range in: SE Jugoslavia (former), SW Bulgaria and N Greece. (Fig. 11 and 12). Figure 13: Distribution of Genista subcapitata in Macedonia (▲new finding sites, ● literature data) Mostly of collected specimens from Mt Plačkovica belong to var. mariovoensis Micevski & Matevski while few specimens belong to var. holosericea Micevski & Matevski. The specimens from Mt Skopska Crna gora probably represent typical G. subcapitata. Figure 11: Chamaecytisus absinthioides subsp. Balkan endemic species occurs also in: E & SE absinthioides var. multiflorus (Mt Suva Gora) Serbia, W, S & SW Bulgaria, N Greece, and Albania. In Macedonia previously recorded for: Mt Skopska Crna Gora - Pržalj, Crn Kamen, Ostruga, Pešter (Grupče, 1958, sub G. involucrata), Babuna (Bornmüller, 1927, sub G. involucrata), Mt Dobra Voda (sub var. grandiflora Micevski & Matevski), Prilep - Kozjak and Pletvar (sub var. holosericea), Mariovo - Bešište village (sub var. mariovoensis Micevski & Matevski, 1998, Micevski, 2001), Galičica (Šmarda, 1968). According revision made by Micevski (2001) specimens from Mt Skopska Crna Gora recorded from Grupče (1958) as G. subcapitata (sub G. involucrata) actually belong to G. albida Willd. var. pestalozzae Boiss. However, our examinations of one colection from this mountain (leg. Z. Nikolov) confirm the presence of G. subcapitata although a few specimens have some branches bearing 1 (-2) axillary arranged flower below the capitula and thus somewhat approaching to G. albida. Existing of G. albida in Balkan Peninsula is questionable. (Fig. 13) Figure 12: Distribution of Chamaecytisus absinthioides subsp. absinthioides (●), C. absinthioides subsp. 3.10 Vicia pisiformis L. absinthioides var. multiflorus (▲), and Solidago Mt. Suva Gora - Podgorica (in the vicinity of virgaurea subsp. minuta (◘) in Macedonia Miletino village), near forest road in the oak forest belt, siliceus supstrate, 590 m, 15.6.2011, leg. A. Teofilovski. 3.9 Genista subcapitata Pančić Euro-caucasian species, very rare in Macedonia. So [Syn.: G. involucrata auct. non Spach] far was known only from: Mt Baba - over Velušina and Mt Plačkovica - Varnica, rocky places, limestone Ostrec (Todorovski, 1970); Mt Šar Planina - Belovište supstrate, 1100-1300 m, 7.2009, leg. D. Mandzukovski, (Teofilovski, 2011). (Fig. 14 and 15) 12.8.2009, leg. D. Mandzukovski & A. Teofilovski. Mt Skopska Crna Gora - Crn Kamen, 1611 m, 7.7.2012, leg. Z. Nikolov. 28 For. review 43: 24 - 32. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje Figure 17: Distribution of Alkanna graeca in Macedonia (▲new finding sites, ● literature data) Figure 14: Vicia pisiformis (Mt Suva Gora) Previously recorded from: Dojran - Mt Dub (Cirimotić, 1958), Dojran - between Star and Nov Dojran, Valandovo - Kalkovo village, Veles - Ivankovci village (Matevski, 2010). A. graeca is an endemic to S Balkan. Subsp. graeca, is an endemic to Macedonia, Greece, and Albania while Bulgarian populations (S Pirin and Thracian lowlands - Hermenin) are distinguished in separate subsp. slavjankae Kož. (Kožuharov, 1989). Velenovský (1922) quoted montain ecotype subsp. baeotica (DC.) Nyman (sub A. baeotica DC.) for Mt Nidže but it is unclear whether he found this species on Macedonian or on Greek territory of this mountain. (Fig. 16 and 17) 3.12 Hyssopus officinalis L. subsp. aristatus (Godr.) Nyman [Syn.: H. officinalis subsp. pilifer (Griseb.) Murb.; H. officinalis var. pilifer Griseb.)] Figure 15: Distribution of Vicia pisiformis in Macedonia Kičevo - 0,4 km W of Prostranje village, stony (▲new finding sites, ● literature data) places, limestone supstrate, 1050 m, 23.9.2010, leg. A. Teofilovski & D. Mandzukovski. 3.11 Alkanna graeca Boiss. & Spruner subsp. graeca Mt Suva Gora - 1,2 km NW from Tenovo village, pastures on siliceus supstrate, 19.4.2012, leg. A. Teofilovski. Figure 18: Hyssopus officinalis subsp. aristatus (v. Prostranje) Kičevo - near road between Velmevci and Železnec villages, stony and rocky places, limestone supstrate, 760 - 820 m, 9.2010, leg. A. Teofilovski & D. Mandzukovski Figure 16: Alkanna graeca (Mt Suva Gora) 29  TEOFILOVSKI A., MANDZUKOVSKI D., SIMOVSKI B., ACEVSKI J. CHOROLOGY AND HABITATS OF SOME PLANTS IN THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA and Mt Pelister (Horvat, 1938). Todorovski (1967) cited this species as a synonym of K. midzorensis Form. for Mt Nidze - Kajmakcalan and Mt Baba with Pelister, but later (1970) he cited only K. midzorensis for the same localities, without synonyms. The range of K. longifolia includes: E Alps, E Carpathians and Balkan Peninsula. (Fig. 20) 3.14 Morina persica L. Mt Plackovica - Varnica, stony places, limestone supstrate, 1100-1300 m, 12.8.2010, observation and photos D. Mandzukovski & A. Teofilovski. Mt Plackovica - above Zrnovci village, dry places, 600-800 m,7.2009, observation D. Mandzukovski. This species occurs in Macedonia mainly in its central part (many localities recorded by: Vandas, 1909; Jurišić, 1923; Bornmüller, 1926; Černjavski & all., 1937, Figure 19: Distribution of Hyssopus officinalis subsp. sub M. persica subsp turcica Hal.; Matevski & al., 2008 aristatus in Macedonia (▲new finding sites, ● literature etc.) and also in SW Macedonia - Mt Galicica (Weber, data) 1951, sub M. persica subsp. turcica; Micevski, 1971), S Macedonia - Demir Kapija (Bornmüller, 1926; Soška, Previously recorded for: Suvo Pole (Vandas, 1909, 1939), Bošava (Soška, 1939) and NE Macedonia - sub H. officinalis var. pilifer), W from river Vardar (Em, Gradište near Kratovo (Ćušterovska, 2008). 1967, sub H. officinalis subsp. pilifer), Mt Žeden, Mt The east eurimediterranean chorotype with general Suva Gora - Treska gorge, and Drenska Planina - Crna distribution in S Europe, C Asia, Turkey, W Syria, Reka gorge (Drenkovski, 1971, sub H. officinalis subsp. Lebanon, Iran, Afghanistan, W Himalayas, and Pakistan. pilifer). Matvejeva (1965, sub H. officinalis var. (Fig. 21) angustifolia (M. B.) Briq.) quoted H. officinalis subsp. officinalis for Mt Žeden - Rašče villlage. Subsp. aristatus is probably an Mediterranean taxa extending eastwards to Balkan Peninsula. (Fig. 18 and 19) 3.13 Knautia longifolia (W. et K.) Koch Mt Šar Planina - Plat, grassy place, limestone supstrate, 2050 m, 18.7.2012, leg. A. Teofilovski & D. Mandzukovski. Mt Šar Planina - 1,3 km NW from Brezno village, deserted meadow, siliceous supstrate, 1400 m, 1.7.2005, leg. A. Teofilovski. Mt Nidže - Belo Grotlo, open stony places and Pinus sylvestris forest, limestone supstrate, 1790-1820 m, 5.8.2010, 12.8.2010, leg. A. Teofilovski & D. Mandzukovski. Figure 21: Distribution of Morina persica in Macedonia (▲new finding sites, ● literature data) 3.15 Solidago virgaurea L. subsp. minuta (L.) Arcang. [Syn.: S. virgaurea subsp. alpestris (W.K.) Gaud.] Mt Šar Planina - E slopes of Ceripašina, stony places, limestone supstrate, 2120 m, 19.7.1988, leg. A. Teofilovski. Mt Nidže - Bela Reka basin, stony places, limestone supstrate, 2000 m, 12.8.2010, leg. A. Teofilovski & D. Mandzukovski. Mt Nidže - right site of Suvi Dol, Pinus sylvestris forest, limestone supstrate, 1780-1820 m, 25.7.2010, leg. D. Mandzukovski. The subspecies is new for Macedonia. It represent an arctic-alpine ecotype connected with many intermediate forms to subsp. virgaurea. The latest is common taxon in Figure 20: Distribution of Knautia longifolia in the upper forest band in Macedonia, with general Macedonia (▲new finding sites, ● - literature data) distribution in Europae, W Asia and N Africa. Hayek (1928-1931) included to this subspecies Probably a rare species in Macedonian mountain, Balkan endemic taxon S. virgaurea L. var. vestita Hal. previously recorded only for Mt Nidze (Micevski, 1978) (sub S. virgaurea L. ssp alpestris (W.K.) Gaud. var. 30 For. review 43: 24 - 32. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje vestita Hal., comb. illeg.). According examination of one [16] Grupče, Lj., Vrz rastitelnosta na Skopska Crna Gora. colection from Mariovo - Zovič (27.7.2010, leg. A. Filozof. fak. Prirod. matem. odd., Posebni izd., 9, Teofilovski & D. Mandzukovski, unpublished) such (1958) 1-80 combination has not justification. (Fig. 12) [17] Gudeski, A., Rizovski, R., Der niedrigste fundort der tanne in SR Mazedonien, Journal of forestry-organ of 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS the alliance of foresters of the SR of Macedonia XVI, Faculty of forestry”-Skopje (1968), 44-47 (In We would like to thank Robert Brus (Ljubljana) for Macedonian) reviewing the manuscript and his usefull remarks, Zoran [18] Hayek, A., Prodromus florae peninsulae Balcanicae. Nikolov (Skopje) who has lent us the specimens of I-III. Dahlem bei Berlin (1924-1933). Genista subcapitata and Kit Tan (Copenhagen) for useful [19] Horvat, I., Istraživanja vegetacije planina Vardarske discuss about Dianthus haematocalyx subsp. pindicola. banovine. Ljet.Jug.Akad., Zagreb, 47, 1 (1935), 42- 160. 5 REFERENCES [20] Jurišić, Ž., Prilog flori Južne Srbije. Spomenik SKA, 60, (1923), 1-45. [1] Acevski, J., Dendrofloristic characteristics of the [21] Kožuharov, S., Alkanna Tausch, - In Jordanov, D., mountain massif Galičica. Doctoral thesis- Skopje, (ed.). - Flora na NR Bъgariя, Sofiя, 9, (1989), (2000). (In Macedonian) 74-119. [2] Andonoski, A. i Andonovski, V., Cotoneaster mariana [22] Kuzmanov, B. (1976): Chamaecytisus Link. - In And. A & And V., new species discovered at Йordanov, D., (ed.). Flora na NR Bъgariя, Sofiя, 6: Galičica mountain, Macedonia – Proceedings from 74-119 Balkan conference ,,National parks and their role in [23] Kuzmanov, B. (1976): Chamaecytisus Link. - In biodiversity protection on Balkan, Ohrid , (1996), 99- Йordanov, D., (ed.). 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Herzog in den Kriegsjahren 1916-1918 in the dendroflora of the R. of Macedonia (I), Forestry Mazedonien gesammelten Pflanzen. Allgem. Botan. review, year. 42, Faculty of foretsry -Skopje, (2009), Zeitsch., 32: . (1926): 16-37 147-154. (In Macedonian) [7] Bornmüller, J. (1927): Bearbeitung der von H. [27] Matevski, V., The Fora of Dobra Voda mountain. Burgeff und Th. Herzog in den Kriegsjahren 1916- PMF, Univ. Sv. Kiril i Metodij, Skopje (1995), pag. 1918 in Mazedonien gesammelten Pflanzen. Allgem. 46. (In Macedonian) Botan. Zeitsch., 2. 23: 25-38 [28] Matevski, V., The Flora of the Republic of [8] Cirimotić, J., Prilog poznavanju flore planine Duba Macedonia. MANU, Skopje, 2 (1), (2010), 1-187. (In kod Dojranskog Jezera. God. Šum. Inst. Skopje, 3, Macedonian) (1958), 175-210. [29] Matevski, V., Čarni, A., Avramoski, O., Juvan, N., [9] Constantinidis, T., Dianthus haematocalyx subsp. Kostadinovski, M., Košir, P., Andrej Paušič, A., phitosianus (Caryophyllaceae), a New serpentine Šilič, U., Forest Vegetation of Galičica Mountain endemic from Greece. Phyton (Horn, Austria), 29-2, Range in Macedonia, Založba ZRC, 2011, pag. 200. (1999), 277-291. [30] Matevski, V., Čarni, A., Kostadinovski, K., Košir, [10] Ćušterovska, R., Phytocenological studies of the P., Šilc, U. & Zelnik, I., Flora and vegetation of the vegetation on highland pastures around the Kratovo Macedonian steppe. ZRC SAZU, Ljubljana, (2008), (manuscript), Master thesis, Ss. Cyril and Methodius pag. 171. University in Skopje, (2008). (In Macedonian) [31] Matvejeva, J., Supplement to knowledge of flora at [11] Černjavski, P., Rudski, I., Soška, T., Kratak pregled Žeden mountain. - ACTA Mus. Maced. Sc. Natur., vegetacije juzne Srbije, Spomenica 25-god. Osl.. juz. Skopje 10 (2), (1965), pag. 52. ( In Serbo-Croatian) Srb., Skopje, (1937), 135-159. [32] Micevski, K.,, Steppenvegetation” in Mazedonien, [12] Drenkovski, R.,: Neue Beitrage zur Horologie Annuaire de la faculte des sciences de la universite de einiger sippen der Flora Mazedoniens. Fragmenta Skopje , 23, (1971), 131-150. (In Macedonian) Balcanica, 8, 15 (193), (1971), 129-133. [33] Micevski, K., The Flora of SR Makedonija. MANU, [13] Em, H., Novi naogališta na smrdlikata ili somina Skopje, 1 (1), (1985), 1-152. (In Macedonian) (Juniperus sabina L.) vo Makedonija, GZZŠF Skopje, [34] Micevski, K., The Flora of the Republic of 18, (1965), 45-47. Macedonia. MANU, Skopje, 1 (2), (1993), 153-391. [14] Em, H., Survey of Macedoninan dendroflora- - (In Macedonian) Skopje (1967). (In Macedonian) [35] Micevski, K., The Flora of the Republic of [15] Greek Mountain Flora (http://www. greekmoun- Macedonia. MANU, Skopje, 1 (5), (2001), : 1121- tainflora.info/, accessed 30.3.2012) (2006-). 1430. (In Macedonian) 31  TEOFILOVSKI A., MANDZUKOVSKI D., SIMOVSKI B., ACEVSKI J. CHOROLOGY AND HABITATS OF SOME PLANTS IN THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA [36] Micevski, K., Retki i nepoznati vidovi za florata na Makedonija. God. zb. - Biol., Skopje, 31, (1978), 151-165. [37] Micevski, K., Matevski V., Genista subcapitata Panč. In der flora der Republik Makedonien, Contributions, Section of biological and medical sciences, MASA, Skopje, XIX, 1-2 (1998), 17-22. (In Macedonian) [38] Rohlena, J., Zehnter Beitrag zur Flora von Montenegro (und Mazedonien). Vestnik Král. Spol. Nauk., Praha, 2, (1935), 1-19. [39] Šmarda, J., Výsledky biogeografických cest do Jugoslávie v letech 1964-1967., Ceskoslovenská akademie věd Geografický ústav. Brno (1968). [40] Soška, T., Beitrag zur Schluchtenfloren von Südserbien III, BSS Sk, 20 (7), (1939), 167-191. [41] Strid, A., Dianthus L. - In Strid, A., (ed.). Mountain Flora of Greece. Copenhagen & Edinburgh, 1, (1987), 176-200. [42] Strid, A., Dianthus L. - In Strid, A. & Tan, K. (eds.)., Flora Hellenica. Koenigsten. 1, (1997), 343- 372. [43] Teofilovski, A., Contributions to the flora of the Republic of Macedonia, Skopje, 2011, pag. 142. (In Macedonian) [44] Todorovski, A., Melliferous flora of the district of Bitola, Prilozi, Bitola, 6-8, (1967), 3-26. (In Macedonian) [45] Todorovski, A., The decorative flora of the area of the district of Bitola, Prilep, Kruševo and Demir Hisar. Prilozi, Bitola, 14, (1970), 1-36. (In Macedonian) [46] Tutin, T.G., Dianthus L. - In Tutin, T.G. & al. (eds.), Flora Europaea, Cambridge, 1, (1964), 188-204. [47] Vandas, C., Reliquae Formanekianae. Brunae, (1909). [48] Velenovský, J. Reliquiae Mrkvičkanae. Pragae. (1922). [49] Vierhapper, F. jun., Ueber einen neuen Dianthus aus dem Balkan., Verhand. der zoo.-bot. Ges. Wien. 48- 1, (1897), 31-35. [50] Weber, F., Botanická vycházka do pohori Galičica. Zbornik Klubu prirodovedeckeho v Brne, 29, (1951), 1-11. 32 For. review 43: 1 - 76. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje For. review 43: 33 - 36. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 UDC: 630*38:519.87(497.7) Original scientific paper Paper submission: May, 2012 INFLUENCE OF SOME FACTORS ON THE DENSITY OF FOREST ROADS IN THE SKIDDING WITH ANIMALS TRAJANOV Z., NESTOROVSKI Lj., TRAJKOV P. Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Faculty of Forestry in Skopje, Skopje, Macedonia Correspondig author e-mail address: ztrajanov@sf.ukim.edu.mk ABSTRACT: In the paper are presented the results from the investigation of the optimal density of forest roads. We know from practice that there isn’t universal solution to open forests and determine the optimal density of forest roads. In this research paper will analyze the density of forest roads in the skidding with animals (horse). Animals skidding as traditional still which occupies an important place in practice in Macedonian forestry. Several factors affect the solution for optimal density of forest roads because it is necessary to analyze the impact of these factors on the final solution. The obtained solutions represent a basis for solving the forest transportation practice. Keywords: forest, roads, optimal density, animals, skidding 1 INTRODUCTION skidding of technical wood in increase, skidding of technical wood in fall, skidding of firewood in increase, In Republic of Macedonia skidding with horses is and skidding of firewood in fall. Skidding with horses is very widespread and has a long tradition. In practice, a done by a common technology of working. part of the log skidding nowadays is done by horses (drags), and a great percentage of the firewood skidding 2 METHOD OF WORKING is done by horses (pack-saddled). Recently, there has been an abandonment of this kind of skidding, but it will The methodology described in Z. Trajanov’s doctoral continue to exist in the future. thesis [3] has been used in the production of this In practice, the transport of wood assortments is the scientific paper. Therefore, one should begin with the most expensive phase of the direct process of production. following mathematical principles. Therefore, a need to find a solution for calculating the The optimal density of road network is calculated by minimal expenses for transport is imposed, in a situation differential calculations, i.e. the first deduction from the when all the planned activities of forest management total costs for transport. would be successfully fulfilled. The equation (1) is used for calculating the optimal There is a direct dependence between the minimal density of road network for wood transport. expenses of skidding and the optimal solution of the forest road network which can be expressed by: density DTsum (1) 0 of road network, spatial arrangement, and quality of DGkp roads. With that, the network of forest roads should evenly open the whole area, where the evenness doesn’t Total costs for horse skidding - Tsumа, are calculated refer to the distance between roads, but it refers to with the equation (2). economic needs, economic significance and environmental importance of specific parts of the forest. T sum a  T a  T kp  T av (2) Field researches have been carried out on the mountain Plackovica, in the area Leva Reka. The relief of the Tkp – costs for truck roads terrain is medium developed, crissed-crossed by many Tav – costs for animal drags smaller or bigger watercourses. The gradient of the Ta – costs for horse skidding terrain varies, on average it is 41%. The geological base is silicate and above it there is dark brown forest soil – This formula is the basis for calculating the optimal Districhen kambisol. Rarely, the rocks come out on the density of road network. Similar methodology has also surface and usually they are isolated smaller amounts. been used in other researches from this area, in the The climate is continental, i.e. mountainous. In Republic of Macedonia, researches of R. Akimovski (2). conditions like these, the community of beech tree forest The reason why this methodology is being used, as well is developed, ass. Fagetum montanum, where the as the introduction of changes, is because of the new dominant wood type is the beech tree. mathematical software which can solve complicated Beside the beech trees, in the earthbound part, grass problems. Therefore, in contrast to the past situations plants and bushes can be isolated too. From a theoretical when many parameters have been neglected in order to viewpoint, in the calculations a period of 100 years is get simpler formulae for calculation, the new software being analyzed. This period coincides with the felling solutions do not put limits to the number of unknown cycle of reproductive woodcutting. In that way, with the parameters and the combining of various mathematical help of the felling cycle, one can define the volume of operations. The new software also provides us with wood which will be used in a certain area for a specific flexibility, i.e. easy calculations for each situation time, time during which all the roads will be built in separately, all in order to get more accurate results. This order to finish the woodcutting in every part of the area, paper will analyze the solutions obtained for a specific as well as prompt and correct fulfillment of the protection situation in the practice of skidding of wood assortments and cultivation tasks in the forest. In these researches a with horses, in the mountain Plackovica in Republic of situation has been analyzed, in which the truck roads are Macedonia. storey-placed in the area, one above the other. Therefore, the skidding is done by using four operations, such as: For. review 43: 33 - 36. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje 3 RESULTS FROM THE RESEARCH Table I: Optimal density of the road network in relation to the quantity of the volume of wood and the portions of This mathematical model for estimating the optimal firewood density of road network as a basis for calculations takes the economic parameters, i.e. estimation of the minimal 3 50 150 250 350 450 500 Q[m /ha] costs for a specific situation. The other functions of the coefficient Gkp [m/ha] road network are adjusted according to the result obtained. It means that the result obtained will go through firewood (0,3) 9,8 19,5 26,6 30,3 34,2 36,0 as many transformations as needed, imposed by the other firewood (0,6) 8,4 17,1 22,7 27,0 30,6 32,3 non-economic characteristics of the forest viewed by firewood (0,9) 6,8 14,2 19,3 23,1 26,4 27,8 sociological, tourist, recreational, economic and firewood (1,0) 6,3 13,1 17,9 21,7 24,7 26,1 environmental aspect. The zones of optimal costs are best shown by a three- The results obtained for the optimal density of the truck dimensional presentation. The costs of horse skidding in road network in relation to the volume of wood, as well relation to the extent of using the volume of wood in the as to the portions of firewood, are graphically shown in course of the period analyzed and the dependence from diagram No.2. the density of road network is shown in diagram 1. 40.0 35.0 30.0 Coefficient (firewood) = 0,3 z 25.0 Gkp [m/ha] Coefficient 20.0 (firewood) = 0,6 X – густина на 50 патната мрежа 2000 Coefiicient 15.0 [m/ha] (firewood) = 0,9 1000 40 10.0 У – дрвна Coefficient 0 30 зафатнина [m³] 5.0 (firewood) = 1,0 Z – трошоци за 100 20 транспорт [ден/m³] 0.0 x 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 200 10 y 300 [m³/ха] 400 Diagram 2: Optimal density of the truck road network in Diagram 1: Relation of the total costs of horse skidding relation to the quantity of the volume of wood and the to the volume of wood and the density of road network (1 portions of firewood euro = 61,5 denars) From the chart and the diagram, one can see that with From the diagram one can see that the costs are the the increase of the used volume of wood, there is also an biggest when using small volume of wood and in increase of the optimal density of the road network. situations when there is little density of the road network. Moreover, if the portions of firewood are bigger, the With increasing of the road density, as well as of the density of the road network decreases even more. volume of wood, at the beginning the costs decrease If, under the same circumstances, only one parameter intensively so that later they will start to decrease is being analyzed, one will see how it can influence the moderately. solution. In that way, when using on average 300 m3/ha a year for the analyzed period of 100 years, and under the 3.1 Influence of the quantity and the quality of the forest same circumstances of working, the following analyses which is being managed can be received. The potential of the forest, such as the volume of woodcutting in quantity and quality, have influence on 3.2 Influence of the technology of working, viewed by the optimal density of the road network. the length of working hours and efficient use of those On the basis of the methodology presented, one can working hours establish a connection between the density of the road The organization of the working process i.e. the network and the volume of wood which is used in forest choice of technology of work, as well as the efficient use management in the course of the analyzed period of 100 of working hours, have an influence on the costs of years. At that, the optimal density is analyzed in four transport. Therefore, there is an influence of the situations with different portions of the firewood (0.3, technology of working on the density of the road 0.6, 0.9, and 1.0) in relation to the total volume of wood network. which is used in the course of the analyzed period. Data The influence of the length of working hours for about the optimal density of the road network in relation skidding of wood assortments in relation to the optimal to the volume of wood is given in table I. density of the road network is graphically shown in diagram 3.  TRAJANOV Z., NESTOROVSKI Lj., TRAJKOV P. INFLUENCE OF SOME FACTORS ON THE DENSITY OF FOREST ROADS IN THE SKIDDING WITH ANIMALS of all the assortments in a certain coppice, a theoretical 50 model for determining the value of factor xa has been 40 obtained. 30 With the help of differential estimating, i.e. by calculating the first deduction of xa by using the above Gkp [m/ha] 20 mentioned technology, the value of xa can be established 10 as 0.24. It means that the skidding would be made most working hours [sek] 0 optimally if 24% of the volume of wood which gravitates 10000 16000 22000 28000 34000 40000 to the higher road, i.e. increase should be skidded in m/ha 44.54 34.33 28.93 25.38 22.79 20.79 increase, and the rest should be skidded in fall. From this relation one can come to a quite logical conclusion that the horse while skidding in increase will not achieve Diagram 3: Influence of the working hours during the good performance. day on the optimal density of the road network The data of the dependence of coefficient x or the area which would be skidded in increase in relation to the The extension of working hours decreases the costs optimal road network is shown in diagram 5. for skidding, i.e. it influences the decrease of the optimal density of road network. Therefore, in practice, all the 50 factors which can shorten the normal working hours during the day should be avoided. In the practice, in 40 Gkp [m/ha] Republic of Macedonia, a considerably negative model is 30 the model of daily transport of the workers to their place of work. With such organizational arrangement, great 20 losses have been made because of the lower productivity 10 faktor - Х in working. Despite the length of working hours, an important 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 parameter is also the efficient use of those working hours, m/ha 29.35 25.3 25.76 30.51 37.68 46 i.e. – a coefficient of efficient use of the working hours (index – k). Diagram 5: Influence of coefficient x – the area which is 35 skidded- on the optimal density of road network 30 25 The trend of optimal density decreases with the Gkp - [m/ha] 20 increase of coefficient x to a certain value, i.e. it reaches a 15 minimum of the index at 0.24, after which there is a trend 10 of increasing of the density of road network. 