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Total Reviw AP Euro History

Question	Answer
Niccolo Machiavelli	Florentine political theorist, believed that the state was an artifice of human creation to be conquered, shaped and administered by princes according to the principles of power politics described these principles in his novel The Prince
Byzantine Empire	Created out of the Eastern Roman Empire and had its capital sacked by the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
Duchy of Milan	Had been under dynastic rule since the fourteenth century, the most powerful Italian principality, a military state, uninterested in the support of the arts. Turned to a republic in 1447, turned back into a duchy and then came under Spanish rule
Treaty of Lodi	1454, settled decades of warfare between the city states, established a balance of power between the major Italian city states and maintained relative stability in the peninsula for a half a century, the system collapsed in 1494 with the French invasion
War of the Roses	England's intermittent civil war, fueled by factions among nobles and regional discontent and abroad by Franco-Burgundian intervention, did relatively little damage to England, did not affect English economic growth
House of Tudor	ultimate winners of the War of the Roses, lead by Henry Tudor, who proclaimed himself Henry VII after the victory
Ferdinand and Isabella	Married in 1469, taking the first step towards a unified Spain. The unity of Aragon and Castile crushed the last of the Iberian Muslim states, Granada, and created a Christian-dominated Spain
The Ottoman Empire	Lead by Sultan Mehmed II, a serious threat to Christian Europe, declared a holy war and laid siege to Constantinople and won, earning Mehmed II the name of "the Conqueror"
Muscovy	Began to assert their independence with the collapse of the Mongol power. Ivan III the first prince to declare himself Tsar, was very successful: crushed the city state of Novgorod, pushed Mongols back, claimed absolute power, defended Russian Orthodox
Marco Polo, 1324	a Venetian trader and explorer, one of the first westerners to travel the Silk Road in China, visited the Great Khan of Mongol, and met Kublai Khan
Vasco da Gama	Portuguese explorer, one of the most successful during the age of discovery and was the first person to sail from Europe to India, reached Calicut
Ferdinand Magellan, 1512	a Portuguese sailor in Spanish service, lead the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe
Pedro Alvares	accidentally discovered Brazil in 1500 on a voyage to India
Christopher Columbus, 1492	funded by Isabella and Ferdinand, Columbus set sail across the Atlantic in 1492 with only three ships and ninety men, found modern day Bahamas and mistook the islands for part of the East Indies, encountered the a group of Indians, the Arawaks
Hernan Cortes	one of the most prominent Spanish explorers, lead an expedition to New Spain (Mexico) in search of gold, captured the Aztec capital of Tenochtitln in 1519
Aztec	Built their capital city at Tenochtitlan; increased their power until they dominated central Mexico; built causeways, pyramids, marketplaces, and palaces; ended when conquered by Spanish explorers in the 1500s.
Francisco Pizarro	A prominent Spanish explorer who conquered the Andean highlands (Peru), conquering the Incans.
Mayan	subdued by the Spanish on the Yucatan peninsula
Treaty of Tordesillas	1494, settled disputes between Spanish and Portuguese by dividing the Atlantic between the two countries, this was the agreement that allowed Portugal to claim Brazil
Jacques Cartier	1534, led three voyages that explored the St. Lawrence River as far as Montreal, early attempts to settle Canada failed because of the harsh winter and Indian hostility
Renaissance	Means rebirth in French. Used to label the period of time during the 15th century where a renewed interest in classical art and philosophy coupled with Humanist philosophy brought about a cultural rebirth. Centered in Italy.
Humanism	Philosophy stating that man is the measure of all things. And that man can do whatever he puts his mind to. Raised the importance of the liberal arts in Europe.
Florence	City State in what is now modern day Italy. Home to Cosimo de Medici and the Platonic Academy. Played a major roll in the renaissance, and the birth and spread of Humanism.
Arno River	A river in Italy that flows through Florence.
Cosimo de Medici	Rich and relatively powerful Florentine Banker who sponsored the Platonic Academy and other early renaissance establishments.
Platonic Academy	A discussion group sponsored by Cosimo de Medici and headed by Marsilo Ficino. It discussed the philosophies and ideals of Plato and his followers.
Marsilo Ficino	Headed the Platonic Academy in Florence. Cosimo de Medici was his Patron.
Italian City States	Main ones: Venice, Florence, Milan, the Papal States, Naples. Can be divided into two categories: republics (preserved tradition of the medieval commune), such as Venice and Florence, and principalities (ruled by dynasty), such as Milan and Naples.
Invention of Paper in China	Paper was invented by the Chinese (Some believe as early as the 2nd Century B.C.E) and brought to Europe by Arab traders.
Printing Press	Created by Johannes Gutenburg of Germany in the 1440's. The invention of the Printing Press allowed for the quick spread ideas. Crucial to the spreading of ideas throughout many stages of the development of western society.
Johannes Gutenberg	German Goldsmith and inventor of the Printing Press. His most famous books are the Gutenberg bibles. It is a two volume set written in Latin and only 185 copies were produced.
Scriptoria	A workshop in which documents were copied by hand for sale to upper and middle class.
The Bible	The Christian Holy Book. Actually a collection of many books divided into an old testament (Before Jesus) and a new testament (From the Birth of Jesus and on.)
Patrons	Rich upper or middle class people who would give money and support to artists and intellectuals.
Leonardo Da Vinci	Widely considered "the renaissance man". He was a master of many trades and is widely known as the painter of the Mona Lisa. He was also an accomplished inventor and scientist.
Donatello	Master Florentine sculptor. Worked under Medici patronage and produced a famous sculpture of the biblical king David before Michelangelo.
Michelangelo	Famous Renaissance artist who was a favourite of Pope Julius II. Some of his most famous work include the Statue of David and the Roof of the Sistine Chapel.
Dowry Fund	1425, public fund established to raise state revenues and a major investment instrument for the upper classes. 1433, the fund paid annual interest of between 15 and 21%, fathers could hope to raise dowries to marry their daughters to more prominent men
Sandro Botticelli	Italian painter of "Springtime" and "The Birth of Venus"
Jan Van Eyck	Widely considered the greatest of the painters from the north countries. Attributed with the creation of oil painting.
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola	Wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man which has been called the "Manifesto of the Renaissance."
Visual perspective	It was first mastered by Filippo Brunneleschi in the early 1440's. Important part of renaissance advancements to art.
Lorenzo Ghiberti	Headed the project to create a set of bronze doors for the baptistry of the cathedral in Florence. His "Gates of Paradise" showed old testament scenes created with sense of visual perspective that was considered revolutionary for the time.
"the Gates of Paradise"	Set of inner doors at the Baptistry of the Cathedral in Paris. Beared "old testament" scenes sculpted with regards to visual perspective.
