Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology | Definition & Examples
Table of Contents
- Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology
- Theoretical Paradigms in Sociology
- What are the Four Major Sociological Perspectives?
- Lesson Summary
What are the four theoretical perspectives of sociology?
The four main theoretical perspectives in the field of sociology are symbolic interactionism theory, social conflict theory, structural-functional theory, and feminist theory.
What does theoretical perspective mean in sociology?
Theoretical perspectives are the various ways that social sciences can measure and solidify trends and themes across human nature and behavior.
Table of Contents
- Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology
- Theoretical Paradigms in Sociology
- What are the Four Major Sociological Perspectives?
- Lesson Summary
The word "sociology" is constructed of two parts: social, meaning relating to society or an organization, and the suffix -ology, meaning a branch of study. Sociology, therefore, is the study of how humans interact with society and one another from a scientific perspective and approach. Sociology has a wide range of analyses to study the human social sphere, surroundings, and relations in society. Sociological theorists develop theories and interact within their subject matter to understand various phenomena through debate, academic discourse, and scholarly appreciation.
Theorists have come up with different explanations to analyze and understand sociological phenomena. Theories can have a large scope of study, which is why there are various theoretical perspectives and approaches in sociology. Theories are found in various fields of study, such as psychology and medical science. Theories are fundamental to science because they help to create and solidify trends and themes across human nature.
What is a Theoretical Perspective?
Also referred to as a theory, a theoretical perspective is an explanation, not just what someone thinks or believes, but a structural framework tested and evaluated over time. A theory is developed through academic discourses, research, scholarship, debates, and discussions. Theories are essential tools in explaining and understanding phenomena. Moreover, phenomena can also be comprised of problems; hence, theories help understand and maneuver around these problems. Sociological theories help explain human social interaction phenomena as the scope of sociology.
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There are a variety of theoretical paradigms in sociology that explain how humans interact with society, each other, and the greater world around them. One's environment, upbringing, values, and social norms affect how one interacts with society, reacts to problems, and encounters the world around them. There is a theory to explain almost everything, one example being stereotypes. The "dumb blonde" stereotype is the idea that some people assume that if a woman has blonde hair, she automatically does not have brains. This is a judgment based on physical appearance. This stereotype impacts many women with blonde hair and influences how other people view women with blonde hair based on societal trends and labels throughout the years. This is an example of labeling theory. Labeling theory is the idea that people can start identifying themselves with the stereotypes or labels that society or others place on them. The labels people receive actually can influence and impact how they conduct themselves and behave in the world. Labeling theory stems from a core fundamental theoretical perspective called symbolic interactionism theory.
Labeling theory is just one example of a theoretical paradigm. Still, there are many more, such as rational choice theory, game theory, critical theory, and the four major sociological perspectives.
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There are four major sociological perspectives in sociology to explain human behavior within societies, communities, and individuals: symbolic interactionism theory, social conflict theory, structural-functional theory, and feminist theory.
Symbolic Interactionism Theory
Symbolic interactionism theory, one of the main sociological theories, relies on how the relationships and experiences within our relationships and communities communicate different symbols and meanings. A symbol is something that represents or stands for something. For example, the American flag can be a symbol of freedom or patriotism. That meaning was communicated through the experiences where the American flag is present. To interact means to act in a way that affects others. Therefore, it makes sense that the symbolic interactionism theory is how humans are affected by their environments and gain different meanings for different symbols.
How people use words changes how people interpret a word's meaning. For example, for people living in Massachusetts or the Boston area, the word wicked means "great" or "awesome." In other areas of the country, wicked means "unpleasant" or "evil." The environment or society directly affects how each individual interprets different symbols and meanings of things.
Social Conflict Perspective
Social conflict theory is a sociological perspective that explains inequality and how human behavior comprises two groups: the upper class and the lower class. This grouping inherently creates conflict between groups of individuals. This theory examines conflict and social problems between the groups. This theory demonstrates how some groups of people have access to more opportunities while others are fighting for those resources, thus creating a conflict.
The education system is a great example of this theoretical perspective. The groups of people that grow up in financially wealthy communities and families will have access to resources, opportunities, and a multitude of experiences within and outside the school system. These opportunities may include extracurricular activities, such as esteemed sports teams or clubs, that can be included in a college application. On the other hand, the individual who grows up in a poorer community may not have access to a school system with such opportunities and resources. Those who come from affluent backgrounds and families will be able to afford a college education, which directly influences a person's future opportunities and career. Individuals who cannot afford college may not even consider it an option, leading to fewer opportunities and career choices. Social conflict theory explains how this inequality and divide leads to the lower class fighting for change and equality. This conflict between the two groups often leads to the most change.
