Existential Psychology and Diversity 1 Exploring Diversity Issues in Existential-Integrative Therapy: Embracing Difficult Dialogues Louis Hoffman University of the Rockies Colorado Springs, CO Matthew Mejia University of the Rockies Colorado Springs, CO Sahibu Oumarou Institute for Transpersonal Psychology Palo Alto, CA Ana Alcahé University of the Rockies Colorado Springs, CO Note: Paper presented at the Humanist Psychotherapies Conference, Boston, MA, August, 2008. Do not distribute without permission. Existential and humanistic psychology both espouse a deep valuing of diversity – racial, cultural, gender, religious, sexual orientation, and other forms of diversity. Yet, an overview of the literature and a quick glance through the perspectives at humanistic and existential conferences illustrates that they are dominated by White, heterosexual male perspectives. This represents a very unfortunate unfulfilled potential. Existential and humanistic psychology would be stronger if more diverse voices were involved in the dialogues. Furthermore, existential and humanistic perspectives have a lot to add to the discussion of diversity issues in psychology and psychotherapy. It is our perspective in this paper that the dominance of the White heterosexual male perspective will not change unless existential and humanistic psychologies are intentional about becoming more inclusive. 1 We begin by discussing the theoretical implications of what diversity can add to existential psychology. Next, we discuss how existential psychology can be applied to diversity. Finally, we will illustrate the theoretical discussions through the application of theory to specific case illustrations. Case illustrations are fictionalized, but reflect amalgamations of actual life and case events. An assumption which pervades this paper is that if there is not some level of discomfort and tension, you are not really 1 For the purpose of this paper, we will focus mostly on existential perspectives; however, most aspects of the paper could be applied more broadly to humanistic psychology. The choice to focus on existential psychology more specifically is relevant to it being more inclusive of the darker aspects of human existence, often represented in the daimonic. Several illustrations will emphasize the utilities of this conception when applied to diversity issues. Existential Psychology and Diversity 2 talking about diversity. To truly benefit from discussions of diversity, existential and humanistic psychology needs to embrace difficult dialogues and the accompanying tensions. What Existential Psychology Can Learn from Diversity Cultural competency has become one of the buzz phrases in the field of psychology. Defined as including multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skill (Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992; Sue, Bernier, Durran, Feinberg, Pedersen, Smith, & Vasquez-Nuttall, 1982), these domains serve as a helpful starting point. However, true cultural competencies must also take into consideration to the particular context of therapy. Cultural competency may look quite different in an existential-humanistic context when compared with brief therapy models. We hope this paper will serve as a beginning point to develop a culturally competent existential-humanistic approach to therapy. Acceptance as Avoidance The most problematic paradox for many groups who claim to embrace diversity is that their exuberant acceptance often serves as avoidance of the issues. The intensions are often good with these individuals and groups; they do, as a principle, value diversity and generally have some interest in learning about different cultures and groups of people. In the eagerness to demonstrate acceptance, however, they often shut down conversations and miss important details. The focus becomes more on making sure the other knows one is okay with diversity than engaging in conversations about differences as experienced by the individual client. An honest awareness recognizes that all people have their cultural prejudices. It is quite natural to have preferences for what is familiar and discomfort in some areas of difference. Many common cultural differences emerge on sensitive topics such as boundaries, appropriate expression of emotion, touch, taboo conversation topics, and self-disclosure. Although all of these vary significantly within a cultural, there are also significant between group differences. It is only natural to be uncomfortable when around a culture that touches more than one is familiar with or to feel neglected, or even rejected, when with a cultural group that touches much less than what one is familiar with. These differences, even when cognitively accepted as okay, still will frequently Existential Psychology and Diversity 3 produce judgments on an emotional or unconscious level. By voicing the cognitive acceptance too strongly, one is often not even aware of the bodily or unconscious judgment of difference. A genuine acceptance and embrace of diversity must embrace the tensions and well as the benefits. Diversity is not easy; there is a reason why so many people avoid it. If we only focus on promoting peace, we often forget about preventing wars. This is a subtle difference, but an important one. Preventing wars recognizes the natural potential for violence and conflict within human nature. If these are avoided, they gain power and influence over individuals and groups. Similarly, if we only focus on getting along, but are not open to engaging in difficult dialogues, we will not succeed in promoting a deeper embracing of diversity. Cultural Knowledge Knowledge about a group of people can be both a help and a hindrance to cultural sensitivity and competence. When the issue of diversity first emerged as a popular and influential topic in psychology the focus was almost exclusively on cultural knowledge. The implicit assumption was that if a therapist was knowledgeable, they would be effective in working with diversity. This approach was not only problematic, it was dangerous. The result of the naïve approach to knowledge as the basis for competency in diversity led to stereotyping clients and therapists alike. This was heightened in the days of the empirically supported treatment movement when it was assumed culture was just one more factor in the equation that determined which type of therapy was the best for whom. As part of this equation, it was often maintained that existential, humanistic, and other depth psychologies were not appropriate for most ethnic minorities. This approach of deterring minority groups from depth psychotherapy is an example of some of the more disturbing elements of the misuse of cultural knowledge. Some of this, however, was rooted in good intentions. It is common in some cultural groups to be more resistant to longer term therapy and, at times, some cultural values line up better with brief forms of therapy. However, there were also some implicit assumptions that are quite disturbing. For example, it was often maintained that minority groups could not afford long term therapy. Too often this became tied to stereotyping Existential Psychology and Diversity 4 individuals from minority groups as being poor and less educated without checking out the assumption. Furthermore, there were not attempts to try to encourage therapists to develop creative models to work with people who do not have the same access to health care due to lack of insurance and/or lack of income. Second, there was often an implicit assumption that depth psychotherapy was too sophisticated for many minority groups; this is part of a more blatant, negative stereotype less likely to be voice explicitly. It also missed the fact that there are cultural beliefs that are congruent with a depth therapy approach. Last, it is assumes that all people from “other” groups are alike, when in reality there are always significant within group differences. Knowledge Benefits. Increasingly it is being advocated that therapists need to allow clients to tell their story and understand the client’s experience of their culture from their own viewpoint. This is a natural convergence with the phenomenological perspective emphasized in humanistic and existential psychology, as well as the perspectives on diversity advocated by individuals such as Clifford Geertz (1973) from an anthropological perspective. This should not be an excuse to avoid seeking cultural knowledge; instead, it should encourage people to hold cultural knowledge cautiously. Existential thinkers have traditionally been very involved in literature, the arts, philosophy, and broader intellectual dialogues. They do not engage in these perspectives in order to be able to philosophize with clients about Nietzsche or discuss the implications of Camus’s