ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

Humor
Studies
Editorial Board

Editor
Salvatore Attardo
Texas A&M University–Commerce

Managing Editors
Audrey C. Adams
Texas A&M University–Commerce
Hilal Ergül
Texas A&M University–Commerce

Editorial Board
Thomas E. Ford
Western Carolina University
Sharon Lockyer
Brunel University
Owen Hanley Lynch
Southern Methodist University
Moira Marsh
Indiana University–Bloomington
Jessica Milner Davis
University of Sydney
John Morreall
College of William & Mary
Victor Raskin
Purdue University
 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

Humor
Studies

Editor
Salvatore Attardo
Texas A&M University–Commerce

1
 Copyright © 2014 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

FOR INFORMATION: All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage
SAGE Publications, Inc. and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
2455 Teller Road publisher.
Thousand Oaks, California 91320
E-mail: order@sagepub.com Printed in the United States of America.
SAGE Publications Ltd.
1 Oliver’s Yard
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
55 City Road
Encyclopedia of humor studies / editor, Salvatore
London, EC1Y 1SP Attardo, Texas A&M University.
United Kingdom
volumes cm
SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd. Includes bibliographical references and index.
B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area
Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044 ISBN 978-1-4129-9909-0 (hardcover)
India
1. Laughter–Encyclopedias. 2. Wit and humor–Encyclopedias.
SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd. I. Attardo, Salvatore, 1962- editor of compilation.
3 Church Street
#10-04 Samsung Hub BF575.L3E53 2014
Singapore 049483 809.7–dc23 2013036046

Acquisitions Editor: Jim Brace-Thompson

Developmental Editors: Diana E. Axelsen,
Shirin Parsavand
Production Editor: Tracy Buyan
Reference Systems Manager: Leticia Gutierrez
Reference Systems Coordinators: Anna Villaseñor,
Laura Notton
Copy Editors: Diane DiMura, Colleen Brennan
Typesetter: Hurix Systems (P) Ltd.
Proofreaders: Lawrence W. Baker, Kristin Bergstad
Indexer: Virgil Diodato
Cover Designer: Scott Van Atta
Marketing Manager: Carmel Schrire 14 15 16 17 18 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents

Volume 1
List of Entries vii
Reader’s Guide xi
About the Editor xix
Contributors xxi
Foreword xxvii
Introduction xxix

Entries

A 1 F 225
B 75 G 253
C 103 H 277
D 193 I 377
E 207 J 407

Volume 2
List of Entries vii
Reader’s Guide xi

Entries

K 431 S 657
L 435 T 747
M 467 U 779
N 541 V 783
O 547 W 793
P 551 X 807
R 619

Appendix A: Chronology 815

Appendix B: Humor Associations and Publications 831
Index 837
List of Entries

Absurdist Humor Burlesque

Advertisement Byzantine Humor
Advertising, Effectiveness of Humor in
Aesthetics Caricature
African Humor. See Akan Humor; Igbo Humor; Carnival and Festival
South African Humor Carnivalesque
Aggressive and Harmless Humor Cartoons
Aging and Humor Cervantes, Miguel de
Akan Humor Cheerfulness, Seriousness, and Humor
Ambiguity Children’s Humor and Giftedness
American Indian Cultures, Humor in Children’s Humor Research
Ancient Egypt, Humor in Children’s Humor Stages
Ancient Greek Comedy Christianity
Ancient Roman Comedy Cinema. See Movies
Anecdote, Comic Clergy
Animal-Related Humor Clowns
Anthropology Clowns in Medical Settings
Anti-Proverb Cognitive Aspects
Anxiety College Humor
Aphorism Comedy
Appreciation of Humor Comedy Ensembles
Arabic Culture, Humor in Comedy of Manners. See Genres and Styles of
Aristophanes Comedy; High Comedy
Aristotelian Theory of Humor Comic Books
Arousal Theory (Berlyne) Comic Frame
Art and Visual Humor Comic Opera
Assyrian and Babylonian Humor Comic Relief
Audience Comic Strips
Audiovisual Translation Comic Versus Tragic Worldviews
Comic World
Benign Violation Theory Commedia dell’Arte
Bergson’s Theory of the Comic Complexity
Biblical Humor Comprehension of Humor
Bisociation Computational Humor
Blackface. See Race, Representations of Confucianism
Blason Populaire Conservatism. See Personality, Humor and
Boccaccio, Giovanni Conversation
Brain, Neuropsychology of Humor Cooperation, Principle of. See Maxim
Buddhism Coping Mechanism

vii
viii List of Entries

Coulrophobia HBQD. See Humor Styles Measurement

Creativity Health Benefits of Humor, Physical
Cross-Cultural Humor Health Benefits of Humor, Psychological
Crosstalk. See Xiangsheng; Xiangsheng, Heritability
History of High Comedy
Culture High-Context Humor
History of Humor: Classical and Traditional China
Defense Mechanism History of Humor: Early Modern Europe
Depression History of Humor: Medieval Europe
Design History of Humor: Modern and Contemporary
Development of Humor China
Dialect Humor History of Humor: Modern and Contemporary
Disparagement. See Aggressive and Harmless Europe
Humor History of Humor: Modern Japan
Doggerel History of Humor: 19th-Century Europe
History of Humor: Premodern Japan
Education, Humor in History of Humor: Renaissance Europe
E’gao: Culture of Internet Spoofing in China History of Humor: U.S. Frontier
Epigram History of Humor: U.S. Modern and
Ethnic Jokes Contemporary
Ethnicity and Humor Hoax and Prank
Evolutionary Explanations of Humor Hobbesian Theory
Exaggeration Homosexuality, Representation of
HSQ. See Humor Styles Measurement
Fabliau Huaji-ists, The
Factor Analysis of Humor Items Humor, Computer-Generated
Factor Analysis of Humor Scales Humor, Etymology of
Failed Humor Humor, Forms of
Farce Humor and Relational Maintenance
Feast of Fools Humor Content Versus Structure
Film. See Movies Humor Detection
Folklore Humor Generation. See Computational Humor
Fools Humor Group
Foolstowns Humor Markers
Forest of Laughter and Traditional Chinese Humor Mindset
Jestbooks Humor Production
Framing Theory Humor Styles
Freudian/Psychoanalytic Theory Humor Styles Measurement
Humor Styles Questionnaire. See Humor Styles
Gag Measurement
Gallows Humor Humor Theories
Gelotophobia Humorist
Gender and Humor, Psychological Aspects of Humorous Behavior Q-Sort Deck. See Humor
Gender Roles in Humor Styles Measurement
General Theory of Verbal Humor. See Linguistic Humorous Names
Theories of Humor Humorous Stimuli, Characteristics of
Genres and Styles of Comedy
Goldoni, Carlo Identity
Graffiti Igbo Humor
Greek Visual Humor Improv Comedy
GTVH. See Linguistic Theories of Humor Incongruity and Resolution
 List of Entries ix

Insult and Invective Movie Humor Types

Intercultural Humor Movies
Internet Humor Multidimensional Sense of Humor Scale.
Inversion, Topsy-Turvy See Factor Analysis of Humor Items
Irony Music
Islam Music Hall
Musical Comedy
Jest, Jestbooks, and Jesters
Jewish Humor National and Ethnic Differences
Joke Cycles Native American Cultures, Humor in. See
Jokes American Indian Cultures, Humor in
Joking Relationship Nonsense
Journalism
Judaism Obscenity
Ontological Semantic Theory of Humor. See
Linguistic Theories of Humor
Kyōgen
OSTH. See Linguistic Theories of Humor

Lampoon Paradox
Laugh, Laughter, Laughing Parody
Laughter, Psychology of Pastiche
Laughter and Smiling, Physiology of Pattern Recognition
Lazzi Pedagogy
Legal Education Personality, Humor and
Legal Restriction and Protection of Humor Persuasion and Humor
Limericks Philogelos
Linguistic Theories of Humor Philosophy of Humor
Linguistics Phonological Jokes
Literature Pirandello, Luigi
Low Comedy Platonic Theory of Humor
Plautus
Magazines and Newspapers, U.S. Play and Humor
Magazines and Newspapers Outside the Poetry
United States Pointe
Management Politeness
Marriage and Couples Political Humor
Masks Positive Psychology
Mathematical Humor Postmodern Irony
Mathematics and Humor Practical Jokes
Maxim Prejudice, Humor and
Mechanisms of Humor Presidential Humor
Medieval Visual Humor Psychiatric Disorders
Menander Psychological Distance
Metaphor Psychology
Mime Psychotherapy, Humor in
Mirth Punch Line
Misdirection Puns
Mock Epic Puppets
Mockumentary
Molière Rabelais, François
Monty Python Race, Representations of
x List of Entries