Filippo Brunelleschi	Famous Italian architect who designed the dome for the cathedral in Florence.
Leon Battista Alberti	Famous Italian Writer,Poet, Linguist, architect and philosopher. Argued for large-scale urban planning. Designed Rucellai Palace in Florence.
"Fat People"	used by Florentines to describe 30% of the urban population, including wealthier merchant, the leading artisans, notaries, doctors and other professionals
"Little People"	a term used by the Florentines to describe 60% of all households, the workers, small merchants and artisans
Charles V	King of Spain from 1520-1558 and the Holy Roman Emperor. A strong catholic leader.
95 Thesis	Challenged the teachings of the Church on the nature of penance, the authority of the pope and the usefulness of indulgences. They sparked a theological debate that would result in the Reformation.
Diet of Worms	a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire that took place in Worms. It is most memorable for addressing Martin Luther and the effects of the Protestant Reformation.
Huldrych Zwingli	The leader of the Protestant Reformation in Switzerland. His movement persecuted anabaptists. It effected Zurich in civil life as well as matters of state. It quickly spread through other parts of Switzerland.
Colloquy of Marburg, 1529	Philip I wanted to unite the protestant followers of Luther and those of Zwingili in a way which was politically convenient for him by trying to find a median between the two groups.
John Calvin	A french protestant who founded Calvinism. He rejected papal authority and is famous for his teachings and writings.
Thomas Muntzer	Was an early Reformation-era German pastor who was a rebel leader during the Peasants' War. Cf. Radical Reformation, Protestant reformers
German Peasant's War	A massive rural uprising that threatened the entire social order in Germany from 1520 to 1525
Menno Simmons	was an Anabaptist religious leader from Friesland (today a province of The Netherlands). His followers became known as Mennonites.
New Testament into German, 1522	Martin Luther did this during his time in hiding believing the common people to be allowed to read the bible for themselves.
William Tyndale	Inspired by Luther he translated the bible into English
The Jesuits	This was the most important religious order of Catholic Europe in the 16th century. They helped establish an excellent system of secondary education through their colleges.
Henry VIII	Famous for having been married six times, and ultimately breaking with Rome. He wielded perhaps the most untrammebled power of any English monarch, and brought about the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and the union of England and Wales.
"Defender of the Faith"	This title was awarded to King Henry VIII after writing the book "Defence of the Seven Sacraments" the the assistance of Thomas More.
Act of Supremacy, 1529	an Act of the Parliament of England under King Henry VIII of England declaring that he was 'the only supreme head on earth of the Church in England'
Catherine of Aragon	Queen of England and first wife of Henry VIII. Henry tried to have their twenty-four year marriage annulled in part because all their male heirs apparently died in childhood.
Thomas Cramner	One of King Henry VIII's loyal servants who was also an archbishop of Canterbury
Baldassare Castiglione	was a diplomat and was a very prominent Renaissance author. He wrote "The Courtier"
Titain	A Venitian painter who captured Charles V's life on canvas four times. He is known best for the portrait known as Gloria.
Michelangelo	Italian Renaissance painter, sculptor, architect, poet and engineer. Created famous works such as the David and the Sistine Chapel
Huguenots	This was the name of the French Protestants, more specifically French Calvinistic Protestants
Schmalkaldic League	Protestant princes in the Holy Roman Empire who vowed to defend each other's territories if Charles V were to attack anyone of them.
Peace of Augsburg, 1555	was a treaty signed between Charles V, and the Schmalkaldic League. It officially put A stop to the Schmalkaldic wars. It allowed the princes to choose to be either Lutheran or Catholic religions.
Council of Trent 1545-1563	Convened three times in the city of Trent due to the rise of the reformation movement. It was to interpret the Catholic church's doctrines regarding salvation, the sacraments, the biblical canon and creating a Mass that was to be used around the world.
Francis Xavier	A pioneering Christian missionary and co-founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuit Order).
Atheist	Someone who does not believe in god.
Protestant Reformation	Started by Martin Luther it was a sweeping movement to uproot church abuses and restore early Christian teachings.
Evangelicals	this was what the followers of Martin Luther were called until 1529 when German Princes and city delegates lodged a formal protest against imperial authorities who had declared Luther's cause criminal.
Protestants	This was what the followers of Martin Luther called themselves.
Christian Humanists	These people were outraged by the abuse of power of the church and dreamed of ideal societies based on peace and morality. They also sought to realize the ethical ideals of the classical world.
Indulgences	These were remissions of sins by performing certain religious tasks such as "going on pilgrimage, attending mass, doing holy works, etc." However it is more likely that this was merely a way for the church to make a greater profit by selling them.
Martin Luther	Was a German friar who, tormented by his own religion, became the spokesperson for his generation and his reform movement sparked explosive protests.
Predestination	This was a theory by John Calvin which stated that God had ordained every man, woman, and child to salvation or damnation, even before the creation of the world. Therefore, no matter what one did in life it would not effect God's plan.
Anabaptists	These people believed that only adults could believe and accept baptism and therefore the baptism of infants was invalid. They considered themselves to be true Christians unblemished by sin and did not support violence but preferred peace and salvation.
Desiderus Erasmus	A Dutch scholar who was a representative of the Christian humanists. He dominated the humanist world of early sixteenth century Europe. He earned a reputation of being very dedicated to education reform.
Thomas More	He was excecuted by Henry the VIII for not accepting the English Reformation. Among his more famous works is the book Utopia.
Utopia	Written by Thomas More describes it describes an imaginary land which, was intended as a critique of his own society. This society was heaven compared to life in England as it was based on a system of equality.
German Peasants War	This was a massive rural uprising that threatened the entire social order of Germany. This eventually split the reform movement in the end the princes managed to defeat the peasants.
Ignatius Loyola	The founder of the Jesuits
St. Bartholemew's Day Massacre	Catherine de Medici ordered the killing of the Huguenot's leaders and this lead to a massacre where over three thousand Huguenots were murdered in Paris.
Huguenots	French Protestants or Calvinists.
Henry of Navarre, Henry IV	Protestant Bourbon who came into power in France after the death of Henry III. He said "Paris is worth a mass" and tried to blend the two religious ideals.
Edit of Nantes	Granted Huguenots religious toleration and made them an officially protected minority.
Elizabeth 1	Came into power after the death of Mary Tudor and became queen of England. Often referred to as the "Virgin Queen"
Mary Queen of Scots	Next in line after Elizabeth, she waited under house arrest creating plots against Elizabeth. Elizabeth finally ordered her beheading after she discovered Mary was working with Philip II.
Phillip II	Sent in the Spanish Armada with the praise of Pope Sixtus V to eradicate the heretical Queen Elizabeth.
