Age of Enlightenment

The Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason; in lit in Aufklärung, "Enlightenment", in L’Illuminismo, “Enlightenment” and in Spanish: La Ilustración, "Enlightenment") was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, "The Century of Philosophy". ^[1]

3006 relations: A Community of Witches, A History of Christianity (Johnson book), A History of Philosophy (Copleston), A Letter to Lord Ellenborough, A Philosopher by Lamplight, A Royal Affair, A Second Face, A Secular Age, A Vindication of Natural Society, A Vindication of the Rights of Men, Aarau, Aaron Burr, Aaron Isaac, Aaron S. 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A Community of Witches

A Community of Witches: Contemporary Neo-Paganism and Witchcraft in the United States is a sociological study of the Wiccan and wider Pagan community in the Northeastern United States.

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A History of Christianity (Johnson book)

A History of Christianity is a 1976 study of the history of Christianity by the British historian Paul Johnson.

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A History of Philosophy (Copleston)

A History of Philosophy is an eleven-volume history of Western philosophy written by the English Jesuit priest Frederick Charles Copleston.

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A Letter to Lord Ellenborough

"A Letter to Lord Ellenborough" is a pamphlet written in 1812 by Percy Bysshe Shelley in defence of Daniel Isaac Eaton.

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A Philosopher by Lamplight

A Philosopher by lamplight (also known as A Hermit Studying Anatomy) is a painting by Joseph Wright of Derby.

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A Royal Affair

A Royal Affair (En kongelig affære) is a 2012 historical drama film directed by Nikolaj Arcel, starring Mads Mikkelsen, Alicia Vikander and Mikkel Følsgaard.

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A Second Face

A Second Face is an independently produced adventure game that was developed by Jospin Le Woltaire in 2008 and released as freeware.

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A Secular Age

A Secular Age is a book written by the philosopher Charles Taylor which was published in 2007 by Harvard University Press on the basis of Taylor's earlier Gifford Lectures (Edinburgh 1998–1999).

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A Vindication of Natural Society

A Vindication of Natural Society: A View of the Miseries and Evils Arising to Mankind is a work by Edmund Burke published in 1756.

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A Vindication of the Rights of Men

A Vindication of the Rights of Men, in a Letter to the Right Honourable Edmund Burke; Occasioned by His Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) is a political pamphlet, written by the 18th-century British liberal feminist Mary Wollstonecraft, which attacks aristocracy and advocates republicanism.

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Aarau

Aarau (locally) is a town, a municipality, and the capital of the northern Swiss canton of Aargau.

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Aaron Burr

Aaron Burr Jr. (February 6, 1756 – September 14, 1836) was an American politician.

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Aaron Isaac

Aaron Isaac (אהרון יצחק; lived 1730 - 1817) was a Jewish seal engraver and merchant in haberdashery.

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Aaron S. Rosenberg

Aaron S. Rosenberg (born October 13, 1969) is an American novelist and game designer.

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Abd al-Rahman al-Rafai

Abd al-Rahman al-Rafai (February 8, 1889 – December 3, 1966) (عبد الرحمن الرافعي) was an Egyptian historian.

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Abdelwahab Meddeb

Abdelwahab Meddeb (عبد الوهاب المدب; 1946 – 5 November 2014) was a French-language poet, novelist, essayist, translator, editor, cultural critic, political commentator, radio producer, public intellectual and professor of comparative literature at the University of Paris X-Nanterre.

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Abel Seyler

Abel Seyler (23 August 1730, Liestal – 25 April 1801, Rellingen) was a Swiss-born theatre director and former banker, who was regarded as one of the great theatre principals of 18th century Europe.

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Abel Seyler the Younger

Abel Jacob Gerhard Seyler (1756 – 1805), also known as Abel Seyler the Younger, was a German scholar, pharmacist, freemason and a member of the original Illuminati order.

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Abolitionism

Abolitionism is a general term which describes the movement to end slavery.

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Abolitionism in the United Kingdom

Abolitionism in the United Kingdom was the movement in the late 18th and early 19th centuries to end the practice of slavery, whether formal or informal, in the United Kingdom, the British Empire and the world, including ending the Atlantic slave trade.

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Abolitionism in the United States

Abolitionism in the United States was the movement before and during the American Civil War to end slavery in the United States.

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Abraham ben Abraham

Abraham ben Abraham (אברהם בן אברהם, lit. "Avraham the son of Avraham") (c. 1700 – May 23, 1749), also known as Count Valentine (Valentin, Walentyn) Potocki (Pototzki or Pototski), was a purported Polish nobleman of the Potocki family who converted to Judaism and was burned at the stake by the Roman Catholic Church because he had renounced Catholicism and had become an observant Jew.

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Abram Petrovich Gannibal

Abram Petrovich Gannibal, also Hannibal or Ganibal, or Abram Hannibal or Abram Petrov (Абра́м Петро́вич Ганниба́л; 1696 – 14 May 1781), was a Russian military engineer, general, and nobleman of African origin.

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Academia Operosorum Labacensium

The Academia Operosorum Labacensium (Academy of the Industrious Residents of Ljubljana)—a forerunner of the modern Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts—was founded in Ljubljana in 1693 as an association of 23 scholars.

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Academy

An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of secondary education, higher learning, research, or honorary membership.

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Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna

The Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna (Accademia delle Scienze dell'Istituto di Bologna) is an academic society in Bologna, Italy, that was founded in 1714 and prospered in the Age of Enlightenment.

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Achstetten

Achstetten is the northernmost municipality in the district of Biberach, in the region of Upper Swabia in Baden-Württemberg, Germany.

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Act of Guarantee

The Act of Guarantee (Dutch: Akte van Garantie) of the hereditary stadtholderate was a document from 1788, in which the seven provinces of the States General and the representative of Drenthe declared, amongst other things, that the admiralty and captain-generalship were hereditary, and together with the hereditary stadtholderate would henceforth be an integrated part of the constitution of the Dutch Republic.

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Adam Ferguson

Adam Ferguson, FRSE (Scottish Gaelic: Adhamh MacFhearghais), also known as Ferguson of Raith (1 JulyGregorian Calendar/20 JuneJulian Calendar 1723 – 22 February 1816), was a Scottish philosopher and historian of the Scottish Enlightenment.

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Adam František Kollár

Adam František Kollár de Keresztén (Adam Franz Kollar von Keresztén, kereszténi Kollár Ádám Ferenc; 1718–1783) was a Slovak jurist, Imperial-Royal Court Councilor and Chief Imperial-Royal Librarian, a member of Natio Hungarica in the Kingdom of Hungary, a historian, ethnologist, an influential advocate of Empress Maria Theresa's Enlightened and centralist policies.

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Adam Weishaupt

Johann Adam Weishaupt (6 February 1748 – 18 November 1830)Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie.

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Adamantios Korais

Adamantios Korais or Koraïs (Ἀδαμάντιος Κοραῆς; Adamantius Coraes; Adamance Coray; 27 April 17486 April 1833) was a Greek scholar credited with laying the foundations of Modern Greek literature and a major figure in the Greek Enlightenment.

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Admont Abbey

Admont Abbey (Stift Admont) is a Benedictine monastery located on the Enns River in the town of Admont, Austria.

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Adriaan Koerbagh

Adriaan Koerbagh (1633 – 1669) was a Dutch scholar and writer who was a critic of religion and conventional morality.

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Adriano Cristofali

Adriano Cristofali (27 March 1717, Verona - 1788) was a Veronese architect, whose style bridged between Enlightenment-Baroque architecture and Neoclassicism.

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Adrien Quiret de Margency

Adrien Quiret de Margency also Adrien Cuyret de Margency (1727 – c. 1802) was an 18th-century French officer of the Maison militaire du roi de France (Gentilhomme ordinaire de la chambre du roi), writer and Encyclopédiste.

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Afrancesado

Afrancesado ("Francophiles" or "turned-French", lit. "Frenchified" or "French-alike") were the Spanish and Portuguese partisans of Enlightenment ideas, Liberalism, or the French Revolution, who were supporters of the French occupation of Iberia (Portugal and Spain) and of the First French Empire.

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African Association

The Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa (commonly known as the African Association), founded in London on 9 June 1788, was a British club dedicated to the exploration of West Africa, with the mission of discovering the origin and course of the Niger River and the location of Timbuktu, the "lost city" of gold.

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Afrikaner nationalism

Afrikaner nationalism is a political ideology that was born in the late nineteenth century among Afrikaners in South Africa.

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After Virtue

After Virtue is a book on moral philosophy by Alasdair MacIntyre.

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Afterlife

Afterlife (also referred to as life after death or the hereafter) is the belief that an essential part of an individual's identity or the stream of consciousness continues to manifest after the death of the physical body.

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Age of Enlightenment

The Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason; in lit in Aufklärung, "Enlightenment", in L’Illuminismo, “Enlightenment” and in Spanish: La Ilustración, "Enlightenment") was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, "The Century of Philosophy".

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Age of reason (disambiguation)

Age of reason or Age of Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century.

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Agency (sociology)

In social science, agency is the capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices.

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Agnostic atheism

Agnostic atheism is a philosophical position that encompasses both atheism and agnosticism.

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Agostinho da Silva

George Agostinho Baptista da Silva, GCSE (Porto, 13 February 1906 – Lisbon, 3 April 1994) was a Portuguese philosopher, essayist, and writer.

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Agrarian Conservatism in Germany

Agrarian conservatism in Germany was a type of conservatism that began to wane in popularity prior to the rise of the Nazi Party.

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Agustín de Iturbide

Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Arámburu (27 September 178319 July 1824), also known as Augustine of Mexico, was a Mexican army general and politician.

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Akademisches Gymnasium (Vienna)

Founded in 1553, the Akademisches Gymnasium is the oldest secondary school in Vienna.

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Alaejos

Alaejos is a municipality located in the province of Valladolid, Castile and León, Spain.

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Alain Badiou

Alain Badiou (born 17 January 1937) is a French philosopher, formerly chair of Philosophy at the École normale supérieure (ENS) and founder of the faculty of Philosophy of the Université de Paris VIII with Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault and Jean-François Lyotard.

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Alain-René Lesage

Alain-René Lesage (6 May 166817 November 1747; older spelling Le Sage) was a French novelist and playwright.

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Alan Charles Kors

Alan Charles Kors (born July 18, 1943) is Henry Charles Lea Professor Emeritus of History at the University of Pennsylvania, where he taught the intellectual history of the 17th and 18th centuries.

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Alan Macfarlane

Alan Donald James Macfarlane FBA FRHistS (born 20 December 1941 in Shillong, Meghalaya, India) is an anthropologist and historian and a Professor Emeritus of King's College, Cambridge.

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Alasdair MacIntyre

Alasdair Chalmers MacIntyre (born 12 January 1929) is a Scottish philosopher, primarily known for his contribution to moral and political philosophy, but also known for his work in history of philosophy and theology.

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Albanian literature

Albanian literature stretches back to the Middle Ages and comprises those literary texts and works written in the Albanian language.

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Albert Gallatin

Abraham Alfonse Albert Gallatin (January 29, 1761 – August 12, 1849) was a Swiss-American politician, diplomat, ethnologist and linguist.

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Albert Schweitzer

Albert Schweitzer, OM (14 January 1875 – 4 September 1965) was a French-German theologian, organist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician.

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Albrecht Behmel

Albrecht Behmel (born 24 March 1971) is a German artist, novelist, historian, best-selling non-fiction writer and award-winning playwright.

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Alcoholics Anonymous

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is an international mutual aid fellowship whose stated purpose is to enable its members to "stay sober and help other alcoholics achieve sobriety." It was founded in 1935 by Bill Wilson and Dr. Bob Smith in Akron, Ohio.

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Aleš Debeljak

Aleš Debeljak (25 December 1961 – 28 January 2016), was a Slovenian cultural critic, poet, and essayist.

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Alejo Carpentier

Alejo Carpentier y Valmont (December 26, 1904 – April 24, 1980) was a Cuban novelist, essayist, and musicologist who greatly influenced Latin American literature during its famous "boom" period.

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Alessandro Manzoni

Alessandro Francesco Tommaso Antonio Manzoni (7 March 1785 – 22 May 1873) was an Italian poet and novelist.

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Alexander Amilakhvari

Prince Alexander Amilakhvari (ალექსანდრე ამილახვარი, Alek'sandre Amilakhvari; Александр Дмитриевич Амилахоров, Aleksandr Dmitrievich Amilakhorov) (October 20, 1750 – 1802) was a Georgian nobleman and author who was a supporter of enlightened absolutism and also openly opposed King Erekle II’s rule.

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Alexander Chavchavadze

Prince Alexander Chavchavadze (ალექსანდრე ჭავჭავაძე; Александр Чавчавадзе) (1786 – November 6, 1846) was a notable Georgian poet, public benefactor and military figure.

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Alexander Dobrokhotov

Alexander Dobrokhotov (Алекса́ндр Льво́вич Доброхо́тов; born 8 September 1950) is a Russian philosopher, historian of philosophy, historian of culture, and university professor.

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Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten

Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (17 JulyJan Lekschas, 1714 – 27 May 1762) was a German philosopher.

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Alexander I of Russia

Alexander I (Александр Павлович, Aleksandr Pavlovich; –) reigned as Emperor of Russia between 1801 and 1825.

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Alexander Monro (tertius)

Alexander Monro III of Craiglockhart, FRSE FRCPE FSA(Scot) MWS (5 November 1773 – 10 March 1859), was a Scottish anatomist and medical educator at the University of Edinburgh Medical School.