novels for understanding what it means to be human. Instead, there is the assumption that engagement in these broader and diverse ways of thinking will deepen the therapists understanding of what it means to be human and inform how they see their clients. For example, after reading Camus’s (1942/1988) The Stranger, the therapist may be able to more subtly identify issues of passivity, responsibility, and guilt in the client. Literature and philosophy help improve our therapeutic vision. Cultural knowledge serves a similar purpose. When a therapist is familiar with a client’s culture, they are better able to hear the issues of diversity. For example, if a therapist does not have a degree of understanding of what it means to come from a collectivist culture, they will only be able to interpret the client’s collectivist mindset through an individualist worldview. This example is particularly difficult or many Existential Psychology and Diversity 5 humanistic and existential therapists. It is easy to pathologize collectivist choices as conformity. The existential therapist who wished to develop cultural competence needs to seek out many forms of cultural knowledge. Scholarly writing is a good beginning; however, it is never sufficient. Reading Sue and Sue (date), which is considered one of the standard diversity texts for mental health professionals, will promote cultural competence. A second point, however, should be engaging in diverse narratives. For example, to develop a better understanding of historical impact of slavery on African Americans, it may be better to read Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Stowe, 1852/1999) than an article on slavery. Poetry by a Chicano artist may be more informative than a textbook chapter. It should be pointed out, too, that the impacts of slavery are still alive and well in contemporary culture. Developing cultural competence through knowledge can seem a bit overwhelming. It is not possible to develop knowledge of all the different types of diversity and what this may mean for individuals. For example, if one were to think about the Black experience in America, there are many variations. It is very different to grow up Black in the South, the Northeast, the Midwest, or Southern California. Being Black in the Caribbean, although also tied to the historical trauma of slavery, is very different from growing up as an African American descendant of slavery. Being an immigrant from Africa post-slavery is also very different from the growing up Black in America. These variations can be reflected in many cultural groupings. It is not necessary to have specific knowledge of all cultural groups and subgroups. Instead, what is needed is general knowledge with enough specific knowledge of variations and particular stories to recognize different potential experiences. Diverse knowledge, even when incomplete, helps develop flexibility in thinking and vision. With one perspective on a groups experience, one is more likely to stereotype; with multiple perspectives on a group, one is more likely to see to hear the individual’s story and experience. Cultural Knowledge and Trust. The cultural knowledge of the therapist can either bolster or interfere with developing trust and a therapeutic alliance. The most evident example of this is that when therapists use cultural knowledge to stereotype clients, it Existential Psychology and Diversity 6 will often create barriers in the therapeutic relationship, if the client even returns to therapy. It is important for therapists to gauge how and when their sharing of cultural knowledge should be used. Clients will often provide information to help make this determination. Too often therapists will share assumed cultural knowledge out of their own insecurities in dealing with cultural issues. Because they are worried about how their client views their competency, they try to prove this to the client. Typically, this will backfire and cause harm to the therapeutic alliance. The lead author has even supervised cases where the therapist corrected the client on aspects of cultural knowledge in attempts to demonstrate their competency. Never did the client return in these situations. When client’s voice concern about issues of cultural competency or ask questions of client’s experience, the tempered demonstration of some cultural knowledge may bolster the trust. We recommend, however, always balancing any demonstrations of cultural knowledge with indications of awareness of differences. As part of this, it is often good to follow up with encouragement for the client to share of their experience. Integration of Cultural Ideas and Practice. All cultures have some indigenous ways of treating psychological and physical dysfunction. This is an area where many humanistic and transpersonal psychologists have excelled through having engaged in research and integration into practice (add references). This, however, should still be used with caution. In some instances, when a therapist does not share the cultural background, the individual’s may find it offensive for the therapist to engage in these practices. In these situations, the therapist may encourage the client to engage in these practices on their own, make approach adjunctive referrals, or collaborate with appropriate individuals. Passively Colluding with the Oppressor The reality that psychology historically has been a White male dominated field is very well established at this point. As that begins to change, some in the field are trying to make sense of what this has meant for psychology and how it would look different from a more balanced perspective. Psychology, in many ways, is a system that helps Existential Psychology and Diversity 7 maintain the status quo. When individuals act outside of cultural norms, they are diagnosed with a mental illness and labeled as “unhealthy” or “a problem” without even consulting them on their viewpoint on these behaviors and experiences. The maintenance of the status quo through psychology is quite evident to the honest observer. Kutchins and Kirk (1997) point out that there is still very evident racism and sexism in the Diagnostic and Statistic Manual or Mental Disorders (Fourth ed., Text rev.; American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Women are still more likely to be diagnosed with the various emotional disorders and many minority groups, most notably African American males, are more likely to be over-diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder. One of the more destructive examples of subtle manifestations of maintaining the status quo is the often unintentional practice of colluding with the oppressor. Oftentimes, psychotherapy serves to make people become more comfortable in unjust situations (Hillman & Ventura, 1992; Kutchins & Kirk, 1997). For example, when a client comes in suffering from the emotional consequences of racism, sexism, or homophobia, therapy often serves to help them become more comfortable and tolerant of the situation, or they encourage them to find a healthier environment. Other times therapists may even seek to help the victim better understand why the oppressor is they way he or she is. In essence, this reinforces and enables the oppressive system. At times, a more appropriate response may be to encourage the client to get in touch with their anger, hold on to it, and use it to fuel positive change. This refusal to engage anger as a source of energy, rather than viewing it as destructive force is, in itself, a reflection of Ango-American discomfort with anger as an emotion. There are many other ways psychotherapy may collude with oppressive systems. Even just using the DSM-IV, and creating “evidence based practices” contingent upon such diagnosisare common examples. To avoid such colluding will require a broad rethinking of the field of psychology. Acculturation and Cultural Identity Development Acculturation and cultural identity development are common themes in the diversity literature so we will not discuss these in detail; however, it is important to recognize the influence these have on the behavior, attitudes, and emotions of the Existential Psychology and Diversity 8 client. For example, it may be more normative than not for individuals at points of their identity development to experience anger at the dominant culture. For therapists of the majority culture, they are more likely to be the target of anger and resistance when minority clients are in this stage of development. When this occurs, it is important for the therapist not to be defensive of their culture and instead hold and even, at times, encourage the client’s anger. Similarly, acculturation issues are important to interpret in context. Clients often have complex competing internal and external worldviews that emerge through