6월 26일 2017년 By TIna C. Analysis of Literary Devices Used in Tennyson’s Idylls of the King Background Lord Alfred Tennyson (1809-1892) lived during the time when Victoria was the Queen of the United Kingdom and Britain from 1837 until her death in 1901. According to Gordon, the 19th century started in 1789. If this is the case, a brief chapter in his book should cover a span of over a hundred years (49). A few social conditions in the 17th and 18th centuries are given by Professor Charles Zueblin: 1) political reform 2) extension of commerce 3) industrial revolution 4) liberty of the press (Gordon 49). Important inventions were made allowing mass production of products. Coal was mined in large quantities which fueled the steam engines that helped machines to continue to work all the time. This improved employment immediately and gradually the standard of living. The Reform Bill of 1832 was passed giving farmers rightful representation while severely reducing the power of the class of landowners. There were heavy taxes causing the poor to suffer the most. Many political changes helped to educate the poor and free the blacks from slavery in 1833. Later in the 1870s, all departments of colleges and universities accepted women. This was a positive sign for Tennyson because he strongly believed that education was important to treat social disorders (Gordon 60). During this time, significant scientific findings and theories of the Victorian period were discovered and included stratigraphy The geological study of rock layers used to date the earth. in 1811; the first asteroid sighting (1801) and the discovery of galaxies (1840s); and Darwin’s theory of evolution and natural selection (1859). In the later half of the century, scientists, such as Joseph Lister, Louis Pasteur, and Fülöp Semmelweis experimented and studied bacteria which led to germ theory and our modern understanding of microorganisms and diseases. With these discoveries and changes affecting society, traditional religious understandings of nature and natural history were being challenged during Tennyson’s time. Introduction Idylls of the King was published in 1859. Tennyson was pursuing a theme that would be favored by the Pre-Raphaelites. At the time, Rossetti and William Morris along with their circle of friends were working on a project designing the Oxford Union building with an Arthurian theme. Tennyson was already on a wave of popularity from his already published Arthurian poems published in 1842 such as Morte d’Arthur (Batchelor 263). Within the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, there was William Fulford, Charles Faulkner and Richard Watson Dixson. Tennyson was a hero to these men (Batchelor 264). However, Morris commented that Tennyson’s version had much more smoothed out lyrical effects compared to Malory’s tough and rugged narrative. He was especially surprised by the strength of Guinevere and the ambivalence of her story (Batchelor 265). In Morrison’s own poem about her (The Defence of Guinevere of 1858), there is a scene where the Queen is about to burn her at the stake depicting a passionate, defiant, and sexually charged poem. Although Sir Thomas Malory’s original Arthurian work was created in the 15th century, the works have been enjoyed and recreated many times into different versions. The human conflicts the characters faced then were present during Tennyson’s time and still today. In my extended essay, I will discuss the literary devices and relatable theories found in Idylls of the King. Narrative Structure In reference to the title of these twelve poems under the name Idylls of the King, a couple of interesting points can be made. The word “idyll” is derived from the Greek word eidyllion, which means, "little picture.” The first idylls, written by the Greek poet Theocritus in the 3rd century BC, were little word-paintings that were purposefully were created to evoke a picture using words to describe scenes of Greek life. Many of them were about shepherds and shepherdesses, harvest festivals, and other scenes from farm life which is called pastoral. Idylls are supposed to give readers a warm, cozy feelings since they are related to people living simple, innocent, and seemingly happy lives. The idylls created by Theocritus basically idealized the country life, whereas Tennyson’s Idylls, a total of a thousand lines long consisting of twelve narrative poems, are Arthurian legends rewritten in his style. The poem style used is blank verse with iambic pentameter without rhyme. Iambic pentameter is the general pattern of meter