Early Medieval Ornamented Axes from the Territory of Poland Piotr N. KOTOWICZ* Keywords: Early Medieval, battle-axe and axe, decoration, social status, religion and cult Abstract Among over 900 early medieval axes found in the territory of Poland only 27 have some kind of ornaments. Within them we can identify axes with different decoration techniques: engraving, punching or inlay. This small group of artefacts is connected with the most interesting problem which can be discussed in the area of technological, symbolic, religious and social issues. Therefore, we can suggest that ornamented axes had a special destination and was precious for its owners. It is confirmed by the most popular opinion that they were associated with the social elite of early medieval Europe. Axes were symbols of power, rank and wealth. But, what is interesting, some of researchers think that they could be connected with cult of Pagan gods – Perun and Perkun. The others consider that they were the attributes of Saint Olaf. The most interesting problem which can be discussed in the area of technological, symbolic, religious and social issues, concerns the decoration of weapons. Among several categories of weapons whose attractiveness was emphasized by using various motifs and decorative techniques, there can be found battle-axes and axes as well. The matter of the decoration of this kind of weapon has generated much interest for a long time1. Before the Second World War it was discussed in the prestigious monograph of P. Paulsen, however, it rested on questionable methodical assumptions accepted a priori. These influenced the interpretation and conclusions drawn during the analysis2. However the conclusions were less radical in the following post-war publication3. In the next years, by dint of the influx of new finds, the number of publications increased. Mainly Russian4, Scandinavian5, German6, Lithuanian7, and * Historical Museum in Sanok, Zamkowa 2 Street, 38-500 Sanok; Institute of Archaeology, University of Rzeszów, Hoffmanowej 8 Street, 35-016 Rzeszów (p_kotowicz@o2.pl, actamm@gmail.com). 1 Jentsch 1883; Спицын 1915; Городцов 1926; Новосадский 1930; Petersen 1936; La Baume 1941, p. 25-26. 2 Paulsen 1939. 3 Paulsen 1956. 4 Даркевич 1961; Корзухина 1966; Макаров 1988; Кулаков 1991/1992; Артемьев 1994; Кулаков, Скворцов 2000. 5 Strömberg 1953; Fuglesang 1991; Gottlieb 1991; Nielsen 1991; Vellev 1991; Stamsø Munch 1993. 6 Biermann 2002; Raddatz 2002. 7 Казакявичюс 1988, p. 76-78; Malonaitis 1998; Malonaitis 2002, p. 172-177, Fig. 5-7. Studia Universitas Cibiniensis, Series Historica, Supplementum No. 1, p. 105-132 106 Piotr N. KOTOWICZ lately Polish8 researchers have been involved in the discussion. However, in other countries we do not see much interest in that subject9. Ornamentation on axes appears at the beginning of the Middle Ages10. Engraving and silver inlay were known to the Avars11, the first of the techniques is also visible in the case of battle-axes from the Khazar Khaganate12. The climax of the phenomenon falls within the 10th and the 11th cent., and ornaments appear rarely on specimens dated to later times. The territorial range of decorated axes encompasses the territory of Northern, Middle-Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, including: Scandinavia (Norway13, Denmark14, Sweden15), the United Kingdom16, Germany (particularly, regions inhabited by the Slavs in the Early Middle Ages)17, the Czech Republic18, Hungary, Sambia19, Lithuania20, Latvia21, Estonia22, Finland23, Russia24 and Bulgaria25. Artefacts of this kind are also known from the territory of Poland. The main aim of this article is to discuss these specimens. Among over 900 early medieval axes found in the territory of Poland only 27 have some kind of ornaments26. It is only 3% of entire number of finds, but in the neighbouring territories the situation is similar. Therefore, we can suggest that this group of artifacts had a special destination and was precious for its owners. According to P. Paulsen27, within this group we can identify axes with different decoration techniques: engraving, punching or inlay. Ornamentation was placed both on battle-axes (11 specimens) and axes (16 specimens) with wide or narrow blades. Their concentration is visible in Greater and Central Poland and also in Pomerania. 8 Drozd, Janowski 2007; Góra, Kotowicz 2008-2009; Kotowicz 2011; Janowski, forthcoming; Świętosławski, forthcoming. 9 Leppäaho 1964, Fig. 61-63; Devenish, Elliott 1967; Ginters 1967. 10 It is nothing new. Decorated axes are known from the early Roman Period – see Kieferling 1994, p. 353, fig. 14; Nowakowski 1995, p. 36-38, fig. VII:1-2, 5. 11 E.g.: Kiss 1977, Pl. XXXII:133/6, LXXXVI:4; Zábojník 2004, p. 50, Fig. 18:3. 12 Михеев 1985, Fig. 8:25, 14:2; Комар, Сухобоков 2000, Fig. 2:45, 5, 57; Аксенов, Михеев 2009, fig. 4:1. 13 E.g.: Paulsen 1956, fig. 33:a-c. 14 E.g.: Strömberg 1953; Paulsen 1956, figs. 44, 86; Eisenschmidt 2004, fig. 112:2. 15 E.g.: Paulsen 1956, fig. 29:a-b, d-f, 45, 48, 55, 78; Jansson 1988, p. 616-617, Fig. 26:2 (but this specimen was imported from the South-East). 16 Paulsen 1956, fig. 32; Devenish, Elliott 1967. 17 Paulsen 1956, figs. 82-83; Heindel 1992, fig. 13:b, 21:f-g, 23:g. 18 Šolle 1966, p. 269-270, fig. 11b/120/11; Kouřil 2006; Kouřil 2008, p. 117-118, fig. 3:7. 19 E.g.: Paulsen 1956, fig. 30:i, 34:f, 87. 20 Volkaite-Kulikauskiene 1964, Fig. 2, 5, 7:1; Malonaitis 1998. 21 Paulsen 1956, figs. 31:b, d, 34:a, c, 79, 81; Ginters 1967; Atgāzis 1997, Fig. 3:2,4. 22 E.g.: Paulsen 1956, fig. 31:a, c, e, 33:d-e, 34: d-e, g, 35:a-c, 36:a. 23 E.g.: Paulsen 1956, fig. 29:h-i, 30:a-f, 35:d, 36:b-d, 50-51, 65. 24 Корзухина 1966; Макаров 1988; Артемьев 1994. 25 Yotov 2003, p. 24-25. 26 In the previous literature it was said that traces of tinning were found on the surface of the axe from Wrocław, Silesia – Jaworski, Kaźmierczyk, Rzeźnik 1991, p. 171-172, pl. XVIII:1. Unfortunately, these marks are completely invisible now (the examination of artefact was done in 2008). 