the acculturation process. For example, when an individual moves from a collectivist culture, they may feel guilty about over-indulging in selfish pleasures. Many therapists with good intentions try to help them “get over” this guilt and recognize that it is okay to engage in some selfish behaviors. This, in essence, serves to discount the person’s culture of origin and may not be what they desire. Instead, therapists should work with clients to formulate an intended therapy direction and recognize the complexity that are part of this process. “Acting White” for the Therapist Diverse clients often may work harder to be culturally sensitive to the therapist than the therapist does to the client. For example, the client may avoid talking about diversity issues that could make the therapist uncomfortable, hide aspects of their cultural belief, or avoid disagree with the therapist’s cultural understanding. This is more likely to be true if the therapist displays any defensiveness of their cultural background. This is problematic as it serves to leave an important aspect of a person outside of the therapy process necessitating a less than holistic process. Therapists often need to be intentional about diversity issues or they will be lost in the process. A first aspect of being intentional is creating the space for the client to talk about diversity issues. Second, therapists need to be willing to broach the topic. Like other sensitive issues, such as sex, death, and religion, the client often will not broach the topic until it is safe. When therapists take the initiative on this topic, clients will often feel freer to bring this topic up again in the future. Last, therapists must listen closely for diversity issues. Client will often broach these topics indirectly, or they may only briefly touch on the topic before quickly transitioning away. This serves as a testing Existential Psychology and Diversity 9 to see if these are safe topics. If the therapist does hear, or doesn’t respond when this occurs, the client may not provide the therapist with a second chance. Multiple Diversities All individuals have many different cultures that they are apart of. This ranges from their familial culture to the racial culture to other ways that they define themselves. These multiple identities can be particularly difficult when it includes various groups that are often the target of oppression or discrimination. For example to be Latina and lesbian or African American and Muslim can add layers of complexity to the challenges faced. Therapists must recognize that the multiple forms of diversity impact and changes each of the particular forms of diversity. The experience of being African American and gay changes how the individual experiences being African American. Therapists also must be careful not to focus on one form of diversity and in doing so neglect or discount other forms of diversity. This is common in many work and educational settings. Institutions will often emphasize the different in specialties or approaches to a topic, which are relatively “safe” forms of diversity, and then neglect the more sensitive forms of diversity. The same can easily occur in therapy if the therapist is not intentional about addressing the multiple diversities. What Existential Psychology Can Offer Diversity We have already some natural alliances between existential perspectives and diversity. For example, we discussed how phenomenology is a natural ally with the diversity voices advocating against using cultural knowledge to stereotype. However, existential psychology also can deepen and enhance diversity perspectives and cultural competency through some unique contributions. Pathology and Diagnosis A natural convergence between diversity and existential perspectives emerges around issues of diagnosis and pathology. Although for somewhat different reasons, both are skeptical of diagnosis. Cultural perspectives emphasize that there are different cultural norms and contexts that should impact diagnosis. Similarly, diversity perspectives emphasize the idea of culture-bound syndromes, which appear to only occur within particular cultures. Existential Psychology and Diversity 10 From an existential perspective, diagnoses often represent oppressive cultural norms and conformity, which are often not healthy. Furthermore, they believe much of what is often considered pathological may be normal, and even healthy. For example, while many approaches to therapy emphasize tolerating anxiety, the existential approach is one of the few that would go a step further to valuing depression. “Dirty Little Secrets” No culture is perfect. Each cultural heritage comes with its benefits and liabilities. Therapists, with the good intentions of respecting cultural heritage, often are overly cautious about saying anything that could be conceived of as critical of an individual’s. This is not all bad. It is important to respect the cultural differences, even when they represent a different values system or understanding of mental health. However, therapists also can help client’s think through their own culture from their vantage point. United States culture, to begin with a safer example, can be conceived of having a number of liabilities. We need to be overly absorbed with the self (i.e., excessively individualistic), destructively materialistic, and fairly narcissist when comparing our culture to others around the world. Although the ethical therapist respects the client’s decision to adhere to these values or not, he or she may encourage the client to think through and recognize some of the liabilities of these values and worldviews. For example, individualism, particularly in more extreme forms, can be connected with a loss of shared meaning and some meaningful ways of related to one’s cultural groups. It is a little more difficult to help a client think through their culture when it is not the dominant culture. For example, many cultures, including many Asian cultures, tend to be highly constrained emotionally. Oftentimes this may be associated with various somatic issues, physical health problems, or other psychological challenges. The Daimonic Rollo May (1969) defines the daimonic is “any natural function which has the power to take over the whole person” (p. 65). The daimonic, in itself, is neither good nor bad, it is neutral. It is how it is used. Similar to Jung’s idea of the shadow, the existential perspective emphasizes the need to integrate the daimonic into the broader understanding of the whole person. When the daimonic is used creatively, such as integrating it into one’s understanding of themselves or through other creative Existential Psychology and Diversity 11 expression, it serves a positive potential. However, when repressed, denied, and avoided, then it serves negative or destructive ends. This concept has powerful applications for diversity issues on many levels, including applications with people from the majority culture as well as individuals from the minority culture. First, we have already discussed the natural tendencies toward divisiveness over difference, including cultural difference. When one denies this daimonic potential, it serves to strengthen it. For example, in work settings some of the most culturally oppressive supervisors are the ones who voice a strong embracing of diversity. The need to be viewed as accepting or for people to get along often serves react strongly to any tension between cultural groups. They avoid hiring people who could introduce tensions into the workplace and strictly rebuke anyone who challenges the status quo of perceived peace. Becker (1973) and the terror management theorists (Pyszczynski, Solomon, & Greenberg, 2003; Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, 2004), who based their approach on the works of Becker, purport that at times of threat (i.e., mortality salience), individuals tend to align with self-identified cultural groups and view other groups with greater negativity and hostility. This suggests that there are both internal and external influences that may contribute to how an individual deals with their daimonic impulses. Culture can provide healthy outlets for the daimonic, such as in the civil rights movement, or encourage destructive outlets, such as what occurred in Nazi Germany leading up to the Holocaust. Without awareness, it is likely that most individuals will follow the past of least resistance, which is generally the culturally sanctioned outlet. One of the great dangers in regard to the daimonic is repression. Personally, the repressed daimonic can led to a variety of somatic issues, particularly when connected to strong emotions. At other times, the repressed daimonic serves to fulfill the psychoanalytic adage that which is repressed will find expression