Spanish Armada	Great fleet of 130 ships was defeated and forced to return home after losing half of its ships. This was a great victory for Protestants around Europe.
James I	Came into power as the King of England and Scotland after Elizabeth I.
Ivan the Terrible	Ruthlessly fought to make Muscovy the centre of the Russian Orthodox Church.
King Gustavus Adolphus	King of Sweden who fought for the Protestant cause during the Thirty Years War and had the strongest military presence in Northern Europe.
Thirty Years War	A war which began as civil wars over religion and spread to the rest of Europe. It started as a war over religion and became political, end by the Treaty of Westphalia 1648.
Peace of Westfalia, 1648	Brought peace to the Thirty Years War and served as a model for resolving conflict among the warring European countries.
Puritans	Any person seeking "purity" of worship and doctrine, especially if they rejected the Church of England. Many of these people settled in the American colonies.
William Shakespeare(1564-1616)	Famous English playwright, writer, actor whose plays reflected on the contemporary concerns on the nature of power by setting them in faraway times and places.
Baroque	the qualities most frequently associated with this type of art are grandeur, sensuous richness, drama, vitality, movement, tension, and emotional exuberance.
Peter Paul Ruebens	Was the most popular and prolific Flemish and European painter of the 17th century. He was the proponent of an exuberant Baroque style which emphasized movement, colour and sensuality.
Opera	A form of theatre in which the drama is conveyed wholly or predominantly through music and singing. Claudio Monteverdi was the first person to apply this art form, which spread from Italy.
Scientific Revolution	Can be dated roughly as having begun in 1543, the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published his De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres)
Nicolaus Copernicus	Astronomer who formulated the theory of heliocentrism.
Heliocentrism	Heliocentrism is the belief that the Sun is at the center of the Universe and/or the Solar System.
Tycho Brahe	Astrologer and alchemist. Along with his assistant Kjohannes Kepler, he designed the laws for planetary motion.
Johannes Kepler	A key figure in the 17th century astronomical revolution, was a German Lutheran mathematician, astronomer and astrologer. He is best known for his laws of planetary motion.
Galileo Galilei	He was an Italian physicist, astronomer, and philosopher. He improved the telescope, made many astrological observations. He discovered that the Earth revolves around the Sun.
Sir Francis Bacon	He was an English philosopher, statesman and essayist but is best known for leading the scientific revolution with his new 'observation and experimentation' theory which is the way science has been conducted ever since.
Rene Descartes	A highly influential French philosopher, mathematician, scientist, and writer. Dubbed the "Founder of Modern Philosophy"
Witchcraft	Basically became obsolete after the Scientific Revolution.
Cardinal Richelieu	Consecrated as a bishop in 1607, he later entered politics, becoming a Secretary of State in 1616. He soon rose in both the Church and the state, becoming a cardinal in 1622, and King Louis XIII's chief minister or regent in 1624.
Edict of Nantes	Granted Calvinists the same rights as Catholics in a mainly Catholic nation. It was issued by Henry IV of France on April 13, 1598. This paced the way for tolerance and secularism in France.
Albrecht von Wallenstein	He was a Bohemian soldier and politician who gave his services (an army of 30,000 to 100,000 men) during the Danish Period of the Thirty Years' War to Ferdinand II for no charge except the right to plunder the territories that he conquered.
White Mountain (1620)	A decisive battle in the Thirty Years War.
Louis XIV	Convinced his people he ruled by divine right and even possessed magical qualities. Often called the "Sun King"
Absolutism	One model of state building where one ruler claimed sole and uncontestable control.
Constitutionalism	A system in which the ruler had to share power the parliaments made up of elected representatives.
The Fronde 1648-1653	A series of revolts against Louis XIV which posed an unprecedented threat to the French crown.
Cardinal Mazarin	He acted in the place of Louis XIV when he was young and took constitutional power away from the parlements and caused a number of revolts to take place.
The Sun King	Louis XIV called himself the _____ _____, after the Greek God Apollo, to increase his prestige.
The marquise de Maintenon	Louis XIV mistress whom he secretly married after his wife's death.
Jansenists	Catholics whose doctrines and practices resembled some aspects of Protestantism.
Revoking of the Edict of Nantes	In 1685 Louis XIV revoked the ______ of _______and eliminated all the Calvinistï¿¢ï¾€ï¾™s rights.
Mercantilism	Governments must intervene to increase national wealth by whatever means possible. This is the theory upon which colonization is based.
Jean Baptiste-Colbert	A minister in Louis' bureaucracy, he began the new economic doctrine of mercantilism.
Frederick I	The leader of Bradenburg-Prussia, he succeeded in bringing all of the German states into one absolutist state and convinced the Emperor to grant him the title ï¿¢ï¾€ï¾œKing in Prussia.ï¿¢ï¾€ï¾
Old Believers	A group who fought against the state-run church and protested the integration of Russian worship with Byzantine tradition.
Jan Sobieski	King of Poland-Lithuania, he tried to bring the country together by fighting the Turks, but could not stop the countries descent to powerlessness.
Charles I	King of England, he tried to exert his power over parliament and sent the country into a civil war. It pitted Puritans against Catholics and gave birth to democratic political and religious movements. Was excecuted.
Petition of Right	The English Parliament forced Charles I to agree to not levy taxes without its consent.
Oliver Cromwell	The Puritans united under him to create the New Model Army and defeated the Cavaliers at Naseby in 1645.
Levellers	Made up of disgruntled soldiers, they wanted to level social distinctions by allowing common people to participate in Parliament. Charles rejected the their demands.
Rump Parliament	A parliament without Presbyterians, it tried Charles I and killed him. It then abolished the monarchy and House of Lords, and set up a Puritan state with Cromwell at its head.
Lord Protector	Cromwell abolished the Rump Parliament and made himself ____ _____ as was regarded very highly in the eyes of English. He died in 1660, which brought the return of the Monarchy.
Restoration	Restored the king of England and brought back fear of French absolutism that was not unfounded, as Charles II was negotiating to work with Louis XIV.
James II	Came into power after Charles II and was pro-Catholic and absolutist.
William and Mary	The Dutch rulers who gained the throne through the "Glorius Revoluiton"
Bill of Rights	Passed by Parliament in which William and Mary agreed not to raise a standing army or raise taxes without Parliamentï¿¢ï¾€ï¾™s consent.
Glorious Revolution	It was the victory of constitutionalism in England over absolutism in the rest of Europe with the agreement for Parliament to share power with the Monarchs.
Thomas Hobbes	An English philosopher whose famous 1648 book Leviathan set the agenda for nearly all subsequent Western political philosophy. He was a supporter of Absolutism.