27 Paulsen 1956. Early Medieval Ornamented Axes from the Territory of Poland 107 Only single artifacts were discovered in Masovia, the Lublin and the Lubuskie Regions (Fig. 1). These specimens were discovered in several kinds of sites: two in strongholds, nine in cemeteries, two in settlements and six in remains of bridges. Five of them are accidental finds and the next three are of unknown provenance. Their connection with the territory of Poland is only hypothetical, but very probable. The chronology of these artefacts is very broad and encompasses the period between the 9th and the 13th cent. Some early ornamented specimens are represented by three battle-axes from the 9th and the 10th cent. Most of them – 17 specimens – appear in the 10th and the 11th cent. Seven axes are dated to the 12th and the 13th cent. The largest groups of ornamented axes are specimens decorated with engraving. The artifacts decorated in this way are also the most widespread in the territory of whole Europe. The ornamentation takes various forms. The most popular way was to put a few vertical grooves (2 to 5) on the necks of the axes and sometimes on the necks of the battle-axes’ hammers28. Ornaments which covered larger surfaces or assumed other forms (e.g., crosses) were less common in this technique. Some researchers think that in many cases (like in the case of the battle-axe from Bardy – see below) the grooves were primarily inlayed29. Some early ornamented specimens are represented by two battle-axe of the bradatica type (Type I according to J. Poulik). This kind of battle-axes is typical for the Great Moravian State, but circa 15 specimens are known from the territory of Poland30. The first of them was discovered in the stronghold at Bardy (Kołobrzeg distr., Pomerania) in 1964, in the construction of the rampart which was destroyed and burned at the turn of the 9th and the 10th cent.31 It can be dated to the 9th cent., possibly to its 2nd half32. This battle-axe is ornamented with carving lines inlaid in bronze on the shaft hole and the neck33 (Fig. 2:2). The second one was found in 1976, in the fortified settlement in Barkowice Mokre (Piotrków Trybunalski distr., Central Poland), dated to the 9th cent. This specimen, dated to the mid- 9th cent., was discovered in the eastern part of the defensive trench No II, in the arable topsoil layer. This battle-axe is extraordinary, because a composition of geometrical ornaments in the shape of fir-like and ladder-like patterns was carved on its blade and neck (Fig. 2:1). Unfortunately, we do not know whether this pattern was originally inlaid. No traces of inlay were detected by X-ray examination of the artefact. Additionally, the hammer of this battle-axe is decorated with four surrounding carving lines34. This is a special case, because among a few hundreds of bradatica type battle-axes discovered in the territory of Central Europe (first of all in the Moravia region) there are only 28 See also Йотов 2004, pl. XLVI:554, XLVII:561, L:585. Paulsen 1956, p. 69; śak 1967, p. 298 and 300, footnote 48. 30 Kotowicz 2009. 31 Łosiński 1966, p. 163, fig. 1; Łosiński 1972, p. 94-95, fig. 94. 32 Dulinicz 2001, p. 98. 33 Wachowski 1981, p. 154-156, ryc. 3:c. 34 Góra, Kotowicz 2008-2009, p. 238-246, pl. IV-V. 29 108 Piotr N. KOTOWICZ several specimens decorated on the parts of their hammers, but never on the blades and necks35. One more specimen whose discovery can be defined as the result of contacts of “Polish” tribes with territories situated on the South of the Carpathian line, is the accidental find from Łaszczów36 (Tomaszów Lubelski distr., Lublin Region). This type of battle-axe, rare in the territory of Poland37, belongs to Type 2 according to J. Poulik38 (probably dated to the 9th or the 10th cent.) and on the right side of its hammer there are three carving lines (Fig. 2:3). The author has not found any axe of this type with analogical ornamentation till now. The next large group of decorated axes found in Great Poland, Pomerania and Masovia are considered as a result of contacts of the young Polish Piast State and the Pomeranian Slavs with their neighbours – mainly the Vikings and the Rus’ State. Of course, some of them could be manufactured in local workshops. They are represented by specimens decorated with carving lines on their necks and, in the case of battle-axes, on the hammers too. Originally, the lines, as it was mentioned above, could be filled with coloured metal wire39. Most of them are dated to the 11th cent. and they generally belong to Type IA according to A. Nadolski40 and Type M according to J. Petersen41. Battle-axes of Type IA decorated in this way are mainly known from inhumation cemeteries. The first of them (Fig. 3:1), with decoration of three lines on the neck and five on the back parts of the hammer, was found during the excavations by F. Tarczyński in 1885-1886 in the cemetery with stone casing in Karwowo (Płock distr., Masovia)42. The next (Fig. 3:2), with three carving lines on the neck, was found before the Second World War in Buszkowo43 (Bydgoszcz distr., Pomerania). In the cemetery in Szarów (Poddębice distr., Central Poland), excavated by German archaeologists during the Second World War, the battle-axe with three lines on the neck and the hammer44 was discovered (Fig. 3:3). Additionally, we do not know anything about their positions in graves, nor we have any information about other grave-goods, and even sex and age of the persons buried with those specimens. Much more information is available about the battle-axe from Lutomiersk (Pabianice distr., Central Poland). This specimen with two carving lines on the neck and the hammer 35 Kouřil 2006, fig. 5; Góra, Kotowicz 2008-2009, p. 246; Kouřil 2008, fig. 3:7. Unpublished, private collection of Adam Kita from Lublin. 37 Only three specimens of this type were mentioned in the literature. These are battle-axes from Czechowice (Silesia), Włodarka (Pomerania) and an unknown place in Pomerania – see Świątkiewicz 2002, p. 53-54, pl. XII:1,3; StrzyŜ 2006, p. 43-44, fig. 5:3. 38 Poulík 1948, p. 33. 39 Borowczak 2008, p. 97, cat. I.58. 40 Nadolski 1954, p. 40-41, pl. XII:1-2. 41 Petersen 1919, p. 46-47, fig. 44-45. 42 Tarczyński 1901, p. 31; Nadolski 1954, p. 41, tab. B/99; Kordala 2006, p. 50, cat. 34, tab. 24/3. 43 Langenheim 1936, p. 276, fig. 3; Hensel 1950, p. 99, fig. 68; Nadolski 1954, p. 41, tab. B/8, tabl. XII:2; Wilke, Potemski 1970, p. 9-10, fig. 2. 