somewhere. This expression is generally some form of acting out. The two common examples of this are sex and aggression. When sexual impulses are repressed, the person often acts out with pornography, promiscuity, or other forms of dangerous or unsatisfying sexual expression. When anger is repressed, it often leads to passive-aggressive or direct aggression. This aggression is often displaced or projected onto an individual or group. Existential Psychology and Diversity 12 This final example serves to explain many, if not most, hate crimes. When a person is unable to accept an aspect of themselves, it is often projected upon others (Keen, 1991). For example, the individual who is unable to accept their experience of same-sex attraction, even on an unconscious level, will often displace their internalized disgust onto lesbian, gay, and/or bisexual (LGB) individuals. This can be just as true for LGB individuals who have not accepted their sexual orientation and heterosexual individuals who have the fleeting or occasional homosexual attraction. From the enemy within we create the enemy out there. From the perspective of repression, we can begin to understand many expressions of violence, hate, and oppression. The daimonic interacts with various forms of identity development. For example, in racial identity development, the daimonic urges may be directed differently at varied points of development. At times, it may be reflected in the internalized racism and be directed at one’s own group. This could, potentially, account for some of the violence within racial groups. At other points of racial identity development, the daimonic impulses may be driven more toward the dominant group, or even other racial groups. The daimonic may also emerge connected with self-affirming tendencies when an individual is caught in an oppressive system. The aggressive impulses that may follow are natural, and could even be seen as healthy. To be okay with being mistreated or discriminated against is not a sign of good psychological health in most instances; instead, it often a sign of internalize self-hate, shame, or apathy. When this occurs, therapists should not, as noted before, enable oppressive systems. Instead, the therapist often will want to encourage the client to express and hold on to the feelings of justified anger and then help the client find a creative outlet. The Daimonic, Diversity, and Psychotherapy. The famous debate between Carl Rogers (1981, 1982) and Rollo May (1982) on the concept of evil has important implications here. May was critical of Rogers for avoiding the concept of evil and the daimonic. He referred to a study that Rogers did in which he asked other expert therapists, including Rollo May, to evaluate video taped sessions of client-centered therapy. Although May was largely positive about what had occurred in these sessions, he was critical o the client-centered therapists for avoiding dealing with the more Existential Psychology and Diversity 13 destructive impulses and being “too nice.” May believed the therapy would have been more complete and effective if the client-centered therapists were more open to the daimonic. This avoidance of the daimonic illustrates the concept we purported earlier that over-acceptance often equates avoidance. This tendency, indeed, may be one of the most significant and important differences between humanistic and existential therapy. From an existential perspective, it is important that the therapist is willing to engage around messy topics. Psychotherapy is not always nice and clean, nor should it be. If so, it would not apply very well to live, which also is messy. To just accept diversity, and to do nothing to fight against it, is a type of passive evil. For too long major segments off psychotherapy have either stood silence on the difficult aspects of diversity or done too little. It is time to engage. In psychotherapy, the culturally competent therapist can engage and utilize the daimonic when working with dominant and minority cultural groups. Within the dominant cultural groups, it often is important to help the individual recognize their own daimonic potentials to help prevent them from projecting this on others. This serves as an example of how integrating the daimonic into one’s self understanding serves as a healthy, creative integration of the daimonic. When working with minority and oppressed groups, it is important to help them channel the daimonic impulses, including those which emerge from environmental contexts, creatively. For example, the daimonic can often be channeled to motivate an individual to promote systemic change in oppressive systems. An Existential Perspective on Stories and Myths Rollo May’s (1991) attempt to revitalize the concept of myth has many important implications for diversity. Through the advent of modernism, mythos was replaced by logos (Armstrong, 2001). Historically, myths were understood as valid ways of understanding and communicating about truths. As science began to dominant the world of epistemology, myths became understood as something that were false or deceptive about truth. May, conversely, argued that myths were ways of talking about truths that cannot be proven. Existential Psychology and Diversity 14 The denigration of myth is more common in cultures and countries that have been more influenced by modernism. However, even within these cultures, there are many who retain myths, or stories, as important ways of knowing. Furthermore, postmodernism’s focus on narratives in many ways could be understood as a return to myth. Regardless, stories and myths are important ways of communicating in many cultures. In particular, stories serve as a “safe” way of talking about difficult topics and developing relationships. Stories can be very useful in existential therapy, particularly when working with particular cultural groups. When clients are resistant to talking about a topic, stories are often a useful way of introducing the topic. These tend to be less threatening. Additionally, some topics may be worked through metaphorically through the use of stories instead of dealing directly with the topic. Thus, stories can even be a way of dealing with taboo topics. Stories and Myths The Story of José and Amelia: Refugees in America José, Amelia, and their three children (ages 4, 7, and 13) moved to the United States in late 2004 after obtaining political asylum. They had been moved around several states by the governmental office in charged of their refugee status before settling in Colorado. The family had been victims of horrific war crimes and experienced trauma in their ordeal getting out of Colombia. No one in the family spoke English. This was the first time the family traveled out of their country of origin. The only information they had about “America” is what they had seen in Hollywood movies which played in a movie theater in a near by town. The family came from a low socioeconomic background; they had lived for most of their lives in an isolated rural area were they worked as farmers. Their main social activities revolved around their traditional Catholic Church. As most families in their community, they maintained a close relationship with their extended family who lived a few miles away. The family was referred to therapy in order to process their traumatic experiences; they were referred to a local community clinic. The clinic’s director assigned a Hispanic therapist to work with the couple thinking that this would be a Existential Psychology and Diversity 15 perfect working match since they all came from “South America.” This was not the first time that this therapist was assigned a client from a Hispanic decent; she was assigned every client who mentioned any affiliation with the Hispanic-Latino community regardless of anything else. She was presumed to understand every client’s life experience in this country, however, she was not even born in the United States she had come two years before on a student visa from Central America. The therapist met for the first time with the couple with some reservations, she did not know what to expect since there was little information in their file due to the language barrier. During their sessions José remained mostly quiet but attentive and respectful; Amelia, however, talked incessantly about unrelated details of their traumatic experiences and about how she resented being in this country. The therapist’s supervisor (a white middle class woman) told the therapist to empathize with the couple, by letting them know that she understood their situation to perfection since she was also “in the same situation” (away from home), and then to allow them to explore the wonderful opportunities that they had as newly American residents. She also wanted to start working on their