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Alexander Mourouzis

Alexander Mourouzis (Αλέξανδρος Μουρούζης; Alexandru Moruzi; died 1816) was a Grand Dragoman of the Ottoman Empire who served as Prince of Moldavia and Prince of Wallachia.

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Alexander Radishchev

Alexander Nikolayevich Radishchev (Алекса́ндр Никола́евич Ради́щев; –) was a Russian author and social critic who was arrested and exiled under Catherine the Great.

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Alexander Rudnay

Alexander Stefan Rudnay de Rudna et DivékujfaluMarkó 2006, p. 325.

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Alexander von Humboldt

Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt (14 September 17696 May 1859) was a Prussian polymath, geographer, naturalist, explorer, and influential proponent of Romantic philosophy and science.

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Alexandre de Gusmão

Alexandre de Gusmão (Santos, 17 July 1695 – Lisbon, 9 May 1753) was a diplomat born in the Portuguese colony of Brazil.

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Alexandre Deleyre

Alexandre Deleyre (10 January 1726, Portets near Bordeaux – 13 March 1796, Paris aged 71) was an 18th-century French man of letters.

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Alexandre Le Riche de La Poupelinière

Alexandre Jean Joseph Le Riche de La Poupelinière, sometimes also written Popelinière ou Poupelinière (Paris, 1693 – 5 December 1762) was an immensely wealthy fermier général, the only son of his father, Alexandre Le Riche (1663-1735), seigneur of Courgains, (Anjou) and Brétignolles (Touraine), likewise a fermier général.

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Alexis de Tocqueville

Alexis Charles Henri Clérel, Viscount de Tocqueville (29 July 180516 April 1859) was a French diplomat, political scientist and historian.

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Ali A. Rizvi

Ali Amjad Rizvi (born 29 May 1975) is a Pakistani-born Canadian writer, columnist, medical science communicator, oncologic pathologist, podcaster and ex-Muslim atheist and secular humanist activist.

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All men are created equal

The quotation "All men are created equal" has been called an "immortal declaration," and "perhaps single phrase" of the American Revolutionary period with the greatest "continuing importance." Thomas Jefferson first used the phrase in the U.S. Declaration of Independence, which he penned in 1776 during the beginning of the American Revolution.

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All Religions are One

All Religions are One is a series of philosophical aphorisms by William Blake, written in 1788.

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Allan Bloom

Allan David Bloom (September 14, 1930 – October 7, 1992) was an American philosopher, classicist, and academician.

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Allotment (gardening)

An allotment garden (British English), often called simply an allotment, or a community garden (North America) is a plot of land made available for individual, non-commercial gardening or growing food plants.

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Alloy

An alloy is a combination of metals or of a metal and another element.

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Almanach de Liège

Almanach The Almanach de Liège or Almanach Matthieu Lansbert (also spelled Lansberg, Lansbergh, Laensberg or Laensbergh) was an almanac published annually from the 17th century onwards (the oldest surviving edition dates to 1626).

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Alphonsus Liguori

Saint Alphonsus Liguori (1696–1787), sometimes called Alphonsus Maria Liguori, was an Italian Catholic bishop, spiritual writer, composer, musician, artist, poet, lawyer, scholastic philosopher, and theologian.

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Altarpiece

An altarpiece is an artwork such as a painting, sculpture or relief representing a religious subject made for placing behind the altar of a Christian church.

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Altrossgarten Church

Altrossgarten Church (Altroßgärter Kirche, also spelled Altroßgärtner) was a Protestant church in northeastern Königsberg, Germany.

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Amalia Holst

Amalia Holst (née Amalia von Justi; 1758–1829) was a German writer, intellectual, and feminist.

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Amalie Sieveking

Amalie Wilhelmine Sieveking (25 July 1794 - 1 April 1859) was a German philanthropist and social activist who founded the Weiblicher Verein für Armen- und Krankenpflege (Women's association for the care of the poor and invalids).

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Amateur

An amateur (French amateur "lover of", from Old French and ultimately from Latin amatorem nom. amator, "lover") is generally considered a person who pursues a particular activity or field of study independently from their source of income.

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Ambrosio de Benavides

Ambrosio de Benavides Medina Liñán y Torres (January 20, 1718 – April 27, 1787) was a Spanish colonial administrator who served as Royal Governor of Puerto Rico, Royal Governor of Charcas and Royal Governor of Chile.

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American civil religion

American civil religion is a sociological theory that a nonsectarian quasi-religious faith exists within the United States with sacred symbols drawn from national history.

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American Enlightenment

The American Enlightenment was a period of intellectual ferment in the thirteen American colonies in the 17th to 18th century, which led to the American Revolution, and the creation of the American Republic.

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American modernism

American modernism, much like the modernism movement in general, is a trend of philosophical thought arising from the widespread changes in culture and society in the age of modernity.

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American philosophy

American philosophy is the activity, corpus, and tradition of philosophers affiliated with the United States.

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Amusing Ourselves to Death

Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business (1985) is a book by educator Neil Postman.

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An Apology for Poetry

An Apology for Poetry (or, The Defence of Poesy) is a work of literary criticism by Elizabethan poet Philip Sidney.

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An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump

An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump is a 1768 oil-on-canvas painting by Joseph Wright of Derby, one of a number of candlelit scenes that Wright painted during the 1760s.

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Anarchism

Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions.

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Anarchism and education

Anarchism has had a special interest on the issue of education from the works of William Godwin and Max Stirner onwards.

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Anarchism and nationalism

Anarchism and nationalism both emerged in Europe following the French Revolution of 1789, and have a long and durable relationship going back at least to Mikhail Bakunin (1814-1876) and his involvement with the Pan-Slavic movement prior to his conversion to anarchism.

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Anarchism in the United Kingdom

Anarchism in the UK initially developed within the context of radical Whiggery and Protestant religious dissent.

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Ancien Régime

The Ancien Régime (French for "old regime") was the political and social system of the Kingdom of France from the Late Middle Ages (circa 15th century) until 1789, when hereditary monarchy and the feudal system of French nobility were abolished by the.

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Ancient economic thought

In the history of economic thought, ancient economic thought refers to the ideas from people before the Middle Ages.

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Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination

The Nile Mosaic of Palestrina. Egypt has had a legendary image in the Western world through the Greek and Hebrew traditions.

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Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 13th–9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (AD 600).

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Ancient Greek philosophy

Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC and continued throughout the Hellenistic period and the period in which Ancient Greece was part of the Roman Empire.

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Ancient Rome

In historiography, ancient Rome is Roman civilization from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, encompassing the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire until the fall of the western empire.

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Anders Chydenius

Anders Chydenius (26 February 1729 – 1 February 1803) was a Finnish priest and a member of the Swedish Riksdag, and is known as the leading classical liberal of Nordic history.

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André Servier

André Servier was an historian who lived in French Algeria at the beginning of the 20th century.

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André-Marie Ampère

André-Marie Ampère (20 January 177510 June 1836) was a French physicist and mathematician who was one of the founders of the science of classical electromagnetism, which he referred to as "electrodynamics".

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Andreas Dorschel

Andreas Dorschel (born 1962) is a German philosopher.

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Andreas Urs Sommer

Andreas Urs Sommer (born July 14, 1972) is a German philosopher of Swiss origin.

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Andrija Kačić Miošić

Andrija Kačić Miošić (April 17, 1704 – December 14, 1760) was a Croatian poet and Franciscan monk, descendant of one of the oldest and most influentinal Croatian noble families - Kačić.

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Andrzej Grzegorczyk

Andrzej Grzegorczyk (22 August 1922 – 20 March 2014) was a Polish logician, mathematician, philosopher, and ethicist noted for his work in computability, mathematical logic, and the foundations of mathematics.

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Angelo Sabino

Angelo Sabino or in Latin Angelus Sabinus (fl. 1460s–1470s) was an Italian Renaissance humanist, poet laureate, classical philologist, Ovidian impersonator, and putative rogue.

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Angra Mainyu

Angra Mainyu (Avestan: Aŋra Mainiiu) is the Avestan-language name of Zoroastrianism's hypostasis of the "destructive spirit".

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Angst und Vorurteil

Angst und Vorurteil: AIDS-Ängste als Gegenstand der Vorurteilsforschung (German: "Fear and prejudice: AIDS paranoia from the view of scientific prejudice studies") is a sociology book written by German sociologist, ethnologist, and sexologist Gisela Bleibtreu-Ehrenberg that was first published in 1989.

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Anna Laetitia Barbauld

Anna Laetitia Barbauld (by herself possibly, as in French, née Aikin; 20 June 1743 – 9 March 1825) was a prominent English poet, essayist, literary critic, editor, and author of children's literature.

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Anna Maria Lenngren

Anna Maria Lenngren, née Malmstedt (June 18, 1754 – March 8, 1817), was one of the most famous poets in Swedish history.

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Anna Pieri Brignole Sale

Anna Pieri Brignole-Sale (1765–1815) was a Sienese noblewoman who married into an old Genoese family.

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Anna Wheeler (author)

Anna Wheeler (c. 1780–1848), also known by her maiden name of Anna Doyle, was an Irish born British writer and advocate of political rights for women and the benefits of contraception.

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Anne-Catherine de Ligniville, Madame Helvétius

Anne-Catherine de Ligniville, Madame Helvétius (23 July 1722 – 12 August 1800), also Anne-Catherine de Ligniville d'Autricourt, nicknamed "Minette", maintained a renowned salon in France in the eighteenth century.

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Annie Le Brun

Annie Le Brun, (born 1942 Rennes) is a French writer, poet and literary critic.

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Anointing of the sick

Anointing of the sick, known also by other names, is a form of religious anointing or "unction" (an older term with the same meaning) for the benefit of a sick person.

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Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?

"Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?" (Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?) is a 1784 essay by the philosopher Immanuel Kant.

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Anti-Catholicism

Anti-Catholicism is hostility towards Catholics or opposition to the Catholic Church, its clergy and its adherents.

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Anti-clericalism

Anti-clericalism is opposition to religious authority, typically in social or political matters.

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Anti-genre

Anti-genre is a self-descriptive label attributed to any artistic style devoid of genre.

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Anti-Judaism

Anti-Judaism is the "total or partial opposition to Judaism—and to Jews as adherents of it—by persons who accept a competing system of beliefs and practices and consider certain genuine Judaic beliefs and practices as inferior." Anti-Judaism, as a rejection of a particular way of thinking about God, is distinct from antisemitism, which is more akin to a form of racism.

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Anti-Machiavel

Anti-Machiavel is an 18th-century essay by Frederick the Great, King of Prussia and patron of Voltaire, consisting of a chapter-by-chapter rebuttal of The Prince, the 16th-century book by Niccolò Machiavelli, and Machiavellianism in general.

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Anti-psychiatry

Anti-psychiatry is a movement based on the view that psychiatric treatment is often more damaging than helpful to patients.

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Anti-racism

Anti-racism includes beliefs, actions, movements, and policies adopted or developed to oppose racism.

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Anti-Sacrilege Act

The Anti-Sacrilege Act (1825–1830) was a French law against blasphemy and sacrilege passed in January 1825 under King Charles X. The law was never applied (except for a minor point) and was later revoked at the beginning of the July Monarchy under King Louis-Philippe.

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Anti-Zionism

Anti-Zionism is opposition to Zionism.

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Antichrist

In Christianity, antichrist is a term found solely in the First Epistle of John and Second Epistle of John, and often lowercased in Bible translations, in accordance with its introductory appearance: "Children, it is the last hour! As you heard that antichrist is coming, so now many antichrists have come".

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Antihumanism

In social theory and philosophy, antihumanism (or anti-humanism) is a theory that is critical of traditional humanism and traditional ideas about humanity and the human condition.

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Antireligion

Antireligion is opposition to religion of any kind.

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Antiscience

Antiscience is a position that rejects science and the scientific method.

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Antisemitic boycotts

Antisemitic boycotts, also known as anti-Jewish boycotts are organized boycotts directed against Jewish people to exclude them economical, political or cultural life.

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Antisemitism

Antisemitism (also spelled anti-Semitism or anti-semitism) is hostility to, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews.

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Antisemitism in Norway

Antisemitism in Norway has a history, including the Holocaust in Norway.

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Antlia

Antlia (from Ancient Greek ἀντλία) is a constellation in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere.

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Antoine Banier

The abbé Antoine Banier (2 November 1673 – 2 November 1741), a French clergyman and member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres from 1713, was a historian and translator, whose rationalizing interpretation of Greek mythology was widely accepted until the mid-nineteenth century.

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Antoine Berjon

Antoine Berjon (17 May 1754 – 24 October 1843) was a French painter and designer, among the most important flower painters of 19th-century France.

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Antoine Cavalleri

Antoine Cavalleri (1698–1765) was a Jesuit professor of mathematics at Cahors during much of the French Enlightenment in the 18th century, until late in the reign of Louis XV of France.

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Antoine Clet

Antoine Clet (1705-1785) was a French printer, publisher and writer of the 18th century.

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Antoine Court de Gébelin

Antoine Court, who named himself Antoine Court de Gébelin (Nîmes, January 25, 1725 At Google Books.Paris, May 10, 1784), was a former Protestant pastor, born at Nîmes, who initiated the interpretation of the Tarot as an arcane repository of timeless esoteric wisdom in 1781.

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Antoine de Bosc de la Calmette

Gérard Pierre Antoine de Bosc de la Calmette, often referred to as Antoine de la Calmette, (21 September 1752 – 7 April 1803) was a Danish County Governor, geheimrat, and landowner.