44 Nadolski 1954, p. 41, tab. B/125, tabl. XII:1. 36 Early Medieval Ornamented Axes from the Territory of Poland 109 (Fig. 3:4) was discovered in 1949, in the male grave No. 69 and was situated near the right foot of the dead. Its blade was directed towards the body45. Two more analogical battle-axes (Fig. 3:5-6) were found during the long-term excavations in the Lednica Lake (Rybitwy, sites 3a and 3b, Gniezno distr, Greater Poland), in the remains of two early medieval bridges, which connected the mainland with Ostrów Lednicki (Lednica Island)46. Along these bridges over 250 weaponry finds were discovered, with ca. 150 axes and battle-axes. The bridges are dated to the 2nd half of the 10th – the 1st half of the 11th cent. (construction – ca. 963; the last repair – ca. 1032-1033)47. In the literature the specimens from the Lednica Lake are mainly connected with the invasion of the Duke of Bohemia – Bretislaus the First in 1038, and the hypothetical battle which was fought on the Lednica’s bridges48. What is more, one of those specimens has motifs of “wolf’s teeth” on the edges of the blade, the neck and the shaft-hole, and also diagonal check on the base of its hammer49. Apart from Poland, battle-axes of this type are known only from the territory of Russia and the Baltic countries50. Among them the ornamented artefacts are very rare. One of them is the specimen found in the 11th cent. grave in Kabanskoe in Russia51, which has the convex decoration in the form of three circular ridges on the hammer’s neck and the incised hammer. Type M is represented by three specimens52. The first of them, from PoznańLuboń53 (Poznań distr., Greater Poland), is the accidental find in the inhumation cemetery in 193754. It is decorated with two carving lines on the neck (Fig. 4:1). The specimen from the burial ground in Skotniki (Szczecinek distr., Pomerania) is dated to the end of the 10th or the 1st half of the 11th cent., and was found in the male (?) grave No. 1, near the right foot of the dead. This axe was probably ornamented with a single carving line on the neck55 (Fig. 4:2). One more Type M axe from the Lednica Lake had two series of seven thin cuts on the top part of the neck56 (Fig. 4:3). Close analogies to „our” artefacts are known in Scandinavia, especially in the territory of Middle Sweden (Uppland) and to a lesser extent in Norway. This fact was a 45 JaŜdŜewski 1951, p. 101, 110-114, fig. 18; Nadolski, Abramowicz, Poklewski 1959, p. 47, 52-54, tab. 8, pl. XXXVI:d. 46 Górecki 2001, p. 53, fig. 8:11 and 13; Borowczak 2008, cat. 58 and 139. 47 Wilke 2006, p. 443. 48 Wilke 2006, p. 449. However, this is only one interpretation. For example, L. P. Słupecki (2006, p. 6768) claims that part of these finds may suggest that there was a pagan sacrifice place there. 49 Borowczak 2008, cat. 58. 50 Paulsen 1956, p. 44, fig. 14:e; Кирпичников 1966, p. 35, pl. XII:7-8. 51 Спицын 1905, fig. 85; Кирпичников 1966, cat. 214, pl. XII:7. 52 Apart from these specimens, few artefacts of this type are known from the territory of Poland – Kurasiński 2005. 53 M. Kara suggests that this specimen is a ”hybrid’ of Types M and Laptau – Kara 1991, p. 109, footnote 59. 54 Rajewski 1937, p. 84-85, pl. XI:3; Nadolski 1954, tab. B/73, pl. XIV:2; Kara 1991, p. 108-111 and footnote 59, No. 4, fig. 3:3. 55 Kurasiński 2005, p. 200, 202, 208, footnotes 2 and 23, fig. 2:4. 56 Borowczak 2008, cat. 142. Unfortunately, the ornamentation is not preserved at present. 110 Piotr N. KOTOWICZ background to the hypothesis that the axes of Type M decorated in this way and discovered in the territories of the Western Slavs (also Poland) may have originated in these regions57. However, it is worth mentioning that singles specimens were found also in England and Germany58. This type of ornamentation is visible on another axe from the Lednica Lake, belonging to Type Vc according to A. Nadolski. This type was very popular in Poland59. Similarly to the previous cases, the neck of this artefact was decorated with carving lines on both sides. Additionally, a wide arched carving line appears on the blade and the beard of the axe60 (Fig. 5:1). This specimen is dated to the 11th cent. Decorated axes of this type are known from Russia61 and Gotland62. The specimen decorated in the same way was discovered in the Gągnowo Lake, near Nętno (Drawsko Pomorskie distr., Pomerania) during underwater excavations in 2003. This small axe was found in the remains of the wooden bridge (built after 964), which went to the island, where there was a ceremonial and trading place. This axe is ornamented on the left part of the neck. The ornament consists of four vertical carving lines63 (Fig. 5:2). The axe itself belongs to Type IVd according to A. Nadolski’s typology64. This kind of ornamentation (Fig. 5:3) can be seen on the preserved fragment of the axe found in the stronghold in Tum, site 1 (Łęczyca distr., Central Poland). The artefact was discovered in the 12th-13th-century layer, during archaeological excavations in 195065. More complex ornamentation can be found on the small (also partially preserved) axe from Sędzin, sites 86-88 (Aleksandrów Kujawski distr., Kuiavia). Its blade and neck are double-sided ornamented with three groups of double vertical lines and the motif of oblique incisions on the edges (Fig. 5:4). The artefact was discovered in the early medieval settlement, in the object No. 13, dated to the 12th-13th cent.66 Apart from this group of artefacts, in Polish museum collections there are two more battle-axes from this period (dated probably to the 11th cent.), which have the decoration of carving lines. Unfortunately, we do not know anything about their provenance. The battle-axes are close to Type III according to A. Nadolski’s typology. One of them, preserved in the collection of the Archaeological Museum in Cracow67 has a single wide line placed on the left part of the hammer (Fig. 5:6). The second, preserved in the collection of the National Archaeological Museum in 57 Rygh 1885, No. 558; śak 1967, p. 298-300; Kurasiński 2005, p. 208. Wheeler 1927, p. 26, fig. 11; Unverzagt, Schuldt 1963, pl. 30:c; śak 1963, p. 32, cat. 33, fig. 7:1; śak 1967, p. 298. 59 Nadolski 1954, p. 46. 