5 0 index к 3.4 Influence of the non-economic aspects for opening 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 the forest m/ha 31.82 28.53 26.04 24.05 22.42 21.04 Unlike the factors which are related to forest management and which can be calculated, in practice, the Diagram 4: Influence of index k – coefficient of efficient solution of the optimal density of the road network use of working hours – on the optimal density of road depends on many other factors which are not related to network the forest management and which can not be expressed by a value. Thus, in practice, it is often necessary to build The influence of index k – coefficient of efficient use roads which will connect certain settlements, tourist of working hours – on the optimal density of the road facilities, recreational facilities, economic facilities, network, for the analyzed models, is shown in diagram 4. hunting facilities and so on. Also, it is of no less From the graphic presentation one can see that the importance the significance of forest roads in relation to optimal density decreases with the increase of the protection in general, primarily to protection from forest efficient use of working hours, i.e. by avoiding the fire. Therefore, in practice, one should find a solution stagnations in the working process. where the road would be multi-functional, and by doing so, one would get a good solution viewed from many 3.3 Influence of the spatial arrangement of roads and the different aspects, such as: functional, financial, economic choice of the direction for skidding (factor x) and environmental aspect. In the end the projection of the The choice of the type of skidding, in increase and in road network should meet all the requirements of the fall, is also a factor which can make a certain technology forest. of working better or worse. By making the right choice whether certain assortments will be skidded in increase or 4 CONCLUSIONS in fall, the time for skidding can be shortened and with that the costs for skidding will be reduced as well.  There is no universal solution to the problem of The coefficient xa is a part (fraction) from the optimal density of the road network. A reason for distance between truck roads Rkp, which should that are the numerous parameters with a changeable optimally be skidded in increase at the horse skidding. character, which also have an influence on the According to the model covered by Z. Trajanov [3], optimization of the costs for transport. with the help of analyzing the optimal time for skidding For. review 43: 33 - 36. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje  As a basis for estimating the optimal density of road network, one takes the economic effect from working. Despite this basis, the solution would go through further corrections so that all the planned non-economic activities in the forest could be fulfilled.  With the increase of the volume of wood which would be used in the analyzed period, the density of the road network increases as well.  With the increase of the portions of firewood in the volume of wood which would be used in the course of the analyzed period, there is a decrease of the optimal density of the road network.  With the extension of working hours during the work day, the optimal density of the road network is decreased.  With the increase of the efficient use of working hours during the day, the optimal density of the road network is decreased.  An ideal fraction of the distance between truck roads which should be skidded in increase is 0.24, whereas in fall a fraction of 0.76 should be skidded. The closer we are to the ideal fraction, the more the optimal density of road network decreases and then one can make the smallest costs in the process of transport.  In practice, one must find a projection of the road network which would express a compromise of all the requirements of the forest. 5 REFERENCES [1] Radovan Akimovski, Strasho Todorovski, Stanojko Angelov, “Research in skidding of beech tree logs with tractors in Macedonia“, Annual collection at the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry – Skopje, 1968, Skopje. [2] Radovan Akimovski, “Research into the problem of opening the forests in Macedonia“, annual collection at the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, 1966, Skopje. [3] Trajanov Zdravko, “Models of optimal solutions of forest transport depending on the type of woodcutting at forest management”, doctoral thesis, University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius, 2008, Skopje. [4] Trajanov Zdravko, Ljupcho Nestorovski “Dependence of the optimal density of the road network on the used volume of wood at skidding with horses”, Forestry Review, 2009, Skopje. For. review 43: 37 - 41. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 UDC: 630*27(497.11) Original scientific paper Paper submission: May, 2012 THE CONCEPT OF LANDSCAPING THE PARK ZONE OF THE ARBORETUM OF THE FACULTY OF FORESTRY IN BELGRADE VUKIN M., ZIVANOVIC M. University of Belgrade Faculty of Forestry, Belgrade, Serbia Correspondig author e-mail address: marina.vukin@sfb.bg.ac.rs ABSTRACT: The Arboretum of the Faculty of Forestry in Belgrade is a natural monument with representative floristic characteristics, which covers an area of 6.69 ha. It is a unique spatial-environmental unit within the city green space system with outstanding landscape features emphasized by its views towards the central area of the city of Belgrade and other sites of interests. This paper presents a landscape design plan for the extended zone of the Arboretum, which should make a separate compositional and functional unit of this protected natural area. It will be 0.40 ha in size. The concept of landscaping involves construction and establishment of the following garden- landscape elements and other facilities: an entry area with a system of pathways, a multi-purpose plateau, a sensory garden, pavilions, water area, lawns, perennial gardens, tree groups and alleys. Keywords: arboretum, park zone, design 1 INTRODUCTION field surveying), recording the current state and landscape design plan development. The Regional Spatial Plan for the City of Belgrade Administrative Area (2011) puts a special emphasis on 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the necessity to create new landscape site design plans for certain spatial-environmental units and other areas of the 3.1 Basic data on the current state urban city structures [9]. As a special-purpose area and a Map 1 shows the current state of the Arboretum. The spatial-environmental unit located in the vicinity of the area of the future park zone, which makes the northeast city center, Arboretum of the Faculty of Forestry in part of the extension zone, is marked. This spatial Belgrade has a multi-functional significance in the city presentation of the Arboretum reveals its outstanding system of green spaces. landscape characteristics determined by its location in the The Arboretum of the Faculty of Forestry is a vicinity of the city center and by the essential values that protected natural area in the category of natural are reflected in the authenticity, representativeness and monuments and anthropogenic urban ecosystems with an landscape attractiveness of this place. [5]. array of functions: educative, scientific, decorative, ecological, cultural, tourist and many others [5,6]. Since the area is in the process of reconstruction, some parts of the central zone of the Arboretum as well as the extended zone do not still serve their primary purpose. One of the Park zone most important tasks of the reconstruction and recultivation of the extended zone is to landscape the park zone. Considering the above mentioned the following Zone research task ensued: expansion - to define the present state of the area planned Arboretum for the park zone; - to present the concept of landscaping the park zone with new facilities, using model presentations. 2 MATERIAL AND METHODS Map 1: Map of the Arboretum with its protection regime This paper is based on the material obtained from the borders plans and technical documentation of the Faculty of (source study: Protection of the Arboretum of the Faculty of Forestry yard and arboretum, which together cover an Forestry in Belgrade, Institute for Nature Conservation, 2010) area of 9.70 ha. The arboretum itself covers an area of [8] 6.69 ha. According to the Master plan for the Natural monument `Faculty of Forestry Arboretum` for the period The existing vegetation was recorded (Map 2) and a from 2011 to 2020, a park zone is planned to be build manual of dendroflora evaluation was done (Table I). within the zone of extension of this spatial entity [11]. Each existing specimen had its area determined, The future park zone, which is the subject of this paper, estimation elements measured, health state and vitality will cover an area of 0.40 ha. Methodology of work is evaluated and functional-aesthetic values determined. based on graphic presentation of the concept of Among the registered broadleaved species, Turkey oak landscaping the zone. Software packages AutoCAD 2013 Quercus cerris L. and Flowering ash Fraxinus ornus L., and digital modelling - 3D presentations were used for are dominant and they will be preserved. On the other this purpose [1,3,7]. The work was carried out in three hand, 19 specimens of different autochthonous stages: preliminary stage (inspection of surveying basics broadleaved species are planned to be felled due to their – Cadastral and Topographic plans of the faculty yard, bad health state and low quality. Silvicultural-sanitation measures (such as removal of diseased, damaged and 37 For. review 43: 37 - 41. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje dead trees, crown pruning and shaping, application of retained trees. The soil of the whole protected natural control measures etc.) should be carried out on the area is characterized as retained trees. The soil of the whole protected natural 21,0 6,0 Quercus cerris L. 2,0 2 2 2 - area is characterized as lessive brown soil [6]. The soil 5,0 11,0 cover of the whole studied area (0.40 ha), which includes Quercus cerris L. 11,0 3,0 2 2 2 - the park zone accessible to wheeled vehicles and adjacent Robinia pseudoacacia L. 23,0 18,0 5,0 2 1 2 - to tennis courts is of poor quality and anthropogenically Fraxinus ornus L. 16,0 3,0 2 2 2 - 13,0 altered. Fraxinus ornus L. 14,0 3,0 5 4 4 + 9,0 Fraxinus ornus L. 9,0 3,0 5 4 4 + 10,0 Fraxinus ornus L. 10,0 3,0 5 4 4 + 12,0 Quercus cerris L. 24,0 6,0 5 5 5 + 21,0 Quercus cerris L. 5,5 2,0 2 2 2 - 9,0 Quercus cerris L. 42,0 10,0 5 5 5 + 23,0 Fagus moesiaca (Maly) 17,0 Czeczott. 13,0 4,0 2 2 2 - Fagus moesiaca (Maly) 19,0 Czeczott. 13,0 3,0 2 2 2 - Juglans regia L. 70,0 20,0 5 5 5 + 26,0 Juglans regia L. 70,0 20,0 5 5 5 + 25,0 Acer pseudoplatanus L. 15,0 1,5 2 2 2 - 10,0 18,0 - Acer negundo L. 1,5 2 2 2 12,0 Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) 22,0 6,0 2 1 2 Sw. 16,0 - Map 2: The existing vegetation site plan Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Sw. 25,0 7,0 2 1 2 - 16,0 18,0 Juglans regia L. 9,0 2 2 2 - Table I: Manual of dendroflora evaluation 10,0 Dg (cm) 3.2 The concept of landscaping the park zone Crown width The proposed park zone is a value of great functional assessment Decorative General Health (to be value Note state (m) h (m) and structural significance within the Arboretum. The Species value of this park zone is increased by the fact that it 60,0 Robinia pseudoacacia 6,0 4 2 3 - allows a view of the newly built Ada bridge over the river 19,5 L. 34,0 Sava and other sites of interest in the center of the city. Acer pseudoplatanus L. 5,0 4 2 3 - 19,0 Map 3 presents the site-grading plan, with the spatial 32,0 Acer pseudoplatanus L. 15,0 6,0 5 4 4 + arrangement of the basic elements of the designed park Acer pseudoplatanus L. 43,0 19,0 6,0 5 4 4 + zone. This park zone as a macro-unit contains the Acer pseudoplatanus L. 36,0 6,0 5 4 4 + following elements: 19,0 25,0 - entry area with a system of pathways; Juglans regia L. 8,0 4 3 3 + 10,0 25,0 - a multi-purpose plateau; Juglans regia L. 8,0 4 3 3 + 11,0 - sensory garden; 35,0 Populus nigra L. 19,0 5,0 4 4 4 + - pavilions; Juglans regia L. 24,0 11,0 5,0 4 3 3 + - water area; Juglans regia L. 25,0 7,0 4 2 2 + - lawns; 9,0 30,0 - perennial gardens; Juglans regia L. 8,0 4 3 3 + 15,0 32,0 - groups of trees; + Populus nigra L. 19,0 5,0 4 4 4 - alleys. 28,0 Populus nigra L. 18,0 5,0 4 3 3 + 37,0 Populus nigra L. 19,0 6,0 4 3 4 + 27,0 Betula pendula Roth. 18,0 5,0 5 5 5 + 22,0 Betula pendula Roth. 16,0 5,0 3 3 3 + 24,0 Betula pendula Roth. 15,0 5,0 3 2 3 + 18,0 Betula pendula Roth. 12,0 4,0 3 3 3 + 32,0 Betula pendula Roth. 15,0 6,0 3 3 3 + 5,0 Prunus cerrasifera Ehrh. 5,0 2,0 5 3 3 - 22,0 Acer negundo L. 12,0 10,0 5 1 3 - 13,0 Juglans regia L. 11,0 6,0 5 5 5 + 17,0 Ulmus campestris L. 12,0 5,0 4 5 5 + 12,0 Fraxinus ornus L. 10,0 1,5 2 1 2 - 4,0 Fraxinus ornus L. 4,0 1,5 2 2 2 - 17,0 Quercus cerris L. 15,0 5,0 5 5 5 + 5,0 Quercus cerris L. 7,0 2,0 2 2 2 - Map 3: Site-grading plan of the park zone 11,0 Quercus cerris L. 11,0 3,0 2 2 2 - 14,0 Quercus cerris L. 12,0 3,0 2 2 2 - Quercus cerris L. 42,0 10,0 5 5 5 + 38  VUKIN M., ZIVANOVIC M. THE CONCEPT OF LANDSCAPING THE PARK ZONE OF THE ARBORETUM OF THE FACULTY OF FORESTRY IN BELGRADE The design of the park composition with its garden in semi-circular concrete plant boxes, 70 cm in height. and architectural elements and with other infrastructure Each plant box contains species that encourage specific elements is presented in Map 4. senses – smell, sight, touch or taste. Pavilions (5) make 2 separate units, where visitors can spend some time and enjoy the views of the city sites of interest (Figure 4). Water area (6) covers 46.20 m2 and makes a microambient along the south-east border of the park zone with vegetation typical of aquatic ecosystems (Figure 5). Most of it receives enough sunlight, but a smaller part is in the shade of the existing dendroflora. Map 4: Design plan of the park zone A 3D modelling design with the layout of vegetation Figure 2: Multi-purpose plateau and plant collections is presented in Figure 1. Figure 3: Sensory garden Figure 1: Concept plan of park zone landscaping (3D presentation) The entry area (1) starts in the north-west part of the park zone, and the system of pathways (2) enables a good interconnectedness of all elements of the designed object and good movement dynamics, directing the visitors towards the focal points and other parts of the Arboretum. The total area of pathways and roads within the entry area and the park zone itself amounts to 1 278.70 m2. Pathways account for 374.00 m2, and roads for 904.70 m2. The system of communication lines Figure 4: A part of the pavilion by the sensory garden designed in such a way makes an impression of spatial unity and harmony, with a strong balance between the contents of the space and the logical sequence of garden- architectural and other components of the contents. Vegetation is modelled in the style of parterres and emphasizes the movement direction. The multi-purpose plateau (3), 82.41 m2 in size, is designed as a circular area, with semi-circular stone benches and a rectangular wooden pergola (Figure 2). This area, characterized by outstanding views of the Ada bridge and other parts of the central and wider area of the city is designed for visitor receptions and educational activities. The sensory garden (4), 90.00 m2 in size, is designed to meet the needs Figure 5: Water area of horticultural therapy and education of people with special needs, (Figure 3), with the purpose of stimulating 3.3 Landscaping the spare areas different sensations and abilities. It is designed in four Since this paper presents a design solution with the circular plateaus. The proposed plant species are planted definition of the basic elements, it will provide general guidelines for landscaping and designing the spare areas. 39 For. review 43: 37 - 41. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje (Table II). The total area of the green spaces, which Sedum spectabila 16 comprise lawns, areas covered with deciduous and Sedum acre 16 evergreen shrubs, perennials, and prostrate conifers Taste and Smell/2 amounts to 2,588.89 m2. Landscaping the spare areas Coriandrum sativum 16 consists of establishing lawns, perennial gardens, groups Mentha sp. 24 of trees and alleys (Map 5). The total area of lawns is Thymus citrodorus 20 Apium graveolens 26 2,548.89 m2 (Map 6). Lawn T1 accounts for 960.00 m2 of TOTAL: 286 the area, lawn T2 for 1,093.89 m2, lawn T3 for 195.00 m2 IX Climbers and lawn T4 for 300.00 m2. p1 Lonicera caprifolia 100 p2 Parthenocissus tricuspidata 86 Table II: Growing stock specification p3 Wisteria sinensis 6 TOTAL: 192 ordinal Species pieces number I Broadleaved trees 1. Fraxinus excelsior "Globosa" 21 2. Ginkgo biloba L. 3 3. Liriodendron tulipifera 4 4. Magnolia x soulangeana Soul.-Bod. 4 5. Albizia julibrissin Durazz. 10 6. Liquidanbar styraciflua L. 6 7. Fagus sylvatica "Atropurpurea" 9 8. Acer platanoides "Crimson King" 16 TOTAL: 73 II Coniferous trees Chamaecyparis lawsoniana 9. "Ellwoodii" 4 10. Cedrus atlantica "Glauca" 3 TOTAL: 7 Map 5: Planting plan with growing stock specifications III Prostrate Conifers 11. Juniperus horizontalis "Wiltonii" 16 The lawns are exposed to direct sunlight and they are TOTAL: 16 intended to be established by sawing grass seed, in the IV Evergreen shrubs quantity of 2.5-4 kg/100 m2. The grass mixture has the 12. Prunus laurocerasus L. 24 TOTAL: 24 following composition: V Deciduous shrubs Festuca rubra var. commutata ........ 40% 13. Weigela florida (Bunge) A.DC.) 10 Poa pratensis ................................... 20% 14. Deutzia gracilis Sieb. et Zucc. 7 Lolium perennials ............................. 25% 15. Spiraea bumalda 5 Trifolium repens .............................. 15% TOTAL: 22 Map 5 and 6 presents the design of 5 areas covered VI Perennials with perennials (a, b, c, d). Several tree groups and alleys a. Santolina rosmarinifolia 72 are also planned to be established. A detailed analysis b. Lavandula officinalis 50 envisages planting of decorative broadleaved cultivars, c. Coreopsis grandiflora 45 that will be dominant in the future dendrofund and a d. Thymus sp. 25 smaller number of conifers of different modes of growth, TOTAL: 192 structure and colour. Broadleaved seedlings should be 6- VII Decorative grasses 8 years old (Figure 6) and coniferous seedlings should be e. Imperata cylindrica 55 4-6 years of age. The seedlings of prostrate conifers aged f. Festuca glauca 70 2-4 years, evergreen shrubs aged 2-4 years and g. Carex sp. 61 h. Cortaderia selloana 2 deciduous shrubs aged 2-4 should be used. TOTAL: 188 The alleys are composed of attractive species of VIII Plants in the sensory garden diverse forms. They are not straight, but follow the Taste and Smell/1 pathways within the park zone along the lawns. All Ocimum basilicum 10 species should be of great functional-esthetical and Allium schoenoprasum 16 ecological value, adapted to urban living conditions [2,4]. Petroselinum sp. 15 Melissa officinalis 16 Origanum vulgare 16 Anethum gravedens 16 Smell Lavandila officinalis 21 Santolina chamaecyparissus 13 Rosmarinus officinalis 10 Helychrisum arenarium 5 Touch Stachys lanata 10 Salvia officinalis 10 Festuca glauca 10 40  VUKIN M., ZIVANOVIC M. THE CONCEPT OF LANDSCAPING THE PARK ZONE OF THE ARBORETUM OF THE FACULTY OF FORESTRY IN BELGRADE the registration and evaluation of the existing vegetation (components that will be largely preserved), landscaping and designing of the spare areas also involve establishment of lawns, perennial gardens, alleys and groups of trees. Composition design of the park zone of the Arboretum is an overall graphic-modelling presentation of landscaping this functional unit. An elaborate analysis of the defined units will be the next stage of the spatial design of this structure. Besides other elements of this spatial entity, the designed green spaces and the planned park and architectural furniture contribute to the harmonization of the whole area as an protected environmental entity. 5 REFERENCES Map 6: Lawn area plan [1] Cantrell, B., Michaels, W. (2010): Digital Drawing for Landscape Architecture: Contemporary Techniques and Tools for Digital Representation in Site Design. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, United Kingdom. [2] Cvjeticanin, R., Perovic, M. (2010): Prakitikum iz dendrologije za osnovne akademske studije na Šumarskom fakultetu za studijske programe Šumarstvo i Ekološki inženjering u zaštiti zemljišnih i vodnih resusrsa. Univerzitet u Beogradu Šumarski fakultet. Beograd. [3] Finkelstein, E. (2006) AutoCAD 2007 and AutoCAD LT 2007 Bible. Indianapolis: Wiley Publishing. [4] Vukicevic, E. (1982): Dekorativna denrdrologija. Udžbenik. Beograd. [5] Vukin, M., Stavretovic, N., Ostojic, D. (2010): Significance of the Arboretum of the Faculty of Forestry in Belgrade in public Participation in Environmental protection. Procedeeings. XVIII Scientific and Professional Meeting ‘Ecological Truth’ Eco-Ist'10. University of Belgrade – Technical Faculty in Bor. Banja Junakovic, Apatin, Serbia, June 01-04. [6] Vukin, M. (2010): Arboretum Šumarskog fakulteta u Beogradu. Univerzitet u Beogradu Šumarski fakultet. Beograd. (pp. 1-113) [7] Tanasic, R., Bajkin, A. (2007): Grafički programi u pejzažnoj arhitekturi. Savremena poljoprivredna tehnika. Vol. 33, br. 3-4. Novi Sad. Figure 6: Planting a standard broadleaved balled and [8] (2010): Studija zaštite Arboretuma burlapped seedling Šumarskog fakulteta u Beogradu. Zavod za zaštitu prirode Srbije. Beograd. Rukovodilac studije dr 4 CONCLUSIONS Dragana Ostojić. [9] (2011): Regionalni prostorni plan administrativnog The concept of landscaping the park zone of the područja grada Beograda. http: //www.beograd.rs Faculty of Forestry Arboretum in Belgrade involves [10] (2011): Plan upravljanja Spomenika prirode planning the layout of landscape-architectural elements „Arboretuma Šumarskog fakulteta“ za period and enhancing the functionality and esthetics of the space 2011-2020. godine in this spatial-environmental unit which is of great importance in the system of city green spaces and protected areas. Area park zone is 0.40 ha. In line with the need to present and promote this multi-functional space, the following components have been defined by using graphic presentations and 3D modelling: an entry area, a system of pathways (1,278.70 m2); a multi- purpose plateau (82.41 m2); a sensory garden (90.00 m2); water area (46.20 m2); lawns (2,548.89 m2); pavilions; perennial gardens; groups of trees and alleys. Along with 41 For. review 43: 1 - 76. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje For. review 43: 42 - 45. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 UDC: 631.413.4(497.7) Preliminary communication Paper submission: May, 2012 CONTENT OF EXCHANGEABLE CATIONS IN ALBIC LUVISOLS IN REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA UNDER DIFFERENT VEGETATIVE COVER ANDREEVSKI M., MUKAETOV D. Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Institute of Agriculture, Skopje, Macedonia Correspondig author e-mail address: m.andreevski@zeminst.edu.mk ABSTRACT: Main goal of the examinations presented in this paper is to conduct in depth analysis of adsorption complex of albic luvisols in Republic of Macedonia, with a special emphasis on the content of exchangeable cations. On several location of the country, 23 soil profile of albic luvisols were excavated; 15 soil profiles under forest vegetation, 4 under grass vegetation and 4 under cultivated crops. The results derived during the investigations showed that CEC has its highest values in the surface horizon of albic luvisols under forest vegetation (high percentage of organic matter), lower values of CEC are determined in soil profiles under grass vegetation, while the lowest values of this parameter were obtained in cultivated albic luvisols (intensive decomposition of organic matter due to cultivation). Albic luvisols uder forest vegetation have lower values of sum of exchangeable basic cations, higer sum of acid cations (H+ + Al+++) and lower values of base saturation percentage (V%). In all examinated soil profiles of albic luvisols predominant cation is calcium, magnesium have smaller quantities wile the quantities of potassium and sodium are neglegible. Keywords: albic luvisol, cation exchange capacity, exchangeable basic cationect 1 INTRODUCTION  Easy available forms of P2O5 and K2O were determinate by Al method [4] The content of exchangeable ions is significant  The content of humus has been determinate at the indicator for the soil formation conditions. Many base of total carbon by the method of Tjurin processes and characteristics of soil depend of cation modified by Simakov [7] exchange capacity (CEC) and it's content.  