in Idylls, but Tennyson’s version of iambic pentameter strays from the norm. He often breaks the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables for poetic emphasis or effect. Tennyson loves to use irregular meter in this way, to heighten the dramatic effects and make the sound of his poetry connect with its meaning (Shmoop, King Arthur). There is a third-person omniscient narrator in Idylls with the narration is provided by the main speaker. He makes his connection to Britain by referring to it as “this isle” (Coming, 5), which creates a sense of community between him, his audience, and the characters in the poem because they all inhabit “this isle.” This poem has zero focalization French narrative theorist Gerard Genette’s coined terminology focalization used to refer to the perspective through which a narrative is presented. with the implementation of an omniscient narrator allows readers to see, feel, and basically experience the events in the poem. However, the narrator often allows the other characters in the poem to become the narrator which is one of Tennyson's favorite narrative techniques (Shmoop, King Arthur). For example, King Leodogran and Bellicent become narrators giving the story of Arthur’s origins. There are two different accounts of his birth. They tell completely different stories, which implies that the Idylls are equally interested in different people’s perceptions of events as well as the events themselves. This narration technique involving the point of views of different characters is borrowed from the Victorian novel, which frequently uses devices like letters and stories-within-stories to narrate events. For these reasons, Tennyson’s narration in Idylls of the King is considered to be novelistic. Symbolism Through the use of symbolism, Tennyson gives deeper meaning to important themes in the poem especially in the protagonist, King Arthur. Arthur seems to have an unbelievably forgiving heart and a genuine belief that the people around can live like him according to principles like justice, truth, and fairness. Guinevere refers to him as God’s “highest creature here,” the “highest and most human, too” (651, 644). She suggests that Arthur is the purest expression of humanity, someone for whom “man’s word is God in man” (Coming,132). King Arthur is the symbol for the ideal man. He lives with honesty and truth as a universally powerful moral code that guides and rules behavior in the Idylls. Unfortunately, he is the only person in the Idylls who lives according to these standards. King Arthur seems to also have a couple of parallels with Jesus Christ from the Bible. As Jesus had a mysterious birth being born from Virgin Mary, it is unknown as to who King Arthur’s parents are. Jesus’s birth is also questionable as it is presented in the Bible. He dies due to the betrayal of Judas and is believed to have risen from the dead. In The Passing of Arthur, there are references to his passing and not death: “Delight our souls with talk of knightly deeds, walking about the gardens and the halls of Camelot, as in the days that were. I perish by this people which I made. Though Merlin sware that I should come again to rule once; but, let what will be, be, I am so deeply smitten through the helm that without help I cannot last til morn.” (The Passing .., lines 189-196) The story of King Arthur’s founding of the Round Table is told by Bellicent. She mentions the “three fair queens/ Who stood in silence near his throne, the friends/ Of Arthur … / who will help him at his need” (“The Coming of Arthur,” 275-279). These queens in Camelot also appear on the top of the entrance gate. Towards the end of “The Passing of Arthur”, King Arthur is seriously wounded, they appear on a barge that is heading toward the island of Avilion. Since they go with him to the afterlife, it’s possible that these three queens had to represent the Three Fates of Greco-Roman mythology, three sisters who were supposed to determine the destiny of every living person or they could be manifestations of faith, hope, and love. Since Arthur strives to build his kingdom on a foundation of virtue, it seems appropriate that they guard the gateway to the city he rules. In Sir Thomas Malory’s version, he uses the assertion that Arthur died and inserts a subtle assumption that Arthur will come again. He also specifies four of the women in the boat instead of three that carries Arthur away, most of whom have obvious magical associations: Morgan le Fay, King Arthur's half-sister, a sorceress and also known for her skill in necromancy. She