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SCHOOL OF ATHENS

width 26 loet S inches

This splendid fresco wo* painted by Kaphas! in 1511 to represent the " Triumph of Science," w
s companion pajadng to Che Dispute oi the Sacrament, representing the " Triumph of Religion "
Philosophy, implying an encyclopedic knowledge of the whole sphere of scientific learning and
intellectual culture, is here symbolised. A vast portico Is pictured, the arches of which are pierced
with statue-filled niches; the facing statues are Apollo end Minerva. The central figures are
Plato and Aristotle. Grouped shoot then are all [be philosophers, sages, and elders of antiquity
djacassing the problem at life. Diogenes Is prone on the steps; Artstippue passes him milling to
Protagoras; to the left, on the steps, AUblades, Xenophon snd others are listening to Socrates.
Below them era Pythagoras, with his wife Tbeano, his son Telenges, and his pupil Arehytea;
Anaxngofu is standing;; Heraclittu cits alone', Democritus and Epicurus at the base of the pillar.
To the right, on the steps are Pyrrho, Arcesitsu* and others; below them Archimedes (a portrait of
Bramante) teaches geometry, and Ptolemy and Zoroaster stand beside Raphael, 11 Sodoms, and
Pemgino. Vasarl says the fresco represents the anion of Theology and Philosophy through
Astronomy, and points oat Saint Matthew as Pythagoras. It haa also been said to represent Saint
Paul pleaching at Athena, and in 16*0 Giorgio Hantonno engraved it as Saint Paul disputing with
the Stoics snd Epicureans.

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THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA

AMERICANA

In Thirty Volumes

1918

THE ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA

CORPORATION

NEWYORK CHICAGO

B] IN

C"^

The Encyclopedia Americana Corporation

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THE ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA

George Edwin Rinks, Editor

PARTIAL LIST OF CONTFRlBftfTQl^ TO VOLUME I

ALEXIS, JOSEPH, A.B., A.M.

Assistant Mom of GermanL —
Literatures, University of Nebraska

ADAM HOMO
AYRES, SAMUEL G, D.B.

Garrett Biblical Institute

AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCORr

CHURCH
ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION

BRETT, GEORGE M.

Department of Political Science. College of Ci
New York; in charge of the r '

ACCOUNTING

ADDISON, JOSEPH
BRUSH, EDWARD HALE

AMERICAN SCULPTURE, HISTORICAL
SUBJECTS IN

AMERICAN EXPANSION POLICY
CARROLL, HENRY K., LL.D.

Author of "Religion! Force* of the United StaUt"

ADVENTISTS
CARVER, THOMAS NIXON, PhJ)., LLJ).

Professor of Political Economy. Harvard University

AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED

STATES
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED
STATES

CHAMBERLAIN, CHARLES J., PhJ).

Professor of Morphology end. Cytology. University
of Chicago.

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS

v~(l0.?J©l^rtLKMEHT W.

Technical Art Expert

ACANTHUS IN ART
ALTAR

AMULBTS

CURRIER, ANDREW F., M.D.

ANAESTHESIA
DAVENPORT, EUGENE, LL.D.

Dean and Director. University of Illinois College of

ANIMALS, DOMESTICATED
DEARBORN, GEORGE VAN NESS, M.D., PhJ).

Profeator of Phyaiology, Tuftj College

ANIMALS, MIND IN THE BRUTE
DB LEON, EDWIN W.

Member Inaurance Society of New York

ACCIDENT INSURANCE
DICKINSON, THOMAS H„ Ph-D.

Associate Professor of Engji"h Ilni™*)*/ of Wis-
consin; author of "The C

ALCHEMIST, THE
ALL FOR LOVE

PbJX

Comparative Literature,

CHANDLER, FRANK W.

Professor af English an
University of Cindnni

AMADIS DE GAULA
ANATOL

COFFIN, EDWIN TRISTAM

Secretary, Albany Chamber of Commerce

ALBANY, N. Y.
CONKLIN, EDWIN GRANT, PhJ)., SeJ).

Profeator of Zooloty, Princeton UnimirsitT

ANATOMY, COMPARATIVE

•ANATHEMA, ANDREYEVS
ANNA KARENINA
FARROW, EDWARD S., C.B.

Consulting Civil and Military BngioB

AIR COMPRESSOR
AIR GUN

ALLOYS

ALUMI NO-THERMICS
ANEMOMETER
FOSTER, HON. JOHN W., LL.D.'

i( State m President

AMERICAN DIPLOMACY
FOWLER, HENRY. T.,Pb,D,

Professor of Biblical literature. Brown. University

AMOS, BOOK OF
GARNER, JAMES W., Ph.D.

Professor of Political Economy, University of

ALIENS
ALLEGIANCE

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Contributors to Volume I — Continued

OOMPERS, SAMUEL

President American Federation of I*bor

AMERICAN FEDERATION OP LABOR
GREELY, A. W., PIlD.

Major-General United State* Army; author of
■■ Handbook o( Alaska "

ALASKA

ALASKA, EXPLORATIONS IN
HALE, EDWARD EVERETT, Ph.P.

Professor of English. Union College

AMERICAN LANDSCAPE PAINTING
AMERICAN LITERATURE, SYNOPSIS

OF
ANCIENT MARINER, THE

HALLBR, WILLIAM, PiO>.

Instructor in Bngliab, Colombia University

ALEXANDER'S FEAST
HAMLIN, ALFRED D. P., A.M., L.H.D.

Profcaaor of the History of Architectom, Columbia. .
University

ABORIGINAL ART
HANFORD, JAMES H., Pb-D.

Associate Profeasor of English, University of North

KRAPP, GEORGE P., Ph.D.

Profaaor of English, Columbia University

ALFRED THE GREAT
ANATOMY QF MELANCHOLY, THE
ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND
LITERATURE

LIPPHARD, WILLIAM B.

LIVINGSTON, ARTHUR. .

Professor of Romance Languages, The Western Uni
vcnity. London, Ontario

McCRBA, NELSON GLERH, Ph.D.

HARRY, JOSEPH E., Ph.D.

Author^of " The Greek Tragic Poets," etc.

.SSCHYLUS
ALCESTIS

IKGERSOLL, ERNEST

Naturalist and Author

ANACONDA

ANIMALS, CLASSIFICATION OF

ISAACS, KDITH J. R.

AMBASSADORS, THE
ISAACS, LEWIS M., Ph.B., LL3.

.-j Muaical Critic and Composer

AIDA
JELLIFFE, SMITH ELY, M.D., Ph.D.

Adjunct Profcaaor of Diseases of Mind and Nervous
System, Post Graduate Hospital and Medical
School; Professor of Psychiatry, Fordham Uni-
versity, New York

ADRENALS

AEROTHERAPEUTICS

ANATOMY

ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION

KERR, WILLIAM A. R., Ph.D.

Dean of Faculty of Arts and Science*, University of
Alberta

ALBERTA, CANADA
KEYSER, CASSIUS J., PiLD.

Profeasor of Mathematics, Columbia University

ALGEBRA, ELEMENTARY

ANALYTICAL METRICS

a, Columbia U

ADELPHI

iETHIOPICA

AGRICOLA, GNjEUS JULIUS, LIFE OF

MACDOUGALL, DUNCAN

AMATEUR THEATRICALS

MILLER, CHARLES St., NJL

AMERICAN ART

MODELL, DAVID A, A.M.

MOORE, V. ALVA, B.S., M.D.

Director New York State Veterinary College, Oor- '
nail University

ANIMALS, DISEASES OF
MORGAN, FORREST

Secretary Connecticut Historical Society

ADAMS, JOHN
ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY
AMERICA

AMERICAN PARTY
AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES 1788-
1862

BOURSE, EDWARD R., DJ>.

Professor of Biblical Theology, Hartford Theological

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
PETROVITCH, WOISLAV M., PhJ>;

Chief of Slavonic Division. New York Fublio Library

ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS, IMPERIAL

RUSSIAN •
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, IMPERIAL

RUSSIAN
ALBANIA

ARCHITEPTURE

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Contributors to Volume I — Concluded

PRESBREY, FRANK, A.M.

The Frank Presbrey Company, New York

ADVERTISING , . .

RLNES, GEORGE EDWIN

Editor of "The Foundation Library; " Co-editor of
"The Encyclopedia of Latin America,-" Managing
Editor of "The German Clannca;" "The South

TUCKER, MARION, Pb.D.

Protestor of English. The Polytechnic Institute of
Brooklyn

: ABSOtqM ANP ACHITOPEL

ADONAIS
' ANDREA DEL SARTO

RISTEEN, ALLAN D., Pb-D.

SABINE, WALLACE CLEMENT, D.Sc., D.S.

Profeaaor of Physics, Harvard University

ACOUSTICS
SCOTT, WALTER DUX, PtuD.

Director Bureau of Seiaamanah ip Research, Carnegie

Institute of Technology, Pittaburgh

ADVERTISING, THE PSYCHOLOGY OP
SHOREY, PADL, Ph.D., LL.D.

Head of Greek Department, University of Chicago

ANACREON

ALCOHOLISM
WARDROP, G. DOUGLAS

Managing Editor "Aerial Ago"

AERONAUTICS, HISTORY OP

AEROPLANE

AEROPLANE ENGINES

WELLS, BENJAMIN WILLIS, .Hi. D,

Author of " Modern German Literature", etc.

ADVENTURES OrT BARON MUNCH-
AUSEN, THE
AMIEL'S JOURNAL '

WERNICKE, PAUL, PhJ>.

" ta College of Kentucky

ANALYSIS SITUS

AMERICAN LOYALISTS
SMITH, CHARLES FORSTER, Pb_D., LLJ>.

Professor of_Greek and Claarical PhUokigy, Uni-

ANABASIS, THE
SMITH, DAVID EUGENE, PtuD., LLJ>.

Profeaaor of Mathematki, Teecbera. College, Co-
lumbia University

.ABACUS

ALGEBRA, HISTORY OP THE ELE-
MENTS OF

STUART, CHARLES LEONARD, BJL

Editorial Staff of The Americana

ABYSSINIA.'
AFRICA

THORNE, CHARLES EMBREE

Director Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooater,
Ohio

Dean of the Graduate Sefcool, Princeton University

AMERICAN COLLEGE, THE
WHIPPLE, GUT MONTROSE, PhJ>.

ftofoasor of Education. Uniwrsity of Illinois

ADOLESCENCE
WIENER, NORBERT, Fh.D.

Editorial Staff of The Americana

AESTHETICS

ALGEBRA

ALPHABET

ANIMALS, CHEMICAL SENSE IN

WILCOX, MARRIOTT, A.M., LL.B.

Co-editor " Encyclopedia of Latin America "

ADIRONDACKS
ALPS
ANDES
WILLDJGHAM, HENRY J., A.M.

President of. State Normal School, Florence,
Alabama

ALABAMA
WOLFF, SAMUEL L., PhJ).

WOODWARD, H- E.

Bureau of Chemistry, Washington, D, C.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY
YERKES, ROBERT M., Ph.D.

Profeaaor of Psychology, University of Minnenota

ANIMAL PSYCHOLOGY

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KEY TO PRONUNCIATION.

far, father
fate, hate

ado, sofa

all, fall

cbooae, church

eel. we

bed, end:

her, over; also Fr. e, as in c
eu, as in nettf ; ana oeu, as
boeuf, coew; Ger. 6 (or o<
as in okonomie.

befall, elope

agent, trident

off, trough

gas, get

anguish, guava

hat, hot

Gcr. ch, as in mcht, tvackt

what

file, ice

between e and i, mostly
Oriental final syllables, ;
Ferid-ud-din

mingle, singing

bank, ink

no, open

o or o

not, on

corn, nor

atom, symbol

book, look

oil, soil; also Ger. en, as in beuttl

5 or oo

fool, rule

ouoro.

I allow, bowsprit

satisfy, sauce

ffa

show, mre

thick, thin

father, thither

mute, use

uorii

but, us

pull, put

between u and e, as in Fr. sur,
Ger. MHIIer

of, very

(consonantal) yes, young

pleasant, rose

azure, pleasure

'(prime)

, ' (secondary) accents, to indicate
syllabic stress

dbyGoCX^

b»Googk

Jigilizodby^jOOQlC

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Jigilizodby^jOOQlC

PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION

TO impartial critics and scholars, no less than to the thousands of
its possessors among the general public, the first edition of The
Americana commended itself as a useful work of reference. In many
ways, both in its emphasis and in its treatments, it was a departure from the
beaten track of earlier works, and experience has shown the wisdom of this
departure. The characterization of the work in The Encyclopedia of Educa-
tion: " Notable for its fullness in articles dealing with technical subjects, as
mathematics, engineering, and the trades," is true, even if it fails to state
the whole truth. . In History, Political Economy, Religion, Philosophy,
Astronomy, Education, Literature, as well as in topics of general interest, the
first edition was not surpassed by any contemporary American work.

In view of the tremendous changes that the great world conflict has
brought about in every department of human thought and activity, and the
vital necessity for a new and up-to-date restatement of the world's knowl-
edge, the publishers determined to issue this new edition, and ordered the work
planned upon a scale to make it of still greater utility, retaining whatever
features the experience of the past had shown to be excellent, and enlarging
and improving wherever necessary to meet present conditions. New depart-
ments and thousands of new articles have therefore been added, and the
whole work has been revised and reset and is printed from new plates. The
maps have been prepared especially for this Encyclopedia by the Rand
McNally Company of Chicago, and are late and accurate. The illustrations
have been carefully selected and are far superior and more numerous than in
the former edition. We are confident therefore that the new Americana
will be recognized as the greatest repository of practical universal knowledge
in one set of books that has ever appeared in the English language.

In the new edition, the Editor has endeavored to limit the work to its
legitimate purpose — the presentation of knowledge with faithfulness and

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with scholarly impartiality, avoiding the promotion of theories and such
discussions and defenses as are entirely foreign to the character and nature
of an encyclopedia. Every effort has been made to secure not only accuracy
of statement but also fairness and correctness of view.

The " Americana idea " is not simply a reference " book of facts " — too
brief to be of any special value to the intelligent reader; nor yet a series of
" learned and splendid essays," showing an utter misconception of the idea
which justifies the existence of a general work of reference. It is rather an
endeavor to present, in an intelligent and informing way,the history and nature
of the civilization, institutions, systems, activities and achievements of man-
kind with sufficient fullness to furnish the general reader a fair and adequate
understanding of the development of man and his social life. In dealing
with " the dead past and the living present " this Encyclopedia does not seek
to dogmatize beyond the established facts. It is content to tefl -what is
known so far as we know it, and leave it there. It knows no north or south —
no national boundaries; it has no political, governmental, religious, or social
proclivities or antipathies; it is neither pro nor anti; it is neither a maker nor
an ultimate interpreter of history; it does not preach sermons, or inculcate
morals, or prophesy future events; it neither eulogizes good men nor abuses
the bad; but seeks to maintain in all things the spirit of fairness, and aims
to avoid pedantry and intellectual cocksuredness.

The prime object has been to give a clear, concrete, definite, truthful
and up-to-date statement of every subject, without prejudice or bias of any
kind ; to present in the most intelligent, authoritative, impersonal and impar-
tial manner the actual facts of knowledge so far as it is humanly possible to
do so. True, analysis must be made; opinion must be offered; judgment
must be passed ; perhaps criticism and even condemnation may occasionally
be necessary, but it must all be done in the spirit of true scholarship and high
service.

■ The thousands of contributors are representative of the highest scholar-
ship and authority in the.United States and other countries, and the editorial
staff is composed of men and women of wide knowledge and experience, pos-
sessing special encyclopedia training.

The Editor-in-Chief and his staff of co-workers are solely responsible for
the literary development of this work. Appreciative acknowledgment,
however, is due and is here made, to all the friends of this enterprise who hav$

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encouraged its production, and especially to those who by their practical
advice and scholarly assistance, as well as by their personal contributions,
have rendered invaluable service, among whom may be mentioned :

Professor James E. Creighton, Ph.D.

{Philosophy)
Professor George T. Ladd, D.D., LL.D.

(Philosophy and Japan)
Professor Albert B. Hart, Ph.D., LL.D., Lttt.D.

(History mid Gavariunant)
Professor Eric Doolitlle, C.E.

(Astronomy)
Professor Charles L. Dike, Ph.D.

(Geology)
Lewis F. Pilcher, Ph.B., LL.D.

' ( Architecture)

Professor William Benjamin Smith, Ph.D.

Professor Abram S. Isaacs, Ph.D.

(Jewish Topis)
Professor Patrick A. Halpin, Ph.D.

(Catholic Topia)

Charles F. Beach, LL.B.

(French Department)
Professor James M. Callahan, Ph.D.

(Political Sdenco)
Allan D. Risteen, Ph.D.

(Bib!

x William P. Trent, LL.D., D.CX.

(Eagliah Literature)
George F. Kunz, Ph.D., Sc.D.

(Gams and Precioua Stonat)
Thomas E. Finegan, Pd.D., LL.D.

(Education)

Professor Castius J. Keyaer, Ph.D.

Profesi

Smith Ely Jrllifff, M.D., Ph.D.

James A. Sullivan, Ph.D.

(Hiatory and Government)

James M. Walsh, M.D., LL.D., Litt.D., Sc.D.

(Medicine and History)
Professor Marion Tucker, Ph.D.

(Bugliah Uterattn-e)
Professor Thomas N. Carver, Ph.D., LL.D.

William Elliot Griffis, D.D., LL.D.

(China and Japan)
Professor Alfred G. Panaroni, B.S.

(Italian Department)
Professor Jacob W. Hartraaiw, Ph.D.

(German Literature)
Professor William F. Hauhart, Ph.D.

(German Literature)

Ernest Ingersoll

(Biology)
Professor James W. Gamer, Ph.D.

(Political Science)

Norbert Wiener, Ph.D.

(Mathematics)
Paul C. Standley

(Botany)
Elmer C. Youngman

(Banltinij and Finance)
Nelson H. Darton

(Hinarals anil Oaokwical Subjects, etc)
Professor Eugene Davenport, LL.D.

(Cattle and Live Stock)

Professor Richard F. Deimel, B.S., M.A.

Oscar P. Austin, A.M.,

(Commerce and Trade)
Professor Frederick H. Newell, B.S., D.Eng.

(Civil Engineering)
Henry K. Carroll, LL.D.

(Raligious Dcnonunatioaa and Staiiatiea)
Marrion Wilcox, A.M., LL.B.

Professor John Herbert Cornyn, p.A., LL.B.

(Latin America)
Samuel G. Ay res, B.D.

(Religious Biography, etc)
dement W. Coumbe

(Art Topica)

To give an adequate statement of the civilization of the world to date,
even thirty volumes have proved few enough, but it is the hope and belief
of the Editor that the new edition of The Americana will prove an efficient
aid to the educational and intellectual forces of America, and of especial
value at this time to the general public of the whole English-speaking race.

il0Y&£ Cctur^ ({^CnM

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A The first .letter of every alphabet ex-
cept the old German or Runic
and the Ethiopian: the "futhark"
of the former places it fourth,
the latter makes it thirteenth. As all alphabets
ultimately come through the Phcenician (wit-
ness die name itself), this arrangement is
natural. Our own is inherited from the Latin,
which was derived from the Greek; and the
latter in its alpha confirms its traditional deri-
vation from the Phcenician where and in
Hebrew it is called aleph, Aramaic alph. The
name is said to have meant "ox," and so
strongly resembles the root-element of eleph-
ant that there is little doubt the original mean-
ing of both was the same. Hence formerly
the shape of the lower-case a was derived
by some from the rough outline of an ox-
head with its horns; hut in fact, as evidenced
by a comparison of the gradual evolution of
forms, the small letters in all cases are derived
from the capitals, and the Greek capital A (see
table under Alphabet) in its original shape
was a somewhat more cursive form of the
Phoenician aleph which itself was a conven-
tionalized form of the Egyptian hieratic, and
that in turn (the final step backward) was
conventionalized from the picture of an ibis
in the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics or
ideographs.

The sound of the letter has varied little
more than the form — perhaps less — except in
modern English, which owing to its composite
character has made it a symbol of so many
different vowel-sounds as to be well-nigh
meaningless. Yet even here most of them
have never quite lost connection with the
earlier vocal efforts it stood for, and their
fluctuations are fixed by the character of the
vocal opening. The Pluenician sound repre-
sented by the letter aleph cannot have cor-
responded to the Greek alpha or any of its
derivatives, as the former alphabet assumed
that all syllables began with consonants, and
aleph was in some sort consonantal ; but the
Greeks made it a pure vowel the so-called
"Continental" or broad a as in "ah." This
is the simplest and most fundamental of all
vowel-sounds, the earliest uttered by infants,—
whence many grotesque theories of its divine
origin and the reasons for its position,— since
it results from opening the throat and mouth
wide and emitting the tone from the larynx,
r interference possible

vith the least friction c

from the other organs ; and it is still the moat
general on the Continent of Europe. But even
there it has been largely flattened by the
French into the short sound as in "at0; at the
end of words in all languages the dropping
of the voice tends to slur it toward the sound
of u in "but," which in English it quite attains;
and with us it has become the representative
of nine distinct sounds, seven of them each
recognizably developed from one of the others,
and all from the parent sound, while two are
of a different order yet still explicable. The
usual arrangement ('fate, fat, far, fall,' etc.)
is entirely misleading, as it obliterates this
evolution which the following makes clear:

(1) oh, explained above.

(2) nlL a closer sound than (1), formed by
drawing back the tongue, compressing the
sides of the throat, and speaking more toward
the diaphragm. In general utterance this is
perhaps the first change from ah. It is almost
universal among the Hindu and Persian
masses (*ghaut* for ghat, etc.), and was veir
common in England and America in the 18th
century : witness pronunciations like *spaw*
for "spa"; the curious aberrant ■vawz* for
*vahz* which has more curiously become ac-
cepted as a sort of social touchstone in a small

froup; family names like Raleigh, Decatur
aney, etc., in American pronunciation.

(3) was, what. The same pronounced still
deeper in the diaphragm, and cut short instead

- of prolonged.

(4) oval. This is the "neutral* sound, cor-
responding to "short u* ; used in Western lan-
guages only in unaccented syllables, and made
by lazily opening the organs as little as possible
and putting no stress on the expiration of the
breath. It is the closest of the vowel-sounds,
and the most diaphragmal, and therefore seem-
ingly the antithesis of "broad a*; it has in
truth no special relation to that more than to
e and o ("silent," "apron"), but is the common
weakened form of all. In Hindu speech it is
used stressed, as in the familiar "Juggernaut"
(Jaganath), *Buckcrgungc" (Bakarganj), etc.

(5) bare. A more open sound than (1),
formed in precisely the same manner as (2)
except by expanding instead of contracting the
throat.

(6) at. Identical with (5) except being cut
snort instead of prolonged; in fact, its short

(7) aslc. Always a different sound from

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AACHEN — AAHMES I

the others, but not always the same in itself.
With the less cultivated speakers it is nearly
identical with (5), even with (6). With
others, anxious to avoid the flatness and ex-
aggerating in the opposite direction, it is made
identical with (1). With the majority of good
speakers it is akin to (1), but shorter and more
diaphragmal, and with the organs rather closer

(8) any, many. This is not one of the
group of a- sounds, but is *short e.' The
change was caused by assimilation of the
a-sound to the i-sound of the closing letter.

(9) ate. This, in usual order the first given,
considered the typical English o- sound, ana
actually furnishing the pronunciation of that
letter in its alphabetic, position, is not merely
not an a-sound at all, but not even a simple
vowel- sound being nearly el, sliding quickly
from a closer and more diaphrajrmal "short e*
to a vanishing sound of "short l* As in (8),
the cause appears to have been originally as-
similation with a final vowel (the sonant t
now so often silent but 'lengthening* the a
before it), and afterwards extended to words
where this principle could not act

A, in general, the first term of any series.

In music, the first note of the scale of A,
major minor; and A minor is the relative (or
related) minor of (or belonging to ) C major;
the Continental la. The open second string of
the violin sounds it, and the instruments of an
orchestra are all tuned to it. As a fixed tone
a' (435 vibrations) is the standard by which
all instruments are tuned. In theoretical works
A denotes the triad of A major and a the triad
of A minor. In the score of works requiring
more than one performer the letters of the
alphabet are used as guides, to help find the
places readily in case of repetition.

In logic, the universal affirmative ('all trade
is barter"), distinguished from the particular
affirmative ("some trade is barter*). See
Logic

In algebra, the first letters of the alphabet,
a, b, c, .etc., are used to denote known quanti-
ties, while the last, down to s, denote the un-
known,—a and x being used first in all cases,
the others being added according to need.

In geometry and mechanical diagrams, the
capitals A, B, C, etc, are used to mark off
points, lines, angles, and figures ; in compli-
cated diagrams, often supplemented by the
small letters and accented, to indicate the
closer relations of parts.

As an abbreviation, see Abbreviations.

As an adjective or attributive, shaped like
the letter A; as .an A tent.

Consult Petrie, W. M. F„ 'The Formation
of the Alphabet' (1912); Rippmann, 'Sounds
of Spoken English' (London 1910); Stucken,
'Das Alphabet und die Mundstationen1 (1913) :
Sweet, 'History of English Sounds' (Oxford
1908); Taylor, I, 'The Alphabet" (London
1883).

A is also the first of the Dominical Letters.

A, word. (1) The form of "an* used before
consonants. (2) Broken-down form of *on,*
or ellipsis of "for a* (*twice a day*). (3)
Old form of "ah,* as a war-cry ("A Doug-
las!").

Al, a-one' (colloquially, "first-class"), the
mark for highest-grade wooden vessels in
Lloyd's (q.v.) 'Register of Shipping.' A re-

fers to hull, 1 to rigging and equipment. This
rank is assigned bv Lloyd's, surveyors to new
ships for a term of years prefixed to the sym-
bol, as 10A1) dependent on quality of mate-
rials and mode of building; but to retain it
they must be periodically resurveyed, and if fit
are granted continuation for one to eight years,
marked 10A1 Cont 5A1, etc A in red means
over-age, but still fit for any voyages which
perishable goods can endure; M in black, fit for
short trips with similar goods. In all cases the
1 is omitted if rigging, etc., are inferior. Iron
and steel vessels have a Gothic A preceded by
numerals from 100 down, 100A to 90A re-
surveyed once in four years, 85A and below
once in three; rigging, etc., marked same as on
wooden ships. In the German Lloyd's Al and
A are the two best grades of wooden ships;
Bl, B, CL, and CK, lower ones; iron and steel
ships are marked as in the English classifica-
tion, but with the resurvey term marked under
the A.

Aa, a ("water* : a general Indo-European
word in various shapes,— Ger. ack or aach in
Aachen, Biberach, etc. ; Lat. aqua, pi. aqua,
whence O.F. Aigues, Mod.F. Aix, in com-
pounds; etc.), the name of some forty streams
in northern and central Europe r among the
chief, a French river rising in dept. Pas-de-
Calais, flowing into dept. Nord, and reaching the
Strait of Dover at Gravelines; about 50 miles
long, navigable below St. Omer, and connected
with Calais and Dunkirk by canals.

Aa, geologically, a Hawaiian term much
in use to describe lava flows with rough,
tindery surfaces.

AACHEN, i'Hen. See Aix-la-Chapelu.

AAGBSEN, Andrew, a'ge-sen, Danish
statesman and jurist: b. 1826; d. 1879. In
early life he commanded a reserve battalion in
the Schleswig war of 1848. He was appointed
professor of jurisprudence in his alma mater,
the University of Copenhagen in I8S5, where
he was distinguished by. his learning and
attractive personality. He was an expert in
Roman law, in maritime and commercial legis-
lation, and was the chief author of the naviga-
tion law of 1882. He was elected to the Lands-
thing in 1879.

AAHMES or AHHES, a'mess, (c. 1700
B.c.) the author of the hieratic papyrus in the
Rhind collection, deciphered by Eisenlohr in
1877, which is the first extant mathematical
document from Egypt, or indeed from any-
where. It contains crude approximations to the
area of an isosceles triangle or trapezoid, and
the fairly correct value (V)' for ""■ It also
contains the first trace of the notion of equa-

AAHHES I, the founder of the 18th
dynasty in Egypt, c 1600 B.C., and its final
liberator from the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings,
Asiatic nomads who had conquered the land a
century or two before. Native kings had
already recovered it in part; but Aahmes cap-
tured the last Hyksos fortress, Hatwaret
(Awaris), expelled them from E^pt, and fol-
lowed them into southern Palestine, besieged
their army five years in "Sharuhen* and cap-
lured it. He then penetrated farther into
Palestine, levying tribute on it and on the
seaboard. This began a long series of Egyp-

v Google

AAHMES II — AARDVARK

lian retaliatory expeditions into West Asia and
a long dominance over it. He bad an admiral
of the same name, whose self- laudatory in-
scription on his tomb is a most valuable mine
of knowledge on the military and naval opera-
tions of the time. Aahmes-Nejtrtari was his
queen : her mummy-case, one of the most mag-
nificent ever discovered, is in the museum at
Giieh.

AAHHBS II, the Amasis of Herodotus,

against him, and overthrew and lolled htm.
Though he seems to have risen from the ranks,
and to have loved roystering and disliked royal
etiquette, he made a capable and judicious sov-
ereign; saved Egypt from conquest by Nebu-
chadnezzar (who ravaged it, but retreated),
and managed to preserve it from invasion by
Cyrus the Great. He was on very friendly
terms with the Greeks : lending his influence
to promote their Commerce and colonization;
assigning them the excellent port of Naucratis,
which soon grew into a flourishing city; con-
tributing liberally toward the rebuilding of the
burned temple at Delphi; and according to
Greek story having cordial relations with sev-
eral philosophers and princes — Pythagoras,
Polycrates, etc. Under the reign of Aahmcs
Egypt enjoyed much prosperity.

AALBORG, al'bork («eel-town»), Den-
mark, the chief city of N. Jutland; on the south
side of the Limfjord (a sea-arm which joins
the Cattegat to the North Sea), and on the
Danish State Ry., which crosses the fjord by
an iron bridge 990 feet long, one of the
finest pieces of engineering in the kingdom.
An important commercial town as far back as
the 11th century (Wallenstein sacked it in
1627, the Swedes in 1644 and 1657). Despite a
shallow harbor it has much trade, by means
of small vessels, with Scandinavia and Eng-
land; and it manufactures liquors, leather,
lumber, soap, cement, cotton goods, etc. A
bishop's seat, it has a cathedral ; also two old
churches, an old castle, a museum, and a well
equipped library. Pop. 33,500.

AALESUND. See Alsstjnd.

AALBN, a'len, Germany, town of Wurt-
temberg on the Kocher river, 46 miles by rail
east of Stuttgart. It is situated in the foot-
hills of the Swabian Alps, 1,400 feet above sea-
level. It was the boyhood home of Christian
Schubart the poet who is commemorated by
a statue. Large iron works, woolen, linen,
ribbon and leather manufactures are carried
on. Aalen was a free imperial city from 1360
until its annexation to Wurttemberg in 1802.
Pop. 11,400.

AALI PASHA, Mehemed Emin, a-le' pa-
sha' rn£-hem-ed' i-min', a Turkish statesman:
'b. Constantinople 1815; d. 6 Sept. 1871. Enter-
ing public life at 15, he was charge d'affaires
at London 1838, ambassador to Great Britain
1841-44; chancellor of the divan 1845; thrice
minister of foreign affairs in the troublous
years 1846-52; grand vizier a short time in
1852 but soon displaced as not in political ac-
cord with his companions. Recalled as foreign
minister during the Crimean war of 1854, in
March 1855 he took part in the treaty of the
•four guarantees*; in Jury again became

grand vizier, and at the Treaty of Paris in
1856 showed great decision and cleverness in
looking after Turkish interests, but without
entire success. In November his political tone
forced him to resign, but he remained minister
without portfolio, and member of the Great
Council After Reshid Pasha's death in 1856
he was again grand vizier, and soon again
withdrawn ; but in November 1861 he resumed
the office of foreign minister. He was presi-
dent of the convention on Rumanian affairs,
Paris 1864, and member of the Black Sea Con-
ference in London 1871. During the Sultan's
absence at the Paris Exposition in 1867 he
was regent; and while the very soul of the
reform movement energetically suppressed the
Cretan rebellion and the movement for Egyp-
tian independence. In the full tide of activity
he suddenly died,— an excellent man and
statesman who strove all his life, like Midhat
Pasha, but with little success, to regenerate
and modernize his country.

AAK or AARE, ar ('river") the name
of several German streams: chiefly, a Swiss
river tributary to the Rhine, about 175 miles
long, the largest in Switzerland save that and
the Rhone. Formed by torrents from the vast
and famous Oberaar and Unteraar glaciers of
the Bernese Alps in E. Bern, it flows northwest
through the valley of Hasli over the Handeck
Falls, 200 feet high, expands into Lake Brienz,
and past Interlaken into Lake Thun, becomes
navigable, passes Bern, turns north and then
northeast along the southern slopes of the
Jura, past So loth urn and Aarau, and join-
ing the Lunmat, shortly after breaks through
the ridge and empties into the Rhine at
Waldshut. Chief affluents, the Saane, Zihl,
and Emme, the Rcuss feeding it from the lake
of Lucerne and Zuger See. the Limmat from
the lake of Zurich and the Lfitschine from
the two splendid Grindelwald glaciers. The
chief cities on its banks are Bern, Solothurn,
Aarau and Interlaken.

AARAU, (*Aar-meadow*), Switzerland,
capital of the canton of Aargau; right bank
of the Aar, 41 miles northeast of Bern, 1,100
feet above sea- level, in a fertile plain just south
of the Jura, whose peaks close by are the
Wasserfluh (2,850 feet) and Giselahfluh (2,540
feet). It lias famous manufactures of cannon,
bells, and fine scientific instruments, besides
cutlery, leather, silk, and cotton; and holds
ei^ht fairs yearlv. There are also historic,
scientific, and ethnographic museums, a can-
tonal library rich in volumes of Swiss history,
and a bronze statue of the historian and novel-
ist Heinrich' Zscbokke (q.v.), who lived here.
Here, December 1797, the old Swiss confeder-
acy held its last session; April to September
1798 it was the capital of the Helvetic Republic
Pop. 9300.

AARDVARK, ard'vark (Dutch, •earth-
pig"), the Cape ant-eater {Orycteropus caprn-
rit). Also called ground-hog and ant-bear. A
South African mammal measuring about five
feet from end of tubular snout to tip of long
naked tail. It lives in shallow burrows and
is of timid, nocturnal habit ; it feeds on ants
and other insects, licking them up with a long
tongue which secretes a sticky saliva. The
head is slightly pig- like, with erect ears; the

J.gitizcdbyGOQ^Ic

stout body is sparsely covered with short stiff
hairs; the limbs are short with strong claws
(or tugging; the flesh is edible and considered
delicate, though of peculiar flavor. See Ant-

1A1SL

AARDWOLF (Dutch, eearth-wolP) , a
timid, nocturnal South African carnivore (Pro-
tein iaiandii), the only representative of the
family Protelida. It resembles the hyena, to
which it is closely related, but has less
strength of jaw and teeth. Its fur is coarse ;
color ashy-gray irregularly striped with black;
muzzle, black and nearly naked; ears, brown

insects, larvae, and small

AARESTRUP, Ernil, a're stroop, Danish
poet (1800-56). He was bora in Copenhagen.
He was not duly appreciated until after his
death, but is now acknowledged one of the
foremost lyric poets of Denmark, ranking next
to Christian Winther. His 'Collected Poems,1
with critical sketch by G. Brandes, was pub-
lished at Copenhagen in 1877.

AARGAU, ar'gow («Aar-shire»: Fr. Ar-
govie, ar-g5-vi), Switzerland, an extreme N.
canton between Basel W., Zurich E., Lucerne
S, and the Rhine and Baden N. Area 542
square miles ; capital, Aarau.

fertile valleys watered by the Aar and its 5.E.
tributaries, the Limmat (or Linth) and Reuss
(see Aar) being chief. The climate is

the Aar and Rhine, and the active land and
water transit trade, employ many. It has
several picturesque ruined castles. Aargau,
part of old Helvetia, then conquered by the
Franks (5th century), a Hapsburg fief' 1173-
1415, then captured by the Cantonal League and
divided between Bern and Lucerne, was split
up and a part made a member of the Helvetic
Republic 1793. Its constitution was first fixed
by the Congress of Vienna in 1815; in 1831 it
gained a democratic one, and has ever since
been a champion of liberalism. In 1841 it
suppressed its eight monasteries, and this led
to the formation of the Sonderbund (q.v.),
or Secession League, of Catholic cantons in
1847. Legislative power is vested in the Great
Council, one for every 1,100 people, which has
to submit laws and decrees to a referendum;
executive power in the Small Council of five,
chosen by and from the Great one. Aargau
sends JO members to the National Council.
Pop. (1913) 236,860, nearly all German. See
Switzerland and consult Hierli, J., 'Die arch-
aologische Karte des Kantons Aargau' (Aaran
1899); Zschokke, E 'Geschichte des Aargaus'
(ib„ 1903), and 'Historische Gesellschaft des
Kantons Aargau* (it)., 1698).

AARHUUS, ar'-hoos, Denmark (1) Dis-
trict, the east central part of Jutland,. divided
into Aarhuus and Randers amft (or baili-
wicks); area, 1,821 square miles; pop. about
325,000, mainly employed in fishing industries.
(2) City, the second largest of Denmark, capi-

tal of Aarhuus amt, on a bay of the Cattegat
and the Danish State Ry. ; has a harbor made
in 1883-90, with a breakwater and six feet of
water, regular steamer lines to Copenhagen
and England, and a large trade in grain,
cattle, etc.; and much shipbuilding, iron-
founding, cotton- spinning, and other manufac-
tures. It is a bishop's seat since 948, making
it one of the oldest cities in Denmark; its
cathedral, begun in 1201, is one of the largest
and finest church buildings in the kingdom.
It has a museum, banks and a stock exchange.
Pop. about 62,000.

AARON, ar*un, a prominent but subordi-
nate figure of the Exodus period in Jewish
history, whose importance increases with the
distance of the recorder from the early epochs,
and with the remodeling of the early histories
by the priesthood to support their later pre-
tensions and their theocratic ideal of Judaism.
In the earliest or Elohistic (q.v.) portions of
the Hexateuch, he is brother of Miriam (Ex.
xv. 20) ; but it is Joshua who is Moses' min-
for religious rites and who keeps guard

- the t

.*■

young men of Israel offer sacrifice, and 1
alone is the high-priest. Aaron, however,
seems to be regarded as ancestor of one set
of priests, those at the Hill of Phinehas, and
perhaps of those at Bethel. In a later portion
it is he who yields to the demand for an idol,
and fashions the golden calf — an evident
genealogy of Baal-worship, accredited to the
ancestor of rival priests. In the Yahvistic
portions he is Moses' older brother{ but is
brought upon the stage only to be ignored:
Pharaoh sends for him and Moses to take
away the plagues (Ex. vii), but he has no
independent power and is merely Moses' agent
in performing miracles, bringing on plagues,
etc. The supererogatory nature of his func-
tions makes it probable that his role b intro-
duced by the priestly redactor, under whose
hands he becomes a mighty leader little inferior
to Moses : he sometimes receives laws directly
from Yahwc (Num. xviii) ; he with Moses
numbers the people; the Israelites rebel against
him as well as Moses, though, when he criti-
cises Moses, curiously his inciter Miriam is
punished, not himself (Num. xii) ; he and
Moses jointly disobey Yahwe's command at
Meribah ; and he is punished by having his life
close before entering Canaan. This magnify-
ing connects itself clearly with the post-exile
books, where he is the ancestor of all legiti-
mate priests, consecrated high-priest by Moses,
and alone permitted to enter the Holy of Holies
yearly : he represents the tribe of Levi, and
even within it his descendants alone are right-
ful priests, and interlopers (see Kobah) are
stricken dead by Yawhe. The pre-exilic
prophets know nothing of this claim: Ezelriel
traces the origin of the Jerusalem priesthood
only to Zadok (q.v.). He belongs to the tribe
of Joseph and its struggle to secure admission
to the Jerusalem priesthood. Consult Meyer,
Ed., 'Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme'
(1906) ; Schmidt, N., 'Jerameel and the Negeb>
(in the Hibbert Journal 1908) ; Oort 'Die
Aaronieden' (in Tkeologisck Tijdtchrift
1884).

AARON BEN ASHER, Jewish scholar:
lived in Tiberias early in the 10th century. He

completed one ol the two existing recensions ol
the vowels and accents of the Hebrew Bible.
His rival Ben Naitali also completed a similar
work, but the readings of the former are
usually preferred.

AARON BEN ELIJAH, renowned Karaite
theologian: b. Cairo, Egypt, 1300; d. Constanti-
nople 1369. To distinguish him from his father,
Aaron ben Joseph, also a famous scholar, he
was often called 'Aaron the Younger.1 By
many he is considered the most logical reasoner
of the Karaite school and in the profundity of
his learning the equal of Maimonides. In
accordance .with the doctrines of the Mutazil-
ites, which influenced him early in his career, he
emphasized the reason as the medium for sal-
vation and enunciated a materialistic theory
of the universe, though of divine origin. His
first work was 'Ez ha-Hayyim» ('The Tree of
Life', 1346), which was followed by "Can
Eden' ('The Garden of Eden1, a Karaite
code, 1354); 'Keter Torah» ('The Crown of
the Law', a commentary on the Pentateuch,
1362). Most of his life he lived in Nicometh'a,
in Asia Minor, but later in life took up his
residence in Constantinople.

AARON, Hill of, a lofty mountain range of
Arabia Petraa, in the district of Sherah or
Seir, 15 miles southwest of Shobeek. On its
highest pinnacle — called by the Arabs Nebi
Haroun — is a small building supposed by the
natives to inclose the tomb of Aaron ; and it
may be the Mount Hor of Num. xxxu'f.

AARSENS, Frans Van, ar'sens, Dutch dip-
lomat : b. The Hague, 1572 ; d. 1641. From 26 on
he represented the States-General at the court
of France for many years, first as agent and
then as ambassador; and Richelieu ranked him
one of the three greatest politicians of his time.
He also held embassies to Venice, Germany,
and England. The judicial murder of John of
Bameveld by Maunce of Orange in 1619 was
greatly helped on by Aarsens, who has gained a
tardy popular opprobrium for it through Mot-
ley's life of John.

AASEN, Ivar Andreas, a'sen, e'var in'dra-
as, Norwegian philologist and poet: b. Orsten,
1 Aug. 1813; d. 1896. At first a botanist, he
turned philologist and student of native dialects
from motives of patriotic enthusiasm: his great
aim was to construct from their older elements
a new national language CLaniismaal"), as a
substitute for Danish, in pursuance of which
end he published several valuable philological
works and set going the nationalistic movement
called ■maalstrcev." As a poet he produced
'Symra,' a collection of lyrics, and 'Ervmgen,'
a drama.

AASVAR, as'-var, Norwegian islands near
the Arctic Circle, where the .great Nordland
herring are caught in December and January to
the extent of sometimes 200,000 tons, and 10,000
men are employed, who live elsewhere the rest

AASVOGEL, as'fo-gel ("carrion-bird"),
the South African vulture, of several different

AB, the 11th month of the Hebrews' civil

Kar and the 5th of their ecclesiastical (which
gins with Nisan), has 30 days, and

. a great fast in

memory oi the destruction ot the first temple

by Nebuchadnezzar, 586 B.C., and the second by
Titus, 70 a.d.

Alnooma: b. in the 80th and d_ in the 150th
year of the Hegira (701-71) He is the most
celebrated doctor of the orthodox Mussulmans,
and his sect is the most esteemed of the four
which they severally follow.

ABA, a'ba, a mountain in Armenia, part of
Mount Taurus, where the rivers Araxes and
Euphrates have their rise.

ABABDA, ab ab'da, a wandering tribe of
Hamitic Arabs found on the southern border
of Egypt east of the Nile from Assuan to the
Red Sea and north to Kena-Kosseir. They
now number about 30,000, governed by an
hereditary chief, but in ancient days were much
more numerous. The more enterprising still
carry on their old occupation of caravan
guards, and others of trade carriers, and as
dealers in herbs, drugs and gums. During the
Mahdist wan of 1882-98 many enlisted in the
Anglo- Egyptian troops. Under British rule
they have advanced considerably and now
engage profitably in agricultural and fishing
industries. Self-styled "sons of Jinns,* they
are claimed to be descendants of the Troglo-

J __J ti>_... r . ^

ABACO, a'ba-k6 (or Lucaya), Great and
Little, two Bahama islands 150 miles west of
Florida. Great Abaco, the largest of the Baha-
mas, is about 80 miles long by 20 wide, with a
lighthouse at its southeast point, at a natural
perforation of the rock known to seamen as
"The Hole-in-the-Wall." Little Abaco, 28 miles
long, lies west of its north point Area of both,
879 square miles; pop. 2,400.

AB'ACUS (Greek &&*, from the Semitic
p3£, abq, dust). In mathematics, a term ap-
plied to several forms of reckoning apparatus,
and hence for some centuries to arithmetic
itself. The primitive form seems to have been
a board covered with fine dust, whence the
generic name. Among the Hindus this was a
wooden tablet covered with pipe day, upon
which was sprinkled purple sand, the numerals
being written with a stylus. (Consult Taylor,
in the preface to his translation of the (Liia-
wati,' Bombay 1816, p. 6). That this form was
used by the ancient Greeks is evident from
lamblichus, who asserts that Pythagoras taught
geometry as well as arithmetic upon an abacus.
Its use among the Romans of die cfauwical
period is also well attested. Another form of
die abacus, having many modifications, is a
board with beads sliding in grooves or on wires
in a frame. Herodotus tells us that' this in-
strument was used by the Egyptians and die
Greeks, and we have evidence that the Romans
also knew it, although preferring a form de-
scribed below. It is at present widely used in
India and appears in the form of the swanpan
In China, the saroban in Japan, and the tschoty
In Russia, the latter being the same as the
modern Arabian abacus. In its simplest form,
the, beads or counters are stored at one end of
the' frame and the computation is done at the
other end by moving the correct number of

Google

ABACUS — ABANAH

beads over against that side of the frame.
Usually on a decimal scale the separate wires
represent units, tens, hundreds, etc., progres-
sively, but a duodecimal scale is also in use, and
among the Chinese there is a separate division
horizontally across the frame below which units
are counted up to five, and the fives transferred
to the upper section where each bead stands
for five units. In parts of India where English
money is used the wires on the abacus represent

Sence, shillings, pounds, tens of pounds, hun-
reds of pounds, etc, there being It beads on
the first wire, 19 on the second, and 9 on
each one above. It is in this type of the abacus
that prayer beads have their origin. The third
form is a ruled table, upon which counters are
placed, somewhat like checkers <

Romans, whose numerals were

adapted to calculation, and it mi

position throughout the Middle Ages and until
the latter part of the 16th century. The Hindu-
Arabic numerals (see Nuuericals) having then
supplanted the Roman, such an aid to calcula-
tion was thought superfluous in western
Europe. The counters used were called 1M01
by the Greeks, calculi (pebbles, whence cal-
enture and our calculate) by the Romans, and
in Cicero's time aera because brass discs were
used. In mediaeval times they were called
projectiles because they were thrown upon the
table, whence our expression to "cast an ac-
count," and Shakespeare's "counter caster." The
early French translated this as geltons, gectoirs,
and jetont, whence our obsolete English jettons
and the modern French jeton, meaning a medal,
and also a counter for games. The Germans
translated the late Latin denarii svpputarii

(calculating pennies) as Rechenpfenmge, the
early printed books distinguishing between
reckoning on the line (that is, on the ruled
table) and with the pen. The Court of the
Exchequer (q.v.) derives its name from this
form of the abacus, about which the judges of
the fiscal court sat. (Hall, 'The Antiquities
and Curiosities of the Exchequer,' London
1891; Henderson, 'Select Historical Documents
of the Middle Ages,' London 1892, p. 20.) An-
other form of the abacus, possibly introduced
by Gerbert before he became Pope Sylvester II
(q.v.), was arranged in columns and employed
counters upon which the western Arab forms
of the Hindu numerals (see Numerals) were
written. The use of the term to designate an
instrument of calculation led to its use for
arithmetic itself, as in the 'Liber abaci* of
Leonardo Fibonacci of Pisa (q.v.) and in the
works of later writers.

Consult Knott, 'The Abacus' (in the

'Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan,'
Vol. XIV) ; Bayley, in the Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society (U.S., Vol. XV); Chasles, in
the Comptes rendtts, t. 16, 1843, p. 1409 ;
Woepcke, in the Journal asiatique, 6 ser., t. 1.
See Finger Notation.

David Eugene Smith,
Professor of Mathematics, Teachers College,
Columbia University, New York.
ABACUS. In architecture, the flat stone
forming the highest member of a column, next
under the architrave and bearing its first
weight. In the Tuscan, Doric, and Ionic orders,
its four sides are arched inward, with generally
a rose in the centre. In Gothic architecture it
was variously employed, according to the archi-

ABAD' ("abode"), a suffix meaning town
or city, common in Hindu and Persian names:
as Allahabad, city of God ; Hyderabad, city of
Hyder; Secunderabad, city of Alexander.

ABAD'DON. in the Old Testament and
the rabbinical literature, SheoL the underworld,
or the place of the lost in it: in Revelation
(ix, 11) the King of the Abyss, Greek
Apollyon.

AB'ADIR, according to Augustine, the chief
god of the Carthaginians; according to Pris-
cian, a stone which Saturn swallowed by con-
trivance of his wife Ops, believing it to be his
new-born son Jupiter, and hence worshipped
with divine honors.

ABAKANSK', a mountain range in Siberia,
extending from the upper Yenisei to the Tom
River, parallel to the Altai Mountains. Also a
town founded by Peter the Great in 1707, near
the Abakan River; now renamed Minusinsk
(q.v.).

AB'ALO'NE (Sp., origin unknown). Any
one of the several species of Haliotis (ear-
shells or sea-ears) found along the California
coast. The shell is a spiral so broadly flattened
as to make an oval saucer, around the edge of
which is a row of holes through which the
tentacles pass when extended. The animal lives
on rocks near the shore, feeding on seaweed;
when frightened it withdraws entirely beneath
its shell and clings with surprising force to the
rock. The shell is lined with a bright mother-
of-pearl much used in arts and crafts. The
animal itself is used as food by the Chinese and
Japanese ; quantities of them are dried and
exported from California to the Orient. The
name "abalone" is local, but marine gastropods
of the same family are abundant in all seas not
too cold, outside the western Atlantic. In the
Channel Islands off the coast of France, a
species known as ormers, Fr. toreitlet de mer*
is used as food. See Ear-shell.

ABANAH, a -ba'na, or AMANAH (Gr.
Chrysorrhoas, now Barada, "The cold"), one
of the two famous "rivers of Damascus" men-
tioned in the Scripture : rising in the heart of
the An ti- Lebanon, it flows through a narrow
gorge and spreads fan-wise through the Damas-
cus oasis, irrigating the land and supplying the
city, by the canals or "rivers," with its clear
sparkling water, so greatly superior to the
Jordan in beauty that Naaman's question is
quite intelligible.

a b, Google

ABANCAY, i-bati-lri', Peru, capital of
dept. ApurimaCji 65 miles west of Cuzco, on the
Ahancay, an affluent of the upper Apurimac;
in an Last-Andean valley, the best sugar dis-
trict in Peru, with large refineries ana silver
mines. Pop. about 3,000.

ABANDONMENT, the act of abandon-
ing, giving up, or relinquishing.

In commerce it is the relinquishment of an
interest or claim. Thus, in certain circum-
stances, a person who has insured property on
board a ship may relinquish to the insurers a
remnant of it saved from a wreck, as a prelim-
inary to calling upon them to pay the full
amount of the insurance effected.

The principle is also applicable in fire insur-
ance, and often under stipulations in life poli-
cies in favor of creditors. The chief object of
abandonment being to recover the whole value
of the subject of the insurance, it is necessary
only where the subject itself, or portions of it.
r claims on account of it, survive the .peril

whether to abandon, and not delay for the pu

nose of speculating on the state of the marke__.
The English law is more restricted than the

American, by not making the loss over half the
value conclusive of the right to abandon, and
bv judging the right to abandon by the circum-
stances at the time of action brought, and not
by the facts existing at the time of the abandon-
ment. By commencing full repairs the right of
abandonment is waived. An abandonment may
be oral or in writing. When acted upon by
another party, the effect of abandonment is to
devest all the owner's rights.

In criminal law abandonment is the inten-
tional desertion of a dependent by one under
a legal duty to maintain him. A parent or
guardian of the person of an infant is guilty
of a misdemeanor if the child is injured
through the act of the guardian, and of murder
if death results. The offense is now defined in
nearly alt States. Consult Bishop 'Commen-
taries on Criminal Law* (Boston 1895) ;
Wharton, A., 'Treatise on Criminal Law> (San
Francisco 1912).

ABANO, Pietro d', a'ba-nfi, pea'trd de,
known also as Petrus de Apono, one of the
most celebrated physicians of the 13th century:
b. in the Italian village from which be takes
his name, in 1246 or 1250; d.- 1316. He visited
the East in order to acquire a thorough knowl-
edge of Greek, and then completed his studies
at the University of Paris. Returning to Italy
he settled at Padua, where his reputation as a
physician became so great that his rivals,
envious of his fame, gave out that he was aided
in his cures by evil spirits. It was known, too,
that he practised astrology, and he was twice
summoned before the Inquisition. On the first
occasion he was acquitted, and he died before
his second trial came to an end. Besides the
work, "Conciliator Differentia rum Philosopho-
rum et Prsecipue Medicorum1 (Mantua 1472),
he wrote 'De Venenis eorumque Remediis'
(1472), 'Geomantia,' 'Quxstioncs de Febri-
bus,1 and other works.

s hot sulphur springs were famous among the

Romans as a cure for diseases of the skin, tile
town being known then as Fons Aponi. Pop.
5,500.

ABAN'TES, an ancient Greek people origi-
nally from Thrace, who settled in Phocis, and
built a town called Aba:. Their name implies
an ancestor or leader Abas.

ABAR'BANEL. See Abravanel.

AB'ARIM ("the beyonds," sc. Jordan), the
edge of the Moabitc plateau overlooking the
entire Jordan valley : a range of highlands
forming its whole horizon, broken only by the
valley mouths of the Yarmuk, the Zerka, and
the Jabbok. Its highest elevation is Mount
Nebo, whence Moses had his "Pisgah view0 of
Palestine (see Pisgah), and whence Jericho is
plainly visible. Ancient altars, perhaps Amor-
itc, were discovered here in 1881.

AB'ARIS, the Hyperborean (fabled as
from the Caucasus or thereabout), a legendary
sage first mentioned by Pindar and Herodotus,
5th century B.C., but quite uncertain of date or
existence. He had the prophetic gift and a
magic arrow of Apollo on which he rode
through the air; cured by incantations, rid the
world of a great plague, etc. The Neo-Plato-
nists made him Pythagoras' companion.

ABASCAL, Jose Fernando, a-bas-cal',
ho-sS' fer-nin'dd, Spanish soldier and states-
man: b. Oviedo 1743; d. Madrid, 1821. Enter-
ing service in 1762, he rose to brigadier-general
in the French Revolutionary wars ; in 1796
became viceroy of Cuba and defended Havana
against the English fleet; then was commander
in New Galicia, and later viceroy of Peru,
where he showed great ability and kindliness,
and in recognition of his efforts to reconcile
natives and Spanish was created Marques de la
Concordia. He defended Buenos Aires from
the English, and suppressed revolts in Lima and
Cuzco; but having a turn of ill success was
recalled in 1816.

ABASOLO, Mariano, a-ba-so'lo, ma-re-
a'-no, Mexican patriot: b. Dolores, Guanajuato,
about 1780; d. Cadiz. 1819. Joining Hidalgo's
(q.v.) Mexican revolution in 1810, he rose to
major-general, and was noted for humanity to
prisoners. After the final rout at Puente de
Calderon, 17 Jan. 1811, he fled with his chief;
with him was captured by the counter- revolu-
tionists, tried at Chihuahua, and sentenced to
imprisonment in Spain, where he died.

ABATEMENT. In law: (1) A removal
or putting down, as of a nuisance. (2) A
quashing; a judicial defeat;' the rendering
abortive by law, as when a writ is overthrown
by some fatal exception taken to it in court
A plea designed to effect this result is called
a plea in abatement. All dilatory pleas are
considered pleas in abatement, in contradistinc-
tion to picas in bar, which consider the merits
of the claim. (3) Forcible entry of a stranger
into an inheritance when the person seized of
it dies, and before the heir or devisee can take
possession. (4) The termination of an action
in a court of law, or the suspension of proceed-
ings in a suit in equity, in consequence of the
occurrence of some event, as for example the
death of one of the litigants. In contracts, a
reduction made by the creditor in consideration
of the prompt payment of a debt due by the
debtor. In mercantile law, a deduction from

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ABATIS — ABAUZIT

duties imposed at the custom-house, on account
of damages received by goods during importa-
tion or while in tie custom-house.

A misnomer of plaintiff or defendant can be
taken advantage of only by plea in abatement.

In heraldry, an abatement was formerly an
addition to a coat-of -arras, indicative of dis-
grace or inferiority ; now it is confined to the
bend sinister, marking illegitimate descent.

AB'ATIS, or ABATTIS, in military affairs,
a defense made of felled trees. In sudden
emergencies, the trees are merely laid length-
wise beside each other, with the branches
pointed outward to prevent the approach of the
enemy. When employed for the defense of a
pass or entrance, the boughs of the trees are
Stripped of their leaves and pointed, the trunks
are planted in the ground, and the branches
interwoven with each other ; and the abatis is
laid in a depression in front of a trench, for
protection from artillery fire.

AB'ATOS, Egypt, an island in Lake Maris,
famous as the sepulchre of Osiris, and for pro-
ducing the papyrus of which the ancients made
their paper.

ABATTOIR (Fr.), ab-at-war, a slaughter-
house; sometimes extended to include a great
market of which the abattoir proper is only a
part. The nuisance of blood, offal, etc, in
crowded settlements, early forced ancient civil-
ized governments to put the slaughter of the
animals under restrictions. Our first definite
information on this point is the system under
the Roman empire : the slaughter-houses in-
stead of being scattered about the streets were
collected in one quarter, forming the public
market, which in Nero's time was one of the
most imposing structures in Rome. The system
was introduced into Gaul, but the meat supply
of Paris was in the hands of a clique of aristo-
cratic families who balked all attempts at re-
form ; and though as far back as 1567
Charles IX had issued a decree on the subject,
no improvement was made till Napoleon's time,
when the nuisance was shocking, — slaughter-
houses abutted on the principal thoroughfares,
herds of footsore ana lamenting beasts im-
peded traffic, the gutters ran with blood, offal
poisoned the air, and the Seine was a sewer for
it. A commission was appointed to rectify these
conditions in 1810, and the five great abattoirs
which still exist were formally opened 15 Sept.
1818. They have been the models of the world,
and for many years had no rivals; indeed, for
symmetry of arrangement they have never been
surpassed. But of late the vast American
establishments at Chicago, at Kansas City, St.
Louis, Mo., Brighton, Mass., and other places,
have carried speed, economy, and cleanliness to
an ideal point, and American inventiveness has
built up an incredible number of subsidiary
industries and products, so that literally not a
hair of an animal's body nor a drop of its blood
is wasted i foods, medicines, chemicals, ma-
nures, building-materials, etc., produced from
the refuse of the slaughter-houses are past
numbering. The improved systems of the
United States are of recent development and
are due to the investigations of the methods
followed in abattoirs in preparing meats and
canned goods. These investigations revealed
unsanitary conditions, and unwholesome and
unhealthy practices. On 30 June 1906 Congress

provided for the inspection of all meats
destined for interstate or foreign trade and of
all establishments engaged in the industry, and
appropriated $3,000,000 per annum for the
maintenance of this supervision. Federal in-
spection is now conducted in about 1,000 estab-
lishments located in 275 cities and towns. It
reaches about 60 per cent of the total t

local officers. In modern abattoirs great skill
and speed are attained in the slaughtering and
dressing of animals. The cattle are driven up
to pens on a killing floor and are stunned by
being struck between the eyes with a sledge
hammer. The animal is then shackled, placed
on the killing bed, and hoisted on a suspended
tramway, and bled. It is next moved on to
the "header*, who skins and removes the head
The animal is then lowered and skinned, and
passes through a- row of butchers, each of
whom performs some operation in trimming the
dressed carcass. It is then shifted along to the
cooling room and its place is at once taken by
the next carcass on the rim. By means of this
specialization and division of labor a constant
run is maintained, a force of less than 200
workers_ kill, dress and trim about 2,000 car-
casses in a day Of 10 hours. During the
slaughtering, the carcasses are inspected by
Federal meat inspectors, examining with care
the viscera for indications of disease, or if
animals are emaciated or in any way unsound
the carcass is marked ™U. S. Inspected and
Condemned* and is turned into fertilizer. For
hogs the process is different but the same sub-
division and specialization of labor obtain;
scalding vats and scraping machinery are added,
and the carcasses are examined during the proc-
ess as in the case of beef carcasses. The
largest abattoirs in the United States, and in
the world, are located at Chicago, Kansas City,
St. Louis, Omaha, and Cincinnati. The Chicago
Union Stock Yards is the largest concern oflts
kind in the world, covering an area of about
500 acres, and having an invested capital of
about $70,000,000. About 8,000,000 hogs, 2,500,-
000 cattle, and 6,000,000 sheep are received and
slaughtered annually. (See Meat; Packing
Industry.) Consult Macewen, "Food Inspec-
tion' (1910).

ABAUZIT, Firmin, ab-o-zg, fer-man
French scholar of Arabian blood and Protes-
tant parents; b. Uzes, 1679; d. Geneva, 1767.
He lost his father when only two; in 1685, on
the Revocation, the authorities tried to tutor
him for a Catholic, but his mother contrived his
flight with an elder brother to the Cevennes,
where after two years as fugitives they gained
Geneva, and the mother escaped from imprison-
ment and joined them. He early acquired
great proficiency in languages, physics, and
theology; traveled to Holland and made ac-
quaintance with Bayle and others, and to Eng-
land, where Newton admired him greatly, cor-
rected through him an error in his 'Principia,*
and wrote to him "You are well worthy to
judge between Leihnitz and me.* William III
wished him to settle in England, but he pre-
ferred to return to Geneva r assisted a society
there in translating the New Testament into
French, was offered but refused a chair in the
t accepted a sinecure librarian-

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ABAZA — ABBAS I

ship, and died very aged. He was of wonderful
versatility and universality, seeming to have
made everything a speciality; Rousseau, jealous
of every one, yet eulogized him warmly; and
Voltaire asked a flattering stranger who said
he had come to see a genius, whether he had
seen Abauzit. His heirs, through theological
differences, destroyed his papers, so that little
remains of his work; he wrote articles, how-
ever, for Rousseau's 'Dictionary of Music' and
other works, and edited with valuable additions
Spon's 'History of Geneva.' Collected works,
Geneva, 1770; London, 1773. Translations by
Dr. Harwood, 1770, 1774. For personal infor-
mation, consult Senebier's 'Histoire Litteraire
de Geneve'; Harwood's 'Miscellanies'; Orme's
•Bibliotheca Biblica' (1834).

ABAZA. Alexander Agreievich, a-gra-
ya'vich, aba za, Russian statesman: b. 1821; d.
Nice, 1895. He was descended from a noble
family of Moldavia, completed his education at
the University of Petrograd and, in 1839,
entered the military service in which he dis-
tinguished himself in the Caucasus, being
wounded several times and being invested with
the order of St. Vladimir. However he aban-
doned the service and joined the educational
and humanitarian circles presided over by
Grand Duchess Helena Pavlorna. He soon
was appointed master of ceremonies at the
court of the princess. In 1865 he was elected
a member of the council in the Ministry of
Finance in which capacity he rendered impor-
tant service to the financial and economic de-
partment of his vast country. He retired from
public life in 1892 and until his death, traveled
extensively through Europe. He was not in
favor of the reforms of Alexander II (q.v.),
which were passed before he had any substan-
tial power in his hands to oppose them effec-
tively. But as Minister of Finance he sud-
denly changed and became one of the most
fervent supporters of the reforms.

ABBA ARIKA, a-re'ki, also known as
■Rab,* a Jewish scholar of Babylonia and the
son of a distinguished family.' He studied at
Sepphoris, then went to Sura where he founded
the academy of that name. He was one of
the leaders of Jewish thought in Babylonia.

ABBA MARI, ma'ri (correctly Abba Mabi
ben Moses ben Joseph don Astruc of Lunel),
a French Hebrew who achieved fame as leader
of the opposition to the growing rationalism
of Maimonides, in the Montpellier controversy
of 1303-06. He was bom at Lunel near
Montpellier, but the dates of his birth and
death are unknown. His correspondence with
Solomon ben Adret, rabbi of Barcelona, pub-
lished under the title of 'Minhat Kenaot —
Jealousy Offering,' accentuates the three cardi-
nal doctrines of orthodox Judaism, and throws
much light on the question of the relation of
religion to the philosophy of the age.

ABBA (same as papa, etc. J, Aramaic form
of Hebrew for "father." In the New Testa-
ment, used as an address to God; in the Tal-
mud, a scholar's title of honor; also used as
part of proper names; and at present the title
of Syriac, Coptic, and Ethiopic bishops. See
Pope.

Kasim Mohammed and maintained by his son,
Abbad, £1 Motaddid (1042-68) and his grand-
son, El Moiamid (1068-91), all three men of
remarkable personality. They were recognized
as the leaders of the Moslems of Arabic or
Spanish descent against the Berbers of Gra-
nada. They have been the subjects of many
romances and even to-day they are the heroes:
of many legendary tales told among the Span-.
ish peasants. After the capture of Toledo by
Alphonso VI of Castile in 1085 El Motamid
found himself in so desperate a position that
he was obliged to call the Almoravides to his
assistance. His duplicity soon caused a breach
between himself and his allies, in 1091 Seville
was captured and El Motamid was made a
prisoner by the Spaniards, thus bringing the
Abbadides dynasty to an end. In 1095 he died

ABBADIB, Antolne Thomson and Ar-
naud Michel d\ dab-ad-e, an- 1 wan ton-son.
and ar-no me-shel, French brothers and ex-
plorers: b. Dublin, Ireland, 3 Jan. 1810 :_ and'

Egypt, traveled up the White Nile, visited t ...
fur (regarded by the English in these places
as French emissaries), and made a remark-
ably large collection of Ethiopic and Amtiaric

— , .. Among other works Antoine pub-'

(1860-73) and 'Dictionary of the Amarin I . .
guage* (1881); and Amaud, 'Twelve Years
in Upper Ethiopia' (1868).

ABBADIE, Jacques, ab-ad-e, zhak or
James, French-English divine; b. Nay, Bern,
c. 1654-57; d London, 1727. A poor boy, edu-
cated by friends, he took a degree of doctor
in theology at Sedan at 17, was minister of a
French Protestant church in Berlin some years,
then in 1688 accompanied Marshal Schomberg
to London for the second English Revolution,
and became minister of the French church in
the Savoy. He was stronglv attached to Wil-
liam's cause, wrote an elaborate defense of it,
and a history of . the conspiracy of 1696 from
materials furnished by the government; and
William made him dean of Killaloe, Ireland
A very able man and eloquent preacher, Abb-

languages: the most important are: 'On the
Truth of the Christian Religion,' with its
sequel 'On the Divinity of Jesus Christ,' and
'The Art of Self-Knowledge.'

ABBAS (Ibn Add il Muttalib, 'on abd il
moo-ta'lib), uncle of Mohammed; at first hos-
tile to him, but ultimately — after the defeat at
Bed'r (see Mohammed) — the chief promoter
of his religion. He was the founder of the
Abbasside (q.v.) caliphate at Bagdad

ABBAS I, of Persia, 'the Great* 7th shah
of the Sufi dynasty: b. 1557, acceded 1585: d
27 Jan. 1628. Sent to Khorasan as nominal
governor in childhood at 18 he was pro-
claimed shah by its nobles, smarting under the
oppression of his father Mohammed Khoda-
bendeh's officers; the father was soon driven
from the throne. At this time the Turks had
invaded the western Persian provinces, and the
Uzbek Tartars occupied and ravaged Khorasan.
Abbas first transferred his residence from

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ABBAS-HIRZA — ABB ASSIDES

Kasbin to Ispahan; he then by treaty confirmed
to the Turks all their conquests, to gain time
for chastising the Uzbeks, whom in 1597 he
surprised and routed near Herat, and followed
this by the conquest of Ghilan, Mazanderan,
much of Tartary, and nearly at) Afghanistan.
He then declared war against the Turks; and
in 1605, with 60,000 men, annihilated their army
of nearly double the number at Basra (Busso-
rah), recovering all the lost provinces, and not
only securing complete immunity from Turk-
ish aggression for the rest of his life, but ex-
tending his empire beyond the Euphrates. In
1611 he dictated to Achmet I a treaty which

Eve Persia Shirwan and Kurdistan. In 1618
routed the united Turkish and Tartar armies
near Sultanieh, securing more territory; and
on the Turks renewing die war in 1623 he cap-
tured Bagdad after a year's siege. The same
year he took Ormuz from the Portuguese; and
when he died his dominions reached from the
Tigris to the Indus. His internal administra-
tion was no less firm and beneficial. He en-
couraged commerce, built highways, repressed
violence, and left the country flourishing as it
never has since. He was favorable to foreign-
ers, and two Englishmen, Sir Anthony and Sir
Robert Shirley, had much influence over him.
He was like Herod in every respect: a jealous
and cruel tyrant to his family, — he slew his
eldest son and blinded his other children, — his
country alone felt his good side. (See Persia).
Consult Markham, C. R., 'General Sketch of
the History of Persia* (London 1874).

ABBAS, Kuli Khan (Nawab), Persian
diplomat : b. 1864. The son of Nawab later
Kuli Khan, he was educated in England and
became interpreter to the British legation at
Teheran in 1885. He was appointed third sec-
retary in the British diplomatic service in 1901 ;
was the Persian special envoy at King Edward's
coronation, and on the Shah's visit to England
in 1902; in 1903 received the order of the C.
M. G., and was a member of Viscount Downe's
special mission to Persia. In 1908 he became
head of the Oriental Chancery of the British
Legation at Teheran.

ABBAS-MIRZA, Persian prince and war-
rior, favorite son of the shah Feth-Ali: b. 1783;
d. 1833. He was early convinced of the ad-
vantages of Western civilization, and with the
help of European officers he first of all applied
himself to the reform of the army. He lea the
Persian armies with great bravery, but with
little success, in the war with Russia ended by
the peace of Gulistan, when Persia lost her
remaining Caucasus districts and ceded to Rus-
sia the sovereignty of the Caspian ; and in that
of 1826-28, ended by the peace of Turkmanchai,
when she lost most of Persian Armenia. In
1829 he visited St. Petersburg, to ward off
punishment for the murder of the Russian
ambassador in a riot at Teheran; and was sent
back to Persia loaded with presents. His
eldest son acceded to the throne in 1834.

ABBAS PASHA I, viceroy of Egypt,

rndson of the famous Mehemet Ali: b. 1813:
13 July 1854. Early initiated into public
life, in 1841 he took an active part in his grand-
father's Syrian war; in 1848 the death of his
uncle Ibrahim Pasha called him to the vice-
regal throne at Cairo. During his brief reign
he did much to undo the progress made under

Mehemet Ali : he dismissed all Europeans and

men and his fleet at the Sultan's disposal ; but
was shortly after found dead, not without sus-
picion of foul play.

ABBAS PASHA II, Hilmi, hel'me, third
Khedive of Egypt: b. 14 July 1874, the eldest
son of the Khedive Mehemed Tewfik, better
known as Tewfik Pasha, was educated with
his brother at the Theresianum in Vienna.
Abbas Hilmi was declared to be officially of
age in 1891, and on the death of his father (7
Jan. 1892) was proclaimed Khedive of Egypt
in accordance with the Sultan's firman of 8
June 1873, by which the succession was to fall
from father to son instead of from brother to
brother. Despite the British occupation of
Egypt since 1882, that country was — at least
nominally — under Turkish suzerainty down to
December 1914. The activities of Abbas Hilmi
as a ruler were limited to following the advice
of Lord Cromer, Sir Eldon Gorst, and, later,
of Lord Kitchener, successively British Con-
suls-General in Egypt. At the outbreak of
the European War (1914) the Khedive was in
Constantinople, the guest of the Sultan, and
was credited with devoting his energies to plot-
ting against the British rule in his country.
Great Britain declared war on Turkey (S No-
vember) in consequence of hostile acts com-
mitted by Turkish troops. On 18 December the
British Foreign Office issued a statement to the
effect that in view of the state of war arising out
of the action of Turkey, "Egypt is placed under
the protection of His Majesty and will hence-
forth constitute a Protectorate. The suze-
rainty of Turkey over Egypt is thus terminated
and His Majesty's Government will adopt all
measures necessary for the' defense of Egypt
and the protection of its inhabitants and in-
terests." A further announcement next day
referred to Abbas Hilmi, *lately Khedive of
Egypt,* who had adhered to the King's enemies,
and stated that he had been deposed. The title
of Khedive was abolished for that of Sultan
and conferred on the eldest living descendant
of the family of Mehemet AH, Prince Hussein
Kamel Pasha who died 5 Oct. 1917 and was
succeeded by Prince Ahmed Fuad. Consult
Cromer, Earl of, 'Abbas IP (London 1915),

ABBASSIDES, abaYsidz, The, 750-1517,
caliphs at Bagdad and later in Egypt; nominal
sovereigns of all Islam, but losing Spain at the
outset, and never practically obeyed in Africa
outside Egypt ; the most famous dynasty of
Saracen sovereigns. They took their name from
Abbas (q.v.), me uncle of Mohammed. This
descent had given the family great influence by
a century after the Prophet's death; and Ib-
rahim, fourth in descent from Abbas, had
gained several victories over the Ommiads
(q.v.), supported by the province of Khorasan.
when the Ommiad caliph Merwan defeated and
nut him to death in 747. His brother Abu
t-Abbas, whom he had named his heir, as-
sumed the title of caliph', crushed the Ommiad
dynasty in a decisive battle near the Zab (750)
and acceded to their position. Its members
and relatives were nearly all tolled into one
spot and exterminated earning for Abu 'I-Ab-
bas the nickname of As-Saffan, "the butcher*;
but one of them, Abder- Rahman (q.v.),

d by Google

ABB ATE — ABBE

escaped, and after picturesque adventures set
up an independent emirate in Spain, which
toward two centuries later took the title of
caliphate. On Abu '1-Abbas* death, his suc-
cessor Al-Mansur removed the seat of royalty
to Bagdad, and won successes against Turko-
mans and Greeks in Asia Minor; but by this
time the warlike impulse had begun to decay,
and the love of luxury and its literary ana
artistic attendants to come to the front
Means were found of evading the strict-
ness of Mohammedan rules ; and no courts
of any age or country ' were gayer or
more splendid than those of the great Harun
al-Rashid, Charlemagne's contemporary (786-
809) and Al-Mamun (813-33). The splendor
of their palaces, their decorations, their equi-
pages, and the seemingly exhaustless treasures
they possessed gave them a world-wide celeb-
rity—especially in contrast with the poverty-
stricken barrenness and barbarism of most
Christian sovereigns at that period — which is
vivid even yet in literature and popular mem-
ory: Harun is the chief princely figure of the
'Arabian Nights,' and Bagdad the centre of all
picturesque and varied enjoyment. Al-Mamun
is still more honorably remembered as the
patron of arts and literature. What lay under-
neath (his external gorgeousness — the cor-
ruption, the furies of jealousy and bloodshed,
and the barbarous oppression of the many —
is outside a notice like this. But external
decay soon began to witness internal rotten-
ness. The Ashlabiles, Edrisites, etc, carved
out independent sovereignties in Africa; the
Taherites in 820 set up a separate power in
Khorasan, even under the great Al-Mamun.
The Greeks, under the new hie of the Byzan-
tine empire brought in by Leo the I saurian
(q.v.), pushed them bade in Asia Minor;
and Al-Mamun's last years were contemporary
with the philosopher, soldier, and statesman,
the all-accomplished Emperor Theophilus. But
the final stroke came from barbarians. The
caliph Motassem (833-42), who had fought
both Theophilus and the hordes of Turkesta

i became what the Roman

— masters of the empire. 1

Motawakkel was assassinated by them
palace (861) and the succeeding caliphs were
their puppets ; and in 936 the caliph Radhi
(934-41) was forced to give up the command
of the army and other powers to his general
and mayor of the palace, Mohammed ben
Hayek. The provinces one after another
threw off allegiance; the caliph held only Bag-
dad and its neighborhood: and at last Hulagu,
prince of the Mongols, fired Bagdad and slew
the reigning caliph Motassem in 1258. The
Abbassides retained a nominal caliphate in
Egypt under the xgis of the Mamelukes, and
never gave up the claim or the hope of their
old position and seat; but in 1517 the Turkish
Sultan Selim I, the conqueror of Egypt, bore
the last of them, Motawakkel III, a prisoner
to Constantinople, finally allowing him to re-
turn to Egypt, where he died a Turkish pen-
sioner in 1538. Consult Muir's 'Caliphate'
for the best English account; the monumental
treasure-house of information for scholars is
Weil's great 'Geschichte der Chalifen> (Mann-
heim and Stuttgart 1846-62). Consult also

ABBATE, ab-a'te, or ABATI, a-ba'te, Ni~
colo, nelco-lo, Italian painter, follower of
Raphael and Corregio: b. 1512 at Modena,
where bis earlier works are exhibited : d.
1571 at Fontainebleau — his frescoes in which
palace are his best-known productions. His
finest piece, however, is regarded as 'The
Adoration of the Shepherds,1 at Bologna,
where his later work mostly exists. He has
another in the Dresden gallery.

ABBA YE, a military prison near St Ger-
main des Pres, Paris, where 164 prisoners were
murdered by infuriated republicans led by Mail-
lard 2-3 Sept 1792.

ABBAZIA, a'ba-tse'a, a popular health
resort on the Adriatic, in Austria, nine miles
northwest from Fiume. On account of its
sheltered situation it has an equitable climate,
the temperature seldom dropping below 50" F.
in winter or rising above 77 F. in summer. It
is frequented by over 40,000 visitors annually
and is a favorite resort for yachtsmen. One
of its most prominent features is the Carol
Promenade, built in 1896 by the King of
Rumania. Resident population, 3,000.

ABBE, Cleveland, American meteorol-
ogist: b. New York city, 3 Dec. 1838; d.
Chevy Chase, Md, 28 Oct 1916. His educa-
tion was received at the New York Free
Academy, now the College of the City of New
York, where he made a record in mathematical
and mathematico-physical science. He was
graduated in 1857 and then taught mathematics
at the Trinity Latin -School for a year. Later
he studied astronomy under Professor Brun-
now at the University of Michigan. A year
afterward he removed to Cambridge where he
spent four years with Dr. B. A. Gould and
did telegraphic longitude work for the United
States Coast Survey. During 1865-66 Profes-
sor Abbe studied at the Observatory of Poul-
kova, Russia, then under the direction of the
illustrious Otto Struve, and finally, in 1867, be
returned to this country and became connected
with the National Observatory in Washington.
He was immediately appointed Director of the
Gncinnati Observatory. Professor Abbe took
charge there in May 1868 and immediately
became prominent through his offer to the
Chamber of Commerce to make daily predic-
tions of the weather for the benefit of the
citizens. From a scientific standpoint this was
then unheard of. However, it was soon seen
that he had "inside information* on the all-
important subject, the weather, and during
September 1869 his offer was accepted, and
the daily publication of weather bulletins and
'probabilities' began.

His weather service met with instant suc-
cess, and soon his friends had a resolution in-
troduced into Congress providing for the estab-
lishment of a national bureau of Storm
warnings for the benefit of commerce, which
bureau was opened in February 1870 with
Gen. A. J. Myer, Chief Signal Officer of
the Army, in charge. He immediately adopted
all Professor Abbe's systems and methods,
and in January 1871 invited him to come to
Washington as his scientific assistant, A month
later Professor Abbe commenced the regular
tri-daily issue of 'probabilities,* which he kept

J.g.t.zcdbyGoOglC

ABBE — ABBESS

up himself until he could train others to do
the work correctly. These forecasts were pub-
lished all over the country anonymously as
official documents, and earned for Professor
Abbe the cognomen of "Old Prob.B From that
time the weather service was extended each
year until the United States Weather Bureau
came to rank first among such services the
world over, and Professor Abbe came to be
regarded as the world's foremost meteorolo-
gist It was largely due to his initiative that
several successful advances were made in the
service, such as ocean meteorology, the intro-
duction of uniform standard time, and a great
many other steps were taken. Professor Abbe
continued in the Government service even when
well past 70 years of age. He continued to
edit the Monthly Wtather Review and made
many other contributions to meteorological
science. In addition, he was editor of the
Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory
from 1909, professor of meteorology at Wash-
ington University from 1686, and lecturer on
meteorology at Johns Hopkins University from
1896. He was a member of the National
Academy of Sciences and of many other foreign
and domestic scientific bodies.

One of Professor Abbe's most noteworthy
achievements was his 'Report on Standard
Time* (1879), which started the agitation
that resulted in the establishment of the
modern standard hour meridians from Green-
wich. He was the author of a number of
books on meteorological subjects, including
'Meteorological Apparatus and Methods'
(1887); 'Studies for Methods in Storm and
Weather Predictions1 (1889); 'Mechanics of
the Earth's Atmosphere' (Vol. I, 1891;
Vol II, 1909) ; 'The Altitude of the Aurora1
(1896); 'Physical Basis of Long-Range Fore-
casting1 (1902) ; 'Solar Spots and Terrestrial
Temperature,1 and 'Atmospheric Radiation.1

ABBE, Cleveland, Jr., American geogra-

Eher and geologist, son of Cleveland Abbe:
. Washington, D. C, 25 March 1872. After
graduating from Harvard University in 1894
he took up a post-graduate course at Johns
Hopkins University, receiving his degree of
Ph.D. in 1898. In 1894, on graduating from
Harvard, he was appointed instructor in physi-
ography at the Corcoran Scientific School of
Columbian, now George Washington Uni-
versity, which position he held until 1897.
From 1896 until 1901 he was an assistant in
the Maryland Geological Survey and, at various
times during this period, taught geology and
biology in die Western Maryland College. In
1899 ne was appointed acting professor of
natural sciences in the Winthrop Normal and
Industrial College in South Carolina. In 1901
he left this position to follow a two years'
special course in geography at the Imperial
University, Vienna. Upon his return, two
years later, he was appointed aid in tie United
States Geological Survey and, in 1906, he be-
came research observer in the Weather Bureau.
From 1908 to 1910 he was assistant editor of
the Monthly Weather Review, after which he
was appointed assistant librarian of die
Weather Bureau.

ABBE, Ernst, German phvsicist: b. Eise-
nach, 1840; d. Jena, 1905. Studied at Jena and
Gottingen ; became assistant at the latter' s

observatory, and lecturer before the Frankfort-
on-the-Main Physical Society; 1863-70 lecturer
at Jena, and 1870 professor there; 1878 director
of its observatories ; in 1891 he resigned profes-
sorship. He became distinguished for his work
in perfecting optical instruments, especially
photograph and microscope lenses, having for
a long time been connected with the highly
reputed firm of Carl Zeiss in Jena. He in-
vented the Abbe re f tactometer. He wrote a
work in German on the 'Refracting and Dis-
persing Power of Solid and Fluid Bodies.'

ABBE, Truman, American surgeon, son
of Cleveland Abbe and brother of Cleveland
Abbe, tr. : b. Washington, D. C, 1 Nov. 1873.
After his graduation from Harvard University,
in 1895, he studied medicine at the College of
Physicians and Surgeons, at Columbia Univer-
sity, New York, gaining his degree of M.D.
in 1899. After a year's post-graduate course
at the University of Berlin he served for two
years in several hospitals in New York city.
In 1902 he was appointed instructor of physics
and physiology at Georgetown University and
in the following year surgery was added to his
subjects. In 1905 he became instructor in
physiology at George Washington University
and in 1909 he became also instructor in sur-
gery at the same institution. From 1906 to
1910 he was chief surgeon of the Garfield Sur-
gical Dispensary. In 1907 he was awarded a
silver medal at the Jamestown Exposition for
his researches into the use of radium as applied
to medicine. Besides his many articles on
radium in medical journals he contributed to
Vol. Ill of Wharton and S tiller's 'Medical
Jurisprudence1 (1905), and (with F. H.
Bowlby) wrote 'Physical Conditions and Treat-

ABBE, ab-a, originally the French name for
an abbot, but later used in the general sense of
a priest or clergyman. By a concordat between
Pope Leo X and Francis I in 1516, the French
king had the right to nominate upward of 200
abbes commendat aires, who drew a third of the
revenues of the monasteries without having any
duty to perform. They were not necessarily
clergy, but were expected to take orders unless
exempted by a dispensation. The hope of ob-
taining one of those sinecures led multitudes of
young men, many of them of noble birth, to
enter the clerical career, which however seldom
went further than taking the inferior orders;
and it became customary to call such aspirants
abbes, jocularly, Abbes of St. Hope. They
formed a considerable and influential class in
society; and an abbe, distinguished by a short
violet-colored robe, was often found as chap-
lain or tutor in noble households, or engaged in
literary work. This class of nominal clergy dis-
appeared at the Revolution. In Italy they are
called abbate.

ABBESS, the female superior of some con-
vents of nuns, corresponding to the abbot over
monks. She was elected from the monastery by
secret votes, inducted by a bishop's consecra-
tion, and held office three years or even for life
unless deprived for misconduct. The Council
of Trent fixed the required age at 40, with eight
years of professed membership in the monas-
tery. She could discipline and even expel the
nuns, subject to the bishop; but, being a female,
could exercise only certain functions, such as

.Google

giving religious counsel ana aammisienng tne
rule, but no spiritual jurisdiction, as ordaining,
conferring the veil, or excommunicating.

ABBEVILLE, France, ab-vel (■abbey-
town,* of St. Riquier's), capital of Abbeville
arrondissement, dept. Somme; 28 miles north-
west of Amiens on both banks of the
Somme and an island in it, 12 miles from its
mouth and head of navigation (at high tide
vessels of 150 to 200 tons can reach it) r

ern Ry. It is an old, narrow-streeted, pictur-
esque town, with strong fortifications on
Vauban's system; has a wonderfully fine
church of the flamboyant order, St. Wolfran's,
begun nnder Louis XII (1462-1515).

manufactures jewelry, soaps, glass
various fabrics, as velvets, cottons, linens, etc.
But its chief interest to the foreign world is for
the relics and implements of primitive man (the
cave-dweller) and the fossils of extinct animals
found in its neighborhood. Pop. (1914) 20,373.
ABBEVILLE, S. C, county seat of Abbe-
ville County ; on the Southern and Seaboard A.
L. railways: 105 miles west of Columbia. It is
in a rich cotton- growing region; is noted for its
fine climate, which makes it a popular resort
for Northern invalids, and has a national bank,
excellent public schools, several large manu-
factories connected with the cotton industry,
railroad repair shops, flour and feed mills, brick -

Krds, etc Property valuation over $500,000;
nded debt less than $55,000. Pop. (1910)
4,459; (1917) 5,000.

ABBEVILLE TREATIES. (1) A treaty
in 1259 between Louis IX of France ("St.
Louis") and Henry III of England, to settle
definitely the territorial rights of the two
crowns, Louis fearing that his title to some pos-
sessions was liable to dispute, and having sought
a settlement for many years. It was negotiated
at Paris with Simon de Montfort, Earl of Lei-
cester, and signed by the two kings at Abbeville
during Henry's visit to France," 1259-60, but
dated back to 20 May 1259. Henry resigned alt
title to Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and
North Saintonge; Louis turned over Perigord,
Limousin, South Saintonge, and some districts
south of the Loire, to be held by Henry in fief,
— a surrender which so enraged the inhabitants
that they refused to celebrate Louis' birthday.

peer of France. (2) Between Henry VIII and
Francis I in 1527, Wolsey representing England
ABBEY, Edwin Austin, American artist:
b Philadelphia, 3 April 1852; d London. 1 Aug.
1911; studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of
Fine Arts; lived in New York and drew illus-
trations of a high order for periodicals, also
painting water-colors, till 1883, when he re-
moved to England. His two most individual
aualities have been his love for English country
fe and scenery and for (he old English poets
and dramatists, both of which have resulted in
notable illustrations (as of Shakespeare, Gold-
smith, etc.) and paintings; and his ability as
a colons t, though much of his work has been

done witnout color. Me bad also deep intellec-
tual and spiritual qualities ; and all these facul-
ties and tastes together combine in the famous
panels of the 'Search for the Holy Grail' on
the upper walls of the delivery room at the
Boston Public Library He was elected member
of the Royal Academy July 1898; was one of
the American jurors on paintings in the Paris
Exposition of 1900 ; and was commissioned by
Edward VII to paint the coronation scene in
Westminster Abbey. He married, in 1890, Miss
Mary Mead of New York. Though many years
resident in England Abbey never abandoned his
American nationality. Consult Ra d cliff c,
'Schools and Masters of Painting' (1898),
Mother, 'History of Modem Painting' (1896).

ABBEY, Henry, poet and journalist: b.
Rondout, N. Y, 11 July 1842; d 1911. He pub-
lished several collections of pleasing verse :
'May Dreams' (1862) ; 'Ralph, and Others
Poems' (1866) ; 'Ballads of Good Deeds'
(1872) ; 'Collected Works' (1885; 3d ei 1895) ;
<Phaethon> (1961); 'Poems' (1904).

ABBEY, Henry Eugene, American operatic
manager : b. Akron, Ohio, 27 June 1846; d 1896.
He was engaged for several years in theatrical,
and from 1883 in operatic management, produc-
ing Italian and German operas with the most
distinguished singers of the day. Under his
management Madame Adelma Patti made a
tour of the United States in 1889-90.

ABBEY, a monastery or religious commu-
nity of the highest class, governed by an abbot,
assisted generally by a prior, sub-prior, ana
other subordinate functionaries; or, in the case
of a female community, superintended by an ab-
bess. A priory differed from an abbey only in
being on a smaller scale, and governed by a
superior named a prior. Abbeys or monasteries
first rose in the East Among the most famous
abbeys on the European continent were those of
Clugny, Clairvaux, and Citeaux in France; of
St. Galle in Switzerland, and of Fulda in Ger-
many; in England those of Westminster, St
Mary's of York, Fountains, Kirks tall. Tin tern,
Rievaulx, Netley, Paisley, and Arbroath. The
English abbeys were wholly abolished by Henry
VIII at the Reformation. Abbeys were usually
strongly built, with walls which served as a
defense against enemies and within which were
large buildings in which the occupants carried
on the work to which they had been assigned
See Abbot; Monastery.