Extraction with barium chloride three-ethanolamine Data regarding the content of the exchangeable ions in glass colons (Melich method) was used for of albic luvisols in R. of Macedonia can be finding in the quantification of acid exchangeable cations (H+ + previous work of [5, 8, 10, 11, and 12]. After revision of Al+++). The extract is titrated with 0,04 N HCl in a previous work, we couldn't find data regarding the presence of mixed indicator [1] content of adsorbed ions of albic luvisols developed  Extraction with BaCl2 (Hendershot and Duquette under different vegetative cover in R. of Macedonia. Due method [16]) was used for quantification of the to that have conducted a detailed research of the content exchangeable cations (Ca++, Mg++, K+, Na+). of exchangeable ions under forests and grass vegetative Readouts were accomplished on AAS, “Varian”. cover and cultivated albic luvisol and to contribute Cation exchange capacity (T), sum of basic towards better exploration of this soil type. The aim of exchangeable cations, and base saturation percentage this research is to investigate the impact of forest, (BSP) as well as the percentage of particular ions grassland and cultural vegetation on the content of saturation were calculated. exchangeable cations in albic luvisols in Republic of Macedonia. 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 2 MATERIAL AND METHODS In order to give a correct interpretation of the results for CEC and the content of exchangeable cations of albic On different locations of the country, 23 soil profiles luvisols formed under different vegetative cover, a of albic luvisols were excavated and morphologically detailed overview of the mechanical composition and described on the field. More than half of soil profiles (15) some chemical properties will be given. Average results were under forest vegetation, 4 soil profiles were under of 15 soil profiles under forest vegetation, 4 soil profiles grass and the other 4 on arable land. under grass and 4 soil profiles on arable land are Field examinations have been performed according to presented in Table 1 and 2. accepted methods in Former Yugoslavia [13]. Cation exchange capacity is directly correlated with The laboratory analyses have been done according to the total amount of clay minerals, SOM and reaction of standard adopted methods in Former Yugoslavia and extracting solution used for its quantification [14]. Republic of Macedonia, as follows: CEC data of the examined albic luvisoil profiles are Mechanical composition of soil has been determined by presented in Table 3. Out of the presented data, pipette method [9]; the dispersion of the particles has differences in CEC between particular horizons can be been done with 0,4N Na-pyrophosphate. The separation observed. These differences are mainly due to the higher of the mechanical elements in fractions has been done by SOM accumulation in topsoil, leaching (translocation) of the international classification [6]. clay minerals from topsoil and eluvial (E horizon) into  pH (reaction) of the soil solution has been the argiluvic (Bt horizon), layer structure of the determined with glass electrode in water suspension sediments, cultivation and the inherit quantum of clay and in NKCI suspension [6]. minerals from the previous stadium of soil evolution.  The total N has been determinate by Kjeldahl micromethod [1]. 42 For. review 43: 42 - 45. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje Table I: Mechanical composition of albic luvisol are slight differences in CEC values between horizons Bt, BtC and C which are mainly result of the character of Hor. Skeleton Coarse Fine Silt Clay clay minerals and its content. > 2mm sand sand 0,002- <0,002 It should be noticed that CEC in argiluvic (Bt) 0,2- 0,02- 0,02mm mm horizon of soils under forest and grass vegetation is lower 2mm 0,2mm in comparison with surface horizon, while in soil profiles Grass vegetation on cultivated sites CEC in topsoil is lover than in Bt A 7.79 11.50 52.53 22.48 13.50 horizon. Despite the high content of clay in Bt horizon of albic luvisols under forest and grass vegetation, its CEC E 12.29 11.78 51.28 23.45 13.50 has lower values than in topsoil, which is due to the high Bt 6.11 8.41 40.50 20.10 30.99 SOM in surface horizon A. Cultivated soils have lower BtC 9.51 15.30 29.90 30.10 24.70 content of organic matter hor. Ap, so the influence of C 8.17 7.55 43.00 16.20 33.25 humus on CEC is low. Arable land Table III: Exchangeable cations content in albic luvisol Ap 8.60 8.70 38.70 27.10 25.50 Bt 2.57 5.25 27.26 21.13 46.36 Hor. Exchangeable cations in cmol (+)kg-1 soil 2+ BtC 4.50 3.40 22.43 22.90 51.27 Ca Mg2+ K+ Na+ S H++Al3+ C 1.65 6.67 30.97 14.90 47.47 Grass vegetation Forest vegetation A 8,40 2,23 0,44 0,27 11,33 6,78 A 8.90 11.26 47.94 25.01 15.79 E 5,83 1,65 0,20 0,14 7,81 5,23 E 15.63 11.74 44.11 27.26 16.89 Bt 6,73 2,17 0,17 0,27 9,40 6,04 Bt 8.09 8.35 36.99 23.42 31.24 BtC 8,92 2,38 0,17 0,21 11,67 3,10 BtC 5.11 8.62 40.42 20.32 30.64 C 7,04 1,69 0,15 0,35 9,21 5,30 C 6.87 11.31 39.44 20.09 29.16 Arable land Ap 6,54 1,48 0,49 0,17 8,68 5,98 Table II: Chemical properties of albic luvisol Bt 7,05 2,15 0,32 0,25 9,77 6,20 BtC 9,65 2,69 0,23 0,21 12,78 8,77 Hor. SOM C/N pH Total Easy av. C 8,82 2,20 0,17 0,24 11,42 4,63 % mg/100g Forest vegetation H2O NKCl N% P2O5 K2O A 7,15 2,36 0,47 0,22 10,19 10,98 Grass vegetation E 3,47 1,43 0,16 0,17 5,23 6,75 A 4,52 10,14 5,93 4,95 0,26 2,05 23,85 Bt 5,05 2,35 0,18 0,24 7,81 8,40 E 2,10 9,42 5,79 4,66 0,13 <1 14,25 BtC 5,04 1,98 0,15 0,18 7,35 7,24 Bt 0,98 8,14 5,89 4,55 0,08 <1 14,63 C 4,96 1,65 0,17 0,20 6,97 7,01 BtC 0,77 4,47 6,95 5,65 0,10 <1 10,30 C 0,54 9,69 6,20 4,65 0,04 <1 15,75 The sum of basic cations mainly depends on CEC Arable land and percentage of base saturation (BSP). Cultivated albic Ap 2,65 7,52 5,81 4,78 0,20 11,75 32,40 luvisol and those under grass vegetation have higher Bt 0,92 6,21 6,01 4,92 0,09 3,44 28,56 average values of sum of basic cations in comparison with albic luvisols under forest vegetation which is a BtC 0,80 6,29 5,95 4,90 0,08 <1 22,60 result of so called biological accumulation of basic ions. C 0,48 5,05 6,80 5,73 0,06 <1 22,60 Opposite to this, the exchangeable acid cations (H+ + Forest vegetation Al+++) shows higher values in soils under forest A 7,10 13,45 5,56 4,61 0,30 6,37 28,67 vegetation in comparison with cultivated albic luvisols E 2,07 10,71 5,23 4,00 0,11 <1 12,89 and those under grass vegetation. The process of Bt 0,90 8,38 5,45 4,07 0,07 <1 16,20 acidification is more intensive in soil profiles under forest BtC 0,64 7,44 5,53 4,08 0,05 <1 18,42 vegetation, therefore sum of basic cations is low, while acid cattions have high values C 0,43 6,29 5,93 4,61 0,05 <1 18,20 Base saturation percentage (BSP) has lower values in albic luvisols under forest vegetation than cultivated and Cation exchange capacity has its highest values in soils under grass vegetation. Albic luvisols under forest topsoil of the soil profiles formed above the forest vegetation are formed on higher altitudes with higher vegetation (21,17 cmol (+) kg-1 soil) due to high SOM annual precipitations. This situation coupled with the percentage, and in soil profiles formed under grass modest content of basic cations in forest litter leads to vegetation (18,10 cmol (+) kg-1 soil), while its lowest poor content of basic cations and more intensive process values were found in soil profiles on cultivated sites of acidification in this soil profiles in comparison to the (14,65 cmol (+) kg-1 soil) which is result of intensive soil profiles under cultivation and grass vegetation. mineralization of SOM. The decreasing of CEC in eluvial In cultivated albic luvisols, basic materials are horizon is much more intensive in soils under forest incorporated with application of fertilizers. This is vegetation (11,98 cmol (+) kg-1soil) than in albic luvisols another reason for base saturation of these soils. under grass vegetation. (13,04 cmol (+) kg-1 soil). This is The quantity of particular adsorbed ions in albic luvisols result of rapid decreasing of SOM quantity in the eluvial is significantly related to the parent material horizon of albic luvisols under forest vegetation. There 43  ANDREEVSKI M., MUKAETOV D. CONTENT OF EXCHANGEABLE CATIONS IN ALBIC LUVISOLS IN REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA UNDER DIFFERENT VEGETATIVE COVER mineralogical content, or more precisely what type of 4 CONCLUSION decaying products are predominant in parent material: basic, acid of carbonate rocks products. Cation exchange capacity in argiluvic hor. Bt in soil profiles under forest and grass vegetation cover is lower Table IV: Percentage of exchangeable cations in albic in comparison to surface horizon. In cultivated soil luvisol profiles an opposite situation was detected, CEC is lower in topsoil and increase in Bt horizon. Hor. Exchangeable cations in % of T The sum of basic cations have higher values in T V% cultivated soils and soils under grass vegetation in Ca2+ Mg2+ K+ Na+ H++Al3+ comparison to albic luvisols under forest, while the Grass vegetation exchangeable acid cations have higher values in soil A 46,30 12,29 2,47 1,52 37,43 18,10 62,56 under forest in comparison to the cultivated soils and E 44,28 12,39 1,63 1,17 40,55 13,04 59,44 soils under grass vegetation. Bt 43,17 13,91 1,09 1,89 39,67 15,44 60,33 The examined albic luvisosl profiles under forest BtC 60,38 16,11 1,13 1,42 20,98 14,77 79,02 vegetation have lower base saturation percentage in comparison to the cultivated and soil under grass C 51,45 11,85 1,05 2,58 33,08 14,51 66,92 vegetation. Arable land In all examined profiles of albic luvisols the Ap 42,76 9,69 3,23 1,17 43,16 14,65 56,84 dominant exchangeable cation is Ca, the next cation with Bt 44,51 13,79 2,09 1,83 37,78 15,97 62,22 slightly lower content is Mg, while the content of BtC 43,61 12,24 1,16 0,97 42,02 21,54 57,98 potassium and sodium in CEC is negligible. C 62,47 14,98 1,17 2,16 19,22 16,05 80,78 5 REFERENCES Forest vegetation A 35,79 11,76 2,36 1,13 48,96 21,17 51,04 [1] Bogdanović M. red. et al., Hemiske metode E 28,88 11,98 1,25 1,42 56,41 11,98 43,59 ispitivanja zemljišta. JDPZ. Beograd, (1966), Bt 32,17 14,76 1,12 1,51 50,44 16,21 49,56 pag.270. BtC 37,80 14,18 1,08 1,22 45,73 14,59 54,27 [2] Ivović P., Mijović R., Zemljišta novih obradivih površina Kosova i Metohije. Viša poljoprivredna C 38,76 12,23 1,24 1,39 46,38 13,98 53,63 škola, Priština, (1969), pag. 42-106. [3] Ivović P., Mijović R., Promene izmenljive kiselosti na Bistratification of the soil profile and the pedogentic novim obradivim površinama Kosova i Metohije. process also have an important influence on the content Agrohemija, No 3-4, Beograd,(1969a), pag. 107-110. of adsorbed ions. With the processes of debasification [4] Manojlovic S., Rajkovic Z., Glincic M., Sestic S., and acidification the adsorbed basic ions from hor. A and Prirucnik za sistematsku kontrolu plodnosti zemljista E are leached and translocated into hor. Bt, BtC and C. i upotrebu djubriva (1969), Pag. 114 For the soil under natural vegetation so called biological [5] Mitkova T., Sostav na razmenlivite (atsorbirani) joni accumulation have an important rolle on accumulation of na cimetnite šumski počvi vo kumanovskiot i basic ions in hor. A. In cultivated albic luvisols the prilepskiot reon. Magisterski trud. Zemjodelski content of adsorbed ions is significantly changes due to fakultet, Skopje (rakopis) ,(1992), pag. 80 the mixing of genetic horizons which have different [6] Mitrikeski J., Mitkova T., Praktikum po pedologija. content of adsorbed cations. Total content of adsorbed Univerzitet “Sv. Kiril i Metodij”- Skopje, ions expressed in cmol (+) kg -1 soil will depend on the Zemjodelski fakultet. Skopje, (2001), pag. 1-165 quantity of SOM, clay minerals content and the caracter [7] Orlov S. D., Grišina A. L., Praktikum po himii of clay minerals [15]. gumusa. Izdatelstvo Moskovskogo univerziteta, Generally speaking in all examined profiles of albic (1981), pag. 271. luviosls dominant cation is Ca, and Mg, while potassium [8] Popovski D., Ispitivanja adsorptivnog kompleksa and sodium are presented with minimum quantities. crvenica NR Makedonije. Arhiv za poljoprivredne Some slight differences of this parametar were nauke, god. XIV, sv. 46, Beograd, (1961), pag.1-14. determined between cultivated albic luvisols and soils [9] Resulović H. red. et al., Metode istraživanja fizičkih under forest and grass grass vegetatin (table 3). svojstava zemljišta. JDPZ. Beograd, (1971), pag. 207 In all horizons the content of exchangeable Ca ( % of T) [10] Spirovski J., Počvite pod šuma od ploskač (Quercus is lower in the exeminated albic luvisols under forest conferta) vo poširokata oblast na Demir Kapija. vegetation in comparison to the cultivated and albic Godišen zbornik na Zemjodelsko-Šumarskiot luvisols under grass vegetation, whille the content of acid fakultet, kn. XIX, Skopje, (1966), pag. 589-609 cations is higher in soils under forest vegetation. [11] Spirovski J., Počvite pod bukova šuma vo potegot Culivated albic luvisols and those under grass vegetation Demirkapisko-Konjska Reka, Gevgelisko. Šumarski contains higher quantities of exchangeable Ca and lower pregled br. 1-3, god. XIX, Skopje (1971), pag. 9-21. content of acid cations, mainly due to the weaker process [12]Spirovski J., Rizovski R. Počvite pod nekoi of acidification on lower altitudes and higher biological ploskačevi šumi vo Dolnoto Povardarie. Godišen acummulation of Ca originated from grass vegetation and zbornik na Zemjodelsko-Šumarskiot fakultet, kn. remains from cultuvated crops. According Jarceva [2,3] XXIX, Skopje, (1975), pag. 21-35. cultivation and the input of fertilizers have influence on [13]Filipovski G. edit. et al., Metodika terenskog decrease of exchangeable acidity. ispitivanja zemljišta i izrada pedoloških karata. JDPZ. The higest content of exchangeable K+ was detected Beograd, (1967), pag. 192. in cultivated albic luvisols and is result of input of [14] Filipovski Đ., Pedologija. Treto izdanie. Univerzitet organic and mineral fertilizes. "Kiril i Metodij", Skopje, (1984), pag.599 44 For. review 43: 42 - 45. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje [15]Filipovski Đ., Počvite na Republika Makedonija, tom III, MANU, Skopje, (1997), pag.519 [16]Carter M. R. edit., Soil sampling and Methods of Analysis, Canadian Society of Soil Science, (1993), pag.823. 45 For. review 43: 46 - 50. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 UDC: 630*22(497.7) Preliminary communication Paper submission: May, 2012 INTRODUCING FAST GROWING TREE SPECIES FOR AGRO-FORESTRY PRACTICES ON AGRICULTURAL LAND IN MACEDONIA TODOROV V., STAVREVSKA – PANAJOTOVA A., PETROVSKI S., KAMPEN P. SNV Netherlands development organisation, Office in Skopje, Macedonia Correspondig author e-mail address: voislav.todorov@cnvp-eu.org ABSTRACT: Biomass produced from wood is increasingly used for energy. Currently in Macedonia mainly firewood (wood logs/traditional system) is used for heating. Modern production of wood chips and/or pellets is in limited use. This market is increasing rapidly in the region and EU. Fast growing species offer a good possibility for production of biomass for energy in the region. In Macedonia many agricultural lands are not or marginally used. Some of these lands are not very suitable for agricultural farming, but can be used for fast growing species and biomass production. In 2010 the fast growing species Salix alba var. express was introduced at total of 10 different sites as tree belts in Macedonia. Besides the production of biomass tree belts also fulfil other functions as wind protection, reducing water inundation in wet areas, improvement of micro climate conditions, erosion control of river banks, soil conservation, as well biodiversity or landscaping, serve as flowering plants for honey production. Planting was done in March before the growing season started, with 10.000 stumps/ha and soil preparation with ploughing up to 25-30 cm deep. Species showed a very good growth in the first season with height of 1,5 to over 2 meter, with estimated growth of 3.8 m3 of biomass. In the second year growth resulted in heights up to 4 m and estimated over 70 m3/ha. Farmers showed good interest indicating that fast growing species can be integrated trough agro-forestry practices in their farming systems. Keywords: biomass, fast growing species, agro-forestry, energy. 1 BACKGROUND growing plantations on agricultural land offers a reasonable potential. Today forestry and forests are gaining increased With this pilot project, the Agro-forestry concept was attention in the world. Importance of environmental practiced as well in Macedonia. Agro-forestry is an issues and importance of forest ecosystems in mitigating integrated approach of using the interactive benefits from climate changes is one of the top priorities today in the combining trees and shrubs with crops and/or livestock. It world. Forest resources also have significant impact on combines agricultural and forestry practices to create the quality and improvement of live in rural communities. more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and Forests contributes up to 70% of earth carbon (C) fixation sustainable land-use systems. Research over the past 20 and are a major sink for CO2 on a global scale. years in the world has confirmed that agro-forestry can be Afforestation, defined as the establishment of forests more biologically productive, more profitable, and be on lands that have not been recently forested, can have more sustainable than certain forestry or agricultural multiple environmental and social benefits, such as: monocultures. wildlife habitat protection, recreational potential, visual and aesthetics benefit, improvement of soil, water and air 2 METHODOLOGY quality. Tree planting and establishment of fast growing plantations can contribute to mitigation of climate change For the purpose of this project a farmer based today stocking CO2 in the wood. research is applied to be able to obtain direct field Fast growing plantations are usually established for experience from farmers giving practical results that can production of wood biomass and used for production of provide guidance to the practical application of fast energy. growing species in agro-forestry systems in Macedonia. Bio-energy can to some extent replace fossil fuels Empirical data from the farmer based field practices are and has the advantage of being almost CO2 neutral (the used to present and justify the findings in this paper. emitted carbon is absorbed in the biomass when The plantation of Salix alba var. express species aims sustainable managed). That is the reason why fast to investigate and obtain data about the rate of success growing plantations for production of woody biomass/ and growing rate of Salix alba var. express in Macedonia bio-energy have received high attention currently. under real farmer field conditions. In Europe several fast growing species are introduced The species is autochthon in Macedonia, but however and used for production of woody biomass. for this improved variety, imported from Hungary, there Macedonia is one of the countries that have good was no data previously in Macedonia about conditions potential for development of fast growing plantations due and sites where it can be successfully cultivated. The to its geographic position and availability of land results gained from the planting sites and monitoring resources. done in the previous 2 years are data that will be used in This paper presents the farmer based experimental this paper, in order to present the real situation and establishment of fast growing plantations with Salix development of the species in selected fields in species in Macedonia with purpose to test and show the Macedonia. results of introduction of Hungarian variety Salix alba Site selection process was done in consultation with var. express and its economic and environmental viability farmers, explaining the agro-forestry concept and for biomass production. opportunities of fast growing plantations for biomass Taking in consideration the commitment of R. production. For the selection, internal network of Macedonia to use 20% renewable energy till 2020 and National Association of Private Forest Owners in the strategy for Rural Development, establishment of fast Macedonia was used. Farmers were selected by their 46 For. review 43: 46 - 50. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje willingness to participate in the project; farmers not  Site 1 is on moist sandy clay soil, located along the necessary being members of the forest owners river, flooded in the period of high waters. association. Selection of specific plots was done in  Site 2 is on stony clay soil, 10 m higher than the level consultation with participating farmers, according to their of the river alongside. On this plot there is a good needs and vision on utilizing part of their agricultural irrigation system that can be used to irrigate the land. Sites were selected to represent different site plantation. conditions, in first place difference in access to  Site 3 is on moist clay soil located along the river, underground water. Farmers indicated small plots of their with high level of underground water. agricultural land that was not in use or marginal land  Site 4 is on moist clay soil located along the river, covered with shrubs and trees with purpose to protect the owned by 1 farmer. It has high level of underground fields form erosion and wind. No specification were water. This parcel has big risk for spreading of reed, given on size and siutation, as the research aims to follow and it was recommended to the owner to take control real farmer interest and options for agro-forestry within over reed spreading in vegetation period. their farrming systems. In the village of Mustafino all three sites have been A varieties of sites were selected: land plot placed by grouped as one location due to very similar growing the river bank where farmer wanted to protect the land conditions. The sites are on moist clay soils along the from erosion; piece of land in the corner of a land plot river bank with medium level of underground water. with no possibility for cultivation; land plots where high Village of Meckuevci has only one planting site, level of water under the ground was limiting cultivation; planted with Salix, on stony clay soil few meters above piece of land where trees were planted as a tree/hedge- the water level of the stream. This plot was with low row fence with the neighbor. Sites were selected taking level of underground water, dry during the year except in also in consideration different soil and climate conditions rain season. needed for the project results. In the village of Taor there are three different sites, planted with Salix on moist clay soil, with high level of 3 BIOMASS PRODUCTION IN MACEDONIA underground water. Biomass production and use of wood for energy 4.2 Planting production in Macedonia is mainly concentrated on Planting (striking) of cuttings/stumps is done by hand utilization of forests and use of firewood in individual or using specially made planting tools for creating households. Part of the wood is coming from the trees planting hole. It can however also be done by machine in that are growing on agriculture land. Annually in large scale plantings. The stumps need to be pushed Macedonia from state and private forest are harvested vertical and tightly completely under the soil (1-2 cm) to around 700.000-800.000 m3 of wood for heating. Also protect them from evaporation. some amount of not registered wood is harvested, Planting was done with density of 10.000 stumps/ha. approximately 25 – 30 % as stated in REC working paper Tree stumps/cuttings were 20-30 cm of length and [2]. Different concepts of production and utilization of diameter of 1.5-2.5 cm. wood biomass have been developed in the World and Europe. Among these different concepts is as well the previously mentioned agro-forestry concept, widely used in developed countries. In Hungary, based on the production rates experienced with Salix alba var. express, a biomass production of 23 ton/ha in the first year was achieved. This would lead to at least 65 ton/ha on a three year cycle. It is important to note that Hungarian experiences with fast growing plantations are based on climate and site conditions specific for Hungary. Although practiced in reality, but not as a deliberate management system, it is a challenge to have acceptance for the agro-forestry concept as it is new in Macedonia and to plant the fast growing species on agriculture land. In 2010 Salix alba var. express was introduced on some Fugure 1: Cuttings/ Stumps farmer based pilot schemes at limited scale, to investigate the results of growth and analyze their potential and agro- On some sites soil preparation was done mechanical forestry practice potential. A total of 9 different by ploughing the soil up to 25-30 cm deep. On the plot in experimental sites were planted in Macedonia with Meckuevci planting was done directly by making holes different soil and climate conditions. with planting tool and than sticking the cuttings in to the holes. 