Rakugo Southeast Asia, Cartooning in

Reactions to Humor, Non-Laughter Speech Play
Reception of Humor Spoofing
Reframing Spoonerism. See Inversion, Topsy-Turvy; Puns
Relationships, Nonromantic Sports
Release Theories of Humor SSTH. See Linguistic Theories of Humor
Religion Stand-Up Comedy
Resolution. See Incongruity and Resolution Stereotypes
Reversal Theory Stress
Rhetoric and Rhetorical Devices Subversive Humor
Riddle Supreme Court
Ritual Clowns Surprise. See Incongruity and Resolution
Rituals of Inversion
Rituals of Laughter Tall Tale
Roman Visual Humor Taoism
Romantic Comedy. See Comedy; Genres and Targets of Humor
Styles of Comedy; Tragicomedy Teachers’ Evaluations, Effect of Humor Use in
Classroom on
Sanskrit Humor Teasing
Sarcasm. See Irony Test Measurements of Humor
Satire Testing and Evaluation
Satire News 3 WD Humor Test
Satyr Play Tickling
Scatology Tom Swifty
Schwank Tragicomedy
Science, Science Fiction, and Humor Translation
Screwball Comedy. See Movies Travesty
Script Opposition. See Linguistic Theories of Trickster
Humor
Script-Based Semantic Theory of Humor. See Urban Legends
Linguistic Theories of Humor Uses and Gratifications Theory
Second Language Acquisition
Semantic Script Theory of Humor. See Linguistic
Variety Shows
Theories of Humor
Vaudeville. See Comic Opera; Music Hall;
Semantics
Musical Comedy; Sketch Comedy Shows;
Senryū
Travesty; Variety Shows
Sense of Humor, Components of
Verbal Dueling
Sexuality
Verbal Humor
Shakespearean Comedy
Share
Sick Humor Wellerism
Simple Form Witz
Sitcoms Workplace Control
Sketch Comedy Shows Workplace Humor
Slapstick Workplace Productivity
Smiling and Laughter: Expressive Patterns Workplace Resistance
Social Interaction
Social Network Xeroxlore
Sociology Xiangsheng
South African Humor Xiangsheng, History of
South American Literature, Humor in Xiehouyu
Reader’s Guide

Anthropology, Folklore, and Ethnicity Greek Visual Humor

Animal-Related Humor Jest, Jestbooks, and Jesters
Anthropology Menander
Anti-Proverb Mime
Blason Populaire Philogelos
Carnival and Festival Platonic Theory of Humor
College Humor Plautus
Dialect Humor Roman Visual Humor
Ethnic Jokes Sanskrit Humor
Ethnicity and Humor Satyr Play
Feast of Fools
Folklore Components of Humor
Fools Ambiguity
Foolstowns Bisociation
Hoax and Prank Cognitive Aspects
Insult and Invective Complexity
Jewish Humor Creativity
Joke Cycles Humor Content Versus Structure
Joking Relationship Humor Mindset
National and Ethnic Differences Humorous Stimuli, Characteristics of
Philogelos Incongruity and Resolution
Practical Jokes Maxim
Race, Representations of Mechanisms of Humor
Rituals of Laughter Misdirection
Social Network Nonsense
Stereotypes Play and Humor
Targets of Humor Punch Line
Trickster Reframing
Urban Legends Sense of Humor, Components of
Verbal Dueling Targets of Humor
Xeroxlore
Culture
Antiquity Anthropology
Ancient Egypt, Humor in Carnival and Festival
Ancient Greek Comedy Cross-Cultural Humor
Ancient Roman Comedy Culture
Aristophanes Education, Humor in
Aristotelian Theory of Humor Fools
Assyrian and Babylonian Humor Foolstowns

xi
xii Reader’s Guide

Gallows Humor Forest of Laughter and Traditional Chinese

High-Context Humor Jestbooks
Humorous Names Greek Visual Humor
Intercultural Humor History of Humor: Classical and Traditional China
Jewish Humor History of Humor: Early Modern Europe
Obscenity History of Humor: Medieval Europe
Puppets History of Humor: Modern and Contemporary
Race, Representations of China
Ritual Clowns History of Humor: Modern and Contemporary
Rituals of Inversion Europe
Scatology History of Humor: Modern Japan
Sick Humor History of Humor: 19th-Century Europe
Sports History of Humor: Premodern Japan
Stereotypes History of Humor: Renaissance Europe
Verbal Dueling History of Humor: U.S. Frontier
Xiangsheng History of Humor: U.S. Modern and Contemporary
Xiangsheng, History of Huaji-ists, The
Islam
Entertainment Industry Jest, Jestbooks, and Jesters
Magazines and Newspapers, U.S.
Audience
Magazines and Newspapers Outside the
Audiovisual Translation
United States
Clowns
Masks
Comic Books
Medieval Visual Humor
Comic Frame
Menander
Comic Strips
Mock Epic
Internet Humor
Molière
Journalism
Philogelos
Magazines and Newspapers, U.S.
Plautus
Magazines and Newspapers Outside the
Rabelais, François
United States
Sanskrit Humor
Mockumentary
Satire
Monty Python
Shakespearean Comedy
Movie Humor Types
Sitcoms
Movies
Sketch Comedy Shows
Music
Slapstick
Music Hall
Stand-Up Comedy
Puppets
Tall Tale
Satire News
Tragicomedy
Sitcoms
Travesty
Spoofing
Xiangsheng, History of

History
Ancient Egypt, Humor in Humor Theory
Arabic Culture, Humor in Aristotelian Theory of Humor
Assyrian and Babylonian Humor Arousal Theory (Berlyne)
Biblical Humor Benign Violation Theory
Buddhism Bergson’s Theory of the Comic
Christianity Bisociation
Confucianism Evolutionary Explanations of Humor
Fabliau Framing Theory
Feast of Fools Freudian/Psychoanalytic Theory
 Reader’s Guide xiii

Hobbesian Theory Semantics

Humor, Forms of Speech Play
Humor Theories Teasing
Inversion, Topsy-Turvy Tom Swifty
Pattern Recognition Translation
Platonic Theory of Humor Verbal Humor
Release Theories of Humor Wellerism
Reversal Theory Witz
Simple Form Xiehouyu
3 WD Humor Test
Uses and Gratifications Theory
Literature and Major Literary Figures
Absurdist Humor
Linguistics Ancient Greek Comedy
Ambiguity Ancient Roman Comedy
Anti-Proverb Anecdote, Comic
Aphorism Aphorism
Audiovisual Translation Aristophanes
Computational Humor Boccaccio, Giovanni
Conversation Carnivalesque
Cross-Cultural Humor Cervantes, Miguel de
Culture Comedy
Dialect Humor Comic Relief
Epigram Commedia dell’Arte
Exaggeration Doggerel
Failed Humor Epigram
Gender Roles in Humor Exaggeration
Humor, Computer-Generated Fabliau
Humor, Etymology of Farce
Humor, Forms of Forest of Laughter and Traditional Chinese
Humor Markers Jestbooks
Humorist Genres and Styles of Comedy
Incongruity and Resolution Goldoni, Carlo
Irony High Comedy
Jokes Humorous Names
Joking Relationship Inversion, Topsy-Turvy
Laugh, Laughter, Laughing Jest, Jestbooks, and Jesters
Linguistic Theories of Humor Kyōgen
Linguistics Lampoon
Maxim Limericks
Mechanisms of Humor Literature
Metaphor Low Comedy
Misdirection Menander
Phonological Jokes Mime
Pointe Mock Epic
Politeness Molière
Punch Line Nonsense
Puns Parody
Reactions to Humor, Non-Laughter Pastiche
Rhetoric and Rhetorical Devices Pirandello, Luigi
Riddle Plautus
Second Language Acquisition Poetry
xiv Reader’s Guide