ABBITIB'BI, a river, a lake, and a former
important trading-post of the Hudson Bay Com-
pany in the Northwest Territories of Canada.
The river is the outlet of the lake, about 49*
N. lat., and flows into James Bay; the post is
on the shore of the lake.

ABBO OP FLEURY, fle-re, French theo-
logian: b. near Orleans about 945; d 1004. He
studied at Rheims and Paris; acquiring great
repute as a scholar and scientist (of the time).
Oswald Archbishop of York, induced him to
teach for two years in the abbey of Ramsey
and aid in restoring the monastic system; on
his return to France he became abbot of Fleury
and built up a thriving school there; was sent
by Robert II (son of Hugh Capet) on two
missions to Rome, 986 and 996, and each time
succeeded in warding off a papal interdict
Later, while trying to reform the discipline of

Google

in Latin, 'Vita Abbotris abbatis Floriacensis.

ABBOT, Benjamin, American educator: b.
New England, about 1762: d. Exeter, N. H.,
25 Oct. 1849. He was a graduate of Harvard
College, then became head of the Phillips
Academy at Exeter, N. H., a position which
he held for nearly SO years, until 183a Among
his pupils were many who later became promi-
nent figures in American history, notably Daniel
Webster, George Bancroft, Edward Everett
and J a red Sparks.

ABBOT, Charles, first Baron of Colches-
ter, speaker of the British House of Commons:
b. Abingdon, Berkshire, 14 Oct 17S7: d.
1829. After finishing his studies at Christ
Church he entered government service and,
after occupying many positions, finally became
Speaker of the House in 1802, retaining this
position for IS years, when he was compelled
to resign on account of ill health. He was also
one of the trustees of the British Museum. His
'Diary and Correspondence1 (1861) is of con-
temporary historical value.

graduating from the Massachusetts li

of Technology^ in 1894, he was appointed assis-
tant at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observa-
tory. In 1907 he was advanced to the position
of acting director, becoming director a few
months later. During this period he attracted
much attention by his researches in solar radia-

In collaboration with S. P. Langley he

.leted and published the mapping of the

infra-red solar spectrum, described in Vol. I

of the 'Annals' of the Astrophysical Labora-
tory. More recently his studies have been of
the total amount and variability of solar radia-
tion, its absorption in the solar and terrestrial
gaseous envelopes and its effects on climatic
conditions. He has written numerous articles
on the apparatus, methods and results of solar
research, but his chief work is 'The Sun*
(1911).

ABBOT, Ezra, American Biblical scholar:
b. Jackson, Me., 28 April 1819; d. 21 March
1884. He studied at Phillips Exeter Academy,
graduated at Bowdoin 1840, and after teaching

received a D.D. from Harvard, though a lay-
man, and thence till death was professor of
New Testament criticism and interpretation in
the Cambridge Divinity School. His wide read-
ing and wonderful verbal memory made him
one of the foremost of textual critics and bibli-
ographers ; his mastery of the Greek New
Testament text placed him beside the leading
scholars of the world ; and on the American
New Testament Revision Committee, 1871-81,
he was a chief agent in putting its work on an
even level of authority with the English, in
minute accuracy of scholarship as well as
broad, acute judgment. Indifferent to fame, he
gave his best work to collaborations or private
assistance mostly unacknowledged and unreal-
ized except by scholars. His most important
individual book was on the 'Authorship of the
Fourth Gospel' (1880), in which he announced

the important discovery of Tatian's 'Diates-
saron.' Of bis other critical work, besides the
great Revision, his half of the prolegomena to
Tischendorf's Greek New Testament (1884-94),
his additions to Mitchell's 'Critical Handbook
of the New Testament1 (1880), and his revision
of Schaff's 'Companion to the New Testament'
(1883), should be mentioned. As a bibliog-
rapher, his greatest fame was for the curious
and exhaustive catalogue of relevant books he
furnished for Alger's 'Critical History of a
Future Life' (1864), and his notes to Smith's
'Bible Dictionary1 (Am. ed. 1867-70). He also
wrote many papers for periodicals. His mono-
graphs were collected by J. H. Thayer and
published under the title 'Critical Essays'
(Boston 1888). Consult Barrow 'Ezra Abbot'
(Boston 1884).

ABBOT, Francis ELUngwood, American
religious radical: b. Boston, 1836; d. 1903.
He was graduated at Harvard 1859 and
Meadville (Pa.) Theological School 1863. A
Unitarian minister 1863 68, he started in 1870
The Index, an ultra-radical weekly devoted to

religious and philosophical topics'

'Scientific Theism* (1886), and 'The Way Out

of Agnosticism' (1890), besides notable maga-

ABBOT, George, Archbishop of Canter-
bury: b. Guildford, Surrey, 19 Oct 1562; A. 5
Aug. 1633. A cloth-worker's son, he studied
at Balliol, Oxford, was chosen Master of Uni-
versity College 1597, and three times was vice-
chancellor of Oxford. Dr. Abbot's name was
second on the list of eight divines ordered in
1604 to prepare the present (King James) ver-
sion of the Bible. In 1608 he went to Scotland
with the Earl of Dunbar to arrange for a
union of the English and Scotch churches,
James took a great fancy to him, and, though
Abbot had never held a parish, made him bishop
of Lichfield and Coventry in 1609, transferred
him to the see of London a month later, and
less than a year afterward appointed him Arch-
bishop of Canterbury. Flattery of the king is
accredited as the cause of this astonishing
rapidity of preferment; but once in his seat, at
least. Abbot felt no need of such tactics. He
opposed the scandalous divorce suit of Lady
Frances Howard against the Earl of Essex,
though the court favored and carried it. In
1618 he forbade the reading, in the Croydon
church where he was of the king's declaration
permitting games and sports on Sunday, which
the Puritans (to whom Abbot belonged) re-
garded as a permit to break the Sabbath, and
the order to read it as a command to commit
blasphemy. He promoted the marriage between
the Princess Elizabeth and the Protestant Elec-
tor Palatine, and opposed the disastrous
Spanish-marriage project of Prince Charles,
and thereby won Charles', Laud's, and Buck-
ingham's hatred. The king, however, remained
his friend. In 1622 he accidentally killed a
keeper while deer-hunting, and his enemies
tried to have him disqualified for the involun-
tary manslaughter. The king made light of the
matter, but had to refer it to a commission,
which decided in his favor, and he was formally
absolved and reappointed. He attended James
in his last sickness, and crowned Charles. The
latter, on Abbot's refusing to license a fanatical
divine-right sermon, deprived him of his func-

d by Google

tions and put them in commission; but, having

that time he lived in retirement, leaving Laud
complete ascendancy. He wrote many works
now forgotten, though one on the prophet Jonah
was reprinted in 1845. A geography passed
through numerous editions. Consult Gardiner,
S. R., 'History of England.'

ABBOT, Henry Larcom, American mili-
tary engineer : b. Beverly, Mass., 13 Aug. 1831 ;
graduated at West Point 1854, and entered the
engineer corps. Took part in the survey for a
Pacific railroad and of the Mississippi River
delta, served through the Civil War as engineer
and artillerist, was wounded at Bull Run, and
commanded the siege artillery before Richmond,
an account of which be published in 1867. He
was brevetted brigadier-general U. S. Army and
major-general U. S. Volunteers. He long com-
manded the engineers' garrison at Willett's
Point, N. Y., established an engineers' school,
worked out the submarine defenses of the
United States sea coast, and accomplished much
in the improvement of mortar batteries and
engineering equipment, etc.; was a member of
the Gun Foundry Board and the Board of
Fortifications and Defense, of that for the
protection of the Mississippi basin, of that on
the proposed canal from Pittsburg to Lake
Erie, and of the technical Committee of the
new Panama Canal Company. He drew the
plans for the interior harbor at Manitowoc, Wis.
He was retired in 1895. He has written be-
sides 'Physics and Hydraulics of the Missis-
sippi1 (1861) ; 'Problems of the Panama Canal
in 1905 and 1907.> He is a member of the
Committee of the National Academy of Sciences
to report on the slides obstructing the Panama
Canal, appointed at the request of President
Wilson in 1915.

ABBOT, Joseph Hale, American educator:
b. Wilton. N. H., 26 Sept. 1802; d. 7 April 1873.
He was graduated at Bowdoin in 1822, was
tutor there 1825-27; and professor of mathe-
matics Phillips Exeter Academy 1827-33; then
taught a ladies' school in Boston; subsequently
was principal of the Beverly, Mass., high
school. He was for some years recording sec-
retary of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, and published valuable scientific
papers in its 'Transactions, ' besides writing on
pneumatic and hydraulic problems, in which he
made ingenious investigations. He was asso-
ciate editor of Worcester's 'Dictionary of the
English Language1 (1860).

ABBOT, Samuel, American philanthropist:
b. Andover, Mass, 25 Feb. 1732; d. 12 April
1812. He became a wealthy Boston merchant
and gave $20,000 in 1807 toward founding An-
dover Seminary, with $100,000 more by will.

ABBOT, Willis John, American author
and editor, grandson of John S. C. Abbot; b
New Haven, Conn., 16 March 1863. He was
graduated from the University of Michigan in
1884. In 1892 he became managing editor of the
Chicago Times, holding this position for about
a year. From 1896 to 1898 he was on the
editorial staff of the New York Journal, His
chief works are; 'Blue Jackets of '61'; 'Blue
Jackets of 1812' ; 'Battle Fields of 1861 > ; 'The

American Merchant Ships and Sailors'
(1902) ; 'A Story of Our Navy for Young
Americans' (1910) ; 'Panama and the Canal
in Picture and Prose' (1913).

ABBOT (■father*), originally the head and
ruler of a community of monks ; in the Greek
Church he gu me no s, "leader," or archimandrite,
"ruler of the fold,* though the latter is oftener
an abbot-general with hegumenoi under him.
Among the Dominicans the bead of a convent
was called prapositus, a "provost,* or prior;
among the Franciscans cuslos, "guardian* ;
among the Camaldules major. The name sur-
vives in the orders derived from the Benedic-
tines, as the Cistercians, Bernhardines and
Trappists. The term "abbot* originated in the
EastF< and was first applied to any monk noted
for piety, but at length restricted to the superior.
The first abbots were laymen like the rest of
the monks in general; the lowest clergy took

Erecedence of them, and for sacraments they
ad to attend the nearest church: but the ex-
treme inconvenience or even impossibility of
this when the monastery was in a desert or far
from a town forced the ordination of the
abbots. Abbots could attend councils, and the
second Council of Nice, 787, allowed them to
ordain monks to the inferior orders ; and
ultimately nearly all monks were ordained to
some grade of the ministry. To this elevation
was added that of allowing pluralities of
abbacies, originally forbidden, and even in the
6th century allowed only in special cases;
but it increased till early in the 10th century
one German prelate had 12 abbeys under
him, corresponding to the archimandrites of
the East. Thus, and by the increase of numbers
and corporate wealth in the great abbeys, the
abbots themselves became prelates of vast
power. Still another cause developed this, —
the exemption of abbeys from control of the
bishops. They were originally all subject to
episcopal jurisdiction, and in the West generally
continued so till the 11th century; this is ex-
pressly ordered in Justinian's code. The ex-
actions of the bishops, however, rendered the
exemption increasingly frequent ; beginning in
456 the practice grew, and was much helped
forward by Gregory the Great, who relieved
many abbots from episcopal control and made
them responsible directly to the Pope. By the
12th century this had become an evil of the first
order in ecclesiastical government, the bishop
usually having no authority whatever over the
chief centres of religious and often secular
power in his diocese; and one abbot, of Fulda
in Germany, claimed precedence over the Arch-
bishop of Cologne. Next came an encroach-
ment on the functions of the bishops: from
conferring the tonsure and the office of reader
they came to be equally associated with the
bishops in consecrations; and while originally
the bishop chose the abbot from the monks of
the house, and then the right of election was
transferred to the monks^ the abbots came
sometimes to choose their own successors.
This, however, was stopped in some countries
by a counter-process ; the popes in Italy and the
longs in France assuming to themselves the
right of appointment

Otherwhere the choice was by secret election
of and from the monks of the house, unless it
furnished no fit candidate, when choice might

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ABBOT OF JOY — ABBOTT

be made from another monastery of one well
instructed himself and competent to instruct
others, of legitimate birth ana at least 25 years
old. His election was for life. His power was
absolute except as restricted by the canons of
the Church. His exaction of deference in the
routine of life was royal: all rose and bowed
when he entered the church or chapter, his let-
ters and orders were received kneeling, and no
monk could sit in his presence or leave it with-
out permission. They had immense political
power, and were on equal terms of intimacy
with the greatest in the realm. Many of the
abbots were an honor to their countries, and
their schools were seminaries of learning and

In time the title was improperly conferred
on others who had no connection with monastic
life, or sometimes even with the Church, — on
(he principal of a body of parochial clergy or
the tang's chaplain, and the chief magistrate of
Genoa was called "Abbot of the People" Lay
abbots, so called, originated in temporarily
handing over the revenues of an abbey to some
noble, or even the king, for a great public
exigency, the noble being titular abbot, but
enough of the revenues being reserved from se-
questration to support the house. Once in lay
hands they usually remained there, and most of
the Frankish and Burgundian sovereigns and
chief nobles in the 9th and 10th centuries were

often happened from the monastery's volun-
tarily placing itself under the "commendation*
of some noble for protection ; and there were
sometimes two lines of abbots, — one lay, taking
the major part of the income without service,
the other clerical, doing the work. This was
mostly reformed during the latter part of the
10th century. The Council of Trent restored to
the monasteries the right of electing their
abbots. The newly elected abbot is then con-
firmed by the bishop or in certain cases by
die pope.

In convent cathedrals, where the bishop filled
the place of the abbot, the superior's duties
were performed by a prior. In other convents
the prior was the vice-abbot. The superiors of
cells, or small monastic establishments depend-
ent on the larger ones, were also called priors;
they were appointed by the abbott and held
office at his pleasure. There were three classes
of abbots: mitred abbots, croziered abbots, or
those allowed to bear a crozier, and (ecumenical
abbots, ruling the houses of a province or a
Country. Abbots hold a rank immediately after
bishops. Their mitres must be less costly than
those of bishops, and they are assigned a tem-
porary throne. There are now 17 mitred abbots
in the United States, two in Canada, 10 in Eng-
land, two in Ireland and one in Scotland. Con-
sult Feazey, H. J., 'Monastkism' ; Montalern-
bert, 'Monks of .the West> (ed. 1896, Vol. I);
Bingham, 'Origines'; Martcne, 'Rites of the
Ancient Monasteries' ; Gasquet (Cardinal),
'English Monastic Life' (London 1904) ; Taun-
ton, 'English Black Monks of St. Benedict'
(London 1898).

ABBOT OF JOY, from the French *Abbe
de Liesse," a title conferred upon the head of a
fraternity founded in Lille. He presided over
the games that took place during the carnival

ABBOT, The, by Sir Walter Scott. A
sequel to 'The Monastery,' but dealing with
more stirring situations. The time of the action
is 1567-68. While the action goes on partly at
A vend Cast el, and Halbert Glen dinning of
'The Monastery,' as well as his brother Ed-
ward (now an abbot) figure prominently in the
story, the reader finds that he has exchanged
the humble events of the little border vale by
Melrose for thrilling and romantic adventures
at Lochleven Castle on its island ift the lake,
north of Edinburgh, where Maty Queen of
Scots is imprisoned. The chief interest centres
around the unfortunate queen. The framework
of the tale it is claimed is historically true.

ABBOTSFORD, a fording-place of the
Tweed near its confluence with the Yarrow;
the name given by Sir Walter Scott to his
property there bought in 1811, in memory of its
use by the monks of Melrose Abbey, it being
at the time known as the Clarty [Filthy] Hole.
The site is a low hillside on the southern bank,
overlooked by the SeUdrks. At first only a
villa, now the west wing of the pile, he was
seized with the idea of founding a great feudal
family of the old Scotch pattern, with this for
a baronial seat; and gradually added other sec-
tions, copying old Scotch mansions or ruins, or
special features of them, making an irregular,
rambling, picturesque abode, "a romance in
stone and lime.' It remained in Scott's family
for four generations, but has in recent years
been leased to Americans. Consult Irvine's
'Abbotsford1 (London 1850) : Lockhart's 'Life
of Scott' (Edinburgh 1838); Scott, Mary
'Abbotsford' (New York 1893) ; Smith and
Crockett 'Abbotsford' (ib., 1905).

ABBOTT, Alexander Crever, American
bygienist: b. Baltimore, Md, 26 Feb. 1860. He
was educated at Johns Hopkins University and
at the universities of Maryland, Munich, and
Berlin. He is a fellow of the College of
Physicians in Philadelphia, and a member of
numerous scientific societies ; in 1900 was pro-
fessor of hygiene and director of the labora-
tory of hygiene in the University of Pennsyl-
vania. His publications include 'The Principles
of Bacteriology1 (1892, 1915) ; 'The Hygiene
of Transmissive Diseases' (1899-1902), and
numerous papers on bacteriology and hygiene.

ABBOTT, AnBtin, American law-writer,
son of Jacob: b. Boston, 18 Dec 1831; d. 1896.
He was graduated, at the University of the
City of New York in 1851 and entered the
practice of law ; collaborated with his brother
Benjamin in valuable legal compilations, digests,
textbooks, etc. ; was an able law lecturer, and
dean of his alma mater's law school 1891—96.
He was counsel for Theodore Til ton in the
Beecher trial. With his brothers Benjamin and
Lyman he wrote two novels, 'Cone Cut Cor-
ners' (1885) and 'Matthew Caraby> (1858).

ABBOTT, Benjamin, American revivalist:
b. Long Island 1732; d. Salem, N. J., 14 Aug.
1796. A hatter's and then a farmer's apprentice,
somewhat dissipated but a kind husband and
father and a church-goer (whence his accounts
of the pit from which he was rescued are
probably dialectic), he was roused to intense

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n of .sin at 33 by an itinerant Methodist
preacher, joined that Church with his children
and his Presbyterian wife, and became one of
the most remarkable revivalists of the time,

Eroducing wonderful conversions of the most
ardened, and often sending hearers into con-
vulsions. In the Revolution the Methodists
were suspected of disloyalty, and more than
once he was near being mobbed; but he always
preached down his assailants, once turning
from their purpose a gang of a hundred
soldiers. Serving for 16 years as a local
preacher, from 1789 he went on various cir-
cuits, and in 1793 was made an elder and sent
to Maryland. He carried on his duties till
death despite much enf eeblement ; and his
career has been one of the most stirring themes
for exhortation in the Church.

ABBOTT, Benjamin Vaaghan, American
lawyer, eldest son of Jacob: b. 4 June 1830; d.
1890. He was graduated at the University of
the City of New York in 1850, and practised
law with his brothers Austin and Lyman. He

of the New York Code
code which is the basis of the present one. In
1870 President Grant appointed him one of three
commissioners to revise the United States stat-
utes, which occupied three years, and com-
pressed 16 volumes into one large octavo;
thence till 1879 he was occupied on a great
revision of the * United States Digest' Among
his lesser works are 'Judge and Jury1 (1880),
collected contributions to periodicals; a Chau-
tauqua book, 'The Traveling Law School' ; and
'Famous Trials' (1880).

ABBOTT, Charles Conrad, author and
naturalist : b. Trenton, N. J., 4 June 1843. He
received an academical education, and took the
degree of M.D. at the University of Pennsyl-
vania in 1865. He is corresponding member
Boston Society of Natural History; member
American Philosophical Society of Philadel-
phia ; Fellow Royal Society of Antiquaries of
the North, Copenhagen ; Assistant, Peabody
Uuseum of American Archaeology and Eth-
nology, Cambridge, Mass., 1876-89. Author :
'Primitive Industry' (1881); 'Naturalist Ram-
hies about Home' (1884) ; 'Upland and Mea-
dow> (1886); 'Waste-land Wanderings'
(1887); 'Days Out of Doors' (1889); 'Out-
ings at Odd Times' (1890) ; 'Recent Rambles'
(1892) ; 'Travels in a Tree-top' (1894) ; 'The
Birds About Us' (1894) ; 'Notes of the Night'
(189S); <A Colonial Wooing' (novel, 1895);
'Birdland Echoes' (1896) ; 'When the Century
was New' (novel, 1897) ; 'The Hermit of Not-
tingham> (novel, 1897) ; 'The Freedom of the
Fields' (1898); 'Clear Skies and Cloudy'
(1899); 'In Nature's Realm' (1900); 'Archav
oiogia Nova Cisarea' (1907-09) ; 'Ten Years'
Diggings tn Lenape Land' (1912); Various
Reports on Indian Stone Implements, in
America* Naturalist (1872), revised and en-
larged as 'Stone Age in New Jersey' in Smith-
sonian Annual Report of 1876 In 1876 he
announced the discovery, since confirmed by
other archaeologists, of traces of man in the
Delaware River valley, dating from the first
or "Kansan" ice-age and inferentially the pre-
glacial period when man is believed to have
entered upon the North American

JTT 17

ABBOTT,' Edward, American clergyman,
son of Jacob: b. Farmington, Me., 15 July
1841 ; d. Boston, Mass, 5 April 1908. He was
graduated at the University of the City of New
York 1860, and at Andover Theological Semi-
nary 1862 - in 1863 was with the United States
Sanitary Commission at Washington and in the
field. He was ordained Congregational clergy-
man in 1863, and 1865-69 was pastor of the
Pilgrim Church, Cambridge, Mass. ; in 1879 was
ordained Episcopal priest and was rector of St
James' Cambridge, till 1906; in 1889 he was
elected missionary bishop of Japan, but de-
clined. He was associate editor of the Con-
gregalionaliit 1869-78, and editor of the
Literary World 1878-88, and 1895-1903.
Among his works are 'Conversations of Jesus'
(1875) ; 'Paragraph History of the United
States' (1875) ; 'Paragraph History of the
American Revolution' (1876) ; 'Long Look
Series,1 juvenile (1877-80); memorial of his
father (1882) ; and 'Phillips Brooks' (1900).

ABBOTT, Edwin Abbott, English theo-
logian and Shakespearean scholar: b. London,
20 Dec 1838; graduated at St. John's College,
Cambridge ; senior classic and Chancellors
medalist (1861). He was master at King Ed-
ward's School, Birmington, 1862-64, and at
Clifton College; and head-master of the City
of London School, 1865-89, raising it to a fore-
most rank in England. In the latter year he
retired. He has been select preacher at Cam-
bridge and Oxford. His works include the
well-known 'Shakespcrian Grammar' ( 1869,
enlarged 1870), still a classic; 'Bacon and
Essex' (1877) : 'Philochristus1 (1878), and
'Onesimus' (1882), two anonymous romances
of the first age of the Church; 'Francis Bacon'
(1885); 'Anglican Career of Cardinal New-
man' (1892) ; 'St. Thomas of Canterbury'
(1898); 'From Letter to Spirit' (1903);
'Johannine Vocabulary' (1905); 'The Son of
Man' or 'Contributions to the Study of the
Thoughts of Jesus' (1910) ; 'Light on the
Gospel' (Eng. ed. 1912: Am. ed. 1913); 'The
Fourfold Gospel' (1913).

ABBOTT, Emma (Wethehell), American
dramatic soprano: b. Chicago, 111., December
1849; d. Salt Lake City, 5 Jan. 1891. Beginning
her musical career in Plymouth Church choir,
Brooklyn, N. Y., she studied abroad with
Sangiovanni at Milan and with Delled Sedie,
Wartel, and James at Paris; then joined
Maplcson's troupe, made her debut at Covent
Garden, London, toured three years in Great
Britain, and returning to the United States
joined the Emma Abbott English Opera Com-
pany. She sang in 'Martha,' 'The Chimes of
Normandy,' 'Faust,' and other popular operas
and was one of the best known singers in
America in her day. Consult Lahee, H. C,
'Famous Singers of To-day and Yesterday'
(Boston 1898).

ABBOTT, Frank Frost American Latinist:
b. Redding, Conn., 27 March 1860; graduated
at Yale 1882; Latin tutor at Yale 1885-91;
associate professor 1892; 1894, professor of
Latin in the University of Chicago; 1901-02
annual professor of the American school of
classical studies in Rome; becoming associate
chairman of the managing committee; 1908,
professor of classics in Princeton University;
a frequent contributor to classical periodicals

d by Google

18 ABB

and associate editor of Classical Philology.
He has written (A History of Roman Political
Institutions1 (1901) ; 'The Toledo Manuscript
of the Germania of Tacitus' (1903) ; 'A His-
tory of Rome' (1906); 'Society and Politics
in Ancient Rome' (1909); 'The Common
People of Ancient Rome1 (1911) ; etc He is
vice-president of the American Philological
Association.

ABBOTT, Gorham Dummer, American
educator, brother of Jacob and J. S. C. : b.
Hallowell, Me., 3 Sept. 1807; d 31 July 1874.
He was graduated at Bowdoin 1826, at Andover
1831. Ordained a Congregational clergyman,
he became a teacher in New York ; in 1845 with
his brothers he established the Abbott Institute
for females in New York city and in 1847 the
Spingler Institute, — pioneers in women's higher
education; the latter held a foremost rank in
the United States for 30 years, and he
left it in 1869 a rich man. He wrote didactic
works, as 'The Family at Home,' 'Nathan W.
Dickerman,' 'Pleasure and Profit' ; also
'Mexico and the United States.'

ABBOTT, Jacob, American juvenile writer
and educator: b. Hallowell, Me., 14 Nov. 1803;
d. 31 Oct. 1879. He was graduated at Bowdoin
1820, studied at Andover, and was ordained a
Congregational minister; professor of mathe-
matics and natural philosophy at Amherst
1825-29; then established the Mt. Vernon girls'
school in Boston, and in 1834 organized and
was pastor of the Eliot Church in Roxbury.
In 1839 he removed permanently to Farming-
ton, Me., and devoted himself to literary
work there and in New York, assisting also
in female education (see the preceding title),
writing extensively for the early Harper's
Monthly, of which he was one of the chief
bulwarks, traveling widely abroad, and writing
the classic juveniles of which the 'Rollo Books'
are the best known type,— neither their useful-
ness, their popularity, nor their charm, has yet
vanished. He had an excellent dramatic sense,
a healthy balance, a sound business practicality
and a true understanding of and sincere sym-
pathy with children, which makes his didactics
charming to rightly constituted children ; no
boys and girls were ever less priggish than
those in 'Rollo,' the conventional burlesques
of which merely prove that the authors have
not read the books, and even so are a testi-
mony to their vitality. The chief of his more
than 200 volumes are the 'Rollo Books' (28
vols.), the 'Lucy Books' (6 vols.), the 'Jonas
Books' (6 vols.), the 'Franconia Stories' (10
vols.), the 'Marco Paul Series' (6 vols.), the
'Gray Family' series (12 vols.), the 'Juno
Books' (6 vols.), the 'Rainbow Series' (5
vols.), and several other series of science and
travel for the young; more than 20 of the
series of illustrated histories to which his
brother J. S. C. contributed, and 8 vols, of
American history. He also edited historical
text-books and compiled school readers.

ABBOTT, Sir John Joeeph Caldwell,
Canadian statesman: b. St. Andrews, Quebec,
12 March 1821 ; d 1893. Graduated at McGill
College, Montreal, he became a lawyer, and was
regarded as among the best Canadian authori-
ties on commercial law, being dean of the Mc-
Gill College Law Faculty for 10 years. In
1859 he was elected to the Lower House of

Quebec, representing Argenteuil until Confed-
eration (1867), when he was returned to the
Canadian House of Commons. In 1862 he was
solid tor-general in the Sandfield Macdonald-
Sicotte Cabinet. In 1887 he joined Sir John
A. Macdonald's Cabinet as minister without
portfolio, and on Macdonald's death in June
1891 became premier of the Dominion; but
resigned from ill health November 1892.

ABBOTT, John Stephens Cabot, Ameri-
can author: b. Brunswick, Me., 18 Sept. 1805; d
Fairhaven, Conn., 17 June 1877. He was gradu-
ated at Bowdoin 1825, and Andover ; was
ordained Congregational minister 1830, and
held pastorates at Worcester, Roxbury, and
Nantucket, Mass. He resigned the ministry in
1844 and devoted himself to popular literature.
A fertile writer like his brother Jacob, and
with an interest in his own matter that gave a
certain charm to his style and excited equal
interest in uncritical readers, but with too little
acumen and too much rhetoric for the solid
historical subjects he had a passion for, he
issued very many works useful in stimulating
public curiosity in history, but of too little
weight to endure. The most famous was the
'Life of Napoleon' contributed as a serial to
Harper's Magazine, and a great popular suc-
cess; others were 'The French Revolution,'
'Napoleon at St. Helena,' 'The Civil War in
America' (1863-66); 'Napoleon IIP (1668);
'Romance of Spanish History' (1879) ; 'Fred-
erick the Great' (1871), and many volumes of
small histories and biographies.

ABBOTT, Lyman, American clergyman
and editor, third son of Jacob: b. Roxbury,
Mass., 18 Dec. 1835. He was graduated at the
University of the City of New York in 1853 ;
studied law, and went into partnership with his
brothers Austin and Benjamin in 1856; but
feeling more inclined to the ministry studied
theology with his uncle John Stephens Cabot,
and was ordained in 1860. Till 1865 he was
pastor at Terre Haute, Ind.; 1865-68 secre-
tary of the Frecdmen's Commission, residing
in New York, also becoming pastor ot tile New
England Church there; in 1869 resigned his
pastorate for journalism and literature. He
' *ely editor of the 'Literary

Illustrated Christian Weekly; then associate
editor with Henry Ward Beecher of the
Christian Union, now the Outlook, of which
he became chief editor on Mr. Beecher*s
death in 1887, succeeding him also in the Ply-
mouth Church pulpit, which he resigned in
1899 to devote himself wholly to literary work.
Since that time he has devoted himself to the
editorship of The Outlook, other occasional
contributions to literature, and to preaching in
various pulpits during seven or eight months
of the year, generally in colleges. He has
taken an active part in social and industrial
reform and in the religious and theological
movements of the time. His earliest works
were two novels written in collaboration with
his brothers Benjamin and Austin Abbott (see
Abbott, Austin) published under the nom-de-
plume, composed by the three first syllables of
their names, "Benauly* The following is a
list of his published volumes: 'Commentary o
the New Testament. Mathew - w~-

Romana*

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of Christianity' (1892) ; (Plymouth Hymnal'
(1893); 'Christianity and Social Problems'
(1896); 'The Theology of an Evolutionist'
(1897); 'Life and Letters of Paul' (1898);
(Life and Literature of the Ancient Hebrews'
(1901); (The Rights of Man' (1901); 'The
Other Room' (1903) ; 'Life of Henry Ward
Beecher' (1903); 'The Great Companion'
(1904); (The Christian Ministry' (1905); 'The
Home Builder' (1908).

ABBOTT, Nathan, American jurist and
educator, son of Abiel Abbott : b. Norridge-
wock, Me.. 11 July 1854. He was graduated
from Yale College in 1877, then studied law in
Boston University. For some years he applied
himself to his private law practice in Boston,
after which he became Tappan Professor of
Law in the University of Michigan. In 1893
he was appointed professor of law in North-
western University. In 1895 he became pro-
fessor of law and Dean of the Law School

professor of law at Columbia University, New
York city. He is recognized as one of the

leading authorities on the English and Ameri-
can law of real property.

ABBOTT, Thomu Kingsmill, Irish edu-
cator: b. Dublin, 26 March 1829; d. 1913. He
was a graduate of Trinity College. In 1867 he
was appointed to fill the chair of moral phi-
losophy at the same institution, which position
he held until 1872. From 1875 to 1888 he was
professor of biblical Greek and from 1879
until 1900 he was professor of Hebrew. His
works are : a translation of Kant's 'Introduc-
tion to Logic' (1878), and Kant's 'Ethics'
(1909); (Essays' (1892); 'TheElements of

Logic' (1895) ; (Commentary on Ephesiana s
~ ' ians' (1897) ; 'Elementary Theory of

(1901); (Catalogue of 15th Century

Colossians' (1897) ; 'Elementary Theory of the

"" ' ' '\901); 'Catalogue of 15th Century

the Library of Trinity College'

ABBOTT, Wilbur Cortez, American edu-
cator: b. Kokoma, Ind., 28 Dec. 1869. After
graduating from Wabash College in 1892 he
took a post-graduate course at Cornell Uni-
versity, then studied at Oxford, where he re-
ceived a degree of B.Litt. in 1897. From 1893
to 1895 he was instructor in history at Cor-
nell. In 1897 he became instructor in history
at the University of Michigan. Two years
later he was appointed assistant professor of
history in Dartmouth College; in 1902 profes-
sor of history in the University of Kansas, and
in 1908 he was appointed professor of history
at the Sheffield Scientific School, at Yale Uni-
versity. He is the author of 'Colonel Blood,
Crown Stealer* (1911).

ABBREVIATIONS or 'shortenings' are
used in writing to save time and space, or It
may be to ensure secrecy. They are of two
kinds, consisting either in the omission of some
letters or words, or in the substitution of some
arbitrary sign. In the earliest times, when
uncial or lapidary characters were used, abbre-
viations by omission prevailed, such as we find
in the inscriptions on monuments, coins, etc.
The ancient copiers of MSS. invented many
contractions to facilitate their labor. Greek

lists of mem were given in the earlier Greek
grammars, because the knowledge of them was
absolutely, essential to the student. Some of
the commoner are still given in some gram-
mars, as many Greek works are accessible
only in editions full of them. Among the
Romans the marks of abbreviation, called nota
or compendia scribendi, were so numerous
that, in a classification by L. Aruueus Seneca,
they amount to 5,000. With the Latin lan-
guage the ancient Roman abbreviations passed
to the Middle Ages, appearing first on inscrip-
tions and coins, then in manuscripts, and, more
especially after the 11th century, in charters
and other legal documents, and the practice
continued in these long after the invention of
printing had made it unnecessary in books.
The use of them in legal documents was for-
bidden by an act of Parliament passed in the
reign of George II. In ordinary writing and
printing few abbreviations are now employed.
The abbreviations by using the initials of
words are chiefly confined to titles, dates, and
a few phrases ; A.M. — Magister Arlium,
Master of Arts; A.D. — Anno Domini, in the

E:ar of our Lord; F.R.G.S.— Fellow of the
oyal Geographical Society. In the following
list most of the abbreviations that are likely
to be met with by modern readers are alpha-
betically arranged, save chemical elements,
for which see table of Atomic Weights. The
standard abbreviations used in library cata-
logues are also given. For Latin abbre-
viations see CampclH's 'Diziortario di Abbre-
viature' (Milan, 1899); Dobbs' 'Abbreviations,
British and Foreign' (1911).
A. A.— Associate of Arts.

A.A.A. — Amateur Athletic Association (Brit.).
A.A.A.S. — American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science.
AA.P.S. — American Association for the Pro-
motion of Science.
A.A.S. — Academic Americana So cms, Fellow
of the American Academy (of Arts and Sci-
ences) ; American Automobile Association.
A.A.S.S. — Americana Anttquariana Societatis
Socius, Member of the American Antiquarian

A.B.— Arlium Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Arts.

A.B.C.F.M. — American Board of Commis-
sioners for Foreign Missions.

Abp. — Archbishop.

Abr. — Abridgement, or Abridged.

a/c — Account

A.C — Ante Christum, before the birth of
Christ.

Acad. Nat. Sci.— Academy of Natural Sciences.

Accel. — accelerando, In music, more quickly.

A.D.— Anno Domini, in the year of the Lord.

A.D.C.— Aide-de-camp.

Adjt. — Adjutant.

Ad j t. -Gen, — Adjutant-General.

Ad lib. — Ad libitum, at pleasure.

Admr. — Administrator.

Admx. — Administratrix.

Ads. — Ad tectam, at the suit [of}.

Ad v. — Ad valorem, at (or on) the value.

XLt.— Miatis, of age ; aged

, Google

ABBREVIATIONS

A.F.B.S. — American and Foreign Bible So-
ciety.

Agl. Dept. — Agricultural Department (Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

A.G.S.S. — American Geographical and Statis-
tical Society.

A.H.— Anno Hegira, in the year of the Hegira
''Mohammedan era, reckoning from 622
A.D.)

A.H.M.S. — American Home Missionary So-

lium M agister. Master of Arts

Am. Ass. Adv. Sci. — American Association for
the Advancement of Science.

Amer. Acad. — American Academy.

A.M.E.Z. — African Methodist Episcopal Zion.

Ami. — Amount.

An.— Anno, in the year.

A.N. A. — Associate of the National Academy.

Anat. — Anatomy.

Ang. Sax. — Anglo-Saxon.

Anon.— Anonymous.

Ant., or Antiq. — Antiquities.

A.O.S.S. — Americana Orientalis Societatis Sa-
rins, Member of the American Oriental So-

Apoc— Apocalypse.

Apocr. — Apocrypha.

App. — Appendix.

Apud. — In writings of.

Am. — Anna Regina, Queen Anne; Anno regni,

in the year of the reign.
A.R.A. — Associate of the Royal Academy.
Arch. — Archibald; Architect; Architecture.
Archd. — Archdeacon.
Arilh.— Arithmetic.
Arm. — Armenian.
A.R.S.A.— Associate of the Royal Scottish

Academy.
A.R.S.S — Antujuariarum Regia Societatis So-

cius. Fellow of the Royal Society of Anti-

Assist. Sec.— Assistant- Secretary.
A.S.A. — American Statistical Association.
Assn. — Association.

A.S.S.U. — American Sunday-School Union.
Astrol. — Astrology.
Astron. — Astronomy.
A.T.S.— American Tract Society.
Atty. — Attorney.
Atty.-Gen. — Attorney-General.
A.U.A. — American Unitarian Association.
A.U.C. — Anno urbis condita, or ab urbe con-
dita, in the year from the building of the city

(Rot

:. 753.

A. V.— Authorized Version (of the Bible).

Ave. — Avenue.

Avdp. or Avoir. — Avoirdupois.

B.A.— Bachelor of Arts.

Bat.— Balance.

Bapt — Baptist,

Bart, or Bt.— Baronet

Bbl.— Barrel.

B.C.— Before Christ; British Columbia.

B.C.L.— Bachelor of Civil Law.

B.D. — Boecaloureus Divinitalis, Bachelor of

Bds.~ Boards; Bonds.

Beau. & Fl.— Beaumont and Fletcher.

Belg.— Belgian j Belgium.

Ben]. — Benjamin.

B.esL.— Bachelor of Letten (Fr.>.

Bib.— Bible; Biblical.

Bibliog. — Bibliographical ; Bibliography.

Biog.— Biography ; Biographical.

Bk.— Book.

B.L.— Bachelor of Letters.

B.Litt. — Bachelor of Literature in Journalism.

B.LL.— Baccalaureus Legum. Bachelor of

B.lS.—Baccaloumu Medicine, Bachelor of
Medicine.

B.Mus. — Bachelor of Music.

Bot.— Botany.

Bp,— Bishop.

B.Ph.— Bachelor of Philosophy.

Br.— Brig; British; Brother.

Brig.— Brigade ; Brigadier.

Brig. -Gen. — Brigadier- General.

Brit. Mus. — British Museum.

Bro.— Brother.

B.S. or B.Sc.— Bachelor in the Sciences.

Bt.— Baronet.

B.V. — Btaia Virgo, Blessed Virgin; Bene vale,
farewell.

C. — Caput or capitulum, chapter ; Celsius ; Cent ;
Centigrade; Cents; Centum, a hundred; Cen-
tury; Circa or circiter, about; Consul.

C. A. — Chief Accountant ; Commissioner of
Accounts.

Cam., Camb. — Cambridge.

Can. — Canon.

Cant — Canticles.

Cantab. — Cantabripitt, Cantabngiensit, or Cam-
bridge. In music canlabile, singing tone.

Cantuar. — Cantuarite, Cantuariensis, of Canter-
Cap. — Caput, capitulum, chapter.

Capt.— Captain.

Capt-Gen. — Captain- General

Card. — Cardinal.

Cath.— Catherine, Catholic, Cathedral.

C.B.— Cape Breton; Communis Bancus, Com-
mon Bench; Companion of the Bath.

C.C.— Caius College; Compte courante, ac-
count current; Circuit Court; County Com-
missioner; County Court; Cubic centimeter.

C.E. — Civil Engineer; Church of England;
Christian Endeavor Society.

Celt.— Celtic.

Cent.— Centigrade, a scale of 100° from f reel-
ing to boiling; Central; Centum, a hundred;
Century.

Cf. — Confer, compare.

C.G.— Commissary-General ; Consul-General.

C.G.H.— Cape of Good Hope.

Chap.— Chapter.

Ch.J.— Chief Justice.

Chr.— Christ; Christian; Christopher.

Chron.— Chronicles.

Cic— Cicero.

Ci re— Circa, or circiter, about; Circuit.

Cit.— Citation ; Cited; Citizen.

Civ — Civil.

C.J.— Chief Justice.

C.M.G.— Companion of the Order of St. Mich.
ael and St. George.

Co. — Company; county.

c/o.— In care of.

Coch., or Cochl.— Cochlear, a spoonfuL C.
amp. (amplum), a tablespoonfuL C. mag.
(magnum), a large spoonful. C. med. {me-
dium), a dessert-spoonful. C. parv. (par-
vum), a small spoonful or teaspoonful.

.Google

ABBREVIATIONS

C.O.D.— Cash (or collect) on delivery.

Coll.— College.

Com.— Commerce ; Committee ; Commissioner ;

Commodore.
Com. Ver. — Common Version (of the Bible).
Con. — Contra, against ; in opposition.
Conch. — Conchology.
Con fed.— Confederate.
Cong.— Congress.
Congl. — Congregational.
Conj.— Conjunction.
Copt. — Coptic
Cor. — Corinthians.

Cor. Mem. — Corresponding Member.
Corn. — Cornwall ; Cornish.
Cor. Sec — Corresponding Secretary.
Coss. — Consults, Consuls.
Cp: — Compare.

C.P.A.— Certified Public Accountant.
C.P.S.— Cuslos PrivaU Sigiiti, Keeper of the

Privy Seal.
Cr.— Credit; Creditor.

Crim. Con.— Criminal conversation (adultery).
CS. — Court of Sessions; Cvstos Sigilli, Keeper

of the Seal.
CS. A.— Confederate States of America; Con-
federate States Army.
C.S.I. — Companion of the Order of the Star

of India.
C.S.N.— Confederate States Navy.
C-Theod— Codice Theodosiano, in the Theo-

dosian Code.
Cwt.— Hundred weight
Cyc — Cyclopedia.
d. — Denarius, penny, pence; Died.
D.C. — Da capo, from the beginning; District

of Columbia.
D.C.L.— Doctor of Civil Law.
D.D. — Divinitatis Doctor, Doctor of Divinity.
D.D.S. — Doctor of Dental Surgery.
Dea.— Deacon.

Dec — December ; Declination.
Dec of Ind. — Declaration of Independence,
Def.— Defendant.
Deg.— Degree; degrees.
Dem. — Democrat ; Democratic
Dep. — Deputy.
Deut — Deuteronomy.
D.F.— Defender of the Faith.
D.G.— Dei gratia, by the grace of God; Dea

gratia;, thanks to God.
Disc — Discount.
Dist.— District.
D.M.— Doctor of Music.
D.M.D.— Doctor of Medical Dentistry.
D.O.— Doctor of Osteopathy.
Do.— Ditto, the same.
Doc. — Document.
D.O.M. — Deo optima maxima, to God, the best,

the greatest.
D.O.S.— Doctor of Orthopedic Surgery.
D.P. or D.Ph.— Doctor of Philosophy.
Dpt— Department.
Dr.— Debtor; Doctor.
D.Sc. — Doctor of Science.
D.T.— Doctor Theologie, Doctor of Theology.
D.V. — Deo volente, God willing.
D.V.M. — Doctor or Veterinary Medicine.
Dwt. — Pennyweight.
Dyn. — Dynamics.
E.— East.

Ebor. — Eboracum, York.
EccL — Ecclesiastes.

Ecclus.— Ecclesiastic us.

Ed.— Editor ; Edition. '

EdiiL — Edinburgh.

E.E. — Electrical Engineer.

e. g.— Exempli gratia, for example ; Ex grege,
among the rest.

E. 1.— East Indies or East India.

E. Lon. — East longitude.

EM, — Mining Engineer.

Encyc— Encyclopedia.

Encyc Amer. — Encyclopedia Americana.

Eng. — Engineering; Engineers; England; Eng-
lish.

Env. Ext— Envoy Extraordinary.

Ep.— Epistle.

Epis. — Episcopal.

Esq. — Esquire.

Et at — Et alii, arid others.

Etc, or &c. — Et cateri, et catera, et cmUra,
and others; and so forth.

Et seq. — Et sequenies, et segtientia, and what
follows.

Etyra— Etymological ; Etymology.

E.U.— Etats Unts, United States; Evangelical

Ex. — Example ; Exodus.

Exch. — Exchange.

Exec — Executive ; Executor.

Execx. — Executrix.

Exon. — Exonia, Exeter; Exoniaf, Exoniensis,

Fahr. — Fahrenheit.

F. and A.M. — Free and Accepted Masons.

F.A.S. — Fellow of the Antiquarian Society.

F.B.S.— Fellow of the Botanical Society.

Fcap. or fcp. — Foolscap.

F.C.P.S.— Fellow of the Cambridge Philo-
logical Society.

F.CS. — Fellow of the Chemical Society.

F.D.— Fidei Defensor, Defender of the Faith.

Fee — Fecit, he did or made it.

Fed.— Federal.

F.E.S.— Fellow of the Entomological Society;
Fellow of the Ethnographical Society.

Fi.— Feeerunt, they did or made it; Folios;
Following ; Fortissimo.

F.G.S.— Fellow of the Geological Society.

F.H.S.— Fellow of the Horticultural Society.

Fid Def.— Fidei Defensor, Defender of the
Faith.

Fig. — Figure.

Fin.— Finland

Finn. — Finnish.

Fir.— Firkin.

R-— Florin; Florins; Flourished

F.L.S. — Fellow of the Linnsean Society.

F.-M — Field-Marshal.

F. o. b.— Free on board.

FoL — Folio.

For. — Foreign.

F.P.S.— Fellow of the Philological Society.

Fr. — Fragmentum, fragment; Franc; France;
Francis ; Francs ; French.

F.R.A.S.— Fellow of the Royal Asiatic So-
ciety; Fellow of the Royal Astronomical So-
ciety.

F.R.C.P.— Fellow of the Royal College of
Physicians.

F.R.C.S. (E.I. or L.).— Fellow of the Royal
College of Surgeons (Edinburgh, Ireland or
London).

a b, Google

ABBREVIATIONS

F.R.G.S.— Fellow of the Royal Geographical

F.R. Hist. Soc— Fellow of the Royal His-
torical Society.
F.R.S.— Fellow of the Royal Society.
F.R.S.E.— Fellow of the Royal Society, Edin-

F.R.S.L.— Fellow of the Royal Society, Lon-

F.R.S!S.A.— Fellow of the Royal Scottish So-
ciety of Arts.

F.R.Z.S.— Fellow of the Royal Zoological So-
ciety.

F.S. A.— Fellow of the Society of Arts, or of

es, Edinburgh.

F.S.A. Scot.— Fellow of the. Society of Anti-
quaries of Scotland.

F.S.S.— Fellow of the Statistical Society,

Ft.— Foot; feet; Fort

Fur. — Furlong.

F.Z.S.— Fellow of the Zoological Society.

G. — Guineas.

G.A.R. — Grand Army of the Republic.

G. B.— Great Britain.

G. B. & I.— Great Britain and Ireland.

G.C.B.— Grand Cross of the Bath.

G.C.H.— Grand Cross of Hanover.

G.C.K.P.— Grand Commander of the Knights
of St. Patrick.

G.C.L.H.— Grand Cross of the Legion of

G.C.M.G!— Grand Cross of St. Michael and St

George.
G.C.S.L — Grand Commander of the Star of

Gen.— Genealogy; Genera; General; Genesis;

G1-, or Gloss. — Glossary.

G.L. — Grand Lodge.

G.M.— Grand Master.

G.M.K.P.— Grand Master of the Knights of

St. Patrick.
G.M.S.I.— Grand Master of the Star of India.
G.O.— General Order.
Goth. — Gothic
G.P.O.— General Post-Office.

G. R. — Georgius Rex, King George.

Gry Grs.— Grain; Grains.

G.S. — Grand Secretary; Grand Sentinel; Grand

Gtt.— Gutta or gutta, drop; drops.

H.— Hour.

Hab.— Habaklcuk.

Hab. corp. — Habeas corpus, that you have the

Hab. fa. poss. — Habere facias possessionem,
that you cause to have possession, — a legal

Hab. fa. seis. — Habere facias seisinam, that you
cause to have seisin,— a legal writ.

H.B.M.— His or Her Britannic Majesty.

H.M.S.— His (or Her) Majesty's Ship.

H.C.M.— His or Her Catholic Majesty.

H.E. — His Excellency, or His Eminence.

Heb.— Hebrew; Hebrews.

Her.— Heraldry.

H.H.— His or Her Highness; His Holiness
(the Pope).

H. I.— Hawaiian Islands.

Hier, — Hierosohma, Jerusalem.

H.I.H.— His or Her Imperial Highness.

Hind. — Hindu; Hindustan; Hindustani.

H.J.S. — Hie jocet sepultus, here lies buried.

H.L.— House of Lords.

H.M.- His or Her Majesty.

H.M.P. — Hoe monumentum posuii, erected

this monument.
H.M.S.— His or Her Majesty's Ship or Service.
Hon. — Honorable.
Hort. — Horticulture.
Hos. — Hosea.

H.R. — House of Representatives.
H.R.H.— His or Her Roya! Highness.
H.R.I.P.— Hie requieseit in pact, Here rests

H.S.— Hie situs. Here lies.

H.S.H.— His or Her Serene Highness.

Hypoth. — Hypothesis ; Hypothetical.

I. — Itnperator or Imperalrix, Emperor or
Empress.

lb., or ibid.— Ibidem, in the same place.

Ich., or Ichth. — Ichthyology.

Icon. Encyc. — Sonographic Encyclopedia.

I. Ch. Th. U. S.— ■I(?««?f)X(/>WT.Je) B (««T)y-(tf j)
Z(«njp) (Irsous Christos, Theou Uios Soter),
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour;
also written !**&[ = a fish ; whence the sym-
bol of a fish for the sacred name.

Id.— Idem, the s

-Id e

. that i

I.H.S. — (Corrupted from Gr. IHZ, abbrev. of
IHZOTZ, Jesus). Now read Jesus Homtnum
Salvator, Jesus the Saviour of Men.

Imp. — Imperative ; Imperalor, emperor ; Im-

In. — Inch; inches.

Inc. or Incor. — Incorporated.

Incog.— Incognito, unknown.

I.H.P. — Indicated horse-power.

I.N.D.— In nomine Dei, in the name of God.

Inf. — Infra, beneath, or below.

In f .— In fine; at the end

In Urn. — In limine, at the outset.

In loc. — In loco, in the place.

In pr.- — In principio, in the beginning.

I. N.R.I. — Jesus Nasarenus, Hex Judaornm,

Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews.
Inst.— Instant ; Institute; Institutes; Institu-

In trans. — In transitu, in transit.

Int. Rev. — Internal Revenue.

Ion.— Ionic.

I.O.O.F.— Independent Order of Odd Fellows.

IO.S.M. — Independent Order of the Sons of

Malta.
I.O.U.— I owe you.
Ipecac. — Ipecacuanha.
I.R. — Imperalor, Rex.
Ital.— Italic; Italian.
I.— Justice, or Judge.
J.A.— J udge- Advocate.
J.C. — Jurisconsultus, jurisconsult
J. CD.— Juris Civilis Doctor, Doctor of Civil

J.D.— Juris Doctor, Doctor of Law.

J.P.— Justice of the Peace.

J. Prob.— Judge of Probate.

Tud.— Judicial ; Judith.

I U D or J.V.D.— Juris utratsque Doctor,

Doctor of both laws (of the Canon and the

Civil Law).

" ' e-Advocate.

I udge- Adv.— Judge-Advocafc
K — Karat; Karats; King.
K.A.— Knight of St. Andrei

d by Google

ABBREVIATIONS

Kal.— Kalends, the Kalends.

K.B.— KinK's Bench; Knight of the Bath.

K.B.A.— Knight of St Bento d'Avis, in Por-
tugal.

K-BE.— Knight of the Black Eagle, in Russia.

K.C.— King's Counsel ; Knight of the Crescent,
in Turkey.

K.C.B.— Knight Commander of the Bath.

K.C.H. — Knight Commander of Hanover.

K.C.S.— Knight of Charles III of Spain.

K.E.— Knight of the Elephant, in Denmark.

in Sicily.
K.G.— Knight of the Garter.
K.G.C.— Knight of the Golden Circle; Knight

of the Grand Cross.
K.G.C.B.— Knight of the Grand Cross of the

Bath.
K.G.F.— Knight of the Golden Fleece, in Spain.
K.G.H.— Knight of the Guelphs of Hanover.
K.G.V.— Knight of Gustavus Vasa, in Sweden.
K.H.— Knight of Hanover.
Kilo., Kilog. — Kilogram.
Kilo., Kilom.— Kilometer.
K.L.— Knights of Labor.
K.L., or K.L.A.— Knight of Leopold of Aus-

K.L.H.— Knight of the Legion of Honor.
K.M.— Knight of Malta.
K.M.H.— Knight of Merit of Holstein.
K.M.T.— Knight of Maximilian Joseph, in Ba-

K.M.T.— Knight of Maria Theresa, in Austria.
K.N.S.— Knight of the North Star, in Sweden.
Knt. or Kt.— Knight
K.P.— Knight of St. Patrick; Knight of

Pythias.
K.R.C.— Knight of the Red Cross.
K.R.E.— Knight of the Red Eagle, in Prussia.
K.S.— Knight of the Sword, in Sweden.
K.S.A.— Knight of St. Anne, in Russia.
K.S.E.— Knight of St. Esprit; in France.
K.S.F. — Knight of St. Fernando, in Spain.
K.S.F.M.— Knight of St. Ferdinand and Mer-

K.S.H.— Knight of St. Hubert, i

K.S.T.— Knight of St. Januarius, in Naples.

K.S.L.— Knight of the Sun and Lion, in Persia.

K.S.M. & S.G.— Knight of St. Michael and St
George, in the Ionian Islands.

K.S.P.— Knight of St. Stanislaus of Poland.

K.S.S.— Knight of the Southern Star, in Bra-
zil; Knight of the Sword of Sweden.

K.S.V.— Knight of St. Vladimir, in Russia.

Kt— Knight.

K.T.— Knight of the Thistle; Knight Templar.

K.tl. (Gr:K.T.X).—Kat to. ?^KofAfVa(km ta lei-
pomena), or httra (loipo), and so forth;
and the rest ; same as "etc.*

K.T.S.— Knight of the Tower and Sword, in
Portugal.

K.W.— Knight of William, in the Netherlands.

K.W.E.— Knight of the White Eagle, in Po-
land.

L. — Lake ; Liber, book ; Libra, librar, pound,

L.AC. — Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Com-
pany.

Lapp. — Lappish.

Lat.— Latitude.

Lb., or lbs. — Libra or \\bra, pound or pounds
in weight.

L.C. — Loco citato, in the place died; Lord
Chamberlain; Lord Chancellor; Lower Can-
ada; Lower case.

Leg.— Legal; Legate.

Legis. — Legislature.

Lev. — Leviticus.

Lex. — Lexicon.

L.H.A.— Lord High Admiral.

L.H.C. — Lord High Chancellor.

L.H.D. — Lillerarum Humaniorum Doctor.
Doctor of the More Humane Letters.

L.H.T.— Lord High Treasurer.

Lib. — Liber, book.

Lieut-Col. — Lieutenant-Colonel.

Lieut -Gen. — Lieutenant -General.

Lieut-Gov. — Lieutenant-Governor.

Liq. — Liquid; Liquidation; Liquor.

Lit. — Literally ; Literature.

Lith. — Lithuanian.

LittB.— Bachelor of Letters.

Litt.D.— Doctor of Letters.

L.L.— Loco laudato, in the place praised (quot-
ed) ; Lord Lieutenant

L.Lat. — Low Latin; Law Latin.

LL.B. — Legum Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Laws.

LL.D. — Leguttt Doctor, Doctor of Laws.

LL.M. — Legum M agister. Master of Laws.

L.M.S. — London Missionary Society.

Loc. cit — Loco citato, in the place cited.

Long.— Longitude.

L.R.C.P.— Licentiate of the Royal College of
Physicians.

L.R.C.S. — Licentiate of the Royal College of
Surgeons.

L.S. — Locus sigilli, place of the seal.

L.S.A. — Licentiate of the Society of Apothe-
caries.

L.S.D. — Pounds, shillings, and pence.

LXX.— The Septuagint (Version of the Old
Testament).

M. — Married; Meridies, noon; Mile; Miile, a
thousand; Minute, minutes; Monsieur, mister.

M-A. — Master of Arts.

M. Am. Soc. C.E. — Member American Society
Civil Engineers.

Maj.-Gen.— Major-Gene ral

Math. — Mathematics ; Mathematician.

M.B. — Medicina Baccataureus, Bachelor of
Medicine; Musicir Bacealaureus, Bachelor of

M.B.F. et H. — Magna Britannia, Francia, et
Hibernia, Great Britain, France, and Ireland.

M.C.— Member of Congress ; Master of Cere-
monies; Master Commandant.

M.C.E. — Master of Civil Engineering.

Mch. — March.

M.D. — Medicina Doctor, Doctor of Medicine.

M dl le. — -Mademoiselle.

Mdse. — Merchandise.

M.E. — Methodist Episcopal ; Military or Me-
chanical Engineer.

Meek — Mechanic ; Mechanical.

M.E.G.H.P.— Most Excellent Grand High
Priest.

Mem. — Memento, remember; Memorandum.

M.E.S. — Methodist Episcopal, South.

Metal.— Metallurgy.

Meteor. — Meteorology.

Meth. — Methodist.

Mex.— Mexico, or Mexican.

M.F.A. — Minister of Foreign Affairs ; Master
of the Fox Hounds (Eng.).

M. Goth. — Mceso-Gothic.

, Google

ABBREVIATIONS

Mic— Micah.

M.l.C.E. — Member of the Institution of Civil
Engineers.

Mich. — Michael; Michaelmas.

Mil.— Military.

Min. — Mineralogy; Mining; Minute, minutes.

M.L.— Master of Laws.

M.L.A.— Mercantile Library Association ;
Member o f the Legislative Assembly ( S.
Africa).

Mile. — Mademoiselle.

MM. — Messieurs, Gentlemen; (Their) Majes-
ties.

M.M.E.— Master of Mining Engineering.

Mme. — Madame, Madam.

M.M.S. — Moravian Missionary Society.

M.M.S.S. — Massachusettensis Medians So-
eietatis Socius, Fellow of the Massachusetts
Medical Society.

M.N.A.S. — Member of the National Academy
of Sciences.

M. P.— Member of Parliament; Metropolitan
Police; Methodist Protestant.

M.P.P.— Member of Provincial Parliament.

M.P.S.— Member of the Philological Society;
Member of the Pharmaceutical Society.

M.R.A.S.— Member of the Royal Asiatic So-
ciety; Member of the Royal Academy of Sci-

M.R.CC— Member of the Royal College of

Chemistry.
M.R.C.P.— Member of the Royal College of

Physicians.
M.R.C.S.— Member of the Royal College of

Surgeons.
M.R.C.V.S.— Member of the Royal College of

Veterinary Surgeons.
M.R.G.S.— Member of the Royal Geographical

M.R.I. — Member of the Royal Institution.
M.R.I. A.— Member of the Royal Irish Academy.
M.R.S.L.— Member of the Royal Society of

Literature.
M.S.— Master of Science ; Memorial sacrum,

sacred to the memory.
M.S. A.— Master of Science in Agriculture.
Mus.B. — Musica Baccaiaureus, Bachelor of

Mus.D. — Musica Doctor, Doctor of Music.
M.W.G.C.P.— Most Worthy Grand Chief Pa-

M.W.G.M.— Most Worthy Grand Master;

Most Worshipful Grand Master.
Myth. — Mythology.

N.— Neuter; North; Note; Noun; Number.
N.A. — National Academician; North America;

North American.
N.A.S — National Academy of Sciences.
Nat. — Natural ; National.
Nath.— Nathanael, or Nathaniel.
Naut. — Nautical.
Naut. Aim. — Nautical Almanac.
N.B.— New Brunswick; North Britain (i.e.

Scotland) ; North British (i.e. Scottish) ;

Nota bene, mark well; take notice.
N.D.— -No date; Not dated; North Dakota.
Neh.— Nehemiah.

N. e. i. — Non est inventus, he is not found.
Nem. con., or nem. diss. — Nemine contradi-

cente, or nemine dissentiente, no one opposing

or dissenting ; unanimously.
N. t. — Non liquet, it does not appear.
N. lat.— North latitude.
N.M.— New measurement; New Mexico.

Nol. pros. — Nolle prosequi, unwilling to

Non-com. — Non-commissioned (officer),
cul.— - Non culpabilis, not guilty.

N.P.— Nisi Prius; Notary Public

N.P.D.— North Polar Distance.

N.S.— New Series; New Style (after 1752);

Novia Scotia.
N.S.J .C. — Noster Salvator Jesus Ckristus,

Our Savious Jesus Christ.
N.S.W.— New South Wales.
Num. — Numbers (Book o£).
N.V. — New Version.
N.Z.— New Zealand.
Ob.— Obiit, he or she died.
Obs. — Obsolete; Observatory; Observation.
Oct., or 8vo.— Octavo.
O.F.— Odd Fellow, or Odd Fellows.
O.G.— Outside Guardian.
O.H.M.S.— On His or Her Majesty's Service.
Olym. — Olympiad

O.M.— Old Measurement ; Order of Merit.
Opt.— Optics.

OS — Old Series: Old Style; Outside Sentinel.
O.U.A. — Order of United Americans.
Oxon.— Oxonia, Oxford; Oxonia, Oxoniensis,

of Oxford
Ol.— Onza, a

P.— Page; P;_

PaL— Palaeontology.

Pari.— Parliament.

Pathol.— Pathology.

Paym.-Gen. — Paymaster-General.

P.B.-~Pkilosopki* Baccaiaureus, Bachelor of

Philosophy; Primitive Baptist.
P.C — Patres Conscripti, Conscript Fathers,

Senators; Postal card; Privy Council; Privy

Councilor.
P.C.P.— Past Chief Patriarch.
P.C.S. — Principal Clerk of Sessions.
Pd — Paid.

P.D.— Philosophic Doctor, Doctor of Phi-
losophy.
P.E.— Protestant Episcopal
P.E.I.— Prince Edward Island
Per.-— Persia; Persian.
Per ann. — Per annum, by the year.
Per cent. — Per centum, by the hundred.
Peri.— Perigee.
Per proc. — Per procurationem, by procuration,

or by power of attorney.
Phar. — Pharmacy.
Ph.B.— Philosophic Baccaiaureus, Bachelor of

PIT
Ph.E

losophy.
Ph.G. — Graduate in Pharmacy.
Phil.— Philadelphia ; Philemon; Philip; Phiiip-

pians ; Philosophical ; Philosophy.
Philem.— Philemon.

Philomath.— Pkilo ma th et, a lover of learning
Phren.— Phrenology.
P.I. — Philli pine Islands.
Pinx, or pxt.— Pinxtt. he (she) painted it.
P.M.— Passed Midshipman ; Po.it meridiem,

afternoon, evening; Postmaster; Past Master.
P.M.G.— Postmaster-General.
P.O.— Post Office; Province of Ontario.
P. of H.— Patrons of Husbandry.

.Google

ABBREVIATIONS

P.-O.O.— Post-Office order.

PP.— Patres, Fathers.

P.P.— Parish priest; Per procurationem, by

procuration, or by power of attorney.
P.P.C.— Po*r Prendre conge, to take leave.
P.Q.— Previous Question; Province of Quebec.
Pr.— Per, by, or by the.
P.R.— Populus Romanus, the Roman people-;

Porto Rico.
P. R. A.— President of the Royal Academy.
P.R.C.— P:>sl Romanutn conditum, from the

building of Rome.

, for the time being,
ince; Provost
mth).

Presb. — Presbyterian.

Pro tem. — Pro tempo

Prov. — Proverbs; Pn

Prox — Proximo, nex

P.R.S.— President of the Royal Society.

Prus. — Prussia ; Prussian.

Ps. — Psalm, or Psalms.

P.S.~ Post scriptum, postscript; Privy Seal.

Psych.— Psychic; Psychical; Psychology.

Pt.— Part; Pint; Payment; Point; Port

P.T.O.— Please turn over.

P.W.P.— Past Worthy Patriarch.

Pwt.— Pennyweight; pennyweights.

Q.— Qvadrigans, farthing; Quasi, as it were,
almost; Queen; Query, or question.

O.B.— Oueen's Bench.

n'S College; Queen's Counsel.

Mt dtcat, as if he should say ; quasi

s if said; quasi dixisset, as if he had

monstrandum, which was
i, which was to be

Q.C.-Que

Q- d.— Q.

dictum,

8. e. — Quod est, which
. e. d. — Quod erat di

to be proved.
Q. e. f . — Quod erat fadendt

done.
Q. e. i. — Quod erat inveniendk

be found out.
Q. I. — Quantum libel, as much as you pie
Qm. — Quomodo, how; by what means.
6.M.G.— Quartermaster-General.
Q. p., or q. pi. — Quantum placet,

Q.S.— Quantum sufficit, as much as may suffice ;

Qu., or qy — Quajre, inquire ; query.

Quad.— (Juadrant ; Quadrate.

Q. v. — Quod vide, which see; Quantum vis, as
much as you will.

R.— Railroad; Railway; Recipe, take; Regina,
Queen; River.

R. A.— Royal Academician; Royal Academy;
Royal Arch; Royal Artillery.

RC-— Rescriptum, a counterpart.

R.C. — Roman Catholic.

R.C.S.— Royal College of Surgeons.

R.C.P.— Royal College of Physicians.

R.D.— Rural Dean.

R.E. — Reformed Episcopal; Royal Engineers.

Rec. — Recipe ; Record ; Recorder ; Recording.

Reed.—- Received.

Rect. — Rector; Receipt.

Ref. — Reformed; Reformation; Reference.

Reg.— Regiment; Register; Registrar; Regular.

Keg. Prof.— Regius Professor, Royal Professor.

Rev.— Reverend; Revelation (Book of); Re-
view; Revenue; Revise.

R.H.S — Royal Humane Society; Royal His-
torical Society.

R.I. P.— Requiescat in pace. Let him (her)

R.M.— Royal Marines; Royal Mail.

R.M.S. — Railway Mail Service; Royal Mail
Service; Royal Mail Steamer.

R.N.— Royal Navy.

R.NJL— Royal Naval Reserve.

Rom. — Roman ; Romans.

R.P.— Reformed Presbyterian; Regius Profes-
sor, Royal Professor.

R.S.A.— Royal Society of Antiquaries; Royal
Scottish Academy.

RS.V.P.— Ripondct, s"il vous plait, answer,
if you please.

Rt. Hon.— Right Honorable.

Rt. Rev.— Right Reverend.

R.T.S.— Religious Tract Society.

Rt. Wpful.— Right Worshipful.

R.U.E.— Right upper entrance.

R.V. — Revised Version.

R.W.D.G.M.— Right Worshipful Deputy
Grand Master.

R.W.G.R.— Right Worthy Grand Represcnta-

R.W.G.T.— Right Worthy Grand Treasurer;

Right Worshipful Grand Templar.
R.W.G.W.— Right Worthy Grand Warden.
R.W.S.G.W.— Right Worshipful Senior Grand

Warden.
Rx. — Rupees.
S. — Saint; Scribe; Second; Series; Solidus, a

South America ; South Australia.

S.A.S. — Societatis Antiquariorum Socius, Fel-
low of the Society of Antiquaries.

S.C. — Senatus Consultum, a decree of the Sen-
ate; Small capitals; South Carolina; Staff
Corps; Supreme Court.

Sc. — Scene; Scilicet, namely, to wit; Scruple;
Sculpsit, he (or she) engraved it.

Scan. Mag.— Scandalum magnatum, scandal of
the great.

Scapa (S.C.A.P.A.). — Society for Checking
Abuses in Public Advertising.

Sc. B.— ScientitB Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Sci-

Schol. — Scholium, a note.

Scr. — Scruple.

Scrip.— Scripture.

Sculp.— Sc ulpsit, he (or she) engraved it

S.D.U.K.— Society for the Diffusion of Use-
ful Knowledge.

Sec— Secretary; Second; Section.

Sec. Leg. — Secretary of Legation; Secundum
legem, according to law.

Sec. Reg.— Secundum regulam, according to

Scm.— Semble, it seems ; Seminary.

Seq. — Segnentia, following; Sequitur, it follows.

Serg.-Maj.— Sergeant- Major.

Scss.— Session.

S.-G. — Solicitor-General.

S.H.S. — Societatis Historiat Socius, Fellow of

the Historical Society.
S.I. M.— Society for Increase of the Ministry.
S.J.— Society of Jesus; a Jesuit.
S.M.— State Militia; Short Meter; Sergeant-

Major; Sons of Malta.
S.M. Loud. Soc. — Societatis Medkm Londo~

nensis Socius, Member of the London Medical

Soc. Isl. — Society Islands.

Sol.-Gcn. — Solicitor- General.
S.P. — Sine prole, without issue.

, Google

ABBRBVIATORS

S.P.A.S. — Socielatis Philosophies Americana
Socius, Member of the American Philosophi-
cal Society.

S.P.C.A.— Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals.

S.P.C.C— Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Children.

S.P.C.K.— Society for the Promotion of Chris-
tian Knowledge.

S.P.G.— Society for the Propagation of the

Sp. gr.— Specific gravity.

S.P.M. — Snort particular metre.

S.P.Q.R. — Senatus Populusque Romanus, the
Senate and people of Rome.

S.P.R.L.— Society for the Promotion of Re-
ligion and Learning.

Sa — Sequens, following; usually et seq., and
following (pages) ; Square.

S(]tj. — Sequentibus, the following (pages or
places).

S.R.I. — Sacrum Romannm Imperium, Holy
Roman Empire.

S.R.S. — Societatis Regis Socius, Fellow of the

S.S.— Steamship; Sunday-school.

S.S.E.— South- southeast.

S.S.W.— South-soulhwest.

St.— Saint; Street.

S.T.B.— Sacra Theohgia Baccalaureus, Bach-
elor of Sacred Theology.

S.T.D.— Sacra Theohgia Doctor, Doctor of
Sacred Theology.

Ster., or Stg. — Sterling.

S.T.P.— Sacra Theohgia Professor, Professor
of Sacred Theology.

Su.-Goth. — Suio-Gothic.

Sup. — Superfine ; Supplement ; Supra, above ;

Surg. — Surgeon ; Surgery.
Surg.-Gen. — Surgeon -General.

S.V. — Sub voce, under the word or title.

Syn. — Synonym; Synonymous.

Syr.— Syriac.

Tan.— Tangent.

T.E. — Topographical Engineers.

Tel.— Telegraph or Telephone.

Text. Rec.— Textus Reeeptt

Thess. — Thessalonians.

Tob.— Tobit.

Tom.— Tome, volume.

Topog. — Topography ; Topographical.

, Received Text.

lslator ; Translation ;
Translation ; -Transac-

Tr.— Transpose

Trans.— Translator
tions ; Transpose.
Tur.— Turkey.
Typ. — Typical; Typographer; Typographical.

UB.— United Brethren.

U.C. — Upper Canada; Urbe condita, year of
the founding of Rome.

U.J.D.— Utriusque Juris Doctor, Doctor of both
Laws (Canon and Civil).

U.K.— United Kincdom.

U.K.A.— Ulster King-at-Arms ; United King-
dom Alliance.

Ult— Ultimo, last; of the last month.

U.P.— United Presbyterian.

U.S.— United States.

U.S.A.— United States of America; United
States Army.

U.S.M.— United States Mail; United States

Marines.
U.S.M.A.— United States Military Academy.
U.S.M.C— United States Marine Corps.
U.S.M.H.S.— United States Marine Hospital

U.S.N.— United States Navy.

U.S.N.A.— United States Naval Academy.

U.S.S.— United States Senate; United States

Ship.
U.s.w. — Und so wetter, and so further; same

such

.._ ttetc.»

V. — Versus, against ; Versicuh,
verse; Vide, see.

Val.— Valorem; Value.'

Vat.— Vatican.

V.C. — Victoria Cross ; Vice-Chairman ; Vice-
Chancellor.

V.D.M.— Verhi Dei Minister, Minister of God's

V.G. — Vicar- General.

V.g. — Verbi gratia, as for example.

Vid.— Vide, see.

Vise. — Viscount.

Viz., or vl. — Videlicet, to wit; namely; that is

Vo. — Verso, left-hand page.

Vols. — Volunteers ; Volumes.

V.P.— Vice-President.

V.R.— Victoria Regina, Queen Victoria.

Vs. — Versus, against ; Versicuh, in such a

V.S. — Veterinary Surgeon.

VuL- Vulgate.

W.B.M.— Woman's Board of Missions.

W.C.A. — Woman's Christian Association.

W.C.T.U.— Women's Christian Temperance

W.F.— Wrong font.

W.P.M.S. — Woman's Foreign Missionary So-
ciety.

W.H.M.A. — Woman's Home Missionary As-
ciation.

W.M.— Worshipful Master.

W.M.S. — Wesleyan Missionary Society.

W.N.C.T.U.— Woman'f - - ■ •"-
Temperance Union.

W.S.— Writer to the Signet.

X., or Xt.— Christ. (X in this and the follow-
ing abbreviations is the Greek chi.)

Xmas., or Xtn. — Christmas.

Xn., or Xtian — Christian.

Xnty., or Xty.— Christianity.

Xper., or Xr. — Christopher.

Y.M.C.A.— Young Men's Christian Associa-

Y.M.C.U.— Young Men's Christian Union.
Y.P.S.C.E.— Young People's Society of Chris-
tian Endeavor.
Y.W.C.A.— Young Women's Christian Asso-

Zach. — Zachary.
Zech. — Zechariah.
Zeph.— Zepbaniah.

ABBRBVIATORS, a body of 72 writers

in the Papal Chancery who have charge of
sketching and put ling in shape papal bulls,
briefs, and con sis to rial decrees, and signing
them in the name of the Cardinal Vice-Chan-
cellor. This body receives its name from thr
fact of their taking short -hand notes of the
decisions to be later expanded. They have
existed at least since 1400.

National Christian

, Google

ABC CLUB — ABD EL AZIZ

ABC CLUB (a Msa') : a name adopted
by certain republican enthusiasts in Paris, pro-
fessing to relieve the depressed — abaissis.
Their insurrection of 5 June 1S32 was sup-
pressed with bloodshed. The event is de-
scribed in Victor Hugo's 'Les Miserabks'
(1862).

«A. B. C. POWERS," a convenient and
popular designation applied to Argentina, Bra-
zil, and Chile, the three strong nations of
South America united to a certain extent by
treaty in 1915, after having been, in 1914,
associated very conspicuously and honorably
as mediators actively concerned in efforts to
arrange a peaceful settlement of the quarrel
between the administration of the United States

the early months of 1906 there was frank talk
of the imminence of war between Chile and
Argentina, but at the same time, publicists in
Buenos Aires advocated a permanent agree-
ment which should remove onerous taxes at
the Brazilian and Chilean frontiers and justify
the reduction nf armaments — an idea essen-
tially right, yet requiring for popular acceptance
some authoritative foreign approbation to over-
come deep-seated, inveterate local prejudices or
aversions. Such was the first phase. The en-
tirely reasonable advocacy of a South American
triple entente therefore made little headway
until the administration at Washington had en-
tangled its policies in the complications of
hostile Mexican factions. The "A. B. C*
nations then saw their opportunity to stand out
together before the world, side- by-side, in a
most distinguished fashion. They proposed
mediation four days after the United States
had inaugurated hostilities at Vera Cruz. The
acceptance of their offer and the proceedings
of the Niagara Falls conference gave promi-
nence to the second phase (see Latin America
— Recent History). Then events moved
swiftly toward the consummation long desired
by leaders of thought in Buenos Aires and
advocated, as we have said, for 10 years, more
or less. On 25 May 1915 a treaty of peace,
valid for five years, was signed at Buenos Aires
by representatives of Argentina, Brazil, and
Chile — the first actual treaty between these
separatists and therefore jealously competing
nations — by the terms of which each was
pledged not to make war against either of the
others before investigation, etc., of the causes
of conflict by an impartial commission. This
marks the third, or present, phase.

ABC PROCESS: a name given to a
method of purifying sewage by sulphate of
alumina, blood, charcoal and clay.

ABD (Arab. «slave») ; Abd-AHah, "Slave
of God," generally romanized as "Abdullah.*
Abdul Hamid, 'Slave of the Praiseworthy,"
i. e., God; Abdul or Abd-el-Aziz, "Slave of the
Beloved.*

ABD ALLAH IBN AL MUTTALIB,
ban -ai-moot'a-leb, father of Mohammed: b.
554, according to Al Kalbi. As Mohammed
was born in 571 this would make his father
only 17 years old at the time. As stated defi-
nitely in the Koran, Mohammed was an orphan

shortly after his bird). Aside from these bare
facts little of any certainty is known of the
father of the Prophet.

ABD ALLAH IBN ZUBAIR, Wzoo'ber,
Moslem Caliph: b. 622: d. 692. He was the
son of Zubair, nephew of Mohammed, the
Prophet, and the grandson of Abu Bekr. After
the death of Husain he had himself proclaimed

attacked by the armies of Yazid and was
besieged in Mecca. Vazid's death, however, in
683. put an end to the siege, and Irak, Arabia
ana the greater part of Syria recognized Abd
Allah as caliph. But presently Abd al Malik
renewed the war and again laid siege to Mecca.
After a long resistance the city finally fell in
692, and Abd Allah was slain.

ABD AL LATIF, la-tef, Arabian writer
and physician: b. Bagdad, 1160; d. while on a
pilgrimage to Mecca, 1231. After his early
studies, which consisted, after the custom of the
time and the people, of memorizing the Koran
and other literary works, he went to Damascus,
which was then the centre of learning of the
Moslem world. While in Egypt Abd al Latif
became acquainted with Maimonides, the great
Jewish philosopher. At Cairo he became a
teacher of medicine, though he also devoted
much time to traveling. Abd al Latif is sup-
posed to have written many works, but of these
only his 'Account of Egypt' is preserved.
This work was translated into Latin by White
(1800), and into French by De Sacy (1810).
ABDALWADIDS, ab'dal-wa'dldz, a Ber-
ber dynasty of Tlemcen, sometimes referred to
as Banu Zayyan, after the father of the first
independent king, whose reign began in 1239.
Of the early origin of the family little is known,
but there are ample records to prove that the
Abdalwadids reigned wisely for more than
three centuries over the western part of Al-
giers, the dynasty terminating in 1554.

ABD EL AZIZ, abd-ool-a'zez' Sultan of
Morocco, son of Sultan Mulai Hassan ; b.
Marakesh, 1880. In 1894 he succeeded his
father as Sultan. So progressive was he in
his tendencies and so friendly toward Enro-

e:ans that he aroused thereby the fanaticism of
s people. Taking advantage of this, a
prophet, Bn Hamara, precipitated a formidable
rebellion in 1902, bringing about the interven-
tion of France. This was finally followed by
the Algeciras Conference, in 1906, by which
France and Spain undertook to maintain law
and order along the Moroccan Coast, Abd el
Ariz agreeing to co-operate with these two
European nations. But this promise he found
difficulty in keeping on account of his growing
unpopularity. The following year Mulai Hafid,
elder brother of the Sultan, headed a rebellion
of the southern tribes and AM el Aziz was
obliged to remove his capital from Fez to
Rabat. In spite of the support of France, both
moral and financial, he was unable to maintain
his authority, and in January 1908 the throne
was declared vacant by the priesthood of Fez
and immediately offered to Mulai Hafid
Realizing that his attempt to regain his author-
ity by force would prove futile, Abd el Aziz
compromised with his brother and retired to
private life in Tangier.

.Google

ABD EL KADBR IBN HOUHI AD DIN — ABD-ER-RAHMAN III

ABD EL KADBR IBN HOUHI AD
DIN, ab'd«-ka'de> W moohe ad-den, noted
Arab chief: b. near Mascara, 1807; d. Damas-
cus, Egypt, 26 May 1883. He was educated at
Ghetna in an institution maintained by the
Marabouts. When only eight years of age be
went with his father on a pilgrimage to Mecca.
In 1827, when 20 years of age, he visited
Egypt, where he came in first contact with
Europeans. His first entry into the affairs
of public life was when Algiers was conquered
by the French. On the defeat of the Turks,
Abd el Kader placed himself at the head of the
Arab tribes of the province of Oran and
declared himself an independent ruler. On
3 Dec. 1833 he fought a bloody battle with the
French, in which the French were decidedly
beaten. A month later he again attacked the
French under General Desmichels, command-
ing all the forces of France in Oran, and com-
pelled him to recognize his authority. The
result was that his power increased rapidly and
he was proclaimed sultan by all the surround-
ing tribes and peoples. The truce with the
French was only temporary, however, and in
1841 Abd el Kadcr was completely defeated and
driven into Morocco. Here he appealed to
the people in the name of Islam and declared a
religious war. France then turned her atten-
tion to Morocco, the operations finally terminat-
ing In the Battle I sly, in 1844, after which the
Sultan of Morocco repudiated Abd el Kader.
The latter attacked the Moors on the night of
11 Dec. 1847, but was heavily defeated and
obliged to flee to Algeria, where he was com-

Elted to surrender to the French. Abd el
ider was now taken a prisoner to France.
For five years he was held in France, though
allowed an annuity of 100,000 francs. Finally,
in 1852, Napoleon III liberated him, whereupon
he retired to Brussa, Asia Minor, later remov-
ing to Damascus. During the massacres in
Syria, in I860, he rendered the Christians such
services that Napoleon HI awarded him the
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor. In 1865
he visited Europe again and was present at the
Paris Exposition in 1867. During his later
years he engaged in literary labors,. writing a
religious work, which was later translated into
French (1858) under the title 'Rappcl a
l'intelligent : avis a 1'indifferent>

ABD EL MUMIN ABU MOHAMMED,
abd at moo'men a'boo mo- him 'meet, Moorish
ruler, founder of the Almohades dynasty: b.
Tajira, North Africa, 1094; d. 1163. He was
a member of the Kumiya, a Berber tribe. He
became a close friend of Ibn Tumart, founder
of the Almohadea sect, and when that leader
died he was chosen as his successor. Announc-
ing himself as a caliph, he met the Almoravides
in battle, put them to flight and then began a
campaign of conquest that did not cease until
he had subdued the cities of Oran, Tlemcen,
Fez, Sal£, Ceuta, and finally Morocco. Having
established himself firmly in Africa he crossed
over into Spain and conquered Cordova in
1148, Almeria in 1151, and Granada in 1154,
until the greater portion of Mohammedan Spain
was under his control.

ABD-ER-RAHMAN I, abd-er-ra'tnan,
founder of the Moorish emirate (later cali-
phate) of Cordova (q.v.): b. Damascus, 731;
d. 788. He was a grandson of the Omtniad

caliph Hishatn, and having Sed to Africa es-
caped the frightful massacre of his family
(see Ommiads and Abbassides) by Abu 'kAb-
bas; a hunted fugitive in the desert, but faith-
fully protected by the tribesmen, who respected
his blood and pitied his misfortunes. Mean-
while Spain was seething with anarchy; each
new caliph sent a new emir there; the gov
eraor of Africa claimed the right to interfere
on the ground that the African governors had
captured it ; the native chiefs were unwilling to
submit to a constant succession of interlopers
with no interest but their own, and at last the
situation became so intolerable that the Span-
ish Arabs determined to choose a ruler with
his residence in Spain. They selected the wan-
dering heir of the overthrown house, and seek-
ing him out in Africa offered him the place.
He landed in Spain 25 Sept 755, and fixed his
royal seat at Cordova. His reign was one of
incessant warfare. Hose in ben-Yahya, the
Abbasside emir, driven from Spain, fled to
Charlemagne and implored his assistance: it
was granted and Hosein was re-enthroned at
Saragossa, but while the Frankish army was
returning through the Pyrenees, the Basque
mountaineers fell upon the rear-guard and an-
nihilated it in the pass of Roncesvalles, with
its commander Roland. Saragossa was taken
after two years' siege, Hosein put to death as
a rebel, and Spain to the Pyrenees subdued.
A formidable rising in 7S6 was crushed, and
Abd-er-Rahman had two years of life to de-
vote to the arts of peace and the building of
his famous mosque at Cordova (now used as
a cathedral), with its rows of cupolas sup-
ported by 850 pillars of jasper.

ABD-ER-RAHMAN III, the greatest of
the caliphs of Cordova, and the first under
whom the emirate assumed the title of cali-
phate: b. 891, acceded 912; d. 961. Measured
by what he found and what he left, he must
be counted among the ablest rulers of history.
The former was a throne to which most of the
provincial governors had thrown off allegiance,
and the rest rendered such obedience as suited
them ; a country in a state of permanent anar-
chy and civil war, perishing of racial, religious,
and factional quarrels between Arabs ana
Moors ; the Fatimite dynasty establishing a
great empire in Africa, and looking for a
speedy succession to the heritage of Spain; on
the north, the new Christian states rapidly
growing, — Alfonso HI bad recently moved his
capital across the mountains to Leon, and San-
cho had founded the kingdom of Navarre, —
SO that what escaped the Africans would prob-
ably fall into the hands of the Christians.
Abd-er-Rahman first put down the worst in-
ternal revolt, that of the family of the old
brigand Omar ben Hafsun, whose stronghold
in the mountains of Andalusia had become a
centre for all the renegades. Christians, and
rebels of the south. He tied the hands of the
Fptimites by subsidizing the native princes who
held out against them. The northern danger
was the worst Ordono II in 914 raided the
territory of Merida; and though Mcrida had
thrown off allegiance to Cordova, Abd-er-Rah-
man wished the more to show them that he was
their protector. Collecting and equipping ;

■ the combined forces <

i and

.Google

ABD-ER-RAHMAN — ABDOMEN

Navarre, following it up with several cam-
paigns in which he penetrated to Pamplona,
the capita] of Navarre. These victories were
not final : his fortunes were checkered on the
Christian side, and he suffered some defeats.
But his suzerainty over Navarre was recog-
nized, and in 960 a deposed king was reseated
on the throne of Leon by Abd-er- Rah man's
troops. Internally his success and glory were
unqualified. At his death he left a consolidated
kingdom, a full treasury in place of an empty
one, internal order kept by a vigilant police,
flourishing agriculture based on scientific irri-
gation, prosperous industries, commerce whose
customs dues furnished the majority of the
revenue, an income of which one-third paid
the current expenses and another third was
used for building, and the rest kept for a re-
serve, the best army in Europe, a superb navy
which made him lord of the gates of the Medi-
terranean, and equality in diplomatic rank with
the proudest sovereigns of the world.

ABD-ER-RAHMAN, Saracen chieftain
who led an army of nearly 90,000 into Gaul,
and was defeated and slain near Poitiers
(usually known as the battle of Tours) by
Charles Martel (q.v.).

ABD-ER-RAHMAN. See also Aid-ot-
Rahican.

ABDICATION, in strictness, the renun-
ciation of any office by the holder before the
expiration of its term; in actual use, applied
only to sovereign rulers, de jure or de facto,
who resign the crown in their lifetimes. The
motives for this are as various as human fate,
character, policy, or necessity, or the events of
history. It may be compulsory — in which
case it is really not abdication but deposition
— or voluntary. Compulsion may come from
foreign conquest ; from foreign commands
when the king is a puppet, as with the later
Polish kings, or Napoleon's shifting his broth-
ers from throne to throne; from the commands
of de facto controllers of the state within, as
with the puppet Roman emperors under the
barbarian commanders-in-chief of the army;
or from popular or factional insurrections, if
voluntary, it may be from desire to let a con-
stitutional machine have a fair chance to work
alone, as with Sulla and Diocletian; from sa-
tiety with royal power and weariness of royal
burdens, as with Murad II of Turkey ; from
physical ailments and discouragement, as with
the Emperor Charles V; from penitence and
desire to live a religious life, as with more
than one mediaeval prince who furnished real
models for Shakespeare's usurper in 'As You
Like It' ; from weariness of the restraints of
royal etiquette, as with Christina of Sweden, —
perhaps also sincere conversion to Catholicism
and unwillingness to enforce a Protestant es-
tablishment ; from unwillingness to obey an
overlord to the harm of his kingdom, as with
Louis Bonaparte of Holland; from inability
to face the results of crushing defeat, as with
Charles Albert of Sardinia- from acceding to
a higher throne, as with Charles of Naples;
from shame at the results of a bad policy, as
with William I of the Netherlands; from un-
willingness to retain a throne against the pop-
ular will, as with Louis Philippe — for his res-
ignation was not enforced ; or other reasons.
In monarchies as a whole, the sovereign can

abdicate at will; in England, only by consent
of Parliament — which however, as in the case
of James II, can assume an implied abdication
which the monarch had no intention of execut-
ing, the term being a euphemism for deposi-

The following is a list of some of the chief
historical abdications, with their dates:

A.D. 3<>J

I JO*

'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. it Dtcitu
of tie Beat.. 13 JS

i.wv

i4u

'Sweden 1439

"444 JUKI 1445

») *J Oct. I5M

16M

U*4

1 "!!!"!! !? 1730
tr»

:::::::::::: ,,mKSi

i;iuiia iv 01 span 10 Mar. 180*

Joseph Bomnrte of Naples (tnnbmd to

Spain by Napoleon) 6 Jane 1I08

Gaita™ IV of Sweden loMar.igoo

Louie Bonaparte of Holland 1 July liio

Napoleon I of Franco 4 April 1S14 and as June iSij

Victor Bmanuel of Sardinia 13 Mar. itn

Charlee X of France 1 Aug. 1I30

Pedro of Drual 7 Aped 1I31

(Alao abdicated toe throne of Portugal in
favor of hii daughter, at once on hit eccee-
■ion in 1816.)