4 BIOMASS CULTIVATION DATA Cuttings were made at the end of the winter, February, immediately prior to planting. Planting was 4.1 Sites done in March, before the growing season starts. Since The selected experimental plots are placed in the this variety is not yet available in Macedonia stumps villages of Amzibegovo, Mustafino and Meckuevci, were imported from Hungary, product of Sylvanus located close to Sveti Nikole (East Macedonia) and in Csoport Kft. The costs come to around 0.2 euro/stump. Taor near to Skopje (North Macedonia). With an average of 10.000 pc/ha costs are 2.000 euro/ha Experimental sites in the village of Amzibegovo have for supplying planting material. been spread on four locations: 47  TODOROV V., STAVREVSKA – PANAJOTOVA A., PETROVSKI S., KAMPEN P. INTRODUCING FAST GROWING TREE SPECIES FOR AGRO-FORESTRY PRACTICES ON AGRICULTURAL LAND IN MACEDONIA After harvest the remaining stumps is recommended to be sprayed with Vegesol eReS, 4-5 l/ha as a basic treatment to increase protection of the stumps from fungal and bacterial infection and increase the life cycle and yield of the plantation. Pest control under normal field conditions is not needed. Nutrients supply is sufficient from the remaining’s (mulching) after the harvest. In experimental plots in Macedonia only mechanical weeding was applied on one parcel in Taor by the farmer. It was left on purpose to be decided by the farmer to allow real field situation to follow the growth in natural conditions and with minimal interventions by farmers. 5 BIOMASS PRODUCTION DATA Figure 2: Planting site village Amzibegovo This was an experimental pilot in Macedonia and the real field data are only available from monitoring done in Planting schemes used were on average of 10.000 years 2010-2011. Results of growth and monitoring from pcs/ha in the pilot, this can vary also depending on the years of 2010 and 2011 will be presented in this harvest method. If mechanical harvesting is done via paper. harvester or trailed chipper, spacing in plantations and Monitoring on the experimental plots was conducted rotation periods should fit for the machinery. In the small several times in the two year period. On monitored sites scale pilots, where willow is planted closer, manual few parameters were measured: success rate, top height, harvesting is foreseen. The following planting schemes reached number of sprouts per cutting and stump were used: diameter. First monitoring was conducted one month after Table I: Planting scheme planting in March 2010. On the first monitoring almost all sites showed a survival rate of over 90% of the plants. Single row technology Planting was successful and disaster rate was mainly Spacing in row/between caused by biotic factors, in first place climate and also on 1x2 1x1 0.7 x 1 some spots weed invasion. rows (in m) All sites showed good growth, reaching a height of Amount of cuttings (pc) 10.000 10.000 10.000 around 10 cm with 3-5 sprouts with diameter of 0.2 – 0.3 2-3 2-3 2-3 cm in the first month. Rotation (yrs) The second monitoring done in June 2010, before the years years years dry season started, showed also good results in the survival rate ranging from 60-100%. Only site in Meckuevci had a survival rate of 15% due to very hard site conditions, strong and dry winds and draught. Height reached in this stage was ranging from 40 – 200 cm, with 2-5 sprouts and diameter ranging from 0.5-1.5 cm. In the first year last monitoring was done at the end of the growing season in October. Success rate ranged from 70 – 100 %. Meckuevci planting site had rate of success 0%, due to biotic and abiotic factors like animal grazing, draught and to high insolation. In 2011 two monitoring missions were conducted, one in the beginning of June and other one at beginning of October. Figure 3: Planting scheme Results obtained in these two monitoring missions showed results that were significantly different from the 4.3 Tending previous season. After planting manual weed control is recommended Most of the experimental plots were totally destroyed 1-2 times to avoid overgrowing by weeds. Chemical by human factor. Only success was evident in site 1 in weed control is recommended by producer of the Salix, Amzibegovo and site in village of Taor. Success rate on but was not practiced in the experimental plots in order to site 1 was 70% with top height of 450 cm with sprouts follow natural growth of the species and be close to diameter of 5-6 cm and number of sprouts was ranging actual farmer conditions (low input farming). In case of a from 2-4. On the site in Taor success rate was ranging dry spring irrigation might be needed, but was not from 70-95% top height was up to 400 cm, with sprouts applied in the experimental plots from the same reason. diameter ranging from 5-7 cm. However a favorable spring was experienced in the first After these two monitoring seasons it was evident year of growth. In the Second year mechanical cleaning that the best sites were those having a high water table of invasive grasses is needed in the plantations. with moist clay soils. The care of the farmers and Harvesting of wood is usually practiced in rotations protection of the experimental plots was as well crucial of 2-3 years. The lifespan of energy willow is usually 25- for the obtained results. With very limited tending and no 30 years. additional costs for irrigation, fungal, bacterial or pest 48 For. review 43: 46 - 50. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje control and nutrients supply, these few sites showed very the households in Macedonia for house heating. (State good results on the field. Statistical Office, Energy report 6.1.11.92, 2011). Regarding growth potential, energy willow showed very good potential on good sites. The ussual annual increment of native forest species in Macedonia is in ranges of 1 to 5 m3/ha annualy. The average annual increment of Salix is 36 m3/ha on the best sites and with proper treatment and protection. The results from the growth potential highly recommends planting of energy willow on the sites that are suitable and where is a real farmer interest. Absorption of CO2 of fast growing willow plantations is also an asset; it also enriches soil with mineral and microelements, nutrients of natural origin. According to some experiences in Europe 1 ha of energy willow Figure 4: Beginning and end of season 2010-2011 plantation absorbs more than 200 tons of CO2 from air during 3 years [2]. Based on the trials taken from the experimental plots Planting fast growing species offer a variety of and measurements and calculations the average weight options for agro-forestry providing products and services and tones of biomass produced on hectare were according to the needs and possibilities of farmers. It may estimated. be implemented on the corners of the land that is not In October 2011 at both sites the potential of growth maintained or as a windbreak belts contributing to very showed very good results. At one site two trial pieces of different aspects such as wind protection and reduced energy willow were harvested. The total weight of piece evaporation, erosion control on the river banks, of cut Salix was 4 kg. After natural drying in January improvement of biodiversity and aesthetic/landscape 2012 the weight of the same wood decreased to 2,6 kg improvement. Fast growing plantations as well contribute due to drying process. The moisture was measured in the to creation of natural microclimate in the places of people ranges of 5,5% to 64%, depending on the size of the residence or functioning as green belt or corridor for wild wood piece. life and fauna. Analyzing the results from the measurements, after The pilots showed that such multiple opportunities two years of growth, potential was estimated on 52 t/ha in exist and farmers were interested to participate. However the moment of harvesting. Having in mind it is crucial for success that the farmers have genuine measurements, the potential of growth transferred in semi interest and provided the needed protection and dry wood (2-6 months of aerial drying) is estimated on silvicultural treatment. 33,8 t/ha. In the case of this experiment and conditions for The weight of Salix, semi dried is 460 kg/m3. Macedonia it is evident that Salix alba var. express Transfering 33,8 t/ha is equal to potential of 73,48 m3 growing can be successfully done only if soil preparation wood/ha in a two year period [5]. That is very high is done on time, proper treatment against weed and pest growth potential that hardly any species in Macedonia control is applied before planting, and proper protection can reach close to. provided for grazing or human induced damages. Beside Knowing that heat potential of Salix is approximatly the management factors the first and the ultimate site 50% of hard wood, the real potential from the perspective condition for successful growth is access of water and of heating with wood that ussualy is used on the market is humidity of soils. This Salix variety needs a humid soil arround 36 m3 of wood. condition to be able to reach such high growth rates. The use of fast growing species in farmer based agro- 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS forestry practices are related to the measures of EU Rural Development policy: agro-forestry, afforestation on Planting fast growing species on agriculture land has agriculture land and diversification of economy. multiple effects for the farmers and their land. In The result from the experimental sites can be used to practices around the world there are variety of present, increase awareness and promote support for combinations of forestry and agriculture. In some areas activities related to plant fast growing species on small forest are combined with pastures providing fodder scale farming and to include as eligible measure for the (acorn) for the cattle and wood for the farmer. There are National Rural Development program. areas where forests are combined with agriculture crops Through the activities on the field, and planting of improving microclimate conditions and at the same time willow, farmers gained knowledge and experience on providing heating wood. possibilities to implement agro-forestry measures and Some of the species planted have the possibility to positive effects that these measures can have on influence the water regime, such as Salix sp. In the areas development of their farms and providing opportunities where the level of water is high one of the proposed for diversified income generation. solutions may be planting of fast growing species. Based on the experiences and results gained from the experimental planting of Salix alba var. express, there is opportunity for the land owners to improve the income for their households. Planting fast growing species provides opportunity to land owners to supply themselves with biomass for their households. According to official statistic data, around 90% of wood for heating is spent in 49  TODOROV V., STAVREVSKA – PANAJOTOVA A., PETROVSKI S., KAMPEN P. INTRODUCING FAST GROWING TREE SPECIES FOR AGRO-FORESTRY PRACTICES ON AGRICULTURAL LAND IN MACEDONIA Mesquita, Aniko Nemeth, Mihail Dimovski, Cecile Monier and Peter Kiss-Parciu, Szentendre, Hungary 2010, page 90. [3] SNV Skopje, monitoring year 2010/2011 [4] State Statistical Office, Energy report 6.1.11.92, 2011 [5] Šumarski priručnik II, Institut za šumarska istraživanja, Poljoprivredni nakladni zavod, Zagreb 1946) [6] http://www.envsec.org/publications/illegal_logging_i n_south_eastern_europe_regional_report_en_oct_201 0.pdf [7] http://www.salixenergy.com/en/index.php?option=co m_content&view=article&id=55&Itemid=62 Figure 5: Village Amzibegovo, site monitoring October 2010 Figure 6: Village Amzibegovo, monitoring June 2011 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The establishment of short rotation plantations of Salix alba var. express was done as experimental farmer based research under the ongoing Balkan forestry program of SNV - Netherlands development organization in cooperation with National Association of Private Forest Owners in Macedonia – NAPFO, and within the framework of the Sida-SNV Forestry Development Project, Kosovo & Regional 2009-2013. 8 REFERENCES [1] Piloting on Agro-forestry and Renewable energy possibilities, SNV report, Skopje, 2011 [2] REC working paper “Illegal logging in South east Europe” by Miriam Markus Johansson, Bruno 50 For. review 43: 1 - 76. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje For. review 43: 51- 56. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 UDC: 635.92.05:712.252(497.7) Professional paper Paper submission: May, 2012 SOME SHADE TOLERANT PLANTS USED IN LANDSCAPE DESIGN IN MACEDONIA BRNDEVSKA V., 1RIZOVSKA ATANASOVSKA J. 1 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Faculty of Forestry in Skopje, Skopje, Macedonia Correspondig author e-mail address: vikibrn@gmail.com ABSTRACT: The choice of plant species in landscape design is a complex work that depends on many factors. One of them is the plants’ need for light. According to this, there are: heliophytes (sun-loving), shade tolerant and semi- shade tolerant plants. The number of shade tolerant plant species is the smallest. However, there are enough in order to shape a complex, functional and aesthetic landscape, and the need for them is a challenge for creating many varieties and cultivars on a daily basis. Some of the shade tolerant plants are present in our green environments for a very long time, but there are some that are relatively new or have existed in Macedonia, but their usage was small. They are characterized by specific morphological characteristics, which give them a specific role and a special place in the design of green areas. Keywords: landscape design, shade tolerant plants, varieties, cultivars, specific morphological characteristics 1 INTRODUCTION closer contact with plants, that’s not possible to be done in private gardens. One of the factors that should be taken into account Still, during the research, individual specific green when designing green areas is the use of plants according areas were visited and explored, that required special to their need of light. According to this, they are divided permission for entrance by the owners (residential in: heliophytes (sun-loving), shade tolerant and semi- complex ‘St. John’, some private properties and balcony shade tolerant plants. The number of shade tolerant plants gardens). in relation to the other is smaller and thus the choice of The researches were performed in fall and spring, plants when designing green areas that are in shade moreover, in the period from October to November and throughout the whole day or much of the day is limited. April to June 2010 and 2011. This period was chosen for However, there are enough to form a complex, functional research because the selection of seedlings in garden and aesthetic landscape. centers in the active planting season is largest. First the There are shade tolerant plants present in green areas plants were determined after locating certain green areas. with us for a very long time, but there are some that are The basic information regarding taxons located in garden relatively new or have existed here, but their usage was centers were obtained from the declarations attached with small. Among the shade tolerant species encountered in the plant material, but in order to obtain detailed and designing green areas in Macedonia are a growing quality data, the plant material was determined by cabinet number of perenials, some annual and biannual plants, processing. Afterwards, their basic morphological shrubs and trees. Here we can list the taxons from the characteristics, low temperature resistance and durability genus Taxus L., Hosta Tratt., Hydrangea L., Skimmia and the conditions necessary for successful development Thunb., Aucuba Thunb., Erica L., Calluna Salisb., were processed. All this is presented in tables with results Hedera L. etc. These plants develop best in shady of concrete conclusions. conditions and then their decoration is the most The research helped determine the effects of their extensive. Each taxon is characterized by its specific usage in the landscape design of green areas in our morphological characteristics, which give them a specific country. Relevant data are presented with appropriate role and a special place in the design of green areas. photos. 2 MATERIAL AND METHODS 3 DISCUSSION AND RESULTS The material of work are the shade tolerant plant The research regarding the shade tolerant plants used species that are characterized with specific morphological in landscape design in our country showed that the most characteristics, have decorative value and which recently used species are representatives of genus Taxus L., Hosta can be used in the design of green areas in Macedonia. Tratt., Hydrangea L., Skimmia Thunb., Aucuba Thunb., Most of them has not been present in our region before, Erica L., Calluna Salisb. and Hedera L.. some were but with small usage. The emphasis is on species that are best developed in shade, where their 3.1 Genus: Taxus L. – Yew (fam. Taxaceae) decoration is most extensive. The plants from the genus Taxus are coniferous The method of work means finding and determining evergreen shrubs or small trees. They have soft and flat the shade tolerant plant species that are recently used in pins. They are characterized with semi-smooth texture. the design of green areas in Macedonia. The research was Yew is a bicameral type and female specimens produce conducted in the city of Skopje, mostly on green areas berries with red meaty covering. They ripe in fall and fall available for public use and in the larger garden centers off in December and greatly increase the decorative value in the city (‘Eco Growth’, ‘Foya-Co’, ‘Horti Expert’ and of the plant. They can withstand temperatures up to - ‘Green Planet’) which perform procurement of plant 30°C. Best developed in sandy, weakly acidic and well- material from both domestic and foreign origin and have drained soils. They have relatively slow growth. a large variety of plants. Garden centers, as part of the Taxus baccata L. is a species found in the past on our research locations are chosen because of the specificity of green areas, and the following taxons are being used in the work and determination of plant species which means recent times: Taxus baccata ‘Fastigiata’, Taxus baccata ‘Fastigiata Aurea’, Taxus baccata ‘Repandens’, Taxus 51 For. review 43: 51 - 56. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje baccata ‘Repandens Aurea’ and Taxus x media ‘Hicksii’ Hosta spp. is a leafy decorative perenial originating which is a hybrid between Taxus baccata L. and Taxus from East Asia. There are about 50-70 species and more cuspidata Siebold & Zucc. than 4,000 hybrids, cultivars and varieties, whose number Depending on the basic characteristics, each type is is constantly growing. They differ in shape, color and differently used in the design of green areas. Some are size of the leaf. These plants are grown mostly for its used as solitary trees, as part of a group of trees, can form decorative leafs. hedges or be planted in alpinum or in pots. Their size can be from a few cm to 6m. Dwarf They often represent the focal point due to the shape representatives can grow to 10cm, the miniature to 10- or color, and the spreading plants are usually used as 15cm, the low high to 15-25cm, the medium high to 25- living ground covers. Taxus baccata L. is found as 45cm, the high 45-70cm, and the highest over 70cm. The topiary tree, and is also used to form hedges due to its form of the leaf can be long, circular, elliptical-circular, bigger growth and the ability to shape it. It is the only heart-shaped etc, and the color can be green (all shades), representative that can be found in public green areas, yellow, gray, blue, brown, or colorful leaves combined while the remaining taxons are found only in private with the aforementioned colors. They bloom in summer, gardens. Cultivars in yellow, unlike the rest of the plants and the flower is striking and short lasting. are not so present in our country. They can withstand shadow and semi-shadow, Figure 1 shows group of trees and Figure 2 topiary although some varieties can live on the sun if the soil is tree of Taxus baccata L. with pyramidal shape. sufficiently moist. However, they are best developed in shadow, in quality moist soil, enriched with organic materials whose pH value is between 6.5 and 7.3. They can sustain temperature up to -34°C. The following representatives of the genus Hosta can be found in our country: Hosta ‘Big Daddy’, Hosta decoratа, Hosta ‘Gold Standard’, Hosta montana ‘Aureomarginata’ and Hosta ‘Blue Angel’ (Fig. 3) and they are usually part of private yards. They are successfully combined with other types of perennial plants. They’re used as living ground covers, especially when planted in a group and as a focal point that attracts attention because decorativeness sheet. They can live by water surfaces, and are grown in pots for decoration of small yards, balconies and terraces. Figure 1: Group of trees from Taxus baccata L. – complex ‘St. John’, settlement Zlokukani, Skopje Hosta decoratа Hosta ‘Gold Standard’ Figure 2: Topiary tree of Taxus baccata L. – ‘Horti Hosta montana‘Aureomarginata’ expert’, settlement Karposh 2, Skopje Figure 3: Some representatives of the genus Hosta Table I shows the representatives of the genus Taxus, recently used for landscape design in our country their shape and color as basic morphological characteristics and the maximum size they can reach. 3.3 Genus: Hydrangea L. – Hydrangea, Hortensia (fam. Table II shows the most commonly encountered Saxifragaceae) representatives of the genus Taxus and their usage in The genus Hydrangea L. contains 70-75 species of landscape design. These plants, though extremely flower plants that originate from southern and eastern decorative, due to the expensive cost can only be found in Asia and North and South America. The name Hortensia more exclusive yards. This is the reason that there are can be found as a synonym for this plant. There are over rare cases of formation of hedges and topiary trees of 600 named varieties and cultivars. Most of them are Taxus baccata L.. flower shrubs that grow to 1-3m, and rarely reach the size of a small tree. Decorativeness is a result of the flower 3.2 Genus: Hosta Tratt. – Funkiay, Plantain Lily (fam. which is large and ball-shaped, 10-20cm in diameter. The Liliaceae) color, which varies from the pH value of the soil, can be white, blue, pink, purple and red in various shades. 52  BRNDEVSKA V., RIZOVSKA ATANASOVSKA J. SOME SHADE TOLERANT PLANTS USED IN LANDSCAPE DESIGN IN MACEDONIA Acidic soils produce blue flowers, neutral pale brown and especially in winter when many plants lose their main alkaline pink or purple. decorative features. It’s used planted in pots for When designing green areas, they are used as decoration of small yards, balconies and terraces, as a decorative flower shrubs and are often the focal point in bush planted separately or in a group in private yards, and the period of flowering. We use them as plants used for is also used to form low symbolic hedges. decoration of balconies and terraces planted in pots, and they can also be found in yards, planted separately or in 3.5 Genus: Aucuba Thunb. – Aucuba, Gold Dust Plant groups. (fam. Cornaceae) The most often used are Hydrangea macrophylla Aucuba japonica 'Crotonifolia' (Fig. 6) is an Thunb. and Hydrangea arborescens 'Annabelle' (Fig. 4). evergreen shrub. Grows slowly up to 3m in height, Hydrangea macrophylla Thunb. is the most popular type. although most specimens reach only 1,8m. As decorative It can be found in our regions from a very long time ago, specie, it is valued by the density and color of the leafs. but today are used large number of new cultivars The leaf is leathery, oval-elliptical, long 8-20cm, with different by color of flower (Altona, Amethyst, Ayesha, rare and rough edge jags. It has bright green color with Enless Summer, Penny Mac, Dooley, Forever Pink, golden-yellow spots. It form a red ball-like fruit to 1.5cm, Harlequin, Ravel, Nikko Blue etc). They can withstand which matures in November and falls in March, and temperature of -30°C to -20°C. Hydrangea arborescens during this period increases the decorative value of the 'Annabelle' is characterized with higher growth, plant. withstands temperatures up to -40°C and richly blooms It lives in wet well permeable soil. It withstands even after the coldest winters. temperatures up to -20°C. It can successfully grow in any areas, but its decorative features are most prominent in shade. In designing green areas, it’s used as a focal point for the formation of hedgerows, low or medium high, which can but don’t have to be formed by cutting. It’s also used as a plant for decoration in pots. Here we can rarely find it on public spaces, but often in private yards and green areas around public buildings. Figure 4: Group of plants from Hydrangea arborescens ‘Annabelle’ – private yard, settlement Center, Skopje 3.4 Genus: Skimmia Thunb. – Skimmia (fam. Rutaceae) Skimmia is an evergreen, densely branched shrub that grows up to 1.5 m in height. It’s characterized with ball like shape. The leaves are elliptical egg-shaped, leathery and thick. It is specific by it’s with red and white flowers, gathered in grape-like flowers that stand up. Skimmia japonica Thunb.  has round fruit with red to black color Figure 6: Aucuba japonica ‘Crotonifolia’ as part of which remains on the branches throughout the winter. In landscape design of green area in front of public building our country, we are familiar with the cultivar Skimmia – ‘Mida Auto’, settlement Karpos 2, Skopje japonica 'Rubella' (Fig. 5). It can be found in rich and moist, well-drained soil, in shadow and semi-shadow. 3.6 Genus: Erica L. – Erica (fam. Ericaceae) Withstands polluted air temperatures up to -20°C. Erica sp. L. is a perennial evergreen flower plant which originates from the mountain areas of central and southern Europe. In designing green areas, we come across the types Erica carnea L., Erica x darleyensis and Erica gracilis L. (Fig. 7) and many cultivars, which differ by the color of the flower. They can reach up to 20cm height. They bloom in various shades of pink, purple and white. They are especially valued because they bloom in winter. They can live in acidic soils, necessary for their flowering. They can withstand temperature up to -30°C, and are best developed in shade. When designing green areas, they are used as flower plants in flower-beds during winters, but as living ground covers around conifer solitary trees. They can also be Figure 5: Skimmia japonica 'Rubella' found in alpinum and rock gardens as well as decoration of greening slopes and pots. Here, they are mostly Because of the flower that remains in winter, it’s planted in private yards, it can be noticed that their use highly valued decorative type and is often a focal point, has been reduced due to their rapid extinction or loss of 53 For. review 43: 51 - 56. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje decorative features as a result of inappropriate soil When designing green areas, they are used as conditions they grow in. creepers that cover sodden buildings, as hedges on previously placed foundation, as living ground covers for greening slopes, in pots, separately or in the base of other plants. They successfully grow in combination with other creepers. Figure 9 shows a hedge formed on a foundation by Hedera helix L., and Figure 10 shows Hedera algeriensis 'Gloire de Marengo' as part of balcony foliage in a public facility. Erica carnea Erica x darleyensis Figure 7: Some representatives from genus Erica L. used in green areas designing in recent time in Macedonia 3.7 Genus: Calluna Salisb. – Heather (fam. Ericaceae) Calluna vulgaris Salisb. is the only specie from the genus Calluna. It is a low evergreen shrub that grows 20- 50cm or rarely up to 1m in height. Its natural habitat is in Europe and Small Asia, and the numerous cultivars differ in color of the flower, leafy mass and height. They can live in acidic soils, in shadow and semi-shadow. They can withstand temperature up to -30°C. The cultivars have flowers in many shades of white, pink, purple and red. Here, they start to bloom in autumn. Figure 9: Hedge form Hedera helix L. – private yard, The flower is preserved during winter even though it settlement Center, Skopje becomes brown. Some have specific texture and leaf color which is found in various shades of green, silver- blue, gold and red. When designing green areas, they are used as living ground covers and flower plants in all types of floral formation. Here, you can come across the following cultivars: Calluna vulgaris ‘Dark Beauty’, Calluna vulgaris ‘Marleen’ (Fig. 8) etc. Calluna ‘Dark Beauty’ Calluna ‘Marleen’ Figure 8: Cultivars from Calluna vulgaris used in green Figure 10: Hedera algeriensis ‘Gloire de Marengo’ - areas designing in recent time in Macedonia balcony foliage in a public facility ‘Tetraktis’ in the complex of ‘Mida Motors’, settlement Karpos 2, Skopje 3.8 Genus: Hedera L. – Ivy (fam. Araliaceae) Genus Hedera L. has 15 species and numerous Table III shows resistance to low temperatures of the cultivars and hybrids. It can reach a length of up to 30m. representatives of genus Hedera L. It’s planted on surface with small roots. There are varieties with different leafs in shape, size and color. Table IV shows the taxons that are part of this Some are characterized by dark blue berries that are ripen research, their life forms and main decorative features. in late fall and remain throughout the winter period. Most can live in any area but they perfectly develop in shadow, they can grow in any soil, but best in wet and humus one. Here, you can come across the following: Hedera helix L., Hedera algeriensis ‘Gloire de Marengo’, Hedera helix ‘Arborescens’, Hedera helix ‘Goldheart’, Hedera hibernica Bean., Hedera colchica ‘Dentata Variegata’ and Hedera helix ‘Marginata Elegantissima’. Some of them are present on these regions for a very long time, such as Hedera helix L. and Hedera hibernica Bean., while others are brand new or rarely used in the past. 54  BRNDEVSKA V., RIZOVSKA ATANASOVSKA J. SOME SHADE TOLERANT PLANTS USED IN LANDSCAPE DESIGN IN MACEDONIA Table I: Basic characteristics of the plants from genus Taxus L. Basic characteristics Ordinal number Maximal growth Plant species Shape Color Height Spread 1 Taxus baccata Irregular pyramidal Dark green 20m 1m 2 Taxus baccata ‘Fastigiata’ Columnar Dark green 1,5-2,0m 0,5-0,6m 3 Taxus baccata ‘Fastigiata Aurea’ Columnar Yellow 1,5-2,0m 0,5-0,6m 4 Taxus baccata ‘Repandens’ Horizontal-spreading Dark green 0,3-0,5m 0,8-1,5m 5 Taxus baccata ‘Repandens Aurea’ Horizontal-spreading Yellow 0,3-0,5m 0,8-1,5m 6 Taxus x media ‘Hicksii’ Columnar Dark green 1,5m 0,8m Table II: Use of representatives of the genus Taxus L. in landscape design Use in landscape design Ordinal number Plant species Solitary Topiary Group of Hedges In In tree tree trees alpinum pots 1 Taxus baccata √ √ √ √ 2 Taxus baccata ‘Fastigiata’ √ √ 3 Taxus baccata ‘Fastigiata Aurea’ √ √ 4 Taxus baccata ‘Repandens’ √ √ 5 Taxus baccata ‘Repandens Aurea’ √ √ 6 Taxus x media ‘Hicksii’ √ √ Table III: Resistance to low temperatures of the representatives of genus Hedera L. Ordinal Plant species Resistance to low temperatures number 1 Hedera helix -30°C 2 Hedera algeriensis ‘Gloire de Marengo’ -10°C 3 Hedera helix ‘Arborescens’ -30°C 4 Hedera helix ‘Goldheart’ -20°C 5 Hedera hibernica -30°C 6 Hedera colchica ‘Dentata Variegata’ -20°C 7 Hedera helix ‘Marginata Elegantissima’ -20°C Table IV: Taxons classification according to life forms and their decorative characteristics Ordinal number Plant species Life form Decorative characteristics 1 Taxus sp. Evergreen shrubs or small trees Shape and color 2 Hosta sp. Perennials Leafy decorative 3 Hydrangea sp. Deciduous flowering shrub Flowery decorative 4 Skimmia japonica ‘Rubella’ Evergreen flowering shrub Flowery and leafy decorative 5 Aucuba japonica ‘Crotonifolia’ Evergreen shrub Leafy decorative 6 Erica sp. Evergreen flowering perennial Flowery decorative 7 Calluna vulgaris Evergreen flowering perennial Flowery decorative 8 Hedera sp. Evergreen climber Leafy decorative 4 CONCLUSIONS Taxus baccata ‘Repandens’, Taxus baccata ‘Repandens Aurea’ and Taxus x media ‘Hicksii’. Only Taxus baccata After the conducted research regarding the shade L. is a type found in the past on our green environments, tolerant types of plants used in recent times in landscape and the rest can be found in recent times; design of green areas in Macedonia, the following - In landscape design in our country, the conclusions have been reached: representatives of the genus Taxus L. are often used as - The following taxons from the genus Taxus L. can solitary trees, as part of group of trees, they can form be found on our green areas: Taxus baccata L., Taxus hedges or be planted in alpinum and in pots. They often baccata ‘Fastigiata’, Taxus baccata ‘Fastigiata Aurea’, represent the focal point due to the shape or color, and 55 For. review 43: 51 - 56. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje the spreading ones are usuallly used as living ground (2010), pag 37, 38. covers. Taxus baccata L. is found as topiary tree, and is [5] В. Андоновски, Пејзаж и дизајн во зелените used to form hedges. Cultivars in yellow, unlike the rest површини, Авторизирани предавања, УКИМ, of the others, are less present in our country; Шумарски факултет, Скопје, (2005), pag 8, 9, 12, - Representatives of the genus Hosta Tratt. used for 26, 95. landscape design in our country are: Hosta ‘Big Daddy’, [6] С. Џеков, Дендрологија, Скопје, (1988), pag 51, 52, Hosta decoratа, Hosta ‘Gold Standard’, Hosta montana 360, 416. ‘Aureomarginata’ and Hosta ‘Blue Angel’. They are [7] Č. Šilić, Atlas drveća i grmlja, Sarajevo, (1973), pag usually part of private yards. They are successfully 31, 75, 76, 142. combined with other types of perennial plants. They are [8] Č. Šilić, Ukrasno drveće i grmlje, Sarajevo, (1990), used as living ground covers, especially when planted in pag 104, 133, 145. a group when they represent the focal point. They are [9] Velika ilustrirana enciklopedija VRT, Mozaik knjiga, grown in pots for decoration of small yards, balconies Zagreb, Encyclopedia of Gardening, The royal and terraces; Horticultural Society, London, (2005), pag 93, 99, - Representatives of the genus Hydrangea L. used in 133, 127, 186, 367. our country are Hydrangea macrophylla Thunb. and Photography: Hydrangea arborescens ‘Annabelle’. In designing, they [10]Брндевска, В. (2010, 2011). are often a focal point in the period of blooming. Here, we use them as plant used for decoration of balconies and terraces planted in pots, and in the yards they can be found planted separately or in groups; - Skimmia japonica 'Rubella' is often a focal point in the winter. It’s used planted in pots to decorate small yards, balconies and terraces. Here we can find it in private gardens planted separately or in a group, used to form low symbolic hedges; - Aucuba japonica ‘Crotonifolia’ is used in private gardens and green areas in front of public facilities. It’s planted separately, in a group, and is used to form low and middle-low hedges that often present a focal point; - They are used as flower plants in flower-beds during the winter, living ground covers around conifer solitary trees, in alpinum and rock gardens, for decoration of slopes and in pots; - Calluna vulgaris ‘Dark Beauty’ and Calluna vulgaris ‘Marleen’ are the representatives from the genus Calluna that can be found in our country. They are used as living ground covers and flower plants in flower formations; - The following representatives from the genus Hedera L. can be found on our green areas: Hedera helix L., Hedera algeriensis ‘Gloire de Marengo’, Hedera helix ‘Arborescens’, Hedera helix ‘Goldheart’, Hedera hibernica Bean., Hedera colchica ‘Dentata Variegata’ and Hedera helix ‘Marginata Elegantissima’. They are mostly used for covering sodden objects, to form hedges previously placed foundation, as living ground covers, for decoration of slopes and decoration with pots. From all of the above stated, it can be concluded that although the number of shade tolerant plants in relation to others is smaller, there are still enough in order to be able to form a complex, functional and aesthetic landscape. Besides the researched plants, other types encountered in the design of green areas in Macedonia include large number of perennials, some annual and biannual plants, shrubs and trees. 5 REFERENCES [1] A. Андоновски, Декоративна дендрологија, Скопје, (1992), pag 85, 185. [2] M. Vidaković, Četinjače, Zagreb, (1982), pag 609, 612, 617. [3] Н. Анастасијевиђ, Подизање неговање зелених површина, Универзитет у Београду, Шумарски факултет, Београд, (2007), pag 72, 366, 368. [4] R. Markley, Živice, Stanek, Biblioteka Vrt, Zagreb, 56 For. review 43: 57 - 61. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 UDC: 630*22(497.2) Professional paper Paper submission: May, 2012 AESTHETIC EVALUATION OF FOREST LANDSCAPES WITHIN THE TRAINING AND EXPERIMENTAL FOREST RANGE (TEFR) YUNDOLA, R. BULGARIA 1 GALEV E., 2SANDEVA V., 2DESPOT K. 1 University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria, 2 Goce Delcev University, Štip, Macedonia Correspondig author e-mail address: emil.galev@abv.bg ABSTRACT: The research focuses on understanding the scenic beauty of the landscape in the context of environmental planning, management focused on the forest landscape.Our landscape preferences are thought to be influenced by many factors: age, gender, ethnicity, regionality, recreational activity; some researchers even maintain there is an evolutionary basis behind certain landscape preferences. But of these factors, our dominant culture and history have played major roles in shaping our preferences for landscapes that are natural in character. Aesthetic appreciation of forest parks in the survey is made of the objective characteristics of the existing topography and vegetation. Data are taken from the map or text materials containing information about the terrain. The dominance elements and variable factors of landscapes appear in varying degrees, depending upon the viewing distance. The research automates aesthetic evaluation of forest landscapes using GIS. Keywords: visual impact, scenic beauty, aesthetic, landscape preferences 1 THEORETICAL PREREQUISITES FOR coefficient of importance of individual landscape AESTHETIC EVALUATION OF LANDSCAPES components in the overall evaluation. Unwin (1975) describes three stages in the evaluation of landscape: A number of research exist in which various methods "measurement" of the landscape, formulation of for visual evaluation of the landscape are used. All these landscape values through the survey of people's studies show that such an evaluation of landscape preferences, and finally an evaluation of the visual resources is a very important moment in determining the qualities of the landscape. Most sophisticated models in potential of recreational areas. Through spatial analysis, this regard he says are psychophysical which use first photographic, visual or psychological evaluation, psychological impact, and after that objective quantitative individual territorial units should be classified to and qualitative parameters of the landscape. The creation determine their emotional performance, despite the of such a model requires three sets of data: photos, survey subjective element that can not be avoided. data on people's preferences to landscape and landscape The method of Seung-Bin (1984) is expressed in parameters. statistical analysis of evaluations of interviewed people The method of Shafer, Hamilton, Schmidt (1969) for who were shown pictures of 12 urban areas. determining psychophysical preference of people to the Survey methods are often used in evaluating the aesthetic countryside is to predict how they will appreciate the qualities of landscapes. According to Rosenthal and natural landscape. Most important characteristics for the Driver (1983) most of the respondents mainly appreciate aesthetic appeal of landscape according to the authors are the opportunity to enjoy beautiful scenery and is taken into account. Proportions are calculated between particularly marked overall demand for peace, solitude the quantitative values of landscape characteristics in and rest in nature. According to Abello and Bernaldez practice. Changing these proportions within a specific (1986), all these surveys show that the aesthetic criteria landscape creates a feeling of depth and perspective. of people depend on the nature, age, gender and their Based on a mathematical formula involving perimeters education and grades that they give the landscapes and areas of forests, open spaces and water areas the depend on their personal preferences for various forms of authors define three types of ground cover: plant, non- recreation. There are even those studies which have been vegetable and water, and outline the following areas at a specifically designed to prove weak authoritativeness and distance. objectivity of the results of such inquiries. They apply the Wherrett (1997) automates this model using GIS and visual evaluation method of landscape using two groups conduct surveys to identify people's preferences for of observers. The first group was previously aware of the visual images of landscapes. The results showed that existence of some clearly visible damage in the landscape weather conditions and different focal lengths, where and the other does not. The results show that dark photographs were taken on the ground are not significant, observers did not notice the existing visible damage and but seasonal characteristics of vegetation and provide better evaluation of these landscapes. Exactly architectural elements have a significant influence in this was conducted by Buhyoff (1982) experiment. "Gap" shaping those preferences. according to him is mainly due to the fact that the sites Chiusoli (1977) offers a valid method to estimate assessed are too large and it can no longer pay attention parametric values of landscape and visual appeal of the to all details and particulars, and the fact that the eye of a plant component of the landscape called "integrated non-specialist is not trained to see everything. analysis of the landscape”. It is based on analyzing According to Cooper, Murray (1992) a constructive aerophotos and panoramic images of the study area. By method for visual evaluation of sites should include a comparing the data obtained the author determined description, analysis and classification of areas to create a percentage ratios between the different landscape structure within which to cover all landscape components. These ratios vary widely, thus achieving a components. The biggest problem in the development of just estimate. According to the author it has not yet quantitative methods to evaluate the visual impact by developed a unified methodology for "parametric" visual Buhyoff, Riesenmann (1979) is to determine the evaluation of plant components in the landscape, because 57 For. review 43: 57 - 61. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje in practice the evaluation of its appearance is associated depending on the impact that have on the main with too many subjective criteria. Therefore he considers recreational activities. In this respect, are shaped some the most appropriate first to analyze the landscape using fundamental conclusions concerning the question of aerophotos and territory be divided into homogeneous evaluation of recreational forest landscapes in general zones according to the most common characteristics of and of research subject in particular. plant cover, and then to determine their area ratio. General conclusions: Аppearance of landscapes, revealing to be monitored by 1. When conducting landscape-recreation research is the ground that what they learn from any point outside or required to analyze taxological data of forest vegetation. inside them is totally different, so panoramic photographs 2. Analysis developing and design can be achieved only reflect the real picture is revealed to him. Therefore the by additional field studies conducted during different author considers most appropriate both method of seasons. analysis to unite and after processing the data from Specific findings: aerophotos to create a series of panoramic images for 1. In almost all parts of the Forestry range, the areas with established aesthetic values. Pelt (1980) also taxological data of forest stands evidence of their high recognizes that the perception of the landscape of the productivity as well as of their very good outstanding casual observer is implemented by the land and therefore artistic and aesthetic qualities and recreational function. pay particular attention to principles of felling and Therefore: afforestation on different relief forms in order to avoid a/ it can be expected that greater influence in recreational adverse visual effects resulting from the creation of evaluation of the site will have a factor "relief" where the unsustainable or geometric outlines of woodland. differences are very prominent; Forestry Commision (1994) examined much more detail b/ it is most appropriate to take into account only those this issue and defined some guiding principles of forest taxological indicators that most influence the formation landscape design, designed to preserve the visual value of of the external appearance of the forest landscape, as well plantations and open spaces. as fo its spatial structure. In Bulgaria most commonly used criteria for aesthetic 2. The majority of forests in the area of the Forestry are evaluation of natural environment is developed by Bulev accessible in all its parts. The development of mobile (1977). Evaluated as the unit area, he used a square side communications will make them more accessible and this length, depending on the scale of the graphic material. will create prerequisites for economic development in For each of the square sections are determined grade general and for leisure in particular. evaluation, depending on the presence or absence in his 3. The main recreational activities practiced within the range of different landscape elements (forests, rivers, research area are: walking and stationary recreational in rocks, agricultural areas, roads, power lines, etc.). The the nature environment, hiking, sunbathing, picking wild same criteria used Bezlova (1989) and adds them to apply berries and mushrooms, villa holiday, outdoor games and locally for its development. She assesses areas as follows: winter sports. dynamic of the relief, mosaic structure of plant cover, 4. In conclusion it should be said that forest landscapes in engineering network, availability of natural phenomena, the vicinity of Yundola must first be classified according natural sites and protected areas, and visual-spatial to their recreational opportunities and then to be relationships. Then she sum of the ballroom evaluations evaluated all available resource potential that can be used as a percentage of the maximum value and then groupes for purposes of recreation, but differentiate for individual territories. recreational activities. These activities themselves can be In conclusion we can say that experiments, theories codified and classified in different levels of aggregation. and summaries of the visual landscape evaluation has not The most synthesized unit in terms of territorial coverage yet reached the necessary universality of theoretical should be “forest subdivision”, but in terms of knowledge in order to establish a common scheme which recreational activities should be “specific recreational will only be evaluated. activity”. 2 ANALYSIS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT 3 EVALUATION MECHANISM NATURAL COMPONENTS WHICH DETERMINE AESTHETIC PROPERTIES OF LANDSCAPES In this paper the aesthetic evaluation of landscapes is WITHIN THE TERRITORIAL SCOPE OF THE TEFR defined as a grouping of predefined territorial units in YUNDOLA some grade categories according to their positive or negative aesthetic qualities defined by pre-selected In conclusion of the analysis can be concluded that indicators and criteria. The indicators and criteria are also forest landscapes in the Yundola region can take a systematic and have been elected in accordance with the significant number of visitors. They should therefore be conditions set by the main objective of the research or classified according to the opportunities offered for development project, for the purposes of that evaluation recreation. Then it is necessary the natural potential to be takes place. Aesthetic evaluation is based on the specifics evaluated but differentiated for individual recreational of the landscape and is determined by visually dominant activities, and these activities can be codified and natural and anthropogenic components. classified in different levels of aggregation. The most synthesized unit having territorial scope must be the “forest subdivision”, but in terms of recreational activities, must be the specific recreational activity. In analyzing of the individual characteristics of relief and forest vegetation, first was reported their impact on recreational activities and established the practical feasibility of each of them as an evaluation indicator, 58  GALEV E., SANDEVA V., DESPOT K. AESTHETIC EVALUATION OF FOREST LANDSCAPES WITHIN THE TRAINING AND EXPERIMENTAL FOREST RANGE (TEFR) YUNDOLA, R. BULGARIA Table I: The most common criteria for a high aesthetic Factors contributing to the greatest extent for the evaluation of forest vegetation aesthetic impact of open spaces are systematized in Table III. Vertical and horizontal indentation of the relief considered separately determine the possibility of visual perception of space. Joint expression of these two factors determines the depth of the visible prospects, as the maximum values of this indicator are obtained by high values of vertical relief indentation and low values of horizontal relief indentation, which creates prerequisites for the detection of more distant panoramic views. The extent of interception of the horizon is determined largely by terrain features, but after reading the above parameters remain only the characteristics of forest vegetation, which can be a framework of perspectives or can be a barrier preventing their detection. The number of visible It serves primarily to determine the visual qualities of landscapes depends primarily on diversity of forest open spaces, and in particular their advantages or vegetation surrounded open spaces and determines in the disadvantages as places to stay static. Significant role in most a picturesque variety in the foreground of the its forming play the relief, the forest vegetation and landscape. The ratio between perimeter and area of somewhat aquatic components of landscape, but in many landscapes contributes much to the diversity of plastic- cases could be setting some anthropogenic components. volume relationships. For the uniqueness and The factors which most contribute to the aesthetic impact attractiveness of the mountainous landscape of the utmost of forest vegetation and broad criteria for aesthetic importance are also the degree of indentation of the evaluation of forest stands are classified in Table I. visible horizon and the presence of natural phenomena. Table II: Componential assessment for aesthetic Table III: The most common criteria for a high aesthetic valuation of the forest stands evaluation of the open spaces The Table II specifies the number of appropriate subgroups of most widely practiced recreational activities To assess the visual impact of wooded areas is used in certain values of taxological indicators. It is reported species composition, but from an aspect called the fact that forest stands have a different visual impact dendrological richness. Forest stands were divided into when have been seen from side and when have been four groups depending on the number of tree species viewed as an immediate environment for recreation. involved, whether they share in the total stock: forest The indicator “passability” characterizes the possible stands consisting of one tree species; forest stands of physical and visual intrusion into forest areas and consisting of two tree species; forest standss consisting of depends on the structure of forest stands expressed by the three or more species with predominance of one of them; location and by the different combinations of main and finally consisting of three or more species without component parts of the forest flora. Therefore it presents predominance. As a positive quality is reported the in both aspects of evaluation. The indicator presence of much higher trees and single tree species “construction” determines primarily spatial structure of occurring in the species composition. The passability, the the forest stands, but has a major role in shaping their construction and especially the average height of the external appearance and diversity of the forest landscape. forest stands are also taken into account in determining The average height is a very important indicator of the visual evaluation. psychological comfort of the recreational environment, which is determined by those in human genetic effects to the surrounding area determined by the so-called "human scale". The dendrological richness, and the presence of much higher trees and single tree species occurring in forest stands are a prerequisite for a greater vertical uneventness of forested areas and r foa greater variety in their coloring. 