Postmodern Irony History of Humor: Modern Japan

Puns History of Humor: Premodern Japan
Rabelais, François Huaji-ists, The
Rakugo Islam
Rhetoric and Rhetorical Devices Kyōgen
Satire Rakugo
Satyr Play Senryū
Schwank Share
Science, Science Fiction, and Humor Southeast Asia, Cartooning in
Senryū Taoism
Shakespearean Comedy Xiangsheng
Share Xiangsheng, History of
Simple Form Xiehouyu
South American Literature, Humor in
Tall Tale Europe
Tragicomedy Ancient Greek Comedy
Travesty Ancient Roman Comedy
Trickster Byzantine Humor
Witz Commedia dell’Arte
Fabliau
Greek Visual Humor
Mathematics, Computer Science,
History of Humor: Early Modern Europe
and the Internet
History of Humor: Medieval Europe
Computational Humor History of Humor: Modern and Contemporary
E’gao: Culture of Internet Spoofing in China Europe
Humor, Computer-Generated History of Humor: 19th-Century Europe
Internet Humor Lazzi
Mathematical Humor Medieval Visual Humor
Mathematics and Humor Pointe
Satyr Play
National, Ethnic, and Regional Humor Schwank
Witz
Africa
Akan Humor Middle East
Igbo Humor Ancient Egypt, Humor in
South African Humor Arabic Culture, Humor in
Assyrian and Babylonian Humor
Americas Byzantine Humor
American Indian Cultures, Humor in Islam
History of Humor: U.S. Frontier
History of Humor: U.S. Modern and Contemporary
South American Literature, Humor in Performing Arts
Ancient Greek Comedy
Asia Ancient Roman Comedy
Buddhism Burlesque
Confucianism Carnivalesque
E’gao: Culture of Internet Spoofing in China Clowns
Forest of Laughter and Traditional Chinese Comedy
Jestbooks Comedy Ensembles
History of Humor: Classical and Traditional China Comic Opera
History of Humor: Modern and Contemporary Commedia dell’Arte
China Farce
 Reader’s Guide xv

Gag Health Benefits of Humor, Physical

High Comedy Heritability
Improv Comedy Laugh, Laughter, Laughing
Lazzi Laughter and Smiling, Physiology of
Low Comedy
Masks Politics
Mime
Journalism
Music
Legal Restriction and Protection of Humor
Music Hall
Magazines and Newspapers, U.S.
Musical Comedy
Magazines and Newspapers Outside the United
Parody
States
Pastiche
Political Humor
Puppets
Presidential Humor
Satyr Play
Satire News
Shakespearean Comedy
Subversive Humor
Sketch Comedy Shows
Slapstick
Stand-Up Comedy Professions
Tragicomedy Business World
Travesty Advertisement
Variety Shows Advertising, Effectiveness of Humor in
Design
Philosophy and Religion Management
Aesthetics Subversive Humor
Aphorism Workplace Control
Aristotelian Theory of Humor Workplace Humor
Bergson’s Theory of the Comic Workplace Productivity
Biblical Humor Workplace Resistance
Buddhism Xeroxlore
Christianity
Clergy Education
Comic Frame College Humor
Comic Versus Tragic Worldviews Education, Humor in
Comic World E’gao: Culture of Internet Spoofing in China
Confucianism Legal Education
Epigram Pedagogy
Feast of Fools Second Language Acquisition
Hobbesian Theory Teachers’ Evaluations, Effect of Humor Use in
Islam Classroom on
Jewish Humor
Judaism Law
Paradox Legal Education
Philosophy of Humor Legal Restriction and Protection of Humor
Platonic Theory of Humor Supreme Court
Religion
Rituals of Laughter Psychology
Taoism Clinical and Counseling Psychology
Anxiety
Physiology and Biology Coulrophobia
Brain, Neuropsychology of Humor Depression
Evolutionary Explanations of Humor Gelotophobia
xvi Reader’s Guide

Psychiatric Disorders Mirth

Psychotherapy, Humor in Reversal Theory
Reframing Stress
Tickling
Cognition
Benign Violation Theory Neuropsychology
Cognitive Aspects Brain, Neuropsychology of Humor
Comprehension of Humor Comprehension of Humor
Humor Mindset Laughter, Psychology of

Developmental Psychology Personality and Social Psychology

Aging and Humor Aggressive and Harmless Humor
Children’s Humor and Giftedness Defense Mechanism
Children’s Humor Research Freudian/Psychoanalytic Theory
Children’s Humor Stages Gender and Humor, Psychological Aspects of
Development of Humor Personality, Humor and
Persuasion and Humor
General Psychology Prejudice, Humor and
Appreciation of Humor
Failed Humor Tests and Measurement
Humor Detection Factor Analysis of Humor Items
Humor Production Factor Analysis of Humor Scales
Humor Styles Humor Styles Measurement
Humorous Stimuli, Characteristics of Test Measurements of Humor
Identity Testing and Evaluation
Laugh, Laughter, Laughing 3 WD Humor Test
Pattern Recognition
Psychological Distance
Psychology Sociology
Reactions to Humor, Non-Laughter Aggressive and Harmless Humor
Reception of Humor Carnivalesque
Release Theories of Humor Conversation
Sense of Humor, Components of Cross-Cultural Humor
Smiling and Laughter: Expressive Patterns Culture
Dialect Humor
Health Psychology Ethnic Jokes
Clowns in Medical Settings Ethnicity and Humor
Comic Versus Tragic Worldviews Failed Humor
Coping Mechanism Gallows Humor
Health Benefits of Humor, Physical Gender Roles in Humor
Health Benefits of Humor, Psychological High-Context Humor
Positive Psychology Homosexuality, Representation of
Humor Group
Interpersonal Relationships Identity
Humor and Relational Maintenance Insult and Invective
Marriage and Couples National and Ethnic Differences
Relationships, Nonromantic Obscenity
Sexuality Play and Humor
Presidential Humor
Motivation and Emotion Race, Representations of
Arousal Theory (Berlyne) Reactions to Humor, Non-Laughter
Cheerfulness, Seriousness, and Humor Reception of Humor
 Reader’s Guide xvii

Roman Visual Humor Caricature

Scatology Cartoons
Sick Humor Comic Books
Social Interaction Comic Strips
Social Network Design
Sociology Exaggeration
Stereotypes Graffiti
Targets of Humor Greek Visual Humor
Teasing Medieval Visual Humor
Roman Visual Humor
Visual Humor Southeast Asia, Cartooning in
Art and Visual Humor
Audiovisual Translation
About the Editor

Salvatore Attardo was born in 1962 in Belgium. Research from 2001 to 2011. With Diana Elena
He was trained as a linguist at the Catholic Univer- Popa, he coedited the book New Approaches to
sity of Milan, Italy, where he graduated in foreign the Linguistics of Humor (2007), and with Manu-
languages and literature (French), with a disserta- ela Maria Wagner and Eduardo Urios-Aparisi, he
tion on the linguistics of humor, in 1986. In 1988, coedited Prosody and Humor (2013). In 2007, he
he moved to the United States to attend Purdue became chair of the Department of Literature and
University. Languages at Texas A&M University–Commerce.
In 1991, together with Victor Raskin, Attardo In 2010, he became dean of the College of Human-
published a long article that developed Raskin’s ities, Social Sciences, and Arts at Texas A&M Uni-
own semantic theory of humor into the general versity–Commerce, where he is also professor of
theory of verbal humor (GTVH). Later that year he linguistics.
received a PhD in English from Purdue University, Attardo’s research is focused primarily on humor
with a specialization in linguistics and a disserta- studies and pragmatics. He has published more than
tion on the linguistics of humor, which was pub- 100 articles and book reviews in scholarly journals.
lished in 1994 as his first book, Linguistic Theories He serves on the editorial board of the Journal of
of Humor. Pragmatics and other journals. In the past decade,
Attardo was professor of linguistics at Youngs- his interests have broadened to include the prosody
town State University from 1992 to 2007. He and gestures accompanying humor, mainly work-
coauthored, with Steven Brown, a sociolinguistics ing in collaboration with his wife, Lucy Pickering.
textbook, Understanding Language Structure, In non-humor-related topics, Attardo has published
Interaction, and Variation (2000) and authored in the fields of semantics, pragmatics, Italian stud-
Humorous Texts (2001). He served as editor-in- ies, grammar, the pedagogy of linguistics, stylistics,
chief of HUMOR: International Journal of Humor cognitive linguistics, and computational linguistics.