Miguel of Portugal at May It34

William I of Hnlknrl I Oct. 1**0

Louia Philippe of Prance 14 Feb. 1I4I

Look Charlie of Bavaria iv Mar. 1I4*

Ferdinand of Anatrk a Deo. i«4>

Chanel Albert of Sardinia it Mar. 1*49

Leopold II of Tuacany "" "'--—--

tiabelle II of Spain

Abd-ul-Au», Suttan of Turi^y

Pedro n of BraJnT^T '.'.'!! '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. is Nov. 18S0

Milan of Servia 6 Mar. I Mo

Emperor Heuan-Yusg of China II Fib. iora

ABDIEL, ib'dl-el ('servant of God»),
the one loyal seraph in heaven, according to
'Paradise Lost,' 'among the faithless, faithful
only he,* who withstands Satan when the lat-
ter is inciting revolt against God for promoting
his Son over the heads of the angel peers.
Milton took the name from the Jewish cabal-

ABDOMEN, ab do'men, in human anat-
omy, that portion of the body bounded above
by the diaphragm, below by the pelvis, behind
by the lumbar vertebrae, and in front by a thin
layer of muscles, the abdominal muscles. This
cavity contains the chief organs of digestion
and the gen i to -urinary system. By reason of
the movements of the diaphragm it is rhyth-
mically changing its size, and the move-
ments of the intestines somewhat modify
its internal contour. For purposes of de-
scription and for localization the abdomen is
divided by a tit-tat-toe figure into nine regions ;
the upper and lower horizontal lines passing at
the lower level of the ribs and the upper bor-
ders of the pelvis. From above downward

d by Google

ABDUCTION — ABDUCTOR

the middle squares are termed the epigastric,
the umbilical, and hypogastric ; to the sides of
the epigastric regions are the right and left
hypochondrium (under the ribs) ; the right
and left lumbar flank, the central umbilical re-
gion, and the right and left iliac regions lie
down in the pelvis on either side of the hypo-
gastric area. The general location of the ab-
dominal viscera in the various areas is of in-
terest. The liver lies up under the ribs in the
right hypochondrium, stretching over the upper
part of the epigastrium into the left hypo-
chondrium; the stomach lies mostly in the left
hypochondrium and reaches into the epigas-
trium just below the sternum; the large intes-
tine starts in the right iliac region, the appen-
dix being there also, goes up the right lumbar
into the lower portion of the right hypochon-
drium, crosses straight over, dipping slightly
into the umbilical region, from the left hypo-
chondrium it descends into the left iliac re-
gion and then turns back into the centre and
ends at the rectum. The small intestine occu-
pies most of the umbilical region, extending
out into the others. The pancreas lies just
behind the lower end of the stomach in the
epigastrium. The spleen lies higher up on the
left side behind, resting on the 10th and 11th
ribs; the kidneys are behind high up, in the
hypochondriac lumbar region, just coming
below the free borders of the ribs ; most
pains in the small of the back thought to
be kidney pains are pains from constipated
bowels; kidney pains are high up under
the ribs behind. The genital organs He in
the hypogastric and right and left iliac re-
gions, the bladder low in front in the centre,
the uterus slightly above in the centre, the
ovaries to the right and left in the right and
left iliac fossae.

In entomology, the whole body of an in-
sect behind the thorax. It usually consists of
rings or short hollow cylinders, which are
united by a joint or membrane, and in some
cases, as in the grub of the chameleon fly,
slide upon one another like the tubes of a tele-
scope. Sometimes it bears a sting or an ovi-
positor, though in the perfect insect no appen-
dages are found.

An abdominal ring is one of two oblong
tendinous openings or * rings* existing in
either groin, or in the right and left inguinal
regions. Through these rings pass the sper-
matic cord in the one sex and the circular
ligament of the uterus in the other. Consult
Taussig, F. J., 'Surgical Diseases of Abdo-
men' (1910) ; Gray, 'Human Anatomy1 (1916).

ABDUCTION, the act of abducing or ab-
ducting; a taking or drawing away, and spe-
cifically an unlawful taking. In the United
States the word abduction is ordinarily applied
to the illegal seizure and detention of a female
for the purpose of concubinage, prostitution
or marriage. The punishment for abduction
varies in the different States of the Union.
The tendency of American legislation is to
extend the scope of the term beyond its com-
mon law limits. In many States the statutes
in express terms look to the punishment and
suppression of the vices which are involved
in the sexual acts usually contemplated in the
unlawful taking or enticing of females. They
are variously directed against the taking of a

woman against her will for the purpose of
compelling her by force, menace, etc, to marry;
against the taking of a female under a desig-
nated age, without the consent of her lawful
custodian, for the purpose of marriage; against
the taking and detaining of any woman against
her will, with intent to have carnal knowledge
of her, or that another shall have such knowl-
edge ; against the inveigling or enticing of an
unmarried female of previous chaste character
into a house of ill fame, assignation or else-
where, for the purpose of prostitution or
sexual intercourse, or against the taking and
seduction of a girl under a designated age.

In common and English law this offense is
of three kinds: (1) If any person shall ma-
liciously, either by force or fraud, lead, or take
away, or detain, any child under the age of 10
years, with intent to deprive the parents or
other persons having the lawful charge of
such child, or with intent to steal any article on
its person; or shall receive or harbor such
child, knowing the same to have been so stolen
or enticed, — every such offender shall be guilty
of felony, and shall be liable to penal servitude
for not more than seven or less than three
years, or imprisoned, with or without hard
labor, for any term not more than two years.
(2) If the girl is under the age of 16 years,
the offender shall be guilty of misdemeanor,
and being convicted thereof shall be liable to
suffer such punishment, by fine or imprison-
ment, or both, as the court shall award. (3)
If any person shall, from motives of lucre,
take away or detain against her will, any
woman having any interest, present or future,
in any real or personal estate, with intent to
marry or defile her, or to cause her to be mar-
tied or defiled by any other person, every such
offender, and every person counseling, aiding,
or abetting such offender, shall be guilty of
felony, ana liable to penal servitude for life,.
or for any time not less than three years, or
to be imprisoned, with or without hard labor,
for any term not exceeding five years. If the
woman first consent to be taken away, and
afterward refuse to continue with the offender,
and he forcibly detain her ; or if she be forc-
ibly taken away and she afterward consent to
her marriage or defilement ; or if she be taken
away with her own consent, obtained by fraud
or imposition, the offense is the same. But if
a man, without fraud, deceit, or violence, mar-
ries a woman under age, without the consent
of her father or guardian, that act is not in-
dictable at common law.

In logic, abduction is a form of reasoning
in which the greater extreme is contained in
the medium; but the medium is not so evidently
in the lesser extreme. Example; "Whatever
God has revealed is certainly true; now God
has revealed a future retribution ; therefore a
future retribution is certainly true.' In the
use of this kind of reasoning the minor prop-
osition must be proved to be contained in the

ABDUCTOR, a muscle, the office of which
is to draw a limb or portion of a limb to which
it is attached away from the centre of that
limb. Abductor of the thigh, for example,
raises the thigh away from the centre of the

In law, a person guilty of abduction.

a by Google

ABD-UL-AKHAD-KHAN — ABDUL BAHA

ABD-UL-AKHAD-KHAN, abd-ool-ak-
ad/-kan, Amir of Bokhara: b. 1852; d. 4 Jan.
1911. Head of modem state of Bokhara (q.v.)
which was founded by the Usbegs in 15th cen-
tury after the power of the Golden Horde had
been crushed by Tamerlane. At the instance
of Russia he abolished slavery and was con-
sidered a capable and conscientious ruler. He
succeeded his father Muzaffer 12 Nov. 1885,
who was the fifth Amir of Bokhara, of the
dynasty of Manguts, which dates from end of
18th century. Muzaffer (1866) proclaimed a
holy war against Russia, was defeated and
forced to sign a treaty ceding what is now the
Russian district of Syr-Daria, besides paying a
large war indemnity and permitting Russian
trade. Later another treaty was signed (1873)
and the state became a Russian dependency.
Abd-ul-Akhad upon his death was succeeded
by his son, Sayid Amir Alim, b. 3 Jan. 1880,
the present ruler of Bokhara.

ABD-UL-AZIS-HAN, ab'dol-a-zeY-ban,
32d Sultan of the Ottoman Turks: b. 9 Feb.
1830; succeeded his brother Abd-ul-Medjid
(q.v.), 25 June 1861; d. 4 June 1876. At first
be showed himself liberal-minded and open to
Western ideas, promising economy and reform.
But ere long he began to spend vast sums on
his army, the embellishment of his- capital,
hunting and costly journeys. The most im-
portant of his political trips was in 1863 to
Egypt, where he was accompanied by Fuad-
Pasha. In 1867, at the time of negotiation
about Crete, notwithstanding the misunder-
standings existing between the Sublime Porte
and^ European powers, Abd-ul-Azis went to
Paris where he had a sumptuous reception at
the Universal Exposition, and, in July of the
same year, spent two weeks in London. His
government had great difficulties to contend
with in the Cretan insurrection of 1866, the
struggle with Rumania and Serbia for full
autonomy and finally the outbreak of Moham-
medan fanaticism. In 1871, after the death of
Aali-Pasha, the Sultan strove to have the suc-
cession settled upon his son, Yussuf-Izcdin, in-
stead of his nephew Murad, according to Turk-
ish custom. He next tried to set Russia against
the other powers and plunged ever into deeper
financial difficulties, while his stupid misgoy-
ernment alienated the provinces and led, in
1875, to risings in Bosnia- Herzegovina, Bul-
garia and the Pashalik of Belgrade. At last a
conspiracy forced, him to dismiss his ministers,
and next to abdicate the throne, 30 May 1876.
Four days later he was found dead. He was
succeeded by his nephew Mehtned Murad, who
was shortly deposed on the ground of alleged
insanity, in favor of Sultan Abd-ul-Hamid, and
finally murdered. Consult MilHngen (Osman
Saifi-Bey) 'La Turquie sous le regne d'Abd-
ul-Azis1 (Brussels 1868) ; «Sultal Abd-ul-
Aas.» in the Unsere Zeit (Vol. I, Leipzig,

ABDUL BAHA, eldest son of Mirza Ali,
b. 23 May 1844. He has been, since his father's
death in 1892, the spiritual head of the Bahai
movement. He was one of the exiles in Akka,
where he shared his father's trials and tribula-
tions and, in his later years, the burdens of the
spiritual and social direction of the Bahai col-
ony. From his exile he continued the work of
spreading a knowledge of the Bahai doctrine

which, under his able management, attracted
wider and deeper interest than it had under
either of his predecessors in office. Carefully
educated, widely read in almost every line of
thought and study, and trained under his father,
Abdul Baha brought to the performance of his
duties sympathy, conviction, enthusiasm, able
executive ability, a broad liberality and a
strange Oriental fascination of character,
which has made him a power in the religious
life of Persia for a quarter of a century. To
him in exile came literally streams of people
from all over Asia. He communed with them,
advised with them, taught them and sent them
forth converts, apostles and teachers of the
faith. Bom of one of the noblest families in
Persia, of the faithful of the faithful, be dis-
regarded race, and religious prejudice, caste
and color. To him came millions of letters in
a single year from all parts of the world; and
he answered them all personally. He keot a
staff of interpreters and secretaries. All kinds
of problems he handled, as they troubled his
visitors or followers, personal, religious, social,
political. His fame reached the western world
and he was invited to represent Bahaism at the
Universal Race Congress held in London in
July 1911. This he was not able to do but he
forwarded a paper on Spiritual Unity which
attracted much attention and, in general, fa-
vorable criticism. In this paper he took the po-
sition that only spiritual unity could solve the
many race problems now facing the world.
Before the end of the year he visited England
where he was given a warm welcome. There
he made addresses before many churches,
dubs, associations and societies among them
being the congregation of Archdeacon Wilbcr-
force, St. John s, Westminister. Even still
greater interest was shown in his work and

g;rsonality in the various other countries of
urope which he visited, more especially by
France. One of the most cosmopolitan Bath-
ings ever met together welcomed him to Paris.
He also visited Egypt in December 1911. He
reached New York in April 1912 where he
delivered many addresses, one of then ' '
the c ,,„,.-.

visited Chicago, Washingti

score of other cities from coast to <_

spoke to Jew and Gentile^ Catholic and N

„ t Mormon and Free Mason. After
nearly six months on this side of the Atlantic
he returned to England where he spent six
weeks and another two months in France.
Germany and Austria also entertained him on
into the following year, .when he returned
home to the land of his 'exile.*

Abdul Baha has ever been one of the strong-
est advocates of the disarmament of nations,
which he asserts is the first requisite of inter-
national peace. This is the natural outcome of
bis religious dogma of social unity in spiritual
thought "No man,* he asserts, "except the
madman, plots against an unarmed man; and
no institution, except the outlaw institution,
plots against those institutions devoted to the
service of humanity, as, for example, the Sal-
vation Army, and the Red Cross.* Among the
works of Abdul Baha are: 'The Mysterious
Forces of Civilization, ' and 'Tablets of Ab-
dul.1 See Mirza Husain Ali Num; and
Bahaism.

.Google

ABD-UL-HAMID I — ABD-UL-HAMID II

ABD-UL HAMID I, abd-ool-ha-mid', 27th
Sultan of Turkey, son of Ahmed III: b. 1725;
d. 19 April 1789. He succeeded his brother
Mustapha III in 1774. He was involved in
two wars with Russia, and the treaty of Kut-
ch iik -Kama rdji in 1774 compelled him to relin-
quish Kabardia, Eni-kale, Kerch, Azov and
Kinburn. He was also forced to grant free
navigation in the Black Sea, the protectorate
of Russia over the provinces of Wallachia and
Moldavia, guarantee the partition of Poland
and independence of the Crimean Tatars.
This Sultan succeeded in quelling the rebellions
instigated by several of his pashas and, recog-
nizing the superiority of the European military
system, invited French officers for the pur-

Russia and the latter's ally Austria which ended
in the disaster of the Ottoman fleet at Kim-
burn (30 Dec. 1788) and the loss of Ochakov.
In the last years of his reign Abd-ul Hamid
suffered from mental and physical disorders
and died 19 April 1789 just when he was pre-
paring for a formidable invasion to the north'
of bis empire. He was succeeded by his nephew
Selim III. Consult Azim- Tarischi, 'History
of Abd-ul-Hamid and Selim IIP (Constanti-
nople 1867).

ABD-UL-HAMID II, 34th Sultan of the
Ottoman Empire : b. 22 Sept. 1842, second son
of Abdul-Medjid, reigned from 1876 to 1909,
when he was deposed and made a state pris-
oner for life. His uncle. Abdul-Aziz, a prof-
ligate debauchee, was dethroned by Midhat
Pasha (q.v.) in 1876, and was found shortly
after with the veins of. his wrists cut open
with a pair of scissors. Whether it was a case
of suicide or murder has never been decided.
Abdul- Hamid's brother Murad V ascended the
throne, but was deposed again in a few months'
time owing, it was said, to a disordered men-
tal condition, and Abduf-Hamid reigned in his
stead. Up to that time he was known as a
debauched weakling, brought up in the luxuri-
ous atmosphere of the harem. No sooner,
however, had he grasped the reins of power,
than he proved himself a despotic ruler of the
strongest type, and developed into one of the
cleverest and most unscrupulous diplomatists of
his age. At the time of bis accession, the
country was in a deplorable condition. Torn
by revolution, corruption and bankruptcy
within her borders, Turkey was threatened
with war outside by her hereditary enemy,
Russia. Even the European powers who had
labored and fought to keep the 'Sick Man of
Europe* alive, were clamorously demanding
the introduction of long-promised and neces-
saryreforms. By a skilful policy of apparent
acquiescence in every demand made upon him,
the new ruler managed for a time to relieve
the external pressure and devoted his immense
energy to reorganizing the army and the
finances of the state. He speedily crushed the
insurrection in Herzegovina and Bosnia; by
galvanizing his tottering empire with new life
and vigor, he showed an astonished world that
the Turk was not so "sick" as his numerous
doctors imagined. A rejuvenated Turkey was
the last thing that Russia desired, and Alexan-
der II lost no time in declaring war. Abdul
Hamid accepted the challenge and conducted

the war with remarkable ability. But his en-
emy was too strong for him, and he committed
the fatal error of interfering too much with
his generals. 'The surrender of Osrnan Pasha
at Plevna (q.v.) to the Russians and Rumanians
opened a clear passage for the victors to Con-
stantinople. As before in the Crimean War,
Great Britain again came to the rescue. Dis-
raeli ordered the British Fleet to the Darda-
nelles and mobilized the fighting forces of the
whole British Empire. This unexpected move
checked the Russian advance; the Treaty of
San Stefano (q.v.) was nullified by the Berlin
Congress, and a totally undeserved new lease
of life was granted to the worst-ordered state
:„ — ,j. — history.

The Treaty of Berlin deprived Turkey of
her Balkan principalities: Herzegovina, Bos-
nia, Kars and Batum, but she was still per-

per-

mitted to retain her suzerainty <
Rumelia.

The gloom of the Hamidian era settled like
a pall over the land of the Osmanli. The con-
stitution and parliament inaugurated by Midhat
were abolished; the control of every depart-
ment of state was centralized in the hands of
the Sultan, and the liberal grand vizier, Mid-
hat Pasha, was exiled to Arabia and strangled.
He was too honest and too democratic to please
his imperial master. European jealousy had
hindered Russia from wiping out the plague
spot of Europe, and Abdul Hamid was clever
enough to utilize that jealousy by playing one
power off against the other. His one aim was
to maintain absolute autocracy at home and to
evade the demands of the "infidels" abroad
The methods he employed in the process were
truly Oriental : espionage, bribery, murder and
terrorism. Many powerful persons who disa-

freed with him were quietly removed and never
eard of again. High positions were conferred
Upon unscrupulous tools or sold to the highest
bidder. The governors of provinces were per-
mitted to squeeze and tyrannize over the unhappy
people they were supposed to govern ; whole-
sale massacres of Christian subjects were en-
couraged— or at least tolerated. Hordes of
savage Kurds exterminated Armenians by the
thousand; unspeakable atrocities sent many a
thrill of horror throughout the civilized world;
international representations and diplomatic
■Notes* were simply showered upon the hermit
Sultan, who smilingly accepted them all and
calmly pursued the uneven tenor of his way.
Nemesis, however, prepared a belated instru-
ment of vengeance to compass his downfall —
the Young Turk Party. Persecuted, imprisoned
and judicially murdered at home, the survivors
of the party carried on their propaganda as
the ■Committee of Union and Progress8 in
Paris, Geneva and London, whilst secret agents
canvassed among those without whose help
nothing could be done — the Turkish army
officers. The Albanians, the finest soldiers in
that army, went over in a body to the revolu-
tionary movement. The hour struck on 22
Tuly 1908, when Majors Niazi Bey and Enver
Bey raised the flag of military revolt at Resna,
in Macedonia, where they were stationed in .
command of the troops. They proclaimed the
Constitution and threatened to march on Con-
stantinople. Seeing that he could no longer
count on the loyalty of his soldiers, Abdul-
Hamid became thoroughly alarmed and capitu-

d by Google

ABDULLAHI — ABD-UR-RAHMAN-KHAN

lated at once. Making a virtue of necessity,
he immediately restored the Constitution he
had abrogated in 1878. Great rejoicing pre-
vailed especially when, on 1 August the Sultan
issued a Hatt-i-Humayun assuring to the people
those elementary principles of freedom and jus-
tice they had never before enjoyed. The revived
Turkish Parliament opened on IS Jan. 1909.
Kiamil Pasha, the aged grand vizier, referred
to the 'wise and prudent policy* of the Sultan
•in putting himself at the head of the revolu-
tion." The Government soon resigned, however,
owing to internal dissensions. Serious disturb-
ances broke in the provinces; in Ardana, Asia
Minor, thousands of Armenians and two Ameri-
can missionaries were massacred. The spirit
of Abdul- H amid inspired his followers to
restore the old order of things, and there is no
reason to doubt that he instigated the mutiny
that broke out (14 April 1909) among the
troops still loyal to him. They seized the Parlia-
ment House, telegraph offices and bridges of
the city. Two members of the Committee were
murdered and several others arrested. The
minister of justice was killed and the minister
of marine wounded. For the moment it seemed
that Abdul- Haroid would emerge victorious
from the crisis, but the Committee of Union
and Progress promptly sent troops to Constan-
tinople to crush the counter-revolution. On 24
April Gen. Mahmud Shefket Pasha entered
the city with a "constitutional* army. Consider-
able street fighting developed with the 'loyal-
ists," who were easily overcome by the Young
Turkey leaders. It was then decided to de-
pose the Sultan and replace him by his younger
brother Mohammed Reshad Effendi, who had
for many years been kept in isolation to pre-
vent the very event which was now to happen.
(See Mohammed V). The ringleaders of the
counter-revolution were couit-martialltd and
40 of them hanged in the principal public
squares of the city. Abdul-Hamid was ban-
ished to Salonica with his dogs, birds, car-
penter's tools, and a few members of his harem.
An expert cabinet-maker, he frequently pre-
sented writing desks of his own make to foreign
diplomatists. Many uncomplimentary epithets
were applied to him during his dark reign, such
as "The Great Assassin,* 'Abdul the Damned,"
and 'The Unspeakable Turk* Consult Pears
(Sir) R, 'Abdul Hamid> (in Makers of the
Nineteenth Century Series, New York 1917).

ABDULLAHI. See Khalifa, The.

ABD-UL-MBDJID, abd-ool-me-jid', 31st
Sultan of the Ottoman Turks, son of Mahmud
II: b. 23 April or 6 May 1823; acceded 1 July
1839; d. 25 June 1861. He received the usual
enfeebling harem education, his father failing in
his efforts to rescue his children from the. sys-
tem. On his accession Turkish affairs were
critical. The great viceroy of Egypt, Mehemet
Ali, had a second time revolted; 10 days pre-
viously the Turkish admiral had turned traitor
and put the entire fleet in his hands ; and three
days afterward Mehemet's son Ibrahim, the
greatest Moslem soldier of the century, had
routed the Turkish army at Nirib, and was
marching straight on Constantinople, where the
orthodox party, enraged at Mahmud' s reforms,
had conspired to place Mehemet Ali on the
throne. But the European powers interfered,
and the treaties of 27 Nov. 1840 and July 1841

confined Mehemet lo Egypt again. Abd-ul-
Medjid at once set about complying with his
father's express instructions and carrying out
his reforms : 3 Nov. 1839, he promulgated the
'Hatti-sherif of Gulhane,0 placing all his sub-
jects on full religious and civil equality, and
providing for security of life and property to alL
with 'just and equal taxation, administration of
laws, and conscription; February 1856, after the
Crimean War, it was supplemented by another to
die same purport. But the Mussulman aris-
tocracy ana the educated classes (Ulema) re-
garded it as an anti- Mussulman revolution to no
front but that of the infidels, and fought it so
uriously that it remained practically inopera-
tive, ana rather sharpened the edge of their ill-
treatment of the Christians; and repeated con-
spiracies were formed against his life, whose
members however the kindly Sultan would not
put to death. His right hand in reform work
was the able and humane Reshid Pasha, a
Mussulman educated in France : through him
the army was reorganized 1843-44; a board of
education instituted 1846; a university founded,
with military, medical, and agricultural colleges;
a baleful capitation tax abolished, slave-trading
repressed, and commerce advanced. Nothing
can better prove (he intrinsic and hopeless rot-
tenness of the Mussulman system under modern
conditions than the fact that these measures
were written in water and died almost with
their birth; their main fruit was bloody insur-
rections in various parts of the empire, of
which the great Syrian massacres of 1860 (see
Syma) were the worst. In 1849 Abd-ul-Medjid
honored himself by boldly refusing to surren-
der Kossuth and the other Hungarian refugees,
after the failure of the Hungarian revolution,
at the joint demand of Russia and Austria. For
the Crimean War, and its antecedents and re-
sults, see that head. In later life he sank into
extravagance and sensuality; but he was essen-
tially a good-hearted and honorable man, power-
lees against fate. He was succeeded not by one
of his seven sons, but by bis brother Abd-ul-
Aziz, the oldest living member of the house of

Ottawa.

ABD-UR-RAHMAN, abd-oor-rii'man, Sul-
tan of Fez and Morocco: b. 1778; succeeded
his uncle 1823; d. 1859. His first four years

safety against pirates levied by Morocco <
European ships in the Mediterranean : the Sul-
tan wisely adjusted the dispute by relinquishing
this blackmail. (See Morocco.) The religious
war under Abd-el-Kader against the French in
Algeria involved Morocco in its movements:
the defeat by the French in 1844 compelled the
Sultan to order Abd-el-Kader to quit the
country, which, however, he did not for three
years longer. The piratical habits of the
Moroccans brought him to the brink of war
with more than one European state. He was
succeeded by his eldest son, Sidi- Mohammed
(18S9-73).

ABD-UR-RAHMAN-KHAN, abd-oor-ra'-
man-Han, amir of Afghanistan, son of Afzul
(uf'-zool) Kahn, nephew of the amir She re Ali,
grandson of Dost Mohammed: b. Kabul. 1844;
d. 3 Oct. 1901. During the civil war of 1864 in
Afghanistan (rj.v.) between Dost Mohammed's
sons, he played a leading part on his father's '

a b, Google

A BBCKST — ABBL

side against his uncle, won several battles —
the important victories of Shaikhabad and
Khclat-i-Ghilzai were mainly due to his ability,
— and for a lime his father seemed secure of
the amirate ; Abd-ur- Rahman was made gover-
nor of Balkh, and won great popularity by his
moderation and by marrying the daughter of
the chief of Badakh-shan. In 1868, however.
Shore Ali gained the mastery, and the English
government helped to put down further resist-
ance for order's sake. Yakub-Khan drove out
his cousin Abd-ur- Rahman, who after hunted
wanderings reached Russian territory, and Gen-
eral Kaufman allowed him to live at Samarcand
with a pension of 25,000 rubles a year. Here
he remained till 1879, when Shere Ali's death,
and the weakness of Vakub, whom the English
had recognized as amir, gave him a chance to
return to Balkh, where he was welcomed The
murder of the British Resident at Kabul and
Yakub's deposition followed; Abd-ur- Rahman
came forward once more, and was acknowledged
amir by the principal chiefs and the English
government, which gave him a subsidy of £ 160,-
000 a year, and large gifts of artillery, rifles,
ammunition, etc. In 1893 the Indian govern-
ment turned over to him Kafiristan, in the
Hindu- Kush mountains, and he brought its
savage tribes under control in 1896. The Eng-
lish government showed him great honor, as
he deserved; and made him G.CB. and G.C.S.I.
He was succeeded by his eldest son, Habibullah-
Khan, who had been associated with him in
the government for some time.

A BECKET, Thomas. See Beckzt,
Thomas A.

A'BECKETT, Arthur William, English
novelist and dramatist, son of Gilbert Abbott
A'Beckett: b. London, 25 Oct. 1844; 4
1909. From 1865 to 1868 he was editor of
The Glowworm, after which he edited the
Britannia Magazine until 1870. When the
Franco- Prussian War broke out he was sent
to the theatre of war as special correspondent
by the London Standard and Glob*. In
1874 he became a member of the editorial staff
of Punch, a position which he retained con-
tinuously until 1902, when he resigned to be-
come editor of John Bull. Among his works
are: 'Modem Arabian Nights' (1885) ; 'London
at the End of a Century> (1900); 'The A'Bec-
ketts of Punch1 (1903); 'Recollections of a
Humorist* (1907).

A'BECKETT, Gilbert Abbott, English
humorist: b. London, 9 Jan. 1811; d. Bou-
logne, 30 Aug. 1856. He began life as a
lawyer and later became a police magistrate,
but he became famous as a playwright, writing
over 60 plays. In collaboration with Mark
Lemon he dramatized 'The Chimes' and sev-
eral other works by Dickens. He was the
founder of Figaro in London, which was later
transformed into Punch, of whose original staff
A'Beckett was a member. Among his most
important works are: 'Comic History of Eng-
land' (new ed. 1907) ; 'Comic History of
Rome* (1852); 'Comic Blackstone1 (1869).

ABEEL, David, American missionary : b.
New Brunswick, N. I, 12 June 1804; d. Albany,
N. Y., 4 Sept. 1846. He studied at Rutgers
College and at the Theological Seminary of
the Reformed Dutch Church and in 1827 was
ordained to the ministry. For two years he

was pastor of a church at Athens, N. Y., leaving
there in 1829 for Canton, China, as a missionary.
While in that country and in Java, Singapore,
and Siam he did much good work in spreading
Christianity. He returned to America in 1845,
broken down in health. His published works
include: 'The Claims of the World to the
Gospel,' 'Residence in China,' and 'The Mis-
sionary Convention at Jerusalem.* An account
of his life has been written by G. R. Williamson.

ABEKEN, a-beloin, Heinrich, German
divine and diplomat: b. Berlin, 8 Aug. 1809; d
1872. He was chaplain to the Prussian embassy
in Rome in 1834, and in 1841 visited England to
arrange for the establishment of a Protestant
bishopric at Jerusalem. He was attached to
the Prussian ministry for foreign affairs in
184e\ and in 1853 became privy councillor of
legation. Associated officially with Bismarck and
with King William II during the campaigns
of 1866 and 1870-71. 'Heinrich Abeken, ei»
schlichtes Leben in bewegter reit' (Berlin
1898) published by his widow, has much his-
toric value. See Ems Dispatch.

ABEL, second son of Adam and Eve. the
first born being Cain. Abel became a shepherd,
while Cain became an agriculturalist At the
end of the first season both offered up sacrifice
to the Deity, Abel bringing the firstlings of
his flock while Cain offered the first fruits of
his labor. Abel's offerings were accepted but
Cain's ignored, which so aroused the jealousy
of the latter that he killed his brother Abel.
It is not said in Genesis why Jehovah rejected
the sacrifice of Cain and accepted that of Abel;
but the Saviour, in the New Testament, speaks
of 'righteous Abel," from which it is concluded
that there dwelt in him a spirit of righteousness,
which was absent in his brother. The story is
generally regarded as reflecting the ancient
belief of the early nomadic tribes that the herd-
ing of animals is more pleasing to the- Deity
than the more settled life of the grower of
food plants.

ABEL, Carl, German philologist: b. Berlin,
1837; d. 26 Nov. 1906. After finishing his
studies at the universities of Berlin, Munich
and Tubingen, he specialized in European and
Oriental languages. He was, at various times,
teacher of philosophical and comparative lin-
guistics at the Humboldt Academy of Science,
at Berlin, lecturer at Oxford and linguistic
assistant in the German Foreign Office. Among
his many works, published in German, French
and English, are: 'Linguistic Essays' (1880);
'Slavic and Latin,' lectures on comparative
lexicography, delivered at Oxford (1883) ,
'Russland und die Lage> (1888) ;. 'Letters on
International Relations before and during the
War of 1870' (London 1871).

University of Michigan h. ,

work in physiology in the Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity 1883^84, studied chemistry and medi-
cine at Leipzig, Strassburg, Heidelberg, Vienna,
Berne, Wurzburg and Berlin 1884-91, taking
the degree of M.D. at Strassburg in 1888. Has
devoted himself to the Study of chemical com-
position of animal tissues and fluids and to the
toxic and therapeutical action of various sub-
stances and made numerous discoveries in these

a by Google

ABEL — ABBLARD

fields. He has held the chair of pharmacology
in the Medical School of the Johns Hopkins
University at Baltimore, since 1893.

ABEL, Sis Frederick Augustas, English
chemist: b. London, 17 July 1827; d there 6
Sept 1902. As a specialist in explosives he
was consulting chemist in the British War
Department, from 1854 until 1888, improving
considerably the processes of manufacture of
gun cotton and blasting gelatine. In collabora-
tion with James Dewar he invented cordite.
His most important works are: 'Gun Cotton'
(1866); 'On Explosive Agents' (1872); 'Re-
searches in Explosives' (1875V, 'Electricity
Applied to Explosive Purposes' (1884) ; 'Hand-
book of Chemistry' (with Colonel Blexant,
1854).

ABEL, Karl Friedtich, German musician
and composer: b. Go then, 1723; d, London,
20 June 1787. He was a pupil of Sebastian
Bach and for some years a member of the
famous Dresden band of the Elector of Saxony.
King of Poland. In 1758 he went to England
in a state of great destitution and some years
later was appointed chamber musician to Char-
lotte, the queen of George III. He and John
Christian Bach, the son of his old teacher,
directed the subscription concerts, known as
the Bach-Abel Concerts, from 1765 until 1782.
His works include many symphonies, string
quartets, trios and piano sonata*.

ABEL, Niela Heorik, Norwegian mathe-
matician: b. Findoe, 5 Aug. 1802; d Aiendal,
6 April 1829. Having finished his studies in the
University of Christiania, in 1825, he spent two
years in Paris and Berlin. In 1828 he was
appointed instructor at the University and at
the military school at Christiania. He demon-
strated for the first time the impossibility of
solving general equations of any degree .higher
than the fourth by the elementary processes of
algebra. He was one of the originators of the
theory of functions, an important class of trans-
cendental functions being known as *Abelian,*

ized by Abel, including the cases of irrational
and imaginary exponents. The results of his
labors, in two volumes, were published by the
Norwegian government (Christiania 1839).
ABELARD, ib-e-lar (Fr. AWlard, 5b-a-

de Palais, the other being ;

spelled ii

•bacon-licker. . .

changed to Habelardus, *bacon-hav __ . _ _ ..
retort : b. 1079 near Nantes, in the little village
of Pallet, the property of his father Berengar;
d. Chalon-sur-Saone, 21 April 1142. Pull of
intellectual enthusiasm, he gave up his patri-
mony to his younger brothers to devote himself
to a life of study. Those studies were very
wide, though the usual inclusion of Greek and
Hebrew is an error; but his chief passion was
philosophy, and its great implement, the scho-
lastic logic, in which he soon became the most
eminent master of his age. Having learned
all that Brittany could teach him, he went to
Paris, the university of which attracted stu-
dents from all parts of Europe. Guillaume
de Chamneaux, a follower of Anselm and an
extreme Realist, was the most skilful disputant

of his time, and Abelard, profiting by his in-
structions, was often victorious over his master
in contests of wit and logical acumen. The
friendship of Champeaux was soon succeeded by
enmity; and Abelard, who had not yet com-
pleted his 22d year, removed to Melun, whither
he was soon followed by a multitude of young
men, attracted from Paris by his great reputa-
tion. Hostility still pursued him, but he left
Melun for Corbeii, nearer the capital, where he
was still more admired and persecuted Soon
after he ceased teaching to recruit his strength,
and after two years returned to Paris and found
that his former teacher had removed to a
monastery outside the city.

He again joined issue with him and gained so.
complete a triumph that he opened in Paris a.
school of rhetoric, the fame of which soon de-
prived all the others of their pupils. Shortly
afterward he was appointed to his rival's chair-
in the cathedral school of Notre Dame, where he;
educated many distinguished scholars, among
whom were the future Pope Celestin II, Peter
of Lombardy, bishop of Paris, Berenger, bishop

remarkable for her beauty, genius, and varied
accomplishments. Abelard became inspired with
such violent love for Heloise as to forget his
duty, his lectures, and his fame. Heloise was
no less susceptible. Under the pretext of fin-
ishing her education he obtained Fulbert's per-
mission to visit her, and finally became a resident
in bis house. His conduct in abusing the confi-
dence which had been placed in him opened the
eyes of Fulbert. He separated the lovers, but
too late. Abelard fled with her to Brittany,
where she was delivered of a son, who died
early. Abelard now resolved to marry her se-
cretly. Fulbert gave his consent, the marriage
was performed and in order to keep it secret'
Heloise remained with her uncle, while Abelard
retained his former lodgings and continued his.
lectures. Abelard however, carried her off k
second time aad placed her in the convent of
Argenteuil. .

Fulbert erroneously believed it was Intended
to force her to take the veil, and under the in-
fluence of rage subjected Abelard to mutilation.
He became, in consequence, a monk in the abbey
of St. Denis, and Heloise took the veil at St. Ar-
genteuil. After time had somewhat moderated'
his grief he resumed teaching. At the Council
of Soissons (1121), no defense being permitted
him, his "Essay on the Trinity' was declared
heretical, and he was condemned to burn It with
his own hands. Continued persecutions obliged
him at last to leave the abbey of St Denis and
to retire to a place near No eent-sur- Seine,
where be built a rude hut in which he deter-
mined to live a hermit's life. Even here, how-
ever, students flocked to him, and they built him
an oratory, which he dedicated to the Holy
Ghost and hence called Paraclete. Being subse-
quently appointed abbot of St Gildas de Roys,
in Brittany, he invited Heloise and her religious:
sisterhood on the dissolution of their monastery
at Argenteuil, to reside at the above oratory, and'
received them there. He lived for some 10 <
years at St. Gildas. Ultimately, however, he
fled from it and lived for a time in other parts
of Brittany,

.Google

ABBLIN — ABEOKUTA

Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, the leading op-
ponent of the rationalistic school of Abelard,
laid his doctrines before the Council of Sens in
1140, had them condemned by the Pope, and ob-
tained an order for his imprisonment. Abelard
appealed to the Pope, publishing his defense, and
went to Rome. Passing through Cluny he vis-
ited Peter the Venerable, who was abbot there.
This humane and enlightened divine effected a
reconciliation between him and his enemies, but
Abelard resolved to end his days in retirement.
The severe penances which he imposed upon
himself, together with the grief which never left
bis heart, gradually consumed his strength, and
he died, a pattern of monastic discipline, in
1142, at the abbey of St. Marcel, near Chalons-
sur-Saone. Heloise begged his body and had
him buried in the Paraclete, of which she was
at that time the abbess, with the view of repos-
ing in death by bis side. Heloise died there
16 May 1164. In 1800 the ashes of both were
carried to the Museum of French Monuments
at Paris, and in November 1817 were deposited
under a chapel within the precincts of the church
of Monamy. The small chapel, in the form of
a beautiful marble monument, in which the
figures of the ill-fated pair are seen reposing
side by side, is now one of the most interesting
objects in the Parisian cemetery of Pere la
Chaise.

Abelard was distinguished as a grammarian,
orator, logician, poet, musician, philosopher,
theologian, and mathematician. As a philoso-

Eher he founded an eclectic system commonly
ut erroneously termed Conceptualism, which
lay midway between the prevalent Realism, rep-
resented in its most advanced form by William
of Charapeaux, and extreme Nominalism, rep-
resented in the teaching of his other master,
Roscellui, and largely approached the Aristote-
lian philosophy. In ethics Abelard placed much
emphasis on the subjective intention, which he
held to determine the moral value as well as
the moral character of man's action. Along this
line his work is notable, owing to the fact that
bis successors did little in connection with
morals, for they did not regard the rules of
human conduct as within the held of philosophic
discussion. His love and his misfortunes nave
secured his name from oblivion ; and the man
whom his own century admired as a profound
dialectician is now celebrated as the martyr of
love. Abelard's works were all written in
Latin. They were first printed at Paris in
1616, are to be found in Migne, 'Patrotogia
Latins' (Vol. CLXXVIII, Pans 1855). Other
editions of special works are <Ouvrages inedits
d'AMIarcV edited by Victor Cousin (lb., 1836) ;
'Opera' (2 vols., 1849-59) ; 'Sic et Non,'
edited bp.R L. T. Henke and G. L. Lindenkohl
(Marburg 1851); 'Planctus Virginum Israel
super filia Jeptee Galadita;,' edited by W. Meyer
and W. Brambach (Munich 1886) ; 'Tractatus
de Unkate et Trinitate,' discovered, edited,
and published by R. Stolrie under the title,
'Abelards 1121 zu Soissons verurtheilter Trae-
tatus, etc.' (Freiburg-im-Brelsgau 1891) ; 'Hym-
narius Paraclitensius,' edited by G. M. Dreves
(Paris 1891). The letters of Abelard and
Heloise have been often puhlished in the origi-
nal and translations. Pope's epistle 'Eloisa to
Abelard* is founded upon them. There is a
complete English translation by J. Berington,
with the Latin text, 'The History of the lives

of Abcillard and Heloise' (Birmingham 1788),
edited by H. Mills (London 1850). Consult also
Wight, O. W, 'Lives and Letters of Abelard
and H£loise> (New York 1861); Morton, H-,
'Love Letters of Abelard and Heloise' (ib.,
1901) ; Richardson, A. S., 'Abelard and Heloise'
(ib.. 1884). Consult also Compayre, G., "Abe-
lard and the Origin and Early History of Uni-
versities' (New York 1893) : Deutsch, S. M.,
'Abalards Verurtheilung zu Sens. 1141, nach
den Quellen kritisch dargestellt' (Berlin 1880) ;
id., 'Peter Abalard, ein kritischer Theologe des
zwolften Jahrhunderts1 .(Leipsic 1883); Haus-
rath, A., 'Peter Abalard' (ib., 1893) ; Hoyd, H.,
'Abalard und seine Lehre in Verhaltniss zur
Kirche und ibrem Dogma' (Ratisbon 1863) ;
McCabe, J., 'Peter Abelard' (New York 1901) ;
Poole, R. L., 'Illustrations of the History of
Mediaeval Thought' (London 1884); Rash-
da.11, 'Universities in the Middle Ages' (Ox-
ford 1895)- Remusat, C. de, 'L vie re Pierre
Abilard1 (Paris 1855), the standard bipgraphy
of Abelard; id, 'Abelard,1 a drama (Paris
1877) ; Sauerland, H. V., 'Abalard und Heloise'
(Frankfort 1879); Thaner, F„ 'Abalard und
das canonische Recht' (Gratz 1900); Tiby, P.,
'Deux convens au moyen age, ou l'abbaye de
Saint Gildas et le Paraclet au temps d' Abelard
et d'Heloise' (Paris 1851) ; Vacandard, E.,
'AWlard, sa lutte avec Saint Bernard, sa doc-
trine, sa mfthode' (Paris 1881); Wilkens, C.
A., 'Peter Abelard' (Bremen 1851).

ABELIN, Johann Philipp, a'be-len, Ger-
man historian: d. about 1637 at Strasburg; was
also known as Johann Lunwrc Gottfried or
Gotofreotjs under which name he wrote 'Thea-
trum Europaeum,' a history of the world down
to 1619, illustrated with Merian's beautiful cop-
perplate engravings (21 vols., Frankfort 1633-
1738) ; Wisteria Antipodum' (Frankfort
1635); -and other works.

ABEM ESSA, alien ez'ra, or Ibn Esra,
properly Abraham ben Meir ion Esra, Jewish
scholar: b. Toledo, Spain, between 1093 and
1097; d. 23 Jan. 1167. While still a young man
he traveled extensively and visited Italy, France,
England and Egypt, but spent his later life in
Rome. He was a profound scholar of the
Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic languages, as well
as of mathematics, medicine, astronomy and

the Old Testament,' but he also
extensively on astrology, some of his
es on that subject being published in
Latin. His 'Isaiah* has been translated into
English (London 1873), while his 'Canticles'
appear in 'Miscellany of Hebrew Literature*
(Vol. II, London 1877).

ABENSBERG, a'bens-berk, Germany, town
in Bavaria, situated on the Abends, a branch
of the Danube, 18 miles southwest of Ratisbon.
with a population of 2,300. Its warm mineral
springs have made it a health resort to a limited
extent. On 20 April 1809 it was the scene of
a battle between the French under Napoleon
and the Austrians, whereby the former gained
such advantages as lead up to their final victory
at Eckmubi.

ABEOKUTA, a'be-6-koo'ta, city in Egba-
land a division of Yoruba, on the Slave Coast,
north of Lagos, with which it is connected by
rail. The population is estimated at constder-

iny G00gIC

ABERAVON — ABERD ARE

ably over a quarter of a million. It was founded
some time in the third decade of last century
by a combination of various local tribes as a
mutual protection against the slavers, who
raided this region extensively. The inhabitants
are an industrious people, expert in various
crafts, especially in building and textiles. A
considerable trade is done between them and
European traders, who exchange their goods
for the products of the region, of which cotton
is the most important

ABERAVON, aVer-S'von, Wales, seaport
town of Glamorganshire, near the mouth of the
Avon on Swansea Bay, 11 miles by rail south-
east of Swansea, It is the seat of the important
metal industry of the vale of Avon with iron,
steel, tin-plate, copper melting and engineering
works. Pop. 11,000.

ABERCARN, ab'er-kanv England, a town
of Monmouthshire, on the Great Western Ry.
10 miles northwest of Newport, with important
coal and iron mines and allied manufactures.
Pop. 17,000.

ABERCROMBIE, John, ab'er-krum'hi,
Scottish physician: b. Aberdeen, 10 Oct 1780;
d. 14 Nov. 1844. After graduating from the
medical school in Edinburgh University, in
1803, he began a private practice in the city and
soon was regarded as one of the leading con-
sulting physicians of the country. Mis lame,
however, rested mostly on his writings, and
especially on bis 'The Intellectual Powers, and
the Moral Feelings1 (London 1833). Though
possessed of no scientific value, his works were
immensely popular on account of their readable
qualities, their highly religious lone being
especially acceptable to the people of his time.
The estimation in which he was held by the
nation may be judged by the many honors that
were bestowed on him, among them being the
degree of M.D. from Oxford, the rectorship of
Marischal College, the vice- presidency of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh and the office of
physician in ordinary to the King for Scotland.

ABERCROMBIE, John William, Ameri-
can educator and congressman : b. Kelly's
Creek, Ala., 17 May 1866. In 1886 he was
graduated from Oxford College and, two years
later, from the law school of the University of
Alabama. He was appointed president of Ash-
land College after graduating from college and
on completing his legal studies he became
principal of Cleburne Institute^ both Alabama
institutions. For two years, from 1890 until
1892; he was president of Bowdon College,
Georgia, after which he was for six years
superintendent of schools in Anniston, Ala.
For a white, during 1897, he was president of
the Southern Female Seminary, now the Annis-
ton College for Young Ladies, after which he
was, for four years, superintendent of educa-
tion for his native State. In 1902 he became
president of the University of Alabama. From
1896 to 1898 he was a member of the State
Senate, where he was chairman of .the com-
mittee on education. From 1900 to 1904 he was
a director of the National Education Associa-
tion and from 190S to 1906 he was president
of the Southern Educational Association, in
1912 he was elected to Congress.

ABERCROHBY, David, Scottish philoso-
pher: d. about 1702. His chief work is entitled

'A Discourse of Wit' (1686). He also wrote
many treatises and his work is said to antedate
the so-called Scottish School of Philosophy.

ABERCROMBY, or ABERCROMBIE,
James, British soldier : b. Glasshaugh, Scot-
land, 1706; d. 1781. He is especially known as
the commander of the 15,000 British troops who
attacked Ticonderoga, 8 July 1758, being re-
pulsed with a loss of 2,000 men. He obtained
his commission in the British Army as major
in 1742 and in 1756 was sent to America, being
then a major-general. In September 1758, fof-
lowing his disastrous defeat at Ticonderoga,
he was superceded in command by Sir JefTerv
Amherst, whereupon he returned to England,
became a member of Parliament and a firm
supporter of the King's colonial policy. A full
account of his career in America is given in
Parkman's 'Montcalm and Wolfe* (Boston
1884).

ABERCROHBY, Sir Ralph, distinguished
British soldier: b. Menstry, Scotland, October
1734; d. 28 March 1801. He was designed for
the bar by his father and studied from 1752 to
1755 at the University of Edinburgh and the
University of Leipsic His natural inclination,
however, was toward a military career, so in
1758 a cornet's commission was procured for
him in the 3rd Dragoon Guards, with which
regiment he went to Germany and saw some
active service, as well as gained his first ex-
perience. After peace was concluded he Was
stationed in Ireland for some years, but in
1767 he married and retired to private life. In
1793 he accompanied the Duke of York to Hol-
land, in which unfortunate campaign he was
one of the few to distinguish themselves. On
his return to England he was appointed chief-
in- command of an expedition to the West
Indies, which he conducted with marked suc-
cess, capturing Demerara, Grenada, Essequibo
and Trinidad. Soon after he was made com-
mander-in-chief of the British forces in Ireland;
but so obviously was he not In sympathy with
the Government's policy of repression in that
country that he was transferred to Scotland.
In 179) he was appointed second in command
to the Duke of York in the expedition to Hol-
land, another ignominious campaign, where
Abercromby was the only one to conduct him-
self with distinction On his return he was
appointed to command the expedition to the
Mediterranean. The fleet anchored in Aboukir
Bay, 2 March 1801. On the 7th Abercromby
reconnoitered the shore in person. The next
day a landing was effected in spite of a heavy
fire and within a few days the enemy was
driven within his lines around Alexandria. On
21 March Menou attempted to surprise the
British camp ; a terrible battle followed, in
which the British forces were completely vic-
torious, but Abercromby had been mortally
wounded by a musket ball which caused his
death some days later. The gratitude of the
nation for his services took the form of a
peerage, granted to his widow and afterwards
enjoyed by his son, with the title of Baron
Abercromby.

ABERDARE, ab'er-dar', Wales, a town of
Glamorganshire, at the junction of the rivers
Cynon and Dar, and on the Great Western
Railway, four miles southwest of Merthyr
Tydril. It is an important coal-mining centre,

,GoogIe

ABERDEEN

breweries. Pop.

educated at Harrow and St John's College,
Cambridge. Shortly after returning from a
Continental and Grecian tour, full 01 classical
enthusiasm, he established the Athenian So-
ciety; whence Byron's sneer

" First in the oat-fed phslani itudl be seed
The traveled thane, Athenian Abotdeon."

He severely criticized Gell in the Edinburgh
Review and wrote an introduction to WiUrinY
translation of VitruviuSj published separately
in 1622 as 'An Inquiry into the Principles of
Beauty in Athenian Architecture.' In 1806
he entered Parliament as a Scottish representa-
tive peer, and was twice re-elected. In 1813
he was sent to Austria to bring it into
the coalition against Napoleon, and in
1814 was a signatory of the Treaty of
Prague ; he won credit in diplomacy, and the
same year was made Viscount Gordon in the
British peerage. During 1815-28 he devoted
himself to his estates. In 1828 he became chan-
cellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and a few
months later foreign secretary in Wellington's
Cabinet! and had the satisfaction of seeing
Greek independence recognized. He warmly
supported repeal of the Test and Corporation
Acts, and Catholic Emancipation. Peel had him
in both his Cabinets, 1834-35 as colonial secre-
tary, 1841-46 as foreign secretary. In 1846,
during the struggle which rent the Established
Church of Scotland in twain, he brought in a
compromise bill which was denounced by both
halves! and after the Disruption in 1843 again
attempted conciliatory measures without result
On Peel's death in 1850 he became the leader
of the free-trade Conservatives. The Derby
administration being unable to stand. Lord
Aberdeen in 1853 formed a coalition ministry.
In it were such men as Russell, Palmerston and
Gladstone. For a time it was very popular;
unluckily the Crimean War supervened.
Aberdeen's tardiness of action and reluctance
to enter on hostilities, the result of a constitu-
tional aversion to war, irritated the country,
which was in one of its periodical anti-Russian
frenzies, and bent on fighting. Moreover, the
early portion of the war was shockingly mis-
managed, as those of commercial countries al-
ways are; and on the appointment of a commit-
tee of inquiry, the ministry, which had uni-
formly resisted the motion, resigned, and
Palmerston's succeeded it. This closed Aber-
deen's public life. His dislike to 'spirited1
foreign policies and interference with other
countries, and his sympathy with the Holy
Alliance, gave him the name of an enemy to
liberty; but the above detail shows its injustice.
Consult Gordon 'Earl of Aberdeen' (London
1893).

ABERDEEN, John Campbell Hamilton
Gordon, 1st Marquis of: b. 3 Aug. 1847. He
succeeded his brother as 7th Earl of Aberdeen
in 1870; was lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1886,
1905-15 ; and governor-general of Canada,
1893-98. He was created a Marquis in 1915.
Isabel Maria, Marchioness of Aberdeen, wife

of above, I.
Coutts Majoribanks 1st Baron Tweedmouth
and a prominent banker. She was b. Inverness-
shire, Scotland, 1857. At an early^ age she
became interested in social and political work,
has been especially prominent in organizations
which have as their object the raising of the
status of women, and has held the office of
president of the International Council of
Women. Her literary works are: 'Through
Canada with a Kodak* ; 'Our Lady of the
Sunshine1 (1910); 'Ireland's Crusade against
Tuberculosis' (1908).

and the Illinois Cent., the St. L. & San _

the Mobile & O. railroads ; 130 miles southeast
of Memphis, Tenn. Its chief trade and manu-
facture are cotton and cotton products, lumber
coining next There are also oil and grist mills
and manufactures of clothing, buttons, barrel-
staves, wagon spokes, etc. The waterworks
and electric light plant are owned by the city.
Pop. (1910) 3,708; (1917) 4,500.

ABERDEEN, S. D., city and county-seat
of Brown County, on the Chicago & N. W.,
Chicago, Milwaukee ft St. Patd, the Minn.
ft St. L., and Great Northern raih-oads ;
280 mites west of Minneapolis, 125 miles north-
east of Pierre. It is the farming and lumber
trade centre of a large section ; manufactures
boots and shoes, flour and feed, soap, plows,
machinery, chemicals, soft and pressed brick,
clothing, candy, and artesian well supplies, etc,
and has 10 grain elevators, granite and marble
works and creameries. Its factories are sup-
plied with abundant water power furnished by
artesian wells. It has Federal and municipal
buildings, a court house, an opera house, live
inside parks, national hanks, several daily,
weekly and monthly periodicals, a system of
graded public schools and a State normal and
industrial school, a Carnegie library. The value
of taxable property is (13,669,100. Aberdeen
was settled in 1880, inc. 1882 and was one of
the first cities to adopt commission government.
Pop. (1910) 10,753; (1917) 14.760.

ABERDEEN, Wash., city In Chehalis
County, at the head of Grays Harbor, on the
Chehalis River, 50 miles west of Olympia, and
on the Northern Pacific, the Chicago, Milwau-
kee and St. Paul, and other railroads. It is a
lumber and dairy centre. The city has
logging, lumber and shingle mills, cooperages,
shipyards and fish-curing houses. There is
steamship communication with the Pacific ports.
The waterworks are the property of the city.
Pop. (1910), 13,660; (1917) 18,300.

ABERDEEN, Scotland, the chief city and
seaport in N. Scotland, fourth largest in all
Scotland; lies in Aberdeenshire, of which it is
the county town, between the mouths of the
Dee and Don rivers, 130^4 miles northeast of
Edinburgh by the N. British Railway, also on
the Caledonian N. Scotland Railway. William
the Lion gave it a charter in 1179; and its priv-
ileges were subsequently extended by Robert
Bruce. The English bumed it in 1336, but it was
soon rebuilt; within the same parliamentary
boundary is a small town a mile north near the
Don mouth, formerly called Old Aberdeen, the
seat of St. Marchar's Cathedral (1357-1527),

y Google

ABERDEEN — ABERNETH Y

now represented by the granite nave, which, as
restored since 1869, is used as a parish church-
King's College and University, founded by
Bishop Elphinstone in Old Aberdeen in 149.4,
and Marischal College and University founded
by the Earl Marischal in New Aberdeen in
1593, were in 1858 united into one institution,
The University of Aberdeen (q.v.). With
Glasgow University it sends one member to
Parliament. Marischal College was rebuilt io
1841 and additions were made in 1895 and 1906.
Kings College is a stately fabric, its chapel,
dating from 1500^ is adorned with exquisite

is a beneficiary of the Carnegie Trust Fund.
In the 17th century Aberdeen had become an
important place, but it suffered much from both
parties in the civil wars. It has a flourishing
trade and thriving manufactures; and having
been largely rebuilt of granite and extended
since the formation of Union street in 1800, the
■Granite City' now offers a handsome and
regular aspect. Among the chief public
edifices are the Municipal and County buildings,
the post-office, Market Hall, Trade* Hall, t-

music hall, public library, College of Agricul-
ture and Gordon's College. The last has been
much extended as a technical school, the
foundationers bang no longer resident; while
the infirmary was reconstructed and modern-
ised to celebrate the Queen's Jubilee (1887).
. Of more than 60 places of worship those of
most interest are built on the site of the ancient

_■ where a fine carillon of 37 bells was

E laced in 1887, and a Roman Catholic Cathedral
uilt in 1859, with a spire 200 feet high. One
may also notice the Market-cross (1686), the
Wallace, Gordon Pasha, and three other statues,
the Duthie public park of 47 acres, Victoria
Park, Union Terrace, and the four bridges
spanning the River Dee, one of which is said
to date from 1320. It has a fine harbor and
docks, good steamship and railway facilities
and does a large import and export tradf

under separate government, when they were
united into the University of Aberdeen by an
act of Parliament. The students number from
1,200 to 1,300 and include both sexes. The
faculties, five in number, covering arts, law,
science, theology and medicine, number fulry
30 professors and as many instructors. Endow-
ments are bath state ana private, beside which
the institution is also a beneficiary of the Car-
tie Trust Fund Its library has over 140,000

vofun

ABERDEEN ACT (Brit), introduced by
the Earl of Aberdeen, and passed in 1845, to
enforce the observance of a convention made
with Brazil in 1826 to put down the slave trade.
The act was repealed in April 1869.

ABERDEENSHIRE, Scotland, the north-
easternmost county, on the North Sea, drained
by the rivers Don, Ythan and Dee. Aberdeen,
the capital, Peterhead and Fraserburgh are the
chief towns. Area, 1,971 square miles; pop,
312J00.

ABERIGH - MACK AY, a-be'ri-mfic'ki.
George Robert, Anglo- Indian teacher and
author: b. 25 July 1848; d. 1881. In 1877 he be-
came principal of Rajkumar College, Indore,
and widely known by his attractive satire on
Anglo-Indian society, 'Twenty-one- Days in
India' (London 1878-79).

ABERNETHY, John, Irish dissenting
clergyman and pioneer of toleration : b. Coler-
atne, 19 Oct 1680; d. 1740. The son of a Non-
conformist minister, he graduated successively
from Glasgow and Edinburgh universities, was
licensed to preach before coming of age, urged
to take an important charge in Antrim at 21,
and two years later was ordained there. The
work he did there for many years was of the
most remarkable kind, in drafts on body, brain,
soul and will; and he was eminent in all. In
1717 he was invited at once to Dublin and
Belfast; the Synod assigned him to Dublin; ■
he refused to leave Antrim and was considered
a Church mutineer; a furious quarrel followed,
developing into the fight in the Irish Presby-
terian Church between ■subscribers* and €non-

and does a large import and export trade, subscribers* (Abernethy's party), the latter
being the leading port for the White Sea and ^jng formally barred out m 1726. The real
Baltic trades. The chief exports are woolens, question at issue was of old orthodoxy versus

f exports

... . . yams, paper, combs, granite

(hewn and polished), cattle, gram, preserved
provisions and fish. Aberdeen is one of the
most important fish-trawling centres and has
the largest granite polishing works in the
kingdom, the art of granite polishing having
been revived here m 1818 by Alexander
McDonald. There are also several large paper
works nearby. Shipbuilding was formerly a
prosperous industry, the Aberdeen clipper-bow
ships being celebrated as fast sailers, but now is
greatly contracted. The city sends two mem-
bers to Parliament and is under the jurisdiction
of a council with lord provost, bailies, treasurer
and dean of guild. Pop. (1901) 153,503;
(1911) 163,084.

ABERDEEN, University of, Scotland,
situated in the city of Aberdeen, and consisting
of King's and Marischal Colleges. The former
was at one time known as St. Mary and was
founded in 1494 by William Elphinstone, Bishop
of Aberdeen. Marischal College was founded

in 1593 by George Keith, E:

Scotland. Until 1858 the two

of old orthodoxy versus
ms which he disclaimed
holding, but which have of course long since
left his position far behind. In 1730 he was
nevertheless called to Dublin. The next year
came up the question of the Test Act, really
involving the whole subject of religious tests in
civil life; and Abernethy took a firm stand
against 'all laws that, upon account of mere
differences of religious opinion and forms of
worship, excluded men of integrity' and ability
from serving their country,* asserting near a
century ahead of his time that a Roman Catholic
could be such. His "Tracts* were later col-
lected, and did good service in the Catholic
Emancipation fight of the next century.
Abemethy was the bravest of the brave, not
only in advocating unpopular truths to his own
harm, but in resisting the highest dignitaries in
the cause of right Consult 'Diary,' 6 vols.;
Duchal's (Life', 'History of Irish Presbyterian

ABERNETHY, John, English surgeon,
grandson of the preceding : b. London, 3 April
1764; d. 20 April 1831. Educated at Wolver-

, Google

ABERRATION — ABHBDANANDA

at 15 ._ _ , _

surgeon, assistant surgeon at St. Bartholomew'
Hospital ; he also attended the lectures of Poti

the chief surgeon there, of John Hunter, and
the anatomical lectures at London Hospital of
Sir William Blizzard, who early employed him
as demonstrator. Pott resigning, Blicke took
his place, and made Abemethy assistant sur-
geon in 1787. His lectures, illustrated by apt
anecdotes, drew such crowds that a special
building was erected, now the celebrated St.
Bartholomew's School. In 1813 he was ap-
pointed surgeon to Christ's Hospital, in 1814
firofessor of anatomy and surgery to the Col-
ege of Surgeons, and in 1815 full surgeon to
St. Bartholomew's, a post which he resigned in
1829. Of his numerous medical works the most
important is 'Surgical Observations on the
Constitutional Origin and Treatment of Local
Diseases' (1806), which, from his frequent
references to it, became known as 'My Book.'
He was one of the first to prove that topical
symptoms should be treated by general reme-
dies, especially for the stomach and bowels;
and he was a persuasive and influential teacher,
though over- dogmatic He was the first to in-
troduce the capital surgical improvement of
tying the great arteries in operations for aneu-
rism, etc. Consult 'Works' (5 vols., 1820);
'Memoirs' by Macilwain (1853), not highly
esteemed.

ABERRATION. In physics, (1) that
property of a lens or curved mirror in virtue
of which it does not form a sharp, flat image
devoid of false color fringes. Spherical aberra-
tion is the geometrical distortion of the image
due to the tact that the surface of the lens or
mirror is spherical instead of having the
theoretically best form. It is easy to grind a
spherical surface, and more difficult to grind
those of other forms ; hence in the practical
- manufacture of a high-grade lens the curva-
tures are carefully calculated, so that spherical
surfaces may be used, while the spherical aber-
ration is still kept within limits that are con-
sistent with the use of the lens. (See Lens.)
Chromatic aberration is the defect in virtue of
which the focal length of the lens is not the
same for all colors. A lens possessing chro-
matic aberration gives an image that is blurred
with rainbow-like fringes ; one that is devoid of
chromatic aberration is said to be achromatic
(see Light). Mirrors, whether _.
convex, have no chromatic aberration.

(2) The slight displacement of the apparent
position of a star or other celestial object, due
to the fact that _ although the velocity of light
is very great it is not infinite. In recent years
much attention has been paid to aberration
phenomena, because the observed amount of the
displacement of a star indicates that the ether
of space is stationary and that the earth passes
through it like a fish through stagnant water;
while direct experiments indicate, on the con-
trary, that the ether is dragged along with the
earth to a considerable extent. See Etheh;
Relativity, Theory of.

AB'ERT, Herman Joseph, German au-
thority on music: b. Stuttgart, 25 March 1871.
His first musical education was from his father,
who was director of the court opera, but later
he studied in the Stuttgart conservatory. From
1890 to 1895 he was a student in the University

1902 he was appointed lecturer of music at the
Uniyersity_ of Halle, where he was appointed

of Tubingen, where he specialized in classical
philology, thereby earning his degree of Ph.D.
In 1897 he entered the University of Berlin and
for four years there devoted himself to re-
search work into the history of i
ts appoit

.„ of Hal

professor in 1909. His works are: 'Dle'Lehre
von Ethos in der griechischen Musik' (1899) ;
a biography of Schumann in Rcimann's series
'Beruhmte Musikcr' (1903); 'Die Musikan-
schauung des Mittelalters und ihre Grundlagen'
(1905); 'Jommelli als Opernkomponist' (1906).

ABRRT, John James, American military
engineer: b. Shepherd stown, Va., 17 Sept. 1788;
d. 1863. He was graduated at West Point in
1811, was admitted to the bar; served in the
War of 1812, becoming topographical engineer
with the rank of major; was made chief and
colonel of topographical engineers in 1838, and
assisted in developing important canals and
other works. His engineering reports are
considered standard, and he was a founder of
the National Institute of Science, since merged
in the Smithsonian. He was retired in 1861
and was an important factor in the develop-
ment of governmental engineerings in the
earlier half of the 19th century.

ABERYSTWITH, ab'er-ist'wlth, Wales,
a popular seaside resort of Cardiganshire, on
Cardigan Bay 50 miles by rail northeast of
The ' ■ -

ngs i

College of Wales on Castle bill near the pic-
turesque ruins of the 11th century Norman .
castle are prominent features. Pop. 8,500.

ABEYANCE, meaning expectancy ; prob-
ably derived from the French bayer, to gape
after. When real or personal properties are in
expectation, or the intendment of the law, they
are said to be in abeyance, or not actually pos-
sessed. The word is often used in the Church
of England, a living being known as *in abey-
ance* when it is left vacant owing to the un-
willingness of the patron to declare himself in
favor of any particular applicant for the office.

AB'GAR, Kings of Edessa, northern Meso-
potamia, chiefly remembered from the 3d

Abgar V, who, suffering from leprosy, wrote a
letter to Jesus asking him to come to Mesopo-
tamia to heal him. Eusebius states that Jesus
wrote a letter in reply that he was unable to
make the journey, but that after his ascension
he would send a disciple. Eusebius says that he
both saw and transcribed his account from the
original letters at Edessa and that Judas, son
of Thaddeus, one of the 70 disciples was
sent, a.D. 29. Moses of Chorene further states
that Jesus sent his portrait to Abgar. Portraits
now exhibited both at Rome and Genoa are
claimed to be this original portrait, known as
"The Holy Face of Edessa.*

ABHBDANANDA, Swami, ab'-ha-da'nan-
da, Hindu author and lecturer : b. Calcutta,
India, 21 Nov. 1866. He was graduated from
the University of Calcutta and afterward be-
came a disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahansa
and a member of the Order of Sanyasins, a
very ancient priesthood. He came to this
country in 1897 to lecture on the Vedanta
philosophy, organizing and becoming head of

, Google

ABHORRERS — ABILENB

the Vedanta Society in New York city. He
has lectured extensively before educational in-
stitutions and societies throughout the United
States and is considered the best authority on
Monistic Vedanta. His chief works are :
'Reincarnation' (1899); 'Spiritual Unfold-
ment' (1902); 'Philosphy of Work> (1902);
'How to be a Yogi' (1902) ; 'Divine Heritage
of Man' (1903); 'Self -Knowledge' (1905);
'India and Her People' (1906) ; 'Human Af-
fection and Divine Love' (1911) ; 'Great
Saviours of the World' (1911).

ABHORHSRS, a term applied in English
history by the Petitioners, their opponents, to
those tones who expressed abhorrence of the
petitions to Charles II in 1679 to reassemble
Parliament, and upheld him in his autocratic
efforts to control public opinion.

ABI'ATHAR, high priest of the Jews, son
of Ah i me lech who was killed by Saul's com-
mand because he had assisted David. Abiathar
also became one of David's most loyal ad-
herents and supported him during the rebellion
of Absalom. Solomon cast him out of the
priesthood when he supported Adonijah and
banished him to Anaihoth.

the month in which the Passover is celebrated.
This month is now called Nisan, a name which
was adopted during the Babylonian period of
the history of the Jewish people ana as such
it is now known in the official calendar of the
Jewish Church.

ABICH, Wilhelm Herman, German miner-
alogist and naturalist: b. Berlin, 11 Dec. 1806;

was elected a member of .the Academy of Sci-
ences in Saint Petersburg, for whom he wrote
exhaustive reports of the explorations which
he had made in the Caucasus, Russian Ar-
menia and northern Persia. He also published
several books descriptive of the minerals found
in the different countries in which he had trav-
eled, the most important of which are: 'Erlau-
ternde Abbildungen von geologiscben Erschei-
nungen, beobachtet am Vesuv und Aetna 1833
und 1834' (1837) ; 'Ueber die Natur und den
Zusam men hang der vulkanischen Bildungen*
(1841) ; 'Ueber die geologische Natur des ar-
menischen Hochlander' (1843) ; 'Ueber die
Natronseen auf der Araxesebeni' (1846-49) ;
'Vergleichende geologische Grundziige der
kaukas-armenischen und nordpersischen Ge-
birge' (1858); 'Sur la Structure et la Geol-
ogic du Daghestan' (1862).

AB'IGAIL, or AB'IGAL, wife of King
David, but previously the wife of Nabal. She
offered food to David while he was fleeing from
Saul, after her husband had refused to do so.
When Nabal died, some 10 days later, David
took her to wife. During a foray of the
Amelikites on Ziklag, Abigail was carried off,
but David recovered her. She bore him a son,
Chileab, or Daniel. Another Abigail was
daughter of Nahash, sister of Zemiah, Joabs
mother, wife of Ithro, the Ishtnaelite, mother
of Amasa. The name is also employed as a
general name for waiting maids.

ABIJAH, or ABIAH, also ABIJAM, the
name of nine different persons mentioned in
the Old Testament. (1) The second King of
Judah, son and successor of Rehoboam. He
was presumably a great-grandson of David on
his mother's side, for she is described as a
daughter of Absalom, though there is some
confusion regarding both mother and son in
the text In the books of Kings and Chroni-
cles she is variously given as Maacab, daugh-
ter of Abishalom, and Micaiah, daughter of
Uriel of Gibeah. It may be noted that Maacah'
was also the name of Asa's mother. All we
can gather is that Abijah reigned three years,
that he walked in all the sins of his fathers,
and was at war with the King of Israel, Jero-
boam. (2) The second son of Samuel bone
the name of Abijah or Abiah, likewise (3) n
young son of Jeroboam I, while another Abi-
jah was one of the "heads of fathers1, houses'
of the sons of Eleazar, eponymist of the 8th
course of priests, to which Zacharias, the father
of John the Baptist, belonged. In the lists of
priests the name Abijah. occurs in Nehemiah x
and xii; in 1 Chron. it applies also to the wife
of Hezron, eldest son of Perez; a son of
Becfaer, son of Benjamin; and the mother of
Heiekiab, also called Abi.

ABILDGAARD, a'bil-gord, Nikolai Abra-
ham, Danish painter : b. Copenhagen, 4
Sept. 1744; d Frederiksdal, 4 June 1809. He
studied for some time at the academy in Copen-
hagen, but in 1772 went to Rome to study un->
der the masters. After his return he was ap-
pointed to a professorship at the academy in
1786, and in 1789 was elected a director. The
greater number of his paintings were of an
historical nature and he had much to do with,
the founding of the Danish, school of historical
painting. A series of 10 pictures in the castle
of Christ iansborg, which burned in 1794, and
scenes from Shakespeare and Ossian were his
most important works.

ABILENB, ab'e-len, Kan., city, county-
seat of Dickinson County 163 miles west of
Kansas City, on the Smoky Hill River and
Union Pacific, Chicago, R. I. & P. and Atchi- .
son, T, & S. F. railroads. For many years it has

loan business, and the sales-ground and ship-
ping point for large droves of cattle that are
annually brought from Texas. It has also
large manufacturing interests, including several
flour-mills and creameries, as well as manu-
facturers of iron bridges, carriages, etc Min-
eral water from sand springs four miles dis-
tant is bottled for export. These springs also
supply the water works which are owned by
the aty. There are four banks, with a com-
bined capital of $175,000; one high school and
three ward schools, many fine private resi-
dences, a city hall, court house, Government
building and Carnegie library. The value of
taxable property is $4,718^628. Abilene was
settled in 1856, incorporated in 1869, the orig-
inal charter remaining in force until 1911 when
the commission form of government was
adopted Pop. (1910) 4,118; (1917) 5,000.

ABILENB, Tex., city and county-seat of
Taylor county 160 miles southwest of Fort
Worth, on the Texas & P., Wichita Valley
and Abilene & S. railroads. It is the centre

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ABIHBLBCH — ABJURATION

gins, oil, compress and flouring mills and oil
refineries. It has three national banks, with
deposits amounting to about $3,000,000; four
ward schools and one high school, and is the
seat of Christian College (Baptist), Simmons
College and the State Epileptic Colony. There
are. seven churches and among other buildings
worthy of note are the post-office, Carnegie
library and Federal court house. The value of
taxable property is $6,000,000. The city is
supplied with natural gas from Moran, Tex.,
and has electric light and water plants and a
good street railway system. A high tension
electric line runs to Merlcel, Tex., on the west.
The government is the commission form, vested
in a mayor and four commissioners. Receipts
and expenses balance at approximately $80,000.
Pop. (1910) 9,204; (1917) 14.000.

ABIHELECH. a-hlm'8-lek. «Melech is
father" or *father is king.» (1) King of
Gerar, who, according; to Gen. xx, took Abra-
ham's wife, Sarah, into his harem, but re-
stored her, afterward entering into a covenant
with Abraham. There are two variations of
the same story. (2) The son of Gideon. Af-
ter his father's death he caused his 70 half-
brothers to be slain and was proclaimed king.
Three years later he crushed a revolt beaded
by Gaal, son of Ebed Abimelech was mor-
tally wounded by a woman during his attack
on Thebei. Judges viii, ix; 2 Samuel xi.

ABINGDON, III., city, Knox County 85
miles northeast of Quincy, on the Chicago, B.
& Q. and the Minn. & St. L. railroads. Set-
tled 1828, incorporated 1857, now acting un-
der charter of 1859. Among its many indus-
trial interests, which include wagon-works,
sawmills and manufactories of gloves, shirts
and overalls, cement, paving brick, tile and
organs, it has the largest animal-trap factory
in the world. It is in an agricultural region and
possesses some coal mines. Besides its excel-
lent school system, it is the seat of Hedding
College (M. £.) and Abingdon (Christian)
College, the latter having been founded in
1855. A mayor and council of five are annually
elected. Pop. (1917) 3,000.

ABINGDON, Va., town and county-seat
of Washington County, on the Holston River
and the Norfolk & W. and the Virginia-Caro-
lina railroads, 315 miles southwest of Rich-
mond and 189 miles west by south of Lynch-
burg. Settled 1730, incorporated 1788, it has
long been noted for its large tobacco and live-
stock interests, as well as for its valuable de-
posits of iron, gypsum and salt, much of the
salt used in the Southern States during the
Civil War having been obtained in this vicinity.
Its manufactures include wagon -works and

Elan ing-mi Its, besides cigar, tobacco, pipe,
rick and canning factories. It is also the seat
of Martha Washington College for girls
(Methodist Episcopal, South), the Stonewall
Jackson Female Institute (Presbyterian), the
Academy of the Visitation and Abingdon
Academy for boys. Pop. (1917) 1,760.

ABINGTON, Mass., a post township ir

1680, incorporated 1712, Its southern portion
is now known as Whitman; its northern por-
tion as North Abington, and both are important
manufacturing centres, the chief industries be-
ing the making of boots and shoes, shoe find-
ings, lasts, textile machinery, window shades
and dry plates. Strawberry growing is also
practised and there are good nurseries. Abing-
ton has three banks with a combined capital of
$3,924,866; commodious and well-kept ele-
mentary and high schools, for which an annual
appropriation of $37,200 is made, a good fire
department, municipal owned water works and
a fine park with an arch to Civil War veterans.
The value of taxable property is $3,763,645.
The government is by town meeting. In
1915 the treasurer's reports totaled $240,035.
The Abolitionist movement was Started and
encouraged by meetings in Island Grove in
this town. Pop. (1910) 5,455; (1915) 5,646.
Consult Hobart, B., 'History of the Town of
Abington1 (Boston 1866).

ABIOGENESIS. See Biogenesis.

ABIPONE, a'be-po'na, an Indian tribe,
formerly inhabiting the Gran Chaco region of
Paraguay, the headwaters of the Rio Grande
in Bolivia and the Vermejo in Argentina.
They were daring riders and fierce and for-
midable antagonists of the Spaniards, their
weapons being the bow and the lance. In 1780
the tribe numbered about 5,000, but owing to a
peculiar custom prevalent' among them, whereby
all but two children of a family were killed off,
as well as to the constant wars with the
Spaniards, this whole people has become ex-
tinct. Consult Dobriihoffer, 'An Account of
the Abipones' (London 1822) ; Church,
Aborigines of South America' (London 1912).

ABITIBI, ab'i-tib'i, Canadian river and
lake, the latter being situated in latitude 48*
24' N. at an elevation of 830 feet. Out of the
lake flows the river of the same name, north-
ward to James Bay, in Hudson Bay.

ABJURATION, the act of forswearing,
abjuring or renouncing upon oath; a denial
Upon oath; a renunciation upon oath. Chiefly
a law term and used in the following senses :

1: In the United States when an alien wishes
to become a citizen he must declare, among
other things, that he doth absolutely and en-
tirely renounce and abjure all allegiance and

eign, etc., whereof he was before a citizen or
subject.

2. An abjuration of the realm. During the
Middle Ages the right of sanctuary was con-
ceded to criminals. A person fleeing to a
church or churchyard might permanently es-
cape trial if, after confessing himself guilty
before the coroner, he took an oath abjuring
the kingdom: promising to embark, at an as-
signed port, for a foreign land, and never to
return unless by the king's permission. By
this, however, he forfeited his goods and chat-
tels.

3. Special. An abjuration or renunciation
of all imagined allegiance to the Jacobite line
of rulers, after the English nation had given
its verdict in favor of William and Mary.

The oath of abjuration was fixed by 13
Wm. Ill c. 16. By the 21 & 22 Vict. c. 48. one
form of oath was substituted for the oaths of

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ABKH ASIA — ABNAKI

allegiance, supremacy and abjuration. For
this form another was substituted by the Act
30 & 31 Vict c 75, S 5- This has in turn been
superseded by the Promissory Oaths Act, 31
& 32 Viet c. 72.

4. An abjuration, renunciation or retraction
of real or imagined heresy or false doctrine.
Thus the now abolished 25 Chas. II c. 2 en-
acted that certain tenets of the Church of
Rome were to be solemnly renounced.

ABKHASIA, ab-ka'sS-a, or ABASIA, a
district of European Russia, in the government
of Kutais, Trans-Caucasia. It extends down
the southern slopes of the Caucasus Mountains
> the Black Sea. The country is extremely

mountainous and heavily timbered, mostly with
oak and walnut. The inhabitants, numbering
136,500 in 1917, are mostly Mingrelians and

Abkhasians and are engaged mainly in agri-
culture and stock-rearing, as well as in the
cutting of lumber. The district, which is about
2,500 square miles in area, has been successively
under toe dominion of the ancient Persians,
the Georgians and the Turks, the latter estab-
lishing the religion of Islam among the people.

d('Ar tUm. Tma*!* ■■£ Ayl«HrtA«vlA ._ 1 HI *1«

ABLATIVE CASE, one of a number of
■cases* comprising a system of modifications
which nouns, pronouns and adjectives undergo
in many languages, the number of cases being
very different in different languages. The
further back we go in the history of the
Indo-European languages, the richer we
find them in these modifications. Sanscrit
has eight cases, Latin six and Greek
five. The Latin cases, often used in regard to
the English language, are : the Nominative,
which names the subject; the Genitive, express-
ing the source whence something proceeds ;
the Dative, that to which something is given;
the Accusative, the object toward which an
action is directed; the Vocative, the person
addressed, or called; and the Ablative, that
from which something is taken, denoted in
English by means of the prepositions in, with,
by, from, etc.

AB'LEQATE, papal envoy, or special
commissioner, representing the papal court at
Rome in1 conveying the hat and the red biretta
to a newly appointed cardinal. Upon deliver-
ing the insignia of office his mission is com-
pleted. There are two ranks of ablegates : the
apostolic and the pontifical, the former out-
ranking the latter.

ABLUTION, or (he ceremonial act. of
washing to symbolize purification from un-
cleanness, is a rite which has been observed by
many races of people from the early Mosaic
days down to our own time. Under the Mo-
saical dispensation the act of ablution bad four
purposes : (I) To cleanse from the taint of an
. inferior position before initiation into a higher
state, as when Aaron and his sons, having been
chosen for the priesthood, were washed with
water before they were invested with their
robes of office; (2) to cleanse in order to fit
one for special acts of religious ceremony, as
when the priests were required, under the pen-
alty of death, to wash both their hands and
feet before approaching the altar; (3) to

cleanse from defilement contracted by some
particular circumstance which prevented one
from enjoying the privileges of ordinary life,
of which there were no less than 11 species of
uncleanness recognized by the law; and (4) to
cleanse or absolve oneself from the guilt of a
particular act, as when, in expiation for an
unknown murder, the elders of the village
washed their hands over the slaughtered
heifer, saying, 'Our hands have not shed this
blood, neither have our eyes seen it* (Deut
xxi). This practice was also common both
among the Greeks and Romans, and it was
undoubtedly in accordance with this practice
that Pilate called for water and washed bis
hands to signify that he held himself innocent
of the blood of Jesus Christ (Matt xxvii, 24).
Ablution by the priests before the perform-
ance of sacred ceremonies was common even
among the heathen, while the Egyptian priests
carried the practice to such an extreme that
they shaved their entire bodies every third' day
and then washed themselves in cold water twice

act corresponds somewhat to the more simple
wadu of the Mohammedans, a ceremonial wash-
ing which they are compelled to observe five
times daily, or immediately before their stated
prayers, and these do not begin to represent
the formal acts of cleansing required by the
Moslem law. For example, the ablution for
positive defilement required by Moses has its
counterpart in the Mohammedan ghual, and yet
again, under die Moslem law, the causes of
such defilement are specified so minutely that
they greatly exceed those of the ancient Jews.
So strict was the law upon this point, however,
that, when water could not be obtained, it was
required that the purification should be made
with something that might represent the water.
In times of drought, therefore, or on occasions
of sickness, the act of purification might be
performed by rinsing, or rubbing the hands
and face with dry sand. This form of cleans-
ing was called tayemm%m.

The ceremony of ablution at communion
was adopted by the early Christian Church,
and has been retained both in the Eastern and
Roman Catholic churches. In ' the Roman
Catholic Church it has become a liturgical
term, denoting the two acts of cleansing per-
formed during the mass: fl) When wine is
poured into the chalice to disengage any par-
ticles which may be left in the vessel: and (2)
when both wine and water are poured over the
priest's fingers into the chalice. In the Greek
Church the word 'ablution* is applied to a
ceremony performed seven days after baptism,
when the unction of the chrism is formally
washed off from those who have been baptized.

ABNAKI, ab-na'ke, a federation of the
Algonquin Indians, including the Passamaquod-
dies, the Penobscots, Norridgewocks and other
minor tribes, formerly occupying a territory
now included in Maine and southern New
Brunswick. As a result of King Philips war
they assisted the French colonists against the
English, until the latter destroyed their prin-
cipal town at Not ridge v/ock and killed their
missionary, Rasle, in 1724. Thereafter the
greater portion of them removed to Saint
Francis, Canada. Those who remained be-
hind made peace terms with the English and

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ABNER — ABOLITIONISTS

were allowed to retain a smaller portion of
their old territory. Their descendants, now
numbering only about 1,500, are found in the
Malecites on the Saint John River, New Bruns-
wick, the Passamaquoddies on the bay bearing
their name, in Maine, the Penobscots, at Old-
town, Me., and the Abnakis at Saint Francis
and Becancour, Quebec.

AB'NER, son of Ner and cousin of Saul
and commander of the latter's army. When
the tribe of Judah recognized David after
Saul's death, Abner prevailed upon the other
tribes to recognize Saul's son, Ishbaal. Where-
upon David sent his forces, under the com-
mand of Joab, into the field. Abner met them
at the pool of Gibeon and attempted to terrify
Joab' s men by a ruse. He proposed that
12 champions from each army should en-
gage in a competitive trial of strength. Ab-
ner's 12 men were Benjaminites and left-
handed, so that they could conceal short swords
at their right sides. By this trick the Indians
were killed Whereupon the angry soldiers of
Joab fell on Abner's men and drove them from
the field. Abner fled, but being closely pur-
sued by Asahel, he turned and slew him. Later
Abner quarrelled with Ishbaal and went over
to David. But Joab had not forgotten the
death of Asahel, his brother, and while Abner
was peacefully dining with David he killed
him. The murder caused general indignation,
but Joab's high position as commander of the
army saved him from punishment.

AB'NEY, Sik William de Wiveleslie,
English astronomer and physicist : b. Derby,
24 July 1844. He was graduated from the
military academy at Woolwich in 1861 and en-
tered the Royal Engineers as a lieutenant,
reaching the rank of captain within 10 years.
From 1893 to 1895 he was president of the
Royal Astronomical Society, after which, for
two years, he was president of the Physical
Society of London. In 1903 he became adviser
to the Science and Art Department of the
Board of Education. In the same year he be-
came a member of the Advisory Council for
Education to the War Office. His reputation

many works, the most important of which are:
action in Photography' (1870) ; 'Treat-
. Photography1 (1875); 'Color Vision,
<-ojor Measurement and Mixture' <1893) ;
•The Pioneers of the Alps' (with C D. Cun-
ningham, 1888). In 1900 he was awarded a
knighthood.

ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY. See
Psychology or thb Abnormal.

ABO, a 'boo, former capital and the oldest
city of Finland, now the chief town of the
government of Abo-Bjomeborg. It is situated
on the Aurayoki River and near the Gulf of
Bothnia, 128 miles in a westerly direction from
Helsingfors. It was founded by the Swedes
in 1157 and remained the capital of Finland
until 1819. It contains a fine sarcophagus which
was erected in 1865 in memory of the Queen,
Catharine Monsdotter, who died in 1512. In
one of the suburbs is an old spring in which,
according to traditions prevalent among the
people, the Finns were first baptized into
Christianity. It is in direct steamship commu-
nication with Stockholm, Copenhagen and

Pctrograd. Its harbor is too shallow to allow
shipping of more than 10 feet draught, so large
vessels dock at Bombolm, where some 700
ships touch annually. Many Russian warships
have been built in the shipyards near the city,
the great Crarton works there supplying the
Russian fleet with torpedo boats. It has a number
of tobacco factories, cotton mills, machine shops,
sugar refineries and other industrial plants.
The School of Navigation and the School for .
Deaf -Mutes are notable among its public educa-
tional institutions, besides which there are a
number of gymnasia, a technical institute, a
commercial college arid a normal training school.
Tn 1910 the population was 49,691, the people
being mixed Finns and Swedes, with the Finns
predominating. In 1827 a large portion of the
city was destroyed by a conflagration, includ-
ing the University buildings. Since then die
University has been removed to Helsingsfors.
ABOLITIONISTS, the extreme section
of the anti-slavery party in the United States,
who advocated immediate sweeping away by
the national government of Southern slavery,
without regard to constitutional guarantees,
vested interests, or political facts; this section
and its nickname date from about 1835. Grad-
ual abolition had been the desire of many of
the best men even of the South; and till after
the War of 1812 there was no prejudice against
the freest expression of opinion on the sub-
ject. But the effects of Whitney's cotton-gin
were now beginning to be felt in making the
slave system for the time enormously profit-
able ; and the Missouri Compromise, with the
insistence of the South thereafter that States
should be admitted only in pairs, one slave and
one !n:e, showed that the time of apathy had
gone by. The new zeal of the South in up-
holding, increasing and justifying the system
was met by a new intensity of the North in
opposing it, though for a long time confined to
a small band of agitators. In 1833 the National
Anti-Slavery Society was formed in Philadel-
phia ; in 1831 William Lloyd Garrison had
founded the Liberator, a weekly continued till
1866, filled from the first with the fiercest de-
nunciation not only of the system but of all
connected with it; and a brilliant band of ora-
tors, philanthropists and growing political
forces,— Wendell Phillips, Charles Sumner,
Gerrit Smith and women like Lucretia ,Mott, —
kept the public mind on the alert and furnished
a monotonous moral to the course of political
events which the people might not otherwise
have drawn so readily. There were grades
even among these; and the extremists denied
the duty of obeying the United States Consti-
tution, since it contained the clause warranting
the Fugitive Slave Law, which was denounced
as aa covenant with death and an agreement
with hell.* In practice they violated it system-
atically by assisting in the escape of runaway
slaves, through the machinery known as the
a Underground Railroad," concealing them
from pursuit and forwarding them from stage
to stage till they reached Canada. But in 1840
the abolitionists divided on the question of the
formation of a political anti-slavery party, and
the two wings remained active on separate
lines to the end. It was largely due to the
abolitionists that the Civil War, when it came,
was regarded by the North chiefly as an anti-
slavery conflict, and they looked upon the

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ABOHEY — ABORTION

Emancipation Proclamation as a vindication of
this view. See Anti- Slavery Society; Liber-
ty Party; Slavkhy; United States — Causes
of the Civil War.

ABOMEY, aTjo-ma, French West Africa,
city of Dahomey, 70 miles inland, north of the
port of Kotonu, with which it was connected
by rail in 1905. The town is modem and has
a good artesian water supply. Before its occupa-
tion November 1892 by die French, Abotney was
the capital of the native kingdom of Dahomey,
a typical African city surrounded by mud walls
and protecting ditches, its royal palaces and
market square the scene frequently of barbaric
festivals attended by human sacrifices. Pop.
16,000.

ABORIGINAL ART. Strictly speaking,
the art of the aborigines, that is, of the original
inhabitants of any region ; and hence by exten-
sion, any primitive or savage art unaffected by
the contact of a foreign and superior culture.
In this sense the term is used without regard
to the question of whether the people prac-
tising the art are true aborigines or not The
art of the savage tribes of our own time is
included under mis designation, and is studied
carefully for the light it throws on primitive
conditions, industries and conceptions. Yet
the art of modern savage tribes must be con-
sidered as representing rather an early-arrested
development than a truly primitive culture. The
oldest known products of human industry are
the flint and bone implements and the paint-
ings of the prehistoric cave-dwellers of West-
ern Europe, which in many respects, especially
in the fine arts of drawing and painting, far
surpass the most advanced works of modern
savages. These works date from an antiquity
estimated at 25,000 to 30,000 years. While in
delineation of animal life they are thus superior
to modern savage fine art, they reveal nothing
of proficiency in the industrial arts of pottery
ana weaving or basketry, which are prominent
in modern savage art Indeed, basketry and
pottery and the applied arts of carving and
stamping constitute the chief artistic activi-
ties of modem savages. Of these pottery repre-
sents the more advanced development cultur-
ally. Primitive metal-working is met with in
Africa and in some other regions. The ancient
art of Central America, Mexico, Bolivia and
Peru is aboriginal only in the sense of belong-
ing to the most ancient inhabitants of whom
we have exact knowledge in those countries;
it exhibits many evidences of a civilization
many stages removed from primitive savagery.