59 For. review 43: 57 - 61. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje Table IV: Componential assessment for aesthetic In conclusion we can say that the determination of evaluation of the open spaces aesthetic value of landscape is very complex process including the description, analysis and evaluation, expressed in the grouping of territorial units defined set of criteria associated primarily with sensory experiences. Thus, forested areas are grouped into three groups according to the visual impact of plantations due to their external appearance (Table V): The results of forest standss assessment, as well as the open spaces assessment are presented on maps (fig. 1 and fig. 2) accompanied by photographs. Grouping of landscapes is made mainly based on visual characteristics of the terrain and vegetation component. Based on the results of these study it have been made a number of conclusions necessary for the development of functional zoning of the area. The aesthetic qualities of the natural conditions are assessed in the following indices: for the forest stands: • average height; • passability; • construction; • dendrological richness; • presence of much higher trees and single tree species occurring; for the open spaces: • vertical and horizontal indentation of the relief; Figure 1: Aesthetic evaluation of forest stands • degree of the horizon shelterness; • number of visible landscapes; • passability, construction, dendrological richness, and presence of much higher trees and single tree species occurring in the surrounding tree forest stands. Table V: Evaluation of forest stands to their visual impact Figure 2: Aesthetic evaluation of open spaces 60  GALEV E., SANDEVA V., DESPOT K. AESTHETIC EVALUATION OF FOREST LANDSCAPES WITHIN THE TRAINING AND EXPERIMENTAL FOREST RANGE (TEFR) YUNDOLA, R. BULGARIA 4 REFERENCES [1] Appleton, J. 1975. The experience of landscape. London: John Wiley. 293 p. [2] Buhyoff. G. J., Wellman, J. D. & Daniel, T. C. (1982). Predicting scenic quality for mountain pine beetle and western spruce budworm damaged forest vistas. Forest Science, 827-838. [3] Cox, T.R. 1985. Americans and their forests: romanticism, progress, and science in the [4] late nineteenth century. Journal of Forest History. 29: 156-168. [5] Daniel. T. C., & Boster, R. S. (1976). Measuring landscape esthetics: The scenic beauty estimation method (U.S.D.A. Forest Service Research Paper 167). Ft. Collins, CO: Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. [6] Kaplan, R.; Talbot, J.F. 1988. Ethnicity and preference for natural settings: a review and [7] recent findings. Landscape and Urban Planning. 15: 107-117. [8] Lyons, E. 1983. Demographic correlates of landscape preference. Environment and Behavior. 15(4): 487-511. [9] Ribe, R.G. 1991. The scenic impact of key forest attributes and long-term management [10] Alternatives for hardwood forests. In: McCormick, L.H.; Gottschalk, K.W., eds. Proceedings, 8th Central Hardwoods Forest Conference; 1991 March 4-6 University Park, PA. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-148. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station: 35-54. [11] Schroeder, H.W. 1987. Dimensions of variation in urban park preference: a psychophysical analysis. Journal of Environmental Psychology. 7: 123-141. [12] Zube, E.H.; Pitt, D.G.; Evans, G.W. 1983. A lifespan developmental study of landscape assessment. Journal of Environmental Psychology. 3: 11 5-128. 61 For. review 43: 1 - 76. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje For. review 43: 62 - 64. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 UDC: 630*22:528:[007:004.6(497.2) Professional paper Paper submission: May, 2012 CREATING A DATABASE FOR THE DENDRARIUM USING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS TECHNOLOGIES – EXAMPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL FOREST DEPARTMENT “PETROHAN”, R. BULGARIA 1 GALEV E., 2SANDEVA V., 2DESPOT K., 3ACEVSKI J., 3SIMOVSKI B. 1 University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria, 2 Goce Delcev University, Štip, Macedonia 3 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Faculty of Forestry in Skopje, Skopje, Macedonia Correspondig author e-mail address: emil.galev@abv.bg ABSTRACT: Using Remote Sensing and GIS technologies as an aid for creating database for the dendrarium in the Тraining and Experimental Forest Range “Petrohan” is the focus of discussion in the paper. The cardinal study goal is illustrating a concrete instance of applying GIS technology in the landscape architecture survey. This paper describs the methodology of vegetation mapping using traditional method combined with remote sensing data. Creating graphical and attribute table databases is also useful in the education of students in the University of Forestry in Sofia. Making semester projects in academic discipline “Dendrology” the students have to learn and analyze the features of trees and shrubs. GIS software provids the capability to analyze large data sets containing features of coniferous and deciduous trees and shrubs in the dendrarium. In the other hand the purpose of the development of the vegetation mapping methodology is to provide an objective and cost-effective survey method utilizing satellite remote sensing for the vegetation mapping. Overall, these results confirm that satellite imagery data coupled with field observations and direct measurements can be used effectively for precise mapping of trees and shrubs.The result of the analysis shows that image objects extracted from satellite data provide a new opportunity to make detailed inventory maps of ornamental vegetation in parks. In such cases, it is imperative that such exploration technologies should be used, which are cost effective and provide greater accuracy. An integrated approach of remote sensing and GIS technologies can just suffice these requirements during exploratory efforts in difficult terrains. Keywords: satellite image, mapping, vegetation, coniferous, deciduous 1 INTRODUCTION Resolution of Google Earth data is about 1.00 m and provides enough information for distinguishing the Detailed mapping of tree and shrub species is often majority of the trees. On the other hand, Google Earth required in various landscape architecture design imagery provides useful information such as diameters of projects. This paper illustrates a concrete instance of the the crowns. Therefore it is suitable for delineating trees in vegetation mapping using Google Earth Satellite a quite precise manner. (Asenova 2009). Database, assuming the future use of satellite imagery data for the vegetation inventory information acquisition. 2 MATERIAL AND METHODS A key requirement for the effective inventory of ornamental plants is the accuracy. Hand-mapping in the In this study, a detailed mapping from actual satellite field is a technique commonly used in practice, but is data was conducted for a specific park area. The inaccurate. In addition hand-mapping from field dendrarium in the Тraining and Experimental Forest observation requires access to the site from the ground Range “Petrohan” near the village of Barzia was chosen and visibility, a condition that does not exists always, for the study area. According to (Kuneva et al. 2009) this especially on a very steep ground and in the presence of area is characterized by a rich species diversity of trees closely planted trees and bushes. Then measurement of and shrubs and dense wood massifs. The ground in the distances is extremely time-intensive and often area is characterized by displacement and slope necessitates a large number of linear measurements. configuration by (Destan 2007). Because of these constraints, hand mapping is usually Technical objectives of the research are: done on an as-needed basis, and comprehensive map that  to conduct the inventory in a way that all trees and would support data base is done after taking dimensions shrubs occurring at the park are documented with of the terrain. There is need, therefore, to develop their location and size in a scientifically credible repeatable and reliable techniques for successive field manner; and computer work, which allows mapping the  to develop methodology to accurately identify the vegetation objects, which can be accomplished using location of ornamental park vegetation using more conventional methods. satellite imagery, image-editing software and This study tested the suitability of the satellite graphic software; imagery for improved mapping of plants in the parks.  to test methodology in a study area marked by This work will be useful in future decisions about difficult access of terrain and dense vegetation methods for detailed mapping of vegetation. (Rangelov within the AutoCAD environment; 2003).  to assess the accuracy of the mapping. The objective of the investigation was to make a For this study, traditional methods by (Rangelov detailed dendrological inventory. The information it has 2003) were used in the beginning of the field work for provided might be useful insofar as directing future initially mapping of the terrain data, which was recorded surveys or design projects. The graphical output serves as in a sketch and then transferred to the digital format. a basic plan to assess future activities in the park. The According to (Asenova 2009) the multispectral satellite goals of this project were to map the spatial location of data with a spatial resolution of 1.00 m allows ornamental plants in the study area and to test the identification of quite a number of vegetation objects and efficacy of satellite imagery for plant mapping. amend their location and size at a drawing. 62 For. review 43: 62 - 64. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje The sketch-map was created for use as a tentative set. 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Using a combination of field photos and field notes hand- mapped trees, shrubs and massifs were adjusted on the Many image objects at this zoom level correspond to display of the image data. Using distinguished and individual tree crowns, as well as other spatial objects adjusted trees as pickets were conducted direct including roofs of buildings, walks, retaining walls, etc. measurements in the field and small trees and shrubs Some of the shrubs are smaller than the individual pixels. were fixed in the drawing. A research question is how to determine an optimal zoom The final product was derived from the Google Earth level for identification of individual plants. data after conducting the field work and after some The purpose of the work was to obtain sound amendments in the drawing. This product will allow the information on the locations and real sizes of the trees resource manager of the park to make up to date, well and shrubs in a digitized form. The initial objective was informed management decisions with a detailed to travel all over the entire territory of the dendrarium, vegetation map in a relevant and efficient timeframe. and to draw up a sketch of the existing vegetation over A detailed drawing for the plants is created in three the geodetic survey. stages. The investigation started with drawing up a field Each graphical object in the hand made sketch needs sketching map produced for the park including areas to be amended, in accordance with the image (Figure 1). managed as a dendrarium. The investigation used Some image objects in this study were relatively easy to standard floristic inventory procedures to identify and be identified based on the spectral properties, and others document all 116 plant species observed. Location of the are difficult to be determined only by the contextual existing plants was judged by sight at first and was information such as relative sizes, spatial relationships, recorded as coniferous and deciduous trees or shrubs. The texture, and so on. The Google Earth data used in this locations were marked in the geodetic survey as points study was taken in spring, and vegetation–covered and (for the ornamental trees) or as polygons (for woodlands non-vegetation areas were spectrally distinctive on the and shrubs). The geodetic survey was updated and made imagery. Among the conifer and deciduous trees, and more precise prior to conducting the first stage of field grass areas showed relatively distinctive spectral work at the park. The primary purpose of the conducted properties on the photo so that their identification were field inventory is to create a field sketching map, and also easier after an arbitrarily variation of their color verify the current presence of already-documented adjustment. On the contrary, instances of some vegetation species, provide information on relative abundance, classes were difficult to distinguish from other vegetation provide distribution information on endangered or classes. For instance, some trees (both coniferous and threatened species or species of concern. Positions of the deciduous) with loose crowns are very difficult to plants on the sketching map were fixed by traditional identify, but they cast clearly visible shadows on the methods, i.e. approximately. The vegetation of the ground so that property must be used for the sketch-map has been scanned and processed in a digitized determination rule. For distinguishing deciduous from form. The trees were delineated over the drawing like coniferous trees, texture information of image objects points and the shrubs – like polygons. appears to be useful. Sizes and shapes of image objects The study starts with the image conversion in were also useful properties for distinguishing some trees derivative formats for CAD software, which allow to such as high specimens with large crowns from others. insert it into AutoCAD where is possible to delineate Figure 2 shows a precise drawing illustrating conifer and image objects. The conversion was done using image deciduous trees as well as decorative shrubs within the processing software. The satellite photo was not put dendrarium. Figure 3 shows developed GIS database under geometrical rectification. This was equilibrated concerning detailed graphical and attribute information with just a little deformation of the image in order to for the dendrarium territory. coinciding with the geodetic cadastre. The satellite photo was used for this study as a technical aid. Its purpose is to provide pickets for the following stage of work – detailed field observations. At this stage, using an electronic ranger had been fixed positions of small trees and shrubs toward amended by satellite photo trees. Image insertion implemented in the AutoCAD was used to improve and to specify the field sketching map. The image was converted to a derivative format for AutoCAD and used to rectification of the location and size of the distinguished tree crowns. Thus the draft of vegetation map was obtained and was finalized and supplemented by subsequent field surveys (field observations and direct measurements). The map compilation took into account massifs and single trees conducted in the area. The method permitted to delineate areas of conifers and deciduous woodlands on an extremely steep and difficult of access terrain, and to identify precise location and size of many individual tree crowns. Figure 1: Amendment of the drawing 63  GALEV E., SANDEVA V., DESPOT K., ACEVSKI J., SIMOVSKI B. CREATING A DATABASE FOR THE DENDRARIUM USING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS TECHNOLOGIES – EXAMPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL FOREST DEPARTMENT “PETROHAN”, R. BULGARIA In comparison with traditional inventory methods the  serve as a baseline for long-term monitoring, assist remote sensing data tend to produce better results with the characteristics of changes in parks over representing vegetation cover. In the case of vegetation time and detect new elements there. mapping using very high resolution satellite data, the In addition, the data collected through this study will results are useful in combination with traditional methods provide the basis for a plant inventory plan for the results, because the image provides additional dendrarium in the Тraining and Experimental Forest information about the location and size of trees in the Range “Petrohan” near the village of Barzia. This study image objects delineated by the sketch. Anyhow some shows that ornamental plants in the parks can gaps in the drawing come into sight during the drawing successfully be mapped using satellite data and amendment. To rectify these gaps, additional field work conventional methods. These techniques show promise as is needed, with an electronic telemeter. useful tools for vegetation inventory. This is especially applicable in the landscape architecture design projects because spatial extents and distribution of existing vegetation is very important and define the future plant composition of the parks. 5 REFERENCES [1] Asenova M. 2009. GIS as an effective tool for forest management. Management & sustainable development, University of Forestry, Sofia, Vol. 22 (1): 94–101. (in Bulgarian). [2] Destan S. 2007. Importance of Maturity Concept in Determination of Functional Rotation in Forestry. Review of the Faculty of Forestry, University of Figure 2: Dendrological drawing of the object Istanbul. Series B, Vol. 1, № 1: 52–53. [3] Kuneva Ts., Kabatliyska Z., Petrova R., Yancheva D. 2009. One year flowering meadows. “Avangard Prima“, Sofia, 108 p. ISBN 978-954-323-326-7. [4] Rangelov V. 2003. Spatial characteristics significantly affect the appearance of park areas. Proceedings of the “Jubilee Scientific Conference 50 Years University of Forestry – Sofia”, April 2003, Sofia, Bulgaria: 272–276.   Figure 3: GIS database for the dendrarium 4 CONCLUSIONS Traditional methods for large scale vegetation mapping require expensive time intensive field surveys. The use of remotely sensed, high resolution, multispectral data for mapping vegetation provides a detailed, accurate product in a time and cost effective manner. For this project, applying a hybrid approach was developed a plant inventory map using imagery data. The result of the hybrid approach and using Google Earth data in this study suggests that Google Earth data would be a useful additional information source for the vegetation mapping for the landscape architecture design projects. Very high-resolution satellite images are a useful information source for vegetation mapping, which is part of the design project data set. Through this project, the spatial distribution of ornamental plants was mapped at a famous Bulgarian park in digital format. The information collected through this effort will:  increase the ability of landscape architects to analyze and map plants and non vegetative elements of the parks; 64 For. review 43: 1 - 76. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje For. review 43: 65 - 69. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 UDC: 635.9.053:72.012.6(497.711) Professional paper Paper submission: May, 2012 THE USAGE OF CLIMBING PLANTS IN FAÇADE GREENING IN TODAY’S URBAN LIVING WITH EXAMPLES OF THE CENTRAL URBAN REGION OF SKOPJE, R. MACEDONIA KANAREVA N., 1RIZOVSKA ATANASOVSKA J. 1 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Faculty of Forestry in Skopje, Skopje, Macedonia Correspondig author e-mail address: natasakanareva@yahoo.com ABSTRACT: We consider the climber plants that are structural elements of the façade greening. The new trends in the urban greening, such as façade greening, green walls and green roofs that affects buildings and architectural objects, belong to the group of vertical greening. They are important because of their function, firstly an aesthetic one (by covering damaged walls), and the sanitary function, by improving microclimate (oscillation of the temperature and humidity of the air). There are also other effects they have in an urban environment, they give heat, wind, sound and rain protection. Keywords: climber plants, façade greening, vertical greening, green walls 1 INTRODUCTION and the types of the mechanisms they are using to crawl on the surface. Facade greening has a long history that could be seen from the old draws, where some climbing plants, like 2 MATERIAL AND METHODS vine and ivy are shown. It begun in the time of Babel and its hanging gardens, where plants were hanging over In this paper is present affects off the climber species multileveled terasses. Second point is the Romantic Era, as essential parts of façade greening and their use in this period when castles were wrapped with plants. Ancient type of greening in an urban surrounding, considering looking walls overgrown with ivy became then an few examples from the central urban region of Skopje ultimate fashion. The third point is at the beginning of the (the settlements: Centar, Avtokomanda, Karposh 1, 20th century when they were revived again. Nowadays, Karposh 2, Karposh 3, Kapishtec). There are some we have modern green façades as a specific type of architectural objects and public buildings and some other greening in the urban way of life. objects directly related to the green spaces, like fences, In the modern cities where urbanization and traffic damaged walls or trees. The detected object and buildings become bigger from day to day, there is a constant need are correctly descripted and the climber species are for findding new methods and solutions for increasing determined. Than are given the morphological green spaces. That means introducing plants among the characteristics and ecology of the climber species and architectural objects in the cities will raise the quality of also their usage according their specifics in facade life for the people. The new era started two or three greening. Here are presented some photos from the decades ago, creating gardens on the roofs, modern climbers and their growth support systems. façade greening and green walls. That was the initial The literature connected to this issue had to be found point of usage the new trends in urban landscaping. while researching the climbing plants, their usage and Considering that, some new trends in cities greening effects they have on the environment. That means are: living walls, façade greening and green roofs. appropriate information about their morphological Designers, architects and engineers now have characteristics and principles for designing green facades oportunities to put beautiful ‘clothes’ on buildings, no would be properly given. Furthermore should be given mater if the need is aestetical or functional. A good some suggestions for their appropriate use, to propose relation between green areas and nature suppose to species considering their functions (decorative and improve the living of the citizens in an urban sanitary), effects and benefits that come out from their environment. usage. Facade greening is a pretty new concept for Climbing plants should be divided in two groups: increasing greenery in the big city where there is not flower decorative and leaf decorative ones. Also there are enough space for parks and gardens. Commonly used described the functions and the type of surface plants for facade greening are climbing plants. Vertical attachment mechanism from different climber species. gardening or greening, using climbing plants, can insert At last, locations and the buildings with façade greening the spirit of nature, offer a new view on architecture and in Skopje were pointed out. make cities good places for living. The city greyness, damaged or monotony facades, can easily be changed 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS with this type of greening concept, considering it as good decoration for buildings. Façade greening belongs in the group of vertical Today, with the contribution of this kind of greenings greening, together with green walls and green roofs. and the other types of open green spaces in the cities, Before start talking about façade greening we should be many scientists in the world are facing to strong task in introduced with this term and make difference with green front of them to make our environment more clean, more walls. beautiful and more healty place for living. There is a big difference between green walls and The term facade greening is very closely connected to facade greenings. The concept of green wall is more the usage of climbing plants matters dealt with in this complex then supporting system of façade greening. paper. There will be described the climbers and how they Creating a green wall means specially made panels affects on buildings, their suitable growth support system attached on a wall, planted with different kinds of plants and there must be designed an irrigation system too. In 65 For. review 43: 65 - 69. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje that panels can grow different species of grasses and 4. Offer heating protection, helped by air bags between flowers while for façade greening usually are used only façade and climbing plants; climbers. The concept for façade greening is creating a 5. Give protection from rain and direct transportation suitable climbers growth support system. After installing of water to roots; it on the wall, climbers can be planted in the ground or in 6. Give sound protection, the leafs of the plants have a pot, and later they erect on the wall. Some of these ability to absorb the sound; plants can climb freely on the surface of the wall (self- 7. They have ability of filtering and improving the air clinging climbers, Hedera helix L.) and the others can quality by absorbing hard metals; climb up only with suitable growth support systems 8. They are living space for birds and insects. (Wisteria sinensis Sims.). 3.3 Climbing plants commonly used for façade greening 3.1 Aesthetic functions of green façades Climbing plants or lianas belong to more than 110 A group of different species positioned right on a families of vascular plants. Climbers are fast growing, façade, could represent a beautiful picture, camouflaging woody or legume species, their roots are in soil but the a monotonous, damaged or ruined wall. Designing façade life form of stems have need for some support to creep on greening, some visual effects could be changed, vertical it. It is convenient to recognize two categories of lines can be less tall and long walls will look shorter (if a adaptation for climbing plants, with active mechanisms, climber is planted and growing up near to a window, involving growth and tropisms of the plant to become taller building would look smaller, opposite of this, if the attached, and with passive mechanisms, whereby they climber is clinging higher on a wall, the building would have existing structures that come in contact with the look taller). supporting structure. Each mechanism provides Some climbers can give nice aromatic note to the biomechanical and ecological advantages and surrounding, like Clematis armandii, Lonicera disadvantages, depending on situation in which the vine americana, Lathyrus odoratus L., and their position or liana is growing. should be nearby windows and doors.  Active mechanisms Parthenocissus tricuspidata Planch. and P. a) Attachment by tendrils (stem, stipule, leaf quinquefolia Planch. have leaves that in autumn become tip, flower axis) red and give to walls remarkably looking. Hedera helix L. b) Twining is suitable for north sided walls. Its dark green leaves can c) Attachment using adventitious roots cover the whole surface of the wall even in winter. Some  Passive mechanisms walls will look astonishing during summer if there are d) Arrangement of branches or leaves in a flower plants like Campsis radicans Seem. with red- supporting design orange flowers. e) Spines and stiff emergences Climbing plants can wrap spiral around pillars, the f) Sprawling (scrambling or scandent growth others can form green spots on the walls or make tracks habits) near to the doors. Suitable for these types of figures are: Clematis × jackmanii Jackman & Sons, with dark violet flowers, Lonicera caprifolium L., with yellow flowers, Wisteria sinensis Sims., with rich blue-violet flowers, etc. In climbers selection should make attention on a wall exposure. For south and south-west exposures, good choices are sun-loving plants like: Parthenocissus quinquefolia Planch., Lonicera caprifolium L. and Periploca graeca L. and for north exposures: Hedera helix L. and Campsis radicans Seem. Façade greening a) Tendrils can be arranged with annual and perennial climbers. Perennials usually are used for long lasting period. For short period (fast camouflage or decoration) there are some kinds of annuals, such as Ipomoea violacea L. with white, rose and blue flowers, Lathyrus odoratus L. with smelling flowers, Phaseolus coccinaeus L. with small red flowers and Tropaeolum L. sp. with orange-red flowers. 3.2 Sanitary function of the green façades Despite the aesthetic function, façade greening have b) Twining sanitary function too. The usage of climbing plants does not make damages on walls because they are not directly attached on them; they are growing on special designed supporting system. But the benefits of greened facades are many: 1. They improve microclimate, binding the dust from the air and enriching it with oxygen; 2. They equate oscillations of temperature and humidity through evaporation; 3. Give wind protection and directs the wind reducing the losses of thermal energy; c) Adventitious roots 66  KANAREVA N., RIZOVSKA ATANASOVSKA J. THE USAGE OF CLIMBING PLANTS IN FAÇADE GREENING IN TODAY’S URBAN LIVING WITH EXAMPLES OF THE CENTRAL URBAN REGION OF SKOPJE, R. MACEDONIA deep blue or deep purple color and show up in midsummer. Campsis radicans Seem., prefers warm, sunny to part-sunny position; shade on the root zone is beneficial. It is a frost resistant self-clinging climber with adhesive stem roots. Flowers are red or yellow-orange and blossoms appear from July until September. Polygonum aubertii L. or Silver Lace vine prefer sunny to semi-shaded position. It is a strong twiner and d) With leaf one of the most vigorous climbers. Foliage last until November. White flowers flowering from July until Spetember. Passiflora coerulea L., grows on sunny to semi- shaded position, not too windy. For constant flowering should be fertilized several times. Flowers are white with violet color and resist all summer. Foliages with dark green color are very decorative.  Climbers with picturesque leaf color Hedera sp. L. stands sunny to semi-shaded position. It is self-clinging climber with adventitious stem roots. e) With spine This evergreen specie has dark green color of its leaves attractive even in winter. Parthenocissus quinqefolia Planch is a moderate to good self-clinging vine, well-known for its beautiful leaf form and autumn color. It stands sunny to semi-shaded position. With its adventitious stems can cause building damages. Parthenocissus tricuspidata Planch grows on sunny to semi-shaded positions. Leaves are light green from May to October and in autumn they change their color in red. It is self-clinging climber that covers extensive areas quickly. It is one of a favorites for façade greening. f) Sprawling Vitis coignetiae Pulliat. needs sunny to semi-shaded positions. Its foliage appear in May and last till October. Figure 1: Active and passive mechanisam of attaching to If its leaves are exposed in sun during the autumn, they surface pass from green to intense yellow and red color. This climber has tendrils and vigorous growth.  Flower decorative climbers All characteristics of the climbing plants are shown in Clematis sp. L. grows in semi-shaded to moderately Table I below. sunny positions, on fresh, humus-rich soils with good drainage and shade on the root zone. Climbers with leaf- 3.4 Façade greening in the central urban region of Skopje tendrils and foliage from May to October, defoliation of The terms: vertical gardens, green roofs, façade dried up leaves often go slow. Flowers, depending on greening, green walls, are new trends in greening of the cultivars, often with beautiful filigree seed heads. architectural objects in the cities. They are contributing in Jasminum officinale L. grows on sunny to semi- improvement of the life in an urban environment, shaded positions. Foliages appear in April and last till considering the amount of vegetation there. So, the October. White flowers of this plant bloom all summer. It importance for increasing the open green spaces of any has moderate to vigorous growth habit, suitable for detail type, in dense settlements including is very big. and accent planting. Considering Skopje as a city with lots of traffic, various Lonicera sp. Thunb. usually grows on sunny to semi- types of architectural objects and industrial capacities, it shaded positions, rather then full sun exposure. Lonicera is obvious that this kind of greening fulfils numbers of belongs to twiners, their foliage appears in April and last functions and satisfy the need of green spaces in the till October. The colors of the flowers are different dense urban environment. Although today not many depending on species and they are white, crème, yellow buildings are greened that way, in future the number of to orange, pink and red. They have long-lasting them might be bigger. blossoms; some species exude a heavy perfume. It could be recognized green façades in some Aquebia quinata Houtt, prefers sunny to shaded locations in Skopje, more rarely on public buildings, than positions, protected from wind. This evergreen plant is a on individual ones which number is certainly bigger. The twiner and its initial growth is rather slow. Flowers are one of the most remarkable ones is in the center of the red-brown, clusters in early spring and perceived from city, the point end of Partizanski odredi Street, where close-up. green façade is made from Hedera helix L. and Wisteria sinensis (Sims.), grows on full sunny Parthenoissus quinquefolia Planch. It is very attractive position, if possible. It is an extremely strong and especially in autumn when there is a contrast between vigorous twiner that can reach 20 m height. Leaves are dark green leaves of Hedera helix L. and red ones of mostly light green, foliage from May to November, in Parthenocissus quinquefolia Planch. Other location with autumn rarely with yellow coloring. Flowers have rich façade greening is present in the City Mall in the center of the city (Dame Gruev Street), where there is 67 For. review 43: 65 - 69. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje Parthenocissus qiunqefolia Planch over the walls and 4 CONCLUSION pillars. Its autumn red leaves stand as contrast of the white color of the building. There is also a wall nearby Today, when green spaces are often limited in the big Faculty of Chemistry that is a part of Botanic garden cities, the concept of façade greening could be a good (Aleksandar Makedonski Boulevard), where solution for bringing nature in the dense urban Parthenocissus tricuspidata Planch is present. The wall settlements. There can be given conclusions of this paper from one side of this building is whole covered by this affect of climber plants and their usage in façade specie which is very attractive in autumn because of the greening in an urban environment. leaves when become red. It should be mentioned the wall 1. The benefits of greened façades are in: improving of Hotel “Continental” (Aleksandar Makedonski microclimate, increasing the amount of vegetation in Boulevard) with north exposure is covered with Hedera urban settlements, saving energy for heating in helix L., making contrast to the white color of the façade. winter and for cooling in summer, filtering the air, One of the walls of Forestry Faculty in Skopje binding the dust, etc; (Aleksandar Makedonski Boulevard) was covered with 2. Climbing plants used for façade greening usually Wisteria sinensis (Sims). Over long period of time, the grow in the ground or they could be set in pots and plant was removed and now there are only some climb to grow over facades; fragments of it. Also there are two examples where plants 3. While green roofs are mostly accessible to few are climbing on dry trees, the first one is near boulevard people, the effects of greened façades are highly Krushevska Republika, Hedera helix L. and the second visual and could be enjoyed by a wide range of one in the Bonsai Garden in City Park in Skopje, people; Parthenocissus tricuspidata Planch. 4. Green façades have more aesthetic then other These few species could be seen on many private advantages. Using climbers on the wall can be houses too. Their frequent use is mainly because of their created an attractive picture or hide damaged or bed decorative effect in autumn (when the green color of the looking façade; leaves like Parthenocissus qiunqefolia Planch and 5. Façade greening is enabled by specifically designed Parthenocissus tricuspidata Planch turn (passes) into red. support structures that allow vertical vegetative Some climber species mentioned in this work are coverage via the controlled growth of climbing and used in the vertical greening in the gardens of the private cascading species; houses, decorating architectural elements, balconies, 6. Façade greening is non expensive option to increase terraces, fences or trees. But that is an issue for another greenery in the city; paper, where more details and descriptions of them will 7. Climbing plants are very adaptable and can take be presented. different directions growing in horizontal or in Urban green infrastructure can be a good compromise vertical lines, they have low-weight mass and ability between empty walls of buildings and the rest of the for fast covering the surface. surrounding. It is a great opportunity for a landscape There are architectural objects in Skopje which architect to use his own knowledge, creation, technical façades are covered with climber plants but they are not education and vision designing some kind of new green in a big number. Although there are just a few, their space. contribution is significant for the greening of the urban environment and is considerable factor of the urban Table I: Plant sensibility on temperature and light, type of surface attachment mechanism of climbers Sensibility of Sensibility of light Mechanisms of attaching to surface temperature insensitive of Semi-shaded Adventitious Sensitive of Climbing plant Sprawling branches Twining Tendrils position position position Shaded Sunny spines low t low t roots 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Clematis jackmanii Jackman & Sons + + + Aquebia quinata Houtt. + + Campsis radicans Seem. + + + Parthenocissus quinquefolia Planch. + + + + Parthenocissus tricuspidata Planch. + + + Hedera helix L. + + + Lonicera japonica Thunb. + + + Polygonum aubertii L. + + + + Wisteria sinensis (Sims.) Sweet. + + + Vitis coignetiae Pulliat. + + + Jasminum officinale L. + + + Passiflora caerulea L. + + + Actinidia kolomikta Maxim. + + + 68  KANAREVA N., RIZOVSKA ATANASOVSKA J. THE USAGE OF CLIMBING PLANTS IN FAÇADE GREENING IN TODAY’S URBAN LIVING WITH EXAMPLES OF THE CENTRAL URBAN REGION OF SKOPJE, R. MACEDONIA living, increasing the green areas where there is not enough space for large parks and gardens. Despite sanitary function, this kind of greening improve the quality of urban living making better microclimate conditions in the cities and in the same time it has an aesthetic function too as décor on the buildings or other architectural objects. 5 REFERENCES [1] Abbs, B. Climbing plants, (2008), pag. 6, 30-31 [2] Андоновски, В. Пејзаж и дизајн во зелените површини, (2005), pag. 54-55, 67 [3] Bridgewater, A. Dizajn I planiranje vrta, (2008), pag. 29 [4] Buchan, U. Planting for all seasons, (1999), pag. 81- 89 [5] Squire, D. Penjacice –strucnjak za vrt, (2008), pag. 31-37 [6] Šilić, Č. Atlas drveća i grmlja, (1973), pag. 142 [7] Џеков, C. Дендрологија, (1988), pag. 479, 431 69 For. review 43: 1 - 76. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje For. review 43: 70 - 72. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 UDC: 635.9(497.742) Professional paper Paper submission: May, 2012 SOME NEW FLOWER PLANTS USED IN DESIGNING OF GARDENS AND BALCONIES IN STRUMICA (R. MACEDONIA) MICEVSKA A., 1RIZOVSKA ATANASOVSKA J. 1 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Faculty of Forestry in Skopje, Skopje, Macedonia Correspondig author e-mail address: micevska@hotmail.com ABSTRACT: Besides other plants, the flower-decorative plants are taking the highest application when greening our gardens and balconies. Their usage is bigger considering their decorative characteristics, such as flowers, leaves or habitus. The most interesting are the flowers with variable colors and dimensions and most important the long duration of flourishing in summer. This work is dealing with annual, and perennial plants that are quite new for making gardens and balconies arrangements. Keywords: flower plants, gardens, balconies, annual, perennials 1 INTRODUCTION Gazania rigens (L.) Gaertn. (fam. Asteraceae) - treasure flower or small gerbera is usually planted In order to decorate, design a place it is necessary to directly in the ground in the gardens or in pots in the find appropriate plant that can be decorative in first place balconies (Fig. 1). This plant can only reach 10-15 cm in and can fulfill the needs for aesthetic and functional height. Itsleaves are narrow, green from the upper side space. It is very important every plant to be put in right and gray on the other. The flowers are taking attention place considering there its position towards the sun with their various colors that are very alike gerbera. This (exposition) where it can show all the decorativeness of sun loving plant open wide its flowers during the day, but its characteristics, such as color, dimensions of the in the evening or when there is lack of light they are flowers and flourish. closed. Its flowers stand on the steams through the The needs for designing a place where one can enjoy summer. It cannot stand low temperatures, so it belongs in its decorativeness make people to be more inventive to the group of annual plants, but anyway it still can be and original in their ideas. But quality arranged green considered as popular plant. spaces such as gardens, balconies or others depends also on the condition and nature characteristics of the area where they happened to be designed. From the ancient times of our civilization, flower- plants were considered as decoration and were privilege of the wealthy people of a time. But as the time pass, the flower plants happened to be important part of people’s life, first as spice, and then in various rituals and customs. They enter in the life of the common people in every segment of their living satisfying their need for esthetics. There are countries in Europe that are dealing with selection and hybridization of flowers and decorative plants. Every day there are new varieties, cultivars, forms of flower species that are easily spread out through many countries nowadays. Here the interest is pointed on ones that are used in designing gardens and balconies recently in our country, which means some new species, cultivars, varieties and forms. 2 MATERIAL AND METHOD Figure 1: Gazania rigens The research of the flower plants was spread out in Strumica, in the private gardens and balconies and in Impatiens hawkeri W. Bull (New Guinea group) Garden-centers where information for their sell was (fam. Balsaminaceae) - This plant is decorative because taken. Then, mostly through terrain work were noted the of its flowers (Fig. 2), which can be in any color except gardens and balconies decoratedwith flower species. in blue. There are plenty of flowers on the stems (that are Then there had to be found for which ones the interest with bigger dimensions), and together with the leaves, was the biggest. After that the determination was give complete decorative effect of the plant. The habitus made.Collected information was selected, processed is wide, up to 20 cm high. This plant doesn’t want to be andthe results are shown in tables where different datais exposed too much on intensive sun light. It cannot stand exposed. Also there were taken pictures of the species low temperatures, so it belong in the group of annual that are theme of this work. plants. 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION There are the flower plants that were most found in the gardens and balconies in Strumica (R. Macedonia). 70 For. review 43: 70 - 72. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje Figure 4: Argyranthemum frutescens Figure 2: Impatiens hawkeri (New Guinea group) Lychnis × haageana Lemoine (fam. Sutera cordata (Thunb.) Kuntze (fam. Caryophyllaceae) - red lava, got its name after intensive Scrophulariaceae) – bakopa is creepy plant that cannot red or orange color of the flower which appear in summer stand low temperatures and ice. It has small white or (Fig. 5). The color of the flowers is more intensive if they purple flowers and leaves in shape of a hart (Fig. 3). This have sunny position. The leaves are narrow and hairy. plant creeps low and it can be spread out 40-60 cm. The This plant can reach 30 cm in height. It loses its stems are full of small flowers that stand there through decorativeness in autumn when its leaves fall down, but whole summer. in spring it starts up with its growing again. Figure 3: Sutera cordata Figure 5: Lychnis × haageana Argyranthemum frutescens (L.) Sch. Bip. (fam. Verbena L. - cultivars (fam. Verbenaceae) – Verbena Asteraceae) - summer chrysanthemum is perennial and is has small flowers gathered together at the top of a steam. one of the most decorative plants used in designing They can be in various colors and can flourish with lots gardens and balconies nowadays. Besides the flowers, of flowers in the whole summer period. The leaves are decorative are the leaves too. The flowers are small and small and tinny (Fig. 6). The decorative effect will be gathered in big number on a steam. They can be found in bigger if it is set in hanging pots and on balconies, but as every color but blue. The habitus is wide, 10-15 cm (Fig. it spread out very quickly, the effect can be reached if it 4). is set directly in ground too. It is sensitive on low temperatures, but if it’s well protected it can survive to the next vegetative season. 71  MICEVSKA A., RIZOVSKA ATANASOVSKA J. SOME NEW FLOWER PLANTS USED IN DESIGNING OF GARDENS AND BALCONIES IN STRUMICA (R. MACEDONIA) 4 CONCLUSIONS In this work are presented seven flower species that are most used as new ornamental plants in the gardens and balconies in Strumica (R. Macedonia) nowadays. They are variable considering the color of their flowers which flourish intensively in summer. According their vegetative period, three of them are annuals and four perennials. By their habitus, two of the species are creepers and five are straight up. Considering their use in the gardens and balconies in pots or directly in the ground, they can be set single or in groups. They are quite easy for nourishing. The perennials have to be replaced in order to remain the flower effect, and the annuals in winter should be removed in warmer Figure 6: Verbena cultivars places for the next vegetative period when the temperatures would be good enough for them. Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A. DC. (fam. At last, according all of that it can be concluded that Campanulaceae) – called Balloon flower, except for its the use of these flower species should be more intensive decorativeness it is also used in medicine too. This in future because of their decorative characteristics. They perennial has green leaves that fall down in autumn, but don’t need special conditions for their nourishing. They in spring with the new vegetative season it start with its flourish intensively through the whole summer and can growth again. It can reach 15-20 cm in height and can be be used in various composition forms and combined with 20-30 cm wide. Its buds have form of a balloon (where other species/plants. its name comes) which later open in form of a star. The flower can be single or double, white, pink or blue 5 REFERENCES colored (Fig. 7). It can equally grow on sunny or semi shaded positions, but it cannot stand too moist soil. [1] Booth, N. K. (1989): Basic Elements of Landscape Architectural Design. Watson-Guptill Publications. USA. [2] Brooks, J. (2001): Garden Design. Doring Kindersley Limited. London. UK. [3] Hannebaum, L. G. (2002): Landscape design. Prentice Hall-Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. USA. [4] Hessayon, D. G. (2006): The Garden Expert. London. [5] Procter. N. (1988): Perennials. Salamander book ltd. London. [6] Поповски, П. (1989): Паркови со заштита на човековата околина. Скопје. [7] Ризовска Атанасовска, Ј. (2007): Проектирање на зелени површини. Авторизирани предавања. УКИМ, Шумарски факултет. Скопје. [8] Ризовска Атанасовска, Ј. (2002): Перени и едногодишни растенија Авторизирани предавања. УКИМ, Шумарски факултет. Скопје. [9] ***(2005): Velika ilustrirana enciklopedija VRT. Figure 7: Platycodon grandiflorus Mozaik knjiga. Zagreb. (Encyclopedia of Gardening. The Royal Horticultural Society. London). In Table I are presented the new flower species that were most found in the gardens and balconies nowadays. Table I: Characteristics of the flower ornamental plants Vegetation No Species Flower Habitus Composition forms period 1 Gazania rigens Single in various colors Annual Straight Single, groups 2 Impatiens 'New Guinea' Single in various colors Annual Straight Single, groups 3 Sutera cordata Single, white and purple Perennial Creeper Single, groups Single/double, in all color 4 Argyranthemum frutescens Perennial Straight Single, groups variable 5 Lychnis × haageana Single red and orange Perennial Straight Single, groups 6 Verbena cultivars Single in various colors Annual Creeper Single, groups 7 Platycodon grandiflorus Variable Perennial Straight Single, groups 72 For. review 43: 1 - 76. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje For. review 43: 73 - 76. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 UDC: 630*2 Professional paper Paper submission: May, 2012 THE SENSE OF PLACE RESEARCH APPROACH TO FORESTS RANTAŠA B. Wageningen University / Ghent University Correspondig author e-mail address: bojan@rantasa.net ABSTRACT: Gieryn calls for a new approach to analysing place [5]. He encourages researchers to indulge them selves in a more visual approach, one that combines maps, photographs, landscapes, etc. and not being limited to mere significance testing of variables [5]. In the paper I take this challenge to explore what could this new approach to research on sense of place be. I make an analysis of the forest related literature that discusses the sense of place. Most scientists make attempts to predict sense of place, reducing it to e.g. attachments and satisfactions related to forests, in order to develop measurable, manageable concept for forest planners. Practitioners ask for people’s feelings and try to interpret the geography and the spirit of the place in its complexity. I conclude the paper acknowledging that there is an abundance of approaches to the research on sense of forest place. However, using the words of Lefebvre we still do not have a perfect understanding of the cause and effect in place making [12]. I identify the unique lived experience of people at the centre of sense of place making and invite researchers to make an approach to an understanding of sense of place with the reason, senses and feelings. Keywords: place, forest, sense of place, research, practice, approach 1 INTRODUCTION ‘Maybe a place-sensitive sociology is not a set of empirical findings at all or even a distinctive kind of In the scientific forest literature there have been calls explanatory model, but rather a way to do sociology in a for inclusion of sense of place in forest planning [29]. different key–a visual key. […] What I lacked were tools However this has not been done so readily [22]. The to analyse place in its given two and three dimensions. I reason to this slow inclusion of sense of place in forest am a victim, perhaps, of trained incompetence in a planning has been argued that it is due to the issue that discipline that cultivates statistics and words as means to most research results are qualitative, while forest grasp the social. Sociologists could become more adept planners want hard statistical data [22], [23]. Yet, if we with maps, floor plans, photographic images, bricks and are to build forests for people (1), managers should adapt mortar, landscapes and cityscapes, so that interpreting a their management practices to a more human street or forest becomes as routine and as informative as understanding. On an event ‘Towards the Sustainable Use computing a chi-square. That visualizing (I think) is the of Europe’s Forests – Forest Ecosystem and Landscape next step.’ [5, p.483] Research: Scientific Challenges and Opportunities, Farcy This call, in its essence, is a call for a qualitative noted the need for forest planners to change their approach. Yet, it is an approach that requires great traditional practice of wood management, and to take into openness from the researchers’ side when approaching consideration more dimensions, the social and natural sense of place. I believe that this openness is key in diversity in specific [3]. Sense of place could be that grasping the complexity of sense of place. And this is the additional dimension and provide the link and issue that I intend to elaborate, as the visual key would understanding for reaching the objective of forests for require combination of methods that otherwise may not people. As Williams and Steward say: ‘That [sense of be used. To take a quote from Patrick Keiller’s film, an place], in essence is, the central objective of natural exploration of place: ‘Robinson believed that if he look to resource planning, and it may be the only genuinely the landscape hard enough it will reveal to him the integrative approach to managing ecosystem.’ [29, p.23]’ molecular basis of historical events and in this way he The issue that poses many concerns in sense of place hoped to see into the future’ [19]. Though in a symbolic research and application is: How to analyse sense of sense, this is that visual approach that Gieryn calls for place? Various calls have been made in this relation [5], [5]. But the issue is whether it is present in the forest [9], [22]. At first hand it seems that the issue is not related literature. whether a quantitative or qualitative analysis should be In this paper I take this challenge to explore what made. Stedman in his call for more quantitative research could this visual approach [5] in research on sense of to forests still recognizes the importance of having place be. Therefore, 1. I look into the current research qualitative research on sense of place [22]. One needs an approaches in the analysis of sense of place of forests; 2. in depth qualitative analysis before a quantitative analysis I look into the practices of analysing sense of place by can be employed [1], [11]. Yet, researchers can be practitioners; and lastly 3. I conclude this paper with a divided between quantitative analysis proponents and call to researchers of sense of place. qualitative analysis proponents. But, there is one thing that researchers agree upon, and that is that sense of place 2 SENSE OF PLACE IN FORESTRY is a complex matter [5], [9], [21], [22], thus my question here is how we should approach this complexity. 2.1 The approach of scientists Gieryn [5] understood the complexity of analysing The recognized complexity of sense of place has sense of place. Gieryn, makes a bold move and calls for a compelled researchers to analyse sense of place in a new approach to sense of place [5]. He encouraged qualitative manner. However this approach has been researchers to indulge themselves in a more visual regarded as wrongful in the context of forest planning approach, one that combines maps, photographs, [22], [23]. Stedman says that forest managers require landscapes, etc. and not being limited to mere measurable elements: ‘One cannot “manage for sense of significance testing of variables [5]. place” or integrate it into resource planning unless its 73 For. review 43: 73 - 76. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje particulars are known, as well as the process by which it place concept itself (e.g., describing higher or lower is created.’ [22, p.827]. Therefore to satisfy traditional levels of place attachment) rather than examining factors forest planning practice, sense of place is being measured that may produce attachment, or the effects of attachment and statistically treated [22], [23]. This approach and on other variables.’ [22, p.825]. And Stedman continues: understanding originates from the history of scientific ‘Thus, I assert that important thematic areas of sense of forestry (2). Scientific forestry was designed for control place theory, […] have not been adequately tested in of the resource for central (state) planning seeing the quantitative research approaches.’ [22, p.825]. Stedman forest in a utilitarian way, through the availability of thus sets the question on ‘How can we examine the wood, and stripped from any other social or natural multidimensionality of place in a manner consistent with values [20]. In this relation, scientific forestry ‘[…] has theory?’ [22, p.825]. But is it the theory that has been relied more heavily on conventional positivistic science missing in quantitative research or is it the lack of and its hypothesis-testing approach.’ [22, p.824]. The information that would be gathered beforehand in an consequence of this is that statistical measuring of sense explorative, qualitative research? We researchers should of place in order to be managed. However sense of place not simply go about ‘[…] counting and measuring before is a human dimension, and measuring variables on sense we truly understand underlying meanings that would help of place is as close as explaining the forest landscape identify what we should be counting or measuring’ [11, through the average wood mass of the plot. Or to take a p.463]. Since qualitative approach should provide the thought by Scott on the abstract measurements, it is like knowledge what to quantify, I would add that there is no explaining books in kilograms [20]. Not impossible but at quantitative approach that can replace a qualitative least questionable. approach in the analysis of sense of place. Due to this argument on traditional forestry, there is a The other side of the coin – the qualitative research is tendency for quantitative research to be conducted in not missing from forest related literature on sense of relation to sense of place of forests. Though not place. It has been noted that qualitative research has been neglecting the importance of qualitative research in dominating in the past as a way to understand the Stedman’s call [22], researchers may be inclined to go complexity of place [22]. The qualitative approach, directly to quantitative research, thus skipping a process unlikely the quantitative, does not treat but a few of understanding the sense of place and any possible dimensions of the sense of place. Qualitative research issues that may be hidden. focuses to illuminate or develop new insights. As in the Looking at the forest related literature is evidenced case of quantitative, qualitative research is in process of that the quantitative approach has more and more finding the right approach. ‘Momentum around place presence [22]. The sense of place is been treated in research is connected to the development of effective and variables that express: rootedness [15]; attachment to illuminating qualitative research methods and increasing place [10], [28]; attachment, identity, and dependence [8], acceptance of these methods.’ [30, p.858]. Yet, the [9]; characteristics of the environment, human uses of the interview, whether structured or open, remains as the sole environment, constructed meanings, place attachment and method of gaining the information sought [1], [30]. satisfaction [22]; etc. We can not say that one quantitative As seen so far, the scientists’ approach in researching approach is more dimensional than the other since the sense of place has been very rigid, and in a sense is elements of sense of place remain to be discussed and lacking that visual approach. But where would we be able treated differently by different researchers and or to find use of ‘maps, floor plans, photographic images, scientific disciplines [27]. In quantitative approach to bricks and mortar, landscapes and cityscapes’ [5, p.483]? sense of place attempts to portray the complexity of sense Recent research suggests that incorporation of spatial of place is being made and improved over time [9]. The aspects of sense of place should be done [7], [9] is along question that I find more important to this is whether the side Gieryn’s call for a visual approach [5]. “In this way selection of elements or dimensions of the sense of place [by incorporating spatial aspects], a more comprehensive are appropriate for that place. An information that should understanding of places might be attained than if one be sought through a qualitative exploration. However, were to operationalise sense of place as it has been hardly any literature combines both quantitative and described in the literature.” [9, p.326]. qualitative approach to the research of sense of place. At this point it is worth mentioning the work of The limitedness of employing only quantitative Studley in the region of Eastern Kham [23], [24]. In the research is portrayed on a research on lake side owners, seven years long study Studley made an anthropologic, where the results exhibit variations (in e.g. lake quantitative research, though combined with qualitative importance) of unknown origin that compels the research, on forest values [23]. Studley used several scientists to speculate on the origin of this variation [9]. methods to quantify indigenous forest values: text Thus, the important aspect of understanding the analysis for forest value identification, multidimensional complexity of issues that hide in the landscape is missing scaling for the cognitive mapping of forest values, from this research. ‘A general critique of all of these geostatistics for forest value distribution, and boundary quantitative studies, and key to this effort, is the analysis for changes in forest values and their unsatisfactory relation between the literature they cite and coincidence with cultural or biophysical phenomena [23]. the questions they examine empirically. Typically, the In this process, Studley [23] extracted dimensions of the literature review sections of these studies adequately indigenous sense of place, embedded with the local represent the complexity of place concepts, but the meaning, believes, cults and senses [23], [24]. But to do quantitative applications are often quite narrow, failing to this he underwent a careful and diligent process in incorporate the theoretical complexity into actual identifying the values and developing customized measures and hypothesized relationships. Measurement, methods to measure them in a way that is appropriate to even that which explores the potential the local understanding. It is perhaps this multilayer multidimensionality of place concepts such as approach that we should embrace in combining attachment, has been narrowly focused on the sense of qualitative and quantitative with spatial aspects. 74  RANTAŠA B. THE SENSE OF PLACE RESEARCH APPROACH TO FORESTS But what about photographic images and landscapes? cannot produce a space with a perfectly understanding of Are they to be treated merely as artistic forms in place cause and effect, motive and implication.’ [12, p.37]. And related science? If we are to look at paintings, Malpas this concern is not limited only to practitioners, but also vividly explains this with the case of Hobart, a town in to scientists that research sense of place. This statement New Zeland: ‘The significance of the work undoubtedly [12, p.37] should not discourage people to explore and derives from the all encompassing view of early Hobart use sense of place in their work. It should be taken as an and its immediate surrounds that the painting presents to awareness notice to be more critical in the efforts to the viewer, as well as the record it provides of the town at research and employ sense of place. this point in its history. It is through its presentation of this view that the work contributes to the sense of the 3 CONCLUSION town’s history and identity.’ [13, p.3]. As Merifield would say, place is a constellation of social elements at a point The examples I have portrayed of scientists’ and in time [16] which is comparable to a painting, as practitioners’ approaches in researching sense of place described by Malpas [13], or even a photographic image. express an abundance of approaches. Whether that they Or on the other hand, without going in to the depths of are quantitative or qualitative they may tackle but a few the discussion of the dynamism of place, the image can elements [8], [10], [15], [21], [28], or make attempts to be evidence to the dynamic character of place [14]. approach comprehensively to the sense of place [1], [9], [30]. It seems that the visual approach in researching 2.2 What about practitioners? sense of place may better be found on the practitioner’s Unburden with the rigidity of the scientific method, side [2], [6], [17], [18]. While scientists are limited in practitioners have the opportunity to experiment end combining methods, the work of Studley [23], [24] and employ methodologies that may bring innovation to the his multilayered combination of qualitative and spatially approach in researching sense of place. Though there are determined quantitative approach should be noticed. As not a lot of practitioners that employ sense of place in this multilayered approach with spatial aspects could be their planning, there are a few that they do. Their that visual approach. Though, with a down side of being methods are qualitative and do combine visual aspects. of long duration. A development group from the USA, Regenesis Perhaps I could add an advertising point by Rory Collaborative Development Group [17], [18] employs a Sutherland: ‘When you place a value on things like mixture of exploring the geographical characteristics of a health, love, sex and other things, and learn to place a location with people’s stories of that place. They interpret material value on what you’ve previously discounted for the geographic landscape and the spirit of the place in being merely intangible […] you realize you’re much, order to provide guidance for the landscape planning they much wealthier than you ever imagined.’ [25]. In forest make, which will fit to the place. planning this valuing could come from the inclusion of Though not related to forest planning practices, other, sense of place. Knowing that all values are subjective innovative approaches to analyse the sense of place by [25], and to that matter is that even sense of place is practitioners are coming up which may be used in forest subjective. It is our perception of an outsider that is the planning as well. An example is of an urban planning source of misconceptions [20], [25] to the analysing of a consultancy from Scotland that was asked to develop new very human dimension – sense of place. Keeping in mind design of a school. In their practice they used that analysing sense of place is complex and therefore is stakeholders’ consultation workshops and asked people hardly likely that with certainty can predict how we can how they feel about the school space [2]. A different manage it [12, p.37] we should primarily embrace the approach is by an architect from the USA who puts his basic aspect of understanding it and respecting it. Thus, clients under hypnosis to draw out of them the sense of we researchers should find ways to employ multilayered place they want and need [6]. approaches that combine qualitative and quantitative The examples from practitioners shown above come analyses. We should use our reasoning, common and down to a common feature, and that is that sense of place scientific, all our senses that we as humans have, but also can be represented through the emotional reasoning of our feelings, and engage our selves with the landscape in people and combined with visual – spatial aspects. order to bypass that position of an outsider and grasp the However, the use of these approaches by scientists may sense of place in order to portray it to its detail. Turning be limited. Since science is dominated by rational thought sense of place research into an exploration that goes well – logic, emotions are suppressed. This suppression of beyond the scientific skills of applying precision emotions – the human dimension, can lead to non- methodology. working solutions [26] in the same manner as the sense of place is often left out from planning and leading to 4 NOTES results that do not fit the place or even alter or destroy the place itself [4]. (1) Forests for people – the theme of the International It is interesting to see that though some scientists Year on Forests, 2011. The aim was to highlight the consider that planners or better say practitioners need relationship between people and forests, and hard statistical data for the results of studies on sense of humankind’s role in ensuring the forests well-being place to be incorporated for their management [22], [23], and development. practitioners them selves employ many, different, (2) The origin of scientific, or also referred to traditional innovative and quite unusual qualitative methods on forestry, is in 18 century in Germany, and very soon exploring sense of place and using it in their plans. after in France. It appeared as an answer to the State’s However, the greater question regarding the above needs for control of the resource – the availability of examples is about the validity of these methods. As wood. For more details see Scott (1989). Lefebvre says: ‘Even neocapitalism or ‘organized’ capitalism, even technocratic planners and programmers, 75 For. review 43: 73 - 76. Skopje, 2012 ISSN: 0585-9069 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Faculty of Forestry in Skopje 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS http://thefutureoflandscape.wordpress.com/landscape spacepolitics-an-essay/  I’d like to thank Bojan Simovski for his kindness and [15]F.T. McAndrew, The Measurement of “Rootedness” responsive guidance concerning the technicalities of and the Prediction of Attachment to Home-Towns in the paper. College Students. Journal of Environmental  I thank Gabriel Specht for taking time to read drafts Psychology, 18. (1998), pag. 409–417. of this paper and give me comments that improved [16]A. Merrifield, Place and Space: A Lefebvrian the clarity of this paper. Reconciliation. Transactions of the Institute of British  I express my appreciation to John Studley for the Geographers, New Series, 18(4). (1993), pag. 516- inspiring e-mail communication. 531. [17]Regenesis Collaborative Development Group, 6 REFERENCES Mahogany Ridge Grand Tetons Resort: A Story of Place, (2008), pag. 1-14. [1] 1. O. Avramoski, Construction of Place-Based [18]Regenesis Collaborative Development Group, The Identities Across Scales: Implications for Ecosystem McAllen Story of Place, (2010), pag. 1-59. Management, Ph.D. dissertation. Central European [19]Robinson in Ruins, [film] Directed by Patrick University, (2005), pag. 1-296. Keiller, (2010). [2] A. Cunningham, K. Kenyon, and M. Sims, Senses of [20]J.C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Place: Building Excellence: The Toolkit and Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Outcomes. (2011), pag. 1-80. Failed, (1998), pag. 1-446. [3] C. Farcy, Forest Planning in Europe: State of the Art, [21]R.C. Stedman, Is It Really Just a Social International Debate and Emerging Tools. In: Construction?: The Contribution of the Physical Towards the Sustainable Use of Europe’s Forests – Environment to Sense of Place, Society & Natural Forest Ecosystem and Landscape Research: Scientific Resources: An International Journal, 16(8). (2003), Challenges and Opportunities, F. Andersson, Y. Birot pag. 671-685. and R. Päivinen Ed. (2004), pag. 11-20. [22]R.C. Stedman, Sense of Place and Forest Science: [4] J. Friedmann, Place and Place-Making In Cities: A Toward a Program of Quantitative Research. Forest Global Perspective. Planning Theory and Practice, Science, 49(6). (2003), pag. 822–829. 11(2). (2010) pag. 149-165. [23]J.F. Studley, Sustainable knowledge systems and [5] T.F. Gieryn,. A Space for Place in Sociology. Annual resource stewardship: In search of ethno-forestry Reviews Sociology, 26. (2000), pag. 463-496. paradigms for the indigenous peoples of eastern [6] R. Hester, Social Values in Open Space Design. Kham. PhD disertation. Loughborough University , Places, 6(1). (1989), pag. 68-77. (2005), pag. 1-454. [7] M.C. Hidalgo, and B. Hernandez, Place Attachment: [24]J.F. Studley, Territorial cults as a paradigm of place Conceptual and Empirical Questions. Journal of making, (2010), pag. 1-29. Environmental Psychology, 21. (2001), pag. 273-281. [25]TED, Rory Sutherland: Life lessons from an ad man [8] B.S. Jorgensen and R.C. Stedman, Sense of Place as [video] (2009) Available: an Attitude: Lakeshore Owners Attitudes Toward http://www.ted.com/talks/rory_sutherland_life_lesson Their Properties, Journal of Environmental s_from_an_ad_man.html Psychology, 21. (2001), pag. 233-248. [26]theRSAorg, The Social Animal, [video] (2011), [9] B.S. Jorgensen and R.C. Stedman, A Comparative Available: Analysis of Predictors of Sense of Place Dimensions: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FYCBGSdtfN8 Attachment to, dependence on, and identification [27]F. Vanclay, Place Matters, in Making Sense of Place, with lakeshore properties, Journal of Environmental F. Vanclay, M. Higgins and A. Blackshaw, Ed. Management, 79. (2006), pag. 316-327. (2008), pag. 3-11. [10]B.P. Kaltenborn, Effects of Sense of Place on [28]D.R. Williams and J.W. Roggenbuck, Measuring Responses to Environmental Impacts. Applied Place Attachment: Some Preliminary Results. In: Geography, 18(2). (1998), pag. 169-189. NRPA Symposium on Leisure Research. San [11]L.E. Kruger and M.A. Shannon,. Getting to Know Antonio, Texas, USA 20-22 October 1989. (1989), Ourselves and Our Places Through Participation in pag. 1-7. Civic Social Assessment. Society & Natural [29]D.R. Williams and S.I. Stewart, Sense of Place: An Resources: An International Journal, 13(5). (2000), Elusive Concept That Is Finding a Home in pag. 461-478. Ecosystem Management, Journal of Forestry, 66(5). [12]H. Lefebvre, The Production of Space, (1974), pag. (1998), pag. 18-23. 1-455. [30]L. Yung, W.A. Freimund and J.M. Belsky, The [13]J. Malpas, Place and the Problem of Landscape, in Politics of Place: Understanding Meaning, Common The Place of Landscape: Concepts, Contexts, Studies, Ground, and Political Difference on the Rocky J. Malpas, Ed. (2011), pag. 3-26. Mountain Front. Forest Science, 49(6). (2003), pag. [14]D. Massey, Landscape/Space/Politics: An Essay. 855-866. (2011), [online] Available: 76  INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Author(s) University(ies) / Institute(s) Address(es) ABSTRACT: These notes provide important information on how to prepare and submit your paper. Read the notes carefully and follow them as precisely as possible. Any inaccuracy will cause delay at the Technical Editors and in the publication of the Forest Review. Your paper must be written in English (UK) and the layout should be exactly the same as this master document. In order to prepare your layout, save this document with a new name and use it as a guide. 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