60 Górecki 2001, p. 58, fig. 9:3; Borowczak 2008, cat. 91. 61 Рябинин 2001, p. 43-44, fig. XXIII:9. 62 Paulsen 1956, fig. 29:d-e. 63 Kaźmierczak, Niegowski, WaŜny 2006, p. 462, fig. 5:f. 64 Nadolski 1954, p. 44-45, pl. XVI:4. 65 Abramowicz, Nadolski, Poklewski-Koziełł, Wieczorek 2003, p. 62-63, cat. 070b. 66 Maik, Świętosławski, Wtorkiewicz-Marosik, śemigała 2009, p. 188, 190, fig. 22:12. 67 Nadolski 1954, tab. B/170. 58 Early Medieval Ornamented Axes from the Territory of Poland 111 Warsaw68, has three circular carving lines put on its hammer (Fig. 5:5). A good analogy to this specimen is the battle-axe from Gotland69. The decoration in form of vertical engraved lines is mainly connected with Scandinavian culture. The specimens from other territories, like Poland, decorated in this way are considered as the result of the presence of the Scandinavians among the Slavs or Scandinavian influences70. However, it seems that this opinion is too simplified. Worth mentioning is the fact that with the exception of specimens regarded as typical Scandinavian axes (e.g. axes of Type M according to J. Petersen), this kind of ornament can also be found on 11th century battle-axes of Type Ia according to A. Nadolski, or axes with narrow blades from Lithuania71. Such axes are completely unknown in Scandinavia, but they are characteristic for the territories of Middle-Eastern Europe. A possibility of local production of such artefacts should be taken into consideration; however, the Scandinavian inspiration is also highly probable. Very special kinds of specimens are axes on which the signs of the Greek cross were engraved with a sharp tool72. The first one belongs to Type M according to J. Petersen’s typology and was discovered at the end of the 19th cent. in the inhumation cemetery in Blichowo (Płock distr., Masovia). The axe was excavated in the male grave No. 6 with a wooden bucket, and can be dated to the mid-11th cent.73 The cross was put on an isolated field in the shape of a rhombus on the back side of the hammer (Fig. 6:1). The other one (of unknown provenance) is preserved in the collection of the Museum of the Polish Army in Warsaw74. This specimen can be dated to the 13th cent.75, and decoration of the Greek cross was put on both sides of the blade (Fig. 6:2). On its right side, a trace of one more sign is notable, which in all probability resulted from an unsuccessful attempt at ornamenting the specimen. The accidental find from the surroundings of Piła (Piła distr., Great Poland) is very exceptional. It was decorated with three carving lines on the small ledge which crowns the end of its beard76 (Fig. 6:5). The axe belongs to Type Vb according to A. Nadolski, and it can be widely dated to the 11th-13th cent. The analogically decorated specimen of this type is known from Vitebsk in Belarus and it is dated to the 13th 68 Unpublished. Collection of the National Archaeological Museum in Warsaw, No. PMA/VI/8658. It could be published in this article by courtesy of Dr Wojciech Brzeziński, the Director of the Museum and Andrzej Piotrowski M.A., Head of the Department of Early Medieval and Modern Period Archaeology. 69 Paulsen 1956, fig. 29:f. 70 Артемьев 1994, p. 158; śak 1967, p. 298-300; Kara 1991, p. 109, footnote 59; Kurasiński 2005, p. 208. 71 Malonaitis 1998, fig. 4. 72 For more on this issue see Kotowicz 2011. 73 Rutkowski 1906, p. 41-42, pl. IV; Kordala 1999, p. 106-108, fig. 3:a; Kurasiński 2005, p. 200, 203, fig. 3:4; Kordala 2006, p. 39, cat. 3, tab. 24:1. 74 Kotowicz 2011, fig. 5. 75 Close analogies to our artefact are the axes found in the stronghold from the 2nd half of the 13th cent. in RaciąŜ, Tuchola distr., Poland - Świątkiewicz 2010, fig. 12:3, 13:1. 76 Unpublished. Private collection of Robert Fedyk from Sanok. 112 Piotr N. KOTOWICZ cent.77 Sometimes the ornamentation in engraving technique is enriched by punching. It is visible on another miniature axe from the Gągnowo Lake. The find (close to Type IVe according to Nadolski) has a geometrical composition of spots and carving lines78 (Fig. 6:4). This type of ornamentation also appears on the accidental find from Perespa (Tomaszów Lubelski distr., Lublin Region). In this case two thin carving lines with single and double lines of spots were engraved on the right side of the neck79 (Fig. 6:3). This axe belongs to Type Vb according to A. Nadolski and is widely dated to the 11th-13th cent. Undoubtedly, the most prestigious axes decorated with the inlay technique belong to a group defined by P. Paulsen as Prunkaxten. Here belong the artefacts decorated with inlaid technique which covers large parts of their surfaces. Three of them (Poznań-Luboń, Lednica Lake and Pień) are dated to the 11th cent., while the other (Gubin and śagań) come from the 13th cent. The following axe (in fact a battle-axe) ornamented with silver and copper inlay belongs to the 11th cent. Type Lunov according to P. Paulsen’s typology and it comes from Luboń near Poznań (Poznań, distr., Greater Poland). The axe was accidentally discovered before the Second World War in the inhumation cemetery80. Decoration in the form of silver and copper stripes originally covered almost the entire surfaces. Additionally, the figure of a horse was visible on its blade (unfortunately, it cannot be seen now). The back side of the specimen’s hammer was decorated with the sign of the cross potent (Fig. 7:3). The battle-axes of this type are quite rare, and their concentration is visible in the Baltic See basin. Analogical ornamentation can be seen on silver-decorated axes known from Lunov, and also from the Havel River near Brandenburg, Germany81 and Lund in Denmark82. Less complex ornamentation (two engraved vertical lines on the neck) is visible on the axe from the cemetery in Viskiauten, Sambia83. Another axe from the Lednica Lake has rich ornamentation as well. This axe must be classified as a unique version of Type Laptau according to P. Paulsen84. Primarily85, on its surfaces there was a visible inlay decoration (in silver?) in the form of combination of geometrical motifs and “fish scale” (Fig. 7:2). This last motif was 77 Гурин 1987, fig. 21:5 and plate. Kaźmierczak, Niegowski, WaŜny 2006, p. 462, fig. 5:g. 79 Unpublished. Collection of the Janusz Peter Regional Museum in Tomaszów Lubelski (Muzeum im. Janusza Petera w Tomaszowie Lubelskim), No. MT/1122/1/A. It could be published in this article by courtesy of Jolanta Bagińska M.A. 80 Rajewski 1937, p. 84-85, pl. XI:2; Nadolski 1954, p. 43, footnote 27; tab. B/72, pl. XV:4; Paulsen 1956, p. 158, fig. 84; Kara 1992, p. 169, fig. 1. 