The primitive origins of art have been much
discussed by anthropologists and philosophers.
The earliest human works known, found in
caves in the provinces of Dordognc, France,
and Santa nder, Spain, include artistically-
shaped flint tools, carved bone handles, pictures
engraved on bone, and paintings of animals on
cave walls and roofs. But between this vividly
realistic prehistoric art of 30 millenniums ago
and modern savage art there is a great gulf, in
land as well as time. Modern savage art is
almost wholly decorative, seldom realistic. It
is so largely fctishistic that some writers derive
the primitive artistic instinct wholly from ani-
mism — the ascribing of animate magic powers
to inanimate objects, and to representations of
them and of animals. (See Animism). Others

think it is first awakened by the processes of
basketry, weaving, string-lashing, etc, which
produce certain regularly recurring motives or
patterns. Others again find its root in personal
adornment by tattooing, smearing with color,
etc. Probably all three origins are in a measure
correct The decorative instinct once awakened
develops more and more intricate combina-
tions, and this development continues until
arrested by the cultural limitations of the people
or region. Besides these forms of decorative
plastic art, certain "savage' cultures have de-
veloped the art-instinct in other directions, such
as primitive forms of poetry and drama, music
(songs or chants), and the dance. In all these
the idea of rhythmic form predominates over
substance or content, and it is rhythmic repeti-
tion, with or without alternation, that charac-
terizes also all savage ornament which is never
realistic except, perhaps, in certain Australian
rock-pictures and bushraen's drawings. Savage
decoration, especially that of New Zealand and
some other Polynesian islands, displays a keen
sense of decorative values in space-filling; and
infinite patience of execution. See Art; Deco-
rative Art.

Bibliography.— Balfour, H-, 'The Evolu-
tion of Decorative Art' (London 1893) ; Grosse,
'The Beginnings of Art' (New York 1897);
Haddon, A. C, 'Evolution in Art* (London
1895) ; Hamlin, A. D. F, 'A History of Orna-
ment Ancient and Medieval1 (New York 1916) ;
Osborn, H. F, 'Men of the Old Stone Age'
(New York 191S) ; Tylor, E. K, <Prinh»*
Culture' (New York 1889).

Alfred D. F. Hamlin,
"or:

Jniversity.

ABORIGINES (Lat 'from the origin*;
the Greek name was autochthonoi), the earliest
inhabitants of a country discoverable by civil-
ized investigation. Their relation to the animal
world as a whole coraes under the head of An-
thropology; to other races, under Ethnology;
their culture- and conditions, under Archeol-
ogy; of special countries, under their names,
or those of particular tribes. Specifically, in
Roman writers, a race traditionally said to have
been driven by the Sal lines from their first
homes in the mountains around Reate (Rieti),
invaded Latiutn, subjugated the native Sicuii
and occupied the land, along with a tribe of
Pelasgi, the two thenceforth taking the name
of Latini. If true, these Aborigines would be
of Oscan stock and form the non-Pelasgian
element in the Romans.

ABORTION, the expulsion of a fcetus
from the uterus before it is capable of carrying
on its own life. A variety of different terms
have been applied to indicate variations in the
character or this process ; thus : accidental,
when brought about by purely accidental means ;
artificial or induced, when caused for medical
therapeutic reasons ; criminal, when induced for
purely selfish reasons; tubal, when rupture of
the Fallopion tube occurs, discharging the fcetus
into the abdominal cavity, the pregnancy thus
being extra-nterine.

The causes for this accident, apart from in-
duced abortion, may be due to paternal, ma-
ternal or fatal defects. The proportion of
abortions to full-time pregnancies is about 1 to
7 or 10. Of the paternal causes, alcoholism.

a b, Google

ABORTION IN PLANTS — ABRACADABRA

syphilis, old age or physical weakness may be
ated. The most frequent causes, however, are
of foetal and maternal causes. Death of the
fcetus is the most frequent foetal cause. The
maternal causes may be local or constitutional.
Inflammation of the membranes of die uterus,
tumors or new growths of the uterus, disease
of the ovary, and inflammatory adhesions of the
closely associated organs, act as local causes.
Alcoholism, starvation, as in times of famine,
syphilis, lead 'poisoning, coal-gas poisoning,
acute diseases, as typhoid, pneumonia, and sud-
den severe shock, are the moat common agents
acting on the mother that bring about the
death of the fcetus and its subsequent expul-
,-. — With certain women abortion, or mis-

The symptoms are hemorrhage, discharge of

carriage, happens very readily.

"" i are hemorrhage, . „.. __

i and pain. The treatment is
always medical. The dangers are mostly those
of hemorrhage and infection.

/n law, when abortion is produced with a
malicious design, it becomes a misdemeanor, and
the party causing it may be indicted and pun-
ished. When, in consequence of the means used
to produce abortion, the death of the woman
ensues the crime is designated as murder. In
all cases of abortion the body of the offense
must first be proven. The fact of the pregnancy,
the use of the instruments and the administer-
ing of die drugs must be established beyond a
doubt. The evidence of the woman upon whom
the abortion was committed is admissible but
her dying declarations are not admissible un-
less homicide is charged A person who sells
a drug or instrument, knowing that it is to be
used tor the purpose of causing a miscarriage,
is guilty of a misdemeanor.

ABORTION IN PLANTS. This term is ap-
plied to die arrest of development which occa-
sionally occurs in otherwise normal organs of

trasted with degen-

eracy, where we not only find
development but a perversion of form. Abor-
tion may take the form of an inordinate abbre-
viation of the stem or flower-stalk as in the
cauliflower, of irregular development of any
part of the leaf, which is sometimes reduced to
a mere midrib, of great reduction in the size
of some or all of the petals of a flower, of inde-
hiscence in the anther, of abnormal want of
succulence in the fruit, or of many other fail-
ures of development. Abortion of the sexual
organs and sexual cells is probably one of the
most common causes for tne sterility of many
hybrids. Abortion is sometimes due to defective
nutrition, sometimes to the intrinsic defect of
the organization of the plant For further
information on this subject consult Masters,
M. T., 'Vegetable Teratology' (London 1869),
and Ward, H. N, 'Disease in Plants* (London
1901).

ABOU BEN ADHEM AND THE AN-
GEL, a'boo ben adTiem, title of a poem of
which Leigh Hunt was the author. The fol-
lowing line in it is frequently quoted:

11 Write me atone who loves his fellow men."

ABOUKIR or ABUKIR, a'boo-ker,
Egypt, a spacious bay with a small village of
the same name, 14 miles northeast by rail of
Alexandria. It is noted as the scene of the
battle of the Nile, 1-2 Aug. 1798, when Nel-

son defeated the French fleet; of a battle
on its shores 25 Jury 1799 when Napoleon
defeated the Arabs; and of the battle of
Alexandria 21 March 1801, when Sir Ralph
Abercromby defeated the French.

ABOUT, a'boo, Edraond Francois, French
journalist and novelist: b. Dieuze, 14 Fen. 1828;
d. 17 Jan. 1885. In 1851 he was sent to the
French school in Athens, Greece, after having;
completed his studies in Paris. After spending
two years in Greece he returned to France. In
1856 he attempted to become an actor, without
success. He was especially favored by the
court of the Second Empire. After die fall
of the Empire he ceased writing fiction and
devoted himself to the editorship of Le XIX
Stick. In 1884 he was elected to the Academy,
but died before his formal admission. It is
generally admitted that had he taken his talents
more seriously he could have become a really
great writer, but he was by nature flighty and
somewhat shallow. Among his many works
are: 'La Grece contemporaine1 (1854); 'Le
roi des montagnes' (1856); 'Les manages dc
Paris> (1856); 'Trente et quarante1 (1858);
'L'homme a l'oreille cassee1 (1861); 'Le nex
du notaire1 (1861) ; <Madelon> (1863) ;
'L'mfame' (1867); <Le Roman d'un brave
homme' (1880). Consult Wells, 'A Century
of French Fiction.1

ABRA, a'-bra, a province and a river in the
north of Luton, Philippine Islands. The province
contains numerous deposits of placer gold, and
the river gravel is auriferous. Other minerals,
such as coal, copper, lead, iron and sulphur,
are believed to exist in paying quantities. For
its head-hunting tribes, see Igorrote; Philip-
fines.

ABRABANEL. See Abravanel,

AB'RA CAD ABRA, a magic word sup-
posed to be derived from Abrascas, used as
an incantation against inflammation, fevers, or
agues, according to the earliest known author-
ity Serenus Sammonicus, a Gnostic, and phy-
sician in the 2d century, to the Emperor
Caracalla. In his work °De Medicina Pne-
cepta,* which was admired by the Emperors
Geta and Alexander Severus, he prescribes that
the word be written in the form of an inverted
cone, as shown in the diagram herewith, folded
in the form of a cross, worn on linen as an
amulet for nine days, and then before sunrise
thrown backward into a stream, flowing east-
ward. The formula was supposed to make
the spirit of the disease gradually loosen its
hold upon the patient.

The lotto* are Kin?' author of ' Gnonticn and their
usually arranged Remains ' embodies the idea, in the tol-
as followa: lowing easily memorized lines:

" Thou shalt on paper write the spall

ABRACADABRA called, in many a

line:

ABRACADABRA Bach under each m even order place.

ABRACADABR But the but letter in each line efface,

ABRAC ADAB Aa by degrees the element! grow few

ABRACADA Still tale away, but fii the reaidue.

ABRACAD ~" "- v— J- '--

ABRACA
ABRAC
ABRA

AH Mighty 'the good twill to the patiet

And the whole dwindles to a tapnrina
Tie this about the neck with flaxen

Its

ondious potency shall guard hit

a by Google

ABRAHAM — ABRAHAM

ABRAHAM or ABRAM, (he progenitor
of the Hebrews and the Arab Bedouin. After
deriving his genealogy through Shem to his
father Terah and his brothers Nahor and Ha-
ran, the narrative in Gen. xi-xxv proceeds as
follows, — each step in the pilgrimage being by
express direction of Yahwe^ to bis purpose of
founding the Hebrew nation: —

After Haran's death Terah removes with his
family from his native Ur of the Chaldees
(?Mugheir in southern Babylonia), north to
Haran, where he dies. Abram then (at 75)
takes his wife Sarai and his nephew Lot,
Haran's son, and makes his way north by way
of Damascus (stopping to build altars to Yahwi
at Shechem and Bethel) to Canaan, where he
receives the promise that he shall become the
founder of a great nation, and all the families
of the earth shall be blessed in him. Being a
pastoral nomad, a drouth in Canaan forces him
to seek forage in fertile Egypt ; where he passes
off Sarai as his sister, in fear that her beauty
will lead to his murder to possess her, and she
is taken by Pharaoh, who, on discovering the
deception, restores her, but orders Abram out
of Egypt Accompanied by Lot, he returns to a
former encampment between Bethel and Ai. .
The clans of the two kinsmen quarrel over the
limited pasturage, as usual with nomad tribes,
and Abram proposes that each follow his own
fortune. Lot, wishing to quit nomad life,
chooses the fertile Jordan plain; Abram pitches
his tent among the oak groves of Marare, close
to Hebron, and the previous promise of his
posthumous glory is repeated and solemnly
covenanted. Lot is captured in a raid of the
Babylonian king, with his Syrian and other
allies, against his revolted vassals of the Dead
Sea and Jordan valleys, including the kings of
Sodom and Gomorrah, who are overthrown ;
Abram sallies out to his rescue with a band of
tribesmen, beats the confederacy and chases
them near to Damascus, and not only recovers
his nephew but restores the above kings to their
thrones, refusing any reward. The property of
the childless Abraham is to descend to his
trusted servant Eliezer, and Sarai suggests that
he avoid this by having a child from a con-
cubine, a common enough arrangement; ac-
cordingly be has Ishmael by Sarai' s maid
Hagar, at 86. Four years later it is revealed
by Yahwe in person to Abraham that he shall
have a legitimate son by Sarai, whose name is
thenceforth to be Sarah (princess) and his
own to be Abraham (father of peoples); the
promise is afterward repeated by Yahwe and
two angels, who visit Abram's tent in human
form, the latter going on to destroy Sodom and
Gomorrah for their wickedness, and the former
staying behind to inform Abram of it. Abram's
plea wins a promise of mercy contingent on 10
righteous men being found there, but they are
not forthcoming, and only Lot and his family
escape. Abram goes to Gerar (Negeb) in
southern Palestine, repeats precisely the same

Krformance with the nonagenarian Sarai as
fore, and the king Abtmelecb repeats the part
of Pharaoh, with the same apologies and re-
proaches. Isaac is born, Sarah beinjj 90, and
Hagar and her boy Ishmael arc driven into
the desert by Sarah's jealous fears, where
Ishmael becomes ancestor of the Bedouin.
Isaac is circumcised at eight days old, as a token
of Yabwe's covenant with Abraham. Some

time in Isaac's boyhood Abraham is commanded
by Yahwe to make a bumt-offering of him, and
proceeds to obey, but is spared the sacrifice by
Yahwe, who accepts a stray ram instead and
blesses him for his faiih. Sarah dies in Hebron
and is buried in the cave of Machpelah, which
Abraham buys of Ephron the Hittite. He later
marries Keturah, has six sons by her, dies at
175, and is buried beside Sarah. 'Isaac has
previously married Rebekah, so that the suc-
cession is assured.

The Jewish stories of Abraham were by no
means confined to this account in our canonical
book ; they had many others, associating him
with Nimrod, etc., which are collected in the
Talmud ; and the Mohammedans invented or
preserved many more. The critical view is that
there was a real Abram or Abraham (the tra-
ditions existing in both forms), with his home
at Hebron, probably a considerable man from
the number and persistence of the legends about
him ; but that this is all we know. The names
of his brothers and ancestry are not persons
but Arab clans, and their relations and move-
ments represent what was handed down or
believed concerning the North-Arab league that
grew into the Hebrew nation, or its original
elements. The path of the "bne Terah* from
the southern Euphrates valley into Palestine
and elsewhere is certainly a correct type of the
actual course, as revealed to us by archaeology,
of the Semitic tribes who century after century
poured out of the Arabian deserts, into and up

Uth, as the barbarians did that of the Roman
empire; according to the resistance they found
they stayed in the Moabite district, turned west
to overrun the Jordan valley, or moved north
into Syria. For the archxological results con-
sult the chapters on early times in various his-
tories o£ the Hebrews, Kind's, Stade's,
Guthe's, etc.; Sayce's 'Patriarchal Palestine'
and 'Early History of the Hebrews,' reverent
in tone; Tompkins 'Studies on the Times of
Abraham,' Critical commentaries on Genesis
are also serviceable. For the rabbin-
ical legends, the sources — in German —
are Beer on the life of Abraham, and
Grunbaum on the 'Semitic Sagas,' which

K'es the Mohammedan legends likewise,
nsult Commentaries on Genesis by Driver,
Gunkel, Dillman, Delitzsch, Holzinger, St rack,
Histories of the Hebrews by Stade. Kittel,
Guthe, Piepenbring. Also Dhonne, in Revue
Biblique (1908); Gunkel, 'Abraham' (m Die
Religion in Geichichle) and Genwart (1908);
Proksch, 'Das nordhebraische Sagenbuch'
(1906); Tomkins, 'Studies on the Times of
Abraham' (London 1878).

ABRAHAM, Ladislaa, Polish educator
and author: b. Sambor, Galicia, 10 Oct. I860.
He was educated at the universities of Cracow
and Berlin; began his career in a solicitor's
office in Cracow and in 1886 was appointed
lecturer in canon law at the University of Cra-
cow. Two years later he was appointed pro-
fessor of canon law in the University of Lem-
berg, becoming dean of the law faculty in
1895 and rector of the university in 1900. He
is director of the Polish scientific expedition
of the Academy of Cracow at Rome and mem-
ber of the Cracow Academy of Science and of

v Google

ABRAHAM A SANCTA CLARA — ABRANTES

other scientific associations in Austria. He was
nominated Austrian crown councillor, knight
of the Order of the Iron Crown, and command-
er of the Papal Order of Saint Gregory.
He is a contributor to the 'Catholic Encyclo-
paedia' and has written numerous treatises and
books on canon law and the eccleciastical his-
tory of Poland and Russia, including 'Organi-
zation ol the Church in Poland up to die
Twelfth Century" (Lemberg 1693); 'The
Commencement of the Organization of the
Roman Church in Russia' (ib. 1904), and
'Forms of Engagement and Marriage in Canon

ABRAHAM A SANCTA CLARA,

a' bra- ham 4 sank'ta kla'ra, Austrian prior,
author and evangelist : b. Kreenheinstetten,
1644; d. Vienna, 1/09. He joined the order of
barefoot August inians in 1662, when be
abandoned his real name of Ulrica Megerle.
He became the prior of his province, and in
1669 was appointed court preacher at Vienna.
Distinguished by exuberant eloquence, in which
loftiness and dignity of thought were mingled
with grotesque humor, coarse language, puns,
slang, and utter fearlessness in attacking the
vices of the courtiers and the follies of all
classes of society, he attracted crowded con-
gregations. His self-sacrifice during the plague
of 1679 exhibited his qualities as a faithful and
devoted priest. He was a prolific author, his
didactic novel, 'Judas der Erzschelm* (4 vols.,
Saliburg, 1686-95), being his best known work.
His collected writings were published in 21
volumes (1835-54).

ABRAHAM IBN DAUD (DAVID)
HALEVI, ibn' dowd ha'15-ve Jewish astrono-
mer, historian and philosopher : b. Toledo,
Spain, about 1110; d., according to report a
martyr, 1180. He was the first to introduce to
Judaism that phase of philosophy which is de-
rived from Aristotelian sources, and to his
'Emunah Ramah — Sublime Faith,1 Maimon-
ides was largely indebted for many valuable
suggestions. His chief historical work is
'Sefer ha-Kababbalah — Book of Tradition,1
translated into Latin by Genebrad (1510).

ABRAHAM, Plaint of. See Plains
of Abraham.

ABRAHAM THE JEW AND THE
MERCHANT THEODORE, a tale which
was popular in the Middle Ages, in which
figure prominently the miracle-working powers
Of the Saviour in Constantinople. Theodore,
the merchant, being sorely pressed by the need
of money, accepts two loans from the Jewish
money-lender, Abraham, his only security being
-the oath he takes before the statue. But diffi-
culties continue to beset Theodore for some
time, and when finally he is able to repay the
loans, he finds himself away in a distant
country. Unable to find any means of trans-
mitting the money to Abraham, Theodore casts
his money box out into the sea. The currents
carry the box to Constantinople where it is
recovered by Ahraham. When Theodore^ re-
turns, however, he denies that he has received
'it. Theodore prays before the statue in whose
presence he took the oath, and the result is
lhat Abraham is converted to Christianity.

of Syrian deists, denying the divinity of C

(2) In modern use, the Bohemian deists of the
later 18th century, who called themselves fol-
lowers of Huss, but accepted no religious doc-
trine beyond the unity of God, and nothing of
the Bible but the Lord's Prayer. They avowed
this creed in 1782 on Joseph II's promise of
toleration: but as they would join neither Jew-
ish nor Christian folds, he expelled them from
Bohemia the next year and scattered them
through Hungary, Transylvania and Slavonia.
Many were martyred, others turned Catholic.
ABRAHAMS, Israel, English-Jewish au-
thor: b. London, 26 Nov. 1856. His early
education was in Jews' College, London, after
which he studied in the University of London.
After serving for a short period as tutor at
Jews' College, he was appointed reader in Tal-
mudic and Rabbinic Literature in Cambridge
University. In 1905 he became the president of
the Jewish Historical Society of England and
he was also the first president of the Union of

Jewish Literary Societies. In 1907 he was made
onorary president of the Theological Society
of the University of Glasgow. From 1889 to
1908 he was editor of the Jewish Quarterly
Review. His published works are : 'Aspects of
Judaism' (1895); 'Jewish Life in the Middle
Ages' (1896) ; 'Chapters on Jewish Literature'
f 1899) ; 'Maimonides' (1903) ; 'Festival
Studies' (1905); 'A Short History of Jewish
Literature* (1906); 'Rabbinic Aids to Exe-
gesis" (1910) ; 'The Book of Delight and
Other Papers' (1913); 'Annotated Hebrew
Prayer Book1 (1914); 'Jews' (in Hutchinson's
'History of the Nations,' 1915).

ABRAHAM'S BOSOM, an old Hebrew
term, later adopted by the Christians as well,
signifying the home of the blessed, symbolized
in the art of Byzantium, in which the blessed
are pictured as little children being taken into
the bosom of Abraham.

ABRAM. See Abraham.

ABRAMS, Albert, American physician: b.
San Francisco, Cat, 8 Dec 1863. After
taking his degree of M.D. at Heidelberg Uni-
versity, in 1882, he continued his post-graduate
studies in Vienna, Berlin, London and Paris.
In 1893 he was appointed professor of pathol-
ogy in the Cooper Medical College, in which
K sit ion he continued for five years. In 1904
became president of the Emmanuel Poly-
clinic in San Francisco. He is now president
of the American Society for Psycho-Physical
Research. Among his important works are:
'Synopsis of Morbid Renal Secretions' (1892) ;
'Manual of Clinical Diagnosis' (1894); 'Con-
sumption— Its Causes and Prevention' (1895) ;
'Scattered Leaves from a Physician's Diary'
(1900); 'Diseases of the Heart' (1901);
'Nervous Breakdown' (1901); 'Hygiene, in a
System of Physiologic Therapeutics' (1901);
'The Blues' (1904); 'Diseases of the Lungs'
(1905) ; 'Self -Poisoning: Diagnostic Thera-
peutics' (1909); 'Spinal Therapeutics' (1909);
'Spondylotherapy' (1910).

ABRANTES, a-bran'tesh, Portugal, a town
of Santarem district, Estremadura ; on the
Tagus, and a junction on the Madrid-Lisbon
Railway with the Guard a- Ah ran tes line, 70
miles northeast of Lisbon. It is a strategic
fortified position, founded about 300 B.C., and
named by the Romans, Aurantes. An active

a by Google

ABRASIVBS

river trade b carried on in olive oil, wine, grain
and fruit A hi antes was occupied by the
French, 24 Nov. 1807, Marshal junot the victor
later receiving the title of Duke of Abrantes.

Pop. 7,000.

ABRASIVES, or those substances used in
grinding or polishing, include (1) mineral sub-
Stances, such as grindstones, millstones and
whetstones, which are used by simply shaping

Up the material found in nature; (2) mineral
substances which occur disseminated in the
rocks or which must first be freed from im-
purities and are prepared for use by an initial
granulation; (3) artificial abradant s. The his-
tory of abrasives shows that in ancient times
the first class was used, the artificial abrasives
now so extensively employed being unknown
until quite recently.

Grindstones are manufactured from a tough,'
gritty sandstone, found chiefly in Ohio, though
Michigan, Colorado and West Virginia add to
the output, and England, Scotland and Bavaria
are also producers. The Ohio and Michigan
stones are quarried from the Berea grit (flj-v.)
of Mississippian age. The production of grind-
stones in the United States in 1915 amounted to
$648,479. Millstones and Buhrstones are far
less used now than befpre the introduction of
the roller process of making flour, for while the
American production in 1880 amounted to $200,-
000 it fell in 1894 to 113,887. Since 1894 it
has steadily increased tilt in 1912 it was $71,414.
The 1915 output was valued at $53,480. This
is owing to the increased demand for buhr-
stones for grinding the coarser cereals, fertiliz-
ers, cement rock and various minerals. Mill-
stones are finer grained and more compact than
grindstones. They are usually made from sand-
stone or a quartz conglomerate. The buhrstone
(q.v.) from France is the best, but the stones
rom New York and Virginia meet most of the
requirements of the trade. A few are made in
Pennsylvania and North Carolina. There are
buhrstone deposits in Vermont, Ohio and Ala-
bama which have not been worked of late
years; also a newly discovered deposit in Cali-
fornia of stone equal to the French. The New
York stones come from the Shawangunk grit

Oilstones, Whetstones and Scythestones are
to a large extent American products. For
nearly a century New Hampshire was the head-
quarters of the whetstone industry, but Ar-
kansas has held the lead for some years. Whet-
stone rock is also found in Vermont, Ohio,
Kentucky, Pennsylvania and Indiana. The best
oilstones from New Hampshire are inferior
to those of Garland County, Ark., in which
region there are extensive beds of a remarkably
compact, white, Paleozoic quartz rock, called
Novaculite. Griswold in 1890 announced that
this material is a sedimentary deposit of fine-
grained quartz and not a chemically precipitated
deposit as had been previously supposed- The
quarries were largely worked for implements
in prehistoric times and since 1840 they have
yielded the finest oilstones known. These are
sold under the names of * Washita* and
"Arkansas* oilstones. The production of oil-
stones and whetstones in the United States dur-
ing 1915 amounted to $115,175. The imports,
chiefly of razor hones from Belgium and Ger-
many, and of "Turkey* oilstones from Italy

and France amounted to $14*247— about one-
third the normal value. Ohio leads in the pro-
duction of scythestones. New Hampshire, Ver-
mont and Michigan contributing important

Pumict (q.v.), a spongy lava, or a volcanic
ash, is used in scouring powders and soaps.
It comes chiefly from the Lipari Islands, but is
also produced in Utah and Nebraska. The pro-
duction of die United States in 1915 was valued
at $63,185; the imported pumice at $65,691.
Infusorial or diatomaceous earth (Kieselguhr)
occurs In beds often miles in extent. It is
formed of the siliceous shells of infusoria and
diatoms, and is used in scouring soaps and
polishing powders. The chief American lo-
calities are in Maryland, Virginia, New Hamp-
shire and California. The United States pro-
duction for 1915 was 4,593 tons, valued at
$38,517; but these figures cover not only that
used as abrasive, but also a much larger quan-
tity used by sugar refiners and to insulate
boilers, etc Tripoli is a similar variety of opal,
but formed from a siliceous limestone by the
leaching out of the calcium carbonate. Its use
as an abrasive is as a polishing powder for
metals, etc., but it is also extensively manu-
factured into filters, for which it is admirably
adapted Extensive deposits are worked at
Seneca, Mo., and in Illinois, but the chief
supply is imported from Tripoli. The United
States production for 1915 was 30,711 tons,
valued at $572,504— four rimes the output in
1911. The 1915 importation of tripoh was
valued at $27,333. Crystalline quartz, of
which 112,575 tons were mined in Connecticut
and Pennsylvania in 1915, is used as a wood
finisher, in the manufacture of sandpaper, in
the sawing of marble, for cleaning castings, etc.
Garnet (q.v.) occurs in many of the crystalline
rocks, especially in pegmatite and mica schist.
Many varieties are recognized by the mineralo-
gist; but the value of garnet as an abrasive,
aside from its great hardness, is dependent not

is distinctly lamellar the material will con-
tinually present the sharp edges which are so
essential to a good abrasive. Garnet which
lacks this lamellar structure is of comparatively
little efficiency for grinding and smoothing.
Garnet is of little value for grinding metals but
is of great utility in woodworking. Its low
melting point prevents its bonding with refrac-
tory materials. Garnet-paper is much superior
to sandpaper and is extensively used in wood-
working and finishing the soles and heels of
shoes. The most important localities are in
New York and New Hampshire. The output
for 1915 amounted to 4,301 tons, valued at

it among the natural abrasives. It occurs ii
enormous quantities in Ontario, which since
1901 has been the leading producer. It was at
one time extensively mined in Montana, North
Carolina and Georgia which furnished nearly
all of the domestic supplv, but since 1906 no
corundum has been produced in the United
States. Small quantities of corundum are pro-
duced in India which go chiefly to the English
market. The chief deposits of corundum are
of magma tic segregation origin, having
solidified from a fluid state during the crystalli-
zation of very basic igneous rocks. The value

, Google

ABRA V AHEL — ABRAXAS

smooth being of 'very limited use. Emery
(q.v.) is a natural mixture of corundum
with magnetite or hematite. It has been largely
mined at Chester, Mass., and Peekskill, N. Y.,
but the Massachusetts mines have not been
operated of late years. The chief supply,
however, comes from the Island of Naxos,
Greece, and from Asia Minor. The material is
brought to this country as ballast and owing
to the low prices at which it is marketed, the
sale for the American mineral is much reduced.
The United States production for 1915 was
3,063 tons valued at $31,131— five times the
usual output. The Canadian output of corun-
dum in 1915 was $37,798 — about one-sixth the
usual production. The importation of emery
and corundum was valued at $271,649 — about
55 per cent of the average. Diamond (q.v.),
owing to its far greater hardness, brings many
' which any other

harder than the crystallized diamond, but

almost exclusively used for diamond drills,
while the dust of the South African "bort* is
the material commonly employed as an abrasive
in the cutting of diamonds and other precious
stones. In 1915 the importation was valued at
$75,944. A large division of natural grinding
material in the form of quartz pebbles may
property be included under abrasives. For-
merly imported altogether, from Denmark,
France, Sweden, Labrador and Newfoundland,
the war cut off the suppty and led to a develop-
ment of American deposits, chiefly in Nevada,
though in many instances hardened steel balls
have been found an effective substitute.

Artificial abrasives belong to two principal
groups: (1) The aluminous group, comprising
alundum and aloxite; and (2) the silicon-car-
bide group, comprising carborundum and crys-
tolon. Alundum is crystalline aluminum oxide
and is the most efficient of all abrasives for
steel. The possibility of determining the de-
gree of toughness in the manufacture of this
substance leads to a line of special alundum
abrasives made purposely for grinding special
hardened and toughened steels. Aloxite is of
the same general composition as alundum, but
with different qualities and adaptations. Its
specific use is on malleable iron. Carbide of
silicon, called in the United States "carborun-
dum,* is the hardest of all abrasives but lacks
the toughness of alundum. It is so hard that
carborundum wheels have to be trued U£ with
a diamond ; no other known substance will cut
them. Carborundum is the most effective
abrasive for cast iron, chilled iron and brass.
Cry s to! on is a very similar carbide, useful
especially on copper, zinc, gold, tin and alu-
minum. Electrite is a still newer abrasive, with
a composition between alundum and carborun-
dum. It is extremely tough, and amorphous in
structure, breaking with a sharp fracture,
which is durable under heavy work. The pro-
duction of artificial abrasives in the United
States in 1915 amounted to 37,684,000 pounds,
valued at $2,248,778. Abrasives are graded by
the size of their fragments. After being
crushed, the material is sifted through a series
of screens, the number of the smallest screen
through which the fragments will pass being

given them. For mechanical use abrasives are
commonly mixed with a bonding material and
formed into wheels. These bonds are of four
varieties, — vitrified, silicate, elastic and hard
rubber. The first is made of fused clays, and
can be produced of varying degrees of hard-
ness. This bond does not completely envelop
the grains of the abrasive, and thus affords a
larger clearance than the other bonds. How-
ever, it is entirety without elasticity. The sili-
cate bond is of clay fluxed with sodium silicate
at a low temperature. It is affected by damp-
ness and cannot be made into a thin wheel.
The elastic bond is made of shellac and other
resins. It has a high degree of elasticity and
can be formed into very thin wheels. The
rubber bond b of vulcanite, also very elastic.
By adapting the bond and the abrasive to the
work to be done, almost any desired result
may be attained. Another thing to be consid-
ered is the speed at which the wheel is to be
run. With the artificial abrasives a piece of
work may be done in a fraction of the time
required by the best emery. It is common
practice for an alundum wheel to deliver 400,-
000,000 cutting strokes per minute, and twice
that speed is not unusual. On special work
the speed is sometimes equal to 2,000,000,000
cuts per minute. Crushed steel is extensively
used in sawing, grinding, rubbing and polish-
ing granite, marble and other stone. The finer
grades of this abrasive, known as "steel emery*
and "steel rouge,1 are used for working glass.
See special articles under the names of the
different abrasives for further particulars.
Consult Haenig, A- 'Emery and the Emery
Industry' (London 1912) ; Grits and Grinds
(monthly, Worcester Mass.) ; United States
Geological Survey, 'Mineral Resources of the
United States' (chapter "Abrasives1 annually) ;
Ries, H., 'Economic Geology' (4th ed.. New
York 1916).

ABRAVANEL, l-bra'va-n«l, Isaac - ben
Jchuda, Jewish statesman and Bible commen-
tator : b. Lisbon, 1437 ; d. Venice, 1508. He was
the son of the Portuguese treasurer, Dom
Judah, and came of an old and distinguished
family which traces its origin from King David.
He became treasurer to King Alfonso V of
Portugal; was banished on the King's death;
retrieved his fortunes in Spain where he gained
royal favor; was ruined again on the decree of
expulsion banishing all Jews in 1492; went to
Naples where he again achieved high rank; lost
all his possessions when the French took the
city in 1495 ; and finally settled in Venice where
he negotiated a commercial treaty between
Portugal and the Venetian Republic. His fame
rests on his sound scholarship and exegetie
writings, illuminated by a clear and keen mind.
The chief of these are 'Sources of Salvation'
(1496); 'Salvation of His Anointed' (1497) ;
■Proclaiming Salvation' (1498), which at-
tracted the attention of eminent Christian
writers, among them the younger Buxtorf, Bud-
deus and Carpzov, who condensed and trans-
lated them, and introduced them to the world
of Christian scholarship,

ABRAX'AS, or ABRAXAX, a word used
by the Basilidians, a sect of Christians who ex-
isted until the 4th century, to designate the many
emanations from the Supreme Power. When
the word is written in Greek letters, these

d by Google

ABRUZZI — ABSCESS

ftl

letters, computed numerically, have the value
of 365, the mystic number so often inscribed
on the stones in the Gnostic schools of the
Basitidians, indicating the worlds, or spheres,
that constituted the Gnostic universe. These
stones are cut in various forms and bear a
variety of capricious symbols, mostly com-
posed of human limbs, a fowl's head and a
snake's body. The word itself the Basilidians
did not apply to the highest Deity but to the
spirits of the world collectively. Gnostic
symbols were afterward adopted by all sects
given to magic and alchemy, therefore there
is little doubt that most of the abraxas stones
in collections were made in the middle ages
as talismans. Consult Barzilai's (Gli Abraxas1
(Trieste 1873); King's 'The Gnostics and
Their Remains> (London 1887); Kraus' 'Real
Encyklopadie der chris [lichen Altertumer*
(Freiburg 1882-86) ; Dieterich's 'Abraxas
Studien' (Leipzig 1891); Schultz's 'Docu-
mente der Gnosis" (Jena 1910).

ABRUZZI, Duke of the. Prince Luigi
Amadeo Giuseppe Maria Ferdiuando Fran-
cesco, Italian admiral, mountaineer and Arctic
explorer; b. Madrid, 29 Jan. 1873. He is the
third son of the Late Prince Amadeo, Duke of
Aosta, and a first cousin of King Victor Em-
manuel III. His two elder brothers, the Duke
of Aosta and the Count of Turin, are generals
in the Italian army. He was educated at the
naval school at Leghorn and rose in the service
by bis own merits and industry. Being of
daring and adventurous disposition, he found
an outlet for his energies first, in 1897, by
climbing Mount St. Elias, Alaska, the highest
peak in the Rockies, 18,000 feet. On 12 June
1899 he sailed from Christiania on the Stella
Polare in command of a North Pole expedi-
tion. He spent one winter in Teplitz Bay,
Rudolf Land, but on account of senous dam-
age to his ship he was compelled to return be-
fore he could accomplish his aims. He had
intended to reach the Pole by a series of sledge
expeditions, one of which, commanded by one
of his officers, Captain Cagni, started on 11
March 1900 from the base, and on 25 April
reached 86° 33' 49" N.„ beating Nansen's pre-
vious record. They relumed in September.
The Duke himself was too severely frostbitten
to travel the whole distance, yet the result of
his expedition was to establish the outlines of
the northern coasts of Franz-Josef Land and
the non-existence of Petermann Land. In
1906 he conducted an expedition into Equa-
torial Africa where he succeeded in climbing
the highest peak of Mount Ruwenzori, 16,600
feet high, never before, so far as is known,
touched by human foot. Three years later he
established another record by climbing Mount
Austen, in India, to a height of over 24,000
feet. In the Tripolttaine war the Duke com-
manded a squadron operating in the Mediter-
ranean and Adriatic. In August 1914 he was
appointed commander-in-chief of the Italian
navy and when, in May 1915, his country en-
tered the European war, he co-operated with
the Allied admirals in maintaining command
of the southern waters. See War, European.

ABRUZZI E MOLISE, a-broot'se a mo'-
le-za, department in Central Italy, composed of
the provinces of Teramo, Chieti, Aquila and
Campobasso, comprising an area of 6,380 square

wiles between the Apennines and the Adriatic
Sea. The country is extremely mountainous
and includes the higher portions of the Apen-
nines, the elevation in one portion reaching
9,584 feet above sea level. Cattle and swine
form an important part of the produce, but in
the smaller valleys nestling in among the
mountain forests there are many olive or-
chards, vineyards and grain fields. Here, too,
the silk worm is reared and silk is one of the
important products. The population is about
1,500,000.

venged bis brother Amnon's outrage of his
sister Tamar by killing him, and was banished
from bis father's court for five years. The
grudging readmittance probably left him feel-
ing insecure; he cleverly ingratiated himself
with the people, and hy aid of the shrewd
Ahithophel organized a rebellion against his
father, which took David unaware and forced
him to fly east of the Jordan with a small fol-
lowing, while Absalom gained possession of
Jerusalem and the court. With this enormous
de facto advantage he might easily have main-
tained his seat ; but according to the stmy, one
Hushai, pretending to desert David, ingratiated
himself with Absalom, and by cunning and
flattery persuaded him to a policy of delay,
while Ahithophel urged him to strike quick and
hard, the obviously sensible course. David
with this breathing-space collected an army;
bis veteran captain Joab, gray in victories and
blood, routed Absalom's forces in *the wood
of Ephriam*; and on report that Absalom had
been caught by bis long hair in the branches
he was riding under, and refusal of the mes-
senger to lay hands on the king's son, Joab
himself dispatched him with his spear (about
980 B.C.). David could not have suffered the
rebel to live ; but the statement that he held a
grudge against Joab for killing him and or-
dered public mourning for his son has noth-
ing intrinsically improbable in it. Absalom is
represented as a very handsome and charming
prince and the chronicler plainly has much
sympathy with him.

ABSALON, ab'sa-lon, Danish prelate,
statesman and military commander: b, 1128;
d 1201 ; the great historic figure who con-
tributed most to Denmark's rise as an inde-
pendent nation. He was educated at the Uni-
versity of Paris; became bishop of Proskilde in
1158 and chief counsellor to his boyhood friend.
King Valdemar I. In 1168 he rooted out piracy
in the Baltic and idolatry in Rugen. In 1184
he destroyed the Pomeranian fleet which had
attacked Rugen. He had previously been ap-
pointed archbishop of Lund in 1178.

ABSCESS, a local focus of infection by
some bacterium which has progressed to the
point of formation of pus, which is a collection
of broken-down blood cells and of the tissue
in which the abscess may occur. As a rule
the infecting agent is brought to the rissnw
by the blood or lymph stream. Abscesses may
occur in any tissue or organ of the body. The
usual micro-organisms of acute abscesses are
various streptococci and staphylococci.
Chronic or cold abscesses are chiefly tubercu-
lous in origin. Abscesses are always best

d by Google

ABSCHATZ — ABSOLOK AND ACHITOPHBL

treated surgically. The old-fashioned way of
letting an abscess *come to a head* is more
dangerous, time-cons uming and usually dis-
figuring. Dispersing an abscess is a delusion.

ABSCHATZ, ap'shats, Hans Asamann,
Freihexb von, poet: b. Wiirbitz, 4 Feb. 1646;
d_ Liegnitz, 22 April 1699. A lyric poet of his
day, whose poems were in great part called
forth by his indignation at the predatory wars
of the French. They are simple and without
bombast, and show sincere feeling, pure senti-
ment and a sturdy, patriotic mino entirely free
from class prejudices. His 'Poems and Trans-
lations' (1704) include a German translation
of Guarini's 'Pastor Fido. ' Selections from
them were edited by W. Muller in 1S24.

ABSECOH, or ABSECUM, a bay and an
inlet on the coast of New Jersey, northeast of
Atlantic City.

ABSCONDING, the going clandestinely
or secretly out of the jurisdiction of the
courts, or lying concealed, in order to avoid
their process. A person who has been in a
State only transiently or has come into it with-
out any intention of settling therein cannot be
treated as an absconding debtor (15 Johns. N.
Y. 196), nor can one who openly changes his
residence (3 Yerg. Tenn. 414). It is not neces-
sary that the debtor should actually leave the
State.

ABSENTEEISM, a term applied to the
owners of estates in a country who habitually
absent themselves from that country and spend
the income of their estates in it in another; in
current use, referring almost wholly to the
Irish nobility whose fixed residence is outside
of Ireland. Much of the poverty and many
of the disturbances in Ireland have been
charged directly to it, and the Irish people
have protested against it since 1380. While an
Irwh Parliament existed, there seemed hope
for its gradual dwindling, careers being open
for ambitious men in Ireland; but with its
abolition the evil is almost incurable. Hungary
suffered heavily from the same cause — its
aristocracy looking on their native country's
language and life as badges of barbarism,
priding themselves on being Germans and liv-
ing in Vienna — (ill the great national move-
ment set going by Szechenyi and his com-
panions early in the 19th century. Despite the
defense of the system by some economists and
the good theoretical arguments that may be
made for it, in practice its economic, social,
personal and political mischiefs are obvious.
Not only is the absent landowner and property-
owner, collecting his rents by agents, inaccess-
ible to complaints, representations, appeals for
help in upbuilding local institutions, etc, and
unwilling to acknowledge rackrenting he does
not personally see to be such (even a generous
and kindly agent dares not be as lenient as he
would, in fear of his master) ; hut he should
be the leader of his section, the fountain of
careers, furnishing it employment, having his
own success depend on its prosperity! and the
active defender of its interests and rights and
susceptibilities. The estate of an absentee
owner, in fact, is essentially like a colony in
the old conception, — a mine to exploit for out-
siders who cared nothing for it; but the colo-
nists of a distant province have a collective

power much greater than that of the tenants
of an absent landlord. Furthermore, it makes
social co-operation for general needs almost
impossible. The literature on this subject is
nearly coincident with that of the Irish ques-
tion as a whole ; and the debates in Hansard's
'Parliamentary Reports' abound in its disens-

AB'SIMA'RUS, a soldier of fortune who
raised, against the Byzantine emperor Leon-
tius, an army which proclaimed him emperor,
a.d. 698. He slit Leontius' ears and nose and
threw him into a convent. He was taken in
705 by Justinian II, who, after having used
him as a footstool at the hippodrome, ordered
him to be beheaded.

ABSINTHE, ab'sTnth, a drink prepared
from alcohol, the active principle of Artemisia
absinthium, and other aromatics, notably the
volatile oil of anise. Its frequent and pro-
longed use leads to a diseased condition known
as absinthism that is a product of chronic alco-
holism to which the effects of the volatile oil
of Absinthium are added. Other volatile oils
probably contribute somewhat to the general
result. Absinthism, in the main, is character-
ized by a greater amount of affection of the
brain than is simple alcoholism. The action
of the volatile oils is to heighten cerebral ex-
citement, and absinthe-mania is a frequent re-
sult of this form of intoxication. On 15 Jan.
1915 its sale was forbidden in France during the
duration of the Great War. See Wohmwood.

ABSIT OMKN (Lat. may the omen be
absent) ; God forbid !

ABSOLOM AND ACHITOPHEL. Dry-
den's 'Absolom and Achitophel,' perhaps the

i English, ■

s the direct

Plot of 1678-79, followed by the rebellion of
Monmouth, illegitimate son of Charles II,
against his father, had disorganized the king-
dom; and the Exclusion Bill, which provided
that the succession of James, Duke of York,
brother to the king, and a Catholic, should be
set aside in favor of the King's Protestant suc-
cessors, was again being fiercely debated in
Parliament The fate of the bill was still in
doubt ; Monmouth, though outwardly recon-
ciled to the King, might again rebel: Shafts-
bury, implacable enemy of James and instiga-
tor of Monmouth's rebellion, though being
tried for high treason, might yet be acquitted
and live to do further mischief. Amid such
conditions, in 1681, Dryden, as poet laureate,
was called upon to defend the throne. He
answered with a satire that for brilliant char-
acterization, cogent political reasoning, and
mastery of form, has at least never been sur-
passed in English. His object was to expose
the characters and motives of the King/s oppo-
nents and to exhibit Monmouth as their dupe;
and by so doing to kill the Exclusion Bill and
confirm James in his succession to the throne.
Taking a part of the story of Absolom's re-
bellion against his father David (2 Samuel,
xv-xviii), he ingeniously adapts it to contem-
porary characters and conditions. The story
of 'Absolom and Achitophel' is slight and un-
important, but for this defect the characteriza-
tion and political reasoning amply atone. The
characters are not merely impersonal types,
nor, unlike most of Pope's, are they too sharply

, Google

individualized. Furthermore, the; seemingly
are drawn without personal animus ; the
satirist has the air of pronouncing judgment
like an Olympian. The portraits of Achitophel
(Shaftsbury), Zimri (Buckingham), Shetnei
(Slingsby Bethel), deserve the place that they
have for two centuries occupied in the picture

gallery of great satire. Scarcely less remark'
able is the cogent political philosophy of the

~.«_ ...t;„i. _T i .1 .™,i .- Uu tU. ..

reasoning he seems to condemn, die poet puts
arguments that are now generally accepted as
valid by the greater part of mankind. It is
hard to tell just what Diyden really believed.
The verse shows mastery of that heroic couplet
which Dryden perfected and which is, all
things considered, the best vehicle that English
satire has discovered. Each couplet, its sense
condensed to the last degree, is at the same
time *a slap in the face and a stride forwards
toward the goal.' With such qualities, added
jo its timeliness, 'Absolom and Achitophel'
gained immediate and universal popularity and
made literature for the first time in England
a power in politics. Although die many re-
plies which it evoked are long since forgotten,
it remains great literature in spite of the fact
that its political issues are dead and that the
world in general has come around to Achito-
phel's point of view. A second part of 'Ab-
solom and Achitophel' was written by Nahum
Tate. To this Dryden contributed only 200
lines (310-509) of satire on the poets Shad-
well and Settle, which are in his best vein and
which form the only readable portion of the
poem.

Marion Tucker,
Professor of English Literature, Polytechnic

Institute of Brooklyn.

ABSOLUTE, opposed to relative; means
that the thing is considered in itself and with-
out reference to other things.

In Logic. — (1) Absolute or non-connorative,
according to Whately, is opposed to attributive
or connotative. The former does not take note
of an attribute connected with the object, which
the latter does. Thus *Rome* and "sky' are
absolute terms ; but "Rome, the capital of
Italy,* and *our sky* are attributive or con-
notative. (Consult Whately 'Logic,' bk. ii, ch.
y, IS 1, 2-5). 12) According to J. S. Mill it
is incorrect to regard non-connotative and ab-
solute as synonymous terms. He considers
absolute to mean non-relative and to be op-
posed to relative. It implies that the object
is to be considered as a whole, without refer-
ence to anything of which it is a part or to any
other object distinguished from it. Thus
■man* is an absolute term, but 'father* is not,
for father implies the existence of sons and is
therefore relative. (J. S. Mill's 'Logic,' bk.
i, ch. ii).

In Grammar, a case absolute is one consist-
ing essentially of a substantive and a participle,
which form a clause not agreeing with or gov-
erned by any word in the remainder of the
sentence. In Greek the absolute case is the
genitive; in Latin the ablative; in English it is
considered to be the nominative. In Latin the
words sale stante in the expression sole slante
terra vertitur (the earth turns round, the sun
standing still — that is, while the sun is stand-
ing still) are in the ablative absolute. In Eng-

lish, thou leading, in the following familiar
quotation —

" I shall not las behind, nor nr
Tbeirajr. thoa Indue— " (Milton)
is in the nominative absolute. So also is I rapt

"And, I all rapt in thin, 'Come out,' he aaid."

— T«nny«on'i 'PrincoM,' ProL 50.

In Law. — (1) Personal rights are divided
into absolute and relative — absolute, which
pertain to men as individuals ; and relative,
which are incident to them as members of so-
ciety, standing in various relations to each
The three chief rights of an absolute

.. property. (Blackstone's <Commentarii__,
bk. i, ch. i). Similarly there are absolute and
relative duties. Public sobriety is a relative
duty, while sobriety, even when no human eye
is looking on, is an absolute duty. (Ibid).
Property in a man's possession is described
under two categories, absolute and qualified
property. His chairs, tables, spoons, horses,
cows, etc, are his absolute property, while the
term "qualified property* is applied to the wild
animals on his estate. (2) An absolute decision
is one which can at once be enforced. It is
opposed to a rule nisi, which cannot be acted
on until cause be shown, unless, indeed, the
opposite party fail to appear. (3) Absolute
law: The true and proper law of nature. (4)
Absolute warrandice (Scotch conveyancing) :
A warranting or assuring against all mankind.

In Physics, absolute is opposed to relative.
As this relativity may be of many lands, various
shades of meaning arise ; thus : —

(1) Absolute or real expansion of a liquid,
as opposed to its apparent expansion, the ex-

Csion which would arise when the liquid is
ted if the vessel containing it did not itself
expand (2) Absolute gravity is the gravity
of a body viewed apart from all modifying in-
fluences, as, for instance, of the atmosphere.
To ascertain its amount, therefore, the body

by the motion so designated, viewed apart from
the modifying influence arising from disturb-
ing elements of another kind (4) Absolute
force exercised by a centre of force; strength
of a centre. _ (51 Absolute lero is that temper-
ature at which bodies are absolutely devoid of
heat It is situated at -273.10 C. Absolute tem-
perature is temperature measured in centigrade
units from absolute *ero. See Thebmodyn All-
ies; Zero.

In Astronomy, the absolute equation is the
aggregate of the optic and eccentric equations.

In Algebra, (x), the absolute value of x, is
x if x is real and positive, — x if x is real and
negative, and + v a3 + V* if x is a complex
number of the form a + tb, where o and b are
real.

In Geometry, the absolute is the region of
a projective space which becomes the points at
infinity when a Euclidean or no n- Euclidean
space is constructed from the elements of the
projective space. In a Euclidean plane, as a
locus, the absolute is a line, and as an envelope
a pair of points on the line. In a non-Euclidean
plane it is a conic

.Google

ABSOLUTE — ABSOLUTISM

ind of society.

In Metaphysics and Theology, the absolute
is a being, often identified with God, which is
(a) unrelated, (6) immediately presented to
our consciousness and (c) all-inclusive. An
unrelated being cannot of course be the subject
of the cognitive relation, so that if known it
must be known in a manner involving no re-
latcdncss. This is why the absolute is supposed
to be known immediately. This conception of
knowledge without relation is one which it is
very difficult to maintain consistently, and al-
most inevitably leads the absolutist (as the
adherent of the doctrine of the absolute is
known), to one or the other of the many forms
of mysticism. It must be supposed that the
mind in some way becomes the absolute by vir-
tue of its act of knowledge. Furthermore, the
third property of the absolute, that of being all-
inclusive, follows directly from its unrelated-
ness. However, the desire for a finished philo-
sophical system which contains an all-inclusive
whole is probably one of the chief motives
leading to the selection of an absolutistic stand-
point. Consult Spinoza's 'Ethics,1 Bradley's
'Logic,' or Bosanquet's 'Logic' for expres-
sions of the absolutistic standpoint.

Absolute Space and Time are space and
time viewed apart from their contents. Absolute
rest is rest which possesses some intrinsic cri-
terion that differentiates it from morion. The
absolute position of a body is its position with
reference to a set of axes at absolute rest. Ab-
solute motion and velocity are motion and
velocity with reference to a body at absolute

ABSOLUTS, Sik Anthony, a character in
"The Rivals,' a comedy by R. B. Sheridan. He
is a hot-headed, fiery-tempered, generous old
man, always in a towering passion, even while
he commends his own mildness of manner.
His son. Captain Absolute, is the hero of the
play.

ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. See Mon-
archy.

ABSOLUTE PERMISSIVE BLOCK
SYSTEM. See Block Signal System.

ABSOLUTION, in ecclesiastical usage, the
freeing from sin or its penalties. In the Cath-
olic Church absolution has two important and
distinctive bearings: (1) Absolution from sin;
(2) Absolution from censures. The first is
defined as the remission of sin, and can only
be given by a duly ordained priest in the Sacra-
ment of Penance, which requires, on the part
of the penitent, a sincere confession of all his
sins, contrition and a firm purpose of amend-
ment. The basis of the doctrine is the authority
of the Church and the commission in John xx,
23. In circumstances, where the conditions of
the Sacrament of Penance cannot be fulfilled,
as in severe illness when the penitent is too
weak to speak, or in instant danger of death,
conditional absolution may be given on the
ground of the moral conviction of the penitent's
virtual desire to comply with all the necessary
conditions. The Councils of Florence and of
Trent defined the form of words to be used ; *I
absolve thee from thy sins, etc." In the Greek

tion from censures merely removes penalties
imposed by the Church. It may be given either
in the Sacrament of Penance, or in the external
form, that is, in the courts of the Church. It
is not necessary for the person to be absolved
from censures to be present or even living.
Absolution for the dead is a short prayer im-
ploring eternal rest and the remission of the
temporal penalties of sin over a dead body. In
the Protestant Churches in general absolution
is simply a declarative power of the minister
imploring the divine forgiveness. Consult
'Decrees of Council of Trent'; Deny* de St.
Marthe, 'Traite de la Confession.1

ABSOLUTISM. A term used in political
science to denote that system of government
wherein the supreme power is vested in a
single authority — individual or collective —
unchecked by any constitution or laws. Since
absolute power may be exercised under a mon-
archy, an aristocracy or even a democracy, the
term, strictly speaking, does not apply to any
particular form of government, though it is,
usually employed in describing monarchies, as
they furnish the most numerous examples of
absolutism. United sovereignty is an essentia]
condition of absolutism, since the distribution
of the functions of government places that
government under restraints. Absolutism char-
acterized all ancient monarchies and has pre-
vailed in all Oriental monarchies, down to
japan of a few years ago. When the barbar-
ians overran western Europe feudalism replaced
the absolute monarchy, but the growth of towns
and the rise of commercial classes made neces-
sary a strongly centralized government to pro-
tect the nation against the feudalistic lords, and
the absolute monarch again came into power,
uniting in himself the various functions of
national life, both political and religious. The
Tudors and Stuarts in England, Frederick the
Great of Prussia, and Louis XIV of France,
with his famous assertion "L'etat e'est mot"
(*I am the State") are examples of absolute
monarchs, though their absolutism was mainly
limited to the centra! government. There are
no absolute monarchies in Europe and since
1908, when the government of Turkey was over-
thrown and a constitution adopted later, the
term has not been applicable even to the Otto-
man Empire.

The most common method of* checking abso-
lutism is to separate the governmental functions.
The legislative functions in most states of
western Europe and England are exercised by
two chambers; in the United States the national
and state governments share the powers of
sovereignty itself, while in each of these govern-
ments the authority is again divided among the
legislative, executive and judicial departments.
The written constitution or fundamental law
made by the people or their representatives is
another method of preventing absolutism, since
the fundamental purpose of a written consti-
tution is hot only to lay down a general plan
of government but also to regulate the powers
and conduct of those who govern. From the
standpoint of the citizen or subject no govern-
ment, whatever its nature or form, can hold
absolute sway in the multitudinous ramifications
of human activity, since, being political in char-
acter, absolutism is subject to the limitations
of human nature and is limited by local govern-
ment, and, in some countries, by common law;

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ABSORPTION — ABU KLEA

by international law which restrains sovereign
states from acts prejudicial to the interests or
injurious to the coexistence of the various
states ; and by the church, the religious author-
ing of which is usually independent of the state.
(See Monarchy; Feudal System; Despot).
Consult Brougham, H. P., 'Political Philosophy'
(1842-46), Baldwin, 5. E., 'Modem Political
Institutions* (1896) ; Lieber, F., 'Civil Liberty'
(3d ed., 1891).

ABSORPTION, in chemistry, absorption
is the taking up of a gas by a liquid or by a
porous solid; and in natural philosophy it is the
taking up of rays of light and heat by certain
bodies through which they are passing. Absorp-
tion of light is the retention of some rays and
the reflection of others when they pass into
an imperfectly transparent body. If all were
absorbed, the body would be black; if none,
it would be. white; but when some rays are
absorbed, and others reflected, the body is then
of one of the bright and lively colors.

In chemistry the coefficient of absorption of
a gas is the volume of the gas reduced to 0
Cent, and 760 m.m. pressure, which is absorbed
by the unit of volume of any liquid.

Absorption of heat is the retention and con-
sequent disappearance of rays of heat in passing
into or through a body colder than themselves.

Absorption of the earth is a term used by
Kircher and others for the subsidence of tracts
of land produced by earthquakes.

In physiology absorption consists of a series
of complicatea processes by which the neces-
sary constituents of the body are taken in at
' * i of

i complicated series of chemical

changes ; carbohydrates chiefly absorbed at vari-
ous parts of the intestinal canal after conver-
sion into monosaccharids and proteins which arc
chiefly taken up by the bloodvessels after pass-
ing through the epithelial cells of the intestinal
mucosa as peptones, proteoses, or amino-adds.
Proteids are not absorbed in the stomach. (See
Digestion; Gases, General Properties of;
Light; Occlusion; Spectboscopy) . Consult
Bayliss, 'Principles of General Physiology' ;
Starling, 'Human Physiology.'

ABSTRACT OF TITLE, a synopsis, or
brief statement, of the evidences of ownership
of real estate. An abstract should set forth
briefly but dearly every deed, will or other
instrument, together with every fact relating
in any way to the title, in order to enable the
party in interest to form an opinion as to, the
exact state of the title. The vendor of land,
in England, usually furnishes the purchaser
with an abstract of title. The vendor is not
compelled to furnish an abstract of title in the
United States. He usually undertakes to give
only a marketable title. Plans and sketches of
the premises are generally inserted in abstracts
of title.

i exemplifying the concept,
cepts of greater intensity and less extensity.
The word is also used to refer to the concept
thus formed. For example, when I single out
the redness of an apple and recognize it as

a separate quality, 1 am abstracting from the
size, taste, smell, etc., of the apple. While the
relation of the abstracted concept to the concept
from which it is abstracted is altogether a
logical one, our tendency to make abstraction is
greatly enhanced by our innate psychological
tendency to attend to certain striking portions
of a sense-datum, while the less impressive
aspects of the datum are only vaguely and
blurredly noticed. This process of abstraction
for the child begins in his noticing differences
in familiar objects. Within certain groups
some differences are found to be unimportant
These qualities which are found to be of less
importance are then abstracted or removed from
the complex idea for which the word denoting
this group of objects stands. As this process
develops it becomes deliberate, and the attention
may be directed upon resemblances instead of
differences. At this stage the grouping of ob-
jects according to likenesses results in classi-
fication. Consult any general work on logic
or psychology.

ABSYR'TUS. See Argonauts.

ABT, apt, Franz, German song-writer and
conductor: b. Wiesbaden 22 Dec. 1819; d. 31
March 1885. He studied theology at Leipzig,
but abandoned it for musk at Mendelssohn s
instance. In 1841 he became kapellmeister at
the court theatre at Bernburg ; shortly afterward
relinquishing the post for a similar one in Zu-
rich, where ne remained till 1852. He was then
called to Brunswick as chief conductor of the
orchestra in the royal theatre, and made court
kapellmeister in 1855. In 1872 he came to the
United States at the invitation of a number of
choral societies, and was very favorably re-
ceived; he conducted at the famous Peace
Jubilee in Boston in that year. In 1881 he
retired to Wiesbaden on a pension. Many of
his songs (for example, 'When the Swallows
Homeward Fly,1 'Good Night, Thou Child of
My Heart,' 'O Ye Tears,' etc), have endeared
themselves to the heart of the people all over
the world.

ABU-BEKR, i'boo-bek'r, bis original name
being, Abd al Kabah ibn Abi Kuhafah at Atik,
also Abd Allah, father-in-law of Mohammed,
being the father of the Prophet's wife: b.
Mecca, 573; d. 23 Aug. 634. On the death of
Mohammed, in 632, he was chosen as his suc-
cessor and the first caliph of Islam. He began
waging a successful warfare against his enemies
in Arabia, Persia and the Byzantine Emperor
He radius, but Iwo years later died at the age
of 63 and was buried in Medina, near the tomb
of Mohammed and Ayesha, the Prophet's wife
and his daughter.

ABU-HASSAN, a'-boo-has'an, surnamed
•The Wag," hero of one of the 'Arabian
Nights' Tales,' entitled 'The Sleeper Awak-
ened.' Unaware he entertains the caliph and
later becomes the monarch's friend and trusted

ABU KLEA (Akiklea Wells), a place in
the eastern Sudan, west of the Nile, on the
desert route from Korti to Metammeh, 23 miles
north northwest of the latter and about 120
miles from Khartum. Here a battle was fought

J.gilizodbyGoO^Ie

ABU-S1MBEL — ABULFAZL

Owing to the jamming of a gun, a comer of the
British square was broken, the Arabs rushed
through, and after a desperate hand-to-hand
struggle were driven off. The British lost 18
officers including the giant Cof. Fred Burnaby
and 150 men. Over 1,200 Arabs were killed.

ABU-SIMBEL, a' boo- si m "be 1, or IPSAH-
BUL, site of two remarkable Egyptian temples,
situated on the left bank of the Nile, in Nubia,
south of Assuan, in latitude 22° 2£ N. Both
these monuments of ancient Egypt were built
by Rameses II 1388-22 B.C., die smaller one
being dedicated to the goddess Hathor while
the larger one was dedicated to Amnion of
Thebes, Harmachis of Heliopolis and Ptah of
Memphis. The facade of the latter measures
119 feet across and stands over 100 feet in
height, before which are four sitting colossi,
each over 65 feet in height, each representing
the Pharaoh. The interior, divided into two
large halls and 12 minor chambers and corridors,
is fully 180 feet in depth, and the walls are
decorated with some of the finest and best pre-
served examples of ancient Egyptian mural
decorative art The vast outer hall, 54 by 58
feet, is supported by two rows of square pillars,
to each of which is attached a statue of the
Pharaoh reaching up to the roof. In front
of the smaller temple are six statues, each
three feet in height, representing Rameses and
his consort. Both temples were discovered by
Burckhardt in 1817. In 1912 the great colossi
of the temple facade were repaired by filling
their cracks with cement.

ABU TAMMAM, a'boo tarn mam, Arabian
poet : b. near Lake of Galilee, Syria, about 807 ;
d Mosul 842. It is said that he was born a
Christian and that he later became a Moham-
medan, but, tike most of the Arabian scholars
of his time, he was strongly inclined toward
scepticism. While still a mere youth he went
to Egypt. For the songs he wrote glorifying
the campaigns of Al Mutasim against Amonum,
in which he accompanied him, he was openly
rewarded. He traveled extensively, visiting
Armenia and Khorasan. During one of his
journeys he was obliged to seek refuge from
a snowstorm with Abul Wafa ibn Salami, in
Hamadan, whose extensive library was placed
at his disposal. It was there that he compiled
four collections of Arabic poems, the most
famous of which is known as the 'Hamasa.'
It is on this anthology that his fame rests most
firmly, though he did compose many original
poems. The Arabic text of the 'Hamasa* was
published (Bonn 1828-47) by G. W. Freytag
in two volumes: another edition was published
in Bulak (1869) and Calcutta (1856). A Ger-
man translation by Friedrich Riickert, has also
been published (Stuttgart 1846). Consult
Brockelmann, 'Geschicte der arabischen Liter-
atur> (Vol I, 1898).

ABU'L ALA, AL MA'ARRI, a'bool a'la al
ma-a're, Arab poet and philosopher: b. Ma'arrat
al Nu'man, northern Syria, 973 ; d. 1058. When
only four years of age he became totally blind.
His early schooling was obtained at Aleppo,
Tripoli and Antioch. In 1010 he went to Bag-
dad, apparently to seek his fortune, but met
with little success and finally returned to
Ma'arrat, where he remained for the rest of
his life. He soon attracted wide attention as
a poet and a writer of songs, a collection of

them being preserved under the title 'Sikt al
Zand.' Later he ventured into philosophical
writings, in which he criticized many of the
follies of his time and people. In his 'Risalat
al Ghufran," 'Letters of the Forgiven,1 he
satirized the lives of the forgiven heretics of
the past in the other world. He was, in fact,
far ahead of his time in his religious ideas,
adhering to neither Mohammedan nor Christian
creeds, but advocated only the ethical teachings
of both religions. Consult Kremer, 'Uber die
philosophiscnen Gedichte des Abu'l Ala al
Mam' (1888) ; Nicholson, (A Literary History
of the Arabs' (1907, p. 313); Marguliouth,
'The Utters of Abn'l Ala' (1906).

ABUT ABBAS, S'bool a-bas'. founder of
the Abbasid dynasty of Caliphs. His name

"kunya,* 'the shedder of Wood."

His claim to the caliphate was based on the
fact that his father, Mohammed ibn Ali, was
the grandson of a first cousin of the Prophet,
or, the great-grandson of the Prophet's uncle.
With this foundation to his pretentions, Abu'l
Abbas began his career of conquest in Khorasan
in 747, captured Kufa and there, two years
later, proclaimed himself caliph. The follow-
ing year Marwan II was defeated and killed
and Abu'l Abbas began a course of systematic
massacre of the whole family of the Banu
Umyya. He died in 754, being succeeded by
his brother Abu Ja 'far al Mansur. Consult
Muir, 'The Caliphate' (3d ed., 1899, p. 426);
Wellhausen, 'Das arabische Reich' 0902, p.
338).

ABUX ATAHIYA, a'bool ji-ta'hi-ya, or
ISMAIL IBN AL KASIM, Arab poet: b.
An bar, on the Euphrates, 748: d. 825. He
lived in Kufa, Hira and Bagdad, leading an
ascetic life of extreme simplicity, writing
against the religious fanaticism of his time.
His poetry reflects his own simplicity in its
simple, direct Style. A good edition of a col-
lection of his poems was published in Beirut
in 1887. Consult Brockelmann, 'Geschicte der
arabischen Literatur' (1898, Vol. I, p. 78).

ABUX FARAT, a'bool- fa- raj', or ALI IBN
AL HUSAIN IBN MOHAMMED IBN
AHMED AL KURASHI AL ISFAHANI,

Songs'), through which most of the modern
knowledge of early Arabic literature is handed
down. It includes a large collection of songs,
to many of which are appended notes of the
writers and anecdotes illustrative of their
personalities. The latest edition of the text
was published in Cairo (21 vols., 1905).

great Emperor of the Mongols : b. 1551 ; & 1602.
His chief work is a history of Akbar's reign,
in two parts. The" first, 'Akbar Namah,' or
'Book of Akbar,' is an historical narrative,
while the second part 'Ayin-i- Akbar,' or
'Institute of Akbar,' describes the religious
and political constitution of the empire. The
Persian text of the first part is edited in the
'Bibliotheca Indica' (1867-87), and a transla-

y Google

ABULPBDA— ABYSSINIA

tion by Beveridge majr be found in the same
collection. A translation of the second part
by Blocbmann and Jarett may also be found in
the same work. Abulfazl initiated that great
literary movement through which has been
handed dawn the Persian translations of many
Sanskrit, Arabic and Hindu works. He was
murdered while on a mission to the Deccan.

ABULFEDA, a'bool-f e-da', ISMAIL IBN
ALI, Arabian prince and scholar: b. Damascus,
1273; d. 26 Oct. 1331. In 1310 he became ruler
of the principality of Hama, the throne being
granted to him by the Sultan for distinguished
military services, part of which were against
the Crusaders. In 1320 he was granted the
dignity of "sultan* with the right to transmit
his powers to his heirs. During his entire
reign he patronized arts and letters and traveled
to Egypt and Arabia. One of his chief works
is 'An Abridgement of the History of the
Human Race,' beginning with the creation and
ending with the year 1329. The text was pub-
lished in Constantinople in 1870 and several
translations have been made. The period cover-
ing the Crusades is especially important and
has been extensively quoted by Western histo-
rians. A part may be found in the first volume
of Muratori's 'Scriptores Rerum Italicarum.'
The part preceding the Mohammedan era was
translated into Latin by Fleischer as 'Abul-
fedse Historia ante-Islamitica' (Leipzig 1831).
The part dealing with the life of Mohammed
has been rendered into English by W. Murray
and published in London, and the later parts by
Reiske and Adler in 'Annates Moslemici'
(5 vols., Copenhagen 1789-94). Abulfeda also
contributed richly to modern knowledge of the
Moslem world of the time through his geo-
graphical writings. A complete edition of this
phase of his work was published by Reinaud
and de Slane in Paris (1840) and a French
translation was published by Reynaud (first
part, 1845) and Guyaud (second part, 1883).

Minor; on the Hellespor
noli, nearly opposite Sestus. It is the point
from which Xerxes made his celebrated cross-
ing of the Hellespont on the bridge of boats;
and, also, as being the scene of the loves of
Hero (q.v.) ana Leander (see Musaus).
Byron adopts the name in his 'Bride of
Abydos1 (1813), characterizing it as a clime
where "All, save the spirit of man is divine.*
It is thought originally to have been a Tlnacian
town, which subsequently became a Milesian
colony. In 411 b.c. Abydos revolted from
Athens and went over to Dercyllidas the Spar-
tan. Subsequently the city was captured by
Philip II of Macedonia, but in 196 b.c it was
declared free by the Romans. (2) Another
Abydos was situated in Egypt on the upper
Nile, and in the Thebaid was second in im-
portance only to Thebes. It has important
ruins of the Palace of Memnon and the tomb
of Osiris. Here also were found the famous
Tablets of Abydos.

ABYSMAL DEPOSITS are accumula-
tions at the bottom of the ocean at great
depths known as abysmal depths. They con-
sist chiefly of red and gray clays and oozes or
combinations of clays with various shells and
animals, such as Dictonis, Foramtnifera and

Radioiarvtns. These deposits constitute the
larger part of the deep-sea bottoms. Although
there is a vast amount of minute animal life
at these abysmal depths this life is confined,
so far as definitely known, to a few species.
The deposits are made up of the remains of
surface and abysmal animals, the latter of
which are born, live and die on the bottom
of the ocean. Most of the shells of surface
animals decompose rapidly at great depths of
the ocean, and many of them disintegrate
under the pressure of the salt water before
they reach the bottom, where they are con-
stantly being added to the deposits. There
are various kinds of deposits, classified ac-
cording to the depths at which they are found
and the local influences under which they
have been formed; but only a comparatively
few of them can be classed as abysmal. One
of these abysmal depths exists in the deep
bed of the Gulf of Mexico and along nearly
the whole course of the Gulf stream. Very
little, if any, of the deposits of these great
ocean depths is derived from the shores of
the bordering continents; for the geological
formations going on there seem to be a thing
apart from the debris of all except that of the
surface animals that pass <

As all the abysmal deposits
■■ another geologists have found

above them.

merge into one another geologists
great difficulty in determining their character
in given areas. The 20 or more species of
pelagic Foramtnifera constitute over 90 per
cent of the vast quantities of carbonate of lime
present in the calcareous oozes of the abysmal
depths of the oceans. This animal life, thus
wonderfully abundant to-day, is present in a
like plentifulness in other geological forma-
tions and periods. Living as they do at such
a great depth below the surface and being
subject to a more or less uniform pressure,
the shells of these animals are very much
alike in appearance and thickness in all the
abysmal deposits and zones. See Continental
Shelf.

ABYSSINIA (officially Ethiopia) , an
ancient kingdom of East Africa, now under a
monarch who claims the title of empress. Pop.
some 8,000,000. Abyssinia may be said to ex-
tend between lat. 5° and 15° N., and long. 35*
and 43° E. It is bounded on the north by the
Italian colony Eritrea, on the west by the Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan, on the south by British East
Africa and on the southeast and east by British,
French and Italian Somaliland and Red Sea
colonies. Its frontiers have been frequently
changed, but in 1906 England, France and Italy
agreed to preserve so far as possible the in-
tegrity of Abyssinia as it then existed. The
country is divided into nine provinces which
comprise the kingdoms of Shoa in the south
(including Efat}, the strongest and best
organized state in Abyssinia,— capital, Addis
Abeba, former capital Ankobar with some
2,000 inhabitants, 8,000 feet above sea-level,
with a salubrious climate ; Amhara in the
centre (including Gojam), capital, Gondar,
situated on the Gondar plateau, 7,500 feet above
the sea; and Tigre in the north, chief places,
Antalo, Adua or Adowa and Axum, ancient
capital of Ethiopia, the two latter with about
5,000 inhabitants. There are besides territories
and dependencies extending to Kaffa and

a b, Google

Harrar in the south and southeast, including
large portions of Gal la and Somali Lands.
Addis Abeba, capital of Shoa, was founded in
1892 by King Menelik as the capital of Abys-
sinia. It consists of villages and suburbs
scattered round the palace over an area of
three square miles, and has between 50,000 and
60,000 inhabitants.

Topography.— The more marked physical
features of the country may be described gen-
erally as consisting of a vast series of table-
lands of various and often of great elevations.

and of

ranges of high and rugged
of them of very singular
forms, dispersed over the surface in apparently
the wildest confusion. From these mountains
flow inexhaustible supplies of water, which,
pouring down by the deep and tremendous
ravines that everywhere intersect them, impart
an extraordinary fertility (o the plains and
valleys below.

The loftiest and most remarkable mountain
summits occur in the Simen range in the centre
of the northern part of the kingdom, immedi-
ately west of the Tacazzd River. Among the
highest of these (so far as known) is Ras
Dashan, calculated at 15,160 feet and capped
with perpetual snow. Abba Yared and Biuat
are slightly lower. Along the eastern side of
the country extends a mountain range or es-
carpment forming a natural rampart, with a
mean elevation of 7,000 or 8,000 feet for some
600 miles. No volcanoes are known to exist
at present, but almost everywhere are numerous
evidences of past volcanic action. Perhaps the
principal river of Abyssinia is the Tacazze,
rising in the mountains of Lasta, about tat.
12° N.; long. 39" 20* E. It runs north and
then west, and after leaving the bounds of
Abyssinia takes' the name of Atbara, and finally
joins the Nile. The chief of the other rivers —
tf not indeed the chief of all — is the Abay or
Abai in the centre which, after flowing through
Lake Dembea, or Tsana, the largest lake in
Abyssinia, runs south and then northwest, and
later becomes the Bahr-el-Azrek or Bine Nile,
of which it is in fact the upper portion. The
Hawash is the principal river flowing east.

Fauna. — The domestic animals consist of
horses, cattle, sheep, goats, camels, mules and
asses. Mules, camels and asses are the usual
beasts of burden, the horses being generally
reserved for' war and the chase. Vast herds of
oxen are met with throughout the country.
The wild animals are the lion (rare), elephant,
hippopotamus, rhinoceros, crocodile, buffalo,
hyena, leopard, boar, antelope, zebra, quagga,
giraffe, gazelle and civet. The hippopotamus
abounds in Lake Tsana, and great numbers are
killed annually for their flesh and hides. The
rhinoceros, like the elephant, inhabits the low,
moist grounds, and is numerous in certain dis-
tricts. Crocodiles are found in various rivers,
but the largest and most dreaded arc those that
inhabit the Tacazze. The buffalo, a compara-
tively harmless animal in other countries, is
here extremely ferocious. Serpents are not
numerous but several poisonous species are to
be found as well as the boa, which often attains
a length of 20 feet. There are many birds of
beautiful plumage; bees are numerous, honey
being a general article of food; locusts often
lay the land waste, and the tsetse fly is destruc-
tive to cattle during the rainy season. The

flora is very varied and in the low lands and
valleys extremely luxuriant. Cotton, sugar-
cane, date palm, coffee, vine, bananas and other
fruits would flourish, but are not extensively
cultivated. A wild coffee plant runs riot in
southern and western Abyssinia, and there are
many valuable timber ana rubber trees in the
forests. Agriculture is the chief industry but
is still in a primitive state, the soil belonging
theoretically to the imperial government ana
the idea of landed property being little under-
stood by the natives. Manufacturing industries
are very backward, but cattle, sheep, goats,
small hardy horses, donkeys and mules are ex-
tensively raised. The chief native products
are hides, skins, millet, wheat, barley, tobacco
and an excellent Mocha coffee known as Hariri

Productions — The chief mineral products
of Abyssinia are iron, sulphur, coal and salt,
hut they are as yet undeveloped. Coal beds
extend along the whole of the eastern frontier
of Shoa, but as a combustible coat is scarcely
known in the country. Salt is obtained in
various places, especially from a plain on the
southeastern border of Tigre. Gold is obtained
from alluvial deposits, but not in great quan-
tity. In some parts of the country iron is
abundant and is manufactured into implements.
A few hot mineral springs are known and used.

Climate.— The climate of Abyssinia is as
various as its surface. In the valleys it is
delightful, but on the mountains often cold.
The light rains commence in April or May, the
heavy rains in June and continue till September
(over a considerable portion of the country at
least), during which period they are often so
violent as to put a stop to agricultural labor.

Commerce. — The foreign trade is chiefly
carried on through Jibuti in French Somaliland
and other non- Abyssinian ports on the Red Sea
and Gulf of Aden and through Gambeta and
western Abyssinia to the Sudan ; but the exter-
nal traffic has never been of great importance,
as the nature of the country is adverse to an
extensive trade, and there are relatively few
commodities suited for export; moreover, till
recently the natives dared not trust their treas-
ures out of their secret hoards, and the royal
court was the chief buyer. Menelek's firm
administration, however, with its better security
for life and property, extended Abyssinian
trade considerably, the United States and Great
Britain being the chief beneficiaries, France,
India, Italy and Germany ranking next. In
1913 the value of exports and imports
through Jibuti was about $.1,684,240, through
Gambeta and West Abyssinia $638,235 and
through Somaliland $308,500. The chief ex-
ports were hides and skins, coffee, wool, ivory
and rhinoceros horns, honey, wax, civet ; the
chief imports, cotton goods, in which American
fabrics take the lead, firearms, ammunition, pro-
visions, liquors, railway material, sugar and
petroleum. Trade is greatly hampered by the
primitive methods of communication, which is
carried on by mules and pack-horses ; the dis-

cted by French capital, was opened
between Jibuti and Dire Dawa, 25 miles from
Harar; in 1909 a new company was formed to
extend the line to Addis Abeba. In 1912 it
reached the Hawash River, and was expected

, Google

a b, Google

to be about 30 miles from Addle Abeba in 1915.
There are 1,056 miles of telegraph fines. The
bank of Abyssinia, chartered in 1905 with a
capital of $2,500,000, mainly provided by the
National Bank of Egypt, the governor of which
is its president, has its headquarters at Addis
Abeba. The current coin oi Abyssinia is the
Maria Theresa dollar, but in recent years an
effort had been made to introduce a new cur-
rency with the Menelek dollar (worth about 50
cents) as the standard. Saltbars and cartridges
are also accepted as currency.

Population.— The native population consists
of Semitic Abyssinian s, Gallas and Somalia,
negroes (in southwest) and Falashas (of Jew-
ish religion). The non-natives are Indians,
Arabs, Greeks, Armenians, and a few Euro-
peans. Up to 1907 education was solely in the
hands of the clergy. In October of that year
compulsory education was decreed for boys
over 12, but the edict remained a dead letter.
One Abyssinian school with about 100 pupils
exists in Addis Abeba. Justice is administered
by the provincial governors and petty chiefs
with right of appeal to the Emperor. The legal
system is supposed to be based on the Justinian

Government.— The government of Abys-
sinia is feudal in character. Each of the nine
provinces has its governor, supposedly under
the authority of the Emperor or Negus, and
having their retainers, or professional warriors.
There is a vague state council composed of
the most important rasts, or chiefs, and a
ministerial council constituted by Emperor
Menelek in 1908. The regular army numbers
about 250,000 men, mostly cavalry, and is sup-
plemented by irregulars and territorial troops in

History.— Northern Abyssinia corresponds
to ancient Ethiopia (see Ethiopia), which is
still the official name of the country, Abyssinia
being a Portuguese form of the Abrabian
Habesch, signifying "mixture." Christianity
was introduced in the 4th century. In the 6th
century the Abyssinians conquered the rich
province of Yemen in Arabia and were in con-
stant communication with the outside world for
over 50 years. The Mohammedan conquest of
Egypt in the 7th century completely isolated
them however, and for centuries afterward the
kingdom continued in a distracted state, now
torn by internal commotions, and now invaded
by external enemies (Mohammedans and Gal-
las). To protect himself from the former the
Emperor of Abyssinia, about the end of the 16th
century, applied for assistance to the King of
Portugal. The solicited aid was sent, and the
empire saved The Jesuit priests, having now
ingratiated themselves with the Emperor and his
family, endeavored to induce them to renounce
die tenets and rites of the Coptic Church and
adopt those of Rome. This attempt, however,
was resisted by the ecclesiastics and the peo-
ple, and finally ended, after a long struggle, in
the expulsion of the Roman Catholic priests in
1633. The kingdom gradually fell into a state
of anarchy, which about the middle of the 18th
century was complete. The Negus received no
obedience from the provincial governors, who
besides were at feud with one another and
severally assumed the royal title.

visits from occasional explorers such as James
Bruce in 1769, remained shut off from the world
until the 19th century. A remarkable, but, as
it proved, quite futile attempt to resuscitate
the unity and power of the ancient kingdom
was begun about the middle of the 19th century
by King Theodore, who aimed at tbe restora-
tion of the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia, with
himself for its sovereign. He introduced
European artisans, and went to work wisely in

ber c

! for

_ __.isequence of

a slight, real or fancied, which he had received
at the hands of the British government, he
threw Consul Cameron and a number of other
British subjects into prison in 1864, and refused
to give them up. To effect their release an
army of about 16,000 men under Sir Robert
Napier was dispatched from Bombay in 1867;
it landed at Zulla on the Gulf of Aden in Janu-
ary 1868, and after marching 400 mites besieged
Magdala, Theodore's capital, which was taken
by storm 13 April. Theodore was found among
the slain, the general opinion being that he had
fallen by his own hand.

After the withdrawal of the English, fight-
ing immediately began arhong the chiefs of the
different provinces, the three most powerful,
Kassa of Tigre', Go basic and Menelek, strug-
gling for the supremacy. This state of matters
continued for some time ; but at last the country
was' divided between Kassa, who secured the
northern and larger portion and assumed the
name of Johannes, and Menelek, who gained
possession of Shoa. In 1872 Johannes made
himself supreme ruler, with the title of emperor,
or king of kings (Negus Negusti). Taking
advantage of the troubles in Abyssinia the
Egyptians annexed Massowa and adjoining ter-
ritory on the Red Sea, and hostilities were
repeatedly carried on between them and Jo-
hannes. In 1885 the Egyptian forces were with-
drawn, and Italy, with the consent of Great
Britain, declared a protectorate over Massowa
and the strip of territory along the coast of the
Red Sea. In the following year the Italians

Sshed inward to Saati. a few miles west of
assowa, an action which led to war with
Johannes. An Abyssinian force was sent in
1887 to recover Saati; but though a small
Italian force was cut to pieces at Dogafi the
Italians maintained their position.

On the death of Johannes In 1889, while
fighting against the Mahdists, Menelek, who
had concluded an alliance with Italy, known as
the treaty of Nchali, raised himself to the
imperial throne. The result of this was the
strengthening of the Italian hold on the country.
The Italians regarded their treaty with Menelek
as giving them a protectorate over Abyssinia,
and by 1892 the whole of Ethiopia was generally
recognized as within the Italian sphere.
Proceeding to extend and strengthen their posi-
tion, the Italians in 1889 occupied Keren, capital
of the Gogos country, situated 60 miles west
of Massowa, and also fortified Asmara, south-
west of Massowa. Adowa, the capital of Tigrf,
and the centre of opposition to Menelek, was
occupied in the following year. The Mahdists
were also defeated, and Kassala in the Sudan
was occupied by the Italians. Menelek, how-
ever, later repudiated die Italian protectorate,
broke with his farmer allies, and in 1896 his
troops inflicted on them such a defeat at Adowa

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ABYSSINIAN CHURCH — ACADEMIC DEGREES

as gave a death-blow to their claim of a pro-
tectorate over all Abyssinia. The treaty of
Addis Abeba concluded in that year between
Mcnelek and the Italians practically abrogated
the treaty of seven years before, but left Italy
in possession of a strip along the Red Sea coast
from the French colony of Obok on the south
to Kas Kasar on the north, known officially as
Eritrea (Erythrsea), the frontiers of which
were definitely settled in 1908. A British mis-
sion in 1897 was favorably received by the
Emperor, a treaty of commerce was concluded
and the boundaries between Abyssinia and the
British Somali protectorate were arranged. In
1908 a further agreement with Great Britain
regulated the boundary between Abyssinia and
the Sudan down to 6 N. lat. _ Abyssinia also
has her comprehensive commercial treaties with
the United States (1903), Germany and Austria-
Hungary (1905), and France (1908). Each of
these treaties was to remain in force for a
period of 10 years, when it could be terminated
at a year's notice. Mcnelek (b. 1842) died in
December 1913 and was succeeded by his grand-
son Lidj Yasu (b. 1896), who on account of the
illness of the Emperor had been virtually ruler,
under regents, since 1909.

On 27 Sept 1916, during the Emperor Lidj
Yasu's absence at Harrar, the Metropolitan
Abuna Mathaeos released the people and chiefs
from their allegiance and deposed the Emperor.
In his stead they elected Waizern Zauditu,
daughter of the late Emperor Menelek, as
Empress of Abyssinia, and designated Degiac
Tassari Makonnen as heir to the throne. The
deposed monarch, who is a Knight Grand Cross
of the Royal Victorian Order (G.C.V.O.), is a
son of Menelek' s second daughter. The young
emperor had received an excellent European
education, and at the age of 14 could speak
fluently English, French and German. In May
1909, when 13 years old^ Lidj Yasu was mar-
ried to Princess Romani, a granddaughter of
the late Emperor John, who had fought against
and defeated Menelek (when King of'Shoa) in
1877. Sentimentality or favoritism found no
part in Menelek' s nature; the welfare of his
country was his first preoccupation, and it was
a well-known fact in Abyssinia that he had
carefully studied the nature and character of
the youth before be took the step of appointing
him as his successor. During the World War,
Abyssinian troops were allied with the British
in the East African campaign.

Bibliography. — Bruce, 'Travels to Discover
the Source of the Nile' (3d ed, Edinburg
1813): Markham, 'History of the Abyssinian
Expedition' (London 1869); Wylde, 'Modern
Abyssinia' (London 1901) ; Skinner, 'Abys-
sinia of Today' (New York 1906), an account
of the 6rst American mission ; Duchesne- Four-
net, 'Mission en Ethiopie' (Paris 1909); Schu-
lein, 'In Abyssinia, the Land of the Barefooted
King1 (London 1914) ; Annaratone, 'In Abis-
sinia' (Rome 1914) ; Castro, 'Nella Terra dei
Negus' (Milan 1915) ; Bent, J. T.. 'The Sacred

ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. The Church

founded by Frumentius, the first bishop of
Ethiopia, about 330 a.d. About 470 a great
company of monks established itself in the
country, completely changing the doctrines and
affairs of the Church, but was a few years later
expelled From 1528 to 1540, the country \ "

1883) ; Vigneras, 'Une mission Francais
Ahyssinie* (Pans 1897); Morie, 'Histoire de
1' Ethiopie' (Paris 1904) ; Welby, 'Twixt Sirdar
and Menelek' (London 1901).

Chabi.es Leonard-Stuait,
Staff of the Americana.

. which remained till 1633, when the
Abyasinians resumed allegiance to the Church
at Alexandria. The metropolitan (called
Abuna) or head of the Church is appointed by
the patriarch of Alexandria, and is always a
foreigner. The Abyssinians are mo nophy sites,
generally agreeing with the Copts in ritual and
practice. The fasts are long and rigid ; confes-
sion and absolution are strictly enforced and
the Sabbath and the Levirate law are generally
observed Graven images, purgatory, extreme
unction, crucifixes, etc., are prohibited The
priests must many, but only once. The liturgy
is celebrated on the ark in the King's palaoe at
Christmas, Epiphany, Easter and the Feast of
the Cross. The Scriptures are read in Gecz,
the literary language, which is used for all
services. Consult Dowling, 'The Abyssinian
Church' (London 1909).

ACACIA, a-ka'sha, (Gr. akl, spine, from
their spiny stalks), a genus of plants, family
Mimosacea. They are trees or- shrubs with
compound pinnate leaves and small leaflets, —
in some species wholly or partially undeveloped
when the petiole or leaf-stalk expands into a
blade resembling a leaf, hence called phyllo-
dium. Certain species yield gum arabic, gum
senega! and other gums; some have astringent
barks and pods, used in tanning. Some of the
Australian species contain considerable tannin,
and hence are exported to a large extent. An
Indian species yields an astringent called
catechu. Some of the species of tropical
America, known as hull-horn Acacias, are inter-
esting because of their large hollow spines
which are penetrated and inhabited by ants.
ACACIUS, a-ka'shius. bishop of Cesarea
340-365 a.d. He founded a curious Christian
sect called Acacians, and that may be termed
homoiothclites, as they held that the Son was
like the Father in will, but not of the same
or similar substance; thus differing from the
Arians. He induced a synod at Constantinople
in 359 to accept the doctrine, whereon St
Jerome said that *the world groaned and
wondered to find itself Arian.* It was finally
condemned however, and he was banished.

ACACIUS, Saint, bishop of A mi da in
Mesopotamia, early in the 5th century. He sold
the church plate to redeem 7,000 starving
Persian slaves. Vararanes (Bahram), the king,
is said to have been so affected by this noble
action that he sought an interview with the
bishop, which resulted in a peace between that
prince and Theodosius II, a.d. 422, and a hun-
dred years' peace was sworn between Rome
and Persia.

ACADEMIC COSTUME. See Costume,
Academic.

ACADEMIC DEGREES. Academic de-
grees, whether earned or honorary, are titles
conferred by colleges, universities and pro-
fessional schools upon persons who, in^ the
opinion of the authorities of thes

a b, Google

ACADEMIC LEGION — ACADEMIES IN AMERICA

have exhibited special proficiency in any branch
of knowledge. (See Drcbee). The difference
between earned and honorary degrees is that
the former are conferred upon students who
have completed a certain prescribed course of
study and all other requirements of the insti-
tution granting such degrees, whereas the lat-
ter are conferred upon individuals selected,
without examination or other requirement, be-
cause they have attained eminence in some line
of endeavor.