created the magical story that led to Arthur battling against Accolon, her lover. She also turns herself and her helpers into stones when they are chased by Arthur. The Queen of Northgales, a comrade of Morgan le Fay with whom was involved in the magical imprisoning of the sleeping Lancelot. These two ladies were blamed for lady of Corbin’s torture and imprisonment in a scalding bath only because she was the most beautiful woman in the land. The Queen of the Wastelands, Perceval's aunt, gave up her great lands to become a recluse or hermit. Nimue, the Chief Lady of the Lake was responsible for magically placing Merlin beneath a stone as his imprisonment. Her magic let Arthur defeat Accolon by making Accolon drop Excalibur during their fight. Nimue's Name of the ruler of Avalon in Arthurian legend. She plays a pivotal role in many stories, including giving King Arthur his sword Excalibur, enchanting Merlin, and raising Lancelot after the death of his father. Different writers and copyists give the Arthurian character the name Nimue, Viviane, Vivien, Elaine, among other variations. Holbrook, S. E. "Nymue, the Chief Lady of the Lake, in Malory's Le Morte D’arthur." Speculum 53.4 (1978): 761-777. JSTOR. NCSU University Libraries, Raleigh, NC. 15 March 2009., also known as Lady of the Lake, magic caused Pelleas to love her and to reject Ettard. It is also considered that Malory has the women on the boat crying loudly for Arthur. This could be a traditional way of expressing grief that the ladies on the boat felt for Arthur, it is also thought to have a Celtic influence. “And when they (King Arthur and Bedivere) were at the water side, even fast by the bank moved a little barge with many fair ladies in it, and among them all was a queen, and all they had black hoods, and all they wept and shrieked when they saw King Arthur Malory, Le Morte D'Arthur, Dent: London, 1964 (1906), Book XXI, Chap., V.” This weeping and frantic crying for Arthur by black hooded females seems to be a parallel to what banshee ‘Banshee’ is originally Bean Sidhe meaning women of the fairy hills. do while the wailing foreshadowed a death. While the fact that there are several of them is a representation of Arthur's significant role. Another important use of symbolism in the Idylls of the King that cannot be excluded from mentioning is the Round Table. Medieval tables were normally rectangular in shape and sometimes square. The round shape was very rare. Because of this strange characteristic, there are several interpretations of meaning. The table’s circularity has been considered to include both positive and negative values of symbolic interpretations (Emrah, Symbolism …). The Round Table was a symbol of the equality among Arthur's knights. Traditionally, rectangular tables were used at large dinner parties with seating assignments reflecting the feudal hierarchy. In a royal court, the king and queen and a special group of nobles were seated at a "high table" on a dais dais - raised platform, as in a lecture hall, for speakers or honored guests (thefreedictionary.com), while the other guests were seated at different rectangular tables in the hall. Those with higher ranks were seated closer to the dais; individuals with lower ranks would be seated further away. The Christmas feast at the beginning of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight uses this conventional seating arrangement (Emrah, Symbolism …). The Round Table, in contrast, can be a subversion to the the feudal hierarchy with its assertion of equality for all the knights. It can be imagined that a fellowship of knights cooperating as equals by a set of principles and customs of chivalry. However, the clearly expressed statements of this theme reflect a negative aspect. Wace Wace - also known as Robert Wace; Norman poet who wrote Roman de Brut which was a verse history about Britain. , in his poem titled Brut, writes that Arthur ordered the Round Table to be built in order to resolve a conflict among his knights concerning who should have precedence (Emrah, Symbolism …). This theme is written in detail by Layamon in his Brut. It is written that during a Christmas feast at Carduel in Wales, an argument occurred among the knights as to who had precedence, and Arthur instructed Merlin to make the Round Table for the purpose of solving the problem. Therefore, the Round Table becomes a symbol of pride and controversy rather than of equality. In relation to today’s company organizational structures, the hierarchies are determined by work experience and responsibilities that reflect an