Leviathan	Thomas Hobbes famous book that argued for a social contract and rule by a sovereign. Chaos or war could only be avoided by a strong central government. This is one of the first books on the Social Contract Theory.
John Locke	An English Philosopher who argued a government could only be legitimate if it received the consent of the governed through a social contract and protected the natural rights of life, liberty, and estate. A supporter of Constitutionalism.
Tabula Rasa	A theory that individual human beings are born with no innate or built-in mental content, in a word, "blank", and that their entire resource of knowledge is built up gradually from their experiences and sensory perceptions of the outside world.
Sir Isaac Newton	Responsible for modern day calculus and improved upon heliocentrism.
Principia Mathematica	The book Newton wrote describing the three laws of motion by which everything in the universe is governed.
John Milton	English Puritan poet who published Areopagitica, describing the freedoms of the press. He also published Paradise Lost.
Classicism	Reflected the ideals of the art of antiquity and did not reflect the emotion of Baroque. It was the style of French painters, and focused paintings on the individual by putting them at the intersection of converging, symmetrical, and straight lines.
Rembrandt	A Dutch artist who painted ordinary people and made regular activities seem precious and beautiful.
Moliere	Wrote comedies of manners that revealed much about new aristocratic behaviour and manners.
Tartuffe	One of the most famous French playwrights of all time, he criticized religious hypocrites and had to be banned.
The Atlantic System	A three-part commercial network developed between western Europe, Africa, and America that involved the trade of slaves, raw materials, and manufactured goods.
Plantations	Slave Labour was used extensively in these massive farms mostly located in the southern states, Brazil, Cuba and all over the Carribean.
Brazil Slave Trade	This country imported more slaves than any other involved in the Atlantic System. Claiming 4.5 million befor the end of slavery.
African Slave Trade	African people were transported from these markets to the coast and sold at European trading ports in exchange for muskets and manufactured goods such as cloth or alcohol.
Sugar	The years 1625 to 1750 saw this become worth its weight in gold. Prices declined slowly as production became multi-sourced, especially through British colonial policy. Production increased in mainland North American colonies, in Cuba, and in Brazil
Calico	A fabric made from unbleached, and often not fully processed, cotton. In 1700, England banned importation (and the use and wear of) of cotton cloth from India, in an effort to prop up the English textile industry.
Coffeehouses	These shops first became popular in Europe with the introduction of coffee in the 17th century.
Agricultural revolution	A period of agricultural development in Britain between the 16th century and the mid-19th century, which saw a massive increase in agricultural productivity and net output.
"œenclosure movement"	The process of conversion of common land to private ownership. From 1630-1750 there was a general depression and radical economic change: 40% of the rural English population was forced to abandon agrarian life.
Rococo painting	Originated in the purely decorative arts, the style showed clearly in painting. These painters used delicate colors and curving forms, decorating their canvases with cherubs and myths of love. More extreme than Baroque.
'physiocrats'	A group of economists who urged the French government to deregulate the grain trade and reform taxation.
Ludwig von Beethoven	As an indication of how patterns of composing music had changed from occasional pieces for the court and noble patrons to works that could be performed repeatedly for paying audiences, this composer wrote only nine symphonies during his career.
Josiah Wedgewood	Employing neoclassical motifs, this English potter created a mass market for domestic crockery that appealed to middle-class desires to emulate the rich and royal?
The War of the Austrian Succession	What happened when a coalition of European sovereigns opposed Maria Theresa as heir to the Habsburg crown lands?
neoclassicism	What is the name of the artistic and architectural style featuring an emphasis on Greek and Roman styles?
Peter III	When this mentally unstable tsar came to the throne in 1762, Russia withdrew from the Seven Years' War.
England	This country led the Industrial Revolution
The Treaty of Paris	Which treaty ended the Seven Years' War and established British dominance in North America?
Jean-Jacques Rousseau	Who argued in 'The Social Contract' that individual moral freedom could be achieved only by learning to subject one's individual will to the good of the community?
Adam Smith	Who believed that individual interests naturally harmonized with those of society as a whole. He also advocated the concept of laissez-faire, in which the economy should be freed from governmental intervention and control?
Edmund Cartwright	Who designed a mechanized loom in the 1780's which allowed textiles to be manufactured by semiskilled labourers instead of skilled weavers?
James Watt	Who improved the steam engine in 1776 so that it became the cornerstone of the Industrial Revolution?
Leopold III	Who inherited the Habsbourg throne from his brother in 1790 and was pressured by the nobility to overturn many of the reforms his brother had made?
John Wesley	Who insisted on strict self-discipline and a methodical approach to religious study and observance.
Emile du Chatelet	Who was an important example of a female philosophe and was Voltaire's lover and taught him much of what he knew about science?
David Hume	Who wrote the book 'Natural History of Religion' and argued that the belief in God rests on superstition and fear rather than on reason?
Pierre de Beaumarchais	Who wrote 'The Marriage of Figaro' a play that harshly criticized the privileges of the nobility?
Frederick II of Prussia	Whose palace was built in rococo style and named Sans-souci.
Denis Diderot	Who was the chief editor of the Encyclopedia?
Joseph II	Which enlightened absolutist leader had the most success in promoting religious toleration?
Voltaire	In the book "The Philosophical Dictionary" who attacked many of the claims of organized Christianity?
Pugachev Rebellion, 1773	Which rebellion was brutally suppressed and allowed nobles to tighten their control over their serfs?
Poland	Which country was partitioned by Russia, Prussia and Austria in 1772?
Jesuits	The major Catholic teaching order and missionary network.
Immanuel Kant	Who argued in his book "The Citique of Pure Reason" that some philosophical questions were unanswerable by reason alone?
Philosophes	Who were the public intellectuals of the Enlightenment who wrote on subjects ranging from current affairs to art criticism with the goal of furthering reform in society?
Salons	Informal gatherings, usually sponsored by middle-class or aristocratic women, that provided a forum for new ideas and an opportunity to establish new intellectual contacts among supporters of the Enlightenment.
deist	A person who believes in God but gives him an active role in human affairs and during the Enlightenment believed that a benevolent, all-knowing God had designed the universe and set it in motion but no longer intervened in the functioning of the universe.
abolitionists	Advocates for the end of the slave trade and of slavery.
laissea-faire	An economic doctrine developed by Adam Smith based on his reading of the French physiocrats who advocated freeing the economy from government intervention and control.
romanticism	A view of art and literature that traced its emphasis on individual genius, deep emotion, and the joys of nature.
Hasidim	A religious group within Judaism whose members pray in highly emotional fashion and wear rustic clothing to emphasize their piety.