xix
Contributors

Goh Abe Doris Bergen

Kagawa University Miami University (Ohio)
Audrey C. Adams Arthur Asa Berger (Professor Emeritus)
Texas A&M University–Commerce San Francisco State University
David Adu-Amankwah Daniela Bini
Indiana University University of Texas at Austin
József Andor Amy M. Bippus
University of Pécs California State University, Long Beach
Michael Apter Lorene M. Birden (deceased)
Independent Scholar IUT de Dijon
Salvatore Attardo Barbara C. Bowen
Texas A&M University –Commerce Vanderbilt University
Giulia Baccini Ian Brodie
Ca’Foscari University of Venice Cape Breton University
Peter Bailey Simon J. Bronner
University of Manitoba Pennsylvania State University
Angela Bartolo Adam T. Cann
Université de Lille Nord de France Texas Tech University
Martha Bayless Arnie Cann
University of Oregon University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Fred K. Beard Alexander Carpenter
University of Oklahoma University of Alberta, Augustana Campus
Bart Beaty Donald Casadonte
University of Calgary Columbus State Community College
Ursula Beermann Wallace Chafe
University of California, Berkeley University of California, Santa Barbara
Nancy Bell Jocelyn Chey
Washington State University University of Sydney
Mary P. Bennett Delia Chiaro
Western Kentucky University University of Bologna
Janetta Rebold Benton Miriam M. Chirico
Pace University Eastern Connecticut State University

xxi
xxii Contributors

David M. Christenson Bill Ellis

University of Arizona Pennsylvania State University
Alastair Clarke Hilal Ergül
Independent philosopher Texas A&M University–Commerce
John R. Clarke Michael Ewans
University of Texas at Austin University of Newcastle, Australia
Conal Condren Kristy Beers Fägersten
University of Queensland Södertörns högskola
Florencia Cortés-Conde Joseph Farrell
Goucher College University of Strathclyde, Glasgow
Franco D’Agostino David Feltmate
Università La Sapienza Roma Auburn University at Montgomery
Catherine Evans Davies Giovannantonio Forabosco
University of Alabama CRU—Centro Ricerca Umorismo
Andrew Davis Thomas E. Ford
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Western Carolina University
Chelsey Delaney Edward Forman
Catalyst Group University of Bristol
Peter Derks Matt Fotis
College of William & Mary Albright College
Daniel Derrin Hershey H. Friedman
Macquarie University Brooklyn College
Mitzi Desselles Linda Weiser Friedman
Louisiana Tech University Baruch College
Loredana Di Martino Richard A. Gardner
University of San Diego Sophia University
Rachel L. DiCioccio Randy Garner
University of Rhode Island Sam Houston State University
Alberto Dionigi Lewis Gilnert
University of Macerata, Italy Dartmouth College
Sibe Doosje Rachel Giora
Utrecht University Tel Aviv University
Norah E. Dunbar Leon Golden
University of Oklahoma Florida State University
Kenneth R. Dutton Mordechai Gordon
University of Newcastle, Australia Quinnipiac University
John DuVal Tarez Samra Graban
University of Arkansas Florida State University
Mitch Earleywine Gil Greengross
University at Albany, SUNY University of New Mexico
Janis L. Edwards Joshua Gregson
University of Alabama Cognitive Dynamic Therapy Associates
 Contributors xxiii

Samuel Grimes Martin Daniel Lampert

University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa Holy Names University
Lawrence W. Gross Charmaine Lee
University of Redlands University of Salerno
Peter Grzybek John A. Lent
Graz University Publisher, International Journal of Comic Art
Christine R. Harris Terry Lindvall
University of California, San Diego Virginia Wesleyan College
Max Harris Anna T. Litovkina
University of Wisconsin–Madison Tischner European University
Sonja Heintz Laura E. Little
Zurich University Temple University
Christian F. Hempelmann Mike Lloyd
Purdue University Victoria University of Wellington
Karina Hess Zimmermann Sharon Lockyer
Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, México Brunel University
Vanessa de Macedo Higgins Joyce Christopher Lynch
Independent Scholar DePauw University
Craig Hight Owen Hanley Lynch
University of Waikato Southern Methodist University
Jennifer Hofmann Jim Lyttle
University of Zurich University of Minnesota Duluth
R. Lance Holbert Ryan A. Malphurs
Ohio State University Tara Trask & Associates
Samuel Joeckel Przemysław Marciniak
Palm Beach Atlantic University University of Silesia in Katowice
David Kirby Peter Marks
Florida State University University of Sydney
Sheri R. Klein Rodney Marks
University of Massachusetts Dartmouth www.comedian.com.au
Aaron Kozbelt Meredith Marra
Brooklyn College, CUNY Victoria University of Wellington
Roger J. Kreuz Moira Marsh
University of Memphis Indiana University–Bloomington
Arvo Krikmann Kelli Marshall
Estonian Literary Museum DePaul University
Nicholas A. Kuiper Rod A. Martin
University of Western Ontario University of Western Ontario
Giselinde Kuipers Gerard Matte
University of Amsterdam Australian Catholic University
Liisi Laineste Nancy Cassell McEntire
Estonian Literary Museum Indiana State University
xxiv Contributors

A. Peter McGraw Don Lee Fred Nilsen

University of Colorado Boulder Arizona State University
Robert F. McMorris Will Noonan
University at Albany, SUNY Université de Bourgogne
Whitney Meers Neal R. Norrick
Independent Scholar Saarland University
Aubrey Mellor J. O. J. Nwachukwu-Agbada
Lasalle College of the Arts, Singapore Abia State University, Uturu
Nancy P. Michael Dallin D. Oaks
Indiana University Brigham Young University
Nathan Miczo Michael J. Owren
Western Illinois University Emory University
Wolfgang Mieder Metin Özdemir
University of Vermont Middle East Technical University
Brett Mills John Parkin
University of East Anglia University of Bristol
Jessica Milner Davis Louise Peacock
University of Sydney University of Hull
Mustansir Mir Robert Phiddian
Youngstown State University Flinders University
Alexandre G. Mitchell Ed Piacentino
Institute of Archaeology, Oxford High Point University
John W. Morehead Michael Pickering
Western Institute for Intercultural Studies Loughborough University
John Morreall Tracey Platt
College of William & Mary University of Zurich
John Morton Diana Elena Popa
La Trobe University Dunarea de Jos University of Galati
David Moser René T. Proyer
CET Beijing Chinese Studies University of Zurich
Ralph Müller Jacquelyn Rahman
University of Fribourg Miami University
Javier Muñoz-Basols Victor Raskin
University of Oxford Purdue University
Robin L. Nabi Walter Redfern
University of California, Santa Barbara University of Reading
Carlos M Nash Monica A. Riordan
University of Kansas Chatham University
Attila L. Nemesi Graeme Ritchie
Pázmány Péter Catholic University University of Aberdeen
Alleen Pace Nilsen Christopher Robert
Arizona State University University of Missouri
 Contributors xxv

Ritchie Robertson Eduardo E. Parrilla Sotomayor

University of Oxford Tecnológico de Monterrey
Gillian M. Rodger Ronald Stewart
University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee Prefectural University of Hiroshima
Jon Edward Roeckelein Beverly J. Stoeltje
Mesa College Indiana University
Margaret A. Rose Megan Strain
University of Cambridge Kansas State University
Willibald Ruch Nina Strohminger
University of Zurich University of Michigan
Andrea C. Samson Sven Svebak
Stanford University Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Vassilis Saroglou Joan Swann
Université catholique de Louvain The Open University
Robert A. Saunders Sandra Swart
Farmingdale State College Stellenbosch University
Zachary A. Schaefer Georges Tamer
Southern Illinois University Edwardsville Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg
Dan Schill Julia M. Taylor
Southern Methodist University Purdue University
Carl Schimmel John M. Tchernev
Illinois State University Ohio State University
Stephanie Schnurr Yen-Mai Tran-Gervat
University of Warwick Université Sorbonne Nouvelle—Paris 3
Debra A. Schwartz Elizabeth Tucker
Arizona State University Binghamton University
Paul Seaver (deceased) Katalin Vargha
Franklin and Marshall College Institute of Ethnology (Hungary)
Margaret Semrud-Clikeman W. Larry Ventis
University of Minnesota Medical School College of William & Mary
Cameron Shelley Amadeu Viana
University of Waterloo Universitat de Lleida
Benjamin Shepard Giordano Vintaloro
Hunter College, CUNY University of Trieste, Italy
Dina Sherzer Ben Voth
University of Texas Southern Methodist University
Joel Sherzer Stephen Wagg
University of Texas Leeds Metropolitan University
Limor Shifman Yu Wang
Hebrew University of Jerusalem The Open University
David E. E. Sloane Melissa Bekelja Wanzer
University of New Haven Canisius College
xxvi Contributors