81 Paulsen 1956, p. 156, fig. 83 ; Szameit 2001, p. 78, il. 40. 82 Strömberg 1953; Paulsen 1956, p. 159-163, Abb. 85:a-b. This battle-axe bears the same kind of sign of the cross (cross potent), which can indicate that the specimens from Lund and Poznań-Luboń were made in the same workshop, certainly in the Slavic environment – Kotowicz 2011. 83 Paulsen 1956, p. 83, fig. 30:i. 84 Górecki 2001, p. 53, fig. 9:1; Borowczak 2008, p. 87, cat. 37. 85 During the examination of this artefact in 2009, the ornamentation was completely invisible. 78 Early Medieval Ornamented Axes from the Territory of Poland 113 revealed on the axe from Laptau (now Muromskoe)86, and also on a few axes of Type IV according to A. N. Kirpičnikov, known from Sambia87, Russia88, Sweden89 and on the atypical artefact from Germany90. Due to the fact that most axes of this type were discovered in the territory of Northern Russia (the surroundings of Belozero) it can be suggested that this kind of ornamentation originated in this region91. The richly ornamented axe found in the inhumation cemetery in Pień during the excavation in 2004 (Bydgoszcz distr., Chełmno Land) is a spectacular find. The axe, belonging to Type IV according to A. N. Kirpičnikov, was discovered in the chamber grave (No. 15) of a maturus age man. This find was situated below the skeleton, on its right hand side near the shank. Moreover, strongly mineralized fragments of fabric (a robe or a shroud) and skin were preserved on its surface. The grave was richly equipped. Apart from the axe, there were also a wooden bucket, a bronze bowl, a wooden vessel, a whetstone, an iron knife and fragments of silk textile. It can be dated to the end of the 10th or the 1st half of the 11th cent. Ornamentation in the form of inlaid sheet stripes made probably of silver is notable on the surface of one of the axe’s sides in the blade’s upper part and on the set traces. The X-ray analysis demonstrated that both surfaces of the axe-head were ornamented. The central part of the composition is occupied by a pattern made of an unornamented space in the shape of some kind of the cross potent. Each arm is topped with a reversed E letter. In the blade’s upper and lower parts there are two parallel streaks with motifs of hourglasses and rhombuses. In the front and back parts there are visible motifs composed of triangles92 (Fig. 7:1). Analogies to some decorative elements of the composition and to the ornamentation itself have not been found so far. As it is rightly emphasized by some researchers, the axe belongs to the mentioned group of richly ornamented axes of Type IV (Kirpičnikov), known mainly from the Eastern region of the Baltic See basin, where they surely originated from93. The most enigmatic category of artefacts is two unusual axes of Type Vb according to A. Nadolski. They were discovered in the 19th cent. on the territory of Lower Lusatia (now Lubuskie Region). The first of them was found in 1884 in Gubin, on the Easter Hill, on the depth of 2 m together with late medieval pottery, a sickle and nails94; the second one is an accidental find from ca. 1850 in śagań95. Both of them – which unfortunately were lost during the Second World War – belong to the 86 Paulsen 1956, p. 168-170, fig. 87:a; Drozd, Janowski 2007, fig. 8:a. Drozd, Janowski 2007, fig. 6:f. 88 Корзухина 1966, p. 91-92, fig. 2:3-4; Макаров 1988; Артемьев 1994, p. 160, fig. 3:2. 89 Paulsen 1956, fig. 78. 90 Heindel 1992, p. 44-45, fig. 23;g. 91 Drozd, Janowski 2007, p. 118. 92 Drozd, Janowski 2007; Janowski, forthcoming. 93 See footnotes 88-91 and Курдашов, Вашенькин 1999, fig. 2:14; Кулаков 2004, fig. 85:1. 94 Jentsch 1883; Werner 1929; Petersen 1936; Paulsen 1956, p. 171, fig. 90; Biermann 2002, p. 63-64, fig. 1:1, 4. 95 Petersen 1936, p. 318-322, pl. XXXIII:1-2; Paulsen 1956, p. 175-176, fig. 91; Sarnowska 1962, p. 507-508, fig. 12. 87 114 Piotr N. KOTOWICZ group of artefacts with the figures of horned animals, richly plated with silver and copper96 (Fig. 7:4-5). Similar figures of quadrupeds are visible on the following four axes found in various regions of Europe: in the surroundings of Wien and in the ruins of the Schauenberg Castle in Austria97, in a river near the ruins of the Kirumpää Castle in Estonia98, and in the Golden Horde nobleman’s grave from the cemetery in Olen’-Kolodez’ upon the Don River, Russia99. Analogical ornaments appeared on three more artefacts: stirrups from the collection of the Historical Museum in Moscow100 and from the medieval cemetery in Masteikiai, Lithuania101, and also on the cross-guard of the sword from the collection of the National Museum Bargello in Florence102. This group of axes was variously dated in the literature. In most cases their chronology was put within the period between the 10th and the 12th cent.103 The discovery (in 1996) of the almost identical axe in barrow No. 7 in the cemetery in Olen’-Kolodez’104 indicates that the dating of these specimens must be connected with the 13th cent. and not earlier105. This is confirmed by the chronology of other specimens ornamented in this way. Based on analogies (such as finds from Plemięta in Poland) and iconography (the seal of Prince Trojden of Masovia, 1341) both stirrups can be dated to the 13th-14th cent.,106 however, the sword (analogies: Desiukišes in Lithuania; Toruń in Poland; Novgorod in Russia) is dated generally to the 2nd half of the 12th or the 13th cent.107 It seems to be not very probable that these artefacts were manufactured in the local environment. Apart from the attempt at connecting these animals with the family signs of the Western Slavs’ elites or the coats of arms of Lusatian knights108 it is worth emphasizing that this type of axe does not occur in the territory of Western Poland and Austria. However, it is mainly characteristic for Russia and the Baltic nations. Also other artefacts decorated in this way have analogies which can be mainly found in this part of Europe109. Having rejected the hypothesis of V. Kulakov, 96 In the literature there were many attempts to identify this animal as a deer or elk – cf. Неуступный 1947, p. 140; Ефимов 2000, p. 174; OręŜ... 2003, cat. I.57, fig. 12. The most probable hypothesis connects those images with other quadrupeds - taurus or aurochs – see Świętosławski, forthcoming. 