individual’s title, ranking, and salary. The top tiers include the president and the vice president. In the tiers below, there are executives and managers who oversee general company workers and staff. If an organizational structures were not in place, pride and controversy would be issues among employees leading to a company’s collapse. The Round Table can also be the symbol of the world. In the 13th-century Queste del Saint Graal The Estoire del Saint Graal relates the early history of the Holy Grail, copied out for us by the priest-narrator from a book given him by Christ. In this story, the Grail is the vessel ('escuele', a bowl) used by Christ at the Last Supper, which Joseph of Arimathea takes from the Upper Room and uses to collect Christ's blood at the Entombment (and not at the Crucifixion, as so often shown in the illustrations)(http://www.lancelot-project.pitt.edu/LG-web/TheStory-Summary.htm), Malory's source for his "Sankgreall," is another interpretation of the symbolism. An anchoress A woman who has retired into seclusion for religious purposes (thefreedictionary.com) tells Perceval that he should be well aware that the world has had three great tables. The first was the Table of Jesus Christ, where the apostles often ate. After that, another table was built like it and in remembrance of it which was the table of the Holy Grail. Then, there was the Round Table built by Merlin that had a high spiritual meaning. That it is called 'the Round Table' suggests the roundness of the earth, the spheres of the planets, and the elements of the firmament ... so that the symbolic association of the Round Table can equate the world. La Queste del Saint Graal, ed. Albert Pauphilet (Paris, 1975), pp. 74-76. The Round Table can also be symbolically related to the table of the Last Supper. This the table used by Jesus and his disciples for the Last Supper which is usually shown as rectangular in shape in Renaissance art such as Leonardo da Vinci's "Last Supper." Most medieval pictures of the Last Supper also show a rectangular table, but in other pictures the table is circular. Wace's Brut: Wace, in his account of the Round Table, says that Arthur called for a round table to resolve arguments among his knights over precedence. This implies a link with the circumstances of the Last Supper, when the disciples were in contention about "which of them should be accounted the greatest" in heaven (Luke 22:24). Robert de Boron Robert de Boron, Boron also spelled Borron (flourished 13th century), French poet, originally from the village of Boron, near Delle. He was important for his trilogy of poems (Joseph d’Arimathie, Merlin, Perceval). It told the early history of the Grail and linked this independent legend more firmly with Arthurian legend, using the prophetic figure of Merlin, with his knowledge of past and future, as the connecting link (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-de-Boron). creates a link between the table of the Last Supper and the Grail Table in the second poem in his Grail trilogy, Perceval, also called the Estoire dou Graal A lost poem whose contents survive in a prose redaction called the Didot Perceval. There, Joseph of Arimathea has divine guidance to find the table that resembles the table of the Last Supper. Once he discovers this table, he puts the Holy Grail on it. The Grail was the cup that Christ during the Last Supper. At the table sitting next to Joseph is Bron In Arthurian legend the Fisher King, or the Wounded King, is the last in a long line charged with keeping the Holy Grail (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisher_King), the Fisher King. The Grail Table has thirteen seats with one kept open in memory of Judas Iscariot who betrayed Christ. Having established this link between the table of the Last Supper and the Grail Table, Robert de Boron forges a link between the Grail Table and Arthur's Round Table in the third poem in his Grail trilogy. Also, Merlin creates the Round Table with 52 places, one of which is an empty seat called the "Judas seat." (Emrah, “Symbolism …”) Another example of symbolism in the sword, Excalibur. This mysterious sword became an important weapon for King Arthur. There are a couple of versions of how it got into his hands. First of all, he was the only knight who was able to pull it out of a large stone and anvil. It was impossible for previous knights much stronger than him to successfully remove the sword so they failed. In Tennyson’s version found in Idylls, it is simply handed to him as he is crossing the lake when an arm clothed