There is a woful lack of uniformity in the
methods used in granting degrees by the edu-
cational institutions of the United States.
Academic degrees are not and cannot be pro-
tected adequately by law. Institutions which
claim the right to confer such degrees have in-
creased so rapidly and their standards vary so
widely that the value of a degree is greatly
lessened. Some small and new institutions and
some unauthorized agencies not only bestow
the degrees that are properly honorary, for in-
sufficient or no reason, but confer other degrees
that should be won only after the completion
of a definite course of study. There is a ten-
dency toward uniformity of standards, however,
and in 1908 a report was made by a committee
of the National Association of State Universi-
ties 'upon standards for the recognition of
American universities and upon standards for
the recognition of the A.B. degree and higher
degrees.* The Carnegie Foundation (q.v.J is
also using its influence to standardize degrees
by giving the benefits of its pension fund only
to those universities and colleges which adopt
and enforce certain requirements for admission
and study.

In general the lowest degrees, Bachelor
of Arts (B.A. or A.B.) and Bachelor of Sci-
ence (B.S. or S.B.), are given to students who
have completed the non-professional four-year
college course. There is considerable diver-
gence in the significance of degrees even among
the older colleges and universities, since the
A.B. no longer indicates, as formerly, that the
recipient has completed a definite amount of
Greek, Latin and mathematics. The elective
system and the tendency to replace the classics
by modern languages have obliged the institu-
tions either to change the requirements for the
degree or else to substitute a new degree. The
second or master's degree — Master of Arts
(M.A. or A.M.) and Master of Science (M.S.)
— are granted to holders of bachelor's degrees
who have completed an additional year of
study, although these degrees are often honor-
ary. The degree of Doctor of Philosophy
(Ph.D.) is usually bestowed upon those who
have completed at least three years of grad-
uate work and have prepared a thesis upon
some subiect approved by the faculty that will
show ability to do original work. This degree
is no longer given as an honorary degree by
any institution of rank.

Among the more usual degrees, besides
those above mentioned, conferred by profes-
sional schools are Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.),
Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), Bachelor of Divin-
ity (B.D.), Civil Engineer (C.E.), Electrical
Engineer (E.E.), Mechanical Engineer (M.E.)
and Bachelor of Literature in Journalism
fB.Litt.). There are numerous other degrees,
honorary and otherwise, such as Doctor of
Science (ScD.), Doctor of Letters (Litt.D),

Doctor of Laws (LL.D.), Doctor of Divinity
(D.D.), Bachelor of Civil Law (B.C.L.),
Bachelor of Letters (B.L. or Litt.B.), Bachelor
of Philosophy (B.P., B.Ph. or Ph.B.), Doctor
of Medical Dentistry (D.M.D.), Doctor of
Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M.), Doctor of
Law (J.D., Juris Doctor), Doctor of Civil and
Canon Law (J.U.D., Juris Utriusque Doctor),
Doctor of Letters or Humanities (L.H.D.),
Bachelor of Music (Mus.B.), Master of Laws
(L.L.M. or M.L., Legwm Maaisler), Master of
Civil Engineering (M.C.E.), Master of Mining
Engineering ( M.M.E. ) , Doctor of Music
(Mus.D.), Graduate in Pharmacy (Ph.G.)

The United States Commissioner of Education
reports yearly on the degrees granted by insti-
tutions, and the catalogues of the institutions
will give the conditions attaching to the be-
stowal of degrees. Consult Paul Monroe (ed),
'Cyclopedia of Education' (article "Degrees*
1911).

ACADEMIC LEGION, an insurrec-
tionary corps of armed students who made
themselves conspicuous at Vienna in 1848.

ACADEMICS, a name given to a series
of philosophers who taught in the Athenian
Academy, the scene of Plato's discourses.
They are commonly divided into three sects:
U) The Old Academy, of which Plato was
the immediate founder, was represented suc-
cessively by Speusippus, Xenocrates and Pole-
mon. (2) To them succeeded Arcesilaus, the
founder of the Middle Academy. Under his
hands the Platonic method assumed an almost
exclusively polemical character. His main ob-
ject was to refute the Stoics, who maintained
a doctrine of perception identical with that
promulgated by Dr. Reid in the 18th century.
Socrates is said to have professed that all he
knew was that he knew nothing. Arcesilaus
denied that he knew even this. Wisdom he
made to consist in absolute suspension of as-
sent; virtue, in the probable estimate of con--
sequences. He was succeeded by Lacydes,
Telecles, Evander and Hegesinus. (3) The
New Academy claims Carneades as its founder.
His system is a species of mitigated scepticism.
He was succeeded by his disciple, Clitomachus.
Charmides, the third and last of the new aca-
demicians, appears to have been little more
than a teacher of rhetoric

ACADBMIE DBS BEAUX ARTS, ak-
ad-a-ine da bo zar. See Academy or Fink
Abts.

ACADEMIES IN AMERICA. In the
United States the term academy is not generally
applied, as in Europe, to learned societies.
The oldest association of the academic type in
the United States originated with Benjamin
Franklin, who published (A Proposal for Pro-
moting Useful Knowledge Among the British
Plantations in America* in 1743. This re-
sulted in the organization the same year of the
"American Philosophical Society Held at
Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowl-
edge.' Franklin was its first secretary, and
from 1769 until his death in 1790 its president.
Its Transactions were first published in 1771,
and its Proceedings in 1838. It numbers over
500 members and holds an annual general
meeting. The American Academy of Am and

.Google

Sciences was founded at Boston in 1780, and
dealing largely with the antiquities and natural
history of America, has published several vol-
umes of Transactions dating from 1785, The
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences was
founded in 1799. The Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia was founded in 1818
and is a flourishing institution with a fine
museum and library. The New York Academy
of Science, originally known as the Lyceum of
Natural History, was founded in 1818 and re-
ceived its present title in 1875. The American
Association for the Advancement of Science,
first organized in 1840 as the American Associa-
tion of Geologists, now has a membership of
over 8,000. The National Academy of Sciences
was chartered by Congress in 1863 to investi-
gate and report on scientific questions. Origin-
ally limited to 50 members, the number was
extended to 150 in 1907. The most important
of the national organizations of academic
character is the Smithsonian Institution (q.v.)
at Washington. The Washington Academy of
Sciences, amalgamating several scientific so-
cieties of the National capital, was incorporated
in 1898. The American Academy of Political
and Social Science of Philadelphia, and the
Academy of Political Science of New York
(Columbia University), are important institu-
tions. Academies of medicine nourish in New
York, Philadelphia (established 1799), Cin-
cinnati and Cleveland, an- academy of science
in St. Louis, and in 1898 the American Acad-
emy of Arts and Letters was founded
in New York. The Pennsylvania Academy of
Fine Arts, famous for its annual exhibitions,
was founded in 1807, and the National Acad-
emy of Design, in New York, in 1828.
Of scholastic institutions, the earliest

i FrankKn, char-
tered in 1753, and in 1779 incorporated as the
University of Pennsylvania. Other early
schools of this type were the John Phillips
academies, established at Andover, Mass., and
at Exeter, N. H., and the term is also used in
the well-known title of The United States
Military Academy at West Point

The term is also loosely but popularly used
to designate places where dancing, riding,
fencing^ etc., are taught.

In Central and South America among the
learned societies of standing are: The Ata-
ri c mi a Mexican a de ciencas y Hteratura in
Mexico City; the Academia de la historia, at
Caracas, Venezuela ; the Academia nacional de
artes y letras, and the Academia de ciencias,
medicas, fisicas y naturales. at Havana, Cuba;
the Academia nacional de ciencas, Buenos
Aires ; the Academia Cearenes, at Ceara, Brazil,
and the Academia de Medicine, at Rio Janeiro.

ACADEMY. (1) A school; (2) a society
of higher learning. In modern days the word
is used to designate British and American
schools of higher instruction for youths, rank-
ing with the gymnasia of Germany, and also
national military and naval high schools. The
name is also applied to various associations of
scholars, scientists, literary men, artists, etc,
established and organized for the improvement
of science, literature or the arts. The origin
of the term is traced to the public pleasure
ground and gymnasium in the Ceranticus — tile
field, a suburb of Athens, said to have belonged

in the time of the Trojan war to a local hero,
a contemporary of Theseus, named Academus,
whence the name. Cimon, the son of Mili-
tiades, the proprietor of the land in the 5th
century B.C., beautified and planted the grounds
with olive and other trees, gave free admission
to the public and bequeathed the property to
the city at his death. The grounds became a
popular resort, where Socrates used to orate,
and in its groves Plato taught philosophy.
Plato's school became known as the Academic
and his followers were called Acaderaists.
Subsequently, whenever a Platonist opened a
school, he called the institution an academy,
and these schools modeled after the original
academy, until their abolition by a decree of
Justinian, flourished almost continuously for
nine centuries. Cicero named his villa hear
Puteoli ■The Academy,* and there wrote his
'Academic Questions,' and other philosophic
and moral dialogues, based on the conversation
and learned discussions of friends whom he
entertained as visiting guests. The principal
academies of antiquity were the Old, founded
by Plato 428-348 b.c, and continued by Speu-
sippus, Xenocrates of Chakedon, Polemo,
Crates and Crantor ; the Middle Academy,
founded by Arcesilaus 241 b.c., and the New
Academy, founded by Carneades 214-129 b.c.
Adrian founded an academy at Rome in which
all the sciences were taught, but especially
jurisprudence. Another academy flourished at
Berytus in Phoenicia in which jurists princi-
pally were educated. At Alexandria, Ptolemy
Soter, one of the generals and successors of
Alexander the Great, founded the Musacon, or
Museum, the first association of this kind
mentioned in history. Devoted to the cultiva-
tion of letters and science, he made valuable
collections of books and treasures of art, which
became the nucleus of the famous great library
of Alexandria, and gathered around him
scholars of brilliant attainments. In Babylonia,
Palestine and Armenia academies were estab-
lished, and Arabian caliphs, profiting by and
improving upon the institutions of their He-
brew and Christian subjects, founded similar
establishments for the preservation and in-
crease of learning from Cordoba to Samarkand.
At the instigation of David of Alcuin, Charle-
magne established an academy in his palace in
782, where men of learning were encouraged to
assemble. Caesar Bardas founded, at Constan-
tinople in the 9th century, a state institution
for the promotion of science. Near the end
of the 13th and the beginning of the 14th cen-
turies, institutions of this kind, chiefly devoted
to the cultivation of poetry, were established
at Florence, Palermo and Toulouse, and vied
with the universities as seats of learning, cul-
ture and intellectual development. Academies
of fine arts were established in Florence by
Brunetto Latini in 1270, and by Frederick II,
at Palermo, in 1300. In 1380 an academy of
architecture was established in Milan. One of
the most celebrated academies of mediaeval
times, still surviving after a diversified history,
is the Academic des Jeux Floraux (Academy
of Floral Games), inaugurated May 1323 by a
guild of troubadours; it was permanently en-
dowed in 1500 through the munificence of
Clemence Isaure, a wealthy lady of Toulouse;
was incorporated by letters patent of Louis
XIV in 1694, and reorganized in 1773; the

Digitized by GoOgle

ACADHMY- ACADEMY OP DESIGN

original name was 'College du gat savoir ct
de la eaie science1 (College of Gay Knowledge
and of Gay Science). After the downfall of
the Byzantine empire in the 15th century, and
the revival of classical culture in Western
Europe, academies of a more comprehensive
land were established in Italy. Antonio Bee-
cadclla founded, at Palermo, in 1433 the Ac-
cademia Pontaniana, so named after Pontani-
ana, its principal benefactor, Alfonso V founded
an academy at Naples in 1440. From 1474 to
1521 the Accademia Platonica, founded by
Lorenzo de' Medici, flourished in Florence.
Devoted to the Study of Plato and Dante, ;

and other famous men among its members and
became the model for many other simitar in-
stitutions. Assuming peculiar names, and en-
downed by wealthy patrons of learning, or by
the slate, these academies were centres of lit-
erary activity for those members of the Italian
nobility, debarred for partisan reasons from
political life. The Lincei flourished at Rome;
the Ardenti at Naples; the Insensati at Parma;
the Addormentati at Genoa. The academies
of the Vagabonds, the Thunderers, the Smok-
ers, the Dead, the Nocturnals, the Drowsy, the
Unstable, the Confused, were to be found in
other towns. The Accademia de' Lincei (the
lynx-eyed), founded at Rome in 1609 by Prince
Fedenco Cesi, and dissolved at his death in
1632, numbered Galileo among its members.
It succeeded the Accademia Secretorum Na-
ture, established at Naples in 1560 for the study
of physical science, which was soon sup-
pressed by the Church. In 1725 Jakeius pub-
lished at Leipzig an account of over 600 Italian
academies. The most influential and enduring
of all was the Accademia della Crusca, i. e,
chaff, so called in allusion to its principal aim,
that of winnowing and purifying the national
language. It was founded by the poet Graz-
zini i at Florence in 1582. The dictionary of the
Accademia della Crusca, first published in
1612, and subsequently, in augmented form, is
considered the standard authority for the

Florentine Academy. While Italy can thus be
regarded as the mother country of modern
academies, probably the most celebrated and
important of all is the French Academy, found-
ed in 1635 (see Institute of France, The),
An Academia Secretorum Nature was founded
in Madrid in 165% and the Spanish Royal
Academy in 1714. An academy of Portuguese
history was established at Lisbon in 1720
by King John V, and a flourishing academy
of" science, agriculture, arts, commerce and
general economy, by Queen Maria in 1779.
In Germany the Royal Academy of Sciences
and Belles-lettres was established by the
Elector Frederick at Berlin in 1700. In

ing Lirmteus, in 1739. In Holland the Academia
Lugduno-Batava was established at Ley den in
1766. In Belgium the Academie Royale des
sciences, des lettres et des beaux- arts was
founded at Brussels by Maria Theresa in 1772.
In Switzerland an academy of medicine was
founded at Geneva in 1715. In Russia The
Imperial Academy of Sciences was founded at

St. Petersburg in 1725, In England an acad-
emy, first suggested as "King James, His
Academe, or College of Honor," then as "The
British Academy, D was finally chartered as the
Royal Society (q.v.) in 1662. The term acad-
emy in Great Britain is now reserved for in-
stitutions devoted to the cultivation of the fine
arts and for schools of higher instruction. In
Ireland the Royal Irish Academy was founded
at Dublin in 1782. See also Academies in
America, and for a record of modern academies
consult Kukula, K., and Trubner, K., 'Miner-
va: Jahrbuch der Gelebrten Welt1 (Strass-
burg 1914) ; Steeves, H. R., "Learned Societies
and English Literary Scholarship in Great
Britain and the United States1 (New York
1913).

Charles Leonard- Stuart,
Staff of the Americana.

ACADEMY, French. See Institute op
Francs.

ACADEMY, The Royal Spanish. See
Royal Spanish Academy, Thr.

ACADEMY OP ARTS, The Rojnd. See
Royal Academy of Arts, The.

ACADEMY OF ARTS AND LETTERS,
an American institution founded in 1898 by'
the American Social Science Association. At
its annual meeting that year the Association
elected a select group of American authors
and artists, who should constitute a National
Institute of Arts and Letters. Membership was
to be based on distinguished achievement in art,
literature or music. At first the body was lim-
ited to a membership of 150, then increased to
250. This body then proceeded to organize an
Academy of Arts and Letters, the members of
which were to be recruited from the general
membership of the Institute. The first seven
members were elected in 1904: William Dean
Ha wells, Augustus Saint Gaudens, Edmund
Clarence Stedman, John La Fargc, Samuel
Laughonie Clemens (Mark Twain), John Hay
and Edward A. MacDowell. These were em-
powered to elect additional members, each new
member being given a vote, until the whole
body of 50 had been organized. The living
members of the Academy in 1915 were: Wil-
liam Dean Howells, Henry James, Henry Ad-
ams, Theodore Roosevelt, John Singer Sar-
Jent, Daniel Chester French, John Burroughs,
ames Ford Rhodes, Horatio William Parker.
William Milligan Sloane, Robert Underwood
Johnson, George Washington Cable, Andrew
Dickson White, Henry Van Dyke. William
Crary Brownell, Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve,
Woodrow Wilson, Arthur Twining Hadiey,
Henry Cabot Lodge, Edwin Howland Blash-
ficld, Thomas Hastings, Brander Matthews,
Thomas Nelson Page, Elihu Vedder, George
Edward Woodberry, Kenyon Cox, George
Whitefield Chadwick, Abtiott Henderson Thay-
er, Henry Mills Alden, George deForest Brush,
William Rutherford Mead, Bliss Perry, Ab-
bott Lawrence Lowell, Nicholas Murray But-
ler, Paul Wayland Bartlctt, Owen Wister,
Herbert Adams, Augustus Thomas, Timothy
Cole, Cass Gilbert, William Roscoe Thayer,
Robert Grant, Frederick MacMonnies, Julian
Alden Weir, William Gillette and Paul Elmer

, Google

ACADEMY FINE ARTS-ACADEMY OP NATURAL SCIENCES

ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS, The,
a French institution, originally founded in
1648 at Paris under the name of the Academy
of Painting and Sculpture. In 1795 it was
joined to the Academy of Architecture and has
borne its present name since 1819. It pub-
lishes memoirs, proceedings and a dictionary
of the fine arts. It has 41 members, besides
corresponding members, etc.

ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS, Im-
perial Russian, was first established in
a primitive form by the great Emperor Peter
I, whot realizing the civilizing power of such
institutions, invited to St. Petersburg notable
artists in all branches for the purpose of train-
ing young Russian aspirants in the arts, or
sent abroad those who desired to perfect
themselves in painting and sculpture. It was
only Empress Catherine II, who, in establish-
ing the Imperial Russian Academy of Science
(q.v.), introduced into that institution the
teaching of painting and sculpture from other
and more progressive countries. While it was
unable to produce at once great masters, it
certainly succeeded in propagating the history
of line arts and in supplying a few remarkable
reproductions from French, Italian, Spanish
and German masters, thus acquainting the
Russian public with the aesthetic necessities.
Empress Elisabeth Petrovna went a step fur-

amplified by Shuvalov, who submitted
Empress plans for the establishment at tne
Moscow University of a Faculty of Fine Arts.
However, as the court and the Russian aris-
tocracy lived at St. Petersburg, it was definitely
decided by the Senate (1757) to establish the
Academy of Fine Arts (Akadyemiya Hudo-
ehestv) in that capital, and. a sum of 6,000
roubles was appropriated to that effect Pro-
fessors of painting and sculpture were mostly
French, but it was Russian Shevakinski to
whom the chair of architecture was first en-
trusted and who secured permission from the
Empress to move from her palace to the Acad-
emy 100 of the finest paintings, which consti-
tuted the first picture gallery m that institu-
tion. But the small appropriation of 6,000
roubles was soon exceeded and the deficit was
repaired by Shuvalov from his private purse.
Shuvalov directed the Academy most success-
fully for six years and, after the death of
Empress Elisabeth, he retired and for the fol-
lowing 30 years the Academy was entrusted
to the care of Betzki, who secured a const'"'
tion and a charter of rights and privile
Under the direction of Rokorinov the i

the Academy was placed under the Ministry ©f
Public Education whereby the financial state
of the institution was greatly improved. The
president of the Academy, A. L. Oleninyi, in
order to check the rising criticism of the ad-
ministration, published a short history of the
Academy embracing the period from 1764 to
1829, which showed a crying inadequacy of the
administration and caused the Academy to be
transferred to the Ministry of the Imperial
Court. Under this new protectorate the Acad-
emy prospered considerably; the budget was
increased, a greater number of students were
sent abroad (especially to Rome) and a new

constitution' was granted (30 Aug. 1859) where-
by the program of education was radically
changed. The yearly budget was increased to
72,626 roubles and, besides the duty of pre-
paring and training the students of art, the
Academy now began to organize, at regular in-
tervals, public expositions, and an art museum
was also established. The complete course
of study in either of the two divisions of the
Academy (painting- sculpture and architecture)
lasts five years and the number of students in
the last decade varied from 500 to 1,000, of
which number about 10 per cent were women.

W. M. PorovrrcH,
Chief of the Slavonic Division, New York
Public Library,

ACADEMY OF FRANCE AT ROME,
an institution for the advanced study of the
fine arts in Rome, Italy; founded by Colbert
in 1666, during the reign of Louis XIV. It
was at first established in the ruined villa Man
cini on the Corso, and in 1803 at the villa Med-
ici s. The young artists, painters, sculptors,
architects, engravers and musicians who secure
the annual prizes of the Academy of Fine Arts
in Paris spend four years there, with an annual
pension of 3,500 francs and traveling expenses.

ACADEMY OF INSCRIPTIONS AND
BELLES-LETTRES, an institution founded
at Paris by Colbert in 1663, under the name of
Petite Academic, It was composed originally
of four members, chosen by the ministry to
belong to the Academic Franchise. The first
members, Chapetain, Charpenrier, the Abbe de
Bourzers and the AbW Cassagne, met in a
salon of the Louvre or in Colbert's library and
devoted themselves to composing the inscrip-
tions for the monuments erected by Louts
XIV and the medal* struck in his honor;
hence their popular name. They undertook a.
medallic history of the reign of the King. In
1701 the Academy assumed its definitive form;
40 academicians were named. In 1803 the
Academy was reconstituted and became the
third class of the Institute. Comparative phi-
lology, Oriental, Greek and Roman antiquities
and epigraphy have received the attention of
the Academy, which has published a series of
invaluable records and works.

ACADEMY OF MEDICINE, a French
institution founded in Paris in 1820 for the
purpose of keeping the government informed
on all subjects appertaining to the public
health. It has sections of medicine, surgery
and pharmacy and its publications are highly
prized by sanitarians.

ACADEMY OF MORAL AND POLIT-
ICAL SCIENCE, founded at Paris in 1795,
became the second class of the Institute. It
was suppressed by Napoleon in 1803 but was
re-established by Louis Philippe in 1832 and
forms the fifth class of the Institute. It is
composed of 30 members, divided into five sec-
tions with five free academicians, five foreign
associates and 30 corresponding members.

ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES
OF PHILADELPHIA, an institution found-
ed in 1812. It has one of the best natural-
history collections in this country — especially
rich in stuffed birds — and a valuable scientific
library. It has published 'Journals1 since
1817, and 'Proceedings' since 1841.

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ACADEMY POLITICAL, SOCIAL SCIENCE— ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 86

ACADEMY OF POLITICAL AND BO.
CIAL SCIENCE, American. Set Amer-
ican Academy op Political aw> Social Sci-
ence.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, an Institu-
tion founded at Paris in 1666 by Colbert and
approved by Louis XIV in 1699. It published
about 130 volumes of memoirs- from 1666 to
1793, when it was suppressed. It was re-estab-
lished in 1816. It has now 66 ordinary and 10
honorary members in 11 sections, with two
perpetual secretaries, eight foreign associates
and 106 corresponding members. Its prizes
include an annual sum of 3,000 francs, given
alternately for the best essay on a subject in
mathematics and physics; the Monlyon prizes,
six in number and valued at 45,000 francs an-
nually, the Laland priae for astronomy, award-
ed annually, and several others. The Academy
meets annually in December and publishes
MtmoWtt.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, Imperial
Russian. Animated by a desire to develop
Russian science to the degree of complete
individuality and independence, the great re-
former Emperor Peter I united all the most
learned men and scientific researchers into one
group which be called Akndenriya Na.uk (i. e.,
Academy of Sciences), the technical realization
of which was entrusted to his imperial physician,
Professor Btnmentrost It was in 1724 that
Peter the Great definitely approved the plan of
Professor Blumentrost whereby die Academy
was constituted in three principal parts: mathe-
matics, natural sciences, and history with juris-
prudence. Blumentrost was commissioned to
invite to St Petersburg not only Russian scien-
tists but also a great number ' of foreigners
which order he executed with the "aid of Pro-
fessor Wolf who had previously maintained an
active correspondence with the Emperor. For the
maintenance of the Academy Peter appropriated
an annual sum of about 25,000 roubles and also
presented that institution with his own library
and art gallery. But Peter did not live to see
the solemn inauguration of the Academy.; that
honor fell to the portion of Empress Catharine,
which took place on 1 Aug. 1726, notwithstand-
ing the fact that the constitution of the Academy
was granted one year- previously and the first
assembly of the ' members met in December
1725. The first president of the Academy was
Blumentrost When Peter II came to the
throne certain members of the .Academy were
appointed to direct his education, but when the
Emperor went to Moscow together with Blu-
mentrost the. directorship of me Academy was
entrusted to the librarian, Schuhmacher, who
was a selfish and half -learned mait with great
power and who soon became most- unpopular
with the members of the Academy. Many of
the most learned members resigned their posts,
not being able to endure the interference with
their scientific research of a director like Schuh-
macher. Among the learned members who left
St. Petersburg were Professor Eiler and the
astronomer de la Cruis, who had spent 22 years
in making astronomical researches in Siberia
and whom Schuhmacher charged with the theft
of Russian state documents; the celebrated
author of the history of Siberia, Gerard Fried-
rick Miller, and others. During the reign of
Anna lohanovna, Schuhmacher 's power in-

creased all the more as be enjoyed the
protectorate of Blumentrost, alter whom
the presidency was ijiven over to Keiser-
Kng, who tried to curtail Schuhmacher' s power,
but presided only a year - and was , suc-
ceeded by Korf who was friendly with
Schuhmacher. However he improved the
finances of the Academy and established in it
a department of geography, publishing abo in
1739 the first scientific atlas of Russia. In 1740
the presidency was transferred to Brevefn who
added to the Academy the library and the nu-
mismatic collection of Volyiiski. Finally" the
academicians lost their patience with Schuh-
macher and presented to the Senate a collective
complaint against him. As Elisabeth Petrovna
was not fond of the Germans and the investi-
gations proved beyond doubt Schuhmacher's
misdeeds, he was. arrested and the directorship
passed over to Nartov, a favorite of Peter I,
who immediately discovered some further un-
wholesome transactions of Schuhmacher that
were threatening the Academy with complete
financial ruin. He asked and obtained from the
Senate a new appropriation to repair the situa-
tion. Nevertheless Schuhmacher by some clever,
though not honorable, device proved his inno-
cence, the complaint against htm was set aside
and he reoccupied his old position. When
Lomonosov returned from abroad and the presi-
dency passed over to Count K. G. Razumovski,
the controversy started afresh and Lomonosov's

iilan to add a University to the Academy was
gnored. In 1745 regulations were adopted in
accordance with which there were 10 members
to be appointed by the state and as many honor-
ary ones. Soon afterward a fire broke out in.
the archives of the Academy and Schuhmacher
was suspected of being the incendiary. The
administrative authority Catharine II granted
to the new director of the Academy, Count G.
G. Orlov ( 1766-74), who in tum was .succeeded
by Domoshnev (1774-82), who in turn was dis-
missed on account of disorders caused by him.
In his stead was appointed Princess E. R. Dash -
kova (1782-94), a talented writer and follower
of Lamonosov. She delivered a number of
lectures in the Academy in Russian and trans-
lated into the native idiom the principal master-
C'eees of foreign literature. It was during
:r administration that the Academy started
publishing 'Akedemlcheskiya Izvyestiya1 (Aca-
demic Reports), 'Noviya yezhemyesyachnyia
soehineniya* (New monthly compositions), etc
But she was unable to agree with President
Nikolav, who was succeeded by Novosiltzev
(1803-10). This president issued new regula-
tions increasing the number of the staff' to IS
members and 20 assistants and establishing sep-
arate sections for history, statistics, political
economy and Oriental languages. After Novo-
siltzev the office of the presidency was held for
37 years by S. S. Uvarov, who further increased
die number of members to 21 and reduced that
of assistants to 10. He also furthered research
work in the fields of ethnography, history and
statistics. After the death of Uvarov the presi-
dency was given to Bludov (1847-64) who made
many important investigations in the field of
Russian philology. He was succeeded by the
celebrated explorer, Admiral Xilke. The Acad-
emy of Science consists of three parts: (1)
physics and mathematics; (2) Russian language;

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ACADEMY OF SCIENCES — ACANTHUS IN AST

(3) history, political science and philology. Its
annual budget amounts to over 500,000 roubles.

W. M. PETHOVrtCH,

Chief of the Slavonic Division, New York
Public Library.

ACANTHUS IN ART. There are several
varieties of the acanthus plant. The two which
find expression in art are the acanthus sfinosus

Royal Academy
(Danish).

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, The Royal.
See Royal Academy of Sciences, The
(German).

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, The Royal.
See Royal Academy of Sciences, The
(Swedish).

ACADIA (Micmac. "plenty"), the original
name of Nova Scotia (q.v.).

ACADIA UNIVERSITY, Canada, at
Wolfville. Nova Scotia, was founded in 1838
as Acadia College, its act of incorporation
conferring the powers of a university, which
were confirmed by an Act of 1891, creating a
new corporation under the name of the
"Governors of Acadia University." They were
invested with complete control over Acadia
College and also over Horton Academy for
boys and the Acadia Seminary for girls. The
University grants degrees in theology, and the
degrees of bachelor, master and doctor in the
several arts, sciences and faculties. The gov-
ernors are appointed by the Baptist Convention
of Nova Scotia, but no religious tests are re-
quired of the faculty or students. The institu-
tion is coeducational.

ACADIALITE, a name given to chaha-
zite (q.v.) from Nova Scotia (Acadia). Its
color is usually salmon to flesh-red.

ACAJUTLA, ak-a-hoot'la, Salvador, Cen-
tral America- its second port in importance,
exporting coffee and sugar, and the seat of a
United States consular agent, 65 miles by rail
from San Salvador, the capital.

ACANTHOPTERYGII, a sub-order of
teleost fishes, the most comprehensive in the
whole class. Its most prominent distinguishing
feature is "the presence of non-articulated,
more or less pungent, rays in the dorsal and
anal fins." It embraces about 75 families of
typical bony fishes, including almost all those
taken for sport or food from the sea, except
of the cod and herring tribes and a few fresh-
water forms.

ACANTHUS, the typical genus of the
family Acanthacea, or acanthads, a family of
monopetalous exogens, consisting of herbaceous
plants or shrubs, found chiefly in the tropics,
where they often form a large part of the weedy
herbage. Acanthus is a native of many parts of
southern Europe. The family is represented in
America by a few wild-growing species; but
they are best known as tender garden plants.
The best-known species of the genuine acanthus
(or brancursines, as they were formerly called
by a euphemism for the still older "bear's-
breech''). are A. mollis and A. spinosus. The
former has a stem about two feet high, sur-
rounded in its lower half with large, soft, shin-
ing, hairy and deeply indented leaves, and cov-
ered from the middle to the top with large

and acanthus mollis, the former having lcav<
of sharply pointed indentation, the latter having
wider, blunter points. —•■•••

all the art motifs

Grade Decorative Acanthus Leaf.

rom plant life the acanthus has for

Roman Decorative Acanthus Leal.

slightly conventionalized, to alt the decorative
arts. In stone (architecture, etc.) it is found
in the decorative capital of the columns in the
Corinthian Order and in friezes; in metal we
find it highly favored by the gold and silver-

v Google

ACCAD- ACCELEROGRAPHS

smith, die ironworker, the brass trade artisan;
in woodwork (he acanthus ornamentation is
found universally in furniture and mural deco-
rations. The ancient Greeks greatly favored
this floral tnotif and the Romans quickly adopted
the device in their art. In the East, also, the
use of its decorative value was soon appreci-
ated — in Byzantine it predominates. As in
the above plastic arts, so in the graphic, where
it is still in very great favor. Most art motifs
taken from the flora as well as fauna domain
owe some of their appreciation to the fact that
they carry with them some reference to symbol-
ism, but the acanthus has no symbolic value
whatever.

The actual acanthus leaf is a perpendicular
growth, but in the arts it is subjected to curves
and convolutions not conforming to nature. The
acanthus motif of the Greeks is the spinosus
variety, while that adopted by the Romans was
the mollis. Throughout the evolution of the
decorative arts the acanthus continues favored
by the period styles. We find it taken up, of
course, in the Renaissance when it revived the
classic forms; the Romanesque utilized it, as
did the Gothic. Its delicate scroll decoration
appears in the French art of Louis XIV, XV
and XVI, though with specialized conventional
formations which, to some extent, render these
periods separately recognizable.

ACCAD or AKKAD, Babylonia, a royal
city of Shinar which gave its name to northern
Babylonia, as distinguished from Sumer or
southern Babylonia. It is the Akkad mentioned
in Genesis x, 10, identified with Agade the
capital of Sargon and of Naram Sin, still flour-
ishing in the days of Nebuchadnezzar, about
1,100 years B.C. The Kings of Accad were
dreaded in Sinai and in Cyprus, 3800 b.c. The
exact site of the city is unknown, although it
was near Sippara, about 30 miles north of
Babylon. It is surmised that it was the oldest

auarter of Sippara, on the opposite bank of
ie- Euphrates, identified by British excavations
in 1881 with the modem Abu Habba. Consult
King, H., 'A History of Sumer and Akkad1
(London 1910).

AC'AROID RESIN, or GUM, a resin
which exudes so abundantly from the grass
trees (Xantkorrhao) of Australia as to cover
the base of the leaves and 'the underground
portions of the plants, and is also obtained by
crushing and sifting or washing, as much as
50 or 60 pounds being obtained from one plant.
Two kinds, red and yellow, are generally dis-
tinguished, and are used in varnishes as well
as for several other purposes.

ACARUS, a genus of insects of the tribe
Acarida order, Arackmda. .They are oviparous,
have eight legs, two eyes and two jointed ten-
taenia, and are very prolific All the species are
extremely minute, or even microscopic, as the
cheese-mite (Acarus domeslicus), and many of
them parasitic; of the latter, the itch-insect
(Sarcoptes scabici) is a remarkable example.
It is a microscopic animal found under the
human skin in the pustules of a well-known
cutaneous disease. Many others infect the skin
of different animals, such as dogs, hogs and
cattle and sometimes in considerable numbers.
In some instances they damage cow-hides. (See
Mites). Acarus follicxlitnttn is a microscopic
parasite of the hair follicles of the skin. It is

the lowest form of mite, and is known also as
Dtmodex foiliculorum. See Blackhead.

ACCELERATION, the rate of change of
the velocity of a body. If the velocity of the
body is constant, its acceleration is said to be
zero. If the velocity increases uniformly, so
that at the end of every second it is greater
than it was at the end of a preceding second
by a constant amount, the acceleration is said
to be uniform, and the motion is said to be uni-
formly accelerated. If the velocity is decreas-
ing, the acceleration is said to be negative. A
body falling freely under the influence of grav-
ity affords the most familiar example of uni-
form (or constant) acceleration. When the
body falls in air or any other medium, the
phenomena are complicated by the resistance
of the medium ; but when it falls in a vacuum
its velocity increases every second by the same
constant amount. Thus if the body starts from
rest, it will have a velocity of 322 feet per
second at the end of the first second, 64.4 feet
per second at the end of the second second,
96.6 feet per second at the end of the third
second and so on. The acceleration produced
by gravity is therefore said to be 32.2 feet per
second each second; but this varies somewhat
with the latitude and the height above the sea.
(See Force of Gravity). The acceleration
experienced under given circumstances is pro-
portional to the force acting upon the body in
the direction in which its motion is accelerated.
Thus if the foregoing experiment with a falling
body were tried upon some other planet, and
we found that the velocity of the falling body
was increased by 322.0 feet per seconif every
second (instead of 32.2 feet), we. should know
that the force of gravitation at the surface of
that planet is precisely 10 times as great as
it is upon the surface of the earth. In physics
and theoretical mechanics a force is always
measured by the acceleration it produces when
exerted upon a unit mass. For a further account
of the relation between force, mass and acceler-
ation, also 'see Force.

■ ACCELEROGRAPHS, devices or attach-
ments for measuring the succession of pressure
developed in a given point of a powder cham-
ber by the combustion of a charge of powder
either enclosed in a vessel or placed in the
bore of a gun and acting on the projectile.
The first accelerographs were experimented
on in 1873 in Pans, for the study of com-
bustion in a close vessel; afterward, in 1874,
on the proving ground of the Nevers foundry
for the study of combustion in guns. Since
that time various improvements have been
successively made in the mode of construc-
tion and in the manner of employment
The accelerographs thus modified were em-
ployed in numerous experiments, both at the
laboratory of the central depot for powder
and saltpetre and at the proving ground of
the Sevran-Livry powder works with die double
advantage of testing both the ingredients and
the powder manufactured for the navy. In-
these trials they proved convenient for hand-
ling and also practical, and they furnished some
valuable observations on the law of combus-
tion of powder charges, and on that of the
development of the pressure resulting there-
from both in close vessels and in guns of vari-
ous calibres. Also by a slight modification of

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ACCKMDRO JMTBR — ACCENT

the accelerograph, employed for measuring the
pressures developed in toe firing of puns, this
apparatus can be utilized for determining simul-
taneously the law of the pressure developed in
the bore and the law of the recoil of the gun.
The accelerographs in question were of the
types called slide accelerographs, in which the
law of the movement of the piston, subjected
to the action of the powder gases, is deducted
From the known movement of a style-bearing
slide displacing itself in a direction normal to
that of the piston. More recently there has
been a return to the employment of accelero-
graphs, in which the movement of the piston
is deduced from the tracing of the vibrating
fork. Finally, from the commencement of
the experiments on accelerographs, trial was
made conjointly of apparatus called accelerom-
eters, based on the same principle, but which
indicated at each experiment only one isolated
value of the pressure developed by the powder
corresponding to an arbitrary subdivision of
the duration of combustion of the charge.
These, which require the repetition of identical
experiments for determining perfectly the law
of the development of the pressures produced
by the combustion of a charge of powder placed
in certain definite conditions, have been applied
to the study of the combustion of powder in
a closed vessel, as well as to the study of the
pressure developed in the bore of the guns.
But they have been more especially employed
in this fatter case by placing them in front of
the initial site of the projectile for measuring
the pressure existing against the "sabot* ot
this latter at the same moment when it attains
a definite point of its passage in the bore, be-
cause one single experiment with this appara-
tus suffices to show the value sought. Accelero-
graphs present different arrangements, accord-
ing as they are intended to be mounted on fixed
receptacles for the study of the combustion of
powder in a closed vessel, or as it is proposed
to mount them on guns; two principal types
have been established, the one denominated
weight accelerometers and the other spring
accelerometers. Pork accelerometers have also'
been employed for increasing the precision ob-
tained.

The Slide •accelerograph used for studying
the combustion of powder in a closed vessel
is arranged in such a manner as to Indicate
the law of the movement of a piston, of known
section and weight, bedded in a groove cut
normally in the sides of the powder chamber
and subjected freely, on its base, to the action
of the gases produced by the combustion of the
charge. The apparatus registers the spaces
passed by the piston each instant during the
combustion and these passages can be exactly
measured by very small and regularly divided
intervals of

accelerograph, embloyei

...^ . . ibustiou of powder in avis, has

the piston lodged in a steel bushing like those
that are designed for the apparatus called
crushers employed also for estimating the pres-
sures produced by the combustion of powder.
The bushing is screwed into a hole pierced in
the sides of the gun normal to the bore, at a
point chosen for the purpose, and is terminated
on die outside in a threaded head on which
is screwed the frame which serves as a guide
for the cube designed to receive the table and

as a support for the stylus-bearing slide. The
only difference in signalling with the powder-
mill apparatus is the arrangement placing the
additional weight above the piston, when there
is room, in order to increase, as occasion re-
quires, the duration of the unobstructed stroke
of the piston and to prolong it so as to continue
the movement during an interval equal to that
of the passage of the projectile in the bore.
See Ballistics; Chkohograph.

ACCELEROMHTER.' An apparatus for
measuring the velocity imparted by gunpowder.
It shows, by direct registry, the law of the
movement in the function of time of a piston
subjected to the action of powder-gases. An
additional weight placed on this piston in such
a manner that it may be thrown vertically
without obstacle, when this latter is suddenly
stopped, can show, by a single observation, the
vefocity acquired by the piston up to the end
of its stroke. In fact, this weight, thrown
freely and preserving the velocity which it had
in common with the piston, will be raised to
a height, k, given by the relation v* = 2gh, so
that the observation of the height of the vertical
stroke h will show the velocity v. If it is ad-
mitted that the phenomena of the combustion
of the powder are reproduced identically in
the like conditions, and if a series of detona-
tions are effected with a constant charge, but
varying the stroke each time, it is evident that
the observation of the corresponding heights
of throw of the additional weight supported by
the piston would show the successive velocities
acquired by_ this piston according to the grad-
ually diminishing paths. We could then deter-
mine, by this simple process, and without a
special chronometnc organ, but on condition
of repeating the experiments, the law of move-
ment imparted to the piston. See Accelero-

ACCENT, the stress or emphasis given by
the voice to a certain syllable or syllables of a
word, or to certain notes in a bar of music;
also, the peculiar intonation of one spoken lan-
guage when compared with another; further,
marks used in printing or writing to show the
position of the stress. In a dissyllable there is
but one accent, as a-back', but in a polysyllable
there may_ be more than one. One of these,
however, is always greater than the rest and is
called the primary accent; the 'others are called
secondary.

Two wholly distinct classes of accent are
found in Aryan languages, the musical and the
expiratory; the former, which is that of some
Semitic tongues also, being that of Greek and
Sanskrit, the latter that of Latin and Teutonic
Some languages, as French, have no accent, the
stress on all syllables being the same, but even
here the stopping of the voice gives the final
syllable a slight tilt upwards, with the effect of
an accent on that syllable. Accent may be free,
as in Greek or old Teutonic, — that is, its posi-
tion in a word may shift in accordance with the
nature of the syllables or of the words which
follow, — or fixed, as in later Teutonic and
English: perhaps the only remnant of the free
accent in English is the word "cannot," which,
though often spelled as two words, is really a
compound word with an accent shifting accord-
ing to emotion. By a change of stress we often
indicate the change of an adjective or a noun

a b, Google

ACCENTOR — ACCESSORY

(verb); pro'ject (noon), project' (verb)

In compound words the accent is commonly
on the first; but when the first element is a
prefix, separable or inseparable, it is accented
only when the root-word is noun or adjective,
the root receiving the accent if it is a verb,—
this of course not applying to words borrowed
from other languages, for which there is no
settled rule, the chance of first usage commonly
determining it. The inflections have almost al-
ways been left unaccented, and this has aided
greatly in the sloughing off of the whole in-
flectional system in modern languages: even
where retained to the eye they are often not
pronounced at all, as in French.

There is a certain analogy between accent

thorough (originally pronounced tho-roo). All
modern verse depends on stress- accent (see
Metre) ; while that of classical Greek and
Latin, as of some Semitic tongues still, rested on
quantity or length of syllables, — a system, not
easy for those reared on stress to comprehend,
much less imitate.

Harks of Accents, — In ancient Greek ac-
cents marked the rise and fall in pitch of the
voice, and were three In number, the acute (a),
the grave (a) and the circumflex (a or a). The
same marks are now used in French, and the
first two in Italian, though they are largely of
historical or etymological interest only, and
do not always indicate a difference in pronunci-
ation. A mark similar to the acute accent Is
sometimes used to signify stress in English
words, chiefly in poetry; and one like the grave
is used to mark as a separate syllable letters
otherwise not pronounced so, for example,
learned, abhorred. Marks sometimes called
accents are used in mathematics; for example,
a'+b' (read a prime plus b prime). In geom-
etry and trigonometry, a circle at the right of
a figure indicates degrees, one mark minutes,
two marks seconds of a degree, as 13" 4' 5 .
In mensuration and engineering, the ^ mark
denotes feet, inches and lines, as 4 6" 10'".

In Music — The greater emphasis or inten-
sity given to certain notes or passages, as
distinguished from their length in time and
their quality or timbre. It is divided into three
natical, rhythmical and rhetori-
The grammatical accent is al-
i the first part of a bar; long
usually secondary ones, as have

__. words. Rhythmical accent is

_.e pronounced character given to certain

parts of larger compositions,— phrases, themes,
motifs, — to mark off entrances, finales or cli-
maxes. Rhetorical accent corresponds strictly
to the same emphasis in oratory, in accordance
with emotion or a desired effect, and is at the
will of the performer.

ACCENTOR ("singer-together0), a liter-
ary name for the American water-thrushes
(genus Siurus) and the European warblers, of
which the British hedge-sparrow (incorrectly
named) is best known.

ACCEPTANCE,
agrees t

classes,—

Cal or arsthetl

polysyllables i

under or upon the back of the bill. An i__
ceptance may be made before the trill is drawn,
in which else it must be in writing (15 Johns.
N. Y. 6). It may be made after it is drawn
and before it becomes due, which is the usual
course, or after it becomes due (1 H. Blackst
313), or even after a previous refusal to accept
The proper form for the acceptance of a bill
is to write the word 'Accepted" across the bin
and sign the acceptor's name, but the drawee's
name alone is sufficient or any words of equival-
ent force to "accepted.* Byles on Bills, 147;
21 Pick. (Mass.) 307. See Bus.; Banks an»
Banking — Commercial Paper (Article 17).'

ACCESS, (1) admission of a husband to
intercourse or opportunity of intercourse with
his wife. The mere fact that husband and wife
live apart creates no presumption of non-access.
The issue of the wife. In the absence of direct
proof to the contrary, are presumed to be his
issue. Except when modified by statute, par-
ents are not permitted to prove non-access in
order to show illegitimacy of the wife's issue,
either in civil or criminal actions. (2) Admis-
sion of an owner of adjoining land to a public
road of a public navigable stream. See Access,
Right op. (3) Admission of parents to children
having a' court as guardian.

ACCESS, Right of. The owner of
land adjoining a road or public highway is
entitled to access to such highway at any point
where it comes up to his land. He may also
have an action for the removal, by irjanaion,
of any obstruction to such access, as well as an
action for damages. It has been expressly held
also that an abutting owner has a property right
in the use of the street in front of fan land a*
a means of egress and ingress, and for light
and air. (47 8. J. Eq. 421 j 106 N. Y. 157). If
a man buys a lot of land from which there is
no access to a public highway, upon application
to the proper authorities he may obtain an
order for the construction of a road or high-
way leading from his land to a public highway.
See also Right of Way.

ACCESSION is the right to all which a
man's own property produces, and the right to
that whkh is united to it by accession either
naturally or artificially (2 Kent Coram. 360).
If a man builds a house upon his own grounds
with the materials of another, or, on the con-
trary, if a man shall have built a house with
his own materials upon the ground of another.
in either case the house becomes the property of
him to whom the land belongs, for every build'
ing is an accession to the ground upon which
it stands, and the owner of the land, if liable
at all, is only liable to the owner of the mate-
rials for the value of them (2 Kent Coram. 362).
The same rule holds where vines, trees,_ fruits
and vegetables are planted or sown in the
ground of another.

ACCESSORY, in law, one who is not the
chief actor in an offense or present at its com-
mission, but still is connected with it in some
other way. Accessories may become so before
the fact or after the fact. Sir Matthew Hale
defines an accessory before the fact as one who,
being absent at the time of the crime committed,

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ACCHO — ACCIDENT INSURANCE

does yet procure, counsel or command another
to commit a crime. If the procurer be present
when the evil deed is being done, he is not an
accessor);, but a principal. An accessory after
the fact is one who, knowing a felony to have
been committed, receives, relieves, comforts or
assists the felon. In high treason1 of a pro-
nounced character there are no accessories —
all are principals. In petit treason, murder and
felonies, there may be accessories; except only
in those offenses which, by judgment of law,
are sudden and unpremeditated, as manslaugh-
ter and die like, which, therefore, cannot have
any accessories before the fact. So, too, in
petit larceny and in all crimes under the degree
of felony, there are no accessories either before
or after the fact; but all persons concerned
therein, if guilty at all, are principals (Blackst
Comm., bk. iv, ch. iii). Presence and actual
participation are necessary to constitute a per-
son an accessory. The mere fact of presence
or failure to interfere to prevent the commis-
sion of a crime is not, alone, an indictable
offense. The person must act in concert with
the active party. He must by word or act con-
tribute to the felonious purpose. Presence need
not be actual, it may be constructive. A man
may commit a crime through the agency of an
innocent person, but the agent cannot be con-
victed. Where an offense is committed within a
State by means of an innocent agent, the em-
ployer is guilty as a principal, although be did
no art in the State where the crime was com-
mitted, and at the time of the commission of the
offense was in another State. (1 N. Y. 173 (s.
c. 45 Am. Dec 468) ; 123 Mass. 430).

ACCHO. See Acre.

ACCIAIOLI, atch-yi-6le, Renatus, a
Florentine who conquered Athens, Corinth and
part of Bosotia; lived in the beginning of the
15th century. He bequeathed Athens to the
Venetians ; Corinth to Theodosius PaUeologus,
who married his eldest daughter: and Bceotia
with Thebes to his natural son Anthony, who
also got Athens, but this was retaken in 1455
by Mohammed II.

ACCIDENT, an unforeseen occurrence,

Snicularly if it be of a calamitous character,
is is the most common use of the word.

In logic: (d) Whatever does not really con-
stitute an essential part of a person or thing; as
the clothes one wears, the saddle on a horse,
etc (b) The qualities or attributes of a person
or thing, as opposed to the substance. Thus
bitterness, hardness, etc, are attributes, and
not part of the substance in which tbey inhere,
(f) That which may be absent from anything,
leaving its essence still unimpaired. Thus a
rose might be white without its ceasing to be a
rose, because color in the flowers of that genus
is not essential to their character.

Accidents, in logic, are of two kinds, sepa-
rable and inseparable. If walking be the acci-
dent of a particular man, it is a separable one,
for he would not cease to be that man though
he stood still ; while, on the contrary, if
Spaniard is the accident connected with him, it
is an inseparable one, since he never can cease
to be, ethnologically considered, what he was
born (Whately's 'Logic,' bk. ii, ch. v, sec 4).

In grammar, a property attached to a word
which nevertheless does not enter into its essen-

tial definition. Each species of word has its
accidents: thus those of the noun substantive
are gender, declension and number. Compari-
son in an adjective is also an accident.

In law, an event which under the circum-
stances is unusual and unexpected by the person
to whom it happens. It is the happening of an
event without the concurrence of the will of

quence of a fire made for the purpose of cook-
ing, or warming the house, this would be an
accident of the first kind. If the house should
be set on fire by lightning, this would be an
accident of the second kind. (1 Fonblanque,
Eq. 374, 375 n.). The best test of liability for

die consequence of an accident turns upon the
fact whether the person causing the accid
was guilty of negligence or not. If he i

In heraldry, an additional note or mark on a
coat of armor, which may be omitted or re-
tained without altering its essential character.

ACCIDENT INSURANCE. A policy of
accident insurance is a contract providing in-
demnity for loss of life, limb, sight or time, be-
cause of bodily injuries, effected solely and
independently of all other causes, through ex-
ternal, violent and accidental means. The full
principal sum of the policy is payable in case
of death, loss of both hands or both feet, of
one hand and one foot, or the sight of both
eyes. One-half of the full principal sum is pay-
able in case of the loss of either hand or foot
or the sight of one eye. A fixed sum is payable
weekly For the term of temporary disability,
whether total or partial, not exceeding a cer-
tain definite period, varying from six months
to two years, and frequently for the life of the
insured. The premium, which is generally es-
timated on the annual basis, is determined by
the business, occupation or profession of the
applicant, and is proportioned upon the amount
of the principal sum and the weekly indemnity
named in the policy. Double amounts, both of
the principal sum and of the weekly indemnity,
are payable iu case of injuries received in or
on a moving conveyance, provided for the use
of passengers, and propelled by steam, electric
or cable power; or for injuries received in or
while entering or leaving passenger elevators;
or in burning buildings, or for injuries caused
by falling walls; or from automobile ac-
cidents on the highway; or caused by a stroke
of lightning; or by the explosion or rupture of
a steam boiler; or by a cyclone or tornado.

The policy also provides for hospital treat-
ment ; for the payment for medical and surgical
fees and for operations; for the payment of
optional indemnity, in cases of certain named
injuries, in lieu of weekly indemnity; and for
annual accumulations of the principal sum and
the weekly indemnity until the same amount to
50 per cent in addition to the original sums :
also for emergency indemnity to place the in-
sured in care of friends or relatives in case of
injury away from home.

Accident insurance was first introduced in
this country by James Goodwill Batterson of
Hartford, Conn., after his return from a trip

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ACCIDENTALISM — ACCIDENTS

to England in 1859, where he learned of acci-
dent insurance, in the form of tickets, insuring
the bolder for a specified sun), in case of
death or injuries resulting from railway
accidents. The first American accident insur-
ance company was organized in 1863 at Hart-
ford, and it is said that the first insurance con-
tract made fay the company was a verbal agree-
ment between the president of the company
and a citizen of Hartford, whereby, in consider-
ation of a premium of two cents, the company
agreed to indemnify the insured in the stun of
$5,000, in case of accident to the insured while

tourneying from the post-office to his home in
luclringham street

Growth.— The growth of the business has
been phenomenal since that modest beginning,
as the following figures will attest: Premiums
received from 1873 to 1892, $42,027,207; losses
paid $18,125,771; from 1893 to 1916 premiums
received $426,600,679; losses paid $183,804,575.

The above figures cover the operations of
the stock insurance companies, of which there
were 119 transacting business in 1916 with pre-
miums written in that year of $43,043,546,
and losses paid of $19,159,528, including health
insurance in the case of some companies
that do not report their accident and health
premiums and losses separately. There are in
addition, however, a large number of mutual
accident insurance associations operating in the
United States upon the assessment plan and
providing to their members accident and sick-
ness insurance at a cost much less than could
be obtained from stock companies. This busi-
ness has increased since 1901 from premiums
or assessments received of $1,111,232 and claims
paid of $715,429 to premiums or assessments
of $6,937,175 and claims paid $4,834,479 in 1916,
covering the operations of 56 companies.

The number of certificates in force at the
close of 1901 was 146,185, while at the end of
1916 this number had increased to 799,761. The
total admitted assets increased during the same
period from $930,471 to $4,360,666; total
liabilities from $84,630 to $2,065,919, and net
surplus from $845,841 to $2,296,747.

In a word, accident insurance has assumed a
leading place in insurance underwriting of the
United States, and the ever-increasing competi-
tion of new companies and the activities of
those now in business has resulted in the con-
tinued broadening of the policy and the grant-
ing of additional benefits. At the present time,
the modern, up-to-date policy is practically con-
ditionless and pays indemnity for life, in case
of total or partial permanent disability, thereby
affording to the unfortunate an annuity that
may be his only source of income. Partners in
' business and officers in corporations take out
large policies, payable to the firm or to the cor-
poration, protecting them against loss in case
of the removal by death of a valued member of
the organization. In many such ways, accident
insurance proves to be not only a benefaction,
but actually a conserver of credit. ■

Edwin W. DeLkw,
Member Insurance Society of New York.
ACCIDENTALISM. The theory that
events may happen without any cause whatever.
If we accept the old view of the causal rela-
tion as fundamental and in need of no defini-
tion, the meaning of accidentalism is clear

accidentalism may be interpreted as meaning
that this function is many-valued — that two
qualitatively identical antecedents may be fol-
lowed by different consequences — or that it is
discontinuous — that a sufficient degree of simi-
larity in the antecedents need not imply any
similarity in the consequences. Accidentalism
in ethical matters is indetermimsm. However,
many views which are considered as indetev-
ministic merely hold that the physical ante-
cedents of a deed are alone insufficient to deter-
mine the deed, while the physical antecedents
together with the character, motives, con-
science and understanding of the agent are
adequate for this purpose. Accidentalism in
metaphysics is known as tyehism.

ACCIDENTS, Causes and Prevention- of
Industrial Accidents. — For many years mod-
ern industry, especially in the United States,
has been confronted with the serious problem
of preventing injuries, whether avoidable or
unavoidable. The avoidable injuries are due to
the carelessness of the victim, the employer or
a fellow employee, while unavoidable injuries
or accidents constitute the occupational risk.
The chief causes of preventable industrial in-
juries are: (1) Lack of provision of safety in
construction; (2) excessive hours of labor; (3)
unremitting pressure for large output, resulting
in the maintenance of too great speed; (4)
inadequate factory inspection; (5) failure to
remedy known defects; (6) insufficient signal
systems or methods of warning; (7) ignorance
of workers and the failure of employers to
instruct and direct them. The first annual re-
port (1915) of the New York State Workmen's
Compensation Commission states that there
were not more than 100 cases in a total of
18,930 awards allowed 'in which the question
of intoxication was raised either by the em-
ployer or insurance carrier; in not a single case
did the commission decide that the injuries were
due wholly to intoxication, nor was a single
grant disallowed on the ground of intoxication.
A Minnesota bulletin assigned 71.6 per cent of
industrial accidents to hazards of industry and
5.2 per cent to contributory negligence. The
principal causes of accidents were ascribed to

from momentary inattention or forgetfulness
to foolhardy recklessness, personal short-com-
ings, like deafness, or excitability and absorp-
tion in the work at hand which make the
workman oblivious of approaching danger,
fatigue and nerve strain.' A Massachusetts
report states that "dusty trades, industrial
poisons, and occupational diseases. are responsi-
ble for an annual loss in the United States of
$750,000,000, through needless diseases and dis-
ablements," and that poor conditions in many
factories, mills and shops have a direct bearing
upon the number of accidents. The Ohio
report of 1915 ascribes the accidents that were
passed upon by the commission to the follow-
ing causes :' Palling and shifting objects, 19,606;
machinery, 14,018; hand tools and simple
apparatus, 5,231 ; nature of material used or
similar working conditions, 4,900; falls, 4,774;

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carrying, lifting or handling great weights,
1,196; transportation on (racks, 912; transporta-
tion not on tracks, 699 ; suffocation and asphyxi-
ation, 139; animals, 457; sunstroke and heat
prostration, 107 ; intentional violence of fellow
employee, 41 j intentional violence of persons
not employees, 34.

There are no statistics for the country as a
whole relating to industries individually, but the
mortality tables of the 1910 census give a fair
idea of the accident rate, the statistics covering
about 56 per cent of the country's population.
Qi the males 10 years of age and over, 22,652,
grouped in 148 occupations, died through acci-
dent, while 881 females of the same ages,
grouped in 140 occupations, met the same fate.
Among die males one death out of every 10
was accidental, while the ratio among the
females was one out of 30. Among steam rail-
way employees there was one death by acci-
dent. to_ 1.9 deaths by all causes; among manu-
facturing laborers one to 8.4; among miners
and quarrymen one to 2.5 ; among persons en-
gaged in agricultural pursuits, one to 15.5 ;
among salesmen, one to 18; and among lawyers,
one to 23; while teachers and clergymen ap-
peared to be most free from fatal accidents,
the ratios being one to 31 and one to 30 respec-
tively. In the Bureau of Labor Statistics Bul-
letin 157 (1915) F. L, Hoffman estimates the
number of fatal industrial accidents in 1913 at
35,000, while there were approximately 700,000
injuries which resulted in disability for more
than four weeks. The ratio of fatal injuries
per thousand employees ranged from 4.00 for
metal mining, 3.50 for coal mining, 3.00 for
fisheries, navigation, lumbering, building and
street railway employees to .25 for general
manufacturing. In coal mines the number of
fatal accidents decreased from 2,785 in 1913 to
2,454 in 1914, the most prolific cause of death
being the falling of roofs and coal. The death
rate per thousand employees for the entire
country was 3.22 in 1914 against 3.73 in 1913.
Carl M. Hansen of the Workmen's Compen-
sation Service Bureau places the number of
workmen killed annually at 40,000 to 45,000,
while the Massachusetts Industrial Accident
Board places those killed by accident at 75,000
and the number of those injured annually at
3,000,000.

Legislation and Safety Devices. — Un-
doubtedly a large proportion of industrial acci-
dents are preventable, if the employer be com-
pelled to make the protection of workmen
rather than enormous production his first inter-
est. If accidents constituted a heavy and de-
terminable cost to the business, the employer
would quickly realize that the prevention of
accidents was to his economic interest. Safe
I nit slower methods of production may result
in reduced profits, but the welfare of the com-
munity demands that the human waste that is a
dirert result of the dangerous quicker ways be
compensated for by a greater reduction in
profits. In the Army and Navy Appropriation
bill passed 4 March 1915, Congress inserted a
provision prohibiting the employment of the
'speeding up* system in government plants.
The motive for prevention of accidents can
never be compelling until a uniform and un-
escatiablc penalty be established for each injury
or death. Many of the States have enacted
laws for the prevention of work- accidents and

diseases, and for the collection of reliable in-
formation concerning their nature and extent.
Most of the States and Territories have also
passed laws compelling the payment oi various
sums of money by employers for personal in-
juries to employees causing death or disability
for more than two weeks, arising out of and in
course of employment, not due to the em-
ployee's wilful intention to injure himself or
another or to his intoxication. The industries
covered, the injuries and persons compensated,
and the rates of compensation differ in die
various States. Among the laws are the fol-
lowing, with the dates of enactment andamend-

Alaaka: o Anil 191s; in affect is July 191s.

Arizona: 8 June ioij; in affect i Sept- 191*; new act ij

May 1913: in effect 1 Oct. 1013,
California: 8 April 191 1 j is effect 1 Sept. reri; new act

13 May igij; in effect I Jan. 1014; amended 1911
Canal Zone: 14 Aug. 1911: executive order 16 Feb. 19131

in effect 1 March 1911 (impended); new order 30 March

1914; m effect 1 April 1914.
Colorado: 19 April 1313; in effect 1 Aug. I PIS.
Connecticut: 19 May 19131 in effect 1 Jan. 1014; amended

Hawaii: a8 April 1915; in effect 1 July toij.
lUmou: is June ion; in effect 1 May igii: sew at •■>
June 1913; in effect 1 Jnly 1913; amended 18 Juna

Inr!ian»: S Sfar^*> voif - -w — • ■ <E~-

18 April

July 1014.

3; in effect (nj eatabluhing mduatriml

providing for inaurr * '

companaation leaturr

Kansas: 14 Me

10 March it._
Kentucky: 33 March 1916: in effect 1 Aua. mi*.
Louisiana: is June 19141 in effect 1 Jan. 1915.
Maine: I April 1915; in effect I Jan. 1916.
Maryland: ifl April 1014; in effect 1 Nov. 1914.
--— Hs j8Jb& ipiiiiaeffectijulyibii

3*'

Michigan:

4 April 11

1 effect 1 Sept. 1

Montana; 8 March 1915; in effect 1 July 1915.

Nebraska: 11 April ioij; m effect 17 July 1913.
Nevada: is March 1913; in effect 1 July 1913;

New Hampshire: 15 April 1911; in effect 1 Jan. 191
New Jereey: 4 April ion j in effect I July tail]

New York: 16 Doc. ;gi3; in effect 1 July 1914;

_ 1914, lois. 1910-

Ohio: is June 1911 ; in effect I Jan. 1913; ■menc

Oklahoma: 13 March 1913: .

Oregon: as Feb. 1013; in effect 30 June
Pennsylvania; 1 June 191s; in effect I
Porto Rico: 13 April 1916; m effect i J
Rhode laland: 19 April 191J; in effect I

Vermont: 1
Washington:

Weat'v'irgrni

.piil 1913; bi effect I Sept- Ml*
April 1915; in affect 1 July WIS.
14, March 1911; in effect I Oct. 191

iedate;a

effect 1 Aug. 1908; unaided

, 11 March,a7 July and 14

employment). .

Wyoming: a? Feb. 1915;
United Statu: 30 May 11

14 Feb. 1909, 4 Marc

Aug. J913- (Does not inclui

New act 7 Sept. 1916; in effect

Most of the laws are enforced through
factory inspection, but in many States this
inspection is so lax and inadequate that the
laws arc practically ineffectual. In 1911 Wis-
consin created an agency for administrative
legislation as to details in safety provisions,
resembling the systems in many foreign
countries. The law requires the employer to
take every reasonable precaution against risk
and the industrial commission decides what
safety devices the employer shall install in
order that his factory may be as nearly free
from accidents as possible. The commission is

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expected to inform itself of the latest and most
improved safety devices and so far as may be
practicable to secure their adoption by em-

Sloyers. The success of (his law induced
lassachasetts and New York in 1913 to pro-
vide for similar tribunals. In 1915 Nevada
created an industrial commission for the ad-
ministration of the Workmen's Compensation
Act and provided that one of the commissioners
should hold the office of labor commissioner
for the enforcement of. labor laws. In 1915
New York consolidated the workmen's com-
pensation commission and the labor department
under an industrial commissioner, die act being
in accord with laws in Wisconsin, Ohio and a
few other States which have created industrial
commissions with powers similar to those exer-
cised by public utility commissions.

Almost all States have enacted laws requir-
ing dangerous machinery to be fenced about,
and that every possible means be adopted to
protect employees. In 1915 Connecticut and
Massachusetts passed laws requiring first aid
rooms or emergency kits in all manufacturing
establishments where machinery is used. De-
tailed provisions regulating heating, lighting
and ventilating factories and guarding ma-
chinery therein were passed in Illinois in 1915;
and Missouri in the same year provided for
similar regulations in coal and zinc mines.
Many cities too have enacted laws with the
same object in view. - New York city hat
passed ordinances to prevent unnecessary and
reckless loss of life by compelling employers
to furnish proper and safe scaffolding, to be
more careful in employing men who work in
caissons, to institute proper safeguards in the
operation of elevators and to enforce the fire
prevention law more strictly. The police force*
of the various cities are compelling a more
strict observance of the traffic regulations with
the result that street accidents are being reduced

effectiveness ts conclusively proved by statistics
published in 1913 by the Department of Labor
in a report entitled 'Accidents and Accident
Prevention in the Iron and Steel Industry.1
The report covered 155 plants, employing 158,-
604 workers, the accident rate for all plants,
per thousand, being 1.86 fatal accidents, 2.72
permanent disabilities and 240.6 temporary dis-
abilities. In those plants where the best sys-
tems of accident prevention were installed, the
accident rate was 167.1 per thousand, while the
rate in the most poorly equipped plants was
507.9 per thousand The United States Steel
Corporation annually spends nearly a million
dollars to maintain its safety system, but by
so doing has reduced its fatal and disability
accidents try about 45 per cent, and its leas
serious accidents by a still greater percentage.

the motives impelling employers to install
increase their safety appliances has been the
differential insurance rates put into vogue by
those who issue employers' liability policies.
An International Association of Industrial
Accident Boards and Commissions has been
formed *to bring into closer relation with one
another the various boards and commissions
administering compensation laws of the United

States and to effect so far as possible unanimity
. in the administration of such laws and to
encourage and give effect to all measures look-

convention of the National Safety Council at
Philadelphia in October 1915, much time was
devoted to the discussion of means for safe-
guarding machinery; the connection between
the consumption of liquor and the number and
seriousness of accidents ; the necessity of more
drastic legislation; the value of physical ex-
amination and of other methods of excluding '
the subnormal and the unfit; and the financial
advantages accruing from the use of safety
devices.

Hailway Accidents and Legislation Re-
garding.— The result of the installation and
application of safety devices appears nowhere
more strikingly than in railway statistics. In
1914 there were a total of 192,662 persons in-

(need on steam railways and 10,302 killed, while
ti 1915 the total was 8,621 persons killed and
1621040 injured This showed a remarkable
redaction over any year since 1900, despite the
fact that the number of persons earned one
mile in 1915 was 106 per cent greater than in
1900 and the number of tons of freight hauled
one mile was about 92 per cent greater. On
31 Dec. 1915 the Railway Age Gazette reported
that 97,809 miles of railway in the United
States were operated under the block signal
system, which may account for the increased
safety of passengers. Many casualties are chin
to carelessness of motorists at crossings;
though in many cases these are inadequately
guarded.

In order to promote safety in railway opera-
tion many States have railway commissions
that investigate and report accidents them-
selves, white other States require the railways
to render their own reports. In general these
commissions are empowered to inspect railway
property and operation (roadway, bridges;
tracks, equipment) periodically or at discretion,
to recommend and require repairs and improve-
ments and to report to the governor or the
legislature their recommendations and any neg-
lect of them. They are authorized also to
require the proper guards at crossings ; to
regulate the heating and lighting and the carry-
ing of tools in passenger cars; to regulate the
Speed of trains in cities and near grade cross-
ings and the transportation of explosives and
inflammables ; to regulate the weight and
quality of rails and the style of interlocking
devices: to. prescribe the number of brakemen
and the qualifications and hours of labor of
various employees ; to impose penalties upon
railway employees who become intoxicated
while on duty or for neglect of duty which
would endanger life or safety.

A number of Federal safety appliance, acci-
dent and compensation laws have been passed.
The act of 3 March 1901 was superseded by
another 6 May 1910 requiring monthly reports
of all accidents injuring persons or railway
property and authorizing the Interstate Com-
merce Commission to investigate serious acci-
dents. On 11 June 1906 an act was passed
which was later declared unconstitutional and
was superseded by the acts of 22 April 1908
and 5 April 1910. These constitute the Federal
Employers' Liability Act and hold common '

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■ carriers liabie for injury or death resulting in
whole or in part from the negligence of any
of the officers, agents or employees of such
carrier, or by reason of any defect or insuffi-
ciency due _ to its negligence, in its cars, en-
gines, appliances, machinery, track, roadbed,
works, boats, wharves or other equipment.
Workmen's compensation acts are not appli-
cable to cases of employees injured while en-
gaged in interstate commerce traffic and no
recovery may be had under them. Other acts
are designed to prevent casualties. The orig-
* inal safety appliance act was passed 2 March
1693 but was amended 1 April 1696, 28 June
1902 and 2 March 1903, with the result that
now alt freight cars must be equipped with
automatic couplers and grab-irons, and in each
train at least half the cars must be provided
with brakes operated from the locomotive.
On 6 June 1910 the Interstate Commerce Com-
mission ordered that on all trains operated with
power or train brakes at least 85 per cent of
the cars should have their brakes operated
from the locomotive. By the act of 14 April
1910, as amended 4 March 1911, the Commis-
sion is required to regulate hand-holds or grab-
irons, hand-brakes, running-boards, sill- steps
and ladders on freight cars. Under the joint
resolution of 30 June 1906 the Commission is
required to investigate the block signal systems
and appliances for automatic train control.
The railways are required 'by the act of 30
May 1906 to equip locomotives with ash pans
that can be cleaned without an employee going
under the locomotive. The use of unsafe boil-
ers and other appurtenances on locomotives
and tenders is forbidden by the act of 17 Feb.
1911 (as amended 4 March 1915) and provision
was made for the inspection of boilers and.
their appurtenances by the railways and by
inspectors under the Commission's supervision.
The transportation of explosives for a time
was regulated by the act of 4 March 1909
which superseded the act of 30 May 1908. On
1 Jan. 1910 the law was again amended and the
present regulations which have been the result
of occasional amendment went into effect 1
Oct. 1914. There is a "Bureau for the Safe
Transportation of Explosives and Other Dan-
gerous Articles* which was first instituted in
June 1907 and was conducted -under the aus-
pices of the American Railway Association,
but which now also works in conjunction with
and under the authority of the Interstate Com-
merce Commission. On 4 March 1907 an act
became law providing that, save in cases of
great emergency, trainmen must have 10 hours
off duty after 16 hours of continuous service,
and eight hours off after 16 hours of service
in any one day. The work of operators, dis-

Etchcrs and others must be limited to nine
urs per day in posts operated continuously,
and to 13 hours in other posts.

Steamship Accidents. — The Federal gov-
ernment has full and complete jurisdiction
over marine transportation and there is a
bureau in the Department of Commerce de-
nominated the Steamboat Inspection Service,
whose function it is to supervise steam ves-
sels for the promotion of safety. The service
must inspect structural materials for marine
boilers and each year must thoroughly inspect
■ the hulls, machinery, boilers and fire apparatus

of vessels under its jurisdiction. It is em-
powered to determine the carrying capacity of
vessels, and to promulgate laws for the pro-
vision of life-saving devices. Many laws have
been passed by Congress regarding marine
transportation, the most important of which
have been on the statute books since the early
days of steam navigation. An important enact-
ment is that of 23 July 1912 amending the
law of 24 June 1910 requiring wireless equip-
ment on all vessels,. American or foreign,
licensed to carry 50 or more persons, navigating:
the ocean or Great Lakes.

See Physical Economics; Occupational
Diseases; Labor, Protection to; Employers'
Liability; Workingmen's Insurance; Work-
women's Compensation; Social Insurance;
Accident Insurance; Factories and Factory
Inspection; Railway Safety Devices; Ma-
chinery Safety Devices; Mining Safety De-
vices; Vital Statistics; Locomotive Safety
Appliances.

Bibliography.— Boyd. James H., 'Work-
men's Compensation and Industrial Insurance
Under Modern Conditions' (Indianapolis
1913); Campbell, G. L., 'Industrial Accidents
and Their Compensation1 (Boston 1911) ;
Clark, L. D, 'The Law of the Employment of
Labor> (New York 1911); Crum, F. S.,
'Street Traffic Accidents) (in American Sta-
tistical Association Quarterly, N. S, Vol. XIII,
pp. 473-528, Boston 19L3) ; Eastman, C, 'Work
Accidents and the Law' (New York 1911) ;
Hard, William, 'Injured in the Course of Duty1
(New York 1910); Holt, E. E., Physical
Economies' (New York 1912): Hansen, Carl
M„ 'Universal Safety Standards1 (New York
1914); Hoffman, F. L., 'Fatal Accidents in
Coal Mining and Industrial Labor' (U. S.

Industrial Accidents1 (New York 1909) :
Myers, Gustavus, 'A Study of the Causes of
Industrial Accidents' (in American Statistical
Association Quarterly, N. S., Vol XIV, pp.
672-94, Boston 1915); and the standard acci-
dent table by I, M. Rubinow in same, pp. 358 ■
415 ; Roberts, Maurice G., 'Injuries to Inter-
state Employees on Railroads' (Chicago 1915) ;
Sherman, P. T., 'The Consequences of Acci-
dents Under Workmen's Compensation Laws'
(in University of Pennsylvania Law Review,
Vol. LX1V, pp. 417-48, Philadelphia 1916);
Seager, H. R., 'Social Insurance' (New York
1910); Trieber, Jacob, 'The National Em-
ployer's Liability Act' (in American Law Re-
view, Vol. XLIX, pp. 481-509, St. Louis 1915) ;
Tolman, W. H., 'Safety: Methods for Pre-
venting Occupational and Other Accidents and
Diseases' (New York 1913) ; Thornton, W.
W-, 'Treatise on the Federal Employers' Lia-
bility and Safety Appliance Acts' (Cincinnati
1916); Walgren, J. A., 'Federal Employers'
Liability Act' (Chicago 1916) ; West, Thomas
D., 'Accidents, Their Causes and Remedies'
(Greenville 1906) ; Van Schaack, David, 'Safe-
guards for the Prevention of Industrial Acci-
dents' (Hartford 1910) ; articles on "Industrial
Safeguards* (in the Weekly Underwriter, New
York 1915 and in Science, Vol. XLI, pp. 154-
57, and Vol. XLn, pp. 238-39, New York
1915), and the annual reports and bulletins of
the various commissions and bureaus.

a b, Google

ACCXFITRES (Ut. plural of Accipiter,
the common hawk), or RAPTORES. An or-
der of birds, comprising the birds of .prey, —
eagles, hawks, owls and vultures. See Blue
of Pkey.

ACCLAMATION. (Vailing to*): prop-
erly, expressing any judgment of an assembly
or a large part of it by shouting: but in usage
restricted entirely to a favorable one. The
choice of rulers among most early Aryan tribes
or nations was by acclamation : the candidate
was presented by a previous understanding —
among the Vikings raised on a shield in the
presence of the chiefs-— and acclaimed by the
voices of the assembled multitude. In some
cases, as with the Poles even quite late in their
history, the agreement was only made when
the throng had gathered and there were more
■' "" t of Reclaimers, often ending !~ "

cal life, v
being cal! . .
evenly balanced that the preponderance is dubi-
ous, or a smalt majority has great strength of
lungs, or the minority wish to make the major-
ity put their position on record, or simply
to have the satisfaction of a proved vote. In
ecclesiastical councils the vote by acclamation
comes first also, the question being put at
'placet' or 'non placet? In private matters,
acclamation has been used from early times as
an expression of good feeling or enthusiasm, as

blics, and the responsive shouts and groans of
religious revivals or prayer-meetings. The ap-
plause in theatres, etc, being non-vocal does not
etymological ly belong to the group, but is
usually included as having the same intent It
began with genuine applause, an actor closing
the play by some word asking for approval of
the company — En the Roman theatre, 'Plaudit**
("applaud ye*), or a poet or orator who re-
cited in public expecting and receiving applause;
but the claque, in modern French phrase, was
very early organized by rich amateurs, who
kept bands of paid apptauders not only for their
own use but to lend to friends. Nero had
5,000 of these, many of them equitet or knights,
to chant his praises at the direction of a profes-
sional music-master; they were called Augus-
tiniani. In the modern French theatre the
claque is on a more modest footing and is paid
by the management ; the understood reason be-
ing (curiously) that it keeps up the spirits of
the actors when the audience's coldness might
depress them beyond the power to play well,
and more rationally that it guides and stimu-
lates the audience itself to genuine applause
when it might be simply sluggish and indif-
ferent. In old times applause was shouted at
marriages, as *Io Hymen,' *Hymena?e,B "Tatas-
sio1; in festal or religions processions; to vic-
torious commanders in triumphs or ovations, as
"Io triumphe"; and even, contrary to modem
feelings of decorum, in churches, the pulpit
orator being cheered at good passages.

ACCLIMATIZATION, the gradual al-
teration which fits a plant or animal to a
climate differing from that in which the habits
of its species or race have been formed. Ac-
climatization and naturalization are often mis-

takenly used as synonymous, but naturalization
properly means establishment in a new country,
and if the climates of the two countries chance
to be the same, acclimatization is not implied.
In the consideration of marine animals and
plants acclimatization takes on a slightly dif-
ferent meaning, since aquatic life is . more
affected by the various conditions of the sur-
rounding water than by climate.

In Plants. — Many examples of acclimatiza-
tion are furnished by cultivated plants, among
which the most noteworthy are perhaps the
cereals. The original species of most of these
has not been discovered, but in most cases it is
supposed to have lived in sub-tropical or warm
temperate regions. Some of these cereals now
thrive far better or are more productive in cold,
northern climates than in warm regions. But in
such cases an important influence may to a
greater or less extent obliterate or emphasize
the apparent period of growth, the productive-
ness, etc This is the daily duration of sunlight.
During the growing period the sunlight lasts
longer as the pole is approached, so that the
shorter season is more than compensated for by
the increased hours of sunlight. It has been
found by experiment that certain varieties of
corn brought from the southern States to the
northern attained their customary height, but
generally failed to ripen seed. The progeny of
such plants as did mature seed gradually as-
sumed the characteristics of northern varieties;
they reduced their height and shortened the
time necessary to attain maturity. In a few
years they resembled other northern varieties in
these two respects. The reverse of this case
has also been proved; northern varieties taken
to the south at first reached the height and at-
tained maturity in the time natural to them in
the north, but gradually assumed the character-
istics of southern varieties — increased height
and greater number of days to reach maturity.
But even considering the frequent preponder-
ance of this influence and remembering that the
production of seed is usually in opposition to
marked development of vegetative parts, there
is no doubt that plants, in becoming acclimat-
ized, are compelled to adjust themselves to
many other less prominent influences, such as
humidity, temperature, light and wind The
peach is supposed to have come from China by
way of Persia, and since early historical times
has gradually been fitting itself to mare and
more northern conditions. It is now found to
be a profitabe crop in Michigan and New York,
which are several degrees farther north than its
supposed place of origin. The influence of cli-
mate upon cultivated plants is recognized by
progressive agriculturists and horticulturists,
and each prefers seed grown in a more north-
erly locality than his own. The effects of the
new environment, however, soon become evi-
dent, and new importations must be made.
Seeds grown at high altitudes exhibit the aame
characteristics as those produced in high lati-
tudes; that is, they are hardier and require a
shorter period to reach maturity than those
grown in low altitudes or low latitudes.

Among naturally acclimatized plants are
many remarkable phenomena. Deciduous plan ut
taken from cool climates to tropical conditions
hold their leaves for a much longer period than
where they are indigenous, or may even become
evergreen like their new associates. Plants im-

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ACCO — ACCOMMODATION

ported from warm regions to cooler may lose
the power to ripen seeds, but this defect may
be compensated by the development of vegeta-
tive reproductive powers. The reverse case is
also true. Southern plants may fail to ripen
wood completely, and winter killing may result.
In cultivated plants, however, this phenomenon,
which is often observed in the peach, may be
due to improper methods of cultivation result-
ing in abnormal wood- development.

Id Animals, — The capacity for acclimatiza-
tion is possessed in very different degrees by
different animals, even by different individuals
of the same species, and depends much upon
general hardihood. Exactly what changes take
place during acclimatization is not known;
sometimes the' very specific gravity of the ani-
mal is altered, as when fresh-water fishes be-
come adapted to the denser water of the
ocean ; similarly, the normal temperature of
the individual may gradually become altered,
as in the case of fishes native to cool water,
which chance to work up-stream into hot
springs and live there at a temperature which
would kill normal individuals of the same
species. The animals which are most wide-
spread over the earth are those which have
the greatest adaptability to new climates and
new conditions of environment, and the best
examples of this adaptability are found among
domestic animals (q.v.). About the middle of
the 19th century there was much enthusiasm
for transplanting animals from one country to
another; but the results have so often been
harmful rather than beneficial to the recipients
of the new forms that the effort to improve on
nature in this way has been abandoned. Con-
spicuous examples are afforded by the sending
of the European rabbit to Australia and New
Zealand, where it multiplied so excessively in
a favorable climate, with abundant food, and
through the almost complete lack of enemies,
as to become a nuisance and a menace to the
pastoral industry. (See Rabbit). The intro-
duction of the agua toads, and afterward of the
tnungoos (q.v.) into Jamaica, to subdue the
rats that were devouring the sugar-cane, had
evil results. The spread of the European house-
sparrow in the United States is another
pertinent example. Many highly injurious in-
sects have been accidentally introduced and ac-
climatized in America from abroad; and the
same is true of other countries. On the other
hand a few instances like the acclimatization
of the silkworm in Europe, of bumblebees in
New Zealand, or of ladybirds in California,
have been highly beneficial ; while much good
has come from stocking new streams with de-
sirable fishes. Of the several societies founded
to promote such transferences, that of Paris
(Soci^te" d'Accttmatation) is most important,
but latterly has been inactive.

In Human Beings.— See Hygiene.

Bibliography.-^ 'Variations of Animals and
Plants Under Domestication,1 Darwin ; 'Island
Life,' Wallace; 'Tropical Colon izat ton.'

ACCO, ak'o. See Acre.

ACCOLADE, iuVo-lad' (Fr. 'embrace,5
literally, 'on the neck"), in heraldry, the cere-
mony by which in medieval times one was
dubbed a knight. On the question what this
was, antiquaries are not agreed. It has been
made an embrace around the neck, a kiss or a

slight blow upon the cheek or shoulder. It)
some cases it was a literal box on the ear, for
which later was substituted a gentle tap on the
shoulder with the flat of a sword. In confer-
ring Knighthood the King strikes the kneeling
subject lightly on the shoulder with a sword
and uses the words *] bid thee rise. Sir
Knight.*

ACCOLTI, Benedetto, ak-ol'te, ben-a-del'S.
the Elder, Italian jurist: b. Arezzo, 1415; it
Florence, 1466. Several other members of his
family were noted for legal attainments. He
became professor of jurisprudence in the Uni-
versity of Florence, and on the death of the
famous Poggio was made chancellor of that
republic, with his brother Leonardo he wrote
in Latin a three-volume history of the first
crusade, not of great value, but interesting as
having furnished Tasso the material for
'Jerusalem Denvered': pub. Venice 1452,
Italian tr. 1543 French tr. 1620. He also wrote
a volume of biographies of his distinguished
contemporaries (Parma 1689).

ACCOLTI, Bernardo, Italian poet and
ecclesiastic: b. Florence, before 1466; d. after
1534. He was greatly admired, especially as an
improvisatore. Whenever he announced his in-
tention of reciting his verses the shops were
closed and the people flocked in crowds to hear
him. He was surrounded by prelates of the
first eminence; a body of Swiss troops accom-
panied him ; and the court was lighted fay
torches. 'Leo X esteemed him highly and made
him apostolic secretary, cardinal and papal
legate at Ancona. He it was who drew up the
papal bull against Luther (1520). Though
styled in his own day «The Only (one) of
Arezzo' (L' Unico Aretino), die fame of his
works perished with him. Their style is hard,
his images forced and his taste marred by
affectation. The best known is a comedy, 'La
Virginia.* His other productions include some
lyric poetry, epigrams, octaves and verses in

ACCOMMODATION, the process by
which the mind is brought into adjustment with
its surroundings; adaptation.

In physiology, the accommodation of the eye
is the function by which objects, near or distant,
may be seen distinctly. It is accomplished by
the relaxing or contracting of the ciliary mus-
cle. See Eye.

In biology, the process by which an organism
becomes adapted to its environment.

In theology, properly, the presentation of a
truth not absolutely, but with some modification
to suit it either to some other truth or to the
person addressed. It is distinguished as formal
and material, the former relating to the method
of teaching, and the latter to what is taught.
The former includes teaching by parables or
symbols, by progressive stages graduated to the
capacity of the learner, etc. ; more usually, now,
the forcing of texts from their obvious mean-
ing to conform them to theories derived from
other sources. The latter, as now commonly
used, means the theory that Christ and the
writers of Scripture modified or perverted the
truth to accommodate it to the limited intelli-
gence or the prejudices of their times, — the
cosmogonies of Genesis, or Jesus' acceptance of
demoniac possession as a truth, etc.

In commerce it usually denotes temporary

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ACCOMPANIMENT — ACCOUNT

financial assistance rendered by one merchant
or bank to another. Accommodation paper in-
cludes notes or bills of exchange .made, ac-
cepted or indorsed, without any consideration.
While in the hands of the party to whom it is
made, or for whose benefit the accommodation
is given, such paper is open to the defense of
want of consideration, but when received by
third parties in the usual course of business it
is governed by the same rules as other paper
(2 Duer, N. Y. 33; 2 Kent, Coram. 86).

ACCOMPANIMENT, in music, is mat
part which serves for the support of the PP"-
dpal melody (solo or obligate part). This
can be executed either by many instruments, by
a few or even by a single one; we have there-
fore pieces with an accompaniment for several,
or only for a single instrument. The principles
on which the effect of accompaniment rests are
so little settled that its composition is perhaps
more difficult than even that of die melody.
Frequently die same musical thought produces
a good or bad effect, according to the character
or the accompaniment, without our being able
to give a satisfactory reason for the difference.
The accompaniment requires of the performer
the most scrupulous study, and of the composer
.the greatest skill and delicacy As the object
of every musical accompaniment is to give
effect to the principal part, the accompanist
should always aim really to support and by no
means to overpower it

ACCOMPLICE is the term applied to one
who is in some way connected with the com-
mission of a crime, though not as a principal.

In die absence of a statute it is not a rule.

mony of an accomplice. Ordinarily the judge
will advise the jury to acquit unless the testi-
mony of the accomplice is corroborated as to
the circumstances of the offense and die partici-
pation of the accused It is provided by the N.
Y. Code Crim. Proc., 5 399, that a conviction
cannot be had upon the testimony of an ac-
complice unless he be corroborated by such
other evidence as tends to connect the defend-
ant with the commission of the crime. This
statute has been adopted in many of the States
of the Union.

ACCORAMBONI, Victoria, ak-o-ram-
bo'nE, vit-6're-a, Italian lady famous for her
beauty and her wild tragic history : date of
birth unknown; d. 22 Dec. 1585. Her contem-
poraries thought her the most fascinating
woman ever in Italy. Paolo Giordano Orsim,
Duke of Bracciano, who was believed to have
murdered his wife with his own hand, sought
hers with her passionate acquiescence; but her
father gave her to Francesco Peretti, nephew
of Cardinal Montalio and living in his house.
Peretti was assassinated 1581 ; and Vittoria fled
to Bracciano; the scandal was great, and
Gregory XIII Imprisoned her nearly a year in
the castle of St. Angelo, but she married the
duke as soon as released. Montalto becoming
Pope as Sixtus V, the couple took refuge in
Venetian territory. After a few months' resi-
dence at Salo on Lake Garda. the duke died,
leaving her almost the whole of his great
fortune; but an incensed relative of his, Ludo-
vico Orsini, had her murdered at Padua,
whither she had. removed. This recital, valid

on the evidence accessible up to now and ac-
cepted by Gnoli in bis 'Life* of her (Florence
18/0), leaves Vittoria much on the level of
other passionate Italian women of her age ; but
the Countess Martinengo-Cesaresco lias re-
cently re-examined the evidence in her 'Lom-
bard Studies,' and thinks her innocent of com-
plicity in crime. Much literary use has been
made of her story, and Webster's play 'The
White Devil1 is based on it

ACCORD AND SATISFACTION sig-
nifies a satisfaction agreed upon between the
party injured and the parry injuring, which
when performed is a bar to all actions upon this
account It must be legal. An agreement to
stifle a criminal prosecution for a criminal
offense such as an assault and imprisonment is
void (2 Wils. 241 ; 5 East, 294).

Where a release is given to one of two joint
tort-feasors which recites the receipt from him
of a certain sum as full payment, it will operate
as a bar to an action against the other tort-
feasor (136 Mass. 503).

Accord with satisfaction, when completed,
has two effects: It is a payment of the debt;
and it is a species of sale of the thing given by
the debtor to the creditor in satisfaction; but it
differs from it in this, that it is not valid until
the delivery of the article, and there is no war-
ranty of the thing thus sold, except perhaps the
title ; for in regard to this it cannot be doubted
that if the debtor gave, on an accord and satis-
faction, the goods of another, there would be
no satisfaction. But the intention of the partiei
U of the utmost consequence (30 Vt 424).

ACCORDION, a musical instrument in the
form of a small box, generally from 8 to 12
indies long by 4 wide, and containing a number
of metallic reeds fixed at one extremity, but left
to vibrate freely. A small bellows, formed by
a folding apparatus which unites the top and
bottom of the box, supplies the wind, which,
admitted by keys acting on valves, sets the reeds
in vibration. In the harmonium (q.v.) and
the American cabinet- organ the same prin-
ciple is also employed. The accordion was
introduced into America from Germany about
1828 but the principle had long been known in
China, and employed for instruments played by
the breath. The concertina, flutina and organ-
accordion are improvements.