Methodism	A religious movement founded by John Wesley that broke away from the Anglican church in Great Britain and insisted on strict self-discipline and a "methodical" approach to religious study and observance.
Freemasons	Members of Masonic lodges, which were based on the rituals of stonemasons' guilds and provided a place where nobles and middle-class professionals shared interest in the Enlightenment and reform.
industrialization	The process of economic transformation that began in Great Britain in the 1770's and 1780's.
enlightened despots	A political term that refers to rulers who tried to promote reform without giving up their own supreme political power. The best examples were Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia and Joseph II of Austria.
Madame Tharie Therese Geoffrin	Who hosted the best known salon in Paris?
Estates General	A body of deputies from the three estates of France. Disputes about procedures of voting in this body in 1789 opened the way to the French Revolution.
The Great Fear	The rural panic of 1789; fears of an aristocratic plot to burn corps or barns sometimes turned into peasant attacks on aristocrats or on seigneurial records of peasants' dues kept in the lord's chateau.
sans-culottes	The name given to politically active men from the lower classes; they worked with their hands and wore the long trousers of workingmen rather than the knee breeches of the upper classes.
The Tennis Court Oath	Taken by the deputies of the newly declared National Assembly that they would not disband before achieving constitutional reform.
The Legislative Assembly	The new assembly established by the National Assembly and endorsed by Louis XVI in the Constitution of 1791.
The Terror	A program instituted By Robespierre and used by the Committee of Public Safety to crush dissent and reorganize French society.
The Republic of Virtue	Robespierre's government, which aimed to instill republicanism in the populace via a program of political and religious reeducation.
The abolition of feudalism	What happened on the night of August 4, 1789?
Olympe de Gouges	Who wrote the "Declaration of the Rights of Women" in 1791?
Maximilien Robespierre	Who dominated the Committee of Public Safety?
The Thermidorian Reaction	The period in which the Convention turned against Robespierre and his regime of Terror.
Marie-Antoinette	By 1789, who had become the object of popular hatred, showing the effect of propaganda against the monarchy?
economic crisis	The immediate cause of the French Revolution was the ___________________ that grew out of France's support of the American colonies in their struggle against Britain.
National Assembly	On June 17, 1789, the Third Estate began the French Revolution by declaring itself to be the ____________________ that represented all the people of France.
Bastille	The storming of the ____________________ on July 14, 1789, showed that the common people were willing to intervene with force to protect the Revolution.
talents or abilities	Early in the Revolution, the government decreed that all government positions would be filled based upon the candidate's __________________, rather than by purchase or birth.
The Brunswick Manifesto	The __________________________ of 1792 was supposed to safeguard the royal family by promising that if they were harmed, the Prussians and Austrians would destroy Paris, but it could not stop the eventual trial and execution of the king.
September massacres	The ______________________ were the bloody result of the panic that seized Paris as the Prussians threatened to take the city in September 1792.
Jacobins	The __________________ were the radical republicans (named after the former monastery where their parent club met) in the National Convention after the fall of the monarchy in August 1792.
metric system	France's adoption of the ____________________ in 1793 changed the way the world measured distance, weight, and volume.
The Directory	The ________________________ was the name of the new French government set up in 1795 after the fall of Robespierre.
Napoleonic Code	For Europe, one lasting consequence of France's military campaigns was the adoption of the __________ based on Enlightenment ideals, which lasted in many states.
Montesquieu	Leading Enlightenment political theorists __________ and Rousseau had argued that republics suited only small countries, not large ones like France or Austria.
Vendee	The most successful anti-republican and counterrevolutionary revolt took place in the French department called the __________.
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy	__________, which the National Assembly passed in July of 1790, established clerical pay scales, the election by local voters of parish priests and bishops and the confiscation of all church property.
Girondins	The dispute in the French National Assembly between the __________ and the Mountain was over whether the king, Louis XVI, should be executed for treason (the Mountain's position) or given clemency or exile (the __________' position).
Convention	The fall from grace of Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety came about when Robespierre began to order the execution of members of the __________ itself.
First Estate	The clergy made up this group at the start of the French Revolution.
Second Estate	The nobility made up this group at the start of the French Revolution.
Third Estate	At times this term refers specifically to the bourgeoisie, the middle class, but also included the sans-culottes, the laboring class. Basically anyone other than the clergy or nobility.
Louis XVI	King of France from 1774 until 1791,found guilty of treason, and executed on 21 January 1793. His execution signaled the end of the absolutist monarchy in France.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen	Based on the philosophical and political principles of the Enlightenment, such as individualism and the social contract as theorized by the English philosopher John Locke and developed by Rousseau, and the separation of powers espoused by Montesquieu.
Flight to Varennes	The Royal Family's attempt to flee France June 20-21, 1791.
Levee en Masse	A French term for mass conscription. It was created by the Committee of Public Safety and was a main reason for the success of the French armies during the revolutionary wars.
Cult of the Supreme Being	A religion based on deism, devised by Maximilien Robespierre, intended to replace Catholicism as the state relgion.
Jean-Paul Marat	A Swiss-born French scientist and physician who is best known as an activist in the French Revolution. He was stabbed to death in his bathtub by self-proclaimed Girondist Charlotte Corday.
Georges-Jacques Danton	A leader of the Girondins and one of the nine members of the Committee of Public Safety. When he opposed Robespierre he was sentenced to death and guillotined.
Jacques-Louis David	A highly influential French painter in the Neoclassical style. In the 1780s his cerebral brand of history painting marked a change in taste away from Rococo frivolity towards a classical austerity and severity.
Napoleon Bonaparte	Emperor of France from 1804 to 1815. Won many battles but lost two major ones: Russia and Waterloo. Created Code Napoleonic as well as the Banque de France. A military genius, exiled twice and died on St. Helena
First Consul	A position given to Napoleon by the Consulate which basically gave him complete control over France.
Concordat with Pope Pius VII, 1801	Agreement between Napoleon and the Pope giving France complete power over the Catholic Church in France in exchange for Catholicism being established as the major religion in France.
Arc de Triomphe	A construction glorifying all the French military victories throughout time.
Napoleonic Code	A law system that was created and is still used in France today. It made schooling mandatory for boys in the city and made religious and house keeping studies mandatory for women. Men had power, few Women Rights.
Hundred Days	The period in 1815 when Napoleon returned from exile, summoned an army and supporters, took over the crown and went to War at Waterloo.
Battle of Waterloo	Prussia and British troops succeed in defeating Napoleon, after ward he was exiled to St. Helena.
Congress of Vienna	Was concerned with determining the entire shape of Europe after the Napoleonic wars. It basically restored the power of conservatism after 1815.
Klemens von Metternich	An Austrian politician and statesman and perhaps the most important diplomat of his era. A key figure at the Congress of Vienna and a strong conservative.