Zachary B. Warner Daniel Wickberg

University at Albany, SUNY University of Texas at Dallas
Caleb Warren Lawrence E. Williams
Bocconi University University of Colorado Boulder
Simon Weaver Wei He Xu
Brunel University Middlebury College
Rainer Wehse Hye Jin Yoon
Munich University Southern Methodist University
Eric Weitz Haiqing Yu
Trinity College Dublin University of New South Wales
Marguerite Wells Xiao Dong Yue
Australasian Humour Studies Network City University of Hong Kong
Foreword

A project of the size and complexity of the Ency- there are differences among these terms—ultimately,
clopedia of Humor Studies demands enormous the connections to the roots of humor are the same.
imagination, devotion, patience, collaboration, Indeed, the ability to create and recognize humor
and capacity for amusement. For this unique and has a biological basis, and its many positive effects
unprecedented reference work, humor scholars from on physical and mental well-being suggest that from
around the world have contributed more than 300 an evolutionary standpoint, laughter can be under-
entries, with a wide range both historically (from stood as an adaptive behavior.
the Egyptians and the Sumerians to modern times) Humor customarily supplies benefits beyond
and geographically (with entries on Chinese, Japa- what is usually anticipated from communication.
nese, African, Amerindian, Arabic, and Sanskrit When significant rapport is discovered through
humor). Moreover, the encyclopedia does not limit humor, the pleasures of conviviality—shared laugh-
itself to traditional academic subjects. Readers will ter, unified insights, joint sympathies—are the result.
find entries on comics, cartoons, burlesque, graf- Humor does not customarily shrink from challenge
fiti, improv comedy, clowns, music halls, and much (thus political cartoons take on all manner of con-
more. These entries, totaling more than half a mil- troversial topics), and it is not limited to simple
lion words, represent the thinking of 200 contribu- “yes” or “no” responses. In addition, it reveals and
tors, and the results of all this creative endeavor have encompasses a multiplicity of viewpoints. Tradition-
been ably assembled under the leadership of the ally, amusement is evoked in tense circumstances
editor and the editorial board members, who have (e.g., where resolution or compromise may seem to
guided this mega-vessel from conception through to be unattainable) to alleviate the tension. Humor even
publication. has the potential for disarming militant hostilities
Humor—the subject that commands such an and modifying feelings of resentment or anger that
effort as the undertaking of the Encyclopedia of may linger as disruptive reminders of controversy.
Humor Studies—is not a frivolous, trivial sector of Humor, thus, is an apt subject for extended,
the human experience. It summons our attention. It searching discussion and study—in concordance, in
absorbs large proportions of our lifetime energies. tense dispute or debate, or in scholarly examination.
The various aspects of humor, including our own As one can see, humor has much to recommend
senses of humor, are important parts of the lives of it as a worthy companion, for our studies, for our
all human beings. The entire universe—everything entertainment, for our explorations, and for our dis-
we think we know, everywhere within the human coveries. Humor is richly endowed with the capacity
experience—has some relevant connection to humor. for learning, for disputation, and for resolution. It
Attention to humor is evident in all languages and is a unique factor of human nature with so much to
cultures, even the most remote. Some languages are contribute in the positive zones of human life—for
familiar; others may be obscure, but the conceptual oneself and for interpersonal experience.
and verbal webs underlying humor are consistent,
no matter the native tongue. Whether one uses the William F. Fry
term Witz, schwank, joke, or blason populaire—and Stanford University

xxvii
Introduction

As any encyclopedist most assuredly does, I used to any encyclopedia that takes seriously its mission,
lie awake at night fearing having unwittingly become or at least aspirations, to achieve universality. One
the epigone of the Chinese encyclopedia conjured by could come up with exceptionless universal schemes
Jorge Luis Borges in “El idioma analítico de John of classification, but they would naturally not
Wilkins” (The Analytical Language of John Wilkins; reflect usage. So, caught between the rock of com-
in Otras inquisiciones [Other Inquisitions]), which mon usage and the hard place of systematicity, an
classifies animals as follows: encyclopedia must abandon the dream of becom-
ing an exhaustive systematic classification of the
(a) those that belong to the Emperor, matter and resign itself to being a jumble of partial
(b) embalmed ones, classifications that reflect the interests and disciplin-
(c) those that are trained, ary priorities of the scholars and students who will
(d) suckling pigs, use it. To be sure, by using blind entries and cross-
(e) mermaids, references, we have designed a web of intercon-
(f) fabulous ones, nections that will facilitate finding one’s interests,
(g) stray dogs, regardless of the classification adopted. While striv-
(h) those that are included in this classification, ing to be comprehensive, an encyclopedia can never
(i) those that tremble as if they were mad, be exhaustive. Not every conceivable topic related to
(j) innumerable ones, humor could be included. The most painful exclu-
(k) those drawn with a very fine camel brush, sion was the decision, made early on, to leave out
(l) others, literary humorists, unless their influence had been so
(m) those that have just broken a flower vase, great that one could speak of Aristophanic, Plautine,
(n) those that resemble flies from a distance. or Shakespearean comedy, for example.
Conversely, readers should be aware that some
Borges’s humor is as usual multifaceted, but let us humor is obscene, aggressive, and sexual in nature.
linger on the sublime touches of a list that continues Humor researchers know and expect this, but some
after “others;” on the weary but wise worldliness of readers may be offended or shocked by some of the
a list that begins with “those that belong to the materials examined or even by the language used to
Emperor;” on the metalinguistic paradox of “those describe it.
included in this classification” (and if you don’t see The encyclopedia is unabashedly an American
it, read the entry on Paradox); and the surreal (in the narrow sense of United States) work; see,
poetry of “those that resemble flies from a distance” for example, the entry Presidential Humor, which
(Don’t we all? Or is it ants?). For all its amusing deals with humor about and in the presidency of the
qualities, captured in Michel Foucault’s preface to United States. However, it also makes a deliberate
Les mots et les choses (Words and Things), Borges’s effort to expand its coverage to Western civilization
list makes a serious point: There is no end to the and beyond to include Asia and Africa. The reader
ways in which we can classify what exists in the will find for the first time, a multidisciplinary refer-
world or what the world is, for that matter. ence work that covers not only European genres of
As I implied, the experience of editing an ency- humor, but also Chinese, Japanese, and a few Afri-
clopedia quickly led me to accept that many tax- can genres. For Japanese names and titles, a modi-
onomies and classifications, all incompatible and fied version of the Hepburn system of romanization
orthogonal to each other, necessarily proliferate in is used, whereby macrons mark long vowels (e.g.