Structural-Functional Perspective
Structural-functional theory explains how the complex parts of society work together to keep things functioning. The structure is an arrangement between parts and elements to keep a system or machine organized and functioning. The structure of a house is organized yet complex. When a house is complete, it stands tall, and all elements work together to create a whole structure.
For example, a local school system has a superintendent, a principal, the faculty and staff, and the parents and families associated with each school. This is a complex structure because there are various entities involved. However, each entity is working towards a common goal of educating the children. Without each part working together, the system would not function. Each individual has a role and works towards the same goal in different ways. Likewise, this sociological perspective sees the society and its components as a functioning structure.
Feminist Theory
Feminist theory is another sociological perspective emphasizing the inequality between men and women. This sociological perspective realizes the inherent inequality that men possess over women and aims to make all men and women equal. Often, feminism is seen or viewed by society as the domination of women over men, but this is not true of feminist theory. The goal of feminism is to fight for equality in opportunities, resources, and experiences for both men and women. Sociological theories should, therefore, be able to explain various concepts while demystifying controversial topics and concerns encompassing the dynamics of social interaction between humans.
Feminist theory explains this disadvantage in opportunities for men versus women. Once again, the education system is a good example. Many studies have shown that more men earn a higher level of education than women, such as a master's degree or a doctorate. This theory discusses and explains how men can have more successful careers while women may not have a career at all and may instead take on other roles that have been assumed to be for women in society.
Although there are many limitations and disadvantages that women face in society, there are also some disadvantages that men face as well. The feminist theory emphasizes both sides and inequalities that the sexes face. There has been a lot of progress in society to decrease the inequality gap between men and women.
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Theories are important to social sciences because they help to solidify trends and themes across types of decisions or behaviors. A theoretical perspective is a structural framework tested and evaluated over time to guide one's reasoning and thinking in sociology. There are four major sociological perspective theories in sociology to explain human behavior within societies, communities, and individuals. Symbolic interactionism theory relies on how the interactions and experiences within communities interpret symbols and their meanings, such as language. Social conflict theory explains societal inequality and considers social conflicts between societal groups. Structural-functional theory discusses how the complex parts of society work together to keep things functioning, such as a school board that works with the city council toward a common educational goal. Lastly, feminist theory emphasizes the societal inequality between men and women. Feminism strives for equality between the sexes.
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Video Transcript
The Importance of Theory
When you were in junior high or high school and you ate lunch, did certain types of people sit at certain tables every day? Why do you think people tend to sort themselves into groups and stay with people they see as similar to themselves? If you have a guess as to why this happens, you could say that you have a theory regarding how social groups function. This lesson focuses on the importance of theory in the social sciences and the four main theoretical perspectives within sociology.
Let's start with a definition. A theory is a statement of how and why processes work or the world operates. Within sociology, theories attempt to explain why groups of people choose to perform certain actions and how societies function or change in a certain way.
It's important for social sciences, like psychology, economics, and sociology, to follow theoretical perspectives as a framework for understanding phenomena, such as the ways people form groups. Without theories, we'd just have a huge list of individual tendencies, or decisions people make, or types of people, but we wouldn't have any way of organizing the field. Theories help us see overall themes across many specific types of behaviors or decisions in the social world.
This lesson will briefly cover the four major theories in sociology, which are structural-functional theory, social conflict theory, feminism, and symbolic interactionism theory.
Structural-Functional Theory
Our first theory is called structural-functional theory. This approach views society as a complex, but interconnected system, where each part works together as a functional whole. A metaphor for the structural-functional approach is the human body. You have arms, legs, a heart, a brain, and so on. Each individual body part has its own neurons and system for working, but each part has to work together for a fully-functioning structure, or system. What are the different structures, or systems, in society? You can probably think of the government, businesses, schools, and families. We need all of these systems to work together for a fully-functioning society.
To make each of our four theories more memorable, let's think about each theory from the perspective of an example. We'll use sports. How would you apply the structural-functional approach or theory to sports? Well, for any given team to be successful, it needs to have a bunch of working parts, each functioning independently and cooperatively. I played soccer in high school, so think about soccer for a second. Of course, you'll have different positions on the team, such as the forwards, the fullbacks for defense, and the goalkeeper. But, you also need the coach, the referees, and someone to pay for the equipment; and it wouldn't be very fun to play without an audience. Each part has its own rules and systems. For example, the audience has to know when to cheer, how to purchase concessions, and where to sit. For the entire system to work, all of the individual parts need to work together. Structural-functional theory studies how each part of the larger social world works together.