ACCOUNT, a register of pecuniary trans-
actions, whether for personal use, to satisfy a
contract, in obedience to law, or as a bill of
items sent to a customer who buys on credit
A mutual account is one where debtor and
creditor items are opposed between two parties.
An open account, or account current, in com-
merce is one in which the balance has not been
struck; in banking, one that may be added to or
drawn upon at any time, as opposed to a deposit
account where notice is required for withdraw-
als. To keep an open account is to keep such
a one running on, instead of closing it A stated
account is one which all parties have expressly

admitted to be correct To open an a

to begin pecuniary transactions with a banker or
merchant.

In law, an account is a detailed statement of
the mutual demands in the nature of debt and
credit between parties, arising out of contracts

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ACCOUNTANT — ACCOUNTING

or some fiduciary relations. An open account
is one in which same term of the contract is not
settled by the parties, whether the account con-
sists of one item or many.

In equity, jurisdiction concurrent with courts
of law is taken over matters of account on
three grounds : Mutual accounts; dealings so
complicated that they cannot be adjusted in a
court of law ; and the existence of a fiduciary
relation between the parties.

ACCOUNTANT, properly any one who
keeps accounts, and till" lately applied in the
United States to all bookkeepers without dis-
tinction ; more generally now restricted to the
head bookkeepers of large houses or corpora-
*ith difficult 0^ complex accounts calling

as one not in the employ of any one
hiring his services out to such fim

, banks or public institutions, as either
find their accounts in disorder or wish a legal
verification or a guaranteed statement for the

Eublic ; or report on bankrupt estates under
igal process. Few large financial institutions
neglect to support public confidence by having
their books periodically investigated and re-
ported upon by an accountant unconnected with
This is gradually building up,

duty among these experts : it is recognized
that it is their duty not merely to certify to
the correct balancing of the figures submitted
to them, but to use reasonable intelligence and
honorable purpose on the manner in which those
figures were made, and whether they represent
facts or gross fictions to deceive outsiders and
lure in money to be mishandled. The proper,
and in the United States the only, business of
an accountant is to examine accounts and make
out balance-sheets and statements. In Eng-
land they assume a still further duty, that of
managing estates and legacies.

ACCOUNTING. It is difficult to dis-
tinguish between bookkeeping and accounting.
In attempts to do so bookkeeping is called the
art of recording business transactions and ac-
counting the science. Bookkeeping gives the
history of the business in a systematic manner,
while accounting classifies, analyzes and then
interprets the facts thus recorded and shows
the results as losses and gains, leakages, econo-
mies, changes in value, etc., in such a way as
to reveal the progress or retrogression and the
limitations and possibilities of the business.
The primary object of bookkeeping is to show
debts, both those due to the owner and those
due by him to others; the purpose of account-
ing is to show profits and losses and valuations.
Accounting is more than advanced bookkeep-
ing and an accountant is more than an expert
bookkeeper. A person might keep a set of
hooks with perfect accuracy by mechanically
observing the rules of debit and credit. The
accountant must be able to design the set of
books and the system of accounts which will
give the desired information with the minimum
of effort. He must have such a comprehen-
sive view of business, both its economic and
legal aspects, that he can not only see the ef-
fect of all kinds of transactions on the profit
and loss statement and balance sheet, hut also

recognize and classify all other factors which
enter into the determination of the true status
of an enterprise. The development and rapid
rise of accounting is due to the change from
private to corporate form of business organi-
zation. The enormous growth of manufactur-
ing, transportation and mining companies, and
the investment of their ownership in the hands
of many shareholders demands a more ac-
curate^ determination of profit and loss and
valuation of assets than when such enterprises
were owned by small private companies. A
proper accounting system is an aid to the
creditors of a corporation in determining the
value of its securities and shows the stock-
holders whether they are receiving a just
share of its profits. Since the charges for
service rendered by the public service com-
panies are coming more generally under the
regulation of legislative authority, it is essen-
tial to know the exact value of the capital
upon which dividends must be paid and the
true profit which has been earned in order to
fix those charges on an equitable basis. This
requires a careful classification of items and
a regard for certain factors which bookkeep-
ing, as formerly known, did not take into con-
sideration.

Increasing interest in municipal affairs has
resulted in the development of accounting sys-
tems for cities, counties and States with a
view to unifying and classifying their revenues
and expenditures so as to show true costs and
the comparative efficiency of various depart-
ments and changing administrations.

Accounting has made prominent the prob-
' lem of distinguishing between a revenue ex-
penditure and a capital expenditure. If an item
is regarded as a revenue expenditure, it is
debited to some expense account and decreases
profit; if it is considered a capital expenditure,
some real account is debited and the assets in-
creased. For many years the railroads, quite
generally, regarded as an expense most im-
provements in their rolling stock and better-
ment of their tracks. They charged to operating
expenses instead of to construction, account
the cost of reduction of grades, the re-
placement of wooden bridges by those of steel,
and even the cost of extensions and branches.
They claimed that these expenditures for im-
provements were necessary to hold business
against competition and were not simply fac-
tors to increase business.

The commonly accepted theory of account-
ing requires that in so far as any expenditure
results in an addition of substantial and per-
manent character which increases the value of
the plant, such expenditure shall be considered
an increase in assctsand debited to construc-
tion account. This is not always upheld by
legal decisions but since 1906 the Interstate
Commerce Commission has prescribed a uni-
form set of accounts for railroads encaged in
interstate commerce which embodies this prin-
ciple. It is often difficult to determine whether
an expenditure should be considered a real ex-
pense or an increase in capital Sometimes
it partakes of the nature of both and has to be
divided, as when an old machine is replaced
bv a new one of an improved and more ex-
pensive type. . , ,

Accounting recognizes depreciation as a
business factor. All machinery used in pro-

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ACCOUNTING

duction and even the most fixed assets, a*
braidings, decrease in value with use, the lapse
of tune and because of new inventions and im-
provements. This decrease in value must be
considered an expense or cost of production
just as much as wages and materials, interest
and rent. Consequently, true profits cannot
be determined nor the real value of the assets
stated until after an allowance has been made
for depreciation. In Germany, Austria, Prance,
Switzerland and Belgium, all corporations are
required by law to set up a special account to
cover depreciation. In England and the United
States there is no general regulation but the
Interstate Commerce Commission and the
State legislatures compel the railroads and cer-
tain public service corporations to make such
provision. Most large corporations voluntarily
do so.

There are various ways of treating depre-
ciation on the books. Sometimes the particular
asset is credited with the amount of its de-
crease, the balance of the account showing its
new value. This is called "writing down* the
asset. Sometimes the asset b carried at its
original cost and a valuation account credited
with the amount of the depredation. The two
accounts, taken together, show the actual value
of the asset. Since some assets are consumed
slowly while others are short-lived, the deter*
ruination of the proper allowance for deprecia-
tion is a difficult problem. Absolute accuracy
cannot be attained and even approximate esti-
mates require considerable expertness. Tables.
applicable to various lands of machinery and
buildings have been worked out from expert -

Fluctuations in the value of fixed assets, as
measured by the market price, may be consid-
ered as due to causes not under the control of
the business. They may be favorable or un-
favorable and are often not at all permanent.
Usually no consideration is given to them on
the books except as there results a depreciation
in the value of goods for sale or in the process
of manufacture.

Stocks, bonds and the securities of other
concerns bought for investment are carried on
the books at their original cost, if this is be-
low the market quotations, otherwise the mar-
ket value is substituted. • In Austria, the law
requires the use of the market value in case
of either depreciation or appreciation. In this
country it is considered conservative to disre-
gard appreciation unless the increased value of
the asset is actually realized upon by its sale.

Goodwill may be defined as the monetary
value placed upon the reputation, connections
or advantages possessed by a firm whereby it
is able to make unusual profits. In forming
consolidations it is often used to represent the
difference between the price paid and the in-
trinsic value of the property acquired. Al-
though a firm may possess or create advantages
by which its profits are increased, it is generally
agreed that it is bad practice to set up an ac-
count for goodwill unless it has been pur-
chased. As to whether goodwill should be
considered a depreciating asset and gradually
written off the books is a question of dispute
among accountants. On account of its intangi-
bility it is regarded conservative to do so.

Cost Accounting is one of the latest
developed and most difficult and technical

branches of accounting. It is applicable to a
manufacturing business rather than to a mer-
cantile or trading concern. The manufacturer
buys raw materials, semi- raw materials, parts
already finished, etc., and by means of a prop-

materials into a finished product which he sells.
In order to meet competition intelligently and
to prepare estimates on work to be performed
with accuracy the manufacturer must be able
to determine from his records the actual cost
of each unit produced during a given period
and the cost of goods in process of manufacture
at the end of the period. This necessitates the
keeping of a class of expenses, known as manu-
facturing expenses, different from those of a
mercantile firm, and the use of many additional
ledger accounts.

Three elements enter into the cost of a
manufactured article: (1) Raw materials;
12) productive labor j (3) manufacturing ex-
penses. Manufacturing expenses are also
called indirect or overhead expenses and in-
clude all expenditures outside of those for raw
materials and productive labor, such as power,
heat, light, factory supplies, taxes, insurance,
repairs, depreciation of machinery, etc. Some-
times a fourth element is inclnded — the sell-
ing expenses. The first two elements may be
called the Prime Cost; the first three the Fac-
tory Cost; and all four the Total Cost. But
these terms are used to express so many various
meanings by the different writers on Cost Ac-
counting as to render a complete discussion
too long for this article.

Two of the several general methods of
computing costs are: (1) The Production Or

opened with each job in the c

of time he spends on it. All material
required is requisitioned from the stock room
by this number. -Thus, the account of each
job can be easily debited with the cost of direct
labor and the cost of material and parts used.
This gives the prime cost of the job and leaves
the indirect expenses to be apportioned to it_

The apportionment of the indirect or over^
head expenses must of necessity be arbitrary.
Many schemes have been suggested but it is
impossible to find one that is generally agreed
to be logically correct or uniformly accurate.
Among the various methods used are : (a)
The ■man-rate* method, which divides up the
indirect expenses in proportion to the direct
wages paid for the productive labor; (b) the
"man-hour* method, in which the division is
according to the total number of hours of pro-
ductive labor; (c) the 'mixed method,* which
uses the cost of raw materials plus the cost of
productive labor as the basis of division ; (rf)
the "machine-hour" method; and (V) the units
of product method. Having decided upon the
most practical method of apportioning the
manufacturing expenses, the proper amount is
debited to each job and the factory cost of that
job determined.

The Process Method of determining costs is
used when the lots of material in the process
of production follow one another in such a
way that one lot cannot be distinguished from

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AULUUNTlNti, HUniLlfJU AUUUU 1 KxtM£.m b

The b;

another. Each process is known by a name or
number, as milling, rolling, annealing, dipping,
etc, or, as operation No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, etc
The amount of time of productive labor spent
on each process it reported and its cost dented
to the account of that process. The cost of
raw materials or finished parts used in each
process is also debited to its account. The in-
direct expenses are apportioned by one of the
methods described above to arrive at the total
factory cost of the process.

Auditing. — Even if not required by law, it
has become the custom for most large business
firms to have an audit of their records made
by outside accountants employed for the pur-
pose of carefully examining their books and
certifying to their correctness. It is the duty
of the auditor to check up all the entries of the
bookkeepers and to compare their amounts
with all the original documents and papers,
such as checks, notes, bills, receipts, etc-, ana
to discover any errors of principle, of omission
or fraud. The auditor's report consists of a
profit and loss statement and a balance sheet,
with necessary comments and suggestions for
increase in efficiency and accuracy of record.
In preparing the profit and loss statement the
auditor endeavors to make certain that it con-
tains all of the expenses of the period, whether
they have been paid or not ; that charges prop-
erly made against income have not been made
against capital ; that all the profits earned are
included; in short, that the statement is a true

ort of the income and expense of the period.

e balance sheet is the statement of the busi-
ness most often published and the auditor
should be able to certify that the assets are not
overstated; that proper allowance has been
made for depreciation ; that the liabilities are
all included.

The auditor may be called in only at the
end, of a period to make a "complete* audit,
or he may be employed to make a 'continuous*
audit, that is, to check the bookkeeper's work
during the period at frequent intervals, so that
the statements may be prepared at the end
without delay.

Historical.— The practice of accounting
was recognized as a profession in Great Britain
long before it had attained the highly special-
ized character it possesses to-day. In 1854 the
Society of Accountants in Edinburgh was in-
corporated by royal charter. Similar societies
were established in Glasgow and Aberdeen in
1855 and 1867 and the Institute of Accountants
in London in 1870. The New York State So-
ciety of Certified Public Accountants was the
first to be organized in the United States. In
1896 the New York State legislature passed an
act authorizing the State University to confer
the degree of C.P.A. (Certified Public Ac-
countant) only on those passing an examina-
tion. Many other States have followed this
lead. The various State and National societies
with their official journals and publications pro-
mote the discussion and solution of new prob-
lems and methods of practice. During the
past few years many colleges and universities,
recognizing the importance of accounting and
its direct relation to economics, have included
its study in their cnrriculums and greatly de-
veloped its literature. Specialists have arisen
in the field. Cost accountants and efficiency
engineers devise ways and -means for cheaper

production. System builders organise the ac-
counting of a firm so as to give most satis-
factory results. The general expert accountant
acts as auditor and 'business physician, * whose
advice is sought whenever unusual conditions
arise. See Bookjcexfikg.

Bibliography.— Bennett, R. J., ■Corporation
Accounting) (New York 1917) ; Bentlry, H. C,
'Science of Accounts' (ib. 1913) ; Church, A.
H., 'Distribution of Expense Burden and Pro-
duction Factors ;' Cole, W. H., 'Accounts:
Their Construction and Interpretation' (New
York 1915); Day, C M., 'Accounting Prac-
tice' (ib. 1908); Dicksee, L. R., 'Depreciation,
Reserves and Reserve Funds' (London 1903) ;
Eggleston, D. G, 'Municipal Accounting'
(New York 1914) ; Esquerre, P. J., 'Applied
Theory of Accounts' (lb. 1914) ; Hatfield, H.
R, 'Modern Accounting' (ib. 1916); Klein,
J. J., 'Bookkeeping and Accounting* (ib.
1917) ; Lislt G-, 'Accounting in Theory and
Practice' (Edinburgh 1906); Montgomery, R.
H, 'Auditing Theory and Practice' (New
York 1917) : Nicholson, J. L., 'Cost Account-
ing1 (ib. 1916) ; Spmgue, C E., 'Philosophy
of Accounts' (ib. 1908) ; Wildman, J. R,
■Principles of Accounting' (ib. 1913).

George M. Butt,
Department of PoUtical Science, Cotieg* of tke
• City of New York.

ACCOUNTING, MUNICIPAL. See Mu-
nicipal Accounting.

, ACCOUTREMENTS, ak-ka&'ter-mentt,
military equipment carried on the person of the
soldier or his horse, in particular such as is
used to bear his arms and ammunition. In the
United States Army the pattern of the infantry
equipment was selected by a special board of
officers in 1910; that of the cavalry in 1912
Both arms carry extra clothing, a shelter-tent
half, a cartridge-belt (suspended from the
shoulders), a mess outfit (including bacon-
box, condiment-box, knife, fork, spoon, meat-
can with cover and cup), a canteen with cover
and a first-aid packet. The dismounted troops
carry in addition a pack-carrier, slung down
the middle of the back, an entrenching tool and
a poncho. In the case of the mounted troops
these are replaced by a pair of saddle-bags, a
saddle-blanket, a set of horse- equipment and a
slicker. The infantry entrenching tools are
issued as follows: To each squad of 8 men
1 wire cutter (carried by the corporal), 4
short-handled shovels 2 collapsible picks and
either an axe or a bolo (a leaf-shaped heavy
knife for cutting brush). The bayonet of the
infantryman may be carried on his belt, but is
now more usually strapped on to the left side
of his pack. Those enlisted men and officers
who carry pistols carry them in a leather or
khaki-colored canvas holster at the right hip
and strapped to the leg to prevent swinging.
The material of which the paek, bayonet-scab-
bard, cartridge-belt, canteen- cover, etc, are
made is khaki-colored canvas or webbing and
the entrenching tools are painted khaki-color.
The mess-tin, canteen and cup are aluminum.
The accompanying diagram exhibits the re-
spective details of the present issues of infan-
try and cavalry equipments. The cavalryman
is provided with a small box or pouch for re-
volver-cartridges and a cap-pouch. The sabre-
belt, to which all the preceding are attached,
consists of a waist-belt, with two rings for the

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AgVJKA — AttUKAtY Ur JTUUC

should* r- st rap and sabre-sling. The usual ac-
coutrements for horse-artillery consist general-
ly of a j>istol and cap-pouch and a sabre-belt,
which differs from the cavalry-belt only in the
omission of the shoulder-stxap.

Navy, and Muini
ted Wen Dismounted.
Fun Equipment.

A. Meat can pouch.

B- Haversack.

C Bayonet.

D- Entrenching too] .

F. Caitridge pocket, op*

G. Cartridge belt.

H. Roll (contain! blanket, •

K. Pint-aid packet.
" ' a tools (carried by >
marled D).
2. Pick-mattock.

e man in place of tool

carry noentMnehm*: tool*),
idge belt with

Tool* (carried on belt by

t. te««

Bnliited Men Mounted. (They wear

canteen and tint-aid packet attached).

6. Saddle and equipment.

B. Roll (contain! blanket, shelter-tent, half, extra

clothing).
Q Saddle-bag (contain* meat can pouch and eitra

articles).

7. Holster (carried by men equipped with automatic

X. Leg-strap. (To prevent swinging).
Contents of meat can pouch.
8. Bacon tan*.

ACCRA, or AK'KRA, British West Africa,
capital of the Gold Coast colony since 1876, a
fortified seaport town, the starting point of a
railway to the northeastern cocoa plantations
and connected with South Africa and Europe
by telegraphic cable. Since a destructive fire
in 1894, Accra has been almost rebuilt, and in
1896 was raised to the rank of a municipality.
The residential section' is at Vlctoriaborg where
there is a racecourse, and on the Aquapini hills,

U Aburi, 26 miles northeast of Accra, are the

government sauatarium and botanical gardens,
op. including about 200 Europeans, 20,000.

ACCRINGTON, England, a manufacturing
town and municipal borough in Lancashire, on
the Hyndburn, 20 miles north of, Manchester
and five mites east of Blackburn; on the Lan-
cashire & Y. Railway: incorporated 1878. It is
well laid out, and has various handsome build
ings, including the town-hall, a splendid market
hall, technical school and school of art, clubs,
etc The manufacture and printing of cottons,
chemical works for their use, and the manu-
facture of spinning and other machinery, are
the chief industries. Coal is wrought exten-
sively. Pop. about 47,000, Accrington gives
name to a parliamentary c&viskm of lie county ;
pop. 84,878.

ACCUM, Friedrich, fred'riH, German
chemist: b. . Buckeburg, 1769; d. Berlin, 1838.
Removing to London at 24, eight years later he
was made professor of chemistry and min-
eralogy at the Surrey Institution. Be published
several textbooks on these sciences, out is re-
membered mainly for being (with an energetic
Srint-seller, Ackennann) the introducer of gas-
ghiing into England. His 'Practical Treatise
on Gaslight* appeared in 1815. Another valu-
able service to society was his 'Treatise on
Adulterations of Food and Culinary Poisons'
(1820). As the result of charges against his
honesty he returned to Germany, and in 1822
was made professor in the Industrial Institute
and Academy of Architecture in Berlin.

ACCUMULATION, in law, the increase
of a trust fund by the interest or revenue
thereon being added to the principal, for the
future benefit of a person or persons. The
period of time during which this may be done
is limited generally by statute both in England
and in the United States to the life of the
settlor only or for 21 years or during the
minority of the cestui que trust The com-
mon-law rule makes void any disposition of
realty for a greater period than a Life or lives
in being and an additional period of 21 years.

ACCUMULATOR, a device for the stor-
age of energy, more particularly when the
energy is supplied from an intermittent source,
or when it is to be withdrawn intermittently
or irregularly. The fly-wheel on a steam-engine
is a device of this sort, but it is not commonly
referred to as an accumulator. The word is
practically restricted to the following two
(1) A storage-battery;, (2)

Water i
. ;, with
. _ weights .. .
raised, and a considerable Quantity of water
is thus stored in the cylinder under a high
pressure. By the use of such an accumulator
it is possible to deliver water for a short time
in far greater volume than the pumps feeding
the accumulator could deliver it, and yet at
the maximum pressure that the pumps are
capable of producing. Hydraulic accumulators
are used in connection with riveting-machines,
cranes and many other heavy tools.

ACCURACY OP FIRE.— The firing for
accuracy, whether with artillery or small-arms,
involves two entirely separate and distinct con-

a b, Google

ACCUSATION — ACELDAMA

ditions: <1) The determination of the personal
skill of the individual using the weapon ; (2)
the determination of the qualities as regards
accuracy of the weapon itself. The most com-
mon way of determining the relative accuracy
of guns is to ascertain their mean errors in
range and deflection for a given mean range,
and compare them. It is not always possible
to. test the practice of guns under precisely
similar circumstances.

It is easier to determine, from the practice
of the gun itself, a rectangle with which there
would be an equal chance of any shot from
the gun striking or not striking; or, if a given
number of shots were fired, the number which
fall within the area. The accuracies of two
guns would be in the inverse order of rectangles
for the same range. The relative precision of
small-arms is decided by various methods. To
determine the centre of impact the piece should
be fixed in a frame and be pointed at the
centre of a target stationed at the required dis-
tance, and fired a certain number of times, and
the positions of the shot-holes, measured in
vertical and horizontal directions from the
lower left-hand corner of the target, are ar-
ranged in tabular form. The sum of all the
vertical distances divided by the number of
shots gives the height of the centre of impact
above the origin. Similarly the sum of all the
horizontal distances divided by the number of
shots gives the horizontal distance from the
origin to the centre of impact. _ The co-ordi-
nates of the centre of impact being known, the
point itself is known, ana its distance from the
centre of the target is called the absolute mean
deviation. This is equal to the square-root of
the sum of the squares of its vertical and
horizontal distances from the centre of the tar-
get. To obtain the mean deviation it is neces-
sary to refer each shot -hole to the centre of
impact as a new origin of co-ordinates, and
this is done by taking the differences between
each tabular distance and the distance of the
centre of impact and adding them. The sum
of all the distances thus obtained in one direc-
tion divided by the number of shots gives the
mean deviation or figure of merit.

The mean horizontal error is found by add-
ing the horizontal distances by which the balls
have missed the centre of the target and di-
viding this sum by the number of balls ; this
quotient indicates how much the average of
the balls have missed horizontally the point
aimed at. To get the ahsolute mean error there
are two methods. The first is short and sim-
ple, and consists in calculating the hypothenuse
of a right angle triangle, in which the other
two sides are the mean horizontal and mean
vertical errors. ' The second, which should be
called the calculation of the mean at the abso-
lute errors, consists in measuring for each ball
its absolute error, a distance from the point
aimed at, and to take the mean of these ab-
solute errors by dividing their sum by the
number of balls fired. This method is very
long, since to have the absolute error of each
ball it is necessary to square two numbers and
then extract the square-root of these sums as
the distance of the points struck have been
measured upon the vertical and horizontal lines
passing through the point aimed at. The re-
sults are not exactly the same; the mean of

the absolute errors will be greater than the ab-
solute mean error.

The trajectory from die gun to the meau
point of impact is called the mean trajectory,
and the divergencies of the trajectories of par-
ticular shots from the mean trajectory have a
multitude of independent causes, such as initial
angular deviations ; variations of the muzzle
velocity; variations of the form and weight of
the projectiles; variations in the angular posi-
tion of the gun when it is fired, and in its
jump; variations in the force and direction of
the wind; and variations in the drift due to

If the actual mean initial velocity is that for
which the sights of the gun are graduated; if
the range is exactly known and the sights are
set accordingly ; if the density of the air is
standard; and if there is no wind and no mo-
tion of gun or target, then the mean point of
impact will coincide with the point at which the
line of sight is directed. These conditions,
however, are never fulfilled, nor is it possible to
compensate exactly for their non-fulfillment,
and consequently the mean point of impact is
never exactly at the centre of the target. To
bring it as near as possible to that point is the
object of the regulation of gun-fire. See Gun-

ACCUSATIOH, in law, the charging of a
person with a crime, or of a minor offense; the
declaration containing the charge of an offense
or crime. The term is a broad one, including
indictment, presentment, information (qq.v.),
and any other form in which the charge of a
crime can be made against an individual.

ACCUSATIVE CASE, in Latin,— and
thence applied to the corresponding case in
Greek and other declensions, — that case of the
noun, pronoun, etc, which designates the ob-
ject to which the action of a verb is imme-
diately directed. It corresponds with what,
although the English noun is nearly without
declension, is called in English the objective
case. See Declension.

ACELDAMA, a-kel'da-ma, a cemetery in
Jerusalem used to bury strangers in. The
traditional site is on a small plateau half-way
up the' southern slope of the valley of Hin-
nom, near its junction with the valley of Jehosh-
aphat ; and it was certainly used in the 6th
century for the burial of Christian pilgrims,
and continued in use till the 17th. According
to Matt, xxvii, 7-8. it was bought by the chief
priests and elders for a burial-ground with the
30 pieces of silver returned by Judas after the
betrayal; according to Acts i, 19, it was bought
by Judas himself with the money, which he
did not return, and his bowels burst open in
it; according to both, the name means 'the
field of blood," and it was a potter's field. But
as the Greek text gives 'Accldamach*
which would mean "field of sleep,™ a natural
and beautiful term for a huryi no-ground, and
as, according to Jer. xviii, 2 and xix, 2, there
was a potters house in the valley of Hinnom, it
appears that the use and name of the place were
very old at the time of Christ, and that the
meaning 'field of blood* was a misunderstand-
ing, or a play on the real meaning, and its con-
nection with Judas artificial. {History and
description bv Schick, 1892, quarterly statement
of the Palestine Exploration Fund, pp. 283-89).

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ACKPHALI — ACETIC ACID

ACEPH'ALI ( "headless* ), in civil history,
certain levelers, in the reign of Henry I of
England, who acknowledged no head or em-
peror; or, according to another explanation,
who were too poor to own any property and
so have any legal superior.

In Church history : (l)Bishops exempt from
the jurisdiction and discipline of a patriarch.
(2) Clergy belonging to no diocese. (3) Those
who, on occasion or a dispute in the Council
of Ephesus, a.d. 431, refused to follow either
John of Antioch or Cyril of Alexandria. (4)
Those who rejected the decision of the Council
of Chalcedon, 451, on the nature of Christ
<5> In the 5th and 6th centuries, a large sec-
tion of the followers of the Monophysite, Peter
Mongus, who cast him off as their leader be-
cause of his accenting a peaceful formula
called the Henobcon. They soon after-
ward split into three parties, the Anthropomor-
phites, the Barsanuphites and the Essianists,
who again gave origin to other sects. (6) The
Flagellants (q.v.).

ACEPH'ALOCYST ("headless cyst*), a
growth found in the liver, kidneys and other
glandular organs of man and oftentimes those
of the lower animals.

ACER, a genus of trees of the family
Ace races, containing about 100 species and
abundant in north America and eastern Asia.
They are natives of the north-temperate
regions. The most widely-known European
species are A. campestre and A. psiudo-
platanus. See Maple; Whistle wood.

ACERATHERIUM, a-se-ra-the'ri-um, an
extinct rhinoceros which inhabited Europe
during the Miocene epoch. It had no distinct
horn, whence the name <Gr. i~ without, *lpat
horn, %> animal}, bat a small boss en the top
of the skull indicates a rudimentary horn or
callosity. American fossil hornless rhinoc-
eroses formerly referred to this genus are now
distinguished as Casopus.

ACERBT, Giuseppe, l-chir'-be, ju-sep'-a,
Italian traveler and scientist: b. near Mantua,
3 May 1773; d. there August 1846. He studied
at Mantua, devoting himself to natural science;
in 1798 journeyed through Scandinavia, Fin-
land and Lapland, and in 1799 visited the North
Cape, the first Italian ever there. On his re-
turn he stayed some time in England and pub-
lished bis 'Travels' in English, later having
them translated into French and German. He
rendered great service to Italian literature by
starting in 1816 the Bibiioteca lialiana, which
fought the Accademia delta Crusca.
Made Austrian consul-general to Egypt in
1826, he contributed valuable articles on Egypt
to the Bibiiottca, and obtained many Oriental
objects of interest to European museums.
From 1836 till his death he lived at his native
place.

ACERRA, a-cherr'a, Italy (the ancient
Ackbk.e, admitted to Roman citizenship 332
B.C., plundered and burnt by Hannibal), an
episcopal city nine miles northeast of Naples,
with which it is connected by railroad, and
opposite Mount Somtna. It has a cathedral.
The inundations of the neighboring Agno for-
merly made it very unhealthy, but the marshes
are now drained. Pop. about 18,000.

ACES'TES, or AGES'TUS. in Greek

legend, son of Crinisus and £gesta, and king
of the country near Drepanum, m Sicily. He
assisted Priam in the Trojan war, entertained
/Eneas during his voyage and helped him to
bury his father on Mount Eryx. In commem-
oration of this -Eneas built a city there and
called it Acesta.

ACETAL, as'6-t51. (1) A colorless,
pleasant-smelling liquid, formed as a by-
product in the preparation of aldehyde from
alcohol, and occurring naturally in crude alco-
hol. Its formula is CH..CH(OC.H.)b It
boils at 219° F. under ordinary atmospheric
pressure. Its specific gravity is about 0.831,
and its critical temperature, is 490* F. Acetat
mixes in all proportions with alcohol and ether.
It is soluble in 18 volumes of water at
80° F., and is more soluble at higher tempera-
tures. (2) 'Acetal* is also used to signify any
one of a group of compounds formed by the
combination of one molecule of an aldehyde
with two molecules of an alcohol and the
elimination of one molecule of water. They
are obtained as by-products in the preparation
of aldehydes from alcohols, a certain portion
of the aldehyde formed combining with the
unmodified alcohol.

AC'ETAN'ILIDE (known in the drug
trade as antifebrin), a crystalline compound
obtained by the action of glacial acetic acid
upon aniline (q.v.). Its formula is CaHtNH
COCHl It melts at 237° F., and boils at
563° F. without decomposition. It is readily
soluble in alcohol and ether and dissolves in
hot water, but is only sparingly soluble in cold
water. It is given in medicine as a sedative
and febrifuge. Its physiological action is sim-
ilar to that of antipynn but its administration
is considered to be. safer. It is a common in-
gredient of "headache powders,* and when
taken habitually it is liable to cause cardiac
symptoms, cyanosis of the mucous membranes,
axuema, heart failure and death.

ACETATES, compounds of acetic acid
with metals or organic radicals. See Acetic
Acm

ACETIC ACID, an organic acid belong-
ing in the fatty series, and resulting from the
oxidation of alcohol. It is important on ac-
count both of its extensive use in the arts, and
of its properties as viewed from the standpoint
of the theoretical chemist. Its formula is
CHiCOOH, or C.H.O.OH. It is a monobasic
acid, the hydrogen in the radical CH. not being
replaceable by a metal or another radical. In
its dilute state it has been known for centuries
as vinegar, and in strong vinegar the charac-
teristic odor of the acid is quite marked. It is
formed naturally in the fluids of many plants,
especially trees ; in some cases as free acid and
in others in combination, usually as acetate of
lime or of potassium ; also in many organic
acetates, and in the oils of many seeds. It is
a constituent also of certain animal fluids, as,
for example, milk. It may be obtained by the
oxidation, decomposition and destructive dis-
tillation of many organic bodies. It is pro-
duced, as in the manufacture of cider vinegar,
by the action of the microscopic plant Myco-
derma aceti, better known as "mother-of-vm-
egar," or "vinegar plant,* upon weak alcohol
In the manufacture of vinegar the alcohol

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required for the transformation is present in the
cider as the result of a previous alcoholic fer-
mentation. It hat been shown that "mother-of-
vinogar" has no effect upon pure alcohol; a
certain amount of albuminous and mineral mat-
ter must be present to serve as food for the
plant. A very pure form of acetic acid is pre-
pared by subjecting alcohol to the powerful
oxidizing action of spongy platinum hung above
it in abundance of air. The platinum absorbs
oxygen and alcohol vapor at the same time, and
these combine to form acetic acid and water.
Acetic acid has also been produced by oxidiz-
ing alcoholic liquors by blowing ozone into
them. The greater part of the acetic acid of
commerce is obtained by the destructive distil-
lation of wood, acetate of lime being a by-
froduct in the manufacture of wood-alcohol.
See Wood- Alcohol, under Alcohol). The
acetate of lime so obtained may be decomposed
by the addition of sulphuric acid, when acetic
acid is liberated, or it may be treated in any
one of a number of other ways for the re-
covery of the acetic acid. One of the best
methods consists in mixing the commercial
acetate of lime with calcium chloride, and

CI..H.O) crystallizes out The crystals _ .
formed are then dissolved in water, the solu-
tion is filtered through animal charcoal, 10 per
cent more calcium chloride is added, and the
operation is repeated to obtain a new crop of
purer crystals. These crystals are finally dis-
tilled with moderately strong sulphuric acid,
when a very pure acetic acid is given off. This
is concentrated to the required degree by distill-
ing.

By heating dry acetate of sodium with an
equivalent quantity of concentrated sulphuric
acid it is possible to obtain acetic acid in a state
free from water. The acid so obtained is a
colorless liquid boiling at 244° F., and solidify-
ing in prismatic or tabular crystals at about 63°
F., into an ice-like mass; from this property
the anhydrous acid has been called glacial acetic
acid.

Acetic acid is uninflammable in its liquid
state, but its vapor burns with a fine blue
flame, with the production of water and car-
bonic acid gas. It has a stinging sour taste,
and when strong it blisters the skin. It mixes
with alcohol and with ether in all proportions
and is used as a solvent for resins, essential
oils, gelatin, albumen, fibrin and other organic
substances, being a useful substitute for alco-
hol in certain cases on account of its relative

The commercial acid is generally very im-
pure, containing more or less of sulphuric acid
and sulphates; sulphurous acid; hydrochloric
acid and chlorides; and the salts of copper,
lead, zinc, tin and arsenic.

Acetic acid is used in the production of the
acetates of lead, copper, aluminum and iron; in
calico printing; in the manufacture of var-
nishes; and in domestic economy as vinegar. It
has also some medicinal use as an outward ap-
plication. Its extended solvent properties have
already been noted.

Lead acetate (or sugar of lead) and copper
acetate (or verdigris) are (he most important
compounds of acetic acid with the heavy metals.
Aluminum acetate and the iron acetates, are

much used in dyeing. The acetates of lead,
potassium and ammonia are also largely used
in medicine.

Acetic acid may be formed synthetically by
exposing a mixture of one volume of acetylene
(q.v.) and two volumes of air to daylight, in
the presence of a weak solution of caustic

Bitash. The acetylene is slowly oxidized, com-
ning simultaneously with the caustic potash to
form acetate of potash, according to the
formula

GH, + O + KOH=CH*COOH
Acetylene Caustic Acetate of

potash potash
From the acetate of potash so formed the acetic
acid can readily be obtained. This mode of
formation is of no practical value, but it has
a theoretical interest.

The relations of acetic acid with the organic
radicals are too numerous and complicated to
receive general treatment in the present article.
The more important ones are noticed elsewhere.
See Aldehyde; Alcohol; Ether; Vinegar, etc

ACETIC ETHER, or ETHYL ACE-
TATE, a colorless inflammable liquid having
the formula CtLCOO.GH^ or GH.Cs, pre-
pared by the action of sulphuric acid upon a
mixture of alcohol and acetic add. It lias a
specific gravity of about 0.91 and a specific
heat of 0/48 and boils at 171* R, under the
ordinary atmospheric pressure. It mixes read-
ily with alcohol and with ether and at ordinary
temperatures is soluble in about 17 parts of
water. See Esters; Ether.

ACETIN, a substance resembling fat in its
constitution, obtained by acting upon glycerin
with glacial acetic acid. Acetins are known as
monoacetin, ctiacetin and triacetin, according
as the acetic acid has displaced one, two or
three of the hydroxy 1 molecules in the glycerin.
The formula of monoacetin is CHi(OH).
(OGHV3) ; of diacetin, GH.(OH)(OGH»0),;
of triacetin, GH.(OGH.O)..

ACE'TO -ACETIC ACID, a thick acid
liquid, having the formula CrUCO.CH^COOH.
At 212* F. it splits up into carbon dioxide and
acetone. Aceto-acetic ether, or ethyl aceto-
acetate, has the peculiar property of reacting
either as CH*.CO.CH..CO.OGH. or as CrUC
(OH) : CH.COOGH,.

mula, CHiCO.CH* It occurs in crude wood-
alcohol, from which it can be separated by dis-
tilling over calcium chloride. It is also ob-
tained by the destructive distillation of acetates,
notably those of barium and lead. It occurs
in the urine, blood and brain of calcium diabetic
patients. Lieben's test for acetone in the urine
is as follows: Distilled urine is made alka-
line by caustic potash and a few drops of a
solution of iodine and Iodide of potassium are
added. If acetone is present a yellow precipi-
tate of iodoform is formed at once; if alcohol
be present in the distillate, the same reaction
takes place, but more slowly; but with acetone
the reaction is immediate. Acetone is very in-
flammable and bums with a white smokeless
flame. It boils at 133' F. at ordinary atmos-
pheric pressure ; its specific gravity at ordinary
temperatures is about 0.800. Acetone is a val-
uable solvent for scientific and technical pur-

a b, Google

poses. One of its most important uses is the
solution of acetylene (q.v.) (2) Any one of
a certain class of carbon compQaads n which
two alcoholic radicals are united by (he group
CO. These compounds are now called ketones
to distinguish them from the particular
member of the group defined in (1), above.

ACETONI'TRILE, a colorless liquid with
a pleasant ethereal odor and burning with a
reddish-bordered flame. It has the formula
CtHiN, and- is isomeric with methyl cyanide.
* "i best prepared by distilling a mixture of

> with alcohol and water.

ACETYL, the radical of acetic acid, its
formula being CH*CO. Acetic acid may be
regarded' as the hydrate of this radical, its
formula being CH..COOH. Acetyl chloride,
CHtCOCl, is obtained by the action of phos-
phorus trichloride upon acetic acid Acetyl
chloride evolves hydrochloric acid when it is
heated with any substance containing the rad-
icals hydroxyl, amidogen or imtdogen, and
hence it is of importance as a test Tor these
substances.

ACET'YLENE. See Compressed Gases.

ACILffiA. See Achaia,

ACH.SI, ak-i'e. ACHAIANS, ak-a-yans,
or ACttffiANS, ak-e'ans, the descendants of
the mythical Achicus, son of Xuthus and grand-
son of Helen: a generic term employed by
Homer to designate the whole Hellenic host
before Troy, and in poetic use applied to all the
Greeks indiscriminately. They appear to have
been that branch of the Greeks which inhab-
ited southeastern Thessaly and northern Pelo-
ponnesus, and by the Dorian invasion were
driven altogether beyond the Corinthian Gulf
and cooped into a strip of Peloponnesus along
its southern shore, where they were the nu-
cleus of the later Achaian League. See Achaia.

ACHJBMENIDJE, ak'e-men'i-de, the
Greek name of the Persian dynasty (558-330
B.C.) founded by Cyrus the Great, including
Cambyses, Darius I and II, Xerxes, Artaxerxes,
etc, and ended by Alexander the Great. The
family took its name from an ancestor of
Cyrus, found in Persian inscriptions as Haxa-
manisya, which the Greeks softened to Achx-
menes'Vke'men-ez).

ACHAIA, ak-a'ya, or ACHJBA, ak e'a,
according to Homer, southeastern Thessaly,
where was Phthia, the home of Achilles. In
later history, a stnp of Peloponnesus along the
southern shore of the Corinthian Gulf, rising
from the coast to wooded hills abounding in
beasts of the chase; the uplands were fertile
with grapes, olives and other fruits. The nome
calletf Achaia (including Elis) in modern
Greece (pop. 255,000), the northwestern part of
Morea with capital at Patras, occupies the same
location except along the west coast, on the
Ionian Sea. When it first appears in authentic
history (Herodotus), it is a confederacy of
12 towns — Pellene, Mgtiia., Mgx, Bura,
Helice, ^Eeium, Rhypes, Patrae, Pilars, Olenus,
Dyme and Trita^a — headed by Helice, and
keeping much to itself in Greek affairs. Helice
was destroyed by an earthquake and swallowed
by the waves 373 r. c, and -Egiucn succeeded

: unknown

td the hegemony ; and at s
Olenus was deserted.

The League took no share in the Petopon-
nesian war, but the Macedonian supremacy and
the dynastic struggles after Alexander's death
broke it up altogether. Some of the remaining
10 towns were held by Macedonian garrisons,
some by local tyrants, a state of disunion
equally gratifying to Macedonia and intolerable
to Greek patriots. In 280, when several kings
were dead. Macedonia in confusion, and the
great Pyrrnns absent in Italy, Patrse and Dyme,
the two westernmost towns, formed an alliance)
Tritata and Phane joined them; and the new
Achaian League, famous in history, which gave
southern central Greece more than a century of
order and good government, was begun. The
cities probably drove out their garrisons or
rulers, as later ones certainly didT Five year*
afterward ,£gium expelled its garrison and
joined the League; Bura was freed and its
tyrant slain by its people and their exiled
brethren, and joined also; and Iseas, tyrant of
Ceryneia, seeing how events were trending,
voluntarily surrendered his position with a
guaranty of safety, and annexed the city to the
League. Seven towns were now included ; and
the other three were recovered and annexed
not king after. But all were small and poor;
fortunately for the League, as it was thought
too insignificant to molest, and grew up peace-
fully and solidly for some 30 years. The chief
name in its early history is Markos of Ceryneia,
who helped liberate Bura even before bis own
city was freed, and seems to have been die
Washington of the League. But its first en-
trance into the role of a great Greek political
force began with the expulsion in 249 of the
tyrant of Sicyon by Aratus of that city, who
induced it to join the League; it not only gained
thereby the first city outside the old Achaian
confederacy, and became more or less Pan-
Greek, but gained Aratus, its second founder,
and a statesman and administrator of high or-
der, though rib jealousy of other leaders and
his military incompetency injured it deeply. A
still greater accession came in 242, when Corinth
expelled its Macedonian garrison and joined;
and in 234 Lydiadas. tyrant of Megalopolis, the
powerful city founded by Epaminondas, volun-
tarily resigned his place like Iseas and brought
in his city, being made commander-in-chief of
the League's army the next year. Before die
century had begun its last quarter the League
included all northern and central Peloponnesus,
and many towns elsewhere.

The League was a federal union of abso-
lutely independent states, each having equal
power in the Council, which met twice a year
— at first and for a long time in a grove near
/Egium, but later, at Philopotmen's motion, in
the League cities in rotation. The vote of each
city was given as a unit, not by elected dele-
gates, but by any of its citizens who were
present, any one over 30 having a right to be
so; attendance therefore naturally fell to the
richer citizens with means and leisure, and the
assembly was a rough representative body of
the leading men. The union acted as a unit in
foreign affairs, and there was a secretary .to
record the debates and resolutions. The head
officer was the strategos, who was commander-
in-chief and civil president at once; he had
under him a kipparehos (cavalry commander)

d by Google

ACH MAN — ACHATES

and tsauarckos (admiral]), and a board of tO
demiourgoi as assistants in the Council.

The League of course had its internal feuds
and discordances of policy; and the /Etolian
League north of the Gulf (only half Greek, and
wholly barbarian in instability and lack of pro-
Greek feeling), which alternately allied itself
with it and ravaged its territory, was a mis-
chievous rival and enemy. But the League
would probably have fully held its own till the
Romans came, but for Sparta. Clcomenes II
had revolutionized that state, which had shrunk
into the narrowest of oligarchies and could not
maintain its position; he had turned it into a
socialistic one, and wished to force the League
to join him in a great Peloponoesian union, of
which Sparta would be master, imposing both
its foreign policy and perhaps its internal or-

r'zation on the rest, and which would destroy
internal independence of the League and
menace the possessions of every property-holder
in it. The League was badly defeated by Cleo-
menes in the field, and was between hammer and
anvil ; for the only power which could save it
was Macedonia, its natural foe and old master,
and Antigonus Doson refused to give aid unless
the citadel of Corinth, the key of Peloponnesus,
held by the League, were given up to him. Aratus
felt, however, that the suzerainty of Macedonia,
now that the League was strong enough to pre-
vent active 'tyranny, was a less evil than the
mastery of Clcomenes ; and by cunning manage-
ment he induced the League to pay the price
asked for Antigonus' help. Clcomenes was
crushed at Sellasia, and his Spartan constitution
came to an end, and the League became a de-
pendency of Macedonia. Yet Aratus' policy was
justified by events so far as the League was
concerned; it did not suffer from Macedonian

granny, though the chance of forming a united
reece was at an end But that was probably
as little possible under Clcomenes as under
Macedonia.

_ __0.i rank, the League was pros-
pering and giving the alliens an enviable gov-
ernment. But a pro-Roman policy prevailed, and
Philopcemen left the country. In 198 it allied
itself with Rome against Macedonia, and this
was always the beginning of the end with the
other party to a Roman alliance. There were
wars against Sparta, and a struggle between
Roman and anti-Roman partisans in the assem-
bly, with Roman envoys and intriguers to fan
the flames.' Finally, m 167, the Romans de-
ported the flower of the Achaian citizens to
Italy, many of them being imprisoned, others —
as the future historian Polybius (q.v.), then a
youth of 18 — kept as hostages but given Roman
advantages. The last struggle took place in
146, when Mummius defeated the League at
Corinth, and the independence of Greece or any
fraction of it was at an end. Alt southern and
central Greece was made a Roman province
called Achaia.

The first-hand authority for the League is
Polybius, unfortunately extant only in frag-
ments ; in some parts he is pieced out by Livy,
passages of whose work are often obvious
translations from Polybius. In English the
one great work is E. A. Freeman's 'History of

Federal Government,' nearly all devoted to the
Achaian League (London 1893).

ACHAIAN, or ACHJEAN, LEAGUE.
See Achaia.

ACHAN, or AGHAR, aft'an, a Biblical
character whose Story is found in the Book
of Joshua, chapter VII. Israel had been for-
bidden to take captives or spoil at the capture
of Jericho. Achan violated the taboo. Dis-
aster came to Israel. Investigation followed
After he was discovered by lot, 'Achan con-
fessed. He and his family were stoned and
burned and their 'property was also burned.
The family were destroyed as accessories after
the fact. This incident has suggested a phrase
often used in literature — 'there is an Achan
in the camp,* meaning that some member of
the group is not true to his obligations.

ACHAQUA, a-chalcwa, a South American
Indian tribe probably extinct, though a few
hundreds, who Uvea in the upper Orinoco
forests in northeastern Colombia, were still
existent in 1850. They were utter savages,
practising infanticide beyond the second child,
polyandry, and tattooing.

ACHARD, Franz Karl, aii'art, frants kari.
German chemist and physicist: b. Berlin, 28
April 1753; d. 1821. He published, in 1780 the
results of many and careful experiments on the
adhesion of bodies. But later he devoted him-
self to the development of the beet-sugar manu-
facture, and after six years of laborious endeav-
or discovered the true method of separating the
sugar from the plant. His process was of
enormous service to the countries whom the
Napoleonic blockade shut off from the West
India sugars. He was afterward director of the
class of physics in the Academy of Science in
Berlin.

ACHARD, Louis Am* dee Eugene, as li-
ar, loo-e am-a-da e-zhan, French novelist: b.
April 1814; d. 25 March 1875. Originally a
merchant, he became a contributor to several
Paris journals in 1838. After the revolution of
1848 he was active as a royalist political writer;
1848-72 the Revue des Deux Monies brought
out atmost annually a new story from his pen.
He depicts pre-eminently conflicts in family
life and society. 'Parisian Letters,' published
in 183S under the pseudonym of "Grimm,*
made his reputation. Other works of his are
<Belle Rose1 (1847) ; 'The Royal Chase' (1849-
50); 'Castles in Spain* (1854); 'The Shirt of
Nessus> (1855) ; 'Chains of Iron' (1867) ; 'The
Viper' (1874).

ACHARN.&, a-kar'ne, a large town of
Attica, where the Thirty Tyrants (q.v.) en-
camped when they marched against Thrasy-
bulus ; and where the Lacedaemonians, under
their king Archidamus, pitched their tents when
they made an irruption into Attica at the begin-
ning of the Peloponnesian war. Aristophanes,
in his comedy 'The Acharnians'— where a
citizen of the place, sick of war, ravage and
the stoppage of trade, makes a treaty of pcace-
with the Laeedajmonians on his own account —
represents the inhabitants as charcoal-makers;
and other comic writers stigmatise diem as
rough and boorish.

ACHATES, a-ka'tez, in the -Cneid, a
friend of iCneas, whose fidelity is depicted as

.Google

ACHEBN — ACHESON

so exemplary that fiSiu Achates (the faithful
Achates) has become a proverb.

ACHEEN. See Achin.

ACHELOUS. ak-e-lo'us (now Aspropo-
tamo, 'White River*), the largest river in
Greece, 130 miles long, and not navigable. It
rises on the Pindus range, flows south in a
boisterous torrent, forming the boundary be-
tween ^itoiia and Acarnania, and empties into
the Ionian Sea opposite Ithaca. In its lower
course it is an alluvial stream, winding in great
loops through very fertile and marshy plains;
it comes from the mountains heavily laden with
fine white mud, which it deposits along its banks
and in the sea at its mouth, where it has formed
a number of small islands.

In Greek legend, the son oT Oceanus and
Terra, or Tethys, god of the river. As one of the
numerous suitors of Dejanira, daughter of
CEneus, Achelous entered the lists against Her-
cules, and, being inferior^ changed himself into
a serpent and afterward into an ox. Hercules
broke off one of his horns, and Achelous, being
defeated, retired into his bed of water. The
broken horn was given to the goddess of plenty.

ACHEN, Tohann (■Hans') von, a'Hen,
yohan fon, or ACKEN, a'keu, German painter:
b. Cologne, 1512; d. 1615. He studied at home,
and at Venice under Kaspar Rems, and took
service with the Bavarian court 1590; later went
to Prague at the invitation of Emperor Rudolph
II. The Protestant church at Cologne con-
tains his 'Crucifixion,' the cathedral at Bonn
his 'Entombment,' and among bis other works
are 'Christ Raising the Widow's Son,' and
■Truth Victorious under Protection of Jus-

ACHENBACH, Andrew, a'Hen-baH, Ger-
man landscape and marine painter: b. Casscl,
1815; d. 1910. He studied under the eminent
Schadow at Diisseldorf, and became one of the
leading artists of that school. He painted in
Holland, along the Rhine, and in Norway, pro-
ducing landscapes of rich coloring and intense
realism. He was made RA in Berlin, and
knight of the Legion of Honor in France; and
took a first medal in Paris, 1855. Private gal-
leries in the United States have many of his
finest works.

His younger brother Oswald, b. Diisseldorf,
1827: d. 1 Feb. 1905 was also a landscape artist,
esteemed of more Ideal quality man Andreas;
and his pictures of Switzerland", Italy, etc., were
largely bought in the United States. Consult
Achenbauch, C, 'Andreas Achenbach in Kunst
und Lcben' (1912).

ACHENE, ACHENIUM, AKENE, a-ken'
etc. ("not gaping"), a dry, hard, one-seeded
fruit in which the wrappings of the seed set
closely to it, forming almost a coat. The entire
family of Composite! are. of this sort: the
•seeds™ of borage, the sunflower, thistle, dande-
lion, etc Sometimes they are grouped on a
common receptacle, called an eiario ; as in the
strawberry, where it is fleshy, the achencs be-
ing the •pits," or in the centre of the butter-
cup, where they form the "fruit" ; sometimes
they are inclosed in the fleshy tube of the calyx,
as in the rose.

ACHENBEE, a'nen-za, a lake in northern
Tyrol, Austria, 5^ miles long by Yi mile wide,
20 miles northeast of Innsbruck. Its shores

are of great beauty, and it is a noted s — .

resort, having many hotels and private villas,
while steamers carry passengers to points of

ACHENWALL, Gottfried, a'sen-vil, got'-
fred, German statistician: b. Elbing, 20 Oct.
1719; d. Gottmgen, 1 May 1772. He studied at
Jena, Halle and Leipzig, and became professor,
of philosophy, and later of law. at Gottingen. In
economics he belongs to the school of "moderate
mercantilists*; but it is in statistics that he
holds a really high place. The work by which
he is best known is his 'Constitution of the
•Present Leading European States' (1752). In
this he gives a comprehensive view of the con-
stitutions of the various countries, describes
the condition of their agriculture, man f actures
and commerce, and frequently supplies statistics
in relation to these subjects. German econo-
mists claim for him the title of "Father of Sta-
tistics*; but English writers dispute this, assert-
ing that it ignores the prior claims of Petty and
other earlier writers on the subject. He gave
currency to the term Staatswissensckaft (pol-
itics), which he proposed should mean all the
knowledge necessary to statecraft or statesman-
ship.

ACHESON, ak'e-ron, the ancient name of
several rivers in Greece and Italy, all connected
by legend with the lower world. The principal
was a river of Thesprotia in Epirus, which
passes through Lake Acherusia, receives the
Cocytus fVuvo), and flows into the Ionian Sea
south of the promontory of Chimerium, at Glycys
Limen or Efea, now Port Fanari. At one part
Its course lies between mountains rising pre-
cipitously to the height of 3,000 feet. The name
is also given to a river of Elis, a tributary of
the Alpheus, and to a small river of Bruttium,
in Italy, near Pandosia (location uncertain).
Dear which Alexander of Epirus fell in battle
against the Lucanians and Bruttians (326 at,).
Their legendary celebrity appears to have been
originally due to the Acheron in Thesprotia.
This country being regarded by the Greeks as
the end of the world in the West, they sup-

Ced the entrance to the lower world to be
e. As this district became better known, the
legendary river was placed elsewhere, and final-
ly transferred to the lower regions. In Homer,
Acheron is represented as a river of Hades.
According to later traditions a son of Helios
and Gsea or Demeter, who bore this name, was
changed into an infernal river as a punishment
for giving drink to the Titans during their war
with Zeus. The Etruscans are said to have
worshipped Acheron. The name of Acheron
was ultimately used in a poetic or figurative
way to designate the whole of the lower world.

ACHERONTIA ATEOPOS. See

Death's head Moth.

ACHESON, ach'e-son, Edward Goodrich,
American inventor : b. Washington, Pa., 9
March 1856. At 18 he was engaged with a civil
engineering corps, opening mines and laying
railroads in the vicinity of Reynoldsville. Pa.
Upon the termination of his work in railroad
construction he designed a small dynamo, and
after meeting many discouragements he secured
a position at Edison's establishment at Menlo
Park, where his ability speedily attracted the ■
attention of Thomas A. Edison. He was pro-

a by Google

A CHBVAL POSITION -ACHILLES

moted rapidly, given every opportunity for the to the International Graphite Company, which
exercise of his inventive faculty and was sent is now marketing a mixture of the new

_j Europe as first assistant engineer for die
Edison interests at the Paris International Elec-
trical Exposition. Mr. Acheson declined an ex-
ecutive position offered him by Mr. Edison in
order to pursue individual research and, after a
series of unsuccessful inventions, be brought out
an anti-inductive telephone wire. In 1886 he
removed to Pittsburg, where he succeeded in
interesting capital in nis schemes. In the same
year Mr. Acheson concerned himself with the
synthetic production of rubber, as prelude to
the more important field of artificial abrasives .
which now engaged his attention. While pass-
ing natural gas into a highly heated furnace
containing some clay articles, he found these,
after cooling, to be impregnated with carbon
and, he believed, rendered harder in conse-
quence. Experiments with a mixture of clay
and coke heated electrically failed to produce
the result for which Mr. Acheson was striving,
but on the end of the arc carbon carrying the
electric current into the mixture he discovered
a bright speck. Testing this substance he dis-
covered that it would not only cut glass as
readily as a diamond, but would cut diamonds
as well. On 21 Sept 1891, the Carborundum
Company was formed. At first carborundum
was so expensive that it could compete only
with diamond powder, used for polishing gems,
but after extended work the price was reduced,
and about 1899 he invented a graphite (Ache-
son-graphite), superior to the natural product
The emery wheel manufacturers declared their
ability to turn carborundum into wheels,
whereupon Mr. Acheson tried the experiment
himself, and secured the contract for grinding
the joints of the new Westinghouse electric
lamp. The valve grinders next found a great
time-saver in carborundum, while new vistas
were opened up by the utilination of Niagara
Falls for the generation of electric power. Mr.
Acheson built a new plant there in 1895, con-
tracting for 1,000 horse power, the largest
amount ever used in bulk up to that time.
As early as 1895 he had taken out a new
patent for the purifying of carbon, the first of a
series resulting in the artificial production of
graphite.

what is often considered his greatest

his experiments brought him upon other dis-
coveries of inestimable importance. Making a
test of various clays, Mr. Acheson became con-
vinced that the greater plasticity and strength
of the imported article over the home product
was the result of a natural addition of organic
matter. Experiments along this line showed
him that a treatment with a dilute solution of
tannin would produce the same results. Al-
though straw contains no tannin, a liquid ex-
tracted from it was found to produce a similar
effect, and the clay so treated was called by Mr.
Acheson ■Egyptianized Clay,B and under that
name has tafcen its place on the market as a
most important product.

An important discovery of Mr. Acheson s
came as the result of an attempt in 1906 to in-
crease the abrasive value of carborundum. In-
stead of a harder, a softer material was dis-
' covered, the ideal luhricating product. A patent
of 20 Nov. 1906 secured the perfected process

ictuous graphite led to the great-
of all, as by applying to it the

making this

est invention of all, as ty applying to it the
treatment which produced *EgyprJanized Clay*
the discoverer succeeded in rendering the graph-
ite so fine that it would pass through the finest
of filtered papers, while it freely diffuses of
itself through oil or water. Graphite in this state
of fineness is termed *De flocculated.* Thisgraph-
ite diffused in water is called 'Aquadag.* The
advantages of this new lubricant over oil, be-
sides cheapness, are the elimination of viscosity
and consequent loss in power, and impossibility
of explosion in air compressors. In order to
mix deflocculated graphite with oil a process for
separating; it from the water at this point had
to be devised, and this Mr. Acheson met with
the result that he produced the most efficient
lubricant known to man, namely, "Ofldag.*

Besides receiving the Paris and St. Louis
Exposition prizes, the University of Pittsburg
conferred on him the honorary degree of Sc.D.
12 Feb. 1909; the John Scott Medal was
given him by the Franklin Institute of Phila-
delphia, first for the discovery of carborundum
(1899) and again for the manufacture of
graphite < 1901 ). In 1907 the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences awarded him the Rumford
Medals for application of heat in the electric
furnace for industrial purposes, and in 1909 the
Society of Chemical Industry conferred upon
him the Perkin Medal. See Carborundum ;
Aquadag; Graphite; Gredag; Oiloag.

A CHEVAL POSITION. Military term
signifying the position of an army astride a
river or other obstacle preventing co-operation
of the wings of the army.

ACHILL, aViL or EAGLE ISLE, Ire-
land, the largest island off the coast, included
in the western county of Mayo. It is of trian-
gular shape about 15 miles long from east to
west and 12 miles from north to south; area,
57 square miles. The surface is mountainous,
rising in peaks to heights of over 2,200 feet;
and the coast line is bold and picturesque.
There are several fishing villages, of which
Dugort, the principal, has modem hotels to
accommodate summer visitors. Pop, 5,000.

ACHILLES, a-kil'ez, one of the heroes of
Greek mythology, and in particular the hero of
Hornet's Iliad. According to the latter he was
the son of Peleus, king of the Myrmidons in
Phthiotis, a district of Thessaly, and of the
Nereid or sea-goddess Thetis, and the grandson
of -Eacus; hence often called Peleides and
vEacides. He was educated from childhood
by Phcenix, a friend of his father, who accom-
panied him to the Trojan war; and Cbeiron the
Centaur instructed him in the art of healing.
Achilles went to this war with the knowledge
that he was to perish in it ; his mother having
foretold him that he should either live a long
and inglorious life, or die young after a glori-
ous career. He led his troops, the Myrmidons,
against Troy in 50 ships. During the first nine
years of the war we have no minute detail of
his actions; in the tenth a quarrel broke out be-
tween him and the gen era! -in-chief, Agamem-
non, which led him to withdraw entirely from
the contest. In consequence the Trojans, who

y Google

ACHILLES TATIUS — ACiilN

* before scarcely ventured without their walk,
now waged battle in the plain with various
issue, till they reduced the Greeks to extreme
distress. The Greek council of war sent its
most influential members to soothe Achilles'
anger, and induce him to return to arms, but
without effect. Rage and grief caused by the
death of his friend Patroclus, slain by Hector,
induced Achilles to return to battle. Thetis
procured from Hephaestus (Vulcan) a fresh
suit of armor for her son, who at the close of a
day of slaughter killed Hector and dragged him
at his chariot wheels to the camp, but afterward

Kve the body to Priam, who came in person
r it. Achilles then performed the funeral
rites of Patroclus, 'with which the Iliad closes.
It contains, however, several anticipative allu-
sions to the death of Achilles, which is also
mentioned in the Odyssey. He was lolled in a
battle at the Seaan Gate.

Here ends the history of Achilles so far as
it is derived from Homer. By later authors a
variety of fable is mixed up with it; some per-
haps old legend, much certainly outright in-
vention. To make him immortal, his mother
during bis infancy concealed him by night in
fire, to destroy the mortal parts inherited from
his father, and anointed him by day with am-
brosia (the story of Demeter and Demophoan) .
His father discovering him one night in the
fire, Thetis fled; and his father entrusted him
to the care of Cheiron, who fed him. with the
hearts of lions and the marrow of bears, and
gave him the education proper to a hero. Ac-
cording to another story Thetis made him in-
vulnerable by dipping him in the Styx, but the
heel by which she held him was untouched by
the water; accordingly he received his fatal
wound in the heel. The story of Siegfried is

¥itterned on this. To prevent his going to
roy, where it was predicted he should perish,
Thetis sent him, disguised as a girl, to the court
of Lycomedes of Scyros. He was educated with
Lycomedes' daughters, one of whom, Deida-
meda, became the mother of Pyrrhus or Neop-
tolemus by him. Odysseus (Ulysses) went to
the court of Lycomedes to discover him and
induce him to join the war, in which Calchas
had declared his aid indispensable. He suc-
ceeded by a stratagem. Presenting himself as
a merchant, he offered the daughters of Lyco-
medes female ornaments and articles of attire
for sale, among which he laid a shield and
spear. He then raised an alarm of danger, on
which the girls fled, and Achilles seized the
weapons. He is said to have been killed either
by Apollo in the likeness of Paris, or by an
arrow of Paris directed by Apollo. According
to another account he made love to Poryxena,
a daughter of Priam ; and, induced by the prom-
ise other hand on condition of his joining the
Trojans, went unarmed to the temple of Apollo
at Thymbra, and was there assassinated by
Paris. Various stories are told of the relations
of Achilles with Iphigenia (q.v.), who was
brought to the camp at Aulis on pretext of
.being married to Achilles. Tn one account
Achilles interferes to rescue her from being
sacrificed, and sends her to Scythia; in another
he marries her, and she becomes the mother of
Pyrrhus. Others say he was united to her in
the lower world, where he became a judge ;
others again say he married Medea in Elysium.
Annual sacrifices were offered to Achilles by the

Thessalians at Troas by command of the oracle
of Dodona; at Olympia and other places in
Greece sacred honors were likewise paid to
him. This has led to the unsafe inference that
he was originally an Achaian god; but remem-
bering the propensity of uncivilized races to
deify superior geniuses among them, and such
cases as that of Roland, it is much more likely
that he was a chief before he was a god. It is
probable that a real Thessalian warrior existed
who has been thus idealized, though we do not
know his name or real deeds. See Homeh;
Trojan Was.

ACHILLES TATIUS, a-kil'ez ti'shi-us, a
Greek writer of romances: b. in Alexandria;
flourished in the 5th century of our era. Suidas
says he was a Christian bishop, but this is
doubted. He wrote 'The Loves of Gitophon
and Leucippe,* an erotic story in eight books, '
of pleasing but florid style, and without much
regard to unity or consistency of plot; it was
modeled on HeKodorus' 'Ethiopica.' That the
story was very popular in its day is proved by
the number of copies of it that are still in MSS.,
and by the plentiful imitations of it in the Mid-
dle Ages. An English translation by Anthony
Hodges was published in 1638.

ACHILLES TENDON, a tendon, so called
because, as fable reports, Thetis, the mother of
Achilles, held him by that part when she dipped
him in die river Styx to make him invulnerable.
It is the strong and powerful tendon of the
heel, which is formed by the junction of divers
muscles! and which extends from the calf to
the heel. When this tendon is unfortunately
cut or ruptured, as it may be in consequence of
a violent exertion or spasm of the muscles of
which it is a continuation, the use of the leg
is immediately lost- and unless the part be
afterward successfully united the patient will
remain a cripple for life. The indications are
to bring the ends of the divided parts together,
and to keep them so until they have become
firmly united. This tendon is frequently the
seat of a synovitis, just above the heel, from
excessive exercise.

ACHIMENES, a-klm'e-nez (from the
Greek name of an East Indian plant used in
magic), a genus of tropical American plants of
the family Gesneriacea, greatly cultivated in
greenhouses for the beauty of their red, white
and blue flowers, which, if the rhizomes are

Ktted by the first of April, bloom from the
;t of May till into October or even Novem-
ber. They may also be propagated by cuttings.
The species are numerous.

ACHIN, ACHEEN, or ATCHEEN,
a-chen' (properly Ackeh, Portuguese corruption
Aekem, Dutch Atjeh or Ajeh), a district at the ■
northwest extremity of Sumatra, till 1873 an in-
dependent sultanate, now a province of Dutch
Indies: area, 20,471 square miles; pop. (1912)
78Syi64 (but a true census must be impossible).
The surface is divided into an eastern and a
western half by a mountain chain which tra-
verses the whole island, rising in the peak of
Abong-Abong to 11,000 feet. At the farthest
north is the famous Gold Mountain, at the
base of which lies the capital. On both sides ■
are numerous stretches of level or undulating
soil, watered by small but deep streams, and
admirably adapted for tree-culture, gardening
and rice. The flora and fauna agree with those

J.gitizcdtiyGoO^Ic

of Sumatra; peppw-tices and areca-nuts grow
there. The natives employ themselves in agri-
culture, cat tic- rearing, trade, fisheries, weaving
cloth and working in gold, silver and iron.
The chief agricultural industry is the produc-
tion of rice and pepper, the latter sent from
many small western ports. From Pedir and
other northern ports large quantities of betel-
nut are exported to India, Burmah and China.
Achin ponies are also much reputed and ex-
ported Minor exports are sulphur, iron, sapan-
wood, gutta-percha, dimmer, rattans, bamboos,
benzoin and camphor, the latter highly valued
in China and bringing an enormous price. Silk,
once plentiful, has nearly disappeared. Nor is
there now much export of the gold that once
drew so much trade thither and made it so rich
as to astonish foreigners. No place in the East
save Japan was so abundantly supplied with it,
and it was from far antiquity part of the
Golden Chersonese. It exported probably 15,000
to 20,000 ounces a year. The imports are mainly
rice (the native supply being insufficient),
opium, salt, dried fish, cotton goods, iron and
copper wares, firearms, pottery, etc. The people
are distinct from the rest of the Sumatrans,
who are Malays ; they are taller, handsomer
and darker, more active and industrious, and
good seamen; but they are treacherous, blood-
thirsty and revengeful, immoral and inordi-
nately addicted to opium. Their ethnological
place is not settled; they are believed to be
Malay at root, though probably with some ad-
mixture from India, and not impossibly an
Arab strain. Their speech is said by some to
be Polynesian at root, though with much Malay
loan element. Their literature is entirely
Malay, and comprises poetry, theology and
chronicles.

The capital of the province is Kota Radja
or Achin, situated at the northwest extremity,
on a stream navigable by boats, about 4'/i miles
from its port Oleh-leh, with which, since 1876,
it has been connected by a railway. Formerly
a large and flourishing city, it was almost en-
tirely destroyed during the war, but is now
Dutch

garrison.

History. — Civilization was first introduced
into Sumatra by Hindu missionaries in the 7th
century, and a considerable amount of immigra-
tion from India followed. In the 13th century
it was converted to Mohammedanism by Arabs
— the sultans of Achin claim descent from the
first Mohammedan missionary — and the Arabic
alphabet displaced the Japanese. Northern Su-
matra was visited by several European travelers
iu the Middle Ages, as Marco Polo, Friar Odor-
ico and Nicolo Conti; and some of these, as
"well as Asiatic writers, mention Lambri, a state
which must have corresponded nearly with
Achin; but the first to name it as such is Alvaro
Tellez, a captain of the Portuguese Tristan
d'Acunha's fleet, in 1506. It was then a de-
pendency of Pedir adjoining; but within 20
years it had not only gained independence, but
swallowed up all the other states of northern
Sumatra. It attained the climax of power
under Sultan Islcandar Muda, 1607-36, when it
extended from Aru, opposite Malacca, round by
the north to Padang on the western coast, a sea-
board of 1,100 miles; and its supremacy was
owned also by the large island of Nyas, and by
the continental Malay states of Johor, Pahang,

Quedah and Perak. It it in fact the only Su- '
matran state which has at any time been power-
ful since the Cape route to the East was dis-
covered. Its wealth astonished the European
visitors and traders; and its great commercial
repute is shown by the fact that it was to Achin
port that the first Dutch (1599) and English
(1602) commercial ventures were directed.
Lancaster, the English commodore, carried let-
ters from Queen Elizabeth to *the king of
Atcheen,* James I exchanged letters with Is-
kandar Muda in 1613, and the Achinese sent
envoys to the Dutch republic, who were re-
ceived by Prince Maurice in camp (1602). But
native jealousy of foreigners and the hitter's
rivalry with and destruction of each other's
ventures prevented the establishment of per-
manent factories there. Still, the trade, though
spasmodically interrupted, was very important;
foreign merchants of many nations were settled
in Achin city port, while other Chinese mer-
chants came annually and held a great fair
through June and July. For 58 years after
Iskandar's death the Malay oligarchy of chiefs
placed females on the throne ; in 1699 the Arab
party suppressed this system and set up an Arab
ruler, and the state rapidly decayed from inter-
nal factions. From 1666 on, the Dutch had
held possessions around Padang on the western
coast, and gradually gained much in old Achin;
in 1811 the British seized this as well as the
other Dutch East Indies. In 1816 Java was
restored to the Dutch, but the English colonies
insisted the more strenuously that English in-
fluence should be maintained in Achin ; and in
1819 the Calcutta government made a treaty ex-
cluding all other foreigners from permanent
settlements there. In 1824 an exchange was
made with the Dutch, of the Sumatran settle-
ments for others in Asia; the above article was
not mentioned, but it was privately understood
that it should not be insisted on if the Dutch
would make no war on Achin. In the conven-
tion at The Hague. 2 Nov. 1871, the Dutch in-
sisted on the latter stipulation being formally
withdrawn, as the Achinese were pirates and
chastisement was often needed; and in 1873
Holland — with plenty of provocation, but grave
doubts even, at home of its necessity — em-
barked in me war, which cost it 15,000 lives and
about $100,000,000, and ended in 1880 in the
real subjugation of the country. Achin city
was captured and civil government has been
instituted in the coast territory; but the natives

works are all in Dutch ; the chief is Snouck-
Hurgronje 'De Atjehers1 (2 vols., Batavia
1893-95). There is also one of Veth, <Atchtn>
(Leyden 1873). For the geography of Atchin
consult Volz 'Die Gajolander1 (Berlin 1912).

ACHIKUNDA, an African tribe inhabit-
ing the Lower Shire, Nyasalandj Central Africa.
They are quiet and peaceful, with marked tribal
characteristics and are engaged chiefly in agri-
culture, boating and fishing.

ACHISH, a'kish. King of Gath in Philistia,
with whom David takes refuge when out of
favor with Saul; represented as a dull, easy
man whom David dupes into believing that be is
making war only on the Judahites and their al-

d by Google

ACHMKT — ACID 1HUUSTKV

lies' when in fact he is raiding the native tribes,
and enriching his stronghold Ziklag with their
plunder. His lords are not so blind, however,
and make *im dismiss David before going to
battle at Mount Gilboa. David lived with him
four month* according to one account, a year
and four months according to another.

ACHMET, ak'met,VEFIK PASHA, Turk-
ish statesman, son of a Greek renegade and a
Jewish mother: b. Constantinople, 1818; d. 12
Aug. 1891. Ill 1834 he accompanied his father
to Paris, where he entered the College of Ste.
Barbe. Having finished his education in France
lie returned to Constantinople, where he was
given a position in the official translation bureau,
of which he soon became the director. He
made accurate and detailed knowledge of the
Ottoman Empire more easily accessible to
Europeans through the publication of his year-
book, 'Salaame, ou Annuaire de 1'Empire Otto-
man,' which first appeared in 1847. He was
later appointed by the Sultan to fulfill many
important diplomatic missions abroad and was
president of the council and minister of the
interior during the Rus so-Turkish war in
1877-78. He translated many of the French and
German classics into Turkish.

ACHOR, aH or, a valley which forms the
northern boundary of Judah (Josh, xv, 7)
near Jericho, Its identification is uncertain.

ACHRO'HATISM. Because the several
components of a beam of ordinary light are of
different refrangibilities, it follows that they
are not brought to a common focus by a simple
convex lens. The violet rays meet at a point
nearer the lens than that at which the red rays
unite, and the optical image is confused and
fringed with prismatic colors.

The difficulty is greatest with lenses of short
focus, whence the early practice of constructing
telescopes of enormous length. Sir Isaac New-
ton, misled by a really remarkable series of
petty accidents, concluded that this difficulty
could not be obviated, and that large refracting
telescopes were therefore impracticable. He
therefore gave his attention to the development
of the reflector.

In 1757, however, John DoTlond, a Spital
fields weaver, discovered that different sub-
stances separate the colors of light, for a given

ferent kinds of glass," crown glass and flint
glass. A concave lens of flint glass brings the
colors together while not entirely destroying
the refraction caused by a convex lens of crown
glass. The correction is far from perfect, how-
ever, and even the best telescope; lenses produce
a blue halo surrounding the stellar images. This
outstanding color may be reduced by combina-
tions of three or more lenses: but such devices
greatly increase the mechanical difficulties of the
optician. The present practice is to bring to-

f ether such portions of the light as most power-
ully affect the eye or the photographic plate,
leaving the other tints uncorrected. The intro-
duction of new kinds of glass, especially the
Jena glass, so called, has somewhat improved
the chromatic correction of smaller objectives.
Sec Dispersion; Lens; Mickoscofk; Telescope;
Light.

ACHSHARUMOV, Nikolei Dmitriyevich,
ich-sha-roo'mof, ne-k6Ui dme-tre-yev'ich,

Russian novelist and critic : b. Saint Petersburg,
IS Dec. 1819; d. Moscow, 30 Aug. 1893. For a
time he held a post in the ministry of war, but
came later to devote himself to painting, and
particularly to literature. He first attracted at-
tention by a dramatic sketch, 'The Masked
Ball,* ana became more widely known through
his novels, 'The Doable,' 'The Gambler,1
'The False Name,' <An Unusual Case,' 'The
Mandarin,' and 'At All Costs' ('Was es audi
Kosten mag'). His critical essays include
studies of Tolstoi, Tnrgeniev, Dostoievski and
Herbert Spencer.

A CHULA, S-shoola (Port.), a dance re-
sembling the fandango (q.v.).

ACIC'ULITE, a mineral better known as
needle-ore (q.v.).

ACID INDUSTRY, The. The manufac-
ture of chemicals in the United States began
with that of sulphuric acid. The indispensable
part that this add plays in all branches of man-
ufacturing created an insistent demand that
could not be nut by importation. From those
early days onward the manufacture of acids
has steadily increased until, at the present, the
tonnage of acids made annually in the United
States exceeds- the tonnage of any other one
product, excepting only fertilisers, which in
themselves contain enormous quantities of salts
made with the aid of acids..

In gathering statistics of the acid industry
it is customary to place the making of sulphuric
and nitric acids and their mixture ('mixed
acids1) under a separate classification, as the
production is so very much greater than of
Other acids, and their use in general manufac-
tures is so widespread. The Census Bureau in
its report on the acid industry for the calendar
year 1914 gives the total value of the acids
made for sale in the United States at $30,001,-
364. The amount made and consumed is not
valued, but was estimated as worth at least as

Sulphuric Acid.— The number of establish-,
ments making sulphuric acid was 194'— includ-
ing those plants producing it for consumption
in their rejrolar business of making fertilizers
and explosives, refining petroleum and the man-
ufacture of general chemicals. The total pro-
duction amounted to 4,047,675 tons, of which
2,337,977 tons were made for sale, in value,
$15^95,133 — and 1,709,698 torn for consump-
tion in the factories where produced. In this,
total all the acid made was reduced to the
basis of S0D Baume. It included 1,677,649
tons of 50° acid; 795,489 tons of 60s acid;
828,466 tons of 66° acid; and 77,758 tons of
oleum or fuming acid Of the establishments
reported, 34 were in Georgia, 18 in New Jersey
and 16 in Pennsylvania — the location being
governed obviously by proximity to deposits of
the pyrites needed as raw material. Prelim
tnary official figures of the Geological Survey

tlace the 1916 output of sulphuric acid in the
Inked States at about 4,500,000 tons of 50"
acid and nearly 1,000,000 tons of acids strong-
er than 66" Baume. The enormous increase
over the production of 1914 has nearly all
gone into the manufacture of explosives in
this country. The exports of sulphuric acid
for 1916 were only 30,000 tons.

Nitric Acid.— The manufacture of nitric
acid engaged 52 establishments, of which 11

a b, Google

ACIDASPIS — ACIDOSIS

were located in Pennsylvania and 10 in New
Jersey. The total output was 78,589 tons, of
which 14,685 tons were for sale and 63,904
tons for consumption in the making of other
products in the plants where produced The
production sold was valued at $1,591,625.

Mixed Acids.— In 1914 there were 37 estab-
lishments making the mixture of sulphuric and
nitric acids known to the trade as "mixed
acids,* and used so largely in the manufacture
of explosives. The total production was 112,124
tons, of which 42,725 tons were for sale, and
valued at $2,204,480, and 69,399 tons for con-
sumption by the plants making it. The mixed
acid industry showed a notable increase since
the previous census of 1909, amounting to 49.4
per cent in quantity. The value, however, in-
creased only 18.5 per cent.

The rmantities of the principal raw materials

:he manufacture of sulphuric and

; acids and mixed adds in 1914 were as

follows : Sulphur or brimstone, 62,340 tons, cost-
ing $1,272,745; pyrites, 918^11 tons, costing
$3,928,069; and nitrate of soda, 59,604 tons,
costing: $2,772,495. la addition, the fertilizer
industry used in making acids : 2,011 tons of
sulphur: 613342 tons of pyrites; and 15,134
tons of nitrate of soda. The explosives indus-
try used in making acids; 15,832 tons of sul-
phur: 25,885 tons of pyrites;. and 190,960 tons
of nitrate of soda. The petroleum industry
used in making adds; 2,035 tons of sulphur
and 23,669 tons of pyrites.

Of the less important adds separate reports
for 1914 were made as follows :

Acetic Add was made in 13 establishments,
the output amounting to 75,303,375 pounds, of
which 70,617,637 pounds was for sale and
valued at $1,272,294. The remaining 4,685,738
pounds were for factory consumption. The in-
crease in output since 1909 was 24.1 per cent,
but the value of the product was less than in
1909 by 4.8 per cent The bulk of the produc-
tion was in Pennsylvania, with Massachusetts
and New jersey second

Boric Add was made in 1914 by five establish-
ments whose combined production amounted to
8,590,311 pounds of which practically the whole
was for sale, and valued at $588,981. The fig-
ures show an advance of 54.5 per cent in the
quantity over the production of 1909, and of

Citric Add was made in three establishments
in 1914, the combined output being 2,657340
pounds, valued at $1,516^36. The production
was 26.4 per cent greater than in 1909, and its
value was greater by 95.1 per cent.

Hydrofluoric Acid was made in nine estab-
lishments in 1914, and their combined output
was 7,209,248 pounds, of which 5,373,657 pounds,
valued at $325,540, were for sale; 1,835,591
pounds were for consumption by the maker.

Muriatic or Hydrochloric Acid was made
in 1914 by 31 establishments, the total produc-
tion being 337,167,882 pounds. Of this, 170,-
876378 pounds were made for sale, and valued
at $1,348305; the remainder of 166^291,004
pounds being consumed by the maker. The
figures show a decrease of production from
that of 1909 by 15.9 per cent, and a decrease of
value by 23.3 per cent.

Oleic Acid was made in 1914 by seven estab-
lishments, with a total output of 23,187.579
pounds, of which nearly all was for sale, the

AdTw;

Phosphoric Add was made in seven estab-
lishments in 1914,. the output being 12,420,191
pounds valued at $680,239— -only 1.9 per cent
greater than in 1909.

Stearic Acid was made in 10 establishments
in 1914, the combined production amounting to
14,351,404 pounds, valued at $1,242,492. In ad-
dition, 608,705 pounds were made and consumed
by the maker.

Tannic Add was made in five establish-
ments, four of which were located in New York.
The total output was 853,830 pounds, valued at
$287,142.

In addition to these separate reports values
are given for the production of "fatty adds*
at $206,576, and miscellaneous acids at $1,980,-
816. This latter classification includes — in the
order of the value of thdr respective outputs —
tartaric, carbolic, picric, salicylic, lactic, orotic,
hydrofiuosilicic, pyre gallic, gallic, sulphurous,
pyrohgneons, kypophospkorous, benzoic and
arsenic acids,

ACIDASPIS, isl-das'pls ('spine-shield*),
a small trilobite widely distributed through Silu-
rian and Devonian rocks, whose striking char-
acteristic is the thick setting of the dorsal
shield with such numerous and formidable
spines that it must have been almost impossible
for even much larger enemies to prey on it.
The head-shield is entirely different from that
of other trilobites, the trilobation bang ob-
scured by extra furrows and longitudinal false
furrows. The thorax has 9 or 10 segments,
each with long lateral spines and two shorter
median ones; the small tail-shield in nearly
all species also has them ; in some a row of
slender ones on the sides of the head-shield,
and a long one projecting from each posterior
angle; and from the middle posterior edge two
long ones, straight or curved, often project up-
ward and backward. A few species have the
eyes placed, like some crabs and lobsters, on
the ends of long, slender stalks, commanding a
view in alt directions.

AC'IDIMKTRY. See Chemical Analy-
sis.

ACIDOSIS, a condition of the body due to
excess of add formation or lack of oxidation
of the same. It is chiefly seen in the disorder
known as diabetes. Acid intoxication results
from the direct production of. acid substances
within the body, or from the administration of
acids chiefly inorganic.

The chief acids concerned in acidosis are
collectively termed acetone bodies and are:
(1) Boxybutyric acid, (2) diacetic acid and
(3) acetone. These bodies are formed from
carbohydrates, fats or proteids, practically
from the fats and proteids however, the amino
acids of the latter being the chief sources. The
Boxybutyric acid is the starting point of the
other two. By oxidation it is converted into
aceto-acetic (diacetic) acid and this by losing:
a molecule of water from its earboxyl group
produces acetone. These substances were first
found in the urine and later isolated from the
blood of patients with acidosis.

The acetone bodies appear nortnaMy under
conditions of starvation; even abstention from
carbohydrates will cause their presence in the

.Google

ACIDS — ACKEKMANM

urine. Under pathological conditions acidosis
is found in a number of conditions, such as
cyclic vomiting of children, pregnancy with
vomiting, eclampsia, marked grades of temper-
ature, tuberculosis, asthma, atropine, morphine,
carbon monoxide poisoning, and chiefly in the
disorder known as diabetes (q.v.)-

ACIDS. In popular language, acids are
substances of a corrosive nature, with a sour
taste when diluted sufficiently to lose their cor-
rosive action on the tongue, capable of turning
certain blue vegetable coloring matters, such as
litmus, to a red, dissolving metals and forming
neutral compounds with alkalies. They are
classified generally into two groups : the inor-
ganic and the organic referring to their origin
in the mineral kingdom, or in the vegetable
and animal kingdoms. Inorganic acids are
rarely found as such in nature, but usually in
combinations. A small quantity of nitric and
nitrous acids is often present in the atmosphere
after thunderstorms, carbonic acid is found in
limited extent and over limited areas and hy-
drochloric and sulphurous acids are detected id
the fumes from some volcanic fissures. On the
other hand, organic acids are freely distributed
throughout the vegetable world — as in all
fruits, and to a less degree in the animal
kingdom. In modern chemistry an acid is re-
garded as a salt of hydrogen in which one or
more of the hydrogen atoms are replaceable by
metallic atoms or by organic radicals. For ex-
ample, hydrochloric acid (HC1) brought into
contact with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) seizes
upon the sodium, and releases the hydrogen
atom — forming sodium chloride (NaCl) and
water (HiO). An acid containing one such
atom of replaceable hydrogen is called mono-
basic: if it has two such atoms of hydrogen it
is called dibasic or blbasic; if three, tribasic ;
and so on. Hydrochloric acid, HC1, Is a familiar
example of a monobasic add; it has only one
atom of hydrogen that can be replaced by potas-
sium (for example), with the formation of the
single compound KC1. Sulphuric acid, HiSO.,
is a familiar dibasic acid ; with potassium it
forms the two compounds HKSO. (hydrogen

Etassium sulphate), and KiSOt (normal or
sic potassium sulphate) . Phosphoric acid,
HiPOt, is a tribasic acid in which one, two or
all three of the hydrogen atoms may be re-
placed by metals or radicals. In a potybasic
acid the hydrogen atoms need not necessarily
all be displaced by the same element or radi-
cals; thus microcosmic salt is a phosphate of
hydrogen, sodium and ammonium, with the
■ formula HNa(NH,)PO.+4H,0. Acids may he
formed synthetically by uniting hydrogen with
non-metallic substances — as with chlorine, to
form hydrochloric acid.

When an acid contains oxygen it is com-
monly named for the substance that is present
with the oxygen and hydrogen in the acid. For
example, nitric acid is named for nitrogen, and
phosphoric acid for phosphorus. It often hap-
pens that the same element forms more than
one acid with oxygen and hydrogen. In these
cases it is usual to give the termination -ic to the
one in which the oxygen is present in Its high-
est valency, or combining proportion ; and the
termination -ous when in its next lower valency.
For example, H,SO. is called sulphuric acid,
while H1SO1 is called sulphurtHtf acid. Hypo —
is used as a prefix where the oxygen is (n still

lower proportion — as byposulphurous acid. If
the acid contains no oxygen it has die prefix
hydro — as hydrochloric acid (HC1). When
an acid has an unusually large oxygen com-
ponent it has the prefix per — as perchloric
acid. When an acid has been deprived of all
its water component it becomes an acid <m-
hydrid*. The salts formed by acids ending in
-ic have the ending -ate, such as the acid sul-
phate of potassium, produced by substituting
the metal potassium for one of the hydrogen
atoms of sulphuric acid, while those formed by
acids ending in -ous have the ending -ite, as the
sulphite of sodium, and the hypophosphite of
calcium. Salts are considered by some chem-
ists to be acids in which the hydrogen, atom has
been replaced by the metals. Organic acids are
oxides in the second degree of alcohols and
aldehydes, combined with a hydrocarbon. They
are distinguished by the presence of the car-
boxy] group — COiH, in which the hydrogen
atom is replaceable by metals, resulting in salts.
When the hydrogen is replaced by alkyl radicles
esters are formed The relative strength of
various acids is determined by saturating them
with a metallic hydroxide. The proportion
taken up by each acid is the measure of its
relative strength.

ACIPENSERID.E, a family oi fishes in
the suborder Ckondrottti (by some called
Acipenstroidti), comprising the sturgeons
<q.v.).

ACIREALE, a'che-ra-ala, Italy, an episco-
pal city of Sicily, nine miles northeast of Ca-
tania, at the mouth of the river Ads which
flows from Mount Etna. An important trade
is carried on in grain and flax ; there are manu-
factures of silk, linen and cotton goods, and the
thermal springs dating from Roman days, and
the surrounding scenery filled with classic tra-
dition, attract numerous visitors. The grotto of
Acis and Galatea, the cave of Polyphemus and
the seven ScogHde' Cyclopi or Faraglioni which
the blinded Polyphemus hurled at Ulysses, are
shown in the neighborhood Pop. 35,600.

AXIS, a character of Greek mythology, a
handsome shepherd of Sicily, son of Pan and
the nymph Symaethis. Beloved of Galatea the
Nereid, they were surprised by the jealous
Cyclops Polyphemus who crushed Ads to death
with a rock. Galatea transformed his gushing
blood into the river Ads, which has been
famous for its cold waters since the time of
Ovid. See Acireale,

ACK'ER, Charles Ernest, American in-
ventor: b. Bourbon, Ind., 12 March 1868. He
was graduated from Cornell University in
1888, with baccalaureate honors, then began a
private practice as electrical engineer in Chi-
cago, which he continued until 1893. He is
the inventor of the Acker process of manufac-
turing caustic soda by the electrolysis of molten
salt and he was the first in America to manu-
facture carbon tetrachloride. He has invented
many processes pertaining to chemical and
electro-chemical manufacturing. He was
awarded the Cresson gold medal by the Frank-
lin Institute, and is a member of many scien-
tific societies.

ACKERMANN, ak'er-man, Louise Vio

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AC KERM ANN — ACNE

work, 'Poesies, premieres poesies, poesies philo-
sophiques' (Paris 1874), analyzing and revolt-
ing against human suffering in powerful but
sombre verse, attracted wide attention. Her
last work ' Pensees d'une solitaire ' ( Pant
1883) contained a short autobiography.