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Antoine de Sartine

Antoine Raymond Jean Gualbert Gabriel de Sartine, comte d'Alby (12 July 1729 – 7 September 1801) was a French statesman who served as Lieutenant General of Police of Paris (1759–1774) during the reign of Louis XV and as Secretary of State for the Navy (1774–1780) under King Louis XVI.

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Antoine Destutt de Tracy

Antoine Louis Claude Destutt, comte de Tracy (20 July 17549 March 1836) was a French Enlightenment aristocrat and philosopher who coined the term "ideology".

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Antoine Lavoisier

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (also Antoine Lavoisier after the French Revolution;; 26 August 17438 May 1794) CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique) was a French nobleman and chemist who was central to the 18th-century chemical revolution and who had a large influence on both the history of chemistry and the history of biology.

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Antoine-Louis Séguier

Antoine-Louis Séguier (1 December 1726, Paris – 26 January 1792, Tournai) was a French lawyer and magistrate.

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Anton Dereser

Anton Dereser (also known as Thaddaeus a Sancto Adamo, OCD) (3 February 1757, Fahr, Franconia –15 or 16 June 1827, Breslau) was a Discalced Carmelite professor of hermeneutics and Oriental languages.

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Anton Graff

Anton Graff (18 November 1736 – 22 June 1813) was an eminent Swiss portrait artist.

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Anton Martin Schweigaard

Anton Martin Schweigaard (11 April 1808 – 1 February 1870) was a Norwegian educator, jurist, economist and member of the Norwegian Parliament.

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Anton Tomaž Linhart

Anton Tomaž Linhart (11 December 1756 – 14/15 July 1795) was a Carniolan playwright and historian, best known as the author of the first comedy and theatrical play in general in Slovene, Županova Micka (Micka, the Mayor's Daughter).

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Antoni Tyzenhaus

Antoni Tyzenhaus (1733 – March 31, 1785 in Warsaw) was a noble from the Tyzenhaus family, son of Benedykt Tyzenhaus.

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Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek FRS (24 October 1632 – 26 August 1723) was a Dutch businessman and scientist in the Golden Age of Dutch science and technology.

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Antonio Domínguez Ortiz

Antonio Domínguez Ortiz (October 18, 1909 – January 21, 2003) was a Spanish historian, one of the leading specialists in the history of the Spanish Antiguo Régimen of the 16th through 18th centuries, in particular in social history.

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Antonio José Amar y Borbón

Antonio José Amar y Borbón Arguedas (1742 in Zaragoza, Spain – 1826? in Zaragoza) was a Spanish military officer and colonial official.

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Antonio Ricardos

Antonio Ricardos Carrillo de Albornoz (1727, Barbastro – 13 March 1794) was a Spanish general.

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Antonio Schinella Conti

Antonio Schinella Conti (1677–1749), also known by his religious title as Abate Conti, was an Italian writer, translator, mathematician, philosopher and physicist.

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Apollo Belvedere

The Apollo Belvedere or Apollo of the Belvedere—also called the Pythian Apollo—is a celebrated marble sculpture from Classical Antiquity.

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Apollonius of Tyana

Apollonius of Tyana (Ἀπολλώνιος ὁ Τυανεύς; c. 15 – c. 100 AD), sometimes also called Apollonios of Tyana, was a Greek Neopythagorean philosopher from the town of Tyana in the Roman province of Cappadocia in Anatolia.

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Appenheim

Appenheim is an Ortsgemeinde – a municipality belonging to a Verbandsgemeinde, a kind of collective municipality – in the Mainz-Bingen district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany.

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Aranđelovac

Aranđelovac (Аранђеловац) is a town and a municipality located in the Šumadija District of central Serbia.

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Archaeology

Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of humanactivity through the recovery and analysis of material culture.

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Architecture in early modern Scotland

Architecture in early modern Scotland encompasses all building within the borders of the kingdom of Scotland, from the early sixteenth century to the mid-eighteenth century.

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Architecture of Germany

The architecture of Germany has a long, rich and diverse history.

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Architecture of the United States

The architecture of the United States demonstrates a broad variety of architectural styles and built forms over the country's history of over four centuries of independence and former Spanish and British rule.

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Argentina

Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic (República Argentina), is a federal republic located mostly in the southern half of South America.

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Argentine War of Independence

The Argentine War of Independence was fought from 1810 to 1818 by Argentine patriotic forces under Manuel Belgrano, Juan José Castelli and José de San Martín against royalist forces loyal to the Spanish crown.

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ARIA Award for Engineer of the Year

The ARIA Music Award for Engineer of the Year, is an award presented within the Artisan Awards at the annual ARIA Music Awards.

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Aristotle

Aristotle (Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs,; 384–322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidiki, in the north of Classical Greece.

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Armenian national awakening

Armenian national awakening is similar to other non-Turkish ethnic groups during the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire in development of ideas of nationalism, salvation and independence in Armenia, as the Ottoman Empire tried to cover the social needs by creating the Tanzimat era, the development of Ottomanism and First Constitutional Era.

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Armenian national liberation movement

The Armenian national liberation movement (Հայ ազգային-ազատագրական շարժում Hay azgayin-azatagrakan sharzhum) aimed at the establishment of an Armenian state. It included social, cultural, but primarily political and military movements that reached their height during World War I and the following years. Influenced by the Age of Enlightenment and the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire, the Armenian national movement developed in the early 1860s. Its emergence was similar to that of movements in the Balkan nations, especially the Greek revolutionaries who fought the Greek War of Independence. The Armenian élite and various militant groups sought to defend the mostly rural Armenian population of the eastern Ottoman Empire from the Muslims, being Christian, but the ultimate goal was to push for reforms in the Six vilayets at first and after this failed, the creation of an Armenian state in the Armenian-populated areas controlled at the time by the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire. Since the late 1880s, the movement engaged in guerrilla warfare with the Ottoman government and the Kurdish irregulars in the eastern regions of the empire, led by the three Armenian political parties named the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party, the Armenakan Party and the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Armenians generally saw Russia as their natural ally in the fight against Turks although Russia maintained an oppressive policy in the Caucasus. Only after losing its presence in Europe after the Balkan Wars, the Ottoman government was forced to sign the Armenian reform package in early 1914, however it was disrupted by World War I. During World War I, the Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire were systematically exterminated by the government in the Armenian Genocide. According to some estimates, from 1894 to 1923, about 1,500,000—2,000,000 Armenians were killed by the Ottoman Empire. After the decision to exterminate the Armenians was taken by the Ottoman Ministry of Interior and first implemented with the Directive 8682 on February 25, 1915, tens of thousands of Russian Armenians joined the Russian army as Armenian volunteer units with a Russian promise for autonomy. By 1917, Russia controlled many Armenian-populated areas of the Ottoman Empire. After the October Revolution, however, the Russian troops retreated and left the Armenians irregulars one on one with the Turks. The Armenian National Council proclaimed the Republic of Armenia on May 28, 1918, thus establishing an Armenian state in the Armenian-populated parts of the Southern Caucasus. By 1920, the Bolshevik Government in Russia and Ankara Government had successfully came to power in their respective countries. The Turkish revolutionaries successfully occupied western half of Armenia, while the Red Army invaded and annexed the Republic of Armenia in December 1920. A friendship treaty was signed between Bolshevik Russia and Kemalist Turkey in 1921. The formerly Russian-controlled parts of Armenia were mostly annexed by the Soviet Union, in parts of which the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic was established. Hundreds of thousands of genocide refugees found themselves in the Middle East, Greece, France and the US giving start to a new era of the Armenian diaspora. Soviet Armenia existed until 1991, when the Soviet Union disintegrated and the current (Third) Republic of Armenia was established.

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Armour

Armour (British English or Canadian English) or armor (American English; see spelling differences) is a protective covering that is used to prevent damage from being inflicted to an object, individual or vehicle by direct contact weapons or projectiles, usually during combat, or from damage caused by a potentially dangerous environment or activity (e.g., cycling, construction sites, etc.). Personal armour is used to protect soldiers and war animals.

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Art

Art is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, auditory or performing artifacts (artworks), expressing the author's imaginative, conceptual idea, or technical skill, intended to be appreciated for their beauty or emotional power.

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Art of Europe

The art of Europe, or Western art, encompasses the history of visual art in Europe.

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Art of Slovenia

Art of Slovenia refers to all forms of visual art in or associated with Slovenia, both before and after the country's Independence from Yugoslavia in 1991.

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Arte di Calimala

The Arte di Calimala, the guild of the cloth finishers and merchants in foreign cloth, was one of the greater guilds of Florence, the Arti Maggiori, who arrogated to themselves the civic power of the Republic of Florence during the Late Middle Ages.

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Arthur Hertzberg

Arthur Hertzberg (June 9, 1921 – April 17, 2006) was a Conservative rabbi and prominent Jewish-American scholar and activist.

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Arthur Oncken Lovejoy

Arthur Oncken Lovejoy (October 10, 1873 – December 30, 1962) was an American philosopher and intellectual historian, who founded the discipline known as the history of ideas with his book The Great Chain of Being (1936), on the topic of that name, which is regarded as 'probably the single most influential work in the history of ideas in the United States during the last half century'.

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Articles of Confederation

The Articles of Confederation, formally the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, was an agreement among the 13 original states of the United States of America that served as its first constitution.

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Arvert

Arvert is a French commune in the Charente-Maritime department and Nouvelle-Aquitaine region of south-western France.

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Ashkenazi Jews

Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or simply Ashkenazim (אַשְׁכְּנַזִּים, Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation:, singular:, Modern Hebrew:; also), are a Jewish diaspora population who coalesced in the Holy Roman Empire around the end of the first millennium.

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Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology

Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology is a history of science by Isaac Asimov, written as the biographies of over 1500 scientists.

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Aspects of the Theory of Syntax

Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (known in linguistic circles simply as Aspects) is a book on linguistics written by American linguist Noam Chomsky, first published in 1965.

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Asriel Günzig

Asriel Günzig (also known as Azriel Günzig, Ezriel Günzig, Israel Günzig, Izrael Günzig, or J. Günzig) (עזריאל גינציג) was a rabbi, scholar, bookseller, editor and writer.

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Astrology

Astrology is the study of the movements and relative positions of celestial objects as a means for divining information about human affairs and terrestrial events.

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Astrology and astronomy

Astrology and astronomy were archaically treated together (astrologia), and were only gradually separated in Western 17th century philosophy (the "Age of Reason") with the rejection of astrology.

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Asturias

Asturias (Asturies; Asturias), officially the Principality of Asturias (Principado de Asturias; Principáu d'Asturies), is an autonomous community in north-west Spain.

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Atanasije Stojković

Atanasije Stojković (1773-1832) was a Serbian, Austrian and Russian writer, pedagogue, scholar, physicist, mathematician and astronomer of Serb origin.

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Atatürk's Reforms

Atatürk's Reforms (Atatürk Devrimleri) were a series of political, legal, religious, cultural, social, and economic policy changes that were designed to convert the new Republic of Turkey into a secular, modern nation-state and implemented under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in accordance with Kemalist ideology.

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Atheism

Atheism is, in the broadest sense, the absence of belief in the existence of deities.

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Atheism dispute

The atheism dispute (Atheismusstreit) was an event in German cultural history that lasted between 1798–1800 which had an effect on the German philosophy of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century.

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Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment

Atheism, as defined by the entry in Diderot and D'Alembert's Encyclopédie is "the opinion of those who deny the existence of a God in the world.

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Atlantic Revolutions

The Atlantic Revolutions were a revolutionary wave in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

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Atlantic World

The Atlantic World is the history of the interactions among the peoples and empires bordering the Atlantic Ocean rim from the beginning of the Age of Discovery to the early 21st century.

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Atonement

Atonement (also atoning, to atone) is the concept of a person taking action to correct previous wrongdoing on their part, either through direct action to undo the consequences of that act, equivalent action to do good for others, or some other expression of feelings of remorse.

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Atonement in Christianity

In western Christian theology, atonement describes how human beings can be reconciled to God through Christ's sacrificial suffering and death.

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Augstkalne Parish

Augstkalne Parish (Augstkalnes pagasts) is an administrative unit of the Tērvete Municipality, Latvia.

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August Adolph von Hennings

August Adolph von Hennings (19 July 1746, Pinneberg – 17 May 1826, Rantzau) was a politician, publicist and writer of the Age of Enlightenment, born into a Schleswig-Holstein family of lawyers.

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August Gottlieb Meißner

August Gottlieb Meissner (3 November 1753 – 18 February 1807) was a German writer of the Enlightenment and is considered the founder of the German detective story.

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August Ludwig Hülsen

August Ludwig Hülsen (pseudonym: Hegekern; 3 March 1765 – 24 September 1809) was a German philosopher, writer and pedagogue of early German Romanticism.

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August von Kotzebue

August Friedrich Ferdinand von Kotzebue (–) was a German dramatist and writer who also worked as a consul in Russia and Germany.

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August Wilhelm Schlegel

August Wilhelm (after 1812: von) Schlegel (8 September 176712 May 1845), usually cited as August Schlegel, was a German poet, translator and critic, and with his brother Friedrich Schlegel the leading influence within Jena Romanticism.

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Augustan literature

Augustan literature (sometimes referred to misleadingly as Georgian literature) is a style of British literature produced during the reigns of Queen Anne, King George I, and George II in the first half of the 18th century and ending in the 1740s, with the deaths of Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift, in 1744 and 1745, respectively.

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Auguste Comte

Isidore Marie Auguste François Xavier Comte (19 January 1798 – 5 September 1857) was a French philosopher who founded the discipline of praxeology and the doctrine of positivism.