in samite comes out of the water to give King Arthur the sword. “‘And near him stood the Lady of the Lake,/Who knows a subtler magic than his own---/Clothed in white samite, mystic, wonderful. /She gave the King his huge cross--hilted sword,/ Where to drive the heathen out …” (The Coming of Arthur, lines 282-286). Excalibur represents his divine kingship. It seems like an important in of itself just like any other character or supernatural being in this legend. The kingship also is directly related to the responsibility of power. In Idylls of the King, one side of the sword is engraved: "Graven in the oldest tongue of all this world,/ 'Take me, but turn the blade and ye shall see,/And written in the speech ye speak yourself,/'Cast me away!'" (The Coming of Arthur, lines 302-304).” Tennyson is describing Arthur's face as having a sad expression as he receives the sword while Merlin advises him by saying, "'Take thou and strike! the time to cast away/Is yet far-off'” (The Coming of Arthur, lines 306-307). Because of the engraved words on the sword and Arthur’s facial response, the readers can imagine and feel what could be expected from a kingship. The moment Arthur takes the sword shows that he is accepting the responsibility of being a leader. His sadness shows that he knows it will not be an easy and eventually his kingship will fade. ‘Though therefore take my brand Excalibur, which was my pride: for thou rememberest how in those old days, one summer noon, an arm rose up from out the bosom of the lake, clothed in white samite, mystic, wonderful, holding the sword -- and how I rowed across and took it, and have worn it, like a king …”(The Passing …, lines 197-203). In The Passing of Arthur, the King is reminiscing about past days in Camelot while speaking to Sir Bedivere. The different story parts are repeated again and again such as the adultery between Guinevere and Lancelot, Arthur's favorite knight; the quest for the Holy Grail; and the battle between Arthur and his knights against his own son Mordred (Lai, King Arthur). This battle proved to be fatal for Arthur who was taken upon his death to the mythical island of Avalon where he is said to have become immortal. There is a legend which says that Arthur is the Once and Future King of Britain, meaning that he is expected to return at some time in the near future to be the king again over all of Britain. Imagery The use of literary devices like imagery is created by the use of particular words or figurative language to represent objects, actions, and ideas to appeal to the physical senses. There are several examples of imagery throughout Tennyson’s Idylls. “... a mist/ Of incense curl’d about her, and her face/ Well nigh was hidden in the minster gloom;/ But there was heard among the holy hymns/ A voice as of the waters, for she dwells/ Down in a deep; calm, whatsoever storms/ May shake the world, and when the surface rolls,/ Hath power to walk the waters like our Lord.” (The Passing of Arthur, lines 286-293) This section gives the Lady of the Lake a very mystical allure. As mist is a recurring motif throughout the Idylls, In the book Idylls of the King by Alfred, Lord Tennyson there are many things throughout the different stories that show mist imagery. The significance of mist imagery means something new is approaching, represent good, evil, or death. The use of mist can also give a sense of feeling. The imagery created by mist can foreshadow events and lead a reader to think further about the story and what could happen.When the Lady of the Lake gave Excalibur to Arthur in "The coming of Arthur," a mist of incense curled about her and her face. She was hidden and could not be seen. The mist signifies the divinity and power of the Lady of the Lake. She is an immortal being too precious to be seen by humans. A fog or mist also appeared when Excalibur was given to Arthur representing something new and good. Arthur uses Excalibur to help King Leodogran fight a battle. They won this battle and in return Arthur wanted to marry King Leodogran's daughter, Guinevere. King Leodogran was not certain if Arthur was of royal or noble birth making it difficult to decide if he should grant permission for their marriage. Arthur's birth was difficult to trace so King Leodogran had to somehow find out who his parents were. Knowing the truth was important. Later that night, King Leodogran had a dream. "Stream'd to the peak, and mingled with the haze And made it thicker while the phantom king Sent out at times a voice and here or there Stood one who pointed toward the voice, the