trauma issues as soon as possible, since that was their main complaint. The supervisor also suggested that Amelia take a personality test in order to clarify her suspicious about her “histrionic tendencies.” The therapist knew right away that if she were to approach the couple following her supervisor’s advice they would never come back. Armed with her better judgment and additional information from a consultation with a multicultural versed professor, she did something completely different and strangely simple: She was honest and asked them to tell her about their lives which were, contrarily to popular belief, completely opposite from hers. She let them know she was confused about their background, the important details of their traumatic experiences and most importantly about their true feelings and emotions. The therapist had not seen them express any emotions; they reported back to her as if they were reading from a shopping list. She also disclosed some of her own cultural struggles as she went over some helpful community referrals. As time went by the couple started feeling more at ease with the therapist as they both disclosed more information about themselves, their family of origin, their children and the struggles with their new lives. Although the therapist understood early on that Existential Psychology and Diversity 16 the family felt isolated from their “essence” (their identification with their home land within their particular collectivist mindset), she later understood that it was the cultural dissonance that took precedence on their main complaint. She felt honored to have worked with the couple. They not only helped her learn about the importance of trusting her own instincts and being authentic, but most importantly not assuming anything which could ultimately lead to therapeutic harm. Assuming intrinsic cultural qualities without further clarification will result in great errors in therapeutic judgment, and will ultimately tamper the therapeutic relationship. Although cultural knowledge and familiarity may, at times, facilitate the therapy process (see next two examples), the assumption of cultural knowledge or understanding of the client is often counterproductive. It is our opinion, that in this politically correct country, a great psychologist (existentialist, humanistic, or otherwise) should not seek to become well versed in understanding global culturally/ethical roles, but instead stride to understand each person in the complexity of their uniqueness in order to capture their true essence and honor them for what they truly are: a wonderful human being! The Case of Eddie Eduardo, or Eddie as he liked to be called, is a 32-year old Latino of Mexican descent. His family’s lineage on both sides was from Southern Colorado, an area of the United States that was originally part of Mexico. While his generations of his family had been American citizens, the family had often grown through marriages with Mexican Nationals. Eddie’s primary language was English, but Spanish was spoken to some degree in the home. Eddie came to therapy while in the community based upon a parole directive. He had attended therapy while in the Colorado Department of Corrections (DOC) while in a medium security facility. He was later transferred to the one psychiatric facility that was a part of the DOC system. Eddie had been responding to voices only he could hear, and he had some strong delusional beliefs. When he was paroled he was on a stable medication regiment but it was determined by his parole officer that Eddie might benefit from therapy and the officer also felt that he needed help understanding what was happening with Eddie so he could provide appropriate community supervision. Due to Existential Psychology and Diversity 17 what could be described a “bureaucratic gridlock,” Eddie’s mental health records were not available to his parole officer or to his community based therapist. When Eddie entered therapy his only stated goal was to attend because his parole officer had told him to do so. However, he quickly slid into using the time to tell stories about his childhood and discuss his problems finding an acceptable woman to date and his struggles being independent from his family. From here goals were set that he could use the time to explore his relationships with others, women in general, his family members, his parole officer, and how he saw himself. He reported little understanding of what interventions had been attempted while he was in DOC. He was able to report about medication evaluations but stated that he never sat down and talked with anyone about much more than that or if he was following the facility rules. He had no knowledge of his diagnosis, but reported he thought he was hearing voices at one point. Therapy set out focusing on Eddie’s relationship goals and it was noticed that he had transient depression, often attached to his feelings that he could not separate from his family to be an adult. He shared stories about lying on hands and healing members of his family and others because he had a gift from G*D. He started to share stories from his past, often in the middle of discussing a more recent and relevant event. These stories often involved people threatening him or others and then him being unbeatable in a fight and others backing down. He often became very emotional during these stories. The nature of the stories was such that they were unbelievable and had a quality similar to a young child bragging to a friend. Therapy then shifted into two major types of interventions: bringing therapy into the here and now and the use of interpretation. The first was to insure that the therapist was as fully present as possible to Eddie. In this the focus was placed on the here and now experience of both Eddie and the therapist. When stories were told and emotions expressed, the emphasis was placed on the current experience and how it felt to have that experience in the context of therapy. The therapist openly shared his feelings of confusion; at times feeling overwhelmed by the current emotion and at times fear. This was then discussed to determine if it was the therapist’s feelings or Eddie’s feelings being picked up by the therapist or both. Existential Psychology and Diversity 18 The second type of intervention was to offer interpretations to Eddie about his stories. This was based on the idea that everything the client brings to session has some meaning or it would not have been shared, as well as the feeling that the stories were improbable or even symptoms that were psychotic in nature. Once the interpretations were offered, usually about needing to feel safe and feelings that boundaries were being violated in an emotional way, there was often an emotional response and affirmation by Eddie that this fit. Because of this “fit” the interpretations continued to be used. When Eddie shared that his parents left the house unlocked and that he was being raped every night, which he knew because he woke up with phlegm in his mouth in the morning, it was concerning to the therapist. An interpretation of feeling very unsafe and not protected was offered and then the feelings of being safe or unsafe in session were explored. After many sessions of exploring this Eddie disclosed that he had been brutally raped while in prison. He was able to discuss this off and on throughout therapy, at times sliding back into strange stories that appeared to be symbolic discussions of his trauma. Unfortunately Eddie’s therapy was cut short due to a violation of parole which led to him returning to detention. The therapist that worked with Eddie shared a culture with Eddie. It was believed by the therapist that acculturation is a dynamic rather than a static state. Rather than accepting that Eddie had been raised in this country and therefore was “American,” it was assumed that Eddie could be both very “American” and very “Mexican” at the same time. While the only thing known about his mental health history was his psychotic symptoms, and a likely diagnosis of schizophrenia, his stories were not assumed to be psychosis and therefore stronger psychopharmacological intervention was not requested. His stories of healing, specifically, were congruent with Mexican Folk culture. The therapist’s shared belief in the usefulness of dreams, an ancient Pre-Colombian tradition in Mexico, was also used as the launching pad for the interpretation of Eddie’s other stories. In accepting this, Eddie’s therapist had to deal with his own cultural upbringing, where belief in “folk magic” was a “dirty little secret” of Latino culture that was not discussed with outsiders or even fully admitted to within the culture (as it makes one sound uneducated). In this example, the therapist was able to integrate specific Existential Psychology