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Augustin Barruel

Augustin Barruel (October 2, 1741 – October 5, 1820) was a French publicist and Jesuit priest.

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Augustin Roux

Augustin Roux (26 January 1726 – 28 June 1776) was a French doctor, encyclopedist and man of letters during the Age of Enlightenment.

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Augustin-Louis Cauchy

Baron Augustin-Louis Cauchy FRS FRSE (21 August 178923 May 1857) was a French mathematician, engineer and physicist who made pioneering contributions to several branches of mathematics, including: mathematical analysis and continuum mechanics.

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Augustine of Hippo

Saint Augustine of Hippo (13 November 354 – 28 August 430) was a Roman African, early Christian theologian and philosopher from Numidia whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy.

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Augusto Del Noce

Augusto Del Noce (11 August 1910 – 30 December 1989) was an Italian philosopher and political thinker.

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Aurelio Voltaire

Aurelio Voltaire Hernández (born January 25, 1967), professionally known as Aurelio Voltaire or by the mononym Voltaire, is a Cuban-born American singer, songwriter, and musician.

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Aurora de Chile

The Aurora de Chile (English: Dawn of Chile) was the first periodical in Chilean history and mostly dealt with politics and political philosophy.

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Aurora Society

Aurora Society was a secret society and a national Finnish literary society at The Royal Academy of Turku (Sw. Kungliga Akademien i Åbo) 1770-1779.

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Aurorazhdarcho

Aurorazhdarcho is an extinct genus of ctenochasmatid pterosaur known from the Late Jurassic of Bavaria, southern Germany.

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Australian Convict Sites

Australian Convict Sites is a World Heritage property consisting of 11 remnant penal sites originally built within the British Empire during the 18th and 19th centuries on fertile Australian coastal strips at Sydney, Tasmania, Norfolk Island, and Fremantle; now representing "...the best surviving examples of large-scale convict transportation and the colonial expansion of European powers through the presence and labour of convicts." These properties were all individually included on the Australian National Heritage List before inclusion on the World Heritage list.

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Australian Greens

The Australian Greens (commonly known as The Greens) is a green political party in Australia.

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Austrian literature

Austrian literature is the literature written in Austria, which is mostly, but not exclusively, written in the German language.

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Autonomism

Autonomism or autonomist Marxism is a set of anti-authoritarian left-wing political and social movements and theories.

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Avicenna

Avicenna (also Ibn Sīnā or Abu Ali Sina; ابن سینا; – June 1037) was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, thinkers and writers of the Islamic Golden Age.

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Avraam Benaroya

Avraam Eliezer Benaroya (אברהם בן-ארויה.; Аврам Бенароя; Αβραάμ Μπεναρόγια; Abrahán Eliezer Benarroya; Avram Benaroya; 1887 – 16 May 1979) was a Jewish socialist, member of the Bulgarian Social Democratic Workers' Party (Broad Socialists), later leader of the Socialist Workers' Federation in the Ottoman Empire.

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Axial Age

Axial Age (also Axis Age, from Achsenzeit) is a term coined by German philosopher Karl Jaspers in the sense of a "pivotal age" characterizing the period of ancient history from about the 8th to the 3rd century BCE.

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Azar Gat

Azar Gat (born 1959 in Haifa, Israel) is a researcher and author on military history, military strategy and war and peace in general.

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Azhar Abidi

Azhar Ali Abidi (born 6 February 1968 in Wah, Pakistan) is a Pakistani Australian author and translator.

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École normale supérieure (Paris)

The École normale supérieure (also known as Normale sup', Ulm, ENS Paris, l'École and most often just as ENS) is one of the most selective and prestigious French grandes écoles (higher education establishment outside the framework of the public university system) and a constituent college of Université PSL.

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Écoles gratuites de dessin

The Écoles gratuites de dessin (free drawing schools) were several art schools founded in eighteenth-century France, notably the École Royale Gratuite de Dessin in Paris.

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Édouard Charton

Édouard Charton (11 May 1807 – 27 February 1890) was an eminent French literary figure who was the founder and, for fifty-five years (1833–88), editor-in-chief of the publication Magasin pittoresque, in addition to serving for thirty years (1860–90) as director of publication for Hachette.

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Élie Catherine Fréron

Élie Catherine Fréron (20 January 1718 – 10 March 1776) was a French literary critic and controversialist whose career focused on countering the influence of the philosophes of the French Enlightenment, partly thorough his vehicle, the Année littéraire.

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Élisabeth Badinter

Élisabeth Badinter (née Bleustein-Blanchet; 5 March 1944, Boulogne-Billancourt) is a French philosopher, author and historian.

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Émiland Gauthey

Émiland Marie Gauthey (in Chalon-sur-Saône – in Paris) was a French mathematician, civil engineer and architect.

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Étienne Bonnot de Condillac

Étienne Bonnot de Condillac (30 September 1714 – 3 August 1780) was a French philosopher and epistemologist, who studied in such areas as psychology and the philosophy of the mind.

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Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire

Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (15 April 1772 – 19 June 1844) was a French naturalist who established the principle of "unity of composition".

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İbrahim Şinasi

İbrahim Şinasi (5 August 1826 – 13 September 1871) was a pioneering Ottoman intellectual, author, journalist, translator, playwright, and newspaper editor.

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Şerif Mardin

Şerif Mardin (1927 – 6 September 2017) was a prominent Turkish sociologist, political scientist, academic and thinker.

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Ba'ath Party

The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party (حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي) was a political party founded in Syria by Michel Aflaq, Salah al-Din al-Bitar, and associates of Zaki al-Arsuzi.

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Background of the Greek War of Independence

The Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the subsequent fall of the successor states of the Eastern Roman Empire marked the end of Byzantine sovereignty.

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Bahman Mirza Qajar

Bahman Mirza (11 October 1810 – 11 February 1884) was a Persian prince of the Qajar Dynasty, son of Abbas Mirza and grandson of Fath Ali Shah.

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Ballenstedt

Ballenstedt is a town in the Harz district, in the German state of Saxony-Anhalt.

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Balthasar Bekker

Balthasar Bekker (20 March 1634 – 11 June 1698) was a Dutch minister and author of philosophical and theological works.

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Balthasar Friedrich Leizelt

Balthasar Friedrich Leizelt (also spelled Leizel, active 1750–1800) was a German artist and copperplate engraver working from Augsburg.

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Barbara Maria Stafford

Barbara Maria Stafford (born 1941) is an art historian whose research focuses on the developments in imaging arts, optical sciences, and performance technologies since the Enlightenment.

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Barbara Stollberg-Rilinger

Barbara Stollberg-Rilinger FBA (born 17 July 1955 in Bergisch Gladbach) is a German historian.

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Barm cake

A barm cake is a soft, round, flattish bread roll from northwest England, traditionally leavened with barm.

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Baron d'Holbach

Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach, was a French-German author, philosopher, encyclopedist and prominent figure in the French Enlightenment.

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Barthold Georg Niebuhr

Barthold Georg Niebuhr (27 August 1776 – 2 January 1831) was a Danish-German statesman, banker, and historian who became Germany's leading historian of Ancient Rome and a founding father of modern scholarly historiography.

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Baruch Spinoza

Baruch Spinoza (born Benedito de Espinosa,; 24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677, later Benedict de Spinoza) was a Dutch philosopher of Sephardi/Portuguese origin.

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Bassam Tibi

Bassam Tibi (بسام طيبي), is a German political scientist and Professor of International Relations.

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Batavian Revolution

The Batavian Revolution (De Bataafse Revolutie) was a political, social and cultural turmoil at the end of the 18th century that marked the end of the Dutch Republic and saw the proclamation of the Batavian Republic.

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Battle

A battle is a combat in warfare between two or more armed forces, or combatants.

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Battle of annihilation

A battle of annihilation is a military strategy in which an attacking army seeks to destroy the military capacity of the opposing army in a single planned pivotal battle.

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Battle of San Lorenzo

The Battle of San Lorenzo was fought on February 3, 1813 in San Lorenzo, Argentina, then part of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata.

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Battle of Turnhout (1789)

The Battle of Turnhout (27 October 1789) was a battle which took place in the town of Turnhout (today in Belgium) between Habsburg Austria and a Belgian émigré (Patriot) army commanded by Jean-André van der Mersch which had recently invaded from the nearby Dutch Republic.

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Beast of Gévaudan

The Beast of Gévaudan (La Bête du Gévaudan;, La Bèstia de Gavaudan) is the historical name associated with the man-eating gray wolf, dog or wolfdog that terrorized the former province of Gévaudan (modern-day département of Lozère and part of Haute-Loire), in the Margeride Mountains in south-central France between 1764 and 1767.

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Beauty

Beauty is a characteristic of an animal, idea, object, person or place that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure or satisfaction.

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Beccaria Township, Clearfield County, Pennsylvania

Beccaria Township is a township in Clearfield County, Pennsylvania, United States.

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Behemoth (Hobbes book)

Behemoth, full title Behemoth: the history of the causes of the civil wars of England, and of the counsels and artifices by which they were carried on from the year 1640 to the year 1660, also known as The Long Parliament, is a book written by Thomas Hobbes discussing the English Civil War.

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Beilby Porteus

Beilby Porteus (or Porteous; 8 May 1731 – 13 May 1809), successively Bishop of Chester and of London, was a Church of England reformer and a leading abolitionist in England.

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Being

Being is the general concept encompassing objective and subjective features of reality and existence.

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Belfast Natural History Society

The Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society was founded in 1821 to promote the scientific study of animals, plants, fossils, rocks and minerals.

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Belgium in the long nineteenth century

The history of Belgium from 1789 to 1914, the period dubbed the "Long Nineteenth Century" by the historian Eric Hobsbawm, includes the end of Austrian rule and periods of French and Dutch occupation of the region, leading to the creation of the first independent Belgian state in 1830.

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Belief

Belief is the state of mind in which a person thinks something to be the case with or without there being empirical evidence to prove that something is the case with factual certainty.

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Belsazar Hacquet

Belsazar de la Motte Hacquet (also Balthasar or Balthazar Hacquet) (c. 1739 – January 10, 1815) was a Carniolan physician of French descent in the Enlightenment Era.

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Benedict Anderson

Benedict Richard O'Gorman Anderson (August 26, 1936 – December 13, 2015) was a political scientist and historian, best known for his 1983 book Imagined Communities, which explored the origins of nationalism.

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Bengali renaissance

The Bengali renaissance or simply Bengal renaissance, (বাংলার নবজাগরণ; Bānglār nabajāgaraṇ) was a cultural, social, intellectual and artistic movement in Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent during the period of the British Indian Empire, from the nineteenth century to the early twentieth century.

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Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro

Friar Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro (8 October 167626 September 1764) was a Spanish monk and scholar who led the Age of Enlightenment in Spain.

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Benjamin Franklin

Benjamin Franklin (April 17, 1790) was an American polymath and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States.

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Bergara

Bergara (Vergara) is a town located in the province of Gipuzkoa, in the autonomous community of Basque Country, in the north of Spain.

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Berlin

Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany, as well as one of its 16 constituent states.

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Berlin Enlightenment

In 1740 Frederick II, known as Frederick the Great, came to power in the Kingdom of Prussia.

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Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities

The Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities (Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften), abbreviated BBAW, is the official academic society for the natural sciences and humanities for the German states of Berlin and Brandenburg.

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Bernard Jullien

Bernard Jullien (2 February 1798, Paris - 15 October 1881, Paris) was a French teacher, novelist and linguist.

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Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle

Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle (11 February 16579 January 1757), also called Bernard Le Bouyer de Fontenelle, was a French author and an influential member of three of the academies of the Institut de France, noted especially for his accessible treatment of scientific topics during the unfolding of the Age of Enlightenment.

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Bernard Mandeville

Bernard Mandeville, or Bernard de Mandeville (15 November 1670 – 21 January 1733), was an Anglo-Dutch philosopher, political economist and satirist.

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Bernhard Boll

Bernhard Boll (7 June 1756 in Stuttgart – 6 March 1836 in Freiburg im Breisgau) was a German Roman Catholic priest, Cistercian monk and the first Archbishop of Freiburg.

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Bestseller

A bestseller is, usually, a book that is included on a list of top-selling or frequently-borrowed titles, normally based on publishing industry and book trade figures and library circulation statistics; such lists may be published by newspapers, magazines, or book store chains.

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Bible woman

In missions history, a Bible woman was a local woman who supported foreign female missionaries in their Christian evangelistic and social work.

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Biblical criticism

Biblical criticism is a philosophical and methodological approach to studying the Bible, using neutral non-sectarian judgment, that grew out of the scientific thinking of the Age of Reason (1700–1789).

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Biblical hermeneutics

Biblical hermeneutics is the study of the principles of interpretation concerning the books of the Bible.

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Bibliography of biology

This bibliography of biology is a list of notable works, organized by subdiscipline, on the subject of biology.

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Bibliothèque de Genève

The Bibliothèque de Genève (BGE, English: Geneva Library, Library of Geneva), founded in 1559, was known as Bibliothèque publique et universitaire (BPU, English: Public and University Library) from 1907 to 2006.

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Big Science

Big science is a term used by scientists and historians of science to describe a series of changes in science which occurred in industrial nations during and after World War II, as scientific progress increasingly came to rely on large-scale projects usually funded by national governments or groups of governments.

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Bildungsbürgertum

Bildungsbürgertum is a social class that initially emerged in mid-18th century Germany as an educated class of the bourgeoisie with an educational ideal based on idealistic values and classical antiquity, inspired by the scholar-official class of China.

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Bill Maher

William Maher (born January 20, 1956) is an American comedian, political commentator, and television host.