Robert Castlereagh	This British prime minister at the Congress of Vienna. He believed in the theory of the "Balance of Power"
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand	___________, an aristocrat and former bishop who had embraced the French Revolution, served as Napoleon's foreign minister, then helped engineer the emperor's overthrow, and undertook the task of ensuring the status of France at the Congress of Vienna.
Conservatism	This political doctrine justified the restoration of traditional rulers
Wesleyans or Methodists	Preached a very emotional, austere and personal ï¿¢ï¾€ï¾œmethodï¿¢ï¾€ï¾ of religion. Led by John Wesley.
Peterloo	The massacre of Ludites protesting in St. Peters field, 400 injured and 11 dead. An example of conservative repression.
Six Acts	Following the Peterloo massacre the British government acted to prevent any future disturbances by the introduction of this new legislation which labelled any meeting for radical reform as an overt act of treason.
Luddites	Were weavers from England who protested against the industrial revolution. They feared being replaced by machines, so they burnt mills and destroyed machines.
Jeremy Bentham	Father of utilitarianism. He believed in the greatest good for greatest number of people.
Utopian socialists	They believed in an ideal world where everyone got along and lived in self sustained villages. Many were advocates of "free love".
Robert Owen	A socialist and social reformer. Created the first union in Britain and even created his own commune.
Claude Henry de Saint-Simon	A Utopian Socialist who believed in free love.
Charles Fourier	A Utopian Socialist who was a big supporter of women's rights.
Romanticism	Glorified nature, emotions, genius and imagination.
Lord Byron	A romantic poet, ____________ acted upon his emotions by fighting and dying in the Greek war for independence.
William Wordsworth	In "Tintern Abbey," one of the most beloved exemplars of romantic poetry, ____________ endowed nature with human emotions.
Mary Shelley	Writer of Frankenstein, a romantic novel.
Battle of Trafalgar	Large naval battle that saw the British navy defeat the French Navy. This prevented the French invasion of Britain and ensured British control of the seas.
Austerlitz	Often considered his greatest victory, Napoleon fought the battle of ____________ on December 2, 1805, the first anniversary of his coronation.
Invasion of Russia, 1812	A scorched earth policy led to the downfall of Napoleon.
Borodino	Although Napoleon defeated the Russians at the battle of ___________ in 1812, it proved to be a hollow victory when the Russians employed a scorched-earth strategy of defeat.
Battle of Nations	Outside Leipzig, Russia, Prussia, Britain, Austria and Sweden teamed against France.
Island of Elba	Where Napoleon was sent after he abdicated the first time.
Louis XVIII	Became the first King of France since Louis XVI after the abdication of Napoleon for the first time.
Sir Robert Peel	revised the British criminal code, introduced a municipal police force in London (Bobbies), and passed laws allowing trade union organization?
Whigs	Liberal reformers
Liberalism	Based on Lockeï¿¢ï¾€ï¾™s ideals, was open and supported enlightenment but condemned the French Revolution for its violence. It believed in an expanded vote and was favoured by the middle class.
Nationalism	Renewed sense of pride in oneï¿¢ï¾€ï¾™s country. Was greatly feared by monarchs because they were afraid they could loose control over the different parts of their countries.
Socialism	Advocates a reorganization of society to overcome the new tensions created by industrialization. Emphasizes the need to restore social harmony through communities based on cooperation rather than competition. Often associated with the working class.
Josephine	Napoleonï¿¢ï¾€ï¾™s first wife, whom he truly loved but divorced because of her infertility.
Frederick William III	After a crushing defeat at the hands of Napoleon in 1806, ___________ appointed a reform commission that recommended the abolition of serfdom and an overhaul of the army.
George Stephenson	was an English mechanical engineer who designed the famous and historically important steam locomotive named "The Rocket" and is known as the "Father of Railways".
Joseph M. W. Turner	An English Romantic landscape painter and watercolorist, whose style can be said to have laid the foundation for Impressionism. His paintings often depict the struggle between industrialization and nature. He painted "The Fighting Temurarie"
Eugene Delacroix	The French painter ____________ chose contemporary as well as medieval scenes of great turbulence to emphasize light and color. He painted ï¿¢ï¾€ï¾œLiberty Leading the Peopleï¿¢ï¾€ï¾
Ludwig van Beethoven	Famous romantic composer.
Spanish Revolts 1820	An example of the power of conservatism. Spain had a revolution and overthrew their king, but in 1823 France invaded and restored absolute powers to the King.
Italian Rebellions 1821	People demanded a constitution and independence from Austria, but Metternich succeeded in suppressing them with the Austrian army. Another example of the power of conservatism after 1815.
Decembrist Revolt 1825	Some of the Russian army refused to swear allegiance to the new Czar and this caused the revolt. They were quickly suppressed.
Monroe Doctrine	Announced that the USA would no longer allow European influence in North and South America.
French Revolution of 1830	A revolt against Charles X when he tries to make the French monarchy absolute again. Leads to Louis-Philippe becoming king and a constitutional monarchy for France.
Louis-Philippe	Was the King replacing Charles X, was a constitutional monarchy and was a King of the People.
Lycees	French ï¿¢ï¾€ï¾œHigh Schoolï¿¢ï¾€ï¾ introduced for boys from the city only and gave them a higher level of education. Was introduced at the time of Napoleon I
Burschenschaften	German student fraternities based on liberal and patriotic ideas. Often led rebellions but were supressed by Metternichï¿¢ï¾€ï¾™s Carlsbad Decree which restricted student fraternities.
Duke of Wellington	General who defeated Napoleon at Waterloo.
St. Helena	After his final defeat in 1815, Napoleon was exiled to _______________.
Alexander I	To impart spiritual substance to the calculated settlement of political affairs at the Congress of Vienna, ____________ proposed a Holy Alliance that called on divine assistance in upholding religion, peace, and justice.
Edmund Burke	The original British critic of the French Revolution, ___________, inspired many of the conservatives who followed.
Caspar David Friedrich	The paintings by the German artist _____________ captured the romantic fascination with the sublime power of nature with melancholic figures that looked lost in its vastness.
Charles X	This king's increasingly repressive policies sparked another revolution in France in 1830.
Napoleon Bonaparte	A general during the French Revolution, the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic from 11 November 1799 to 18 May 1804, Emperor of the French
The Continental System	Napoleon's blockade that was supposed to make Europe more self-sufficient and destroy Britain's commercial and industrial economy.
Invasion of Russia, 1812	Napoleon failed in this campaign as the enemy kept on retreating farther and weakening the Napoleonic Army; finally Napoleon retreated. This marked the start of Napoleon's fall.