97 Werner 1929; Paulsen 1956, p. 170-171, fig. 89; Biermann 2002, p. 64-65, fig. 2:1, 3; Raddatz 2002, p. 295, fig. 4:1. 98 Mandel 2003. 99 Ефимов 2000, p. 174-175, Fig. 5:2, 6:3. 100 Городцов 1926; Paulsen 1956, p. 182-183, fig. 94; Świętosławski 1992, p. 108-109, Fig. 6; Biermann 2002, p. 65, fig. 3:1; Raddatz 2002, p. 295, fig. 4:2. 101 Kulakov 1998, p. 13, Fig. 9. About the chronology of the cemetery see, e.g., Varnas 1994. 102 Paulsen 1956, p. 179, 182, fig. 93; Biermann 2002 p. 66-67, fig. 3:2; Raddatz 2002, p. 295, fig. 1:2a-b. 103 Неуступный 1947, p. 140-141, 169, fig. 43; Nadolski 1954, p. 45-46, tab. B/43; Paulsen 1956, p. 183-189; Sarnowska 1962, p. 508-511. 104 Ефимов 2000, p. 174-175. 105 Wołoszyn 2004, p. 263, przyp. 29. 106 Świętosławski 1990, p. 53; Świętosławski 1992, p. 108-109, Fig. 6. 107 Kazakevičius 1994, p. 40-41. 108 About this problem see Świętosławski, forthcoming. 109 See also Biermann 2002. Early Medieval Ornamented Axes from the Territory of Poland 115 who claims that these were ritual axes of the Balts and the Slavs which originated in the Prussian tribal territory as final resistance against Christianity110, the author believes that another proposition of this researcher is more interesting but also less proved. He admits that these axes could be found in the territory of Western Poland and Austria as a consequence of the crusade in Sambia, which was led by King Ottokar II of Bohemia in 1254-1255111. It is clear that the connection of this group of artefacts with a single historical event is very risky and controversial. On the other hand, the participation of Polish, Silesian or Bohemian knights in numerous campaigns against the Pagan Balts inspired by the Teutonic Order is well known. It is not impossible that during one of the mentioned campaigns the axes might have been taken by Crusaders as the precious plunder. In this context, it is amazing that the similar artefact was discovered in the Golden Horde nobleman’s grave from Olen’Kolodez’. W. Świętosławski112 rightly appeals to reject the hypothesis of the discoverer of the grave, who thought that this artefact had been made by local craftsmen113. Moreover, he also rejects the opinion of K. Raddatz, who on these grounds claims that the Polish and Austrian specimens were the Mongolian weaponry, which got to the territory of Middle Europe as a consequence of the Mongol invasion in 1241114. In this case the reverse is true – the axe discovered in Olen’-Kolodez’ is a plunder brought to the Steppe from the first 13th cent. campaign towards the West, when the Mongols reached as far as the surroundings of Wien and the eastern periphery of Lusatia115. A conclusion may be drawn that such precious artefacts could “reach” distant regions. A question arises whether the axe from OlenKolodez’ travelled twice from the Baltic region to Lusatia and to the Don River or not? Such a theory is risky but not impossible. * * * In two 13th cent. Icelandic sagas ornamented axes are mentioned. They were given to the main characters by their rulers. In Laxdaela Saga there appears an axe decorated with gold, which Olaf Hoskuldsson got during the feast from his jarl116, and in the next one, i.e., Egil’s Saga, Thorolf was given an enormous axe by King Eric for his father Skalla-Grim. The axe was in the shape of the crescent (Type M according to J. Petersen?), it was gold studded and its shaft had a silver ferrule117. Circumstances of these events indicate that gifts of precious axes were a symbolic form of connection of their new bearers with rulers. They simply contributed to obtaining a 110 Кулаков 1991/1992, p. 124, fig. 4. Кулаков, Скворцов 2000, p. 180, 182, fig. 4:3 112 Świętosławski, forthcoming. 113 Ефимов 1999; Ефимов 2000. 114 Raddatz 2002. 115 Świętosławski, forthcoming 116 Oakeshott 1960, p. 154. 117 Paulsen 1939, p. 15; Kotowicz 2008, p. 454. 111 116 Piotr N. KOTOWICZ higher social status by their new owners. It also indicates a special value of decorated axes, which was beyond their material price. It is confirmed by the most popular opinion that ornamented axes were associated with the social elite of early medieval Europe. They were symbols of power, rank and wealth. That was surely the case of artefacts with inlay decoration118. On the other hand, the signs marked with punching or engraving techniques did not need to be associated with rich owners. This conclusion refers to the afore-mentioned group of artefacts discovered in Poland. In general, it can be noticed that a matter of decoration of this category of specimens mainly appears in such areas where an axe plays a role both as a military and a “cultural” attribute119. It is not strange that decoration of this category appears on bradatica type battle-axes. Their presence in the Polish territories is regarded as a result of contacts of local tribes with the Great Moravian State, where they appear widely. Worth mentioning is the fact that these ornamented Polish specimens are unique not only in Poland but also on the South of the Carpathian line. A theory that the specimen from Bardy arrived to Pomerania through the Scandinavian medium is the best explanation for this. Therefore, ornamentations which are typical for this region can be noticed on them120. Another theory says that the most spectacular specimens of weapons usually got to peripheries of culture influences of civilization centres and were given to the “Barbarian” elite as a result of willingness of making stronger political and economic relationships. Another problem are axes which appear at the turn of the 10th and the 11th cent. It is connected with a completely new political situation in this region caused by the rise of the First Piast State, the consolidation of the tribal structure in Pomerania and the presence