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Bill of rights

A bill of rights, sometimes called a declaration of rights or a charter of rights, is a list of the most important rights to the citizens of a country.

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Biogeography

Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time.

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Black

Black is the darkest color, the result of the absence or complete absorption of visible light.

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Black Athena

Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization, its three volumes first published in 1987, 1991, and 2006 respectively, is a scholarly work by Martin Bernal.

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Black Legend of the Spanish Inquisition

The Black Legend of the Spanish Inquisition is the hypothesis of the existence of a series of myths and fabrications about the Spanish Inquisition used as propaganda against the Spanish Empire in a time of strong military, commercial and political rivalry between European powers, starting in the 16th century.

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Black Mass: Apocalyptic Religion and the Death of Utopia

Black Mass: Apocalyptic Religion and the Death of Utopia is a non-fiction book by John N. Gray published in 2007.

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Black nationalism

Black nationalism is a type of nationalism which espouses the belief that black people are a nation and seeks to develop and maintain a black identity.

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Black-and-white dualism

The contrast of white and black (light and darkness, day and night) has a long tradition of metaphorical usage, traceable to the Ancient Near East, and explicitly in the Pythagorean Table of Opposites.

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Blackadder the Third

Blackadder the Third is the third series of the BBC sitcom Blackadder, written by Richard Curtis and Ben Elton, which aired from 17 September to 22 October 1987.

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Blaj

Blaj (archaically spelled as Blaș; Balázsfalva; Blasendorf; Transylvanian Saxon dialect: Blußendref) is a city in Alba County, Transylvania, Romania.

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Bleus de Bretagne

The Ligue des bleus de Bretagne (League of Breton Blues) was a liberal organisation in Brittany founded in 1899, dedicated to promoting the ideals of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution in Brittany, and combating the influence of the aristocracy and clergy.

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Blinded experiment

A blind or blinded-experiment is an experiment in which information about the test is masked (kept) from the participant, to reduce or eliminate bias, until after a trial outcome is known.

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Blue flower

A blue flower (Blaue Blume) was a central symbol of inspiration for the Romanticism movement, and remains an enduring motif in Western art today.

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Body armor

Body armor/armour, personal armor/armour, suits of armour or coats of armour all refer to protective clothing, designed to absorb and/or deflect slashing, bludgeoning and penetrating attacks by weapons.

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Bogdanov affair

The Bogdanov affair is an academic dispute regarding the legitimacy of a series of theoretical physics papers written by French twins '''Igor''' and '''Grichka Bogdanov''' (alternately spelt Bogdanoff).

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Bogusław Wolniewicz

Bogusław Wolniewicz (born September 22, 1927, Toruń, died August 4, 2017, Warsaw) – Polish philosopher, logician, professor of humanities, creator of situational ontology, translator and commentator of Ludwig Wittgenstein, publicist mostly affiliated with the Radio Maryja community.

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Bonaparte à Malte

Bonaparte à Malte is a 2008 book by Maltese writer Frans Sammut, with an introduction by Dr Paul Borg Olivier.

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Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén County

Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén (Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén megye,; Boršodsko-abovsko-zemplínska) is an administrative county (comitatus or megye) in north-eastern Hungary (commonly called "Northern Hungary"), on the border with Slovakia.

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Boughton House

Boughton House is a country house about north-east of Kettering off the A422 road near Geddington in Northamptonshire, England.

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Bourbon Reforms

The Bourbon Reforms (Castilian: Reformas Borbónicas) were a set of economic and political legislation promulgated by the Spanish Crown under various kings of the House of Bourbon, mainly in the 18th century.

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Bourgeois tragedy

Bourgeois tragedy (German: Bürgerliches Trauerspiel) is a form of tragedy that developed in 18th-century Europe.

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Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie is a polysemous French term that can mean.

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Bourtreehill House

Bourtreehill House (now destroyed) and the enclosed land on which it was built form the original estate of Bourtreehill.

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Brabant Revolution

The Brabant Revolution or Brabantine Revolution (Révolution brabançonne, Brabantse Omwenteling), sometimes referred to as the Belgian Revolution of 1789–90 in older writing, was an armed insurrection that occurred in the Austrian Netherlands (modern-day Belgium) between October 1789 and December 1790.

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Braunschweig

Braunschweig (Low German: Brunswiek), also called Brunswick in English, is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany, north of the Harz mountains at the farthest navigable point of the Oker river which connects it to the North Sea via the Aller and Weser rivers.

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Brdo Castle near Kranj

Brdo Castle near Kranj (grad Brdo pri Kranju, Egg) is an estate and a mansion in the Slovenian region of Upper Carniola west of the village of Predoslje (City Municipality of Kranj) northwest of Ljubljana.

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Bremer Beiträge

Bremer Beiträge was the designation for the weekly magazine Neue Beyträge zum Vergnügen des Verstandes und Witzes ("New contributions to the pleasure of the mind and wit").

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Brera Academy

The Accademia di Belle Arti di Brera ("academy of fine arts of Brera"), also known as the italic or Brera Academy, is a state-run tertiary public academy of fine arts in Milan, Italy.

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Brienza

Brienza is a town and comune in the province of Potenza, in the Southern Italian region of Basilicata.

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Brights movement

The Brights Movement is an international intellectual movement.

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British Council, India

The headquarters of the British Council in India are in New Delhi in a 1992 building designed by Indian architect Charles Correa.

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British literature

British literature is literature in the English language from the United Kingdom, Isle of Man, and Channel Islands.

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British people

The British people, or the Britons, are the citizens of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the British Overseas Territories, and the Crown dependencies.

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British School at Rome

The is a centre of interdisciplinary research excellence in Italy supporting the full range of arts, humanities and social sciences.

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Bronisław Baczko

Bronisław Baczko (June 13, 1924 – August 29, 2016) was a Polish philosopher and historian of ideas.

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Brotherhood of the Wolf

Brotherhood of the Wolf (Le Pacte des loups) is a 2001 French historical action horror film directed by Christophe Gans, co-written by Gans and Stéphane Cabel, and starring Samuel Le Bihan, Mark Dacascos, Émilie Dequenne, Monica Bellucci and Vincent Cassel.

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Bruce Thornton

Bruce S. Thornton (born August 2, 1953) is an American classicist at California State University, Fresno, and research fellow at Stanford University's Hoover Institution.

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Brugherio

Brugherio (in Brughee) is a comune (municipality) in the Province of Monza and Brianza in the Italian region Lombardy, located about northeast of Milan.

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Buddhism and science

Buddhism and science have increasingly been discussed as compatible, and Buddhism has entered into the science and religion dialogue.

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Bulgaria

Bulgaria (България, tr.), officially the Republic of Bulgaria (Република България, tr.), is a country in southeastern Europe.

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Bulgarians

Bulgarians (българи, Bǎlgari) are a South Slavic ethnic group who are native to Bulgaria and its neighboring regions.

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Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy refers to both a body of non-elective government officials and an administrative policy-making group.

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Bureaucrat

A bureaucrat is a member of a bureaucracy and can compose the administration of any organization of any size, although the term usually connotes someone within an institution of government.

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Burhan Ghalioun

Burhan Ghalioun (Arabic: برهان غليون) (born 11 February 1945 in Homs, Syria), is a French Syrian professor of sociology at the Université de Paris III Sorbonne University in Paris, and the first chairman of the Syrian opposition Transitional National Council (SNC).

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By the Grace of God

By the Grace of God (Latin Dei Gratia, abbreviated D.G.) is an introductory part of the full styles of a monarch historically considered to be ruling by divine right, not a title in its own right.

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Byzantine medicine

Byzantine medicine encompasses the common medical practices of the Byzantine Empire from about 400 AD to 1453 AD.

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Byzantinism

Byzantinism, or Byzantism, is the political system and culture of the Byzantine Empire, and its spiritual successors, in particular, the Christian Balkan states (Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia) and Orthodox countries in Eastern Europe (Georgia, Ukraine, Belarus and most importantly, Russia).

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California Academy of Sciences

The California Academy of Sciences is a research institute and natural history museum in San Francisco, California, that is among the largest museums of natural history in the world, housing over 26 million specimens.

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Camilo Henríquez

Friar José Camilo Henríquez González (July 29, 1769 in Valdivia, Chile – March 16, 1825 in Santiago de Chile) was a priest, author, politician, and is considered an intellectual antecedent to and founding father of the Republic of Chile for his passionate leadership and influential writings.

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Campion College

Campion College Australia is Australia's first liberal arts college, offering a Bachelor of Arts in the Liberal Arts.

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Canadian Confederation

Canadian Confederation (Confédération canadienne) was the process by which the British colonies of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were united into one Dominion of Canada on July 1, 1867.

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Canadian idealism

Canadian idealism is a Canadian philosophical tradition that stemmed from British idealism.

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Canal du Midi

The Canal du Midi (meaning canal of the two seas) is a long canal in Southern France (le Midi).

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Candide

Candide, ou l'Optimisme, is a French satire first published in 1759 by Voltaire, a philosopher of the Age of Enlightenment.

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Cankar Centre

The Cankar Centre, also known as Cankarjev dom or Cankar Hall, is the largest Slovenian convention, congress and culture center.

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Canon of Dutch History

The Canon of Dutch History is a list of fifty topics that aims to provide a chronological summary of Dutch history to be taught in primary schools and the first two years of secondary school in the Netherlands.

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Capital punishment debate in the United States

Capital punishment debate in the United States existed as early as the colonial period.

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Capital punishment in Russia

Capital punishment in Russia currently is not allowed.

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Capitalism

Capitalism is an economic system based upon private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit.

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Capitalism and Freedom

Capitalism and Freedom is a book by Milton Friedman originally published in 1962 by the University of Chicago Press which discusses the role of economic capitalism in liberal society.

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Capitalist Party

The Capitalist Party (Norwegian Bokmål: Liberalistene; Nynorsk: Liberalistane; lit. "The Liberals") is a Norwegian political party founded in 2014 that promotes a classical liberal platform.

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Carl Axel Gottlund

Carl Axel Gottlund (February 24, 1796 in Ruotsinpyhtää – April 20, 1875 in Helsinki) was a Finnish explorer, collector of folklore, historian, cultural politician, linguist, philologist, translator, writer, publisher and lecturer of Finnish language at the University of Helsinki.

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Carl Gottlob Rafn

Carl Gottlob Rafn (31 July 1769 – 17 May 1808) was a Danish Enlightenment scientist and civil servant.

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Carl L. Becker

Carl Lotus Becker (September 7, 1873 – April 10, 1945) was an American historian.

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Carl Peter Thunberg

Carl Peter Thunberg, also known as Karl Peter von Thunberg, Carl Pehr Thunberg, or Carl Per Thunberg (11 November 1743 – 8 August 1828), was a Swedish naturalist and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus.

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Carl von Clausewitz

Carl Philipp Gottfried (or Gottlieb) von Clausewitz (1 June 1780 – 16 November 1831)Bassford, Christopher (2002).

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Carl-Michael Edenborg

Carl-Michael Edenborg (formerly surnamed Strömberg), born 1967, is a Swedish writer, critic, editor, publisher and historian of ideas and literature.

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Carlism

Carlism (Karlismo; Carlisme) is a Traditionalist and legitimist political movement in Spain seeking the establishment of a separate line of the Bourbon dynasty on the Spanish throne.

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Carlota Joaquina of Spain

Doña Carlota Joaquina of Spain (Carlota Joaquina Teresa Cayetana; 25 April 1775 – 7 January 1830), was by birth a member of the Spanish branch of the House of Bourbon and Infanta of Spain and by marriage Queen consort of Portugal and the Algarves (and later of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves) and titular Empress consort of Brazil.

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Caroline Anne Southey

Caroline Anne Southey (1786–1854), was an English poet and second wife of Robert Southey.

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Caroline of Ansbach

Caroline of Brandenburg-Ansbach (Wilhelmina Charlotte Caroline; 1 March 1683 – 20 November 1737) was Queen consort of Great Britain as the wife of King George II.

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Carolyn Merchant

Carolyn Merchant (born July 12, 1936 in Rochester, New York) is an American ecofeminist philosopher and historian of science most famous for her theory (and book of the same title) on 'The Death of Nature', whereby she identifies the Enlightenment as the period when science began to atomize, objectify and dissect nature, foretelling its eventual conception as inert.

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Cartesian linguistics

The term Cartesian linguistics was coined with the publication of Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought (1966), a book on linguistics by Noam Chomsky.

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Catastrophism

Catastrophism was the theory that the Earth had largely been shaped by sudden, short-lived, violent events, possibly worldwide in scope.

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Caterina de San Marco

Caterina de San Marco (1747-1824) was an Italian courtier, a confidant and adviser of the de facto ruler and queen of Naples, Maria Carolina of Austria.

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Catherine Charlotte De la Gardie

Countess Catherine Charlotte De la Gardie (née Catharina Charlotta Taube; 5 April 1723 – 24 March 1763), also known as Catherine Charlotte de La Gardie, was a Swedish countess and courtier.

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Catherine the Great

Catherine II (Russian: Екатерина Алексеевна Yekaterina Alekseyevna; –), also known as Catherine the Great (Екатери́на Вели́кая, Yekaterina Velikaya), born Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst, was Empress of Russia from 1762 until 1796, the country's longest-ruling female leader.

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Catholic Church

The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.299 billion members worldwide.

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Catholic Church and slavery

The issue of slavery was one that was historically treated with concern by the Catholic Church.

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Catholic Church art

Catholic art consists of all visual works produced in an attempt to illustrate, supplement and portray in tangible form the teachings of the Catholic Church.