and Diversity 19 cultural beliefs in a manner that 1) avoided pathologizing aspects of culture, 2) aligned with the cultural belief, and 3) integrated the cultural belief into the therapy process. From the existential/humanistic position, what was brought forth in this case was the stress placed on developing and exploring the relationship between therapist and client. The therapist was able to be open with Eddie in a way that does not fit other theoretical orientations, which allowed the shared cultural background to contribute to the therapy process and alliance. The worth of taking this approach was shown when Eddie was able to “pull together” when relationship issues were explored and interpretations offered. The “climax” of this was Eddie being able to disclose his own trauma. While interpretation was a significant part of this case, interpretation without the relationship base would have been meaningless in the estimation of Eddie’s therapist. In this case, the client, not the diagnosis, was the focus. This allowed for a case conceptualization that included Eddie’s culture without having to choose between cultural beliefs and Psychiatric diagnostic systems The Case of Cuento Therapy A family presenting for therapy was made up of a 16 year old adopted son and a Latino couple in their early sixties. The son was the identified client, recently placed in residential treatment due to his anger and depression becoming unmanageable. The family also reported problems with general defiance. As they shared a general history of their various attempts at therapy it became clear that in each attempt either the son, James, had stopped talking to the therapist or, if family interventions were attempted, the mother and father resisted. At no time did the family state outright that they felt that this was a cultural issue, but the three previous therapists had been Anglo. Therapy started with having the family members talk about their past therapy experiences as well as their interaction with the Department of Social Services, who placed James at the residential facility, and the problems they felt they were facing. The therapist felt that an understanding of what had not worked and why was important and this led to the family spending a significant amount of energy into asking questions about the therapist. The parent’s wanted to know if the therapist had been born and raised in the local community; the family was from the small city that the residential facility was in. They asked about the therapist’s ability to speak the Spanish language. The therapist Existential Psychology and Diversity 20 reported that he had been born and raised in the community and that he spoke some Spanish but was not fluent. This led to the therapist stating his family roots including the names of his grandparents. While it might seem odd that the therapist disclosed so much person information, it was part of a cultural ritual to some degree as well as a “test” being offered by the family. The underlying question, because the therapist was Latino of Mexican descent like the family, was “how Mexican are you?” Because of the size of the community and the cultural focus of the family a recitation of the family history was given, this is similar to introductions in many of the Southwest Indigenous tribes. Knowledge of what was being asked was important in this instance as it could have been mistaken as the family attempting to control the therapeutic situation when in fact they were engaging in a social engagement to become comfortable with the therapeutic process. This engagement allowed the therapist to make his own analysis of how much influence traditional Mestizo cultural norms affected the family. Based upon the feeling that the family was able to function like “American’s” when needed but in reality functioned in a very traditional manner within the home a new concern arose from the therapist. If it were not or the in-depth discussions about culture and the building of trust, the family could of easily been conceptualized as being primarily acculturated, especially to a therapist who was not part of the family’s culture. As possible cultural problems were not stated as the problem with prior therapists, this therapist’s age had not been openly mentioned as a problem. While the therapist could have asked about this directly, indirect communication of sensitive topics is traditional in Mestizo culture. The therapist was young enough to be the child of the parents in this family; in fact, the parents were between the ages of his parents and his grandparents. Being told what to do by someone so young would likely not be accepted by a traditional family in this culture. All cultures have a storytelling tradition, although it seems that in the so called First World Nations those traditions are dying. In this case the therapist listened to what was going on with the family and then in response offered stories. The stories were of two general types, traditional folk tales or cuentos and “Mi Abuelo” stories. The cuentos offered were traditional Mexican folk stories as well as traditional stories from the Existential Psychology and Diversity 21 Pueblo and Navajo Nations. These stories were used as a method of indirect communication and confrontation with the family. Metaphor and the art of the story were used to help them look at their interactions in a different manner. The “Mi Abuelo” stories were stories told as if they were true and something that the therapist’s own grandfather had said at some point in time. As the therapist’s grandfather had already been “introduced” when the family was first meeting with the therapist, they knew that he was an eighty year old man who grew up in the state of Michoacán in Mexico and was a US citizen. This made him the elder in the room, and therefore the voice of wisdom. The therapist did use actual stories or sayings from his grandfather, but he also freely used his grandfather as a character in stories of the therapist’s own creation to help hit a point home. This aspect of myth-making is common in many cultures as a way of communicating meaning. It could easily be argued that such intervention, while culturally appropriate, better represent a Strategic and Structural Family Therapy Approach. In what way was this existential/humanistic? Indeed, this case is a family therapy case and was conceptualized as such. The overall attempt was to create a meaningful connection with the members of the family as this was viewed by the therapist as the real agent of change. The true “problem” presented by the family was the same as any other family or individual, “how do I as the therapist make a human connection with you, the client(s)?” The way this was answered was different, but the human to human connection made was how the change in the family system was created. Such a view is congruent with both the larger existential/humanistic tradition as well as the Structural Family Therapy approach (Minuchin, Nichols & Lee, 2007). The Story of Fred: An Angry Black Man Fred is a 36-year old African American who presented for therapy for anger management issues. At one of his previous jobs, he had been encouraged to seek therapy because of work related conflicts. At this time he was happy to seek out therapy. He tried two different therapists at this time, neither of whom worked out. He stated that he had difficult connecting with this first therapist, so he left. The second therapist he reported kept talking down to him and focused on trying to educate him as to why he was having difficulties with his peers. After telling you about this therapist he Existential Psychology and Diversity 22 remarked, “The guy was just trying to make me White. I guess that’s what therapists do, they try to make you like them.” He reported that he is skeptical of therapy, mostly because of the prior experiences, and was only coming because it was a requirement to remain employed. Fred reported that he couldn’t afford to lose another job, even though he wanted to quit. He then made the comment to his therapist, a white male, “I don’t know how you are going to be able to help me.” When he stated this, he looked that the therapist very intensely which was the first eye contact of the session. Prior to coming to Dr. C, Fred went to a third therapist, who referred Fred to Dr. C. Fred reported that this therapist said that they were too intimidated by him so could not work with him. When this therapist told him this, Fred asked for a black man for a therapist referral; however, he was informed that there were not any black male therapists in his area. So he agreed to the referral to Dr. C. Dr. C began the session validating and empathizing with his previous negative experiences. Recognizing that ethnic minorities often work better with therapists