xxix
xxx Introduction

“ō” for “oo”). Chinese names and titles are rendered Wikipedia dedicates more than 30 entries to Buffy
in pinyin. the Vampire Slayer with the main entry on the
Much work went into broadening the coverage TV series an astonishing 12,000 words, synthesis
of the encyclopedia beyond the traditional Western becomes a virtue. For someone interested in finding
culture. It is largely due to the hard work of the out what is important about, say, humor in Juda-
editorial board that the encyclopedia could range ism, a 12,000-word entry is merely confusing. A
so widely. In fact, in some cases we had to literally 3,000-word entry will, out of necessity, focus on
codify a field for the first time. This is a difficult and what is crucial. Or, consider the show The Big
delicate matter. Witness, for example, the following Bang Theory, which gets a whopping 14,000 words
e-mail that Dr. Lawrence Gross, a professor at the in the main Wikipedia entry, and is mentioned, as
University of Redlands, in California, sent me dur- an example, in the Cross-Cultural Humor entry,
ing the process of preparing and editing his entry on where it gets a 60-word treatment. But what, you
American Indian humor: may ask, if I am a fan of The Big Bang Theory and
I want to know in what episode Sheldon’s work
You asked for a very difficult assignment in that is refuted by Stephen Hawking? Then you are
there are many American Indian nations—523 in the reading the wrong book. (Episode 21, Season 5, if
United States alone—covering thousands of years. you must know.) To be sure, concision is difficult;
Also, there are many American Indian comedians witness the many requests I received, and mostly
and writers active today. In order to demonstrate the resisted, for increased word counts, from semi-
ongoing vitality of American Indian cultures, I desperate authors.
needed to cover as many of those individuals as pos-
sible. Also, I sent out a request to a Native professors
The Field of Humor Studies
listserv asking for their input. The overwhelming
consensus was that I should include as many mod- Most people, when first encountering humor stud-
ern-day American Indian comedians and writers as ies, react with incredulity. Humor appears to be
possible. So, I feel I have the support of the commu- so simple, so easy. Surely it can be defined and
nity of Native American professors behind me. explained in a few well-chosen sentences. This
attitude is common in the media: Generally speak-
The e-mail is emblematic of the problems that all ing, journalists first encounter humor studies when
the authors encountered when having to synthesize they cover a humor studies conference or in the
an entire field, with literally hundreds of authors, rarer occasions in which humor-related news hits
ideas, theories, and points of view, in a few thousand the media news cycle. Inevitably the old saying by
words. However, the e-mail also shows the meticu- Elwyn B. White, among whose works include Char-
lous process whereby the authors built a consensus lotte’s Web and, with William Strunk Jr., The Ele-
of what other scholars and practitioners in the field ments of Style, about dissecting humor and a frog,
recognize as their field. In this case, there was no and the frog dying under dissection much like the
standard comprehensive treatment of the subject. humor, gets trotted out to ridicule the endeavor. The
In some cases, there just was no way to provide problem with that view, however, is that if one asks
an overall encompassing view. Simply put, the field those skeptical about humor studies to provide their
is just not there (yet). A good example is African definition and explanation of humor, the results are
humor. In this case, we had to resort to commis- hopelessly naive, open to refutation from several
sioning partial articles from experts in some areas sides, and, at best, partial and incomplete.
and using blind entries to stitch together a some- Truth is, things that appear to be simple, are often
what coherent and comprehensive view. These vexingly complex: What could be easier than walk-
areas are obviously in need of further research, and ing upright? Plenty of things, as robotics professors
I hope that the encyclopedia will generate enough will be happy to explain to you. To this day, we do
interest that a new generation of scholars will take not have a robot capable of walking unassisted with
up this work, if for no other reason than to prove anywhere near the skill of a 10-year-old kid.
me wrong. In fact, there are so many terms, synonyms,
It should also be made abundantly clear that partial synonyms, and overlapping definitions of
the length limits imposed by the print medium humor and humor-related subjects (e.g., comic, ridi-
are a positive feature and not a limitation. When cule, irony, mirth, laughable, jolly, funny, ludicrous,
 Introduction xxxi

merry, etc.) that a common understanding has been Freud (1905), and Luigi Pirandello (1908); or with
reached in the field of using the word humor as an William Fry’s epochal Sweet Madness (1963); or
umbrella term to cover all the synonyms. The word perhaps with the blossoming of the psychology of
itself comes from the medieval theory of humors, humor in the 1970s.
which explained disease as a mixture of four prin- However illustrious the precedents one might
ciples (see the Humor, Etymology of, entry for more invoke, the idea of a field of humor research
details), but that is irrelevant in the technical sense coalesces around the humor conferences started in
just discussed. I should add that even this defini- Cardiff, Wales, in 1976, by Anthony Chapman and
tion is far from being accepted by all. For example, Hugh Foot. The most salient aspect of the confer-
literary theorists insist that humor and the comic ence was its interdisciplinary nature, which would
be kept distinct, the latter being properly applied to define humor research. Psychology, to be sure the
theatrical comedy. I should also add that some of leading discipline, appears alongside with literary
my best friends are literary theorists. theory, anthropology, folklore, and other related
Needless to say, different disciplines address disciplines.
different aspects of humor. As would be expected, The first conference was followed by others, in
cognitive psychology deals with the cognitive 1979 (Los Angeles), 1982 (Washington, DC), 1984
mechanisms that trigger humor, social psychology (Tel Aviv), and 1985 (Cork, Ireland). Also, in 1982
with the social effects and mechanisms of humor, Don and Alleen Nilsen started the World Humor
linguistics with the semantic and pragmatic aspects and Irony Membership (WHIM), which held annual
of language that produce humor, sociology with the meetings at the University of Arizona, the Nilsens’
social aspects, folklore with the ways that people of home base, until 1987. WHIM published extended
different groups produce humor or different kinds abstracts, called the WHIM Serial Yearbook
of humor, and so on. Literary theorists deal with (WHIMSY). Besides the cute name, the WHIMSY
humor in literature, musicologists with humor in books provided the first periodical humor research
music, film critics with humor in film, art critics publication. In 1987, the International Society of
with humor in art, design, and so forth. Humor Studies (ISHS) was created. In 1988, WHIM
However, the defining feature of humor studies is was held at Purdue University, and at the same
the interdisciplinarity of the field. What that means time HUMOR: International Journal of Humor
is that it is not uncommon to see psychologists bor- Research started its publication, with Victor Raskin
rowing ideas from linguists, sociologists debating as its editor-in-chief. The last WHIMSY appeared in
philosophers, literary theorists using psychological 1989. The ISHS has held annual conferences since
theories, computer scientists working on folk genres 1988, during odd years in the United States and in
such as riddles, and medical doctors being inspired the rest of the world in even years. A French publica-
by folklore (clowning being a prime example). It tion, Humoresques, also was started in 1988 and
may be objected that interdisciplinarity is also to is still active. Other humor journals have appeared
be found in other areas, computer science being recently, mostly as online publications.
an excellent example. This is true but misleading. The 1980s saw the publication of the first dis-
Whereas computer science is applied to many areas ciplinary syntheses: John Morreall’s 1983 Taking
(e.g., social media), there is virtually no feedback Laughter Seriously; Avner Ziv’s 1984 Personality
(there are no computer languages based on Twit- and Sense of Humor; Mahadev Apte’s 1985 Humor
ter). This is not the case in humor studies: Linguists and Laughter and, in the same year, Victor Raskin’s
borrow back ideas from psychologists, philosophers Semantic Mechanisms of Humor; and bringing the
discuss sociologists’ ideas, folklorists analyze com- decade to an end, Christie Davies’s 1990 Ethnic
puter humor, and so on. Humor Around the World. These were later fol-
It is tempting to date the start of the field of humor lowed by Salvatore Attardo’s 1994 Linguistic Theo-
studies from Plato and Aristotle, who provided the ries of Humor; Rod Martin’s 2007 The Psychol-
first systematic thinking about comedy; or with the ogy of Humor; and, finally, the Primer of Humor
Renaissance treatises (the 16th-century Italian and Research, edited by Victor Raskin in 2008, with a
French literary theorists who defined neoclassical much broader disciplinary range. The 1990s also
comedy, but also Laurent Joubert’s Traité du ris saw the first book series dedicated to humor: Mou-
[Treatise on Laughter] 1579); or with the humor- ton de Gruyter, Transaction Publishers, Wayne State
studies trifecta of Henri Bergson (1900), Sigmund University Press, and Gordon and Breach all publish
xxxii Introduction