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Catholic missions

Missionary work of the Catholic Church has often been undertaken outside the geographically defined parishes and dioceses by religious orders who have people and material resources to spare, and some of which specialized in missions.

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Catriona Seth

Catriona Jane Seth, FBA (born 30 August 1964) is a British scholar of French literature and the history of ideas.

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Causes of the French Revolution

The causes of the French Revolution can be attributed to several intertwining factors.

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Causes of the May Revolution

The May Revolution (Revolución de Mayo) was a series of revolutionary political and social events that took place during the early nineteenth century in the city of Buenos Aires, capital of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a colony of the Spanish Crown which at the time contained the present-day nations of Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay.

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Cécile (novel)

Cécile is an historical novel by the British writer F. L. Lucas.

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César Chesneau Dumarsais

César Chesneau, sieur Dumarsais or Du Marsais (July 17, 1676 – June 11, 1756) was a French philosophe, grammarian and contributor to the Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers.

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Cölln

In the 13th century Cölln was the sister town of Old Berlin (Altberlin), located on the southern Spree Island in the Margraviate of Brandenburg.

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Cecilian Movement

The Cecilian Movement for church music reform began in Germany in the second half of the 1800s as a reaction to the liberalization of the Enlightenment.

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Celestina (novel)

Celestina is an eighteenth-century English novel and poet Charlotte Turner Smith’s third novel.

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Celia Amorós

Celia Amorós Puente (born 1 January 1944 in Valencia) is a Spanish philosopher, essayist and supporter of feminist theory.

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Celts (modern)

The modern Celts (see pronunciation of ''Celt'') are a related group of ethnicities who share similar Celtic languages, cultures and artistic histories, and who live in or descend from one of the regions on the western extremities of Europe populated by the Celts.

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Cemetery of the 366 Fossae, Naples

The Cemetery of the 366 Fossae (Cimitero delle 366 Fosse) or Cimitero di Santa Maria del Popolo or Cimitero dei Tredici was built in 1762 a short distance from the then-dilapidated Villa Poggio Reale, and is located on a terrace of a hill overlooking the Poggioreale neighborhood of Naples, Italy.

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Central Council of Ex-Muslims

The Central Council of Ex-Muslims (German: Zentralrat der Ex-Muslime, ZdE) is a German association (Verein) of non-religious, secular persons who were Muslim or originate from an Islamic country.

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Cephalophore

A cephalophore (from the Greek for "head-carrier") is a saint who is generally depicted carrying his or her own head.

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Ceremonial Hall of the Prague Jewish Burial Society

The Ceremonial hall of the Prague Jewish Burial Society does not serve its original purpose – the last service to the deceased members of the Prague Jewish Community – anymore.

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Certosa di Bologna

The Certosa di Bologna is a former Carthusian monastery (or charterhouse) in Bologna, northern Italy, which was founded in 1334 and suppressed in 1797.

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Cesare Beccaria

Cesare Bonesana-Beccaria, Marquis of Gualdrasco and Villareggio (15 March 173828 November 1794) was an Italian criminologist, jurist, philosopher, and politician, who is widely considered as the most talented jurist and one of the greatest thinkers of the Age of Enlightenment.

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Chaim Dov Rabinowitz

Chaim Dov Rabinowitz (1909–2001) was a Lithuanian born rabbi who authored a monumental commentary on the Hebrew Bible (Daat Soferim) and a history of the Jewish people (From Nechemia to the Present).

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Character mask

In Marxist philosophy, a character mask (Charaktermaske) is a prescribed social role that serves to conceal the contradictions of a social relation or order.

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Charitable organization

A charitable organization or charity is a non-profit organization (NPO) whose primary objectives are philanthropy and social well-being (e.g. charitable, educational, religious, or other activities serving the public interest or common good).

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Charles Brockden Brown

Charles Brockden Brown (January 17, 1771 – February 22, 1810) was an American novelist, historian, and editor of the Early National period.

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Charles Darwin's education

Charles Darwin's education gave him a foundation in the doctrine of Creation prevalent throughout the West at the time, as well as knowledge of medicine and theology.

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Charles III of Spain

Charles III (Spanish: Carlos; Italian: Carlo; 20 January 1716 – 14 December 1788) was King of Spain and the Spanish Indies (1759–1788), after ruling Naples as Charles VII and Sicily as Charles V (1734–1759), kingdoms he abdicated to his son Ferdinand.

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Charles Louis Auguste Fouquet, duc de Belle-Isle

Charles Louis Auguste Fouquet, duc de Belle-Isle (22 September 1684 – 26 January 1761) was a French general and statesman.

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Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord

Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord (2 February 1754 – 17 May 1838), 1st Prince of Benevento, then 1st Prince of Talleyrand, was a laicized French bishop, politician, and diplomat.

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Charles Maurras

Charles-Marie-Photius Maurras (20 April 1868 – 16 November 1952) was a French author, politician, poet, and critic.

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Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel

Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Prince of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, Herzog von Braunschweig-Lüneburg und Fürst von Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel) (9 October 1735 – 10 November 1806), was ruler of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and a military leader.

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Charles-François Dupuis

Charles François Dupuis (26 October 174229 September 1809) was a French savant, a professor (from 1766) of rhetoric at the Collège de Lisieux, Paris, who studied for the law in his spare time and was received as avocat in 1770.

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Charles-François Tiphaigne de la Roche

Charles-François Tiphaigne de la Roche, (February 19, 1722 – August 11, 1774), was a French author.

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Charles-Georges Le Roy

Charles-Georges Le Roy or Leroy (22 July 1723, Paris – 11 November 1789, Paris) was a French man of letters during the Age of Enlightenment and the author of one of the first books on human behavior.

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Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre

Charles-Irénée Castel, abbé de Saint-Pierre (18 February 1658 – 29 April 1743) was a French author whose ideas were novel for his times.

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Château de Chenonceau

The Château de Chenonceau is a French château spanning the River Cher, near the small village of Chenonceaux in the Indre-et-Loire département of the Loire Valley in France.

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Château de Gizeux

The Château de Gizeux is an important edifice, dating from the Middle Ages and much altered over the centuries, notably during the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.

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Château de Syam

The Château de Syam, located in the village of Syam in the French department of Jura was built in 1818 by Emmanuel Jobez regional industrialist and owner of the Forges de Syam, a forge and sheet metal works.

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Château of Vauvenargues

The Château of Vauvenargues (Château de Vauvenargues) is a fortified bastide in the village of Vauvenargues, situated to the north of Montagne Sainte-Victoire, just outside the town of Aix-en-Provence in the south of France.

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Cheder

A Cheder (alternatively, Cheider, in חדר, lit. "room") is a traditional elementary school teaching the basics of Judaism and the Hebrew language.

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Chess

Chess is a two-player strategy board game played on a chessboard, a checkered gameboard with 64 squares arranged in an 8×8 grid.

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Child sexuality

Development of sexuality is an integral part of the development and maturation of children.

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Childhood

Childhood is the age span ranging from birth to adolescence.

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Childhood secret club

A childhood secret club is an informal organization created by children.

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Children's rights movement

The Children's Rights Movement is a historical and modern movement committed to the acknowledgment, expansion, and/or regression of the rights of children around the world.

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Chiswick House

Chiswick House is a Palladian villa in Burlington Lane, Chiswick, west London, England.

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Christ (title)

In Christianity, Christ (Greek Χριστός, Christós, meaning "the anointed one") is a title for the saviour and redeemer who would bring salvation to the Jewish people and humanity.

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Christendom

Christendom has several meanings.

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Christian Adolph Klotz

Christian Adolph Klotz (13 November 1738 – 31 December 1771) was a German philologist and controversialist.

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Christian apologetics

Christian apologetics (ἀπολογία, "verbal defence, speech in defence") is a branch of Christian theology that attempts to defend Christianity against objections.

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Christian attitudes towards Freemasonry

While many Christian denominations take no stance on or openly acknowledge and allow Freemasonry, some are outwardly opposed to it, and either discourage or outright prohibit their members from joining the fraternity.

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Christian Cannabich

Johann Christian Innocenz Bonaventura Cannabich (bapt. 28 December 1731 in Mannheim – 20 January 1798 in Frankfurt am Main), was a German violinist, composer, and Kapellmeister of the Classical era.

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Christian culture

Christian culture is the cultural practices common to Christianity.

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Christian deism

Christian deism is a standpoint in the philosophy of religion, which branches from Christianity.

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Christian Felix Weiße

Christian Felix Weiße (1726–1804) was a German writer and pedagogue.

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Christian Friedrich Baz

Christian Friedrich Baz (28 October 1762 - 26 May 1808) was a German legal scholar, a representative at Württemberg's state convention or 'Landtag' and from 1796 to 1805 mayor of Ludwigsburg.

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Christian Garve

Christian Garve (7 January 1742 – 1 December 1798) was one of the best-known philosophers of the late Enlightenment along with Immanuel Kant and Moses Mendelssohn.

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Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein

Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein (30 January 1723, Wernigerode – 6 July 1795, Copenhagen) was a German-born doctor, physicist and engineer.

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Christian humanism

Christian humanism is a philosophy that combines Christian ethics and humanist principles.

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Christian Jakob Kraus

Christian Jakob Kraus (27 July 1753 – 25 August 1807) was a German comparative and historical linguist.

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Christian Kølle

Christian Kølle (15 August 1736 – 30 January 1814) was a Norwegian educator.

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Christian psychology

Christian psychology is a merger of theology and psychology.

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Christian revival

Revivalism is increased spiritual interest or renewal in the life of a church congregation or society, with a local, national or global effect.

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Christian Thomasius

Christian Thomasius (1 January 1655 – 23 September 1728) was a German jurist and philosopher.

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Christian Tobias Damm

Christian Tobias Damm (9 January 1699 – 27 May 1778) was a renowned German Classical philologist, and the less than orthodox theologian who was rector (1730) and prorector (1742) of the Köllnische Gymnasium, the oldest in Berlin, but prematurely pensioned off in 1766, in the wake of scandalized accusations of trends towards Socianian doctrines in some of his work, to his lasting bitterness.

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Christian views on astrology

Astrology had small amounts of support in early Christianity, but support waned during the Middle Ages.

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Christian views on magic

Christian views on magic vary widely among denominations and among individuals.

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Christian VII of Denmark

Christian VII (29 January 1749 13 March 1808) was a monarch of the House of Oldenburg who was King of Denmark-Norway and Duke of Schleswig and Holstein from 1766 until his death.

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Christian von Mechel

Christian von Mechel (4 April 1737 in Basel; † 11 April 1817 in Berlin) was a Swiss engraver, publisher and art dealer.

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Christian Wolff (philosopher)

Christian Wolff (less correctly Wolf,; also known as Wolfius; ennobled as Christian Freiherr von Wolff; 24 January 1679 – 9 April 1754) was a German philosopher.

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Christianity

ChristianityFrom Ancient Greek Χριστός Khristós (Latinized as Christus), translating Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ, Māšîăḥ, meaning "the anointed one", with the Latin suffixes -ian and -itas.

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Christianity and science

Most sources of knowledge available to early Christians were connected to pagan world-views.

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Christianity in China

Christianity in China appeared in the 7th century, during the Tang dynasty, but did not take root until it was reintroduced in the 16th century by Jesuit missionaries.

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Christianity in Europe

Christianity is the largest religion in Europe.

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Christianity in the 20th century

Christianity in the 20th century was characterized by an accelerating secularization of Western society, which had begun in the 19th century, and by the spread of Christianity to non-Western regions of the world.

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Christianity in the United States

Christianity is the most adhered to religion in the United States, with 75% of polled American adults identifying themselves as Christian in 2015.

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Christianity: A History

Christianity: A History is an eight-part television series produced in 2009 by Pioneer Productions for Channel 4.

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Christians for Socialism

Christians for Socialism (Cristianos por el socialismo; CPS) was a worldwide political and cultural movement focused on social inequality and economic injustice, inspired by liberation theology.

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Christina Hoff Sommers

Christina Marie Hoff Sommers (born September 28, 1950) is an American author, philosopher specialising in ethics, and resident scholar at the American Enterprise Institute (AEI), a conservative think tank.

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Christine Hellyar

Christine Hellyar (born 1947) is a New Zealand artist who makes sculptures and installations.

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Christmas cantata

A Christmas cantata or Nativity cantata is a cantata, music for voice or voices in several movements, for Christmas.

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Christodoulos of Athens

Christodoulos (17 January 1939 – 28 January 2008) (Χριστόδουλος, born Christos Paraskevaidis, Χρήστος Παρασκευαΐδης) was Archbishop of Athens and All Greece and as such the primate of the Autocephalous Orthodox Church of Greece, from 1998 until his death, in 2008.

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Christoph Bartholomäus Anton Migazzi

Christoph Bartholomäus Anton Migazzi; (Christoph Bartholomäus Anton Migazzi von Wall und Sonnenthurm, Cristoforo Bartolomeo Antonio Migazzi di Waal e Sonnenthurn, Migazzi Kristóf Antal) (20 October 1714, Trento – 14 April 1803, Vienna) was Prince-Archbishop of Vienna.

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Christoph Haberland

Christoph Haberland (Kristofs Hāberlands) was a Baltic German architect, chief architect of Riga and is considered one of the brightest masters of classicism architecture in Latvian history.

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Christoph Meiners

Christoph Meiners (31 July 1747 – 1 May 1810) was a German philosopher and historian, born in Warstade.