of a shared cultural or racial background at certain points of therapy, and recognizing that Fred’s prior bad experiences were with White male therapists, Dr. C stated, “How comfortable are you working with another White male therapist?” Fred reacted with intense anger. He sat up in his chair, and angrily yelled, “I knew it. You’re just trying to get rid of me, too. What, you scared of the black man?” Quickly Dr. C recognized his error. Many ethnic minorities are quite sensitive to rejection in therapy. Fred, in particular, had experienced rejection and judgment frequently at work and in his previous therapy experiences. His reaction to Dr. C was quite natural. Dr. C responded, “That was insensitive of me, I apologize. I think I would enjoy working with you, but I imagine many people who have had your experiences may be hesitant to work with someone who looks a lot like the people who previously treated you quite unfairly.” Fred relaxed a bit, but it was quite apparent that the issue was not resolved. Dr. C chose not to address it again in this session, but to remain open to trust issues re-emerging. Dr. C then continued, “Maybe you can begin by telling me about what went wrong in your previous therapy experiences, so I can make sure we take a different approach here.” Fred went on to share a number of stories about his work experiences Existential Psychology and Diversity 23 and how they tied in to various problems in therapy. Dr. C, through having heard many stories of discrimination and prejudice previously, was able to make informed empathetic responses. Not all empathy responses are equal and there are cultural differences about what responses the individual will be able to hold. Many therapists forget that empathetic responses always have an element of interpretation and perception involved. For example, with many individuals it can be quite effective to reflect the underlying hurt when they are talking about anger issues. Some of Fred’s previous experiences had done with good intentions; however, Fred experienced this as discounting his anger. Because Dr. C was aware of this common occurrence, he was able to fine tune his empathetic responses to focus more on the anger, especially at the outset of therapy. Dr. C also worked hard to state his own outrage with the injustices that Fred faced. For example, Fred talked about how when he voiced a different opinion in meetings that he was often asked to “calm down,” but this did not occur with the other employees. Fred was the only black man working for the company. He was often assigned to do sales in the lower social economic status areas. When he confronted this, they informed him that ‘this seemed to be his niche.’ Later, he overheard a conversation accusing him of ‘playing the race card to get the better commissions.’ Dr. C accepted and encouraged his anger, and even joined in with sharing his own anger about what occurred. This gradually helped him build trust with Dr. C. Fred noted how Dr. C seemed to handle his anger better than previous therapists. He noted three common responses to his anger in other situations. First, they would often help him see the perspective of the employers and encourage him to find ways to work with their biases or to seek another job. When he voiced concern that they would get away with what they were doing wrong, the therapists often would resort to explaining that he had to first earn their trust before he could encourage them to change. Dr. C, instead, pointed out the racism inherent in the work system and emphasized that change was needed. Second, the therapists would often use relaxation or other techniques to help Fred remain calm. It was explained to him that he would better be able to work with his employers if he remained calm. After trust had been developed with Dr. C, Fred stated Existential Psychology and Diversity 24 this was part of what he felt as pressure to “act white.” Dr. C had recognized that many African Americans are more comfortable with the expression of anger and higher levels of conflict than is typical within most Caucasians. In order not to stereotype Fred, he paid close attention to learning how Fred’s family dealt with conflict. It became apparent that Fred’s family fit with a pattern in which they were more comfortable with higher levels of conflict. Later, Dr. C even acknowledged to Fred that he was not comfortable with the higher levels of conflict and more open expression of anger, as is typical for many therapists, but that he knew it was important and appropriate for Fred. He even thanked Fred for helping him become more comfortable around anger and intense emotion. Third, Fred’s therapists were often intimidated by him when he would become angry. They often would disengage or back off at this time. For Fred, this was experienced as a rejection. He felt progress was being made at these points, but recognized that the therapists were not willing to go there with him. Other times, the therapists would encourage him to calm down there, using therapy as an opportunity to practice controlling his anger. For Fred, this missed the point. He often did not experience this as anger, but rather as feeling invigorated and engaged. By Dr. C staying with the anger, and later discussing his feelings, he was better able to help Fred understand that his anger was okay and how he could better work with this. Instead of encouraging Fred to “act White,” he helped Fred learn to turn this into a chance to educate the other person. When Fred tried this in work situations, it did not always work. The first attempt he made was during a conflict with a co-worker. He recognized his co-worker’s negative reaction when Fred became more animated. He backed off the topic and later tried to talk with his co-worker about this. His co-worker responded by telling Fred he needed to learn better “business etiquette.” However, Fred also took the opportunity on another occasion to set up a meeting with his supervisor and discuss this. His supervisor responded by saying that explained a lot and that he would try to work better with Fred. They continued to have conversations about this, particularly when instances occurred that were difficult. Existential Psychology and Diversity 25 Dr. C eventually approached the anger issue from a different angle, but waited until the relationship had developed significant trust with Fred. He asked Fred how he felt about the ways he handled his anger. Fred commented that he felt better about how he handled anger and recognized that he had developed a problem with anger over time. Therapist, according to Fred, had helped him acknowledge that his anger was often appropriate, but other times not. Dr. C approached this emphasizing helping Fred determine when he handled his anger in a way he felt good about, and when it was inappropriate. Allowing Fred to be the expert and determinant here was important to Fred. Dr. C also worked with Fred to understand that it was important to find ways to use his anger, especially when it was justified. Fred identified that his conversations with his supervisor were an important part of this. He used anger to educate his supervisor. Later, Fred became involved in a community organization mentoring young African American professionals getting a start in the business world. He drew on his experience to help others with similar experiences. One other important issue should be mentioned. When Dr. C obtained the records from previous therapists, he noted several items of concern. First, Fred was diagnosed with “anti-social personality disorder characteristic” and noted to have “oppositional traits” and “pervasive anger issues.” As therapy progressed, Fred told Dr. C that his previous therapist had told him of these impressions and he asked Dr. C his opinion. Dr. C responded assuring Fred that this was not the way he saw Fred. He again worked to normalize the situation indicating that Fred’s anger was primarily appropriate given the context. This was an important final step in helping Fred work through his mistrust of the mental health profession and in deepening his acceptance of his culture. Although he had come to a greater acceptance of the anger he experienced, there was part of him that still wandered if there was “something wrong with all African Americans.” Lessons for Humanistic Psychology. Fred’s case illustrates many points that we discussed at the beginning of the presentation. First, we will address what diversity perspectives add to an existential perspective. Dr. C drew from his knowledge of Fred’s culture to develop many hypotheses and contextualize his behaviors; however, he did Existential Psychology and Diversity 26 not was cautious to avoid using this knowledge to stereotype Fred. But he also recognized that Fred was more of an expert on his