rest Slew on and burnt, crying, No king of ours, No son of Uther, and no king of ours' Till with a wink his dream was changed, the haze Descended, and the solid earth became As nothing, but the King stood out in heaven, Crown'd. And Leodogran awoke, and sent" (Tennyson 32-33). In this quote mist functions in providing an answer to an important question. As the mist clears away allowing the king to see, this was an illustrating that his answer was clear to him. The answer was yes so Arthur was able to marry Guinevere. In the battle scene before King Arthur leaves on a barge with the three Queens, there is another instance of using a mist or fog. This is a ‘deathwhite mist’ which foreshadows something bad or evil. “Nor ever yet had Arthur fought a fight/ Like this last, dime, weird battle of the west, / A deathwhite mist slept over sand and sea;/ Whereof the chill, to him who breathed it, drew/ Down with his blood, till all his heart was cold/ With formless fear; and even on Arthur fell/ Confusion, since he saw not whom he fought./ For friend and foe were shadows in the mist,/ And friend slew friend not knowing whom he slew; And some had visions out of golden youth,/ And some beheld the faces of old ghosts/ Look in upon the battle; and in the mist …” (The Passing…,lines 93-105) It was the worst battle. Because of the mist, the knights could not see what was in front of them with friends devastatingly even killing each other. The dying looked up into the heavens and only see the inescapable mist. The word ‘mist’ is repeated a total five time in this section through lines 140. Arthur is described as the ‘pale King’ and being ‘whiter’ than mist as he had fought in the worst battle ever. Arthur still had to kill Modred who had betrayed him. Modred lands a fatal blow on Arthur causing a serious wound. His face becomes colourless while he is ‘striped with dark blood’. The description of Arthur having light and lustrous curls making ‘his forehead like a rising sun’ gives a very majestic imagery of him. While the phrases ‘like a shattered column lay the King’ emphasizes his divine like being. A more hopeful scene that Tennyson uses imagery is when King Arthur is saying farewell to Bedivere and the King is letting us know he is headed toward the island valley of Avilion. The description of this special island is delightful as it is ‘where falls not hail, or rain, or any snow,/ Nor ever wind blows loudly’. This place has meadow and orchards. It is also the place where Arthur’s wounds will be healed. Conclusion Alfred Tennyson’s Idylls of the Kings shows his poetic style in twelve poems to retell his version of Arthurian legends through the use of different literary devices such as narrative structure, symbolism,and imagery. During Tennyson’s time, there were many changes being made in British society while important scientific accomplishments occurred. New philosophical and scientific concepts evolved which caused many to doubt Christianity and their understandings of nature. While understanding these changes, Tennyson showed his love for England even when not specifically told to do so. In the Idylls of the King, Tennyson glorifies England by promoting a collective English identity where all of England should take pride in Camelot for its chivalrous and praiseworthy knights who lived there although it is thought of as an idealized place or time of beauty and peace. He modernizes the Camelot by focusing on the chivalry, loyalty, and romance especially in Idylls of the King. Using his version of poetic structure and choices in words, he paints beautiful images that are both graceful and dark, Tennyson continues the Arthurian legends for all readers to enjoy. Works Cited Ahern, Stephen. Listening to Guinevere: Female Agency and the Politics of Chivalry in Tennyson’s Idylls. Studies in Philology, Vol. 101, No. 1 (Winter, 2004), pp. 88–112. < http://www.jstor.org/stable/4174780 > Batchelor, John. Tennyson: Biography: To Strive, To Seek, To Find. London, UK: Chatto & Windus, 2012. Print. Emrah, Gurel. Symbolism of King Arthur’s Round Table - gurelemrah. Blogcu. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 June 2017. "Excalibur." Wisdom Tales. Ice Theme, n.d. Web. 23 June 2017. GORDON, WILLIAM CLARK. SOCIAL IDEALS OF ALFRED TENNYSON: as related to his time (classic reprint). S.l.: FORGOTTEN , 2015. Print. "Idylls of the King." Shmoop. Shmoop University, 11 Nov. 2008. Web. 24 June 2017. Tennyson, Alfred. Idylls of the King. London: Macmillan and Co., 1892. Print. Lai, Kenny. 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