humor book series that started in that decade. Other information about humor-related subjects, which are
series have appeared since then. the subject of much curiosity but unfortunately gener-
From a disciplinary perspective, the dominance ally appallingly poor-quality online and media cover-
of psychology as the leading discipline is unassail- age, as mentioned before. Incidentally, I should men-
able. Psychologists dominate the debate by defining tion that some of my best friends are in the media.
the main theories (incongruity theory and relief, I should also mention that there are some positive
or liberation, theory) and by setting standards of exceptions, such as Jim Holt, who has done some
empirical verification. The only major theory not coverage of humor studies for The New Yorker, and
completely psychological at the root is the superior- Joel Warner, who has covered several humor confer-
ity/hostility theory, which is more grounded in social ences for Wired and other publications.
status/interactions and hence more sociological than
psychological. The research from sociology, folklore, Content and Organization
anthropology, philosophy, linguistics, and commu- The selection of the topics in the more than 300
nication taken together do not even come close to entries reflects a deliberate attempt to cover current
matching the output of psychological research. Lit- areas of research in humor studies. However, an
erary studies is a special case to itself, as it freely bor- attempt at systematic coverage was also made, with
rows ideas and terminology from other disciplines mixed results. In some cases, there are no works of
but remains largely unaffected in its methodologies synthesis because not enough specific cases have
and outlooks on the field (historical, postmodern, been studied. Nonetheless, we expanded the cover-
Marxist, to name just a few). Other disciplines, such age of the encyclopedia to numerous areas that do
as mathematics and computer science, occasionally not normally see themselves as part of humor stud-
contribute but are definitely marginal to the field. ies. Examples are the entries on ancient humor (e.g.,
Ancient Egypt, Humor in; Assyrian and Babylonian
Rationale for the Encyclopedia
Humor; Sanskrit Humor) and the entries on music
The field of humor studies has grown and matured and humor and the visual arts and humor.
into a respected interdisciplinary area. Examples of The encyclopedia is designed to be accessible to
the field’s respectability can be easily gleaned. To college students. As such, the entries are designed to
name just one, the HUMOR journal has had an be comprehensive but not exhaustive treatments of
impact factor (a measure of the average number of a topic. However, some of the more technical entries
citations to articles in the journal) since the mid- may require familiarizing oneself with some of the
2000s. In the 1980s, one could, with some degree of entries that provide broader introductions to the
reasonableness, aspire to read all that was being pub- fields that contribute to humor studies. The reader
lished in humor studies. Nowadays, this is no longer will easily spot those, because they contain the name
feasible at the level of a single discipline, such as psy- of the discipline as the title, such as Sociology, Liter-
chology, within humor studies, let alone the entire ature, Pedagogy, Poetry, Psychology, Anthropology,
field. Dissertations on humor studies are written and Linguistics, Religion, Music, and so on. In some rare
defended all the time. Yet, despite all this growth, cases, it became clear that the encyclopedia entry
there was no single resource available that would would be the first systematic treatment of a given
provide a comprehensive, broad-based introduc- subject. Those entries have a broader set of biblio-
tion to the entire field of humor studies. Moreover, graphic references.
because of the increased specialization within the The encyclopedia also provides the readers with
disciplines that contribute to humor studies, scholars cross-references (“See alsos”) at the end of each
and students from different areas increasingly find entry that guide them to related entries. In addi-
themselves unfamiliar with the methods and find- tion, the front matter of the encyclopedia contains
ings of other, perhaps adjacent areas. The Encyclo- a Reader’s Guide that lists all entries related to a
pedia of Humor Studies fills these two gaps, afford- given topic or that belong to a subdiscipline. For
ing a relatively easy path of approach to students example, the subcategory of Asia in the Reader’s
and scholars who want to be informed about the Guide includes all the entries dealing with Asia,
research and findings in a given area. Given its sub- regardless of period, genre, or language. The
ject matter, the encyclopedia may also fulfill another Reader’s Guide can be found at the front of both
goal, by providing the general public with reliable volumes of the encyclopedia.
 Introduction xxxiii

The chronology is another example of ground- editor had commissioned the entry directly. Each
breaking work included in the encyclopedia. This is entry was then edited for style and language. Sig-
the first ever synoptic chronology of humor span- nificant revisions were approved by the authors, and
ning over 4 millennia (from 2000 BCE to present the entries were then finalized. Some of the signifi-
day) and identifying significant events in the history cant iconographic materials were provided by the
of humor from Europe, Asia, America, and Africa. authors of the entries and are acknowledged in the
This allows one to see, for example, that Laurence entries themselves, but the majority was the fruit
Sterne, the author of The Life and Opinions of of archival research by SAGE developmental editor
Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, and Carlo Goldoni, Diana Axelsen and the project’s second managing
the great Italian dramatist, were active roughly at editor, Hilal Ergül.
the same time (and couldn’t be any more differ-
ent, which is why this is interesting) but also that Acknowledgments
some of the earliest Chinese humor was written at I would like to thank all of the more than 200
the same time of some of the earliest Babylonian authors who contributed one or more entries to
humor, or that the Forest of Laughter, the first the encyclopedia. Without them, there would be
Chinese collection of jokes, was written roughly at no encyclopedia, and without their knowledge and
the same time that Menippus wrote his satires and expertise, the quality of the entries would not be as
the Romans enjoyed the Atellan farces. Needless to high as it is.
say, the chronology is not intended to be exhaustive I would also like to thank all the scholars who
either. selflessly took time to advise the editorial board
and me on what topics to include, comment on the
How the Encyclopedia Was Created
entries, and make suggestions to improve them. In
The editorial board was chosen with the goal of particular, Rod Martin and Christie Davies provided
including both some of the major figures in the field extensive suggestions and help in the preparatory
and some of the younger “up and coming” scholars, stages of the work. William (Bill) Fry graciously
as well as representing as many as possible of the accepted to honor the project with his Foreword.
disciplines in the field. I would also like to remember Avner Ziv, who passed
The editor then developed a list of potential entry away soon after having agreed to serve on the edito-
topics. The major works of synthesis in the field rial board and after having given me the privilege of
were consulted, and lists of topics were extracted. his advice on his field. I treasured his friendship, and
The complete 25 years of the journal HUMOR were I will never forget his exquisite hospitality. I was sad-
likewise mined for potential topics. The first list of dened of learning of the death of Lorene Birden, a
topics thus prepared was then circulated to the edi- long-time friend and collaborator, right before going
torial board for comments, additions, and general to press. Lorene and I co-organized the ISHS confer-
advice. Moreover, major scholars in the field were ence in Youngstown, Ohio. I also cherish the time
also consulted. The list underwent several revisions, we worked together. Then, a few days later, I was
and advice from the SAGE editorial team was also again saddened by the passing away of Paul Seaver,
incorporated. On occasion, individual suggestions founding president of the International Society for
from potential contributors were also included if Luso-Hispanic Humor Studies, the author of the
they met the approval of the board. Cervantes entry in the encyclopedia, and a supporter
This deliberate attempt at comprehensiveness of the project who had lent his knowledge and wis-
went far beyond the disciplines and topics that dom to it on many occasions.
typically appear in mainstream humor studies pub- I would also like to thank the editorial board,
lications. This made it sometimes difficult as non- most of them close friends, Thomas E. Ford, Sha-
academics were at times bewildered by academic ron Lockyer, Owen Hanley Lynch, Moira Marsh,
practices (“Bibliography? You want a bibliogra- Jessica Milner Davis, John Morreall, and last but
phy?”). The authors were given general guidelines of not least, Victor Raskin, for taking on with good
accessibility and readability as well as a few sample humor and formidable patience the usually thank-
entries. All of the entries were reviewed at least by less task of reviewing, editing, and often cutting
the section editor and by the lead editor, but often down to size of the entries. I also would like to thank
other readers were brought in, especially if the lead Audrey C. Adams, who was the project’s managing
xxxiv Introduction