culture, and let him teach Dr. C about his culture. Dr. C. also utilized the Black Racial Identity Model to help understand Fred difficulties with his own identity and how this influenced his development. When Fred was at his first job where he was referred to therapy, he had not had much exposure to any type of racial conflict. He tended to de-emphasize race and, in many ways, idealize White people. Once he was introduced to conflict, he was pushed into the later stages of development in which he strongly identified with his culture and often had very negative associations with the dominant culture. This is where Fred was at when he first began seeing Dr. C. This is a stage when clients often do better with a therapist of their own cultural background, but this was not an option in Fred’s case. In therapy, Fred was able to move to a place where his resentments for the dominant culture faded, but he still recognized the need for action to promote greater awareness and change. Fred previous therapist had been passively colluding with the therapist in a number of different ways. Essentially, they were helping him try to adjust to an unjust situation. In ways, it was enabling racist systems to remain racist. Dr. C worked to help Fred address these issues. Although not fully successful, this did help promote change in the oppressive system that he had been working in. Existential psychology also has much to offer diversity perspectives on psychotherapy. Related to this last issue, an existential perspective is going to maintain that Fred’s anger is connected with daimonic potential. The daimonic, it was noted, is a natural potential that has the ability to take of the entire psyche. If repressed, denied, or otherwise not dealt with, the daimonic increases in strength and potentiality to take over the individual. Existential therapists emphasize the need to integrate the daimonic and find creative expression. For Fred, he learned to use the daimonic in ways to change the oppressive structures that enabled racism and discrimination. For the most part, existential therapists are also quite skeptical of diagnosis. This is often true of many cultural groups. In the illustration with Fred, Dr. C did not use diagnosis or find it necessary. It became increasingly clear, too, that these diagnoses were not accurate. It is very common for African Americans to be over-diagnosed with Existential Psychology and Diversity 27 antisocial personality disorder. Similarly, it is common to take emotions in individuals who are being discriminated against out of context. The diagnosis of Fred served no purpose in enhancing therapy and provided a derogatory label which was inaccurate into his history. Conclusion As the book title goes, a race (or culture) is a nice thing to have (Helms, 1992). These are rich sources of meaning and security in one’s life. In response to the diversity trends in the fields of psychology and psychotherapy, it seems that existential and humanistic psychology have been so quick to affirm racial, cultural, and other forms of diversity that it may have missed some of the dialogue therefore missing opportunities to appreciate the challenges of cultural diversity on a deeper level. However, we still maintain that humanistic and in particular existential psychology have much to offer in deepening the understanding of diversity issues in the field of psychology. This paper only begins to explore the many unrealized potentialities that exist. As noted in the beginning of the paper, we believe that it is imperative that existential and humanistic psychology do not just talk about diversity. It is also not sufficient to maintain an intrinsic valuing of diversity. Instead, existential and humanistic psychology needs to be intentional about inviting and recruiting diverse perspectives. It is helpful for White people to seek out diverse experience and then talk and write about them; indeed, this is needed to move the understanding of diversity forward. However, a White male voice, no matter how informed and culturally sensitive, can never replace the voice of the woman, the person of color, or the gay or lesbian voice. Phenomenologically nothing replaces the experience of being diverse. The lead author in this paper, as a White heterosexual male of privilege, could never replace the richness of experience of the other three authors of this paper. Furthermore, without the dialogue from which this paper emerged, it depth would be severely lacking. We have also maintained that if there is not tension and challenge, you are not really talking about diversity. Even for those who deeply embrace and value diversity, it still challenges some of the depths of our being. This was powerfully illustrated in the recent outcry by many White Americans when they were exposed to what happens in many African American churches following exposure to presidential candidate Barrack Existential Psychology and Diversity 28 Obama’s church. Disappointingly, but not surprisingly, the media demonstrated a complete failure in its ability to contextualize these occurrences the appropriate historical and cultural contexts. We have a long way to go in the United States, in psychology, and in existential-humanistic psychology. It would be easier to continue valuing diversity, but not engaging in difficult diversity conversations; however, this would be an egregious error in our view. From the first Humanistic Psychotherapies conference in 2007 to the current one in 2008, there has been a significant increase in the number of presentations on diversity and presenters that reflect diversity. This is an important step. Hopefully, in the years to come, this trend will continue. We hope that in coming years there will continue to be increasing intentionality to bring more diverse voices to this conference and other forums. This will cause some discomfort and require us to rethink some of our assumptions; however, it will also deepen and enrich the way few other dialogues could. Existential Psychology and Diversity 29 References American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., Text rev.). Washington, DC: Author. Armstrong, K. (2001). The battle for God: A history of fundamentalism. New York: Ballantine. Camus, A. (1988). The stranger (M. Ward, trans). New York: Vintage International. (Original work published in 1942) Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures. New York: Basic Books. Helms, J. E. (1992). A race is a nice thing to have: A guide to being a white person or understanding the white person in your life. Topeka, KS: Content Communications. Hillman, J. & Ventura, M. (1992). We’ve had a hundred years of psychotherapy and the world’s getting worse. San Francisco: Harper Collins. Keen, S. (1991). The enemy maker. In C. Zweig & J. Abrams (Eds.), Meeting the shadow: The hidden power of the dark side of human nature (pp. 197-202). New York: Tarcher/Putnam. Kutchins, H. & Kirk, S. A. (1997). Making us crazy: DSM: The psychiatric bible and the creation of mental disorders. New York: Free Press. May, R. (1969). Love and will. New York: Delta. May, R. (1982). The problem of evil: An open letter to Carl Rogers. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 22, 10-21. May, R. (1991). The cry for myth. New York: Delta. Minuchin, S. Nichols, M.P., & Lee, W.Y. (2007). Assessing families and couples: From symptom to system. Boston: Pearson Education. Prilleltensky, I. & Fox, D. (1997). Introduction to critical psychology: Values, assumptions, and the status quo. In. D. Fox & I. Prilleltensky (Eds.), Critical psychology: An introduction (pp. 3-20). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Pyszczynski, T. Solomon, S., & Greenberg, J. (2003). In the wake of 9/11: The psychology of terror. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Rogers, C. R. (1981). Notes on Rollo May. Perspectives, 2, 1. Existential Psychology and Diversity 30 Rogers, C. R. (1982). Reply to Rollo May’s letter to Carl Rogers. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 22, 85-89. Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (2004). The cultural animal: Twenty years of terror management theory and research. In Greenberg, J., Koole, S. L., & Pyszczynski, T. (Eds.), Handbook of experimental existential psychology (pp. 13-34). New York: Guilford Press. Stowe, H. B. (1999). Uncle Tom’s cabin. New York: Wadsworth. (Original work published in 1852) Sue, D.W., Arredondo, P., & McDavis, R.J. (1992) Multicultural counseling competencies and standards: A call to the profession. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70, 477-486. Sue, D.W., Bernier, J.E., Durran, A., Feinberg, L., Pedersen, P., Smith, E.J., & Vasquez-Nuttall, E. (1982) Position paper: Cross-cultural counseling competencies. Counseling Psychologist, 10, 45-52.