of Scandinavian settlers in the coasts of the Baltic See. In addition, there is also an increase in military and symbolic significance of this kind of weapon among the societies of the Baltic Sea. In the 10th cent., in the northern part of our continent, especially after Christianization, the number of axes in graves increased significantly. They often belonged to persons of lower social position. As a rule, they were the only military equipment of the dead. According to the opinion of U. Näsman, so many graves with an axe as the only weapon show that this was the most common weapon, probably not in war, but adapted to the funeral ceremony as a symbol of dead warrior’s social position and mainly character121. The rise of significance of the axe as a symbol of the warrior’s profession in Scandinavian communities is clearly visible based on the example of the so-called Varangian Guard of the Byzantine emperors in the end of the 10th and the 1st half of the 11th cent. As it was stressed by most researchers, the axe did not play an important 118 Pedersen 1997, p. 130; Макаров 1988, p. 455; Drozd, Janowski 2007, p. 122. Ornamentation of axes and battle-axes appears both among the Avars and the Khazars, where this type of weapon belongs to the most common elements of their graves’ equipment. However, it is intriguing that there are no ornamented specimens of the francisca type among West-European and Merovingian specimens. 120 Wachowski 1981, p. 154-156; Wachowski 2001, p. 169, 173. 121 Näsman 1991, p. 180; Wołoszyn 2006, p. 599; see also Trotzig 1985; Pedersen 2002, p. 29-30, 34; Mäntylä 2005. 119 Early Medieval Ornamented Axes from the Territory of Poland 117 role in the Byzantine army and it was mainly used by mercenaries122. After the quelling of the rebellion of Bardas Fokas by Emperor Basil II the Great, in which the participation of Rus’ warriors was very important, the Emperor’s guard began to assume a Varangian character. The memberships in this guard are defined in several sources (among others Alexias, Nicéphore) as „axe-bearers” – πελεκυφόροι. The axes fulfill a significant ceremonial role here. Guardsmen were holding them in the right hand, leaning the blade against the left wrist. When the Emperor came, they brought up the axes to lean them on their right shoulders. During the time of the name-day of the Emperor the Varangians saluted him and banged their axes, which emitted rhythmical sound123. In this case, the axe is a symbol of the guardsmen’s profession and maybe of their ethnical identification. What kind of axes was used by the Varangian Guard? A recently published Byzantine ivory plaque from the 10th-11th cent. shows the warrior (interpreted as a Varangian guardsman) with a sword and an axe of a fan-shaped blade124. It indicates that this sort of axes was characteristic for the Scandinavian warriors’ axes of Type M according to J. Petersen125. The most interesting ones were covered with various ornamentations. Is it possible to refer these statements to the present territory of Poland? It is quite ambiguous. As a matter of fact, axes appear more often than swords but more rarely than spears in the 11th and (rare) 12th cent. grave inventories from the territory of early medieval Poland126. The axe often served as a common military equipment of a dead person. This can also indicate its important role in the early medieval equipment of the Piast warfare and its significant symbolic meaning. The importance of this kind of weapon is much greater because of „Polish” finds of 11th cent. metal (in principle bronze) miniature axes. Such finds are also known from the territory of MiddleEastern and Northern Europe, and they also occur e.g., in Romania, Hungary or Bulgaria. Those artefacts are variously interpreted, but their number indicates a possibility of social or religious identification by means of axes in the 11th cent. Middle-Eastern Europe127. Taking the ornamented specimens into consideration, it is worth noticing that a majority of them appear in graves. They are found in richly equipped graves of the local or foreign elite (e.g. Pień), or in graves where an axe or a battle-axe was the only equipment (e.g. Lutomiersk). Unfortunately, all mentioned 122 Schreiner 1981, p. 234-236; Kolias 1988, p. 163. Kolias 1988, p. 166-167; Wołoszyn 2006, p. 598-599. 124 Beatson 2000; D’Amato 2005, p. 42; Wołoszyn 2006, p. 599. See also scene on Folio 26 in the Scylitzes Manuscript (2nd half of the 12th cent.) where axes of this kind are held by guardsmen of Emperor Michael the Amorian – Bruhn Hoffmeyer 1966, p. 11-12, Fig. 23; Grotowski 2011, p. 424425, footnote 281. 125 It is worth noticing that axes of this type are depicted as the weapon of guardsmen in ceremonial scenes in the Bayeux Tapestry, such as: bringing the news to Wilhelm the Conqueror by Guy, Count of Ponthieu and the arrival of Harold Godwinson to Edward the Confessor (La Tapisserie... 1957, Fig. 12, 31; Wilson 1985, p. 225 and Fig. 10-11, 28; Näsman 1991, p. 173). It can be a significant proof for the high rank of warriors equipped with “Danish axes”. 126 See e.g. Nadolski 1954, p. 91-93. 127 Panasiewicz, Wołoszyn 2002; Kucypera, Pranke, Wadyl 2010. 123 118 Piotr N. KOTOWICZ data are not consilient with the written sources from the Polish territory, where axes are mentioned quite rarely128. Only the chronicle of the Polish history by Wincenty Kadłubek (the beginning of the 13th cent.) mentioned troops called bipennati (doubleaxe bearers) in the army of Miecław, the rebellious ruler of Masovia and the opponent of the Polish Prince Casimir I the Restorer in his struggle for the throne in the 10301040s. Most of researchers believe that this mention refers to a special formation of warriors using this kind of weapon. The formation probably had the same character as the Varangian Guard129. It is also highly probable that they used ornamented weapons. Decoration of this category of artefacts continued during the Christianization of the Polish lands. However, in the period up to the 13th cent. the custom of furnishing burials with grave goods gradually disappeared. The single specimens ornamented with engraved lines which were discovered in settlements and graveyards indicate