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Christoph Wilhelm von Koch

Christoph Wilhelm von Koch (Christophe-Guillaume Koch; 9 May 1737 – 25 October 1813, Strasbourg; from 1777 Edler von Koch) was a Protestant diplomat, politician, librarian and writer from Alsace, who also taught constitutional law and history.

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Christopher Hitchens

Christopher Eric Hitchens (13 April 1949 – 15 December 2011) was an Anglo-American author, columnist, essayist, orator, religious and literary critic, social critic, and journalist.

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Church of Our Lady on the Lawn

The Gothic Church of Our Lady on the Lawn (Na Slupi) is located in the valley of the Prague Botič Stream below Vyšehrad in the New Town.

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Circassian nationalism

Circassian nationalism is the desire among Circassians to reestablish an independent Circassian state in Circassia, which lost its independence in the Russian–Circassian War.

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Cities for Life Day

Cities for Life Day is a worldwide festivity that supports the abolition of the death penalty.

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Civic virtue

Civic virtue is the cultivation of habits important for the success of the community.

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Civico Museo di Storia Naturale di Trieste

Civico Museo di Storia Naturale di Trieste is a natural history museum in Trieste, northern Italy.

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Civil code

A civil code is a systematic collection of laws designed to deal with the core areas of private law such as for dealing with business and negligence lawsuits and practices.

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Civil Code of 1734

The Civil Code of 1734 (Swedish: 1734 års lag), was passed by the Swedish Riksdag of the Estates in 1734, and put in effect after it had been ratified by Frederick I of Sweden 23 January 1736.

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Civil law (legal system)

Civil law, civilian law, or Roman law is a legal system originating in Europe, intellectualized within the framework of Roman law, the main feature of which is that its core principles are codified into a referable system which serves as the primary source of law.

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Civil society

Civil society is the "aggregate of non-governmental organizations and institutions that manifest interests and will of citizens".

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Civilisation (TV series)

Civilisation—in full, Civilisation: A Personal View by Kenneth Clark—is a television documentary series written and presented by the art historian Kenneth Clark.

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Civilization

A civilization or civilisation (see English spelling differences) is any complex society characterized by urban development, social stratification imposed by a cultural elite, symbolic systems of communication (for example, writing systems), and a perceived separation from and domination over the natural environment.

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Civilization: Is the West History?

Civilization: Is the West History? is a 2011 British TV documentary that tells how Western civilisation, in five centuries, transformed into the dominating civilisation in the world.

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Claire de Duras

Claire, Duchess of Duras (née de Kersaint; 1777–1828) was a French writer best known for her 1823 novel called Ourika, which examines issues of racial and sexual equality, and which inspired the 1969 John Fowles novel The French Lieutenant's Woman.

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Clandestine literature

Clandestine literature, also called "underground literature", refers to a type of editorial and publishing process that involves self-publishing works, often in contradiction with the legal standards of a location.

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Clash of Civilizations

The Clash of Civilizations is a hypothesis that people's cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post-Cold War world.

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Classical republicanism

Classical republicanism, also known as civic republicanism or civic humanism, is a form of republicanism developed in the Renaissance inspired by the governmental forms and writings of classical antiquity, especially such classical writers as Aristotle, Polybius, and Cicero.

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Classical school (criminology)

In criminology, the Classical School usually refers to the 18th-century work during the Enlightenment by the utilitarian and social-contract philosophers Jeremy Bentham and Cesare Beccaria.

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Classicism

Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for a classical period, classical antiquity in the Western tradition, as setting standards for taste which the classicists seek to emulate.

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Classification of mental disorders

The classification of mental disorders is also known as psychiatric nosology or psychiatric taxonomy.

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Claude Adrien Helvétius

Claude Adrien Helvétius (26 January 1715 – 26 December 1771) was a French philosopher, freemason and littérateur.

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Claude Aubriet

Claude Aubriet (ca. 1665 or 1651 – 3 December 1742) was a French illustrator and botanical artist.

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Claude-François Bertrand de Boucheporn

Claude-François Bertrand Boucheporn (November 4, 1741 – February 20, 1794) was a French magistrate and intendant of the Ancien Régime, born in Metz (Moselle).

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Cleavage (breasts)

Cleavage is the exposed area between a woman’s breasts lying over the sternum, and refers only to what is visible with clothing (or dense, nontransparent body art) that includes a low-cut neckline.

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Clerical philosophers

Clerical philosophers is the name given to a group of Catholic intellectuals, namely the Savoyard Joseph de Maistre, and the French Louis de Bonald and François-René de Chateaubriand, who sought to undermine the intellectual foundations of the French Revolution in reaction to what they perceived as its overt anti-religious and destructive character.

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Clockwork universe

In the history of science, the clockwork universe compares the universe to a mechanical clock.

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Close Action

Close Action is a naval board wargame published by Clash of Arms in 1997 and designed by Mark A. Campbell.

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Club de l'Entresol

The Club de l'Entresol (Mezzanine Club) was a think-tank, club and discussion group founded in 1724 by Pierre-Joseph Alary and Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre on the English model for free discussion of political and economic questions.

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Codex Ebnerianus

Codex Ebnerianus, Minuscule 105 (in the Gregory-Aland numbering), δ 257 (Soden), is a Greek language illuminated manuscript of the New Testament, though missing the Book of Revelation.

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Codification (law)

In law, codification is the process of collecting and restating the law of a jurisdiction in certain areas, usually by subject, forming a legal code, i.e. a codex (book) of law.

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Coffee

Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted coffee beans, which are the seeds of berries from the Coffea plant.

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Coffee: A Dark History

Coffee: A Dark History is a 2005 book that examines the history of coffee.

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Coffeehouse

A coffeehouse, coffee shop or café (sometimes spelt cafe) is an establishment which primarily serves hot coffee, related coffee beverages (café latte, cappuccino, espresso), tea, and other hot beverages.

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Coherence (units of measurement)

A coherent system of units is based on a system of quantities in such a way that the equations between the numerical values expressed in coherent units have exactly the same form, including numerical factors, as the corresponding equations between the quantities.

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Coin collecting

Coin collecting is the collecting of coins or other forms of minted legal tender.

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College Historical Society

The College Historical Society (CHS) – popularly referred to as The Hist – is one of the two debating societies at Trinity College, Dublin.

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College of Sorbonne

The College of Sorbonne (Collège de Sorbonne) was a theological college of the University of Paris, founded in 1253 by Robert de Sorbon (1201–1274), after whom it was named.

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Colloquium Marianum

Colloquium Marianum was an elite type of Marian sodality, founded by Jesuit Father Jakob Rem of the Jesuit Seminary at Ingolstadt in 1594 AD in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, with the aim to reach holiness of life through an ever-deeper love of the Virgin Mary.

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Colombian Declaration of Independence

The Colombian Declaration of Independence refers to the events of July 20, 1810, in Santa Fe de Bogota, in the Spanish colonial Viceroyalty of New Granada.

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Colonial Argentina

Colonial Argentina is designated as the period of the History of Argentina when it was an overseas colony of the Spanish Empire.

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Colonial Brazil

Colonial Brazil (Brasil Colonial) comprises the period from 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese, until 1815, when Brazil was elevated to a kingdom in union with Portugal as the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves.

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Colonial history of the United States

The colonial history of the United States covers the history of European colonization of the Americas from the start of colonization in the early 16th century until their incorporation into the United States of America.

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Columbia College (New York)

Columbia College is the oldest undergraduate college at Columbia University, situated on the university's main campus in Morningside Heights in the borough of Manhattan in New York City.

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COMCEPT

COMCEPT, acronym for Comunidade Céptica Portuguesa (English: Portuguese Skeptical Community), is a Portuguese project dedicated to scientific skepticism, created to promote rational and critical thinking about paranormal and pseudoscientific claims from a scientific point of view.

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Comic opera

Comic opera denotes a sung dramatic work of a light or comic nature, usually with a happy ending.

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Commentaires sur Corneille

The Commentaires sur Corneille is a work of literary criticism by the French Enlightenment writer and philosopher Voltaire, collecting and analysing the dramatic works of Pierre Corneille (1608–1684).

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Commission of National Education

The Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, abbreviated KEN, Edukacinė komisija, Адукацыйная камісія) was the central educational authority in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, created by the Sejm and the King Stanisław August Poniatowski on October 14, 1773.

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Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion

The Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion (CSER) was based at the Center for Inquiry in Amherst, New York.

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Common sense

Common sense is sound practical judgment concerning everyday matters, or a basic ability to perceive, understand, and judge that is shared by ("common to") nearly all people.

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Common Sense (pamphlet)

Common Sense is a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1775–76 advocating independence from Great Britain to people in the Thirteen Colonies.

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Communes of France

The commune is a level of administrative division in the French Republic.

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Communicative action

In sociology, communicative action is cooperative action undertaken by individuals based upon mutual deliberation and argumentation.

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Communism

In political and social sciences, communism (from Latin communis, "common, universal") is the philosophical, social, political, and economic ideology and movement whose ultimate goal is the establishment of the communist society, which is a socioeconomic order structured upon the common ownership of the means of production and the absence of social classes, money and the state.

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Communitarianism

Communitarianism is a philosophy that emphasizes the connection between the individual and the community.

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Communitas perfecta

Communitas perfecta ("perfect community") or societas perfecta ("perfect society") is the Latin name given to one of several ecclesiological, canonical, and political theories of the Catholic Church.

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Compatibilism

Compatibilism is the belief that free will and determinism are mutually compatible and that it is possible to believe in both without being logically inconsistent.

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Complutense University of Madrid

The Complutense University of Madrid (Universidad Complutense de Madrid or Universidad de Madrid, Universitas Complutensis) is a public research university located in Madrid, and one of the oldest universities in the world.

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Compulsory education

Compulsory education refers to a period of education that is required of all people and is imposed by government.

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Confucianism

Confucianism, also known as Ruism, is described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or simply a way of life.

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Confucius

Confucius (551–479 BC) was a Chinese teacher, editor, politician, and philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history.

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Congregationalism in the United States

Congregationalism in the United States consists of Protestant churches in the Reformed tradition that have a congregational form of church government and trace their origins mainly to Puritan settlers of colonial New England.

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Congressional Freethought Caucus

The Congressional Freethought Caucus is a membership organization within the United States House of Representatives, which was established in April of 2018 to foster science and reason-based solutions and to defend the secular character of government.

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Conscience

Conscience is an aptitude, faculty, intuition or judgment that assists in distinguishing right from wrong.

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Conservation biology

Conservation biology is the management of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions.

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Conservatism

Conservatism is a political and social philosophy promoting traditional social institutions in the context of culture and civilization.

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Conservatism in Germany

Conservatism in Germany has encompassed a wide range of theories and ideologies in the last three hundred years.

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Consilience

In science and history, consilience (also convergence of evidence or concordance of evidence) refers to the principle that evidence from independent, unrelated sources can "converge" on strong conclusions.

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Consilience (book)

Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge is a 1998 book by biologist E. O. Wilson, in which the author discusses methods that have been used to unite the sciences and might in the future unite them with the humanities.

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Consistori del Gay Saber

The Consistori del Gay Saber ("Consistory of the Gay Science") was a poetic academy founded at Toulouse in 1323 to revive and perpetuate the lyric poetry of the troubadours.

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Conspiracy of Suassuna

The Conspiracy of Suaçunas also known for its archaic spelling - The Conspiracy of Suassuna - was a conspiracy to overthrow Portuguese rule in Brazil at the dawn of the 19th century.

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Conspiracy of the Tres Antonios

The Conspiracy of the Tres Antonios (1781) (Conspiración de los tres Antonios) was minor failed conspiracy against the Spanish colonial authorities in the captaincy-general of Chile, that was led by two Frenchmen, Antonio Gramusset and Antonio Berney, and a criollo, José Antonio de Rojas.

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Constantin Zureiq

Constantin K. Zurayk (قسطنطين زريق) (born Damascus 1909 – August 11, 2000 in Beirut) was a prominent and influential Syrian Arab intellectual who was one of the first to pioneer and express the importance of Arab nationalism.

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Constantine Levidis

Constantine N. Levidis (Κωνσταντίνος Λεβίδης; 1790, Constantinople – October 4, 1868, Athens) was a Greek scholar, writer, editor, considered as 'the father of Greek journalism'.

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Constitution

A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed.

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Constitution of 3 May 1791

The Constitution of 3 May 1791 (Konstytucja 3 Maja, Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija) was adopted by the Great Sejm (parliament) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a dual monarchy comprising the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

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Constitution of Italy

The Constitution of the Italian Republic (Costituzione della Repubblica Italiana) was enacted by the Constituent Assembly on 22 December 1947, with 453 votes in favour and 62 against.

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Constitution of Tunisia

The Constitution of Tunisia is the supreme law of the Tunisian Republic.

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Constitutional patriotism

Constitutional patriotism (Verfassungspatriotismus) is the idea that people should form a political attachment to the norms and values of a pluralistic liberal democratic constitution rather than a national culture or cosmopolitan society.

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Constructed language

A constructed language (sometimes called a conlang) is a language whose phonology, grammar, and vocabulary have been consciously devised for human or human-like communication, instead of having developed naturally.

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Constructivist epistemology

Constructivist epistemology is a branch in philosophy of science maintaining that scientific knowledge is constructed by the scientific community, who seek to measure and construct models of the natural world.

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Contact electrification

Contact electrification was an erroneous scientific theory from the Enlightenment that attempted to account for all the sources of electric charge known at the time.

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Continental philosophy

Continental philosophy is a set of 19th- and 20th-century philosophical traditions from mainland Europe.