ACKERMANN, Rudolph, German -English
publisher and inventor : b. Schneeberg, Saxony,
20 April 1764; d. London, 30 March 1834. In
1775 he opened a print-shop and art-school in
the Strand, London, and developed a lucrative
business as publisher of Acker matin's Reposi-
tory of Arts, Literature, Fashions,

appeared up to 1828. In 1825 he published 'For-
get-me-not,' the originator of the English an-
nuals; 'The Microcosm of London' (3 vols.,
1808-11); 'Westminster Abbey' (2 vols.,
1812) ; 'The Rhine' (1820) J 'The World in
Miniature' (43 vols., 1821-26); etc. He in-
vented and manufactured waterproof cloth and
paper; was one of the first to apply the litho-
graphic process to illustration ; and was a
pioneer in the use of illuminating gas. In
philanthropic work he raised nearly $1,000,000
for German relief after the battle of Leipzig.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT, the act of one
who has executed a deed, in going before some
competent officer or court and declaring it to
be his act and deed. The function of an
acknowledgment is twofold: To authorize the
deed to be given in evidence without further
proof of its execution, and to entitle it to be
recorded. The same end may be attained by a
subscribing witness going before the officer or
court, and making oath to the fact of execu-
tion, which is certified in the same manner, hut
in some States this is permitted only in case of
the death, absence or refusal of the grantor.
The certificate should be in substantially the fol-
lowing form:

, 19— .

I, , hereby certify that

; whose name is signed to the foregoing

conveyance, and who is known to me, acknowl-
edged before me on this day that bemg in-
formed of the contents of the conveyance, he
executed the same voluntarily on the day the
same bears date.

Given under my hand this day of ,

19—.

In many of the States it is necessary that a
married woman be examined separately and
apart from her husband touching her voluntary
execution of the deed, and the fact of such ex-
amination must be included in the certificate.

AC'LAND, Lady Christian Henrietta
Caroline Pox, commonly called *Lady Harriet";
daughter of the first Earl of Ilchester: b. 3 Jan.
17S0; d. 21 July 1815. She married Maj. John
Dyke Aciand, September 1770, accompanied him
lo America, and shared Burgoync's campaign of
1777 with him. He being wounded and carried

Kisoner into the American lines in the second
ttle of Saratoga, 7 October, she left the Brit-
ish camp by night in a small rowboat and in a
driving storm to rejoin him, with her chaplain
and two servants ; was cordially received by
Gates and nursed her husband back to health.
Aciand reciprocated the kindness when on
parole in New York, by helping to relieve the
sufferings of American prisoners. He died of,

American courage against aspersion being pure
invention. Equally untrue is it that she went
insane and afterward married Chaplain Brude-
nell ; she died Aciand' s widow. She was a
' graceful and elegant woman and is remembered
for her charities.

ACLAND, Sat Henry Wentworth Dyke,
English sanitarian : b. 1815 ; d. 16 Oct. 1900. He
was long an expert on cholera and the various
forms of plague. He was professor of medicine
at Oxford (1857-94), besides serving on various
sanitary bodies. He was one of the founders
of the Oxford University Museum, and with
Ruskin published an account of its objects
(1859). He accompanied the Prince of Wales
to America in I860. He was author of numer-
ous works on medicine and medical education,
among them 'Memoir of the Cholera at Ox-
ford,1 in 1854. He was created a baronet in
1890.

ACLIN'IC LINE, an imaginary line on the
surface of the earth, at every point of which
the magnetic dip is zero. It is irregular in
shape, and its shape and position vary some-
what from year to year; but, roughly speaking,
it lies close to the equator. See Magnetism,
Terrestrial.

AC'MITE, a mineral, in Dana's pyroxene
group, crystallizing in the monoclinic system,
and having essentially the composition
Na.O.Fe>0*4SiO,. Hardness 6 to 6.5; sp. gr.
3.5; lustre vitreous,' inclining to resinous; usual
color dark blackish-green or reddish-brown.
Occurs in slender lustrous prisms in the
elaeolite-syenites of Norway, Greenland and
Arkansas.

ACNE, nk'ne. Among the diseas.es of the
skin there is none which is more annoying than
this, particularly because of its frequent loca-
tion upon and disfigurement of the face and
because of its common occurrence in young
people of both sexes with whom disfigurements
of this character are keenly distressing. It also

Spears upon the scalp, back, chest and
□ulders, and in people or all ages,
a serious matter ir **■- -
terminates in cane . .

Specifically it is a disease of the sebaceous
glands of the skin, due sometimes to retention
of their oily, greasy secretion, to the action of
certain drugs like the bromides, or to the in-
fluence of various kinds of germs which find
a lodgment Upon the skin. It appears in
various forms, as black specks or comedones,
as reddened spots, as hardened shot-like points,
as elevated conical lumps from a pinhead to a
pea in size, as suppurating sores resembling
boils, etc. In many instances it terminates in
disfiguring scars which gradually become in-
conspicuous, in stains, or in increase or atrophy
of the skin. When the scalp is involved there
is dandruff and loss of hair, on the nose and
cheeks it gives rise to crusts and scales, and on
the face of the aged it may take the form of
horn-like masses. Wens and similar tumors
of the face and scalp are other forms of this

pheral serves. The sebaceous glands •

i the aged for it sometimes

, Google

may be involved in this disease ate destroyed,
ana if they perish in very large numbers the
nutrition' of the skin to which they have been
distributed is of course impaired.

The symptoms are sometimes active and
acute and the eruption painful, and at
other times the eruption will disappear only to
return when provoked by the use of sweets,
pastries, fats or other substances which are not
easily digested, after an attack of constipation,
— after the use of irritating drugs. It is very

all per?

some are sensitive just as they are to other
diseases, must avoid all things which have an
irritative action upon the slon, whether drugs
or food, or bad habits ; as a rule they must also
avoid tea, coffee, alcohol, pork, veal, game,
shell-fish, cheese and fats of all kinds, also
>, nuts, fried and greasy food and hot and

of n

toast, prunes, figs an

fish. Those foods which have a constipating
tendency must be rigidly avoided, and if consti-
pation exists it must be comb&tted by the sys-
tematic and regular use of efficient laxatives,
including castor oil, fluid extract of cascara,
the salines — Epsom and Rochelle salts, and
phosphate of soda, or the saline mineral waters.
The old- fashioned sulphur and molasses which
was a standard, though disagreeable, household
remedy a generation ago need not be' despised in
the treatment of acne. Exercise is very im-
portant and it will tend to equalize the blood
circulation and direct to the face its proper
share of this vital fluid. The sebaceous glands
are far more likely to do their work property
when the face and scalp have an adequate
supply of freely circulating blood. Bathing is
very important, both for preventing and curing
this disease, hot baths being preferable. Ap-
plications of very hot water to the face and
scalp will frequently be found both agreeable
and serviceable. Solutions of alcohol, boric
acid, mercury and formaldehyde are often used
in the treatment of acne and the X-ray has
been found beneficial when used skillfully and
cautiously. The most recent mode of treat-
ment, which however is not uniformly success-
. fill, consists in the use of autogenous vaccines
composed of dead cultures of acne bacilli and
staphylococci in a saline solution. A stock
vaccine from four to ten million with staphy-
lococci at intervals of one or two weeks is
sometimes used successfully. When the erup-
tion takes the pustular form, a polyvalent vac-
cine of cultures of staphylococcus albuf, citreus
and aureus may be used. In all cases it is im-
portant that the general health be kept in the
best possible condition and that the habits of
life be simple and normal. The disease is not
a dangerous one and is seldom painful except
when the glands become inflamed, but when
once acquired it is seldom gotten rid of easily.
ACCEMETJE, as'e-pie'te (the "sleepless"),
a monastic order of the Greek Catholic Church,
who In harmony with the universe and the
ceaseless music of the sphere celebrated the

! of perpetual adoration to God,

this purpose they were divided into choirs
which relieved each other at regular intervals.
The order was founded on the Euphrates in 400
by Alexander, a courtier exile from Constanti-
nople. A mother house, the "Irenaion* or
"great monastery* was later founded near Con-
- " * "i the

became 'through true piety toward God, to zeal
ever on the wat-Ji, and to a special gift of the
Holy Spirit)* a centre of learning as well as
devotion, which brought to a culmination the
glory of the order. Their influence was con-
siderable on Christianity, and the splendor of
their religious services contributed largely to
shape the liturgy of the Church. The order
declined after excommunication by Pope John
II, owing to Nestorian tendencies.

ACOLYTE, ak'6-Ht (a "follower**). An
attendant of the fourth clerical order in the
Catholic Church, whose chief duties are to
assist the sacred ministers at the Mass and other
public services of the Church, to light the
candles on the altar, to carry them in procession
and daring' the singing of the Gospel, and to
prepare the wine and the water for the sacrifice
of the Mass. It is the highest minor order of
the Church ranking next to a subdeacon. The
office originated about the 3d century. At
ordination acolytes receive from the bishop an
unlighted candle and an empty cup as symbols
of the office. Altar boys are frequently desig-
nated as acolytes and perform the duties.

ACOMA, 5-ko'ma, N. Mex. (the old Span-
ish Acufia or Acuco), in Valencia County, 60
miles southwest of Albuquerque and IS miles
southwest of Lagun. It is an Indian pueblo of
830 people, famed especially for its original
site, the "Enchanted Mesa,* a rock tabic 430
feet high, accessible now only by scaling, and
™— ' -*-"-- -■* -n the

along a huge detached fragment leaning against
it from the bottom, itself reached by a tall tree
or a ladder, furnishing a secure fortress against
enemies. The Indian tradition is that a long
storm washed the loose earth away from the
foot of the lower rock while all (he tribe except
two women were away in the fields, and it fell
over into the plain, leaving the upper portion
inaccessible; the women perished, but the re-
mainder of the tribe built a new place on the
f resent site; which is the same as when the
paniards found it. The essence of the tradi-
tion is verified by the finding of an old trail,
and of shards, etc., in the talus high around the
base. Acoma was visited in 1S40 by Alvarado,
of Coronado's command, and in 1582 by Es-
peio. who estimated the population at about
5,000. The Indians under Zutucapan stubbornly
resisted the Spaniards, and in 1599 defeated a
band of them, from Onate's force; later in the
same year Zaldivar captured Acoma 'and slew
five-sixths of the inhabitants. A Spanish mis-
sion was afterward set up for the small rem-
nant. Consult H. H. Bancroft's ' Arizona
and New Mexico' (San Francisco 1889) ; F. W.
Hodge, 'The Enchanted Mesa,' (in national
Geographic Magumne, VoL 8, Washington
1897).'

d by Google

ACONCAGUA — ACORN

ACONCAGUA, a-kon ka'gwa (Sp.-Am.
pron. ka'wa), Chile. (1) An extinct volcano
in the south Andes, on Chilean territory and
dividing it from Argentina ; one of the highest
summits in the western hemisphere, estimated
at about 23.000 or sometimes nearly 24,000
feet. (2) A river about 200 miles long rising
on the southern slope of the above mountain
and emptying into the Pacific 12 miles north
of Valparaiso. (3) A central province of
Chile, bounded north by Coquirabo, south by
Santiago, east by Argentina, southwest by_ Val-
paraiso. For route of Trans- An dine Railway,
via Uspallata Pass in this province, see South
America. The valleys are very fertile, vine-
yards and orchards are plentiful and in sum-
mer numerous flocks are pastured on the
mountain slopes ; figs, nectarines, peaches, etc,
are sent to Santiago and Valparaiso. Copper
and some silver and gold are found. Area,
5,486 square miles. Pop. about 130,000. Cap-
ital, San Felipe.

ACONITE (Aeonitvm), a genus of hardy
herbaceous plants of the natural order Ratatn-
culacetx, long known for their poisonous prop-
erties. Many of them are of great beauty and
several are cultivated, especially the common
wolf's-bane or monk's-hood {A. napellus), so
called from the form of its flowers, character-
istic of the genus, which are shaped like a
helmet or hood The United States has also
several species growing wild. The wild monk's-
hood (A. uncmatum) is common in rich, shady
soils along the margins of streams as far west
as Wisconsin, its blue flowers being one of the
marked features of the summer's bloom.
Trailing wolf's-bane (A. reclinatum), a white-
flowered variety, grows in the southern Alle-
ghanies. The winter aconite {EranthW), with
yellow flowers, is common throughout the
Rocky Mountain regions extending to the
Pacific coast It is perhaps more closely re-
lated to the hellebores. These flowers hang
clustered round an upright stalk and make the
aconite a very imposing plant Some powerful
medicines are prepared from the leaves and
roots of monk's -hood. Applied externally
they produce numbness of sensory '

are used to relieve pain in certair
neuralgia and in acute and chronic I
Given internally they diminish the force and
frequency of the heart's action, render breath-
ing slower and are employed in acute fevers
and inflammations. A poisonous dose causes
cessation of breathing and of the heart's ac-
tion. Many of the plants of this genus are
poisonous; common monk's-hood is very viru-
lent; but the most deadly seems to be the A.
ferox, the btih, or bikh, of Nepal- The dif-
ferent species contain different but related
alkaloids. See Aoonitjne.

ACONITIC ACID (also called eqirisetic
or dtridic acid), a tribasic acid having the for-
mula Grit (COOH)., the calcium salt of which
occurs in several plants of the genus Aconitum
and in the common Equisetum or horsetail.
The acid itself is most easily prepared by the
dry distillation of citric add. It crystallizes
in small four-sided plates which melt and are
decomposed at about 406* F.

napellus and other species of Aconitum. In
its chemical structure it is an acetyl-benzoyi-
aconine, CaH„(OCH,).NO. J £g£g; or, ex-
pressed in simple form, CHuNOu (FreundJ
and Beck). However, different formula: are
assigned to it by other authorities. It is one
of die most deadly poisons and has been known
for hundreds of years. Its action as a medi-
cine was first carefully studied by Stoerck in
1762. When locally applied it produces die
constitutional symptoms. Its local use in the
form of an ointment is of service in neural-
gias. Its primary effect is first to stimulate
and then to powerfully depress the central
nervous system. It thereby slows the heart
and dilates the blood-vessels, causing a marked
decrease of blood pressure. It is because of
this action that it is so widely used in the acute
stages of many affections that are accompanied
by a rapid heart and a tense, bounding pulse.
Aconite has been called the "vegetable lancet*

clammy skin, veiy slow weak pulse and breath-
ing and finally paralysis of the heart and res-
piration and death. Death has taken place in
from one to five hours from the root. Doses
above three milligrams (1-20 gr.) a day are
dangerous ; 1-400 gr. is an average dose.
Treatment is symptomatic, special attention be-
ing paid to the respiration by artificial means,
and heart stimulants, — strychnine, etc.

ACONTIUS, in a Greek legend retold by
Ovid in his 'Heroides,' a youth of the island
of Cea, who went to Delos to see the sacred
rites performed by a crowd of virgins in the
temple of Diana, and fell in love with Cydippe,
a beautiful virgin. Not daring to ask her in
marriage on account of the meanness of his
birth, he presented her with an apple on which
were inscribed these words : "I swear by Diana,
Acontius shall be my husband." Cydippe read
the words and, feeling herself compelled by
the oath she had inadvertently taken, married
Acontius. William Morris has used the story
in the * Earthly Paradise.1

ACORDAD, a court established at Quere-
taro. New Spain (Mexico), for the summary
trial of brigands and others. II was sup-
pressed in 1813.

ACORN, a'korn (from the Gothic «enm —
■fruit of the field*—), the saucer-cupped nut or
fruit of oak trees. On the Pacific Coast from
Mexico to northern California, Indians dry and

round acorns into meal and use it in making
read, and as mush food In northern Italy
and other parts of Europe, acorn meal mixed
with grain is also made into black bread which,
however, is heavy and indigestible. Acorns
dried and ground are also used as a substitute
for coffee. Children in many places are fond
of eating fresh and sweet acorns. The hogs of
the Southern States which feed on acorns with
a varied diet of occasional com are dis-
tinguished for the agreeably flavored pork, ham
and bacon they yield. Beechnuts and acornsas
food for pigs is commonly called mast The
word acom is also used as a nautical term tor
the cup-like piece of wood which keeps the «ne
on the mast-head

y Google

ACORN SHELL — ACOUSTICS

ACORN-SHELL, a barnacle of the family
Balanida:. Sec Barnacle.

ACORUS. See Flag, Sweet.

ACOSTA, Gabriel, a-kos-ta, Portuguese
philosopher; b. Oporto, 1591; d.April 1640. Of
a converted Jewish family, educated a Roman
Catholic, his studies led him back to Judaism,
and he fled with his mother and brothers to
Amsterdam. He again developed heretical opin-
ions, was - taken to task by the synagogue,
and excommunicated; his writings were confis-
cated and himself fined; and years of persecu-
tion by the Jewish authorities and his family
drove him to suicide. Gutzkow made him the
' hero of his novel 'Die Sadducaer von Amster-
dam* (1834), and of his tragedy 'Uriel Acos-
ta> (1846). The work which caused Acosta's
excommunication was 'Examen Traditionum
Pharisajicamm Collatarum cum Lege Scripta'
(1623, in Latin).

ACOSTA, Joaquin, a-kos'ta, hooa-ken',
South American soldier and geographer: b.
Guachias, Colombia. 29 Dec. 1799; d. there 1852.
He was an officer of engineers in the Colombian
army, member of the New Granada Convention
1831, later representative in its Congress. In
1834 he explored the Socorro valley to the
Magdalena with the botanist Cespcdes, and in
1841 traveled from Antioquia to Aserma to study
the various Indian tribes. For a time he was
minister from New Granada to Ecuador; was
chargt d'affaires at Washington 20 July to 8
Nov. 1842; and later secretary of state in New
Granada. He published at Paris in 1848 a his-
tory of the discovery and settlement of New
Granada, with a valuable map of his own draw-
ing, the first made since the independence of
Colombia; and in 1849, at Paris, a 'Miscellany
of New-Granadan Sciences, Literature, Arts,
and Industries,' with portraits and map.

ACOSTA, Jose, a-kos'ta, hc-sa', Jesuit and
historian: b. Spain, c. 1540; d. rector of Sala-
manca in 1600. In 1571 he went to Peru, where
he spent 15 years, becoming provincial of bis
order. After two years in Mexico and the
West Indies he returned to Spain laden with
manuscripts and information, and became a
royal favorite. His theological works evinced
great learning, but it is by his 'Natural and
Moral History of the Inches* that he is best
known. The complete work was published at
Seville in 1590 and proved the most popular
and most satisfactory account of the New
World up to that time. An English translation
appeared at London in 1604, a reprint of which
was issued by the Hakluyt Society in 1880.

ACOUCHI, or ACOUCHY. See Agodti.

ACOUMETER, 5-koo'metcr ("hearing-
measurer*), an instrument to determine the
acuteness of hearing. It is a small steel bar of
uniform pitch, to be struck with a hammer or
falling weight with gradations of force.

ACOUSTICS, a-koo'stiks, (from farittv,
to hear), is the science of the production, propa-
gation and audition of sound. The term sound
is sometimes by definition restricted to the sen-
sation involved in hearing, but is never consist-
ently so used. Both by derivation and by com-
mon and best usage it should be applied to those
aerial or other vibrations which, were they to
reach the ear, would produce audition. The
term being thus used, sound consists of waves

of longitudinal vibration, that is to say of waves
of to and fro motion perpendicular to the wave
front. Such motion, propagated through an
elastic medium with a finite velocity, results in
alternate rarefaction and condensation.

A moment's consideration of any source of
sound will show it to be of such a nature as
to give either a single impulsive blow or re-
peated blows, usually systematically repeated,
to the surrounding medium. In the great
majority of cases, and those the more interest-
ing both theoretically and practically, the source
of sound consists of an elastic body distorted
from its normal shape, and, released, vibrating
more or less symmetrically about this normal
shape or position. It results from this vibra-
tory motion that a series of impulses is given to
the surrounding medium which are periodic,
nearly similar in character, and nearly equally
timed. These impulses, propagated through
the surrounding medium all with the same
velocity, follow each other in the form of a
train of waves. The distance from a point in
one impulse to the corresponding point in the
next impulse is called the wave length of the
sound. The frequency of these waves as they
strike the ear determines the pitch of the sound;
the character of the wave in respect to form de-
termines the quality of the sound; while both
of these together with the amplitude of vibra-
tion and the density of the medium determine
the loudness or strength of the sensation.

In respect to pitch sounds audible to the
human ear range in frequency from about 24
vibrations per second to 40,000 vibrations.
Sounds very much higher in .pitch are audible
to some animals, the cat for example, while
for some animals it is probable that the upper
limit is not so high, although in regard to the
latter point no reliable data have been secured,
the interest of the biologists apparently being
to extend the range. In regard to the lower
limit in other auditors than man no reliable ex-
periments have been made, and if attempted
would be extremely difficult because of the diffi-
culty of distinguishing the reactions due to the
mechanical disturbance from the reaction due to
true audition, — a difficulty which indeed affects
all such experiments, but which is enhanced in
the case of the lower limit.

The quality of a sound is determined by the
wave form. A pure musical tone is due to sim-
ple harmonic motion, a type of periodic motion
best described as the projection on a diameter
of uniform circular motion, and most famil-
iarly illustrated by the motion of the pendulum
of a clock. Perfectly pure tones are rare, the
nearest approach being that of a tuning fork re-
enforced by a resonator. Most musical sounds
arc far from being pure tones. They may, how-
ever, be regarded as a complex of a number of
pure tones, each pure tone being then called a
partial tone Of these partial tones the lowest,

partial tones in order of their pitch are called
the second, third, etc., partials. In many of
the more interesting cases such as the tones of
the organ pipe, or of a bowed, struck or plucked
string, the upper partials are harmonics of the
fundamental. The pitch and the relative in-
tensities of the partial tones determine what is
called the quality of the sound, the pitch of the
whole bdntt usually rated as that of the lowest

d by Google

partial. When a sound is incapable of analysis
into pure tones it is called a noise. In many,
indeed it is safe to say that in most, sounds
that are classed as noise there is some trace of
a predominant note, and of a definite musical
pitch which a trained ear can detect

The loudness of a sound is capable of be-
ing variously defined. If by the loudness of a
sound is meant physical energy and if the sound
is a pure tone then its loudness depends on the
amplitude of vibration and the pitch, being pro-
portional to the square of each, and on the
density of the medium, to which it is directly
proportional. The loudness of a sound is ordi-
narily defined, however, by the intensity of the
sensation which it is. capable of producing.
Thus defined loudness is a function not merely
of the amplitude of vibration and the density
of the medium, but of the pitch and the quality
as well, and moreover it is a complicated func-
tion of each. It is an interesting fact that in
man there is a definite sense of loudness which
renders it possible to compare, in respect to the
intensity of the sensations which they produce,
sounds differing in pitch by the whole of the
musical scale. Moreover, this sense of loud-
ness is apparently physiological and not de-
pendent on familiarity with the 'balance* of
any musical instrument, and is to a high degree
of accuracy the same for different persons, in-
dependent of age, sex or musical training.

Production of Sound. — The best example
of the single impulse as a source of sound is an
explosion in unconfined and therefore non-
resonant space. The result is an approximately
single wave. When, however, the explosion oc-
curs in a resonant cavity the result is a note
of definite pitch determined by the cavity. Or
a single explosion and impulsive wave may re-
sult in a train of waves and therefore a sound
of definite pitch, by being reflected from uni-
formly spaced surf aces, such for example as the
pickets of a fence. The next simplest source
of sound is a siren, long a laboratory instru-
ment, more recently made familiar bv use in
fog signals and steam whistles. The siren con-
sists of two circular discs, the one fixed, the
other pivoted to revolve nearby in contact with
it. Both discs are pierced by a circle or by cir-
cles of holes through which steam or com-
pressed air escap.es as the holes in the two
discs come opposite each other.

A straight bar of metal or wood may vibrate
either transversely or longitudinally. If dis-
torted transversely it vibrates to and fro
through its normal straight form. The simplest
form of this transverse vibration is that in
which the bar at points one-quarter the total
length from either end remains at rest. These
points of rest are called nodes and the inter-
mediate part of free vibration is called an anti-
node. When vibrating in this manner the bar
emits its fundamental note, the lowest note of
which it is capable if entirely free. The next
simple mode of vibration is that in which there
are three nodes, or points or rest, at points one-
sixth the total length from either end and in
the middle. In this case the bar emits a note
having twice the frequency of the fundamental
and in pitch an octave above it. Continuing in
this way a series of simple types of motion may
be determined. The notes thus produced have
twice, three times, four times, etc., the vibration
frequency of the fundamental. Any transverse

free vibration of the bar is a combination of
these forms, and the sound which it emits is a
combination of these notes. In this manner the
quality of the sound is determined If the tar
is clamped at one end the lowest note which it
emits is an octave lower than the lowest when
entirely free: and the higher tones, instead of
being two, three, etc. multiples of the funda-
mental, skip every other one, being three, five,
seven, etc., multiples of the fundamental.
Touching the bar at any. point tends to pro-
duce a node at that point and to strengthen the
^f^unjAn "artial tone, and to diminish the
iving antinodes at that point

rse is true in regard to striking

rod. Finally, the frequency of the several
notes is proportional inversely to the length, and
to the square root of the density, and directly
to the square root of the rigidity, other dimen-
sions being the same in each case.

When the rod is rubbed or stroked so as
to vibrate longitudinally, either free or clamped
at one end, its fundamental and overtones form
the same systems as before, but all are of a
different pitch, determined now by the length,
density and modulus of elasticity. Thus the
longitudinal vibrations of the free rod have as
vibration frequencies of its overtones all inte-
gral multiples of the fundamental. If the
same rod is rigidly clamped at one end, its
fundamental is an octave tower than the funda-
mental of the free rod, and the even integral
overtones are absent.

A stretched string or wire, so small in
diameter in comparison with its length that
its rigidity is insignificant in comparison with its
tension, vibrates for its fundamental over its
whole length with nodes at each end. The
first overtone is an octave above this in pitch,
the wire vibrating with a node at the centre.
The second overtone (third partial) is three
times the fundamental in pitch frequency, the
wire vibrating with nodes a third of the whole
length of the wire from either end. The third
overtone (fourth partial) is four times the
fundamental in pitch frequency, with nodes at
the quarter and middle points. A string set in
vibration by any ordinary method vibrates in a
more or less complex manner, emitting a sound
containing the fundamental and overtones. The
overtones present and their relative intensities
are determined by whether the string is plucked,
struck or bowed, and also by the point of appli-
cation. The fundamental note emitted by a
string is of a vibration frequency equal to the
square root of the tension divided by the mass
per centimetre of length, divided by twice the

If the vibrating elastic solid is in the form
of a plate the system of overtones bears a com-

filicated relationship to the fundamental, no
onger being integer multiples in vibration fre-
quency. The manner in which the plate vi-
brates may be shown by sprinkling sand on
the plate, the latter being horizontal. When the
plate vibrates the sand dances away from the
parts of the plate in motion and settles in ridges
along the nodes. When the plate is square and
emitting its lowest tone the nodal lines traced
by the sand form a cross reaching from the
centres of the sides. By bowing the plate at
different points the plate may be made to vi-
brate in very complicated forms, the sand
figures thus traced often making attractive de-

a by Google

ACOUSTICS 90

signs. The production of these various pat- lengths. The tapes not uncommonly vary is
terns is much guided by touching the plate at length from 32 feet to half an inch. In
various points on the edge with the fingers, thus the military trumpet we have an exceedingly
determining the ends of nodal lines. This ex- simple instrument whose whole available scale
periment was first performed by Chladni, and consists in the overtones, the particular note
the sand figures are called after their inventor being determined by lip tension and wind pres-
Chladni's figures. Similar experiments can be sure. In the slide trombone the scale is pro-
carried out on stretched membranes, and one duced not merely as in the trumpet, but by
may investigate in this way the vibration of varying the length by means of the slide. In
drum heads. The result of such an experiment the cornet the variation in length is accom-
shows that the quality of sound from a drum pushed by means of keys turning valves which
depends on the point at which it is struck, and throw into the length of the pipe or cut out
that the upper partials are inhartnonics of the from it short auxiliary convolutions. In the
fundamental. French born the scale is played not merely by
Next to the stretched string the most inter- the means adopted in the cornet, but by means
esting case of a vibrating body is that of a col- of the hand thrust into the bell or flared end,
umn of air. To a first approximation the prob- thus partially closing it and so lowering the
lem of the vibration of an air column is as pitch. In the flute, clarionet and wood wind-
simple as that of a stretched string, but in its instruments generally the variation in pitch is
practical forms and more accurate solution it is accomplished by opening and closing ports on
by no means so simple. The vibration of a the side of the tube.

column of air, according to the theory ad- A little more might be said in regard to
vanced by Bernoulli, is identical with the longi- stringed instruments. The strings are, in gen-
tudinal vibration of a straight bar of metal. If era], so narrow that when vibrating they cut
the column of air is in a tube open at both ends, through the air, communicating, practically, no
the simplest form of vibration and that in which motion to the air and therefore emitting, prac-
it emits the lowest possible note is such that tically, no sound directly. The sound which
the air moves to and fro at both ends having we hear therefore comes not from the string,
a node at the middle. The first overtone, hav- but from the sounding boards with which they
ing a vibration frequency twice that of the are always placed in contact. It is thus be-
fundamental, is produced by the column of air cause the sound which we hear comes from the
vibrating freely at both ends, vibrating freely body of the violin and scarcely at all from the
at the middle, and having nodes at points one- strings directly that its quality depends so much
quarter of the total length of the pipe from more on the instrument than on the strings
either end. The second overtone has three with which it is stretched
times, the third overtone four times, etc., the Propagation of Sound.— When a sound is
vibration frequency of the fundamental. If produced in free air at a distance from all ob-
the column of ajr is closed at one end the low- stacles it spreads in spherical waves, dirmnish-
cst lone which it can emit is an octave below ing as it spreads over greater and greater sur-
the lowest tone emitted by the same pipe open faces, the intensity of the sound diminishing as
at both ends. The overtones in this case are the wave increases. The area of a sphere be-
three, five, seven, etc., times the fundamental ing proportional to the square of the radius we
in frequency. The analogy of this with the have the so-called law of the inverse square
bar of metal is obvious. It might be added that of the distance. The velocity of propagation of
according to Bernoulli's theory the note emit- a sound through a medium is independent of
ted by the column of air is such that the the pitch of the sound or of its loudness and
sound could travel from the open end to the depends only on the nature of the medium — its
first node during one quarter of a vibration, elasticity and its density. In any medium the
This, only approximately true_ in the case of velocity of the sound is proportional directly
the column of air, is very strictly true in the to the square root of the elasticity and in-
case of the metal rod It follows from this versely to the square root of the density of the
that the pitch of the note emitted by a column medium. Since the waves follow each other
of air can be varied either by varying the length with so great rapidity that the air does not have
of the column, the pitch being inversely pro- time to cool during compression, the elasticity
pprtional to the length, or by so exciting the here referred to is that of adiabatic compres-
air that it vibrates according to the higher -ion. A table is hece given of the velocity of
forms with nodes nearer the ends. The apph- sound in various media:

cation of this to musical instruments is very cwboBie „ia -„ Me

simple. Take, for example, organ pipes of what Air v.'.'..'...'.'.'.'..'.'..'.,'.'.'....'.'.. 1,091

are called flue stops as distinguished from reed H)"'*0Sen 4. 190

stops. All such organ pipes are. obviously, p^^ ,{'25

open at the end at which they are blown. Ac- Copper la.aoo

cording as they are open or closed at the other I™ is. 100

end they are called open or closed pipes. Open In this table the velocities given are in feet
pipes have nodes at their middle when sound- per second and at 0* C. A variation in ton-
ing the fundamental note, while the closed perature produces a variation in the velocity,
pipes have their nodes at the closed end A particularly in the case of gases. A rise in
closed pipe is therefore an octave lower in temperature results in an increase of velocity,
pitch than an open pipe of the same length, ac- the increase being about .18 per cent for every
curately according to the theory of_ Bernoulli, degree Centigrade for all gases. This amounts
but as a matter of fact only approximately so. to a little less than two feet per second in the
In a pipe organ the variation in pitch is accom- case of air.

plished not merely by using open and closed When the source of sound is coming

pipes, but principally by using pipes of different toward the observer, the observer being star

Digitized rjy GoOgk

100 ACOU

tionary, the sound as heard is of a higher pitch
than it the source were stationary, for the num-
ber of waves reaching the observer per second
is increased in the ratio of the velocity of
sound plus the velocity of the source to the
velocity of sound. Similarly when the source
is receding from the observer the sound re-
ceived is of lower pitch. The change is strik-
ingly observed as a bicycle bell or a clanging
street car gong passes close by an observer. In
this case the fall in pitch is abrupt and marked.
Simitar phenomena are produced as the ob-
server approaches or recedes from a stationary
source. This is cajled Doppler's principle.

When the sound instead of being produced
in uniform and stationary air is produced in air
moving with various velocities the phenomena
are much complicated. These phenomena were
first studied with care in connection with fog
signals by Henry, Tyndall, and Stokes. It was
an old observation that fog signals plainly audi-
ble at a very great distance could often not be
heard at a little less distance, still nearer were
audible again, still nearer inaudible, — that these
regions of silence and audibility varied, not
merely on different days, but rapidly in the
most mysterious and disconcerting manner, so
much so as to receive the name of "sound
ghosts.* The explanation, for a long time
sought in vain, was ultimately given in a sug-
gestion by Stokes that they were due to a varia-
bility in the velocity of the wind in different
strata of the atmosphere. The result of such
an irregularity would be that the spreading
sound waves instead of remaining spherical
would be distorted very considerably. For ex-
ample, the waves would be tipped back if the
wind were greater at the higher altitude and
against the sound. In such case the sound
-would rise from the water and there would be
a region close to the surface over which the fog
signal would be inaudible. If, on the other
hand, the wind retarded the sound less above
than below, or if the wind above favored the
sound the wave would be tipped forward and
the sound would descend upon the sea and
there would be a resulting area of audibility.
As the wind at different altitudes varies greatly
and changes abruptly we have an entirety ade-
quate explanation or the phenomena.

If the medium through which the sound is
being propagated is not homogeneous another
very interesting series of phenomena will occur.
Whether the variation in homogeneity results
from the variation in composition or a variation
In temperature, the effect is the same. A
•change in either temperature or composition re-
sults in general in a change in the velocity of
•the sound. .Whenever sound passes from one
medium to another or from one region to an-
other in which the velocity is different the
■direction of the sound is changed. It is said
to be refracted. The law of refraction is a
very simple one, — that the ratio of the sines of
the angles made by the direction of propagation
of die sound in the two media with a normal
to the surface separating the media is equal to
die ratio of the velocities in the two media.
The sound is thus always bent toward the nor-
mal in passing from a medium in which the
velocity is greater to a medium in which it is
less. According to this principle the so-called
acoustical lenses have been made. This may
be done by filling a large but thin walled spher-

ical balloon with some heavy gas. Such a lens
property placed will focus the sound of the tick-
ing of a watch so that it can be heard at a dis-
tance considerably greater than that at which
it can ordinarily be heard. When the lens is
thus made with heavy gas it is a converging
lens; when made with light gas it is a diverging
lens. A curious but unintentional example of
the latter occurred in the House of Parliament
when a shaft of warm air, rising through the
large ventilator in the middle of the floor, so
diverted the sound that a speaker on one side
could not be heard clearly by a member imme-
diately opposite him.

Whenever a sound traveling through one
medium comes to another medium in which its
velocity is different a certain portion is re-
flected, the amount reflected depending upon
the change in velocity of the sound and upon
the angle at which it strikes the surface of
separation. This furnishes the explanation of
the so-called aerial echoes observed by Tyn-
dall, and a partial explanation of the rolling
of thunder.

When the reflecting surface is a solid wall
a very large per cent of the sound is reflected,
how much, depends, of course, on the nature of
the wall. Under these circumstances there are
produced a large number of important phe-
nomena which are most strikingly interesting in
connection with architectural acoustics. Under
special bnt usually accidental conditions very
peculiar phenomena arise as is illustrated in the
case of whispering galleries. Whispering gal-
leries are of one or the other of two general
types usually illustrated, following the lead of
Herschel, by the dome in Saint Paul's Cathe-
dral, London, and by a much less familiar build-
ing, the cathedral in Girgenti In Saint Paul's
Cathedra] if a person takes a position at one
side of the dome and very close to the wall he
can whisper with great ease and distinctness to
a person at the opposite side of the dome
This is not the case of focusing sound in the
ordinary sense. The sound starting from one
point is carried by the curved surface along
great circles on the interior of the almost spher-
ical dome. The sounds traveling by all these
paths meet again at the opposite end of the
diameter. As distinguished from this the whis-
pering gallery in the cathedral at Girgenti is
8 reduced by a single, isolated, but focused re-
jection. A better and more familiar illustra-
tion of this was until recently to be found in
the Hall of Statues in the Capitol at Washing-
ton. It is a necessary condition for both h<pes
of whispering galleries that the wall surfaces
should be smooth and free from great projec-
tions. The. whispering gallery in the Capitol
at Washington has recently been destroyed by
replacing the formerly smooth spherical ceiling
rather deeply coffered ceiling in plaster.

The ideal whispering gallery, should i
:d by construe
n of whose wall s

planned, would be secured by constructing a
room a considerable portion of whose wall sur-
face would be part of an ellipsoid of revolu-
tion with foci at the points between which the
whispering is to occur. Another interesting and
somewhat related phenomenon is that of multi-
ple reflections. An interesting example of this
recently occurred in a private athletic court at
Rhinebeck-on-the-Hudson. In this case the
ceiling was a smooth dome so nearly flat that its
centre of curvature was at a distance below the

lOl

..,„_ heigh —

the echo was repeated very many time* and
die sound was reflected three tiroes between
each repetition of the echo. Such special forms
of walla not infrequently occur in auditoriums,
often in a subtly concealed manner, and are
the occasion of much annoyance. It might be
added that it would not be a safe generaliza-
tion to say that all curved surfaces are had or
that all disturbing surfaces are curved.

In the absence of specially disturbing sur-
faces the multiple reflection of the sound re-
sults in a general reverberation, which is from
some points of view advantageous and from
some harmful. The reverberation results in an
increased loudness particularly of sustained
tone. On the other hand by the prolongation of
each sound it results in more or less confusion.
When the room is to be used for musieal'pur-

rts, the effect of this reverberation, unless it
carried to too great an extent, is to blend
the tones and to give to the performer a sense
of support from the auditorium. There

der to fully satisfy expert musical t

The

eral loudness and even the loudness
era! points can be calculated when the dimen-
sions of the room and the absorbing power of
its various surfaces are known.

Another feature of architectural acoustics is
the phenomenon of interference. Taking first
the simplest possible case when a sound from
a distant source strikes normally on a plane
wall, the reflected waves meeting the following
on-coming wavea produce by their superposi-
tion a system of stationary waves parallel to the
reflecting surface. The result would be great
nodal and antinodal surfaces parallel to the re-
flecting wall. An observer moving about in
such a medium would hear the sound as very
loud at the nodal surfaces. When the sound
is produced in a confined space, such as a room,
it is reflected from wall to wall many times
and in many directions before it is ultimately
absorbed. The result is an exceedingly com-
plicated system of stationary waves. Under
certain conditions the sound may be so intense
at certain points of the room as to be unen-
durable, while at other points but a few feet
distant it is so faint as to be scarcely audible.
The distribution of such a system of stationary
waves depends on the shape of the room, the
material of the walls and the position of the
source of sound It also depends on the pitch
of the sounds.

When the conditions of the room are such
that a system of stationary waves are so formed
that a region of great intensity coincides with
the source, the phenomenon of resonance oc-
curs. That is to say the emission of that par-
ticular note will be increased in comparison
with other notes of such pitch that their great-
est nodal intensity in their own interference sys-
tems does not coincide with the source. This
phenomenon is called resonance. Both interfer-
ence and resonance result in the destruction of
chorda! balance

Audition. — The ear is ordinarily divided, in
anatomical work, into three parts, the outer, the
middle and die inner car. The drum of the
ear separates the outer from the middle ear,
the middle ear bejng an air cavity connected by

the eustachian tube with the nasal cavity. The
sound is conducted across the middle ear by a
system of three bones which connect the drum
with another membrane separating the middle
ear from the inner ear. The inner ear is a
somewhat complicated cavity in the solid bone
of the skull. It consists essentially of three
semi-circular canals, and a much longer and
larger snailshell-like cavity called the cochlea.
This inner ear is separatee! from the middle ear
not merely by the membrane already referred to
pressed against and vibrated by the bones, but
also by another small membrane. Starting from
between these two membranes a diaphragm,
runs the length of the cochlea. This diaphragm,
somewhat intricate in its complete structure, has
as an essential part a system of numerous
stretched fibres, varying in length and probably
also in tension. When the sound is conducted
from the outer ear to the inner ear by the
three bones in the middle ear, the vibration is
communicated to a liquid which fills the inner
ear. This liquid in vibrating causes the small
fibres of the diaphragm, called the fibres of
Corti, to vibrate. As the fibres of Corti are of
different lengths and of a different tension, dif-
ferent regions of the diaphragm respond to dif-
ferent notes. On this diaphragm terminate
the auditory nerves which are stimulated by the
vibration of the fibres, and communicate the
corresponding sensation to the brain. The vari-
ation in pitch sensation is due to variation in
the stimulated region of the diaphragm. When
the sound is not a pure tone the various partial
tones excite the corresponding parts of the
diaphragm, When two notes are sounded, each
with its system of overtones, there are regions
of the diaphragm more or less excited simul-
taneously by the two systems. When the two
partials which excite overlapping regions of
the diaphragm are not of exactly the same pitch
beats occur between them. These beats when
slow are not wholly disagreeable, and having a
tremulo effect in moderate use are not without
musical value. When, however, the beats are
more rapid, and this occurs when the over-
lapping partial tones differ more in pitch, the
beats lose their distinct character as such and
produce the effect known as discord. If the
two partial tones differ still more in pitch the
regions which they excite overlap less and less
and the discord diminishes. Following out this
line of argument Helmholts was able to show
that when the fundamentals having harmonic
upper partials bear to each other simple ratios
In their vibration frequency their discord is a
minimum, deriving in this way a complete ex-
planation of the musical scale as used in har-
monic composition. The scale thus obtained is
the true or natural scale. The intervals be-
tween the successive notes are not equal, but
•fall into two groups of so-called whole and half
tone intervals. The whole tone intervals are
not equal among themselves and are not twice
the half tone intervals. Therefore, even after
inserting sharps and flats to subdivide the
whole tone intervals the resulting chromatic
scale is not one of equal interval. While this
is the scale which would be employed by instru-
ments without fixed key-boards, and by the hu-
man voice accurately trained, it cannot be em-
ployed in instruments with fixed key-boards if
such instruments are to be used in different
keys.

.Google

e as to result in serious discord. The
following table gives the vibration frequency of
the eight notes of the middle octave on the
natural and on the tempered scale :

,.. .

sjfl-7

E:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: JS:S $:8

during the period preceding the 11th century
was used only in melodic composition — that is
for notes sounded in sequence — the simul-
taneity necessary for harmonic effect was ob-
tained by the prolongation of one note into the
other. Consult Franklin. $". and Macnutt, B
'Light and Sound' (1909); Hamilton, 'Sound
and Its Relation to Music* (Boston 1911);
Sabine, 'Architectural Acoustics' (Boston
1906) ; Saeltzer, 'Treatise on Acoustics in Con-
nection with Ventilation' (New York 1908).
. Wallace Clement Sabine,
Professor of Physics, Harvard University.

ACQUAVIVA, Andrea Matteo, an'dri-a
mat'a-o aVwa-ve'va, Duke of Atri and Prince
of Teramo, in the kingdom of Naples: b. 1456;
d. 1528. He seems to have been the first who
conceived the idea of an 'Encyclopaedia,' or
'Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences.'
He published a useful work tinder that title in
two folio volumes.

ACQUI, ak'we, northern Italy. (1) A dis-
trict in the province of Alessandria, on the
north side of the Ligurian Apennines. Area, 445

a tare miles. Productions, corn and fruit.
estnut-trees furnish the peasantry with an
article of common food, and silkworms are
reared. (2) Its capital and episcopal city, on
Ihe Bormida, 18 miles south southwest of Ales-
sandria, 37 miles northwest of Genoa. It has
commodious hot sulphur baths, and is celebrated
for its. great antiquity and for the remains of a
Roman aqueduct. The hot sulphur baths were
known to the Romans, who called the place
Aqua Statiella. There is an extensive trade
in wine, silk lace and rope. Acqui has a
cathedral, a royal college, and is a bishop's see.
It was taken by the Spaniards in 1745; retaken
by the Piedmontese; and afterward dismantled
by the French. Pop. about 16,000.

ACQUISITION is the act by which a
person procures property in a thing; also the
thing the property in which is secured. Original
acquisition b that by which a man secures a
property in a thing which is not at the time he
acquires it, and in its then existing condition,
the property of any other individual. It may
result from occupancy, accession or intellectual
labor.

ACQUITTAL, in law, the judicial setting
free or releasing a person from a contract, debt
or other obligation; but the term is more com-
monly used m criminal law to signify the de-
liverance from a charge of an offense, either by
a verdict of not guilty by a jury, or by simple

operation of law, as in the case of an accessory
where the principal is acquitted. In the United
States acquittal may be the result of some
technical defect in the proceedings or by the
verdict in favor of the accused on the merits
of the case. In the first case a second trial of
the case may be instituted, but the second case
is a bar to any further prosecution of the ac-
cused for the same offense. This is guaranteed
by a constitutional provision that 'no person
shall be twice put in jeopardy for the same

ACJUEI'HJB, a sub-family of butterflies of
the family Nymphalida, deriving its name from
the leading genus Acraa. There are about 85
species, mostly African. They are of small or
moderate size, and have semi-transparent wings,
reddish-brown marked with black.

ACRA'NIA, a primary division of Vtrtt-
brata. represented by Amphiaxus (q.v.) in
which, as the name indicates, there is no skull,
while the notochord extends to the anterior end
of the snout, in advance of the central nervous
system. There is no true brain, tine region cor-
responding to the brain of the genuine verte-
brates being very imperfectly differentiated.
There are only two pairs of cerebral nerves, and
the dorsal and ventral spinal nerves do not
unite. There is also no trace of limbs. The
pharynx is of comparatively immense size, per-
forated by very numerous gill-slits, and sur-
rounded by an atrium. The liver is a hollow
pouch of the intestine. There is no heart, and
the blood is colorless. The numerous nephridia
remain distinct and open in to the atrium. There
are no paired eyes, only a single median pig-
ment-spot in the wall of the brain ; there are no
ears, though an olfactory pit is present. The
reproduction glands are segmentally arranged,
but have no ducts.

ACRA'SIA (Gr. axpaala, intemperance), a
beautiful woman, the personification of all that
is intemperate and immoderate, portrayed in
Spenser's 'Faerie Queene.' She lives in a
'Bower of Bliss,* on a floating island, in which
there is everything to delight the senses. Her
character was suggested by Circe, but prob-
ably more direct lyoy the Alcina of Ariosto.

ACRE, alter, Syria (Biblical Aceho, Greek
Plotemait, other forms Accc, Akko, Aeon,
Aecaron; modern French St. jean d'Acre), a
port some miles north of Mt. Carrael, on the
Bay of Acre, opposite Haifa on the opposite
horn. The harbor is one of the best on the
coast; even so, it is much choked with sand
Its interest is chiefly in its varied and pictur-
esque past ; as the chief landing place for inva-
sion of Syria, it has perhaps suffered more from
political revolutions and war ravages than any
other place in history. Its name first occurs m
a letter of King Bumaburiash of Babylon to
Amenhotep IV of Egypt, c 1400 B.C. Senna-
cherib of Assyria captured it 701 BvC, and his
son Esarhaddon about 675 gave it to the King
of Tyre. After the break-up of Alexanders
empire, Ptolemy Soter of Egypt took possession
of it and renamed it Ptolemais; it afterward
became part of the Seleucid empire of Syna'
and later the Romans acquired it and made a
colony of it. Under the early empire it w'*. '
city of great importance, and remnants of n*
grandeur in the shape of fine granite and marble

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pillars still exist In 635 a.d. the Saracens
under Khaled and Obeida captured it and Da-
mascus. They were expelled from it in 1110
by the Crusaders, who made it their principal
port and retained it till 1187, when it was re-
covered by Saladin. Four years later it was
retaken by Richard Cceur de Lion and Philip II
of France, at the cost of 100,000 lives. They
made it a bishopric and gave it to the order of
St. John (Fr. St. Jean, from which it took its
French title). These held it for just a century,
despite continual assaults from the Saracens;
and it was a large, rich and powerful city, filled
with churches, convents and hospitals. In 1291,
when it had become the last Christian strong-
hold left in Syria, the Saracens retook it after
a bloody siege which injured it greatly. From
that time it sank rapidly. In 1517 it fell into
the hands of the Turks under Selim I ; and at
the beginning of the 18th century it was a vast

Toward the end of that century the Turks,
especially Djezzar, much strengthened and im-
proved it, and it rose to some importance again.
It is best known in modern times for its brave
and successful defense in 1799 by means of a
body of English soldiers and marines under
command of Sir Sydney Smith, against Napo-

The German empire having adopted the French
metrical system, the German morgtn are becom-
ing of historical significance merely.

leon, who, after spending 61 days before i

obliged to retreat. It continued to proift

be the seat of a considerable trade till 1332, with

consuls from all the great states, though crip-
pled by the imposts, monopolies and misgov-
ernment with which the Turks blight every place
that endures them. On the revolt of Mehemet
Ali! the great Viceroy of Egypt, his son Ibrahim
besieged it for five months and 21 days in the
winter of 1831-32, and before he captured it its
public and private buildings were mostly de-
stroyed. The Egyptians repaired and improved
its fortifications; but on 3 Nov. 1840 a three-
hours bombardment by a combined English,
Austrian and Turkish fleet reduced it to a ruin.
The Turks were again put in possession of it
in '1841.

ACRE, a'ker, originally "field,* "pasture,*
"hunting-ground11 ; but later a rough measure
of sire, somewhat similar in different countries,
and supposed to represent what one man could
plow in a day. The Italian term giornate (day's
work) is significant on this point. In England
reckoned as die amount a yoke of oxen could
plow in a day, till the laws of the 13th century
and later settled a definite measure. There
and in the United States this is termed the
statute acre, old customary acres being still used
in Scotland. Ireland and Wales, as well as In
several English counties, all different and some
of them less than half the statute, while others
are more than double. The statute acre is 43,-
560 square feet, or 4340 square yards, or 160
square rods or perches (from the yard and the
rod or pole with which it was measured) ; also
divided into 4 roods, though this and perch are
mere book-words in the United States at least,
as is the square "chain" of 22 yards or 484
square yards, from the surveyor's chain used in
measuring it. As commonly measured in feet
in the Eastern States the acre is a square meas-
uring 208 feet Sy, inches on the side. The fol-
lowing table gives various measures in relation
to the English and American acre as the unit.

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Feet

ACKF. RIVER, aTcra, South America (also
called ACQUIRY, i'ke-re). a tributary of the
Purus River. Its sources arc on the eastern

Andean slopes near lat. 11° S. From the point
at which it becomes navigable for small steam-
ers its course is generally northeast to its con-
fluence with tbe Purus ; the latter flows nearly
parallel to and north of the Madeira, emptying
into the Amazon west of Man&os. Together
these rivers give access to an exceedingly valu-
able rubber forest district, long in dispute be-
tween Bolivia, Peru and Brazil.

ACRE TERRITORY. See Brazil.

ACRES, alceVz, Bob, an awkward young
country booby o£ the gentleman class of EJjp"
land, who figures in Sheridan's comedy of 'The
Rivals.'

ACRISIUS, a-krisb/i-us, in Greek mythol-
ogy, King of Argos. He expelled his twin
brother Prcetus (q.v.) from his inheritance and
for a time ruled alone in Tiryns and Argos,
but was later forced to surrender to his brother
the former kingdom. He was the reputed
founder of the Delphic amptuctyomy. For the
legend concerning the prediction of the oracle
that he would die at the hands of his grandson,
see Perseus.

ACROBAT. See Gymnastics.

ACROCERAUNIUM, ak'ro-se-ra'ne-um,
the northwestern promontory of E pirns, with
mountains called Acroceraunta ("thunder-
peaks"), which separated the Ionian and Adri-
atic Seas, and were noted for attracting storms,
and hence dreaded by mariners. Its modern
name is Chimara or Cape Gtossa, or Cape
Linguetta.

AC'ROCORIN'THUS, in ancient times the
acropolis or citadel of Corinth : a steep rock
nearly 1,900 feet high, overhanging the city, and
crowned with the remains of Venetian and
Turkish fortifications, ruins of mosques and
dwelling-houses, and also a barrack with a few
soldiers. On its top stood of old a temple of
Aphrodite.

ACROLEIN, a colorless liquid which has
a very irritating odor. Its chemical formula
is CjHtCHO. Acrolein is produced in the
incomplete combustion of fats and when glyc-
erin is distilled with sulphuric acid. When the
wick of a candle is left smoldering after the
flame has been blown out some acrolein b
produced. It is classed with the aldehydes.

AC'ROLITHS (Gr. signifying "extremities
of stone8), statues of which head, hands and
feet were of marble, attached to a trunk of
wood, covered with drapery, or gilt. The
Athene Areia of the P lateralis mentioned by
Pausanias is one of the best known acroliths.

sprung from disorder of the pituitary before
adolescence. Consult Osier, 'Modern Medi-
cine' (Vol. VI, New York 1910) ; Jelliffe and
White, 'Diseases of the Nervous System'
(1917); Cushing, 'The Pituitary Body' (1913).

Notable among such citadels were the Acropc-
leis of Argos, of Messene, of Thebes and of
Corinth; but pre-eminently the Acropolis of
Athens, to which the name is now chiefly ap-
plied. This was the original city (as indeed
most of the acropolises date from the times
of barbaric insecurity), later the upper city as
distinguished from the lower, and was built
upon a separate spur or butle of Hymettus.
The hill rises out of the plain, a mass of rock
about 260 feet high, with precipitous sides save
for a narrow access at the western end where
there was a zigzag road for chariots. The sum-
mit of this rock forms an uneven plain 500 by
WS0 feet at the maximum breadth and length,
ithin this area were reared, chiefly in the
days of Pericles, remarkable specimens of ar-
chitectural art Tbe buildings were grouped
around two principal temples, the Parthenon
and the Erechtheum. Between these temples
stood the statue of Athene Promachos ("fighter
in front*), by Phidias, the helmet and spear
of which were the first objects visible from the
sea. About these centre-pieces, covering the
rocky height and extending down the steep
sides, were lesser temples, statues, theatres,
fanes and odea (music halls). Among the
famous buildings on the sides of the Acropolis
were the Dionysiac theatre, the Odeum of
Pericles and the Odeum, built by Herodes At-
ticus in honor of his wife Regilla. The rav-
ages of accident and war and Athenian marble-
merchants, and in case of the Parthenon (q.v.)
its deliberate dismantling by Lord Elgin early

secured many important remains of tbe
Acropolis, which are preserved in the col-
lections of various European capitals and in
the new archaeological museum at Athens.

AC'ROPOL'ITA, Georghia, Byzantine his-
torian and statesman: b. Constantinople 1217;
& 1282. Appointed "great logothete" or chan-
cellor in 1244, he was instrumental in effecting
a reconciliation between the Latin and Greek
churches in 1274. His 'Annates,1 covering the
period frgm the capture of Constantinople by
the Latins in 1204, to its recovery in 1261 by
Michael Paleologus, is a valuable contemporary
work which, with his other writings, was pub-
lished in a complete edition in 1903. Consult
Heisenberg, A., ' Teubner Series ' ( Vol. H
which contains a full life, with bibliography
Leipzig 1903).

ACROS'TIC, a poetical composition, dis;

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ACROTEBION — ACT OF INDEMNITY

lOG

ith ptnmra.

L at mo pronuna to ting la you.

I ova, e'en gnat Jure, hath laid

S otnetimea to hear the r *

A nd heed them oft — ""

B kaod Aatreat I ii

E njoy the hi»— |mj you impart.

T he peace, the ntuk and honey,

H umanity and civil art.

A richer dow'r than money.

R igfct tfad am I that now I live,

B 'an in these daya wheieto you give

G r»t happLneai and glory.

I I after yon 1 ihould be born,

N o doubt I ahould my birthday acorn.

o the a

s and

, ..__,._ give a respite 1 _ ...

audience from the strain and physical fatigue
of sitting intent on a long play, and to enable
actors to change costumes and managers to
change scenery. In Greek plays, where there
was no scenery and no change of costume, there
were no separate acts,— the episodes separated
by the lyrical portions being not such either in
design or effect,— and the action was continuous
from beginning to end and tile unities strictly
observed If tic principal actors left the stage,
the chorus took op the argument and con-
tributed an integral part of the play; chiefly in
the form of comment on the action, but often
by supplying necessary information impossible
to give in the regular speeches. When it was
desired to develop the story further than the
single play could conveniently do, another
drama, — etymological ly the same as art — car-
ried it on to another time or place, forming the
common Greek trilogies, or groups of three, in
which the same characters reappear. The
Roman theatre first adopted the division into
acts, suspending all stage business in the in-
tervals. They made the regular number five,
and Horace sets this down as a fixed rule of art.
On the revival of letters it was almost univer-
sally used by dramatists ; and that it rests on
something more than caprice is shown by the
fact that Shakespeare, who cared nothing for
fixed rules of art and utterly disregarded the
unities, never varies this division. For a great
drama there is a real reason, though in light
comedy it is admost universally dropped M
present. The natural division is into three, —
introduction, climax and conclusion ; and the
central act still fulfils the same function. But
for a great action this is apt to hurry matters
too fast for a proper development either of

written according t_ ,

the 119th Psalm is the most remarkable; it <
sists of 22 stanzas, each of which commences
with a Hebrew letter and is called by its name
Acrostic verse is no longer cultivated by serious
poets, and has in fact been relegated mainly to
country newspapers, except as a jest or social
pastime. Edgar Allen Poe, however, wrote
some striking acrostics, varying the form with
great ingenuity. One example, beginning with
the first letter of the first line, the second of the
second, and so on, forms a lady's name.

AC'ROTBTtlON ("extremity*), in archi-
tecture, an ornament — statue, palmette, or
leaf- decoration — placed on the apex of a pedi-
ment or one of its lower angles.

ACT. In the drama, one of the parts
into which a play is divided, to mark change c '

character or interest; hence the first and the Last
act are doubled, the approach to the main point
and the preparation for the catastrophe being
both rendered more gradual. Some critics have
laid down exact rules as to the part each act
is to sustain in a play; but these cannot be
justified and have never been regarded. It is
obvious, however, that each act should form a
certain unity, ending with a point of deep but
suspended interest, yet should be an integral
part of the whole. Moliere began tile three-
act comedy; but even to an impatient genera-
tion this is too short for a play of power, and
four is most preferred. See Drama.

In law. — (1) Anything officially done by
the court, as the phrases "Acts of Court*
•Acts of Sederunt,* etc. (2) In bankruptcy,
an act the commission of which by a debtor
renders him liable to be adjudged a bankrupt.
(3) In civil law, a writing which states in a
legal form that a thing has been said, done or
agreed. (4) In evidence, the act of one con-
spirator performed in pursuance of the common
design may be given in evidence against his co-
conspirators. (5) Acts done, distinguished into
acts of God (q. v.), of the law and of n

energy, as distinguished from a state of mind
in which the faculties remain passive. In this
sense such expressions as the following are
used : The act of thinking, the act of judging,
the act of resolving, the act of reasoning or of
reason; each of these being viewed as a single
operation of the human mind.

In parliamentary language, an ellipsis for
a law enacted by a congress, legislature, parlia-
ment, etc. A statute, Taw or edict, consisting
of a bill which has been successfully carried
through both Houses of Congress or legislature,
and received the approval of the executive. See
specific title infra. Act of God; Act of Settle-
ment; Act of Supremacy; Act of Toleration ;
Act of Uniformity; Acts of Congress; Acts
of Parliament; Acts of Trade; Bills, Course
of; Bills, Pejvate.

In theology, the carrying out of an opera-
tion in a moment, as contradistinguished from
the performance of a work requiring a con-
siderable time for its accomplishment.

In universities, of old, the commencement
or taking of degrees ; now disused save as a form
at Cambridge, England. The student "keeps
the act* by reading a Latin thesis which he
must defend against three opponents named by
the proctors.

ACT OF OOD, an accident which arises
from a cause which operates without inter-
ference or aid from man. The term is some-
times used as equivalent to inevitable accident,
but incorrectly according to some authorities,
although Sir William Jones proposed the use
of "inevitable accident* instead of "act of
God.*

ACT OF INDEMNITY, or ACT OF
OBLIVION, an English statute of 1660, en-
titled "An Act of Free and Generall Pardon,
Indempnity and Oblivion.* by which all poli-
tical offences committed during the time of the
Commonwealth were pardoned, certain of-
fenders mentioned by name in the act being
excepted, particularly those engaged in the
trial and execution of Charles I.

, Google

1O0

ACT OP SETTLEMENT— ACTINIUM

ACT OF SETTLEMENT, an act of the
Parliament of England in 1701, vesting the
hereditary right to the English throne in So-
phia, Elcctrcss of Hanover, and her Protestant
descendants, constituting the source of the sov-
ereignty of the House of Hanover or Bruns-
wick, the present ruling line. The act pro-
hibited the king (or queen) from going to war
in defense of non-English powers without the
assent of Parliament.

ACT OF SUPREMACY. (1) An act of
the Parliament of England, in 1534, by which
the king was made the sole and supreme head
of the Church of England. (2) A re-enact-
ment oE the above, with changes, in 1559.

ACT OF TOLERATION, usually known
as the Toleration Act, an act of the reign of
William and Mary, granting freedom of re-
ligious worship, under certain comparatively
moderate conditions, to all dissenters from the
established Church of England except Roman
Catholics and persons denying the Trinity. This
act, as confirmed in the reign of Anne, was
the basis of various subsequent measures of
religious toleration, culminating in the Catholic
Relief Act of George' IV, and the still more
liberal legislation of Victoria.

ACT OF UNIFORMITY. (I) An act of
the Parliament of England (1559) adopting a
revised liturgy for the Church of England,
entitled 'An Act for the Uniformity of Com-
mon Prayer and Service in the Church, and
Administration of the Sacraments.* (2) An
act of Parliament (1662) requiring that the
revised Book of Common Prayer and Ordina-
tion of Ministers, and no other, should be used
in all places of public worship and be assented
to by clergymen. By this test more than 2,000
non-conforming clergymen were ejected from
their churches. It took effect on St. Bartholo-
mew's Day (24 Aug. 1662), and accordingly is
known in English history as the "Bartholomew
Act,* the day of its enforcement being known
as 'Black Bartholomew*

ACT'A DX'URNA ('Daily Acts*); also
called Acta Populi, 'Acts of the People* ;
Public*, 'Public Acts*; Ukbana, 'Municipal
Acts.1 Written daily newspapers in ancient
Rome, posted up in public to be read or
copied, then taken down and filed in the public
archives. The news was collected by reporters
(acluarii) employed by the state, and con-
sisted of much the same sort of matter as that
contained in modern newspapers; a miscellany
of everything that might interest the citizen,
from the latest war news, abstracts of the best

Seeches in the Senate or Forum or the courts,
e most important legal decisions or political
events, probably even to interviews, down to
the most trivial gossip of the town, — not only
births, marriages, divorces and deaths, murders,
domestic infelicities and accidents, but any un-
usual omens or prodigies, iujKf nature, etc.
Petronius in 'Trimalchio's Feast1 gives an ad-
mirable burlesque of it. The letters of Romans
to out-of-town friends were regularly furnished
with spicy news from the Acta Diuma, which
seem to have taken the place of the older ' An-
nates1 or yearly chronicles, too slow for the
active later republic and only reporting the
more important occurrences, some time after
131 b.c. The usual statement is that Julius
Caesar introduced them; but it hardly seems

probable that the Roman people, once used to
even an imperfect form of news- gathering, dis-
pensed with it altogether for three-quarters of
a century and did not think of it again until it
was invented for them. It is certain, however,
that it was in use in Caesars time, for he
ordered Antony's offer of a crown to him on
the Lupercalia to be set down in the Acta
Diuma. Consult Le Gere, 'Roman News-
papers1 (in French, 1838, entertaining but not
cautious in facts) ; Hiibner 'Acta of the
Roman Republic' (in Latin, Leipzig 1860).

ACT.ffi'A, a genus of American plants of
the family Kanunculacea. A. alba or white
cohosh^ or baneberry, is found in rocky woods
from Georgia northward. A. rubra, red cohosh,
or red baneberry, is widely distributed in east-
ern North America.

ACTA E'RUDITO'RUM, the first literary
journal of Germany. It was started in 1682 by
Prof. Otto Hencke of Leipzig, and enjoyed
a long existence and great popularity. It was
owned by his family till 1/54, after which it
began to decline in value and in the number
of its subscribers; and the irregularity of its
appearance became at length so great that the
last volume, for 1776, was published in 1782,
exactly a century from the time * when the
journal was commenced. The whole consists
of 117 quarto volumes, including the supple-
mentary volumes and indices. In this journal
Leibnitz first gave to the world his notions
respecting the differential calculus.

ACTffl'ON, ak-te'on, in Greek mythology,
the son of Aristxus and Autonoe (a daughter
of Cadmus), a great hunter. He wasturned

for boasting that he i
hunting), and was torn to pieces by his own
dogs. This incident is exhibited in various
ancient works of art.

ACTA SANCTO'RUM, or MARTY-
RUM, the collective title given to several old
writings respecting saints and martyrs in the
Greek and Roman Catholic Churches, but now
applied especially to one extensive collection
begun by the Jesuit Rosweyd, and continued
by J. Bo Hand. The work was carried on (1661)
by a society of learned Jesuits, who wereatyled
Botlandists, until 1794, when its further prog-
ress was prevented through die invasion of
Holland by the French. In recent times the
undertaking has been resumed.

ACTINTA. See Sea-Anemone.

ACTINIA'RIA (Gr. aktis, ray), the sea-
anemones. See Anthozoa; Sea-Anemone.

ACTINIUM. A radio-active substance
discovered by Debieme in 1900, while working
up uranium residues in the Curie laboratory.
It has the chemical properties of an element
between calcium and lanthanum. All efforts
to isolate it from the rare earths, with which
it is found in mixture, have failed, and its
place of origin in the uranium series has not
been discovered. Actinium gives off the same
kinds of rays as radium but the emanation
diminishes to half its initial vigor in a few
seconds. Like radium and polonium, actinium
is prepared from pitchblende and belongs to
the iron group. Actinium preparations which
are some months old emit ", ft and T rays.

a b, Google

ACTINOGRAPH — ACTINOZOA

The last, however, have a lower penetrating

Juality than those pf radium or thorium. By
ractional crystallisation of the double nitrate
of the rare earths and magnesium nitrate
preparations of actinium have been obtained
which show 101X000 times the radio-activity of
uranium. The spontaneous decomposition of
actinium affords a series of six successive
products, Actinium preparations are highly
radio-active and induce radio-activity in sur-
rounding objects. As with other radio-active-
substances the ultimate product of actinium is
helium. Actinium salts evolve an inert gas
having the molecular weight of (about) 70.
(Sec Radioactivity). Consult Rutherford, £.,
'Radio- Active Substances and Their Radia-
tions1 (Cambridge, Eng. 1913).

ACTIN'OGRAPH, a name sometimes
given to the actinometer (q.v.), especially when
it is arranged so as to give an automatic record
of the intensity of the light. The simplest
form of this instrument is one in which stand-
ard photographic plates or films are exposed
to the suns action for short, definite periods.

ACTINOM'ETER, an instrument for
measuring the intensity of the chemical action
of the sun's rays. For use in photography for
the judging of times of exposure, the essential
part of the instrument is a strip of sensitive
silver paper which is blackened by the sun's
rays, the time required to darken the paper tp
a definite shade being taken as the index to
the intensity of the light Any other chemical
action that light rays are capable of performing
may be made the basis of an actinometer; but
the indications of instruments in which the
fundamental chemical changes are different will
not necessarily agree with one another, be-
cause any given actinometer shows nothing but
the intensity of the particular part of the spec-
trum which performs the chemical change
upon which that instrument is based. Sir John
licrschcl's actinometer was a thermometer
whose bulb contained a blue solution of sul-
phate of copper and ammonia. The expansion
of this solution, by absorbing the sun's rays,
measured the quantity of chemical rays in the
sunshine. Bunsen, Draper and Roscoe selected
instruments sensitive to certain selected radia-
tions, such as cause chemical or other changes.
In this case the sun's rays perform molecular
work and are measured by the effects. For
example, when a chlorine and hydrogen mix-
ture is converted into hydrochloric acid, the
quantity of acid produced in a given period is
a measure of the intensity of the rays which
produced it. Fcrric-oxalate and chloride of
iron dissolved in water and exposed to the
sun's rays give out carbonic acid gas and the
quantity of the latter given off may be used
as a basis of measuring the intensity of the
rays. A photographic plate exposed for a
short period of time receives an impression
the intensity of which is determined by a scale
of rints_ or_ shades, and this intensity of the
impression in a given period is made the basis
for determining the intensity of the sunshine.
When the sensitive element, used as a measur-
ing medium, absorbs all the radiation of all
wave-lengths the instrument is more properly
called a pyrheliometcr (q.v.),

ACTINOMETRY, in general, the measure-
ment of either the relative pr absolute effect

. In partic

refers to the measurements of only actinic ef-
fects, i. e., chemical, photographic and similar

ACTINOMYCOSIS, a disease due to a
vegetable parasite known as the ray fungus,
Actinomyces bovis, of the fungus class. This
fungus fives its life in grasses and plants and
thus infects cattle, in which animals it is com-
paratively frequent, causing the disease known
as ■big jaw,* or 'lumpy jaw.* These in turn
affect man. It is also found in horses, pigs,
sheep, deer and llama. The disease has been
recognized since 1825 and is often mistaken for
cancerous, tuberculosis or syphilitic tumors.
Bollinger first accurately described the disease
in cattle in 1877. It is found throughout Eu-
rope and the Americas. The fungus is found
in all tumors and abscesses of the disease and
is readily detected by the microscope. Cattle
are usually affected in the salivary glands, the
inferior maxillary bones, the tongue, cesophagus
and pharynx. Hogs are generally affected in
the udder. Great difference of opinion exists
regarding the position of the fungus, but it is
generally held that part of its life is spent on
a plant host Grasses with sharp awns appear
to be a chief agency for the transfer of the
ray fungus to cattle. The general treatment
consists in opening, draining and sterilizing the
abscesses, wherever accessible, and by admin-
istering internally potassium iodide. The dis-
ease pursues a slow, chronic course. Infection
in man and cattle most frequently; takes place
through diseased teeth or abrasions of the
mucuous membrane of the mouth. See Para-
sites.

In man die symptoms are often very ob-
scure. Some infections of the lungs have
appeared to be cases of pulmonary tuberculosis.
Pathologically the disease is one of new con-
nective tissue formation with abscess produc-
tion. It is a chronic disease, and often is a
slow, suppurative affair affecting the tissues
about the pharynx and neck. The bones, lungs
and intestinal tract may be affected. The diag-
nosis may be readily made by the microscope.
Consult Salmon, D. E., 'Investigation Relating
to the Treatment of Lumpy- Jaw, or Actinomy-
cosis in Cattle,' Department of Agriculture
Bulletin No. 2 (1893); Salmon, D. R, et al..
'Special Report on Diseases of Cattle ana
Cattle- Feeding,' Report of United States De-
partment of Agriculture for 1904, Bureau of
Animal Industry (Washington 1904). For the
disease in man consult Osier, 'Modem Medi-
cine* (New York and Philadelphia 1910).

ACTIN'OPHONE, better known as thp
radiophone (q.v.).

ACTINOZOA, or AN'THOZOA, a class
of ccelenterates which exist only in the polyp
state, not giving rise to a medusa form. They
are represented by the sea-anemone (q.v.)
and coral polyps. Their bodies are vase-
shaped, usually fixed at one end, though most
of them are capable of slowly moving about
They are provided with a digestive sac partially
free from the body-cavity opening into it be-
low and held in place by six or eight mesen-
teries radiating from the digestive cavity and
dividing the perivisceral space into chambers.
The mouth is surrounded with a circle of ten-
tacles which are hollow, communicating directly

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108

ACTION — ACTIUM

with the perivisceral chambers. There is a
slightly marked bi-latcral symmetric. To the
edges of the mesenteries (usually the free
ones) are attached the reproductive glands,
both male and female, or of one sex alone;
also the "craspeda," or mesenterial filaments,
which contain a large number of threadcells

when the species is social it is connected by
ccenenchyme. In some forms, as sea- pens
(q.v.) the entire colony is capable of limited
locomotion. There is no well-marked nervous
system, but a plexus of fusiform ganglionic
cells connected by nerve -fibres in the base of
Reproduction takes places by self-

the young undergoing a blastula and gastrula
condition and then becoming fixed.

The Actinozoa arc divided into two sub-
classes, the Zoantharia and the Alcyonaria
(qqv.).

ACTION. In law, the formal demand of
one's right from another person, made and in-
sisted in a court of justice which has jurisdic-
tion of the person and the subject-matter of
litigation. In a quite common sense, action
includes all the formal proceedings in a court
of justice attendant upon the demand of a right
made by one person, or party, of another in
such court, including an adjudication upon the
right, and its enforcement or denial by the
court

The parties to an action are called plaintiff
and defendant, and the former is said to sue or
prosecute the latter, hence the word suit instead
of action. In some few instances the redress
sought by a civil action consists in the recovery
of some specific article of property wrongfully
and unlawfully taken by the defendant from
the plaintiff, but most frequently the object of
an action is to obtain compensation in money
for an injury complained of, which compensa-
tion is technically called damages.

The action is said to terminate properly at

ju.

are those actions which have
for their object the recovery of private rights,
or of damages for their infraction.

Criminal actions are those actions prose-
cuted in a court of justice, in the name of the
government, against one or more persons ac-
cused of a crime.

Transitory actions are those civil actions the
cause of which might have arisen in one place
or county as well as another.

Local actions are those civil actions the cause
of which could have arisen in some particular
place or county only.

Personal actions are those civil actions which
are brought for the recovery of personal prop-
erty, for the enforcement of some contract or
to recover damages for the commission of an
injury to the person or property.

Real actions are those brought for the re-
covery of lands, tenements and hereditaments.
Mixed actions are those which partake of the
nature of both real and personal actions:

In higher theoretical mechanics the word
"action* is used to signify the vali~ -c - ""

integral of the momentum of the particle, or it
is double the time integral of its kinetic energy.
In a system of such particles the total action is
the sum of the actions of the constituent parti-
cles. It is probable that the physical principle
corresponding to the mathematical expression
called "action* will some day be exhibited to
us in a simple form; but up to the present
time no mathematician or physicist has succeed-
ed in doing this. The importance of 'action*
as a mathematical conception may be seen from
the following theorem, which has long been
known : "If the sum of the potential and kinetic
energies of a system is the same in all its
configurations, then, of all the sets of paths by
which the parts of the system can be guided by
frictionless constraint to pass from one given
configuration to another, that one for which the
action is least is the natural one, and requires no
restraint.8 The theorem just stated is known as
Maupertuis' 'principle of least action.* There is
also a principle of stationary action, and one
of varying action ; but it is impossible to eluci-
date these without a prohibitive amount of
mathematics. The last two principles were
formulated by Sir William Rowan Hamilton.

In theoretical mechanics the word •ac-
tion,* is also used to signify a force acting
upon a body, as in the expression "action ana
reaction." See Force; Motion, Law of.

In applied mechanics the mechanism by
which some operation is effected in a machine
is often called the action of the machine; thus
we speak of the action of a gun, meaning the
mechanism governing the loading and firing
of the gun: or of the action of a piano, mean-
ing the combination of keys, hammers and
other parts, by which the player causes the
strings of the instrument to vibrate.

Consult Holmes, 'The Common Law* ; Pol-
lock and Maitland, 'English Law' ; and Sohm,
'Institutes of Roman Law1 (2d ed., 1901).

ACTIUH, ak'shium, Greece, now Akri, a
promontory on the west coast jutting out from
the northwest extremity of Acarnania, on the
Ionian Sea at the entrance of the Gulf of Arta
(old Ambricia), opposite Prevesa and just
north of Santa Maura (old Leucadia). Ports
Punt a and Aktium defend it. It represents one
of the greatest of historical landmarks: the
naval battle of 2 Sept. 31 b.c, between Octavi-
anus (later the Emperor Augustus) and An-
tony, which decided the mastership of the then
civilized world. For the reasons of the en-
gagement, see Antonius; it was fought by him,
not for victory but for escape, which partly ex-
plains its haff-heartedness and result on his
side. Both armies were drawn up on the shore
watching it. After waiting four days for a
calm they engaged about noon on the fifth.
Antony had some 500 large ships, Octavianus
fewer and lighter ones. Antony on his right
was opposed to Agrippa, Octavianus on his to
Caelius; Cleopatra's 60 were in the rear sup-
porting Antony's forces. Antony's vessels were
huge hulks, too clumsy for manoeuvring; but on
the other hand so impenetrable with iron-bolted
timbers and brass plates and spikes that Octa-
vianus' galleys dared not ram them for fear

'besieging of forts than a naval
battle; one of Antony's tall structures being
often surrounded with three or four of its

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ACTON — ACTS OV THE APOSTLES

nimble foes pouring darti and fire-balls into it,
to which it replied from catapults loaded with
heavy missiles. At length Agrippa used his
superior numbers to attempt a flanking move-
meat; Antony's flag-captain drew his wing
away from the centre to prevent it; Cleopatra
took alarm, and to make sure of escape her
squadron broke through the front rank, throw-
ing it into disorder, and soiled away for Egypt.
Antony jumped into a small galley and followed
her, leaving his command to its fate ; even so it
fought on till about 4 p. k., when 300 ships had
been taken and many burned, and 5,000 men
killed ; it then yielded The land army surren-
dered a week later. In commemoration of the
triumph Octavianui enlarged the temple of
Apollo at Acthun, dedicated bis trophies there,
instituted quinquennial games and built Nicop-
olis ("city of victory*) on the site of his army's
camp, near the modern Prevesa. (Plutarch's
'Life of Antony' is the only first-hand account
in an English translation: and Dion Cassias, in
Greek, is much later and less judicious). See
Antonius, Maxcus; Augustus; Cleopatba.

ACTON, John Bmcrlch Edward Dalberg,
Baron, historian: b. Naples, 10 Jan. 1834; d
Bavaria, 19 June 1902. He was educated under
Dr. (afterward Cardinal) Wiseman at Oscott
College, England, and at Munich under Ignatius
von Dollinger, whose friend and adherent he
remained throughout life. He was returned to
Parliament for Carlow (1859) and for Bridg-
north (1865), but was unseated on a scrutiny of
the vote; createdapeer (Baron Acton of Alden-
ham) in 1869 by Gladstone, whose trusted friend
and adviser he was. A strong Liberal in poli-
tics and religion, he founded the 'Home and
Foreign Review' (1862-64) in the interest of
the liberal Catholic party, and adopted the
Home Rule idea before Gladstone himself. At
the (Ecumenical Council in Rome (1870) he

regius professor of modern history at Cam-
bridge University. A scholar of wide and vast
erudition, his passion for acquiring knowledge
seemed to act as a check upon his productive
powers. No modern man of such first-rate
abilities has left so few literary productions by
which posterity may judge of those abilities.
Between 1868-90 he gave to the press a few
historical essays and anonymous letters; and
in 1895 he published a 'Lecture on the Study
of History.* In 1882 he planned a comprehen-
sive history of liberty, but never earned out
the design. His university lectures were mod-
els of narrative, fullness of thought and flaw-
less exactitude of statement. 'The Cambridge
Modern History' (Vol. I, 1902) was planned
and outlined by him.

ACTON, Sib John Francis Edward, Eng-
lish adventurer, son of an English physician
and a French lady: b. Besancon, France, bapt.

3 June 1737; A c--;l- '^ *•- '<"' ^ ■ —

the Tuscan r

3 June 1737; d. Sicily, 12 Aug. 1811 Entering
the Tuscan navy under his uncle's auspices, he
commanded a frigate in the Algeri

n of 1775, performed daring exploits in cov-
ering its retreat and attracted the notice of
Caramanico. favorite of Queen Caroline of
Naples; and the Queen, ambitious of playing a
large European part, persuaded her brother,
the Grand Duke of Tnscany, to lend Acton to
her to reorganize her navy. He soon became

her prime favorite, commander-in-chief by both
land and sea, and ultimately prime minister,
shelving Caramanico on foreign missions. He
improved the roads and ports, but excited great
discontent by the consequent taxation and the
positions given to foreigners. In 1793 he
formed the league between Naples, Austria and
England against France; in 1798 the French
victories forced him to fly with the royal fam-
ily to Sicily, and the Parthenopean Republic
was formed. Five months later they were
back, and he, with a "Junla of State,* insti-
tuted a reign of terror, sending many to the
prison or the block In 1804 he was removed
at French demand, and in 1806, when the
French entered Naples, he was obliged to take
refuge in Sicily again, where he died with the
ill will of all parties.

ACTON. Thomas Coxctt, American finan-
cier and public official : b. New York, 23 Feb.
1823 ;_ d. there, 1898. He was a leading banker,
and in early years was assistant to the county
clerk and deputy register; 1860-69 metropoli-
tan police commissioner 1862-69 president of
the board. During the draft riots of July 1863
he commanded the entire police force in person
for a week, rendering highly valuable service.
He was superintendent of the United States
Assay Office 1870-82, and assistant treasurer of
the United States at New York 1882-86. He
was always an active agent in administrative
and social reforms in the city; carried through
against bitter opposition the creation of a paid
fire department; and assisted in founding the
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Ani-
mals and the Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Children. He declined a nomination
for mayor.

ACTORS' CHURCH ALLIANCE OF
AMERICA, an organization whose purpose is
to establish a closer relation between the
church and the theatre, founded in 1899 by
Walter E. Bentley, a clergyman who had once
been an actor. It uses its influence against
theatrical performances on Sundays and pro-
vides chaplains of all denominations to care for
the spiritual needs of all connected with the
dramatic profession. It is affiliated with a sim-
ilar organization in Great Britain. The total
membership is' about 5,000 and it has at its call
about 1,500 chaplains in 400 American cities.

ACTS, Apocryphal. See Apocrypha.

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. One of
the books of the New Testament The titlt
Acts of the Apostles (simply A ets in the oM
Codex Sinaitieus), was not bestowed by the
author, and does not correspond to the con-
tents of the work. The book seeks to describe
a great historical fact, namely, the growth and
expansion of the Christian Church, under the
guidance of the spirit of Jesus, .from its be-
ginning in the small group of personal friends
and disciples of Jesus (who were all Jews liv-
ing in or near .Jerusalem}, until, having pene-
trated the Gentile world, it finally reached and
gained a foothold in the capital of the empire,
Rome itself. That this, and not to tecord the
acts or deeds of the apostles, was the purpose
of the work is indicated in i, 8, which forecasts
the general plan and contents. The narrative
begins with Jesus' last interview with His disci-
ples before His ascension, and then exhibits
the origin and development of the Christian

,,GoogIe

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES

community or church, externally, in virtue of
the gift of the Spirit at Pentecost and of the
preaching and missionary activity of the spirit-
filled apostles, especially Peter and John; and
internally, in reference to certain details "*

: limited" to Jews exclusively, and ___ . ..
time attracted the attention of the Jewish au-
thorities, who tried in vain to check its progress
(i, I — vt, 7). A crisis came when Stephen, a
Hellenistic Jewish convert, who had defined
this as different from and superior to the
existing Jewish system, suffered martyrdom,
and a violent persecution of the Christians of
Jerusalem followed. The resultant scattering
of active Christian workers throughout Pales-
tine only fostered the growth of the new
movement, and soon Christian disciples and
communities were to be found in all parts of
the land (vi, 8— viii, 39).

the guidance of the Spirit, the movement took
on a larger scope, and to the Gentile world
the blessings of the new faith were made
known. The historian notes three significant
facts that were influential in bringing about
this great result: (1) The conversion of Saul,
the ardent Jewish persecutor, destined to be-
come the great apostle to the Gentiles (ix,
1-30) ; (2) The revelation to Peter in the
case of trie Roman centurion Cornelias of

and its consequences (xi, 19-30). After noting
the vain attempt of Herod Agrippa I to check
the growth of the Church (Ch. xii). the in-
terest of the narrative centres on the great
Gentile-missionary propaganda, of which the
chief exponent and champion was the Apostle
Paul. The first section of this (xiii. 1 — xv,
35) tells how Paul and Barnabas, by direc-
tion of the Holy Spirit, were the first to conduct
a mission to the Gentiles on a large scale, and
how the seal was set on this work by the apos-
tolic council at Jerusalem. The remainder of
the work is devoted to Paul's subsequent mis-
sionary activity, first in the East (Asia Minor,
Macedonia, Achaia) and then, after his arrest
and imprisonment, hi Rome itself, though as a
prisoner (xv, 36 — xxviii). The book ends
somewhat abruptly.

As 'Acts' is the only early account in exist-
ence of the apostolic period, and is also our
one and only source tor the historical back-
ground of Paul's Epistles, and thus enables us
to construct an intelligible outline of the great
apostle's career, its value is inestimable.

Because of its. great importance 'Acts' has
been subjected to a criticism more severe than
has been meted out to any other New Testa-
ment book with the possible exception of the
fourth Gospel.

The traditional view that 'Acts' was writ-
ten by Luke the physician, one of Paul's com-
panions and fellow- workers, the author of the
third Gospel, may be said still to hold its place.
No other view has succeeded in gaining any
general acceptance. The uniformity of style
and vocabulary shows quite conclusively that
the book is the work of one hand, and until a
more plausible view is set forth the early

church's tradition that it was Luke's hand is to
be accepted as true.

The problem of the source* used by the
author of 'Acts' is of special interest The
narrative, as far as xv, 35, as has been shown
above, relates facts that transpired or were
well known in the Aramaic-speaking circles of
the early Jewish-Christian church. This is
especially true of Ch». i-xii. The remainder of
the narrative is mainly concerned with Paul's
mission to the Gentiles. Recent investigations
(such as those by Dr. C. C Torrey, noted be-
low) have only made quite probable what had
been suggested earlier, namely, that for the
material given in i, 1 — xv, 35, Luke depended
in the main on written Aramaic sources, which
he himself translated quite literally, adding
only a comparatively small amount of his own
free composition. It must be said, however,
that this view needs a thorough testing and
sifting before it can be accepted as final.

For the remainder of his narrative (xv, 36
to the end), Luke must have depended partly
on the results of his own inquiries of those
cognizant with the facts, including the Apostle
Paul himself, and partly on his own memory
concerning those events with which he was
personally acquainted. This personal respon-

called awe» sections (xvi, 10-17, and xx, 5, to
the end of the book), sometimes called "the
t ravel-document.*

Closely related to the problem of the
sources is that of the credibility and accuracy
of <Acts.> Of the credibility of the narrative
in its general outline there can be no reason-
able question. But its accuracy in detail, in
many instances, is open to doubt. Such errors
as exist may be due in some cases to the source
Luke was using; in others, to imperfect or in-
correct information which he took to be re-
liable; in others, to simple omissions of facts
which Luke may have known but chose not to
mention, and in still others to a failure on
Luke's part to grasp the significance of events,
or to carelessness in the way he set them
down. The differences, e. g., between the story
of Paul's conversion, m Ch. ix, and the sub-
sequent accounts in Chs. xxii and xxvi, may be
due to the fact that in Ch. ix Luke has simply
transcribed without alteration a written source,
while in the later passages he set down Paul's
own account as he remembered hearing it given.
The discrepancies between Ch. xv and Paul's
own account in Gal. ii, 1-10, of his experiences
at the council, may be due to Luke's faithful
transcription of an Aramaic source written
from a point of view entirely different from
that of Paul himself. If the *we» sections
alone cover the events and period of Paul's
career with which Luke was personally ac-
quainted or connected, it is not surprising that
Luke may not have been minutely acquainted
with the small details of Paul's relations to the
churches of Corinth and Ephesus as these are
revealed in Paul's letters. But such discrepan-
cies, which are doubtless to be found in con-
siderable numbers between 'Acts' and some
parts of Paul's Epistles, are more than offset
by the numerous and often reciprocally ex-
planatory agreements between the two. This
is the more significant when we consider that
there is no probability that Luke had read

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ACTS OP CONGRESS— ACTS OF PARLIAMENT

111

these Epistles when he wrote 'Acts.1 That
Luke always caught Paul's viewpoint and ac-

mprehended the motives and prin-

but thoroughly understood by very few
early church. Luke's aim was not, however,
to give a biography of Paul, but, as has been
Stated, to write a history of the Spread of the
Gospel, under the guidance of the Spirit, until
it reached Kome, the world-capital. So viewed,
the author's work must be pronounced a re-
markable achievement, one of the greatest
books ever written. It is the worthy com-
panion and sequel to the author's Gospel, in
which he set forth "the things Jesus began both
to do and teach* (Acts i, I).

Bibliography. — Besides the standard com-
mentaries, e. g., by H. PL Wcndt in the Meyer-
Weiss series (in German), by R. J. Knowling
in the 'Expositor's Greek Testament, ' by J. R.
Lumby in die 'Cambridge Bible,' or by J. Ver-
non Bartlett in 'The New Century Bible,1 the
most up-to-date discussions will be found in
'The Acts of the Apostles,' by A. Hamack
(London 1909) ; 'Introduction to the Litera-
ture of the New Testament,* by James Mof-
fatt (New York 1911), and 'The Composition
and Date of the Acts of the Apostles,1 by C. C
Torrey (Cambridge 1916).

The following works also maybe consulted:
Commentaries: Andrews, in 'The Westmin-
ster New Testament' (New York and London
1908) ; Holtzmann, H. J., < Hand- Kommen tar
zum Neuen Testament' (Freiburg 1892); Gil-
bert, in 'Bible for Home and School' (New
York 1908) ; Lietzmann, 'Handbuch rum Neuen
Testament' (Tubingen 1908). Introductions:
Bacon, in 'New Testament Handbook Series'
(New York 1903) ; Von Soden 'Early Christian
Literature' (ib., 1906). General Works:
Balmer, 'Die Romfahrt des Apostels Paulus
und die Seefahrtskunde im rotnischen Kaiser-
zeitalter' (Bern-Miinchenbuchsee 1905); Chase,
'The Historical Credibility of the Arts of the

Enstehung der altkatholischen Kirche' (Bonn
1857) ; Ramsay, 'The Church in the Roman
Empire before 170 A.D.* (New York 1893);
Weizsacker, 'The Apostolic Age* (Edinburgh
1894) ; 'Date of Acts and the Synoptic Gos-
pels* (New York and London 1911).