that the local elite used them quite often. Its symbolic and material value is manifested in the case of the axes from Gubin and śagań. They perhaps travelled probably from the territories of the Balts terrains to Lusatia as loot. In the end, we should also refer to the hypothesis which assumes a cult destination of this group of artefacts. There are many opinions (which are interesting, but often not based on firm grounds) which connect this group of axes with religion confessed by their users. According to a coherent theory of V. P. Darkevič, various kinds of decoration in the form of wheels, crosses, stars and zigzags which appeared on the Middle and East European axes since the 11th to the 14th cent. should be connected with relics of pagan (Slav or Baltic) beliefs, which were still strong among the newly Christianized societies. These signs may symbolize, e.g. sun or lightning, and may be connected with the cult of pagan gods of thunder – Perun or Perkun130. This hypothesis was expanded by V. I. Kulakov, who believes that richly ornamented axes were sacrificial instruments and manifested opposition against Christianity131. Undoubtedly, the most interesting questions concern axes ornamented with the sign of the cross. This issue is dealt with in a separate paper of the author132. Here the discussion focuses only on the specimens from the territory of Poland. Various forms of the cross appeared on three specimens from the 11th cent. (Blichowo, Pień, PoznańLuboń) and one from the 13th cent. (the artefact from the collection of the Museum of the Polish Army in Warsaw). Apart from the mentioned hypothesis of V. P. Darkevič referring these signs to the pagan beliefs, there are opposite and more probable theories which relate them to the Christian religion. According to A. Musin, a coexistence of symbolic representations of cross and weapon (in this case: the sign of the cross on the axe) has a Christian significance and symbolises triumph over 128 Szymczak 2006. Kurasiński 2005, p. 206-207; Wołoszyn 2006, p. 599-600. 130 Даркевич 1961, p. 101. 131 Кулаков 1991/1992. 132 Kotowicz 2011. 129 Early Medieval Ornamented Axes from the Territory of Poland 119 death133. Furthermore, the appearance of these signs can be connected with the cult of Saint Olaf134, which spread in the territory of whole Northern Europe, from England to Novgorod in Rus’ and also to Byzantium. A principal attribute of Saint Olaf was the axe which – according to researchers – was originally the hammer, i.e., the weapon of his precursor – the pagan god Thor135. Undoubtedly, these parade axes were used by the believers of Saint Olaf. They could demonstrate their devotion by putting the crosses on the specimen associated with the attribute of the holy patron. Particularly, this ornamentation often appears on the axes of Type M, interchangeably connected with the Viking world, or on the specimens discovered in graves, which may be associated with Scandinavian influences, as in the case of Blichowo. It is worth mentioning that the cult of Saint Olaf could be known in early medieval Poland, as its manifestation is visible in Gdańsk (Pomerania), where there was a church dedicated to this saint136. This kind of weapon, apart from the religious manifestation, could be considered as a magical apotropaic symbol. The 11th and the 12th cent. in Poland is a period when the relics of pagan beliefs were still alive and both religions may have coexisted. We can not completely exclude a possibility that these signs might have played only a decorative role to make weapons more attractive visually. All in all, the main subject of this paper appeared to be multithreaded and complicated. In addition, the early medieval ornamented axes meant much more than just weapons. They fulfilled the function of insignia of authority, social rank or demonstrated devotion of their users to the confessed religion. Further discoveries may help to precise this issue not only with regard to the territory of Poland but also to whole Europe. 133 Мусин 1999, p. 147. Kotowicz 2011. 135 Paulsen 1956, p. 234-255, fig. 126-127; Pranke 2009; Kucypera, Pranke, Wadyl 2010, p. 119-120. 136 Pranke 2009, p. 67, 69-70. 134 120 Piotr N. 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Kotowicz. Early Medieval Ornamented Axes from the Territory of Poland 129 Fig. 2: 1 – Barkowice Mokre, Piotrków Trybunalski distr.; 2 – Bardy, Kołobrzeg distr.; 3 – Łaszczów (surroudings) ), Tomaszów Lubelski distr. (1, 3 – drawing by P. N. Kotowicz; 2 – after Łosiński 1972, fig. 94; 1-3 – redrawing by A. Sabat). Fig. 3: 1 – Karwowo, Płock distr.; 2 – Buszkowo, Bydgoszcz distr.; 3 – Szarów; 4 – Lutomiersk, Pabianice distr.; 5-6 – Rybitwy-Ostrów Lednicki, Gniezno distr. (1, 3-6 – drawing by P. N. Kotowicz; 2 – after Hensel 1950, fig. 68; 1-6 – redrawing by A. Sabat). 130 Piotr N. KOTOWICZ Fig. 4: 1 – Poznań-Luboń, Poznań distr.; 2 – Skotniki, Szczecinek distr.; 3 – Rybitwy-Ostrów Lednicki, Gniezno distr. (1 – after Rajewski 1937, pl. XI:3; 2 – after Kurasiński 2005, fig. 2:4; 3 – after Borowczak 2008, cat. 142). Fig. 5: 1 – Rybitwy-Ostrów Lednicki, Gniezno distr.; 2 – Nętno, Drawsko Pomorskie distr.; 3 – Tum, Łęczyca distr.; 4 – Sędzin, Aleksandrów Kujawski distr.; 5 – battleaxe from the collection of National Archaeological Museum in Warsaw; 6 – battleaxe from the collection of Archaeological Museum in Cracow (1-3, 5-6 – drawing by P. N. Kotowicz; 2 – after Maik, Świętosławski, Wtorkiewicz-Marosik, śemigała 2009, fig. 22:12; 1-6 – redrawing by A. Sabat). Early Medieval Ornamented Axes from the Territory of Poland Fig. 6: 1 – Blichowo, Płock distr.; 2 – collection of the Museum of the Polish Army in Warsaw; 3 – Perespa, Tomaszów Lubelski distr.; 4 – Nętno, Drawsko Pomorskie distr.; 5 – Piła (surroundings), Piła distr. (1-5 – drawing by P. N. Kotowicz; 1-5 – redrawing by A. Sabat). Fig. 7: 1 – Pień, Bydgoszcz distr.; 2 – Rybitwy-Ostrów Lednicki, Gniezno distr.; 3 – Poznań-Luboń, Poznań distr.; 4 – Gubin, Krosno Odrzańskie distr.; 5 – śagań, śagań distr. (1 – after Janowski forthcoming; 2 – after Borowczak 2008, cat. 37; 3 – drawing by P. N. Kotowicz; 4-5 – after Świetosławski, forthcoming; 2-3 – redrawing by A. Sabat). 131 132 Piotr N. KOTOWICZ