editor for the first 2 years, and Hilal Ergül, who thank Texas A&M University–Commerce for sup-
took her place for the last 7 months of the task. porting me in this project by providing funding
It was a pleasure to work with the SAGE editorial for research assistants. Most of all I would like to
team: Jim Brace-Thompson, Diana Axelsen, Shi- thank my wife, Lucy Pickering, who put a smile on
rin Parsavand, and Anna Villaseñor. I also would my face throughout the 3 years it took to complete
like to thank Gaia Attardo, Aaron Westmoreland, the project and never lost her patience when she
and Hilal Ergül, who helped prepare the chronol- heard me say over and over: “Next time I will not
ogy, and Audrey C. Adams, who prepared the list make this mistake again!”
of associations and journals. I also would like to Salvatore Attardo
 A
the theater of the absurd; and with modernist avant-
ABSURDIST HUMOR gardes, absurdist humor has in fact a long history
running across a variety of genres.
Closely related to black humor, nonsense, and
incongruity, absurdist humor can be understood in
broad terms as humor concerned with the absence
Absurdity, Incongruity, and Nonsense
or refusal of meaning. Etymologically, the term The specific characteristics of absurdist humor are
absurd is linked to the musical discord generated best understood with respect to neighboring con-
absurdo (by a deaf person). In humor, as in nonsense cepts such as incongruity and nonsense, although
and incongruity, it can be seen as opposed to con- there is a risk of overstating what are sometimes
ventional or serious discourse. While this negative nebulous distinctions. The absurd appears as a
status suggests that the absurd can manifest itself key ingredient of humor in Immanuel Kant’s 1790
in many ways, it is useful to distinguish between Critique of Judgment, a text that has strongly influ-
two main strands. First, the rational absurd is con- enced the modern understanding of humor as being
cerned with the breakdown of logic and exemplified less a mode of aggressive ridicule than a species of
in the technique of reductio ad absurdum, in which incongruity: “In everything that is to excite a lively
a logical proposition is led to a nonsensical or con- convulsive laugh there must be something absurd (in
tradictory conclusion. Second, the existential absurd which the understanding, therefore, can find no sat-
is concerned with the apparent meaninglessness isfaction). Laughter is an affectation arising from the
of human existence, often associated with French sudden transformation of a strained expectation into
existentialist philosophy and the postwar theater nothing” (Kant, 1790/2007, p. 161). But while the
of the absurd. Not all humor is absurd, and not all incongruity implied in Kant’s “something absurd” is
absurdity is funny; however, both strands function capable of being resolved or negated, Elliott Oring
as rich sources of humor, with the rational absurd (2003, Ch. 2) makes a useful distinction between
tending toward formal playfulness and nonsense, the “appropriate” incongruity characteristic of most
and the existential absurd toward darker humor. humor, and the extra level of incongruity character-
These two strands often occur in combination, and istic of absurdist humor, which typically cannot be
examples ranging from the zany comedy of a Marx resolved into any situation compatible with normal
Brothers or Monty Python sketch to the hollow experience. As a case in point, Oring cites the exam-
laughter elicited by the plays of Eugène Ionesco or ple of elephant jokes (e.g., “Why do elephants paint
Samuel Beckett show that absurdist humor can take their toenails red? To hide in cherry trees”), which
many forms. While it is most often thought of as a violate the usual conventions of (non-absurdist) rid-
20th-century phenomenon, associated particularly dles since the answer offers a situation that is no less
with vaudeville, film, and television comedy; with absurd than the initial question.

1
2 Absurdist Humor

The example of elephant jokes is also helpful in presents the effeminate god Dionysus incongruously
distinguishing between absurdist humor and non- dressed in the lion-skin of Heracles/Hercules in order
sense humor, since incongruity resides here not in the to emulate the latter’s voyage to the underworld.
structure or linguistic expression of the joke but in There Dionysus presides over an absurd poetic con-
its content. While absurdist humor implies a break- test in which the dead poets Aeschylus and Euripides
down in meaning on a referential (logical or existen- have their lines evaluated by being weighed on a
tial) level, the incongruity of nonsense humor resides giant set of scales.
within language itself. Noting a tendency to conflate Jokes built specifically around absurdist reason-
the two categories, Wim Tigges argues that “in non- ing recur down the centuries. Dionysus’s advice to
sense, language creates a reality, in the absurd lan- his slave at the beginning of the Frogs—to stop com-
guage represents a senseless reality” (1988, p. 128). plaining about carrying heavy baggage while riding
Thus the made-up language of a text like Lewis a mule, and instead, load the bags onto the mule
Carroll’s famous poem, “Jabberwocky,” constitutes and carry that on his shoulders instead—is echoed,
(a highly suggestive form of) nonsense; but in chap- for example, in Petruchio’s tricking Katharina into
ter 5 of the novel from which it is taken (Through stating that “the moon . . . is the blessed sun” in
the Looking-Glass, 1871), the decision of the Queen Shakespeare’s Taming of the Shrew (ca. 1592, Act
of Hearts to punish the king’s messenger before trial, IV, Scene 5); and also in the Queen of Hearts’s
and even before he has committed a crime, exem- refusal to allow Alice to eat a leg of mutton before
plifies absurdist reasoning. While Carroll’s world is (or after) being introduced to it (Through the
essentially humorous and lighthearted (it can also Looking-Glass, chap. 9). A tradition of wordplay
be read as an exploration of his interest in formal verging on nonsense humor can be traced from
logic), the messenger’s punishment anticipates the French medieval Fatrasies (poems in which sound
more troubling absurdism of later writers such as associations generate absurd images or contradic-
Franz Kafka (1883–1924): It demonstrates how a tory statements) through the coq-à-l’âne (the cock
breakdown in logic can lead to senseless and poten- follows the ass) humor of François Rabelais and
tially threatening existential situations. French poet Clément Marot (1496–1544) in which
Normal usage of the terms humor and absurd unrelated topics are made to follow each other with
involves a considerable degree of conceptual over- no apparent logic, to the works of Carroll and of
lap, but they can also be understood as subtly Edward Lear (1812–1888).
contrasting perceptual modes. Taking humor in its Absurd plots and situations are a staple of comic
narrower sense (prevalent in languages like French genres ranging from farce to the shaggy-dog nar-
and German, and formerly so in English) of a pre- ratives of Menippean satire, named for the 3rd-
dilection for whimsical, self-conscious eccentricity, century BCE Cynic Menippus. This comic genre is
Jean-Jacques Mayoux (1973) argues that a humor- exemplified in Laurence Sterne’s Life and Opinions
ous outlook implies the assumption that “I am ridic- of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1759–1768), in
ulous,” whereas an absurdist outlook implies the which the narrator’s attempt at an unabridged auto-
assumption that “the world is ridiculous.” Mayoux biography becomes mired in digression as his lived
explores the distinction between (English) humor experience elapses much faster than he can narrate.
and (French) absurdism primarily as a function While Sterne’s highly erudite novel derives much of
of cultural attitudes—reflected in the strong its humor from rational absurdism, it also displays a
absurdist strain in 20th-century French philosophy darker vein of existential humor, seen in a late pas-
and literature—but his argument is also helpful in sage (Book 7, chap. 1) in which the narrator is vis-
framing absurdist humor as a response not to the ited by the figure of Death while telling a digressive
self but to the external world. story, prompting him to abandon his autobiography
and sidestep a growing sense of mortality by travel-
ing to France.
Absurdist Humor Before 1900
Absurdist humor sometimes serves a deeply
Absurd humor in various forms can be found satirical purpose. Desiderius Erasmus’s Praise of
throughout the history of comedy, often serving as Folly (1509) and Panurge’s encomium of debt
a frame or counterpoint to more serious or satiri- in Rabelais’s Tiers livre (Third Book, 1546, chap.
cal elements. Early examples include the plays of 3–4) parody the absurdities of medieval scholastic
Aristophanes, whose Frogs (404 BCE), for example, reasoning; and Jonathan Swift’s pseudopolitical
 Absurdist Humor 3

pamphlet A Modest Proposal (1729) deploys an Chauve, 1950) opens with a superficially ordinary
outwardly rational argument to reach the darkly but essentially meaningless conversation in the liv-
absurd conclusion that poverty and overpopulation ing room of a stereotypically “English” couple. The
in contemporary Ireland could be solved by farming dialogue is inspired by the banal repetitions of a
babies for meat. Although absurdist humor is often language-learning record, but this initially mundane
associated with the late 19th-century-nonsense tra- absurdity is disturbed by a series of increasingly
dition of Carroll and Lear, it can also be an aggres- bizarre events (the arrival of a fire chief, a recogni-
sive weapon against the pretensions of rationalist tion scene between two people presented as husband
discourse or existential certainty. and wife) that culminates in the characters repeat-
ing a series of meaningless syllables while failing to
Modernism, Dadaism, and Surrealism notice any incongruity. In a slightly different vein,
Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot (1953) presents
The turn of the 20th century was a significant turning
a pair of tramps, who may or may not remember
point for the absurd both in terms of its expanding
each other and are unsure of why or how long they
influence and in a shift in emphasis from a primarily
have been waiting, in two almost identical acts
comic mode to a tool for questioning conventional
where the dialogue alternates between existential
modes of understanding. Alfred Jarry’s 1896 play
musing and self-conscious set-piece comic routines
Ubu roi (Ubu the king)