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Convent pornography

Convent pornography, convent erotica, friar erotica, priest erotica, monk erotica, or clergy erotica includes paintings, sculpture, photographs, dramatic arts, music and writings that show scenes of erotic or sexual nature involving clergy.

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Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds

Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (Entretiens sur la pluralité des mondes) is a popular science book by French author Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle, published in 1686.

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Convulsionnaires of Saint-Médard

Convulsionnaires of Saint-Médard was a group of 18th-century French religious pilgrims who exhibited convulsions and later constituted a religious sect and a political movement.

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Cornelis Jan Witsen

Cornelis Jansz.

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Cornelius de Pauw

Cornelius Franciscus de Pauw or Cornelis de Pauw (Corneille de Pauw in French; 18 August 1739 — 5 July 1799) was a Dutch philosopher, geographer and diplomat at the court of Frederick the Great of Prussia.

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Cornell University Department of History

The Cornell University Department of History is an academic department in the College of Arts and Sciences at Cornell University that focuses on the study of history.

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Coronation

A coronation is the act of placement or bestowal of a crown upon a monarch's head.

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Corporal punishment

Corporal punishment or physical punishment is a punishment intended to cause physical pain on a person.

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Corps Altsachsen Dresden

The Corps Altsachsen is a fraternity (Studentenverbindung) in Dresden, Germany, founded on October 31, 1861.

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Corps Austria Frankfurt am Main

Corps Austria is a member Corps of the Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband, the association of the oldest student fraternities in Germany, Austria and Switzerland.

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Corps Hubertia Freiburg

The Corps Hubertia Freiburg is a fraternity (Studentenverbindung) in Freiburg, Germany.

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Corsican Republic

In November 1755, Pasquale Paoli proclaimed Corsica a sovereign nation, the Corsican Republic, independent from the Republic of Genoa.

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Cosmic pluralism

Cosmic pluralism, the plurality of worlds, or simply pluralism, describes the philosophical belief in numerous "worlds" (planets, dwarf planets or natural satellites) in addition to Earth (possibly an infinite number), which may harbour extraterrestrial life.

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Costumbrismo

Costumbrismo (sometimes anglicized as Costumbrism) is the literary or pictorial interpretation of local everyday life, mannerisms, and customs, primarily in the Hispanic scene, and particularly in the 19th century.

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Counter-Enlightenment

The Counter-Enlightenment was a term that some 20th-century commentators have used to describe multiple strains of thought that arose in the late-18th and early-19th centuries in opposition to the 18th-century Enlightenment.

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Counterknowledge

Counterknowledge: How We Surrendered to Conspiracy Theories, Quack Medicine, Bogus Science and Fake History is a polemic by British writer and journalist Damian Thompson which examines the dissemination and reception of fringe theories.

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County of Hanau

The County of Hanau was a territory within the Holy Roman Empire, evolved out of the Lordship of Hanau in 1429.

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Courier du Bas-Rhin

Courier du Bas-Rhin (or Courrier du Bas Rhin, lit. Courier of Lower Rhine) was one of the leading European papers of the late 18th century and the Enlightenment period.

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Covered Market, Metz

The Metz Covered Market is a historic market with permanent stalls and shops in a large covered structure in the historical centre of Metz, capital of the Lorraine region in France.

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Coverture

Coverture (sometimes spelled couverture) was a legal doctrine whereby, upon marriage, a woman's legal rights and obligations were subsumed by those of her husband, in accordance with the wife's legal status of feme covert.

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Creativity

Creativity is a phenomenon whereby something new and somehow valuable is formed.

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Creole peoples

Creole peoples (and its cognates in other languages such as crioulo, criollo, creolo, créole, kriolu, criol, kreyol, kreol, kriol, krio, kriyoyo, etc.) are ethnic groups which originated from creolisation, linguistic, cultural and racial mixing between colonial-era emigrants from Europe with non-European peoples, climates and cuisines.

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Crime

In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority.

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Critical rationalism

Critical rationalism is an epistemological philosophy advanced by Karl Popper.

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Critical theory

Critical theory is a school of thought that stresses the reflective assessment and critique of society and culture by applying knowledge from the social sciences and the humanities.

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Critical thinking

Critical thinking is the objective analysis of facts to form a judgment.

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Criticism of atheism

Criticism of atheism is criticism of the concepts, validity, or impact of atheism, including associated political and social implications.

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Criticism of capitalism

Criticism of capitalism ranges from expressing disagreement with the principles of capitalism in its entirety to expressing disagreement with particular outcomes of capitalism.

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Criticism of Christianity

Criticism of Christianity has a long history stretching back to the initial formation of the religion during the Roman Empire.

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Criticism of marriage

Criticisms of marriage are arguments against the practical or moral value of the institution of matrimony or particular forms of matrimony.

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Criticism of monarchy

Criticism of monarchy can be targeted against the general form of government—monarchy—or more specifically, to particular monarchical governments as controlled by hereditary royal families.

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Criticism of multiculturalism

Criticism of multiculturalism questions the ideal of the maintenance of distinct ethnic cultures within a country.

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Criticism of the Catholic Church

Criticism of the Catholic Church includes the observations made about the current or historical Catholic Church, in its actions, teachings, omissions, structure, or nature.

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Critique

Critique is a method of disciplined, systematic study of a written or oral discourse.

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Croatia–France relations

The foreign, diplomatic, economic, and political relations between Croatia and France are bound together by shared history, intellectual development (Illyrian movement), an overlap in religion (Roman Catholicism), commonalities in language (nearly 10% of Croatians speak French) and kinship ties that reach back thousands of years, including kindred, ancestral lines.

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Croatian literature

Croatian literature refers to literary works attributed to the medieval and modern culture of the Croats, Croatia and the Croatian language.

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Crusades

The Crusades were a series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church in the medieval period.

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Cultural imperialism

Cultural imperialism comprises the cultural aspects of imperialism.

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Cultural movement

A cultural movement is a change in the way a number of different disciplines approach their work.

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Cultural relativism

Cultural relativism is the idea that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that person's own culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of another.

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Culture

Culture is the social behavior and norms found in human societies.

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Culture of Europe

The culture of Europe is rooted in the art, architecture, music, literature, and philosophy that originated from the continent of Europe.

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Culture of Greece

The culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, beginning in Mycenaean Greece, continuing most notably into Classical Greece, through the influence of the Roman Empire and its successor the Byzantine Empire.

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Culture of Milan

This article discusses art, fashion, design, literature, theatre, music, cuisine, holidays and social life in the Italian city of Milan.

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Culture of Poland

The culture of Poland is the product of its geography and its distinct historical evolution which is closely connected to its intricate thousand-year history.

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Culture of Slovenia

Among the modes of expression of the culture of Slovenia, a nation state in Central Europe, are music and dance, literature, visual arts, film and theatre.

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Culture of the United States

The culture of the United States of America is primarily of Western culture (European) origin and form, but is influenced by a multicultural ethos that includes African, Native American, Asian, Polynesian, and Latin American people and their cultures.

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Cunning folk

Cunning folk, also known as folk healers or (more rarely) as white witches, are practitioners of folk medicine, folk magic, and divination within the context of the various traditions of folklore in Christian Europe (from at least the 15th up until at least the early 20th century).

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Cunning folk in Britain

The cunning folk in Britain were professional or semi-professional practitioners of magic in Britain, active from the Medieval period through the early twentieth century.

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Cupid

In classical mythology, Cupid (Latin Cupīdō, meaning "desire") is the god of desire, erotic love, attraction and affection.

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Cupid and Psyche

Cupid and Psyche is a story originally from Metamorphoses (also called The Golden Ass), written in the 2nd century AD by Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis (or Platonicus).

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Cyropaedia

The Cyropaedia, sometimes spelled Cyropedia, is a largely fictional biography of Cyrus the Great the founder of Achaemenid Empire, the first Persian Empire.

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Cyrus the Great

Cyrus II of Persia (𐎤𐎢𐎽𐎢𐏁 Kūruš; New Persian: کوروش Kuruš;; c. 600 – 530 BC), commonly known as Cyrus the Great  and also called Cyrus the Elder by the Greeks, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, the first Persian Empire.

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D'Holbach's Coterie

D'Holbach's Coterie (la coterie holbachique was the phrase coined by Jean-Jacques Rousseau) was a group of radical French Enlightenment thinkers who met regularly at the salon of the atheist philosophe Baron d'Holbach in the years approximately 1750–1780.

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D. H. Th. Vollenhoven

Dirk Hendrik Theodoor Vollenhoven (1 November 1892, Amsterdam – 6 June 1978, Amsterdam) was a Dutch philosopher.

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D. T. Suzuki

Daisetsu Teitaro Suzuki (鈴木 大拙 貞太郎 Suzuki Daisetsu Teitarō; he rendered his name "Daisetz" in 1894; 18 October 1870 – 12 July 1966) was a Japanese author of books and essays on Buddhism, Zen (Chan) and Shin that were instrumental in spreading interest in both Zen and Shin (and Far Eastern philosophy in general) to the West.

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Dacha

A dacha (a) is a seasonal or year-round second home, often located in the exurbs of Russian and other post-Soviet cities.

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Dagmar Reichardt

Dagmar Reichardt (born September 25, 1961 in Rome, Italy) is a German cultural scholar.

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Damaris Cudworth Masham

Damaris Cudworth, Lady Masham (18 January 1659 – 20 April 1708) was an English theological writer and advocate for women's education who is characterized as a proto-feminist.

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Daniel Roche (historian)

Daniel Roche (born 1935) is a French social and cultural historian, widely recognized as one of the foremost experts of his generation on the cultural history of France during the later years of the Ancien Régime.

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Daniel Waitzman

Daniel Robert Waitzman (born July 15, 1943) is an American flutist and composer.

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Daniela Müller

Daniela Müller (born 10 July 1957 in Aschaffenburg, Germany) is a German theologian and church historian, who works in the Netherlands since 2007 and who holds the chair of Church History/History of Christianity and Canon Law at the Radboud University in Nijmegen.

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Danish literature

Danish literature, a subset of Scandinavian literature, stretches back to the Middle Ages.

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Daphne Hampson

Margaret Daphne Hampson (born 1944) is a British theologian.

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Dark Ages (historiography)

The "Dark Ages" is a historical periodization traditionally referring to the Middle Ages, that asserts that a demographic, cultural, and economic deterioration occurred in Western Europe following the decline of the Roman Empire.

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Dark Enlightenment

The Dark Enlightenment, or the neoreactionary movement—also known simply as neoreaction and abbreviated NRx by its proponents—is an anti-democratic and reactionary movement that considers itself to be the antithesis to the Enlightenment.

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Darnley Mausoleum

The Darnley Mausoleum, or Cobham Mausoleum as it is often now referred to, is a Grade I Listed building, now owned by the National Trust and situated in Cobham Woods, Kent (OS grid ref: TQ694684).

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David Deutsch

David Elieser Deutsch (born 18 May 1953) is an Israeli-born British physicist at the University of Oxford.

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David Gress

David Richard Gress (born 29 January 1953) is a Danish historian, known for his 1998 survey From Plato to Nato on Western identity and grand narratives.

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David Hartley (philosopher)

David Hartley (8 August 170528 August 1757) was an English philosopher and founder of the Associationist school of psychology.

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David Hume

David Hume (born David Home; 7 May 1711 NS (26 April 1711 OS) – 25 August 1776) was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, who is best known today for his highly influential system of philosophical empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism.

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David I of Scotland

David I or Dauíd mac Maíl Choluim (Modern: Daibhidh I mac Chaluim; – 24 May 1153) was a 12th-century ruler who was Prince of the Cumbrians from 1113 to 1124 and later King of the Scots from 1124 to 1153.

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David Sorkin

David Sorkin is the Lucy G. Moses professor of Jewish history at Yale University.

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David Williams (philosopher)

David Williams (1738 – 29 June 1816), was a Welsh philosopher of the Enlightenment period.

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De sphaera mundi

De sphaera mundi (Latin title meaning On the Sphere of the World, sometimes rendered The Sphere of the Cosmos; the Latin title is also given as Tractatus de sphaera, Textus de sphaera, or simply De sphaera) is a medieval introduction to the basic elements of astronomy written by Johannes de Sacrobosco (John of Holywood) c. 1230.

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Deafhood

Deafhood is a term coined by Paddy Ladd in his book Understanding Deaf Culture: In Search of Deafhood.

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Debate

Debate is a process that involves formal discussion on a particular topic.

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Decadent movement

The Decadent Movement was a late 19th-century artistic and literary movement, centered in Western Europe, that followed an aesthetic ideology of excess and artificiality.

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Decembrist revolt

The Decembrist revolt or the Decembrist uprising (r) took place in Imperial Russia on.

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Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution

The dechristianization of France during the French Revolution is a conventional description of the results of a number of separate policies conducted by various governments of France between the start of the French Revolution in 1789 and the Concordat of 1801, forming the basis of the later and less radical laïcité policies.

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Declaration and Address

The Declaration and Address was written by Thomas Campbell in 1809.

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Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen of 1789

The Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen of 1789 (Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen de 1789), set by France's National Constituent Assembly in 1789, is a human civil rights document from the French Revolution.

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Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen

The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (French: Déclaration des droits de la femme et de la citoyenne), also known as the Declaration of the Rights of Woman, was written on 5 September in 1791 by French activist, feminist, and playwright Olympe de Gouges in response to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

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Decline of the Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire (the Eastern Roman Empire during the medieval period, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire) following the crisis of the Gothic Wars managed to re-establish itself in a golden age under the Justinian dynasty in the 6th century, and during the Early Middle Ages it continued to flourish even after the Muslim conquest of the Levant and the constant threat of Arab invasion.

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