Social Conflict Theory
The second major theoretical perspective in sociology is called social conflict theory. This theory views society as a system of groups that are not equal, and therefore consistently generate conflict and change. Think back to that example from the beginning of the lesson with the different groups of students in school.
In my high school, the athletes might have conflicts with the people in band or the people who were in the math club. There was a popular group of kids who were sometimes mean to the less popular kids. When you think about this type of social conflict on a large scale, it explains unfortunate social trends such as racism, sexism, homophobia, ageism, and so on, but the theory also predicts change. For example, in the 1960s, the United States saw a huge change in civil rights awarded to African Americans due to the political protests that highlighted the conflict between racial groups. While racism is still a problem in the United States, this social change helped the country make a lot of progress toward equality.
Hopefully, it's easy to see how social conflict theory might be seen in our example of sports. Different teams will certainly conflict with each other as they compete for points, runs, or touchdowns. Actually, sports wouldn't make any sense without some form of conflict or competition. Fans of the different teams will display their loyalty using things like hats or jerseys, and they might conflict with each other.
Going back to my favorite sport of soccer, the fans are famous for causing trouble when they're upset. We even have the phrase 'soccer hooligan' or 'football hooligan' because of this tendency! Social conflict theory emphasizes how social conflict motivates people and societies to evolve over time.
Feminism
Theory three out of four is feminism. Feminism is often misunderstood as coming from a group of angry women who are trying to dominate men. That is not what feminism is! Understood correctly, feminism is a perspective that views society as traditionally unequal between men and women and strives for equality between the sexes.
For example, you might have heard the fact that men and women, on average, are not paid equally in the United States. Studies show that even with the same education and job demands, women are only paid $0.77 for the same job where a man would be paid $1.00. Women are less represented in the government, women are less likely to be business owners, and women are less likely to be college professors.
Of course, there are also examples of places in society where men are disadvantaged. Men are less likely to be given custody of children after a divorce, and men are less likely to be hired for certain jobs, such as elementary school teachers or flight attendants. Feminism, as a theory in sociology, tries to point out these inequalities and find solutions so that every situation is fair to everyone.
Again, think about how sports can be an example of the theory. What inequalities between men and women can you see in the athletic world? There are not very many professional sports available for women, unless you go to the Olympics. Many colleges don't offer equal sports for men and women, even though the U.S. government declared inequalities to be unconstitutional many years ago. Even when there are teams for both sports, such as basketball, the women's team usually doesn't get very much attention or economic support from the college compared to the men's team.
Symbolic Interactionism
The fourth and final theory in this lesson is symbolic interactionism. Symbolic interactionism views the larger society as a byproduct of the interactions among millions of individuals. In other words, this theory focuses more on tiny groups of two or three people, talking to each other and interacting, and says that society is really just millions of these tiny groups occurring over time. So, why is it called 'symbolic' interactionism? Part of this theory is that through these interactions, people create symbols as ways to understand the world and shape our identities.
What's an example of one of these symbols? Well, think about language. In English, the sound 'kitchen' symbolizes an area of a living space where food is stored and prepared for eating. Every language has a sound that symbolizes this space. That symbol had to be created for the first time at some point in history.
Another example is religious symbols. Think about a cross symbolizing Christianity or a Star of David symbolizing Judaism. People often wear such symbols, such as necklaces, as a way of honoring their beliefs and projecting these beliefs to other people. Each time one person shows a symbol to another person in an interaction, we've established both steps in the symbolic interactionism theory of sociology.
Let's finish the lesson by going back to our example of sports one more time. What symbols are important in the world of sports? Well, every team in every sport will have some kind of symbol on their uniform, representing either their institution (such as a college or city) or possibly some kind of mascot, like an animal. These symbols are supposed to represent something about the team. A tiger mascot might represent the symbolic ferocity of a team, or an alligator might represent Florida because there are alligators in that state. Either way, the symbols you see in the world of sports become very meaningful to the people who follow the teams.
Lesson Summary
Theories are needed in social sciences to help us understand and organize ideas and findings. There are four main theories in sociology:
- Structural-functional theory - This theory is based on the idea that society is a large system that is dependent on its individual parts working together.
- Social conflict theory - This theory implies that society is based on small groups that have conflicts that help society to evolve or change.
- Feminism - This theory is based on the idea that there are inequalities based on gender and the practice of trying to fix those inequalities.
- Symbolic interactionism - This theory implies that society is really about the smaller groups within it and the symbols that these small groups use to communicate.
As we went through each theory, which one seemed like the most useful or interesting? If you were a sociologist, which theory would you study?
Learning Outcome
After completing this lesson, you'll be able to describe the four main theories in sociology and provide a real-world application for each.
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