Edward E. Nourse,
Professor Biblical Theology, Hartford Theo-
■ logical Seminary.

ACTS OF CONGRESS. The two
branches of Congress are co-ordinate in legis-
lative power, the bills passed by either being
subject to the absolute veto of the other. The
only exclusive power possessed by either House
was the provision that all bills for raising rev-
enue should originate in the House of Repre-
sentatives, but this power has practically been
nullified by the unrestrained freedom of amend-
ing such bills which the Constitution gives to
the. Senate. In one case this freedom was ex-
ercised to the extent of placing 872 amend-
ments in a single House bill and of eliminating
everything but the enacting clause and substi-
tuting a new bill. Annually many thousands
of bills and resolutions are introduced by the
Senators and Representatives (during the 61st

Congress nearly 46,000), are then referred to
the proper committees for consideration, and
if worthy of presentation and action by Con-
gress are introduced for debate. While the
congressional committee system is crude, it
performs excellent work in killing off worth-
less bills. When a bill has been passed by
either House it is sent to the other for action;
if passed by that branch the "enrolled" copy,
signed by the President of the Senate and the
Speaker of the House, is sent to the President.
If he sign it or allow it to become a law, it
takes effect at the time designated in the bill,
but if he veto it, then it must be passed
by a two-thirds vote of those present in both
Houses before it can become a law without his
signature. If the bill fail to receive the two-
thirds vote it is then a nullity and has no
effect (See Bills, Course of; Bills, Pri-
vate). All acts of Congress for each session
are edited, printed and published by' authority
of Congress, under the discretion of the secre-
tary of state, in the 'Statutes at Large.* All
acts of Congress remaining in force 1 Dec.
1873 were codified in 1874 in the 'Revised
Statutes* and from time to time successive vol-
umes of supplementary acts have been issued.
The criminal laws of the United States were
codified in 1912. Consult Hart, A. B., 'Actual
Government' (New York 1903) ; Reinsch, P. S,
'American Legislatures and Legislative Meth-
ods' (New York 1907) ; Bryce, James, 'Ameri-
can Commonwealth' (4th ed, New York 1910) [
Ford, H. J., 'Cost of Our National Govern-
ment' (New York 1910) ; Hinds A. C, 'Rules
of the House of Representatives* (1909).

ACTS OP HOSTILITY, actions of one
nation against another signifying its intention
to impose its will by force, not always physical.
Acts of hostility may be of a diplomatic, com-
mercial, civil or military character. An ulti-
matum delivered by one nation to another,
whose terms are so harsh as to be utterly un-
acceptable, may be termed an act of hostility,
in a diplomatic sense. The blockade of a
country* ports against food supplies is an art
of hostility In a commercial sense, though not
a shot may be fired. A military act of hostility
usually involves actual invasion, as the raiding
of Columbus, N. M., by the Mexican Villa,
though in that case the Mexican Government
was not considered responsible for his act.

ACTS OF PARLIAMENT. An act of
Parliament is a resolution or taw or declara-

enforce certain or specified rules of
conduct or defining and conferring rights upon
persons or withholding them from certain per-
sons or classes of persons. In acts other than
those granting money to the Crown, the enact-
ing clause reads: 'Be it enacted by the King's
most excellent Majesty, by and with the advice
and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Tem-
poral and Commons in this present Parliament
assembled, and by the authority of the same.*
When money is granted to the Crown the en-
acting clause is prefaced by the words : "Most
gracious Sovereign, we, Your Majesty's most
dutiful and loyal subjects, the Commons of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland,
in Parliament assembled, towards making good
the supply which we have cheerfully granted to

, Google

your Majesty in this session of Parliament, directly to the coloni:
nave resolved to grant unto your Majesty the
sums hereinafter mentioned ; and do therefore
most humbly beseech your Majesty that it may
he enacted* ' ' * "'

» encourage the pro

Thus the collective body of
such declarations is the written law or statutes
of the realm of the British nation and is the
highest legal authority recognized, which can-
not be amended or repeated without the same
authority of Parliament. It binds every sub-
ject and every alien (with few exceptions)
and, if named therein, the sovereign himself.
Unless a specific date be set by the act itself,
an act of Parliament takes effect immediately
on receiving the sovereign's signature. Acts of
Parliament are either public or private. A pub-
lic act is one relating to the whole Empire or
a main subdivision Tin which case it is called
general) or a subordinate part (in which case
it is called local). Private acts are those which
relate to particular persons and private con-
cerns. (See Bills, Private). Originally the
whole number of acts passed during each ses-
sion constituted a single statute having a gen-
eral title and for this reason acts of Parliament
are referred to by the year of the sovereign's
reign and the chapter of the statutes of that
year, e. g., 2 and 3 Richard III, c. 45. Since
the passage of the Short Titles Act of 1892
important acts up to that time may be cited by
their short titles, either individually or col-
lectively. Most of the recent acts have borne
short titles. See Great Britain — Parliament,
ACTS OF TRADE, a series of acts to
regulate trade passed by the British Parlia-
ment between 1660 and 1674. These acts levied
heavy duties in England on agricultural prod-
ucts and salt provisions imported from the col-
onies. The intent was to protect the British
landlord, but the actual result was to force the
colonists to seek other markets where they
could exchange their produce for manufactured
materials and eventually to erect their own
manufactories. On non-colonial importations
heavy or prohibitory duties were imposed to
give protection to colonial products which were
admitted into England under nominal duties.
Enumerated goods (such as sugar, tobacco, cot-
ton, hemp, grain, meats, indigo, ginger, fustic,
molasses, South Carolina rice, etc) were re-

3uired to be shipped to England and heavy
ulies were levied upon intercolonial trade so
as to force the shipment of such articles to
England. In order to prevent trade with other
countries or their colonies and to encourage
the colonial production of articles obtained
therein, heavy prohibitory duties were laid on
all non-English goods imported into the col-
onies. The colonies were either greatly re-
stricted in their production of or prohibited
altogether to manufacture woolens, linens, hats,
ind many of its products,
* ' - mother counti.

, j of the colonists

ticks. Indeed the imposition of a duty on Eng-
lish manufacturers by Massachusetts and a
slight discrimination in favor of her ship-
building industry led the British ship-builders
to exclaim that the colonists would soon (be-
able to live without Great Britain; and their
ability, joined to their inclination, f would] be
of very ill consequence.11 But the colonies were
benefited to a degree by the two bounties
granted by the government : First, that paid

pitch and tar; and second, that paid to British
manufacturers which reduced the prices to co-
lonial consumers. Irish linen was allowed to
be shipped to the colonists duty free, salt
needed tor curing fish might be imported from
any European port, and drawbacks were al-
lowed on goods warehoused in England and
then shipped to the colonies. The colonists
were allowed later to ship grain, lumber, salt
provisions, fish, sugar and rum to any port in
the world, provided these goods were carried
in English or colonial ships, of which the
owners and three-fourths of the crews were
British subjects.

At first the acts of trade were so unpro-
ductive of revenue that the funds raised there-
by in the colonies did not pay the costs of ad-
ministration, but in 1764 a statute known as
the "Sugar Act* was passed containing the
provisions of the previous 'Molasses Act* and
an attempt was made to collect the duties which
had been placed purely on a revenue basis.
This indicated that the home government in-
tended to convert the acts of trade into rev-
enue acts, which later was demonstrated by
the passage of the Stamp Act (q.v.) and the
Townshend Acts. These were among the coo-

Great Britain — Navigation Acts; Virginia
Conventions of the Revolution; Stamp Act;
Declaration of Independence. Consult Beer,
G. L.. 'Commercial Policy of England Toward
die American Colonies' (in Columbia Univer-
sity 'Studies in History, Economics and Public

, ;The American Colonies in the 1.

tury' (1907); Doyle, J. A., <English Colonies
in America* (1882-1907) ; Andrews, C. M,
'Colonial Self -Government' (19041 ; Howard,
G. £., 'Preliminaries of the Revolution' (1905);
MacDonald, William, 'Select Charters' (con-
taining text of some of the acts) ; Lord, E. L.,
'Industrial Experiments in the British Colo-
nies of North America* (in Johns Hopkins
University 'Studies in History and Political
Science* Extra Vol. XVII, 1898); Bruce. P

nomic and Social History of New England'
(1890).

ACTUALITY, LAW OF, in philosophy,
the state of being actual; reality. "The ac-
tuality of these spiritual qualities is thus im-
prisoned, though their potentiality be not quite
destroyed.0— Cheyne.

ACTUARIAL SOCIETY OF AMERI-
CA, a scientific organization established m
April 1889, having for its object the promo-
tion of actuarial science by such methods as
may be found desirable. The membership «
composed of those connected with actuarial pur-
suits. The enrolment is divided into fellows
and associates. Candidates for associate must
be nominated to the council by at least two
fellows of the society, and after their nom-
ination has been approved are required to pass
such preliminary examination as may be P«"

d by Google

scribed; a second examination is demanded of
candidates for fellowship. An annual meeting
is held on the first Thursday after 14 May in
each year. Other meetings may be called by
the council from time to time and by the presi-
dent at any time on the written request of 10
fellows. The officers of the society are a presi-
dent, a first and second vice-president, a secre-
tary, a treasurer and an editor of the 'Transac-
tions.' President and vice-presidents are not
eligible for the same office for more than two
consecutive years. The council is composed of
the officers, ex-presidents and nine other fel-
lows, three elected (o serve for three years,
three for two years and three for one year.
The society publishes 'Transactions,' contain-
ing the proceedings of the meetings, including
original papers presented by fellows or asso-
ciates, discussions on said papers and other
matter expressly authorized by the council. In
1911 the total number of fellows was 144; that
of associates, 113. Enrolment is not restricted
to the United States. International congresses
are held from time to time under the auspices
of the society. Office of the secretary, 346
Broadway, New York.

ACTUARY, in ancient Rome, a clerk of
public bodies who recorded their acta; also one
of the public reporters who prepared the daily
news of the city as a written newspaper. (See
Acta Diukna). In modern times, the mathe-
matician of an insurance company, who makes
the calculations on which' its policy plans and
prices are based, and applies the doctrine of
probabilities to fire, life or accident insurance.
Although the material on which he works is
theoretically furnished by the experience of his

rules of interest, in fact it needs not only great
mathematical capacity but great practical sagac-
ity to apply them to actual business; and no
actuary of the highest class is a mere mathe-
matician. In the early days, when experience
was still mostly to make, the actuaries were
usually die presidents of their companies; in
recent times a safe body of experience has ac-
cumulated which enables business men to head
them, and the actuary's computations and ad-
vice relate to slighter variations or special plans.
In accident companies the actuary needs to be
and usually is a man of large practical ac-
quaintance with different employments, their
hazards, the meaning of given employment-
names, and those under which the more hazard-
ous employments are disguised as less so; in
fire insurance equally he must know the char-
acter of different risks. See Insurance.

ACUNA, Christen] de, I-koon'ya. chris'-
tfl-vil, Spanish missionary and South American
explorer: b. Burgos 1597; d. 1676. After mis-
sion work in Chile and in Peru, he became
rector of the College of Cuenca. In 1639, as
scientist, he accompanied the second expedition
of Texeira to explore the Amazon, and wrote
his 'Nuevo Descubrimiento del Gran Rio de
las Amazonas.' The work was published at
Madrid in 1641, a French translation in 1682
and an English translation from the French
edition in 1698.

from disappointed love, which was the princi-
pal theme of his poems.

ACUNA DE FIOUEROA, Francisco,

a-koonya da fe-gfi-roa, f ran-thcsTco, Uruguayan
poet: b. Montevideo 1791; d. there, 6 Oct.
1862. His works are a Spanish- American
classic from their metrical perfection, though
deficient in warmth. The collection 'Poetic
Mosaic* comprises every variety of secular
and religious poetry, from heroic poems to

ACUPUNCTURE, an old remedy for the
relief of pain, swelling or dropsy. Steel needles
about three inches long are used. One or more
are inserted by the surgeon to the required
depth and are left there from a few minutes
to an hour. The result is a great relief from
pain and, provided the needles are aseptic, the
wounds are entirely harmless. Electric cur-
rents are sometimes sent into the needles to
remove birthmarks, moles, etc., and some
needles are made hollow so that a sedative
may be administered and pain relieved at once.

ADA, Old a., county-seat of Pontotoc
County, about 75 miles southeast of Oklahoma
City, on the St Louis & San Francisco, the
Missouri, Kansas & Texas and the Oklahoma
Central railways. Its industries include the
manufacture of cement and asphalt Cotton
is raised extensively in the vicinity. Here is
situated the State Normal School The citi-
zens have adopted the commission form of
government, and the municipality owns its own
waterworks. Pop. 5,000.

ADABAZAR, a'da-ba'zir Turkey in Asia,
town in the Kohja Ili saniak, an active com-
mercial centre on a branch of the Anatolian
Railway, and on the military road from Con-
stantinople. It has silk and linen industries,
and trades with Constantinople in tobacco, co-
coons, walnut wood and vegetables. Its annual
imports are valued at $400,000; its exports at
$2,400,000. Pop. 18,000 (Christians, 8,000; Mo-
hammedans, 10,000).

ADAGIO, a-da'jo, a musical term denot-
ing a slow movement or measure of time, be-
tween largo, grave and andante. In more ex-
tended compositions of instrumental music the
second or third movement is generally marked
adagio, and serves as a contrast to the rapid
and energetic movement of the preceding and
following parts of the sonata or symphony.
It must be written in a measure of time which
will afford scope for a flowing and expressive
slow melody with a gracefully varied accom-
paniment. A clear and expressive execution
of an adagio is an infallible test of a per-
former's art, as it demands a pure and beau-
tiful tone and calls for great variety of tonal
color. The diminutive adagietto is no longer
used as denoting a tempo slightly more ani-
mated than adagio, but as a generic title for a
short adagio movement.

ADAIR, James, American 18th-century
Indian trader and author. He lived 1735-75
among the Indians, mainly the Cherokees and
Oiickasaws, and in the latter year published a
'History of the Indian Tribes,' especially the
southeastern ones, containing an admirable
first-hand account of theii

ADAIR — ADAM

chief object of writing the book was to trace
the origin of the Indians to the -Lost Tribes of
Israel; a curious phantasm (especially as the
tribes are known not lo have been lost, and
the differentiation of stocks must far antedate
the Christian era) which has bewitched many
enthusiasts since, and was revived and ex-
pounded by Dr. Etias Boudinot in his 'Star of
the West1 (1816). Adair's views are sum-
marized in H. H. Bancroft's 'Native Races*
(Vol. V, p. 91).

ADAIR, John, American general and pub-
lic officer: b. Chester County, S. C, 1759; d.
Harrisburg, Ky., 18 May 1840. He served in
the Revolution ; removed to Kentucky 1787 ; in
1791 was major under St. Clair and Wilkin-
son in the northwestern Indian expeditions, and
was defeated by the Miami chief "Little Tur-
tle," near Fort St. Clair. He was a member of
the constitutional convention which made Ken-
tucky a State, 1 June 1792; was Stole Repre-
sentative and Speaker, register of the United
Stoles Land Office, and 1805-06 United States
Senator. He was volunteer aide to General
Shelby at the battle of the Thames, 5 Oct. 1813;
made brigadier-general of State militia No-
vember 1814, and as such commanded the State
troops at New Orleans under Jackson, 8 Jan.
1815. He was governor of Kentucky 1820-24,
and United States Representative 1831-33, on
the committee on military affairs.

ADAIR, Robin. See Robin Adair.

ADALBERT, or ALDBBERT, a native of
France, who preached the gospel in 744 on the
banks of the Main. He is remarkable as the
first opponent to the introduction of the rites
and ordinances of the Western Church into
Germany. He rejected the culture of the
Saints and Confession, but distributed bis own
hair as sacred relics to his followers; was ac-
cursed of heresy by Boniface the apostle of
Germany, and condemned by two councils, at
Soissons in 744 and at Rome in 745. Finally
escaping from prison, he is said to have been
murdered by some peasants on the banks of
the Fulda.

ADALBERT, SAINT, OF PRAGUE,
the apostle of Prussia proper: b. 939; d 23
April 997. He was the son of a Bohemian noble-
man, and his real name was Voitech ("host —
comfort*); was educated in the cathedral of
Magdeburg, and appointed the second bishop of
Pragus in 983. He labored in vain to
convert the Bohemians from paganism, and
to introduce among them ordinances of
the Church of Rome. Discouraged by the
iniitlcssness of his pious zeal, he left
Prague (988) and lived in convents at
Monte Casino and Rome until the Bohemians
in 993 recalled him ; but after two years he
again left them, disgusted with their barbarous
manners. He returned to Rome, and soon fol-
lowed the Emperor Otho III to Germany; on
which journey he baptized at Gran, St, Stephen,
afterward king of Hungary. He proceeded to
Gnesen to meet Boleslas, Duke of Poland Be-
ing informed that the Bohemians did not wish
to see him again, he resolved to convert the
pagans of Prussia, but was murdered by a
peasant near what is now Fischhausen. His
body was hought by Boleslas for its weight in
gold, and became famous for its miraculous
power. Its influence was greater than that of

the saint himself ; the Bohemians, who had re-
fused to receive the ordinances of the Church.
now suffered them to be introduced into Prague.
on the sole condition that these miraculous relics
should be transferred to their city. They were
rediscovered in a vault in 1880 and deposited in
the cathedral. Consult 'Life' by Heger,
(Konigsberg 1897) ; Voigt (Berlin 1898).
. ADALBERT, THE GREAT,* arch-
bishop of Bremen and Hamburg : b. about
1000; d 17 March 1072; descendant of a
Saxon _ princely house. He received his
office in 1043 from the Emperor Henty
III whose relation, friend and follower be
was. He accompanied Henry to Rome in
1046 and was a distinguished candidate for
the papal chair. Pope Leo IX made him
his legate in the north of Europe (1050). He
superintended the churches of Denmark, Nor-
way and Sweden, converted the Wends, and as-
pired to a great northern patriarchate to vie with
the Roman Curia. During the minority of
Henry IV he usurped, in consort with Hanno,
archbishop of Cologne, the guardianship of the
young prince and the administration of the em-
pire and gained an ascendency over his rival
by indulging the passions of his pupil. After
Henry had become of age Adalbert exercised
the government without control in his name.
His pride and arbitrary administration induced
the German princes in 1066 to remove him by
force from the court; but after a short contest
with the Saxon nobles, who laid waste his terri-
tory, he recovered his former power in 1069, and
held it till his death in Goslar in 1072. His in-
justice and tyranny were instrumental in pro-
ducing the confusion and calamities in which
the reign of Henry IV was involved

ADALIA, a-da'lea, Turkey in Asia, a sea-
port on the south coast, in the vilayet of Konich,
finely situated on the Gulf of Adalia, from
which the houses rise in terraces like an amphi-
theatre, on a rocky hill and surrounded by fig,
orange and mulberry gardens. It lies in a fer-
tile but hot and unhealthy locality, producing
grain, figs, oranges, wine, etc. It has a small
but good port, and carries on a considerable
trade, exporting grain, timber, cattle, volonia,
etc. It was anciently called At tali a, later
Satalia. Pop. about 30,000, 7,000 Greeks.

ADAH («one made") and EVE ("living
being," feminine). As the Old Testament al-
most invariably uses the article before "adam*
("the adam* — "the made one* or "the man*),
its use as a personal name is a mere misappre-
hension, and the implications drawn from it are
no part of the text ; nor is there any reason to
suppose it was so intended by the writers who
used it, or so understood by the Jews. This,
however, is a minor point, as the narratives of
the creation and fall, etc., have the same bear-
ing whether the first created beings had names
or not; they remain themselves no less. But
those narratives were certainly not understood
by their compilers themselves, who merely took
them from Babylonian sources (See Creation),
as implying literal history — which their dis-
cordance should render obvious — and the diffi-
culties involved in it result from being more
Biblical than the Bible, as the Yahvistic portions
of the later chapters disregard them, and the
Yahvish adds to them at will. The accounts

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in Genesis are three: (1) The Etohistic (fl.v.),
in which "male and female* are created at the
same time; that is, the whole race, just as the
whole animal race is created at a stroke. The
interpretation as "one couple* is thrown back
from the second account. (2) The Yahvistic,
in which "the adam* is made from the dust, and
'the eve* from the adam ; and which contains
the theological part of the stoiy — the locatk

Cain and Abel, and the first murder. (3) The.
genealogical list in chapter v, where the race is
derived through Seth, and Cain and Abel are
unknown: ana where the first generations of
men are demigods with enormous spans of life.
The last is not only later than the other two, and
corresponding to Greek, Assyrian, etc., pedi-
grees carrying the race or its first families back
to the gods, out it is entirely unconnected with
the first two, which have a certain relation as
efforts of early man to account for die origin
and propagation of life on the earth, which every
race has undertaken as soon as it attained self-
consciousness. The first, however, is that pure
and simple, with no ulterior purpose. The sec-
ond is quite other, combining the creation story
of a single couple, the progenitors of the human
race — as with the Greek Deucalion and Pyrrha,
etc. — with a deeply moralized account of the
origin of moral evii, and the rapine and violence,
pain and disease and hardship, which it brought
into a world previously free from them. It is
this, reflecting the predominant religious tone of
the Jewish mind, that has formed the basis first
of the Jewish and then of its successor the
Christian theology : Adam as the reason for and
spring of human sin. This resulted in Paul's
conception of two Adams: the fleshly one,
whence come sin and death; and the spiritual

as an allegory. Philo, the foremost
the Alexandrian school, explains Eve as the
sensuous part, Adam as the rational part, of
human nature. The serpent attacks the sensuous
element, which yields to the temptation of pleas-
ure and next enslaves the reason. Clement and
Origen adapted this interpretation somewhat
awkwardly to Christian theology. Augustine ex-
plained the story as history, but admitted a
spiritual meaning superinduced upon the literal ;
and his explanation was adopted by the re-
formers, and indeed generally by the orthodox
within the Catholic and the various Protestant
Churches alike. More modern critics, loath to
abandon it wholly as legend, have sought to
separate a kernel of history from the poetical
accretions, and attribute the real value of the
story not to its form, but to the underlying
thoughts. Marten sen describes it ' '

for man the beginning of a fuller and higher
life, fschylus regards Prometheus as the rep-
resentative of humanity led into misery by his
self-will until he submits to the higher will of
God. This corresponds with the story of Gene-
sis, save that in the latter the spiritual features
are clearer and more distinct. Consult Jere-
mias, 'Das Alte Testament im Lichte des alter
Orients' (1906); Schrader, 'Die Keilenschrif-
ten und das Alte Testament1 (1902) ; Wunsche,
'Der Mid-rasch Rabba zu Genesis' (1882).

ADAM, Alexander, Scottish classical
scholar and author : b. Forres, 24 June 1741 ;
d Edinburgh, 18 Dec 1809. In 1763 he became
rector of the High School, Edinburgh, and
among his pupils were Sir Walter Scott, Lord

His chief work, 'Roman Antiquities,' (1791)
passed through several editions and was trans-
lated into German. He also wrote 'Principles
of Latin and English Grammar' (1772); 'A
Summary of Geography and History1 (1794);
and a 'Compendious Dictionary of the Latin
Tongue' (1805).

ADAH, Graeme Mercer, Canadian author .
and editor: b. Scotland 1839; d 1912. He was
trained in Blackwood's publishing house in Ed-
inburgh, and, emigrating, became a publisher
in Toronto and New York. He later edited
several Canadian periodicals, assisted Go Id win
Smith on the. Bystander, and founded with
him the Canadian Monthly (1872). In 1879
he founded the Canadian Educational Monthly.
In 1896 he became editor of Self-Culture, He
wrote 'An Outline History of Canadian Liter-
ature' (1886) ; 'The Canadian Northwest'
(1895) ; and with Ethelwyn Wetherald, the his-
torical novel 'An' Algonquin Maiden'; etc.

ADAM, Juliette, ad-art, zhfi-15-et (Mme.
Adam, nee Lamber), Parisian journalist and
author: b. Verberie, Oise, 4 Oct. 1836. She
founded in 1879 the Nowelle Revue, the organ
of the Extreme Republicans, and edited it till
her retirement in 1897; and her salon was a
noted influence in Paris. Her second husband,
Edmond Adam (later life senator, d. 1877), was
prefect of police in Paris during the Prussian
siege, and her first book was 'Le siege de Paris,
journal d'une Parisienne1 ( 1873) . She has
written largely (often under the pseudonyms
Juliette Lamber and Comte Paul Vasili) on
women's rights and various literary and social
subjects ; novels assailing Christianity for its
crucifixion of natural instincts; 'The Hungari-
an Fatherland* (1884); 'General SkobelefP
(1886); 'Apres I abandon de la revanche'
(1910) ; 'Impressions francaises en Russie'
(1912).

the everlasting problem of the origin of -

suffering, a question the solution of which is
scarcely nearer us now than it was to the primi-
tive Hebrews. Hesiod describes man in his
Erimitive state as free from sickness and evil
efore Prometheus (q.v.) stole fire from heaven,
and Pandora (who corresponds to Eve) brought
miseries to the earth. Prometheus gives man
the capability of knowledge ; his daring theft is

Nancy 1700; A Paris 17S9. The son o'f a pro-
vincial sculptor, he won the Prix de Rome in
1723. His masterpiece, "The Triumph of Nep-
tune Stilling the Waves,* is at Versailles. His
brother Adam Nicolas S£bastien, «Adam le
jeune — the younger": b. 1705- d. 1778; also
achieved fame as a sculptor. His chief work
is the mausoleum of the Queen of Poland,
Catherine Opalinska, wife of King Stanislaus,
at Nancy. Another brother, Adam, Francois
Gaspakd Balthasar: b. 1710; d 1761; was

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court sculptor to Frederick the Great at Ber-
lin, and his works embellish the palaces and
gardens of Potsdam and Sans Souci. Consult
Lady Dilke, "French Architects and Sculptors
of the Nineteenth Century' (London 1900).

ADAM, ad-ari, Paul, French author: b.
Paris, 7 Dec. 1862. His first book, 'Chair
molle,1 a novel of the realist school, for which
he was prosecuted and acquitted, appeared in
1885. His succeeding works, chiefly of the sym-
bolist school include 'Robes rouges' (1891);
'Le mystere des foules1 (2 vols,, 1895), a study
of the Boulangist period; 'La bataille d'Uhde'
(1897) ; 'Letters de Malaise' (1897) ; and four
historical novels, 'La force' (1898): L'enfant
d'Austerlitz1 (1902); <La ruse1 (1903); 'Au
soldi de Juillet' (1903). Other works are
•Basile et Sophia,' a Byzantine romance
(1900); <La Ville inconnue' (1911); and a
problem novel, 'Stephanie' (1913).

ADAM, Book of, works dealing with
Adam and Eve and the story of the Creation.
One of the earliest of these, supposed to have
been called 'The Life of Adam and Eve,' and
of Hebrew origin, was published in Greek by
Teschendorf in 'Apocalypses Apocrypha!'
(1866) under the misleading title of 'Apoca-
lypses of Moses,' because in the introduction
the story is said to be recorded to Moses and
later by Ceriani, in his 'Monumenta sacra et
profana' (1868). Conybeare, in the Jewish
Quarterly Review (1895), has presented an
English version of this work translated from
an Armenian text. An old Slavic version has
been published with a Latin translation by
Jagic in 'Denkschriften der Wiener Akademie
der Wissenshaften' (1893). There is also a
Latin 'Vita Ada; et Eva:,1 of which the best
text is that published by Meyer in 'Abhand-
lungen der Bayrischen Akademie der Wissen-
shaften' (1878). This work relates the story
of the Creation, the Fall, the penitence of
Adam and Eve, their restoration to divine
favor and their death and burial. Apparently
it dates from the 1st century before Christ
and was written either in Hebrew or Aramaic
The 'Conflict of Adam and Eve' is obviously
of Christian origin. An Ethiopic version,
translated from the Arabic, has been pre-
served. The Ethiopic text has been published
by Trumpp in 'Abhandlungen der Miinchener
Akademie der Wissenshaften' (1881). Transla-
tions were published by Dillman: 'Das Christ-
liche Adamsbuch des Orients' (1853); Migne's
'Dictionnaire des apocryphes' (1856) ; Malan's
'Book of Adam and Eve' (1882). There is
manuscript copy of the Arabic text in Munich.
An earlier version of this work is 'The Treas-
ure Cave,* published by Sachau, first in Ger-
man. 'Die Schatzhohle' (1883), then in Syriac
(1888). The Arabic text was published by
Mrs. Gibson in 'Studia Sinatica1 (1901). An-
other work of Christian origin is in Syriac,
<The Testament of Adam,' published by Renan,
with a French translation, in 'Journal
Asiatique' (1853). Of this work Bezold pub-
lished Arabic and Ethiopic versions in
' Orientali stche Studien NoldJeke gewidmet*
(1906 p. 893). Renan proved conclusively that
the original version had been written in Greek.
Consult Fochs. in Hennecke's 'Neutestament-
liche Apokryphen1 (1904); Ginzburg, in the
'Jewish Encyclopedia,' under the title ■Adam,

Book of"; Schurer, 'Gesctricte des iudischen
Volkes1 (1901, p. 396).

ADAM BEDE, the first long novel oi
George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans), was pub-
lished in 1859. The action takes place in the
English village of Hay slope, where the hero,
Adam, a simple workman of sterling worth,

?ursues his trade of carpentry. Very different
rom Adam is his brother{ Seth, a gentle and
loving spirit, whose religious emotions have
been strongly engaged by Methodist revival of
the time. Seth is devotedly in love with the
leading exponent of the sect in the Hayslope
community, Dinah Morris, but she, consecrated
to her work of evangelical preaching, refuses
to think of him except with sisterly and re-
ligious affection. Adam loves Hetty Sorrel, a
beautiful but vain and shallow country girl,
who encourages him but secretly hopes to make
a much loftier marriage. When young Arthur
Donnithorne, son of the village squire, falls
in love with her, both her passion and her am-
bition are stirred. Arthur, who is kind-hearted
but weak-willed, tries to resist his infatuation,
but finally yields to it. When Adam discovers
them together there is a stormy scene between
the two men, and Arthur agrees to tell Hetty
that he can never marry her. Hetty, in her
loneliness after Arthur's departure, becomes
engaged to Adam, not knowing that she is to
be a mother. When at last she realizes her
condition she goes to Windsor In search of
Arthur. Finding, after a painful journey, that
he has gone to Ireland, she wanders miserably
to seek Dinah. The scene now changes to Hay-
slope, where the girl's long absence has aroused
anxiety, and the reader learns, with Adam, that
she is in prison, charged with the murder of
her child. She is condemned to death, but at
the last moment, when, supported by Dinah,
she is going to the gallows, her sentence is
commuted to transportation, the release from
death being brought by Arthur Donnithorne.
The subject of Hetty's sin is handled with
peculiar delicacy, and her wretched journey is
one of the most poignant incidents of fiction.
The story ends with the marriage of Adam
and Dinah, who have been unconsciously drawn
together from the first.

The characters in the story, simple country
people as they are, working on the farm or in
the shop, are portrayed with unusual distinct-
ness, and their appeal is direct and powerful,
The analysis of Hetty's character is particu-
larly keen. In the midst of pity for her fate
the reader is never allowed to forget the girls'
shallowness and selfishness. Finely contrasted
with Hetty is Dinah Morris, in her purity and
selflessness. But the dominant figure is Adam
Bede himself, level-headed and iron-willed,

inevitable consequences of wrong-doing, which
is ever present in George Eliot's novels, is
strongly emphasized, and the story as a whole
is not to be forgotten.

Bibliography.— "George Eliot as Author,*
by R. H. Hutton, in 'Some Modern Guides of
English Thought1; •Essays on George Eliot,*
by E. Dowden, in 'Studies in Literature,' and by
W. C. Brownell, in 'Victorian Prose Masters.'

James H. Hanford,
Associate-Professor of English, University of
North Carolina.

ADAM FAMILY — ADAMAWA

117

ADAM FAMILY, British architects, a cele-
brated 18th-century family consisting of Wil-
liam and his four sons, William, Robert, James
and John : of whom Robert ranks first and
James next. The father was bom in Fit cshirc,
Scotland, and bis work was done in his native
country: the town hall at Dundee, the library
and university at Glasgow, and many other

Kblic and private buildings there and in F.din-
rgh, etc. Robert was born in Edinburgh,
studied, in Italy, and examined the noble re-
mains of Dalmatia before settling in London;
bis work on Diocletian's palace at Spalato was
a valuable advertisement to bis talents and
taste, and all the brothers increased their re-
pute by publishing engravings of their plans.
Under Robert's direction they constructed a
great number of buildings in London, — the
Add phi Terrace and the streets around com-
memorates them specifically. He also did much
to remodel the appearance of the city. Robert
also built Lansdowne House, Kedleston Hall
near Derby and Register House near Edin-
burgh. A special feature of the brothers' work
was their careful attention to harmonious in-
terior arrangement and decoration.

ADAM DB LA HALE, or HALLE,
ad an duh la at, French poet and composer: b.
Arras about 1235 : d. Naples about 128? ; nick-
named the Hunchback of Arras, although he
was not deformed. His satirical extravaganza,
'The Play of Adam, or the Play in the Arbor*
(1262), constitutes the earliest comedy in the
vulgar tongue; while the pastoral drama, 'The
Play of Robin and of Marion,' may be looked
Upon as the earliest specimen of comic opera.
ADAM HOMO, a poem by Frederik Palu-
dan-MuIler, and his most important work, ap-
peared during the years 1841-48. It is of par-
ticular significance in Danish literature, as it
marks the end of Romanticism in Denmark. In
Oehlenschlaeger's 'Aladdin' which introduces
the period of Romanticism, imagination is
given full play; in 'Adam Homo' cool reason
prevails. Oehlenschlaeger points to Aladdin, the
favorite of fortune; Paluoan-M tiller shows us
Adam Homo, man as he really is. (The name
of the poem suggests that the hero represents
the average man, as we find him in every-day
life. Human life as it is, contrasted with the
ideal, is the theme of the book). For 'Adam
Homo' is realistic, and presents modern life
with all its ugliness and wickedness. With
shocking truthfulness the author shows how
one may lose sight of ideals and squander a
spiritual heritage. Adam is the son of a min-
ister in Jutland, who over-emphasizes the ma-
terial things of this world. His mother, a
spiritual woman, tries to interest her boy in
the higher life. While Adam studies at Copen-
hagen, his nobler impulses are kept alive by the
loving letters of his mother and by his asso-
ciation with a pure-minded young woman. Un-
fortunately Adam succumbs to the temptations
of new conditions, and almost without being
aware of the fact he gradually loses sight or
his ideals, and makes material gain and social
recognition the goal of his efforts. Though he
becomes a man of distinction in society, he
leads a sordid life, for his enthusiasm for truth,
beauty and goodness is gone. Consult V. An-
dersen, 'Pahidan-Muller' ; Georg Brandts,
'AesthetJske Studier* (pp. 191-222): Georg
Brandes, 'Danske Digtere* (pp. 251-313); P.

Hansen, 'Illustreret Dansk Litteratur His-
toric' (pp. 295-303) ; Karl Mortensen, 'Litter-
atur Historic1 (pp. 248-261); Torvald Strom,
'Dansk Literaturhistorie1 (pp. 286-291).

Joseph Alexis,
Professor of Germanic Languages and Litera-
tures, University of Nebraska.
ADAM OF BREMEN, German historian:
b. probably in Meissen, Saxony; d. 12 October
of an unknown year, probably 1076. He lived
at Magdeburg, removed to Bremen in 1067, was
made canon of its cathedral and next year prin-
cipal of the cathedral school. His fame rests
on his 'Historv of the Church of Hamburg'
(1072-76), an inestimable mediasval classic, for
which he gathered material far and wide ; mak-
ing a special trip to Denmark to interview King
Svend Est rids on, whose communications he
gives. As an appendix to his last book he
gives an account of the Danish, Swedish and
Norwegian possessions, containing a passage of
the first interest to Americans, as verifying the
Saga stories of Vinland: "He [Svend] told of
still another bland found by many in tnat [At-
lantic] ocean. It is called Wine land, because
grapes grow there spontaneously. ... I have
learned through definite information from
Danes that unsown crops also grow there in
abundance."

ADAM OF ST. VICTOR, famous medie-
val hymnologist: d. in Paris c. 1192; nothing is
known of him save his great hymns, the most
numerous of any medieval writer, and among
the foremost in rank. A few have been finely
translated by J. M. Neale; a complete (so far
as known) edition from the French of Leon
Gautier was published in London (3 vols.,
(1881). Consult Duffield, 'Latin Hymns'
(1888) ; French, 'Sacred Latin Poetry'
(18741 ; Julian, 'Dictionary of Hymnology*

»).

ADAMANT, a word loosely used to signify
a substance of extreme hardness. It is probably
derived from the Greek adamas. 'unconquer-
able.™ Very possibly the name adamant was at
one time applied to a definite substance; but it
has been used to signify corundum, various
gems, a hard metal (probably steel) that was
used in making armor, the lodestone and va-
rious other substances. It is now chiefly used in
a poetical or rhetorical sense.

AD'AMAN'TINE SPAR, a name some-
times applied to corundum (q.v.) on account of
its hardness; especially to the dark .colored,
non-transparent varieties which are used in
pulverized form for polishing gems.

ADAMANTOID, a crystalline form be-
longing to the isometric system, and bounded
by 48 similar scalene triangles. It has 6 octa-
hedral solid angles, at the extremities of the
principal axes ; 8 hexahedral solid angles, at the
extremities of the trigonal axes ; and 12 tetra-
hedral solid angles, at the extremities of the
digonal axes. Its name is due to the fact that
the diamond usually occurs in this crystalline
form. (Also, and more commonly, called hex-
octahedron).

ADAMAWA, a'da-ma'wa (formerly Fum-
bina), an internally autonomous sultanate of
central Africa, between lat. 6° and 11° N., and
long. 1 1 ° and 17° E. : part of the Sokoto empire
in northern Nigeria; area some 50,000 square

, Google

miles. Much of the surface is mountainous, the
mountains rising to about 8,000 feet The prin-
cipal rivers are the Eenue and its tributary the
Faro. The eastern part belongs to the German
Kamerun; the western to British North Ni-
geria. A great part of the country is covered
with thick forests, though there are also exten-
sive and splendid pasture lands and cultivated
fields. The native inhabitants are industrious
and intelligent, but they have been in a great
measure subdued by the Mohammedan Fulahs.
who possess innumerable slaves. Slaves ana
ivory are the chief articles of trade. Pop. about
3,000,000. Chief towns, Yolo the capital, est.
12,000 to 20,000; Banjo, chief ivory mart; and
Nganudere.

ADAMI, Fricdrich Wilhelm, a-da'me,
fred'riH, German author: b. Suhl, 18 Oct. 1816;
d. Berlin, 5 Aug. 1893. He wrote stories, plays,
etc., a very popular biography of Queen Louise,
'The Book of Emperor William" (1887-90):
■Fin erlicher Mann1 (1850); 'Der Doppel
gauger* (1870), and contributed regularly to
the Kreuts&eitung. His literary style was much
admired

ADAMI, John George, American patholo-
gist: b. Manchester, England, 1862: educated
at Owens College there and Christ s College,
Cambridge. He studied at Breslau and Fans;
became demonstrator of pathology at Cam-
bridge in 1887, and fellow of Jesus College in
1891. In 1892 he came to Montreal as profes-
sor of pathology at McGill University; from
1894 has been head of the pathological depart-
ment at the Royal Victoria Hospital there;
from 1896 lecturer to the New York Patho-
logical Society. He has published papers on
fathological topics, and is the author of 'The
'rinciples of Pathology' (1908); 'Inflamma-
tion: Introduction to the Study of Pathology1
(1910).

ADAMITE (named for M. Adam, a French
mineralogist), a mineral, isomorphous with
olivenite, and occurring in small ort ho rhombic
crystals that are often grouped in fine granular
aggregations. It is an arsenate of zinc, having
the formula ZntAs>Oi.Zn(OH)t, although cop-
per and cobalt may also be present. Its hard-
ness is 3.5, and its sp. gr. 4.35. Its color is
variable. It occurs at Cap Garonne, near
Hyeres, France ; and also at Laurium, Greece,
and in certain parts of Chile.

ADAMITES. (1) A Christian sect said to
have existed in the 2d century: so called be-
cause both men and women appeared naked in
their assemblies, either to imitate Adam in the
state of innocence or to prove the control which
they possessed over their passions. The tra-
dition is probably baseless, originating in a
name of derision given to the Carpocratians.
(See Gnostics). (2) Also called Picards,
from the founder of their sect, Picard (per-
haps also Beghards). He called himself Adam
the Son of God, and advocated community of
women. They appeared about the year 1421
on an island in the River Lusinicz, where Zisca
surprised them, but was not able to destroy the
whole sect. In the following year they^ were
widely spread over Bohemia and Moravia, and
especially hated by the Hussites (whom they
resembled in hatred toward the hierarchy) be-
cause they rejected tran substantiation, the
priesthood and the Supper. They subsequently

tormed one sect with the remaining iabontes,
who have accordingly been confounded with
them. In 1849 a similar sect sprang up in

ADAMNAN, Saint (der. of Adam),
Irish ecclesiastic and author: b. in Donegal, c.
625; d. 703 or 704. He was descended from a
cousin of St. Columba and from powerful Irish
chieftains. Entering the monastery of Iona, he
became abbot in 69/; but was involved in quar-
rels with his monks over Easter and the ton-
sure (enforcing the orthodox Roman view
against the Irish Church view), which hastened
his death. He wrote a most valuable life of
St. Columba (q.v.), the founder of Iona, full
of historical information about the early Irish-
Scotch Church (best edition Reeves, 1857;
English translation in the 'Historians of Scot-
land,' 1874, reissued Oxford 1895) ; and a hear-
say but valuable report of matters in Palestine
in his time, the first we have of that land in
the early Middle Ages.

ADAMS, Abigail Smith, wife of President
John Adams: b. Weymouth, Mass., 23 Nov.
1744; d. 28 Oct. 181& She was daughter of
a Weymouth clergyman, who opposed the
match and took for a text 'My daughter is
grievously tormented with a devil.9 Though
lacking strength and regular school education,
she became a self-made force of high order in
public affairs and one of the best of early
American writers; her letters to her husband,
collected and published, are not only of great
historical and social value, but full of delight-
ful genial humor and acute comment and judg-
ment. Her husband's position kept them apart
for years; but she joined him in France in
1784, went with him to his life of torment in
London, and lived in Washington 1789-1801;
thence till death at Brain tree, now Quincy.

ADAMS, Alvin, founder of Adams Express
Co. : b. Andover, Vt., 16 June 1804 ; d. 2 Scpt-
1877. On 4 May 1840 he started an express
business between Boston and New York which
developed into the great company above named,
formed in 1854 by the consolidation of several
rival firms, — including Harnden's, the initiator
of the express business, — with Mr. Adams as
president. In 1850 he helped to organize the
pioneer express service through the California
mining camps, which on the consolidation above
he sold out. In the Civil War the Adams Ex-
press Company was of immense help to the
government ; in 1870 it extended its business to
the far West.

ADAMS, Arthur H., Australian journalist

Otago University, New Zealand, studied law
and became private secretary and literary ad-
visor to C. J. Williams, the noted Australian
theatrical manager. Later he went to China as
war correspondent for Australian newspapers
during the Boxer trouble; and he was in Eng-
land from 1902 to 1905. Among his published
works are: 'Maoriland and other Verses
(1899) ; 'The Nazarene> (London 1902) ; 'Lon-
don Streets' (poems, 1907) ; Tussock Land' (a
novel) ; and stories, poems and articles in nu-
merous periodicals, magazines and newspapers.
In 1906 he became an editor on the Sidney Bul-
letin.

d by Google

ADAMS, Benjamin Matthias, American
clergyman: b. Stamford, Conn., 1824; d. Bethel,
Conn., 27 Dec. 1902. He was the son of Gen-
eral Adams and bis mother was a daughter of
the noted Rev. John J. Matthias. He was edu-
cated in a private school in which William
Miner, afterward governor of Connecticut,
taught After considerable mental struggle he

j 1848, in which he labored for 17 years. He
was then transferred to the New York East
Conference. He was a close observer of the
habits of birds and nature and lectured on
'Fun in Animals.' He was a member of the

feneral conference of 1884. He was a personal
riend of the Warner sisters. A letter which
he wrote to Anna Warner contained a passage
which led her to compose the widely known
hjinn, "One more day's work for Jesus.B His
ministry, spent in and around New York and
Brooklyn, was noteworthy.

ADAMS, Brooks, American writer on soci-
ological themes : b. Quincy, Mass., 2 June 1848.
He is a son of Charles Francis Adams (1st),
was graduated from Harvard University in
1870 and followed the law for the succeeding

Sar. He is a member of the Massachusetts
istorical Society, the Institute of Arts and
Letters, etc. In 1900 he published 'The Law
of Civilization and Decay,' which has been is-
sued also in French and German, and among
his other works are included 'The Ne* Em-

?ire' (translated into German and Russian) ;
Centralization and the Law' (1906); 'The
Theory of Social Revolutions' (1913) ;
'Charles Francis Adams; an American States-
man,' the last named work being a contribu-
tion to the proceedings of the Massachusetts
Historical Society for December 1911. His
literary_ fame depends chiefly upon 'The
Emancipation of Massachusetts' (1887), a
work intended as a philosophic exposition of
a theory of social development.

ADAMS, Charles Francis, American states-
man, son of President John Quincy Adams;
b. in Boston, 18 Aug. 1807; .d there 21 Nov.
1886. At the age of two he was taken by his
father to Saint Petersburg; in 1815 went with
his mother thence to Pans ; the same year his
father was made minister to England, and he
was placed in an English boarding- school. In
1817 both returned to America; he was placed
in the Boston Latin School, and in 1825 he was
graduated at Harvard. His father had just
been inaugurated President, and he spent two
years in Washington ; then returned to Boston,
studied law with Daniel Webster and was
called to the bar in 1828, but never practised —
engaging in literature and political writing in
magazines and pamphlets, and editing John and
Abigail Adams' letters (1840-41). He was
Representative in the legislature 1841-44, State
Senator 1844-46, as a Whig; heading the "Con-
science t Whig" wing, he edited the Boston
Wttto, 18*W8, was chairman of the Free-Soil
Convention at Buffalo in 1848, and was nom-
inated for Vice-President on the ticket with
Martin Van Buren. In 1850-56 he edited John
Adams' 'Works.' in 10 volumes. He joined the
Republican party on its organization in 1855,
and in 1858 was sent to Congress, and re-elected
in 1860. In 1861 Lincoln sent him to England
as minister, as his father and grandfather had

JIS 118

been before him. But even' their problems
were trivial beside bis, when the very existence
of the Union perhaps depended on how far the
English upper classes could drag the govern-
ment in evasion of international obligations and
covert help to the South. The seizure of
Mason and Slidell on the Trent nearly precipi-
tated war; the fitting out of cruisers to destroy
United States commerce was put a stop to only
after the escape of the Alabama (q.v.) in the
face of Mr. Adams' representations, and his
declaration to Earl Russell, thai foreign secre-
tary, that permitting the Laird rams also to
leave Birkenhead was "war." Napoleon Ill's
persistent efforts to seduce the English govern-
ment into a joint intervention in favor of the
Confederacy had to be checkmated: and the
orous hostility of one section and the cold-
of the remainder of the best society made
it a lonely and trying place, which for seven
years be filled with a dignified resolution of im-
measurable importance to his country. Re-
turning to America in 1868, he was elected
president of Harvard the next year, but de-

was the United States representative i__ _
board of arbitrators at Geneva to settle the
Alabama Claims (q.v.); in 1872 he nearly ob-
tained the nomination as Democratic- Indepen-
dent candidate for the presidency, which
Horace Greeley secured. In 1874-77 he edited
the 'Memoirs of John Quincy Adams' in 12
volumes.

d. Washington, D. C, 20 March 1915. He was
graduated at Harvard in 1856, and served as a
cavalry officer through the Civil War, rising
from first lieutenant to colonel, and being
brevetted brigadier-general at its close. Shortly
becoming noted for ability in discussion of eco-
nomic, political and social questions, he was
appointed railroad commissioner of Massachu-
setts in 1869; wrote 'Chapters of Erie' (1871)
in collaboration with his brother Henry, a se-
ries of papers on railroad accidents and on
'The State and the Railroads' (1875-761 for
the Atlantic Monthly; 'Railroads, the Origin
and Problems' (1878); 'Notes on Railway Ac-
cidents' (1879), etc.; and 1884-90 was presi-
dent of the Union Pacific Railroad Company.
In 1892 he published 'Three Episodes of
Massachusetts History,1 on the settlement of
Boston Bay, the Antonomian controversy and
early town and church government, and in 1893
'Massachusetts; Its Historians and Its His-
tory.' In 1895 he was chosen president of the
Massachusetts Historical Society, and in 1901
president of the American Historical Associa-
tion. He has also written lives of Richard
Henry Dana (1891) and of his father (1900,
American Statesmen Series), 'Lee at Appo-
mattox,' etc. (1902), and much miscellaneous
work. As chairman of the State Park Com-
mission, 1893-95, he contributed materially to-
ward planning out and establishing the great
Metropolitan Park System of Massachusetts.
ADAMS, Charles Kendall, American histo-
rian and educator: b. Derby, Vt., 24 Jan. 1835;
d. 26 July 1902 He removed to Iowa in 1855 ;
was graduated at the University of Michigan \x\
1861; became assistant professor there 1863-67
and professor of history 1867-85, He studied

by Google

by establishing the Historical Seminary
University of Michigan; and was made ucan
s School of Political Science when estab-

lished. In 1885 he succeeded Andrew D. White
as president of Cornell ; resigned 1892, and till
- 1902 was president of the University of Wis-
consin. He was chief editor of 'Johnson's Uni-
versal Cyclopedia,1 1892-95. His most valued
work is a 'Manual of Historical Literature1
(1882) ; he wrote also 'Democracy and Mon-
archy in France' (1872); 'Christopher Colum-
bus' (1892) ; compiled 'British Orations'
(1884) ; and wrote much magazine and review

ADAMS, Ephraim Douglass, American
educator: b. Decorah, Iowa, 18 Dec. 1865. After
graduating from the University of Michigan he
took a post-graduate course in the same institu-
tion, receiving his degree of Ph.D._ in 1890. He
was immediately appointed special agent in
charge of street railways for the 11th census.
In 1891 he became assistant professor of his-
tory and sociology at the University of Kansas
ana in 1899 he was promoted to the chair of
European history. In 1902 he was appointed
associate professor of history in Leland Stan-
ford University, becoming full professor four
years later. His books are: 'The Control of
the Purse of the United States Government*
(1894) ; 'The Influence of Grenville on Pitt's
Foreign Policy' (1904); 'British Interests and
Activities in Texas' (Albert Shaw Lectures,

{ohns Hopkins University 1910) ; 'Power of
deals in American History* (Dodge Lectures
on Citizenship, Yale University, 1913).

ADAMS, Frank Dawson, geologist: b.
Montreal, Canada, 17 Sept. 1859; he was gradu-
ated at McGill University in 1878; took ad-
vanced courses at Sheffield Scientific School
(Yale), and at Heidelberg, applying himself
particularly to Hthoiogy ana physical geology ;
in 1889 became lecturer on geology at McGill,
in 1893 succeeded Sir William Dawson as
Logan professor of geology there; and in 1908
was appointed dean of the faculty of applied
science.

ADAMS, Franklin Pierce, American
humorist: b. Chicago, 15 Nov. 1881. He was
educated at the Armour Institute and the Uni-
versity of Michigan. On graduating, in 1903,
he entered newspaper work, which he followed
for two years, on the Chicago Journal, after
which he went to New York and became a
member of the staff of the Evening Mail. For

this paper he wrote a daily column under the

"* "ways in Good Humor." His "Diary

i Samuel Pepys* was another daily

caption "Always

contribution which attracted popular attention.
Besides his prose he has written much humor-
ous verse. His works in book form are
'Tobogganing on Parnassus' (1911) ; 'In
Other Words' (1912J. Collaborated with O.
Henry in writing 'Lo> (musical comedy, 1909).
ADAMS, Frederick Uphmra, American
author and inventor: b. Boston, Mass., 10 Dec.
1859. While still a child his parents removed
to Elgin, 111., where he attended the public
schools. From 1882 until 1890 he was engaged
in the profession of mechanical engineering, and
it was during this period that he invented an
electric lamppost, which has since been univer-

sally adopted, and an electric light tower. In
1894 he was appointed chief smoke inspector
for Chicago, which position he held for three
years. In 1900 he constructed an experimental
passenger train for the Baltimore & Ohio
Railroad which broke all previous speed records.
He was the founder of a periodical entitled
The New Time, dealing with social problems
and which he edited from 1896 until 1898. Be-
sides his works on technical subjects, he has
also written several novels. The most import-
ant of these publications are: 'Atmospheric
Resistance and Its Relation to the Speed of
Railway Trains* (1893) ; 'President John
Smith' (1896); 'The Kidnapped Millionaires*

Henry Smith' (1905); 'The Bottom of the
Well' (190S): 'The Revolt* (1907); 'The
Vegetarians' (a comedy, 1911); 'Ramley' (a
drama, 1911).

ADAMS) George Burton, American histor-
ical writer: b. Fairfield, Vt, 3 June 1851. He
became professor of history at Yale University
and beside editing various historical works is
the author of 'Civilization During the Middle
Ages,' 'The Growth of the French Nation,'
'European History,' Vol II in Hunt and
Poole's 'Political History of England,* 'The
Origin of the Constitution.'

ADAMS, Henry, American historian, son
of Charles Francis: b. Boston, 16 Feb. 1838.
He was private secretary to his father
during the tatter's English ministry, and
assistant professor of history at Harvard 1870-
77, being reputed one of the most stimulating
and original instructors as well as brilliant
expositors in the country. With several pupils
he published in 1876 'Essays on Anglo-Saxon
Law,' of which he wrote on 'Anglo-Saxon
Courts of Law.' Iu 1871 he collaborated with
his brother, Charles Francis, in 'Chapters of
Erie.' He edited the North American Review,
1875-76. In 1879 he published Albert Gallatin's
writings (3 vols.) ; in 1882 a life of John Ran-
dolph (American Statesmen Series). But his
life-work, and with one exception the foremost
historical work of America in matter and style,
is his 'History of the United States from 1801
to 1817* covering the presidencies of Jefferson
and Madison (9 vols., 1889-91), in motive it is
a defense of his grandfather, John Quincy
Adams, for deserting the Federalist party; in
essence, a history of the causes and conduct of
the War of 1812. For this task he took up his
residence in Washington and spent years ran-
sacking its archives. He also lived for long
periods abroad, examining various European
records, and trained himself thoroughly in mili-
tary and naval science and construction, besides
studying historical and economic problems.
Besides the works named he is author of 'Mont
Saint Michel and Chartrcs' (1904) ; 'Letter to
American Teachers of History1 (1910) ; Life .
of George Cabot Lodge' (1911)}liiM*M^te*«4ffli

ADAMS, Henry Carter, American econo-
mist : b : Davenport, Iowa, 31 Dec. 1852. He was
graduated from Iowa College; took a post-
graduate course at Johns Hopkins University,
where he became fellow and lecturer. He sub-
sequently became professor of political econo-
my in the University of Michigan and later
represented the Interstate Commerce Commis-

Jgitiz-r

byGOQQ

sion in the standardization of accounting
records for the government railways in China.
He went to China for that purpose in 1913 and
while there assisted in organizing the ministry
of communication, statistics and accounts. He
returned in March 1916.

ADAMS, Henry Cullen, United States
Congressman from Wisconsin : b. Verona,
N. Y., 28 Nov. 1850; d. 1906. His parents re-
moved to Wisconsin while he was still a child.
He began life as a farmer, then went into
politics and filled various public offices, notably
that of dairy and food commissioner, from
1895 to 1902. He was elected to Congress in
1903, where he remained until his death. He
was the author of the Adams Act of 1906, under
which the State experiment stations receive
$720,000 annually for original research in agri-
culture. He took a prominent part in the Drug
and Food Act of 1906 and in the organization
of the meat inspection that followed.

ADAMS, Herbert, American sculptor: b.
West Concord, Vt., 28 Jan. 1856. After early
studies at the Institute of Technology, Wor-
cester, Mass., and at the Normal Art School,
Boston, he proceeded to Paris, and became a
pupil of Antonin Mercier, 1885 to 1890. Prom
1890-98 he was instructor in the art school of
the Pratt Institute, Brooklyn. In 1899 he was
elected to the National Academy of Design and
in 1906 vice-president. Among his distinctive
works are tinted marbles and polychrome busts,
notably that of "St. Agnes,0 of "Primavera*
and of "A Young Lady" in pink marble, in the
Metropolitan Museum, New York. His por-
trait busts of women are remarkably beautiful,
among the best examples being that of Miss
A. V. Pond (who afterward became his wife),
completed in Paris in 1887, and one of Miss
Julia Marlowe, the actress. In the Congres-
sional Library, Washington, are a statue of
Professor Channing and two bronze doors, be-
gun by Olin Warner. A "Madonna with Angels*
in marble, and the Vanderbilt bronze doors are
in St. Bartholomew's Church, New York. His
other works of importance are the bronze Jon-
athan Eld wards Memorial at Northampton,
Mass., bronze statues of Richard Smith, in
Philadelphia, and William Ellery Channing,
in Boston, and William Cullen Bryant, in New
York. Adams' works were exhibited at the
Chicago Fair of 1893 and at the Louisiana
Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, in 1904, in both
of which he received high awards. While mod-
em and original, Adams, of all .Americans, ap-
proaches closest to the Early Renaissance in
his refined realism and in his great technical
skill in marble cutting. Consult Taft, Lorado,
'History of American Sculpture1 (New York
1904).

ADAMS, Herbert Baxter, American his-
torical student and educator: b. Shutesbury,
Mass., 16 April 1850; d. 1901. He was gradu-
ated at Amherst in 1872; took Ph.D. at Heidel-
berg; and on the opening of Johns Hopkins in
1876 was made fellow in history, 1878 associate
in history, 1883 associate professor in history,
and in 1891, full professor. In 1901 he resigned
on account of ill health, and died shortly after,
tn 1884 he was a leader in organizing the
American Historical Association, and was sec-
retary till 1900, then becoming first vice-presi-
dent. He edited the 'John Hopkins Studies in

History and Political Science* from the start,
also the 'Contributions to American Educa-
tional History* published by the United States
Bureau of Education. His chief publication is
'The Life and Writings of Jared Sparks' (2
,...i. larrti Among his historical tnonograpl
College of William and Mary

vols., 1893). Among his historical monographs
are the 'The College of William and Mary,*
'Thomas Jefferson and the University of Vir-

ginia,' 'The Germanic Origin of New England
Towns,' and 'Maryland's Influence in Founding
a National Commonwealth.' But his best work
was not in writing history, but in training others
to write it, and he was a powerful influence in
creating the new school of historical research.
ADAMS, John, American statesman, 2d
President of the United States: b. Braintree,
Mass., of a line of farmers 19 Oct. 1735; d.
4 July 1826, the year after his son was inau-
gurated President. Graduated at Harvard, he
taught school, and read theology for a Church
career; but seeing his unfitness for it studied
law and began practice in 1758, soon becoming
a leader at the bar and in public life. In 1764
he married his famous wife. All through the
germinal years of the Revolution he was one
of the foremost patriots, steadily opposing any
abandonment or compromise of essential rights;
and in 1766 published essays in the Boston
Gazette, reprinted in London 1768, entitled 'A
Dissertation on Canon and Feudal Law,' really
on colonial rights. In 1765 also he was counsel
for Boston, with Otis and Gridley, to support
the town's memorial against the Stamp Act. In
1766 he was a selectman, or in other words one
of the three official rulers of the head of the
New England colonies. In 1768 the royal gov-
ernment offered him the post of advocate-
general in the Court of Admiralty, — in fact
a lucrative bribe to desert the opposition; but
he refused it. Yet in 1770, as a matter of high
professional duty, he took his future in his
hands to become counsel (successfully) for the
British soldiers on trial for the 'Boston Mas-
sacre.' Though there was a present uproar of
abuse, Mr. Adams was shortly after elected
Representative to the General Court by more
than three to one. In March 1774 he was con-
templating writing the 'History of the Contest
between Britain and America.' June 17 he pre-
sided over the meeting at Faneuil Hall to con-
sider the Boston Port Bill, and at the same
hour was elected delegate to the first Congress
at Philadelphia (1 September), by the Provin-
cial Assembly _ held in defiance of the govern-
ment Returning home, he was made a member
of the Provincial Congress, already organizing
resistance to England. Just after Lexington he
again journeyed to Philadelphia to the Congress
of May 1775; where he did on his own motion,
to the disgust of his associates and the reluc-
tance even of the Southerners, one of the most
important and decisive acts of the Revolution,
— induced Congress to adopt the forces already
gathered in New England as a national army
and put George Washington at its head, thereby
engaging the Southern colonies irrevocably in
the war and securing the one man who could
make it a success. In 1776 he was a chief agent
in carrying the Declaration of Independence.
He remained in Congress till November 1777,
serving on the Committee on Foreign Relations
and as chairman of the Board of War and
Ordnance, very useful and laborious, but making

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one dreadful mistake ; he was largely re-
sponsible for the policy of ignoring the just
rights and decent dignity of the military com-
manders, which lost the country some of its
best officers and led ultimately to Arnold's
treason. His reasons, exactly contrary to his
wont, were sound abstract logic, but thorough
practical ineptitude.

In December 1777 he was appointed commis-
sioner to France to succeed Silas Deane. Dr.
Franklin and Arthur Lee were there before
him; and though he reformed a very bad state
of affairs, he thought it absurd to keep three
envoys at one court and induced Congress to
abolish his office, returning in 1779. Chosen a
delegate to the Massachusetts Constitutional
Convention, he was called away from it to be
sent again to France. There he remained as
Franklin's colleague, detesting and distrusting
him and the foreign minister Vergennes, em-
broiling himself with both, and earning a cor-
dial return of his warmest dislike from both,
till July 1780. He then went to Holland as
volunteer minister, and in 1782 was formally
recognized as from an independent nation.
Meantime Vergennes intrigued energetically to
have him recalled, and did succeed in tying his
hands so that but for his contumacious stub-
bornness half the advantages of independence
would have been lost, as Vergennes was em-
ployed to gain points for France and not for
the United States. In the final negotiations for
peace he persisted (against his instructions) in
making the New England fisheries an ulti-
matum, and saved them. The wretched state
of American affairs under the Confederation
made it impossible to do his country any good
abroad, and the vindictive feeling of the English
made his life a purgatory, so that he was glad
to come home in 1788.

In the first presidential election of that year,
he was elected Vice-President on the ticket with
Washington; and began a feud with Alexander
Hamilton, the mighty leader of the Federalist
party and a chief organizer of our executive
machine, which is accredited with the premature
overthrow of that party, and had momentous
personal and literary results as well.. As official
head of the party he thought himself entitled
to its real leadership as well ; Hamilton would
not and indeed could not surrender his position,
for the lesser men looked to him for counsel
and policy, and the rivalry never ended till
Hamilton's death. In 1796 he was elected
President against Jefferson by three electoral
votes, one "scratch" vole each in Pennsylvania,
Virginia and North Carolina, a virtual defeat
as not likely to recur. His term is recognized
as one of the ablest and most useful of our
administrations; but its personal memoirs are
most painful and scandalous. The members of
the Cabinet — nearly all Hamiltonians — laid
official secrets before Hamilton and took advice
from him to thwart the President. They dis-
liked Mr. Adams' overbearing ways and ob-
trusive vanity, — for modesty or a low sense
of personal dignity were no parts of his' char-
acter,— considered his policy destructive to the
party and injurious to the country, and felt that
loyalty to them involved and justified a dis-
loyalty to him. Finally his best act brought on
an explosion. The French Directory had pro-
voked a war with this country, which the Ham-
tion of the Federalist leaders and

much of the rank and file bailed with delight,
thinking it a service to the world to cripple
France as then ruled ; but when it showed sign!
of a better spirit, Mr. Adams, without consult-
ing his Cabinet (who he knew would oppose it
nearly or quite unanimously), nominated a com-
mission to frame a treaty with France. He had
the constitutional right to do so; but a storm
of fury broke on him from the Hamiltonian
leaders as little better than a traitor. He was
renominated for President in 1800, but beaten
by Jefferson, owing to the loss of New York
despite heavy gain in Pennsylvania. The causes
were natural and local, and while machine unity
might have gained the upper-class party one
more election it was bound soon to be swamped
by popular growth ; but as it never won another,
each faction laid its death to the other, and
American History is hot with the fires of this
battle even yet

His later years were spent at home, where he
was always interested in public affairs and
sometimes much too free in his comments ou
them ; where he read immensely and wrote
somewhat. He heartily approved his son's
break with the Federalists (see Adams, John

SUincy) on the Embargo (q.v.). He died on
e same day as Jefferson, both on the 50ih
anniversary of the Declaration of Independ-

Mr. Adams' greatest usefulness and popular-
ity sprang from the same cause that produced
some of his worst blunders and misfortunes:
a generous impulsiveness which made it im-
possible for him to hold his tongue at the wrong
time and place for talking, his vehemence, self
confidence and impatience of obstruction. He
was fervid, combative, opinionated and master-
ful; but he had trust, admiration and respect
from the majority of his party at the worst of
times, and history justifies it. Consult 'Works'
by his grandson Charles Francis Adams;
Parker, T., "Historic Americans' (1910).
Forrest Morgan,
Connecticut Historical Society.

ADAMS, John, American educator : b. Con-
necticut 1772; d. 1863. He was graduated at
Yale in 1795, was a school teacher till 1810, and
thence till 1833 principal of Phillips Academy,
Andover, Mass., which he developed into repute
throughout the country. He was teacher of
Oliver Wendell Holmes, who, in the lines be-
ginning "Grave is the Master's look,9 com-
memorates him in bis poem 'The School-Boy.'
read at the Philhps Academy centennial in 1878.

ADAMS, John, Confederate soldier: b.
Tennessee 1825: d. 30 Nov. 1864. He was
graduated at West Point in 1846; was brevetted
first lieutenant for bravery at Santa Cruz de
Rosales, 1848; promoted captain of dragoons,
1856; and resigned 1861 to join the Confederate
army, in which he rose to the rank of briga-
dier-general. He was killed at the battle of
Franklin, Tenn.

ADAMS, John, the name assumed by Alex-
ander Smith, one of the mutineers of the
Bounty. After intoxication and massacre had
killed off all the mutineers but himself, he was
shocked into a complete change of heart, and
became sincerely pious and of upright life; he
was the patriarch of the little native and half-
caste group on Pitcairn's Island, taught a
school and held worship there. It was nearly

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JOHN ADAMS

1 Pnddent of the Dnited S

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183

20 years after the mutiny before bis exist-
ence was known; and though technically liable
to execution for the mutiny the English offi-
cials felt that his hardship;, exile and re-
pentance had atoned for the crime, and that it
would be wrong to remove the head from the
little settlement He was left unmolested and
died in 1829. See Bligh, William ; Pit-
cairn's Island.

ADAMS, John Coleman, American clergy-
man: b. Maiden, Mass., 25 Oct 1849. He was
graduated from Tuft's College in 1870 and the
Divinity School in 1872, and entered the minis-
try of the Universalist Church and has since,
served several churches of his denomination.
He is author of 'The Fatherhood of God'
(1888); 'Christian Types of Heroism' (1891);
•The Leisure of God' (1895) ; 'Nature Studies
in the Berkshires' (1899); 'Life of William
Hamilton Gibson' (1901); 'Hosea Ballon
and the Gospel Renaissance' (1903) ; 'Honor-
able Youth' (1906): 'Short Studies in the
Larger Faith' (1907).

ADAMS, John Couch, English astronomer:
b. in Cornwall, 5 June 1819; d. 21 Jan. 1892. A
precocious mathematician, he became senior
wrangler at St John's College, Cambridge,
and mathematical tutor there. He discovered
in 1845, by calculation of the perturbations of
Uranus, that another planet must exist beyond
it, and fixed its position within two degrees:
but search for it not being made, Leverner of

Paris independently made the same discovery
■ \t, and Gafle of " '" ' ■-*

. ____et (see Neptuni f .
discovery of Neptune is justly regarded

(see Neptune). This mathematical

founded in 1848 the Adams prize to be awarded
biennially for the best essay in astronomy, pure
mathematics or other branch of natural

fessor of mathematics at Aberdeen University;
1859—92 Lowndean professor of astronomy
and geometry at Cambridge, and in 1861 di-
rector of Cambridge Observatory. He was a
delegate to the International Prime Meridian
Conference at Washington 1884. He received
the Copley medal of the Royal Society in 1848.
His papers were edited by his brother, William
G. Adams, and R. A. Sampson (2 vols*., I,
1896; II, 1901).

ADAMS, John Quincy, American states-
man, 6th President of the United States, son
of John Adams: b. in Brain tree, Mass., 11 July
1767; d. Washington, D. C, 23 Feb. 1848. At
10 he accompanied his father on his first
embassy to France, and was placed at school
near Paris. He returned with his father in
about 18 months; but soon went back
with turn to Europe, and attended school in
Holland and at the University of Leyden. At
15 Francis Dana, his father's secretary of
legation, who had been appointed minister to
Russia, took him with him as his private secre-
tary. After 14 months' stay in Russia, where
Catherine refused to recognize Mr. Dana, be
traveled back alone through Sweden and Den-
mark to The Hague. Soon after his father's
appointment as ambassador at London in
1785, he returned home to complete his studies,
as he believed *an American education to be

the best for an American career,1 a coolly
judicious choice for a lad of 18. He was
graduated at Harvard in 1788, entered the
office of Theophilus Parsons (q.v.), and in
1791 was admitted to the bar. He now began
to take an active interest in politics. He wrote
a series of letters to the Boston Sentinel under
the signature of "Publicola,* in reply to Paine' s
'Rights of Man,' and in 1793 defended Wash-
ington's policy of neutrality under the signature
of *Marcellus.B These letters attracted atten-
tion, and in 1794 Washington appointed him
minister to The Hague. In 1798 be received a
commission to negotiate a treaty of commerce
with Sweden; and traveling through Silesia
wrote an account of it which was published in
London, and later translated into German and
French. On Jefferson's accession to the presi-
dency he was recalled and resumed law

In 1802 he was sent to the State Senate; the
next year to the United States Senate in place
of Timothy Pickering, leading Hamiltonian.
But the Hamilton- Adams feud (see Adams,
John) had split the party into rancorously
hostile halves, and Mr. Adams was practically
"boycotted1 by the dominant section of his
own party, as being an Adams, with an in-
genuity of indecent insult curious to read of;
still worse was it when Pickering was made
his colleague by the other faction at the next
vacancy. It was good training for the great
career of his later life ; he was not the man to
conciliate his foes, and soon made the breach
irreparable by breaking away from the party
policy. Through life any action which strength-
ened the United States, or increased its dig-
nity in the eyes of the world, or simply "showed
fight* for any purpose, met with his heartiest
approval and warmest support, even though
fathered by his worst enemies; and .he first
supported (with some reservations) Jefferson's
Louisiana purchase, — precisely in the line of
the former Federalist policy and the nature of
the party, but now fought by them as Jeffer-
son's,— and in 1807 took a far more radical
step. The action of France and Great Britain
in plundering American commerce for evading
their mutual blockade laws, and of the latter
in impressing American citizens under pre-
tense of their being English runaways, had
enraged the country, hut it was helpless against
both and felt not strong enough at the time to
fight either; finally the outrage of the Leopard
on the Chesapeake (see the latter name)
roused the Republicans to fury, and even many
of the Federalists. But the leaders of the lat-
ter sympathized with England's difficulties in
the war with Napoleon, would do nothing to
embarrass her and even defended the Leop-
ard's action. Mr. Adams was as hot as any
Republican ; he tried to have the Boston
Federalists hold a meeting and pledge the
government their support in any measures to
curb British insolence, and on their refusal
attended a Republican meeting and was put on
a committee to draft such resolutions. The
Federalists were soon compelled by popular
feeling to do likewise, and Mr. Adams also
drafted resolutions there. At the extra ses-
sion of Congress in October the Embargo on
all American shipping was passed, to see if
England could not be starved into better be-
havior; half ruining New England, most of

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1S4 ADA

whose capital was invested in commerce, and
injuring Americans much more than the
enemy. Mr. Adams was a member of the
committee which reported the bill, and earn*
estly advocated it, — not because it went as far
as he liked, but as preferable to showing no
resentment whatever, and all the Federalists
would permit The execrations leveled at his
father for the French mission, and the charges
of sectional and party treachery, were repeated
on the son; political literature for half a cen-
tury was glowing with the acrid polemics on
the subject, and the prime object of his grand-
son Henry Adams's 'History' is to exculpate
him. His term in the Senate was to expire 3
March 1809; in the preceding June the Massa-
chusetts legislature elected fames Lloyd to
succeed him, as an insult, which he accepted
and at once resigned. Meantime he had been
made professor of rhetoric at Harvard and
delivered lectures there. The next month he
declined a Republican nomination to the

On Madison's accession in 1809 he at once
appointed Mr. Adams minister to Russia; the
Senate for some months refused to confirm
the nomination, but at length yielded, and he
passed four and one-half years there. In the
peace negotiations with England over the War
of 1812, he was a commissioner with Gallatin
and Bayard, and again defeated assaults on the
American fishing rights like his father. The
treaty is usually considered a humiliating fiasco
for America ; but it is significant that the
British press considered it a surrender on their
side, and especially reviled Mr. Adams for his
share in it. Visiting Paris, he was made com-
missioner to negotiate the American-English
commercial treaty signed 13 July 1815. Mean-
time he had arrived in England, 26 May, and
received- the news of his appointment as minis-
ter to that country. The synchronism of wars,
treaties and ministerships between father and
son is so curious that in ancient history it
would be treated as indubitable confusion of
persons.

Eight years later, after leaving America,
Mr. Adams was recalled to it as secretary of
state under Monroe, inaugurated March 1817.
His greatest achievement was the treaty with
Spain ceding Florida to the United States for
$5,000,000. to be used in paying American claims
against Spain; and rectifying the boundaries
of Louisiana and Mexico. His utter inde-
pendence of personal against national con-
siderations is singularly shown i« his support
of Jackson for invading Spanish Florida and
hanging Arbuthnot ana Ambrister; he hated
and despised Jackson, who surely had vio-
lated all international law, but had roughly
vindicated United States rights and put down
dangerous intrigues with savages, and Mr.
Adams vigorously defended him. Adams was
the author of the * Monroe Doctrine," and
though he never dreamed of its later inter-
pretations would not improbably have sym-
pathized, with them. He also drew up a report
on weights and measures which is still a
classic, and shows an almost incredihle amount
of investigation. An ultimately far more im-
portant question came up over Ihe admission
of Missouri as a slave State. The Missouri
Compromise (q.v.) had been passed and put
before Monroe for signature, but he submitted

to his Cabinet the questions whether Congress
had a constitutional right to prohibit slavery
in a Territory, and whether the prohibition of
slavery "forever* in the territory north of
Mason and Dixon's Line meant while it re-
mained a Territory or thereafter. The Cabinet
was unanimous in the affirmative on the first

rstion; Mr. Adams was alone in declaring
t "forever* included statehood also.
In the presidential election of 1824 there
was no electoral majority; Andrew Jackson
had 99, Mr. Adams 84 (a remarkable vote con-
sidering jus ungracious manner, gift for mak-
ing enemies and refusal to do anything to pro-
mote his election), William H. Crawford 41
and Henry Gay 34. Crawford was put out of
Ihe field by a paralytic stroke. As Clay could
not be elected, his supporters cast their votes
for Adams as preferable to Jackson; the
former represented the same public policy as
theirs, he was the ablest public official in the
country and not personally hostile to Clay,
while Jackson was regarded as an ignorant

e to which Clay's talents and position gave
lmost a prescriptive claim. The Jack-
s denounced this as a corrupt b"«— - •«

a catchword which was an efficient party
weapon for many years. Mr. Adams' admin-
istration had no dramatic events. Its policy
was based on a new division of parties. The
Federalists were dead, consequently their op-
ponents were dead also, and the new division
was into National Republicans, afterward
Whigs, and Democratic- Republicans, or Demo-

latter opposing them. In reality, the divisiot.
was between the preferences of the capitalist
class and the masses; and the vast overplus
of the latter in the South, now concentrated on
Jackson instead of a threefold split (they had
given almost none to Adams), carried him in
four years later by 178 to 83. Much is always
made of the hostility of the northern com-
mercial classes whose trade the tariff was in-
tended to cut down, of the southern planters
who would lose as consumers while having
nothing to protect as producers, and the Jack-
sonian bribe and threat of "spoils'; but by the
figures they cost Adams nothing.

Mr, Adams retired, as he supposed, from
public life. But in 1831 the constituency of his
district around Braintree elected him a member
of Congress on the Anti-Masonic ticket (see
Anti-Masonkv ; Morgan, William) ; and
though that party soon died, his immense
ability and unique power in Congress kept him
there till his death, By a singular fortune, he
owes by far his greatest fame to this relatively
small position after his crowning office was
laid down. Belonging to no party, a political
Ishmaelite, of the loftiest patriotism and the
highest integrity, but scornful of nature and
irritable in temper, rousing every demon of
hatred in his fellow-members, in cohstant and
envenomed battle with them and more than a
match for them all, the 'old man eloquent"
was for many years a storm centre of wonder-
ful picturesqueness. But his repute is not a
mere political curio: he had the fortune to

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JOHN QnmCY ADAMS

Sixth Prerideot of tn* United Statu

d by Google

a b, Google

take bis place at the very outset of the strug-
gle of the slave oligarchy to suppress free
speech and writing on the slavery question,
and crush political liberty to uphold slavery.
He fought the attempt unflinchingly year after
year by purely legal methods, upholding the
right of petition as indefeasible under any
government or for any purpose, — he did not
hesitate to submit a petition from Virginians
praying for his own expulsion as a nuisance, —
and consequently a right of slaves or of others
in their interest; and with little sympathy for
the anti-slavery cause as such, became by force
of circumstances its mightiest champion. He
died of a stroke of apoplexy on the floor of
the House. Consult 'Writings of John Quincy
Adams,> edited by W. C. Ford (New York
1917).

Forrest Morgan',
Secretary Connecticut Historical Society.

ADAMS, John Quincy (id), American
politician, son of Charles Francis: b. in Boston,
22 Sept 1833; d. 14 Aug. 1894. He was grad-
uated at Harvard in 1853, and became a lawyer.
A Democrat after the war, he took hopeless
candidacies for the governorship to keep the
organization together, in 1867 and 1871, and
for the vice-presidency in 1872. He also
served in the legislature in 1866, 1869 and 1870.
In 1877 he was made a member of the corpora-
tion of Harvard.

ADAMS, Maud Kiskadden, American ac-
tress: b. Salt Lake City, 11 Nov. 1872. She
is the daughter of an actress, who, under the
stage name of Adams, was leading woman of a
stock company in that city. Her first appear-
ance was made while a child on a stage in the
West; she then continued to take children's
parts till she reached the age of 16 when she
left Daniel Frohman's company to take an
important role in Hoyt's 'A Midnight Bell.1
She later became a member of Charles Froh-
man's stock company; in 1892 supported John
Drew in 'The Masked Ba!P; and in 1898
scored a marked success as Lady Babbie in
J. M. Barrie's 'Little Minister.1 In 1899 she
played Juliet in 'Romeo and Juliet1 ; in the
season of 1900-01, won further approval as
the Due de Reichstadt in Rostand's 'L'Aiglon1 ;
in 1901-02 took »he character of Miss Phoebe
in Barrie's 'Quality Street' ; in 1903-04 played
'The Pretty Sister of Jose1; and in 1905-07
Barrie's 'Peter Pan.1 She has appeared in
such Shakespearean roles as Viola and Rosa-
lind and assumed the title role in Rostand's
'Chanticleer' in 1911. In 1913-14 she starred
in Barrie's 'Legend of Leonora.1 Consult
Clapp and Edgett, 'Players of the Present,1
in the Dunlap Society Publications (New
York 1899).

ADAMS, Nehemiah, American Congrega-
tional clergyman: b. Salem, Mass., 19 Feb.
1806; d. 6 Oct 1878. He was graduated at
Harvard in 1826, and at Andover Theological
Seminary in 1829. The same year he settled
at Cambridge, but 1834-70 was pastor of the
Essex Street Church in Boston, and was
widely reputed for his eloquence and learning.
He published several polemic works; a great
sensation and much hostile criticism were
created by 'A South Side View of Slavery '
published in 1854 after a winter in Georgia, in
which he lauded slavery as beneficial to the

ADAMS, Samuel, American patriot : b.
Boston, 27 Sept. 1722; d. 2 Oct. 1803. He was
son of a rich merchant, ship-owner and magis-
trate, a leader in provincial contests with royal
governors, and inventor of the caucus in fact
and perhaps unintentionally in name. Edu-
cated at the Boston Latin School, he was gradu-
ated at Harvard in 1740. In 1743 he wrote
for his master's degree a thesis upholding the
lawfulness of resisting supreme magistrates.
He became a lawyer; but the profession was
under ban with the upper classes, and at his
family's wish he entered a leading merchant's
counting-house. Shortly afterward his father
set him up in business, in which he lost-half
his capital, losing the other half by a loan
never repaid. Then he became partner with
his father in a rather unsuccessful brewery.
Soon the father lost nearly all his property in
a land-bank scheme crushed by an act of
Parliament, which extended an English bank-
ing enactment to the colonies. The hundreds
of ruined shareholders denounced this act as
an invasion of chartered colonial rights, and it
turned the cream of the business leaders of
Massachusetts, and their sons and daughters,
into potential rebels at a blow. On his father's
death in 1748 he carried on the brewery alone,
and was nicknamed hy his opponents "Sammy
the maltster," changed to "Sammy the publi-
can" when he was made tax-collector of Bos-
ton 1763-65. Meanwhile he had become a
great power in town meetings,' having strong
and sincere democratic feeling and a marvel-
ous genius for political management and 'cau-
cusing." As collector he was a bad business
manager and was sharply assailed; but his
political headship is shown by his being

selected in 1764 to draft the t<
to its representatives relative to the Stamp Act,
— the first public American protest against the
parliamentary right of taxation, — and the like
instructions the next year. He was himself
in the legislature 1765-74, bcing_ clerk of the
House and on the leading committees, drawing
up the most important state papers of that
stormy time, and spokesman as well as
prompter of the incessant wrangles with Gov-
ernors Bernard and Hutchinson. When the
Townshend Acts were passed ' in 1767, he
drafted the legislature's petition to the King,
the instructions to the Massachusetts agent in

1766 to the other colonies asking their aid.
The latter ted directly to the Revolution,
George III ordering Bernard to command the
legislature to rescind it or be instantly dis-
solved The latter refusing by 92 to 17, the
King thereon resolved to send troops to
overawe the colony. The same year Adams
wrote 'The True Sentiments of America,1
and in 1769 a famous 'Appeal to the World.'
The morning after the "Boston Massacre8 he
was made chairman of a committee to com-
municate to Governor Hutchinson and his
council the town-meeting vote that the two
regiments of British soldiers should be re-
moved to the castle in the harbor. When the
governor wished to compromise on one, Adams
had the people insist on "both or none," and
both were removed, thereafter being known in
Parliament as the "Sam Adams regiments.*

my Google

In \ll£ the order was issued that the judges
should thereafter be paid by the Crown, not
by the colony, and be removable at the King's
pleasure; the Boston town-meeting requested
Governor Hutchinson to convene the legis-
lature on the question, and on his refusal Mr.
Adams revived a proposal of Jonathan May-
hew's in 1765, to have the towns of Massa-
chusetts appoint committees of correspondence
to consult about the common weal. Eighty
towns soon adopted the suggestion, forming
an omnipotent revolutionary legislature be-
yond the reach of government veto or dissolu-
tion, yet quite within the law. The next spring
intercolonial committees of the same sort were
formed, — an unorganized government of the
united colonies. Meanwhile Mr. Adams bad
kept the public spirit inflamed and alive to the
nature of the crisis by articles under various
pseudonyms in the Boston Gazette^ arguing the
colonists' legal rights and the practical impossi-
bility of any, compromise ; thus not only pre-
paring the public for the crisis and bringing
over the waverers, but making the crisis itself
more inevitable. The management of the tea-
ship matter was in the bands of the com-
mittees of correspondence of Boston and five
adjoining towns, of which Mr. Adams was
the active head; and the throwing of the tea
into the harbor, 17 Dec. 1773, was unquestion-
ably supervised or arranged by him. When as
a punishment the port of Boston was closed
and the charter of Massachusetts annulled in
April 1774, and the legislature met at Salem
under parliamentary order to abase itself and
undo its bad work, Mr. Adams locked the
door, pocketed the key and carried through
the measures for calling a congress at Phila-
delphia in September ; the legislature ad-
journed fine die while the governor's clerk
was hammering at the door with the writ of
dissolution, and British authority was at an
end. Mr. Adams' lifework — of assuring the
breakdown of a system difficult to work at
best, the government of a country by scornful
aliens plus the aristocratic native families —
was over. Though a useful and upright pub-
lic servant, he was of secondary importance
in presence of large problems of constructive
statesmanship; his abilities were parochial, and
he does not figure on a national scale. He
could manage caucuses and organize jealousies,
but hardly frame constitutions. At the Phila-
delphia Congress he was of course a delegate,
and greatly smoothed over sectional distrusts
by his shrewdness, tact and geniality. In 1775
he and Hancock were the only patriots ex-
cepted from amnesty ; and it was Gage's at-
tempt to seize them — under government
orders, and with London forecasts that their
heads would soon adorn Temple Bar — that
brought on the battle of Lexington and opened
the* Revolutionary war. They escaped by
Paul Revere's warning. He led in pushing
forward the Declaration of Independence, of
which he was one of the signers; and was
active in Congressional work till the close of
the Revolution. With much creditable service,
his sympathies were always with division of
authority; he believed in committees instead
of executive heads, and national policy was
often affected disastrously by the delays and
irresponsibility involved. He was largely in-
strumental in framing the State Constitution

ot 1/aU. Nationally, he was of course an
An ti- Federalist, opposing a strong national
government in fear of tyranny ; after long
hesitancy over supporting the Constitution of
1787, he did so only on the understanding that
amendments constituting a bill of rights should
be submitted; but his voice in favor of ratifi-
cation by Massachusetts secured it by 187 to
168, and saved it to the nation. He was long
on the Executive Council of Massachusetts,
lieutenant-go vemor 1789-94. and governor
1794-97 (three terms).

ADAMS, Samuel Hopkins, b. Dunkirk,
N. Y., 26 Jan. 1871. He was graduated from
Hamilton College in 1891 and spent the next
nine years as reporter and special writer on the
New York Sun. He was managing editor of
McClure's Syndicate 1900-01 ; advertising man-
ager of McClure, Phillips & Co., 1901-02; and
a member of the staff of McClure's Magazine
1903-05. He contributed a noteworthy expos-
ure of quack medicines in a series of articles
to Collier's Weekly in 1906, which resulted in
the correction of many of the abuses described
and the closing down of several patent medi-
cine factories. He has written 'The Great
American Fraud' (1906) ; 'The Mystery*
{with Stewart Edward White, 1905); 'The
Flying Death' (1906) ; 'Average Jones"
(1911) ; 'The Secret of Lonesome Cove'
(.1913); 'The Clarion" (1914); <Little Miss
Grouch* (1915) ; 'Our Square and the People
in It' (1917).

ADAMS, Suzanne, American soprano
singer : b. Cambridge, Mass., 28 Nov. 1873.
After studying with Marches! in Paris she
made her debut at the Paris Opera in 1894 as
Juliette In Gounod's 'Romeo et Juliette.'
After three years in Parisian opera she went
to Nice. In 1898 she appeared at Covent Gar-
den, London, and during the season of 1898-99
she appeared at the Metropolitan Opera House
in New York. In 1898 she married Leo Stem,
the violoncellist, who died in 1904. Her roles
include Juliette, Marguerite, Gilda, the Queen
in lLes Huguenots,' Queen of the Night in
■The Magic Flute,' Mimi and Micaela.

ADAMS, Thomas, English clergyman and
author: d. 1655. From 1612 to 1614, he preached
at Willington Bedforshire, where he published
'Heaven and Earth Reconciled,' and 'The
Devil's Banquet.' These were followed by a
great number of other works, admired for their
diversified brilliance, and by 'occasional* ser-
mons which place him in the front rank of con-
temporary English preachers. His works are
said to have influenced John Bunyan; while he
is compared to Jeremy Taylor in brilliance of
fancies, to Thomas Fuller in wit, and Southey
styles him "the prose Shakespeare of Puritan
theologians." In 1618 he was attached to St
Paul's Cathedral and became 'observant chap-
Iain9 to Sir Henry Montague, lord chief justice
of England. His writings edited by J. Angus
and T. Smith were published in J. P. Nichol's
'Puritan Divines' (3 vols., London 1862).

ADAMS, Thomas Sew all, American
economist and educator: b. Baltimore, Md., 29
Dec. 1873. Having graduated from the Balti-
more City College in 1893, he entered Johns
Hopkins University and there obtained his
degree of Ph.D. For a year he filled an

appointment as a clerk in the Census Bnreau
in Washington-, he became assistant treasurer
of Porto Rico. In 1901 he was appointed as-
sociate professor of political economy at the
University of Wisconsin, being promoted to
a full professorship in 1908. In 1910 he became
professor of political economy in Washington
University, where he remained a year, then
resumed his former position at the University
of Wisconsin. In 1911 he became tax commis-
sioner of Wisconsin. His works include :
•Taxation in Maryland1 (1900) ; 'Labor Prob-
lems' (in collaboration with Helen L. Sumner
1905); 'Mortgage Taxation in Wisconsin and
Neighboring States' (1907) ; 'Outlines of
Economies' (with R. T. Ely 1908).

ADAMS, Walter Sydney, American as-
tronomer: b. Antioch, Turkey, 20 Dec. 1876.
He was graduated from Dartmouth College in
1898, and took post-graduate courses in the
University of Chicago and at Munich. In 1901
he was appointed assistant in the Yerkes Obser-
vatory. Three years later he was made assist-
ant astronomer at the ML Wilson Solar Obser-
vatory. During 1910 and 1911 he was acting
director of this observatory. Beside numerous
articles on astronomical subjects he has pub-
lished 'Investigation of the Rotation Period of
the Sun by Spectroscopic Methods'

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