Battle of Borodino	It was fought by the French Grande Armée under Napoleon I of France and the Imperial Russian army of Alexander I. The clash was a pivotal point in the campaign as it was the last offensive battle fought by Napoleon in Russia
Joseph M.W. Turner	Was an English Romantic landscape painter and water colourist, whose style can be said to have laid the foundation for Impressionism.
Eugene Delacroix	Was the most important of the French Romantic painters. His use of expressive brushstrokes and his study of the optical effects of color profoundly shaped the work of the Impressionism.
Ludwig van Beethoven	German composer of instrumental music (especially symphonic and chamber music)
Spanish Revolt, 1820	Was fought in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars. It was a conflict between royalists and liberals with France intervening on the side of the royalists.
Decembrist Revolt, 1825	Was attempted in Imperial Russia by army officers.
French Revolution, 1830	Was a vital period in the history of France and Europe as a whole. During this time, democracy replaced the absolute monarchy in France.
Charles X	Was King of France from 1824 to 1830 until the French Revolution of 1830, when he abdicated rather than become a constitutional monarch. He was the last king of the senior Bourbon line.
Louis-Philippe	Reigned as King of the French from 1830 to 1848 in what was known as the July Monarchy. He was, to date, the last king ever to rule France.
Sir Robert Peel	Was the Conservative Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He introduced his concept of the police force. while Home Secretary, he oversaw the formation of the Conservative Party out of the shattered Tory Party, and repealed the Corn Law.
Whigs	Political opposition in 18th century England that developed a theory of citizen rights and representation
Liberalism	A political ideology that emphasizes the civil rights of citizens, representative government, and the protection of private property. This ideology, derived from the Enlightenment, was especially popular among the property-owning middle classes.
Nationalism	Political ideology that stresses people's membership in a nation-a community defined by a common culture and history as well as by territory. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, it was a force for unity in western Europe
Congress of Vienna	Meeting in the aftermath of Napoleonic Wars (1815) to restore political stability in Europe and settle diplomatic disputes.
Klemens von Metternich	Was an Austrian politician and statesman and perhaps the most important diplomat of his era. He was a major figure on the negotiations leading to the Congress of Vienna. He was an ultra-convservative.
Robert Castlereagh	He was an Anglo-Irish politician born in Dublin who represented the United Kingdom at the Congress of Vienna.
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand	Was a French diplomat. He worked successfully from the regime of Louis XVI, through the French Revolution and then under Napoleon I, Louis XVIII and Louis-Philippe.
Conservatism	A political philosophy that favors traditional values.
Peterloo	Was the result of a cavalry charge into the crowd at a public meeting at St Peter's Fields, Manchester, England
Six Acts	Following the Peterloo massacre of August 16, 1819, the UK government acted to prevent any future disturbances by the introduction of new legislation.
Jeremy Bentham	Was an English jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer. He argued in favour of individual and economic freedom, including the separation of church and state, freedom of expression, equal rights for women, animal rights, the end of slavery,etc.
Socialism	Advocates the vesting of the ownership and control of the means of production and distribution, of capital, land, etc., in the community as a whole. It greatly supported workers and their rights.
Utopian socialists	People who believe that people can live at peace with each other if they live in small cooperative settlements, owning all of the means of production in common and sharing the products.
Romanticism	An artistic and intellectual movement that originated in late 18th century Western Europe. It stressed emotions and feelings and a love of nature.
Lord Byron	Was a British poet and a leading figure in Romanticism. Among his best-known works are the narrative poems Childe Harold's Pilgrimage and Don Juan.
William Wordsworth	Was a major English romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their 1798 joint publication, Lyrical Ballads.
Mary Shelley	An English romantic/gothic novelist, the author of Frankenstein.
Caspar David Friedrich	19th century German Romantic painter, considered by many critics to be one of the finest representatives of the movement- especially Romantic painting Wanderer above the Sea of Fog
Duke of Wellington	The English general who defeated Napoleon at Waterloo.
Josephine	Wife of Napoléon Bonaparte became Empress of the French. Through her daughter, Hortense, she was the maternal grandmother of Napoleon III.
George Stephenson	An English mechanical engineer who designed the famous and historically important steam locomotive named Rocket and is known as the "Father of Railways".
Lycees	Provides a three-year course of further secondary education for children between the ages of 15 and 18. Pupils are prepared for the baccalauréat. The baccalauréat can lead to higher education studies or directly to professional life.
Louis XVIII	King of France and Navarre from 1814 (although he dated his reign from 1795) until his death in 1824, with a brief break in 1815 due to Napoleon's return in the Hundred Days.
Hundred Days	The brief period during 1815 when Napoleon made his last bid for power, deposing the French King and again becoming Emperor of France
Battle of Waterloo	Fought on June 18, 1815, was Napoleon Bonaparte's last battle. After his exile to Elba, he had reinstalled himself on the throne of France for a Hundred Days.
St. Helena	The place of exile of Napoleon Bonaparte between 1815 and his death in 1821. Longwood House, where Napoleon stayed.
Napoleonic Code	These were the civil laws put out by Napoleon that granted equality of all male citizens before the law and granted absolute security of wealth and private property.
Alexander I	The Tsar of Russia whose plans to liberalize the government of Russia were unrealized because of the wars with Napoleon.
Austerlitz	The battle in the early 1800's at which Napoleon proved his control of the continent by defeating the combined Austrian and Russian forces.
Battle of Leipzig	Also known as the Battle of the Nations; in October 1813, the combined armies of the fourth coalition decisively defeated Napoleon and the French army. It led to Napoleon's first exile.
Battle of Trafalgar	An 1805 naval battle in which Napoleon's forces were defeated by a British fleet under the command of Horatio Nelson.
First Consul	The position that Napoleon declared himself to seize power of France.
Frederick William III	King of Prussia who became involved in the Napoleonic Wars.
Island of Elba	Following the Treaty of Fontainebleau, French emperor Napoleon I as exiled to after his forced abdication in 1814. He was allowed to keep a personal guard of six hundred men and was made the Emperor of the island.
Industrialism	the major shift of technological, socioeconomic, and cultural conditions in the late 18th and early 19th century that began in Britain and spread throughout the world.
Urbanization	the increase over time in the population of cities in relation to the region's rural population. It has intense effects on the ecology of a region and on its economy.
“putting-out system”	a popular system of cloth production. Workers would work from home, manufacturing individual articles from raw materials, then bring them to a central place of business, such as a marketplace or a larger town, to be assembled and sold.
Piecework	types of employment in which a worker is paid a fixed "piece rate" for each unit produced or action performed.
Factory Act of 1833	a series of Acts passed to limit the number of hours worked by women and children first in the textile industry, then later in all industries.
Mines Act 1842	This act declared that no female was to be employed underground and that no boy under 10 years old was to be employed underground.
Elizabeth Barrett Browning	This woman generally considered the greatest of English poetesses. Her works are full of tender and delicate, but also of strong and deep, thought.
Charles Dickens	Considered one of the English language's greatest writers, he was the foremost novelist of the Victorian era as well as a vigorous social campaigner.
Charlotte Bronte	an English novelist, the eldest of the three Brontë sisters whose novels have become enduring classics of English literature. Wrote Jane Eyre, published 1847
George Sand	the pseudonym of the French novelist and feminist Amandine-Lucile-Aurore Dupin.
Temperance Society	attempts to greatly reduce the amount of alcohol consumed or even prohibit its production and consumption entirely. Was a reaction to industrialization and urbanization.
Colonialism	the extension of a nation's sovereignty over territory beyond its borders by the establishment of either settler colonies or administrative dependencies in which indigenous populations are directly ruled or displaced.
Imperialism	a policy of extending control or authority over foreign entities as a means of acquisition and/or maintenance of empires.
1833 Abolition of Slavery	Prohibited the ownership of human beings. This act was passed first in Britain; later in other countries.
The East India Company	A major company that became involved with the opium trade.
Nationalism	an ideology that holds that a nation is the fundamental unit for human social life, and takes precedence over any other social and political principles.
Giuseppe Mazzini	an Italian patriot, philosopher and politician. Mazzini's efforts helped bring about the modern Italian state in place of the several separate states, many dominated by foreign powers, that existed until the nineteenth century.
Young Italy	a political movement founded in 1831 by Giuseppe Mazzini. The goal of this movement was to create a united Italian republic.
Zollverein	German Customs Union was formed between the 39 states of the German Confederation in 1834 during the Industrial Revolution to remove internal customs barriers.
Lajos Kossuth	a Hungarian lawyer, politician and Regent-President of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1849. He was widely honoured during his lifetime, including in the United Kingdom and the United States, as a freedom fighter.
Louis Blanc	Proposed social workshops/state supported manufacturing centers as a way to deal with the problems of industrialization(recognized the developing hostility toward the owning class/bourgeoisie).
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon	a French mutualist political philosopher who was the first individual to call himself an "anarchist" and is considered among the first anarchist thinkers.
Karl Marx	a German philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary. He addressed a wide range of issues; he is most famous "The Communist Manifesto."
“Scientific Socialism”	the term used by Friedrich Engels to describe the socio-political-economic theory pioneered by Karl Marx.
Alexandre Dumas	a French writer, best known for his numerous historical novels of high adventure which have made him one of the most widely read French authors in the world. Wrote Count of Monte Cristo.
David Friedrich Strauss	a German theologian and writer. He scandalized Christian Europe with his portrayal of the "historical Jesus," whose divine nature he denied. Despite the flaws that are now apparent in his work, he was a pioneer in the historical investigation of Jesus.
Charles Darwin	English naturalist. He studied the plants and animals of South America and the Pacific islands, and in his book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859) set forth his theory of evolution.
Honore de Balzac	Along with Gustave Flaubert (whose work he influenced), This authour is generally regarded as a founding father of realism in European literature.
Revolutions of 1848	known in some countries as the Spring of Nations or the Year of Revolution, were a revolutionary wave which erupted in Sicily and then, further triggered by the revolutions in France, soon spread to the rest of Europe.
Irish Potato Blight	is the name given to the famine in Ireland between 1845 and 1849. The Famine was due to the appearance of "the Blight" – a potato fungus.
Alphonse de Lamartine	a French writer, poet and politician, born in Mâcon into French provincial nobility.
The Communist Manifesto	was first published on February 21, 1848, and is one of the world's most influential political tracts. Commissioned by the Communist League and written by communist theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
Friedrich Engels	a 19th-century German political philosopher, developed communist theory alongside his better-known collaborator, Karl Marx, co-authoring The Communist Manifesto (1848). He also edited the second and third volumes of Das Kapital after Marx's death.
Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte	Emperor of the French and was President of the French Republic from 1848 to 1851, then 2 December 1851 to 2 December 1852 ruler of Dictatorial Government.
Pope Pius IX	reigned as Pope of the Roman Catholic Church from his election in June 16, 1846, until his death more than 31 years later in 1878, making him the longest-reigning Pope since the Apostle St. Peter.
Garibaldi	an Italian patriot and soldier of the Risorgimento. He personally led many of the military campaigns that brought about the formation of a unified Italy.
Frankfurt Parliament	the name of the German National Assembly founded during the Revolutions of 1848 that tried to unite Germany in a democratic way. Meeting in the city of Frankfurt am Main, the assembly was attended by 831 deputies.
Frederick William IV	the eldest son and successor of Frederick William III of Prussia, reigned as King of Prussia from 1840 to 1861.
Magyar rebellion,1848	took place in the Roman province of Germania Inferior between 69 and 70. The rebels led by Gaius Julius Civilis managed to destroy four legions and inflict humiliating defeats on the Roman army.
Frans Joseph	This king was of the Habsburg Dynasty was Emperor of Austria, Apostolic King of Hungary and King of Bohemia from 1848 until 1916.
Cholera	a water-borne disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, which is typically ingested by drinking contaminated water, or by eating improperly cooked fish, especially shellfish.
Crystal Palace	was an iron and glass building originally erected in London's Hyde Park to house the Great Exhibition of 1851.
Communists	sought to establish a classless, stateless social organization, based upon common ownership of the means of production.
Daguerreotype	an early type of photograph named after one of its inventors, French artist and chemist Louis J.M. Daguerre. A new medium.
Lithograph	A method for printing on a smooth surface. It can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or another suitable material.
Social question	The widely shared concern about social changes arising from industrialization and urbanization that pervaded all forms of art and literature.
Temperance movement	Tries to restrict the amount of alcohol consumption and is mainly advocated by women’s groups.
Tuberculosis	Europe’s number one deadly disease that took its victims one by one and had less impact on social relations than Cholera.
Gothic	a style of architecture, particularly associated with cathedrals and other churches, which flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period.
Elizabeth Fry	an English prison reformer, social reformer and philanthropist. She was the driving force in legislation to make the treatment of prisoners more humane. She was supported in her efforts by a reigning monarch and has been depicted on the Bank of England £5
Flora Tristan	French activist and socialist who devoted herself to reconciling the interests of male and female workers. She published a stream of books and pamphlets arguing male workers to address women’s unequal status. She advocated a Universal Union of Men and Wom
Frederic Chopin	A Polish pianist and composer of the Romantic era who became a powerful champion in the West for the cause of his native land, with music that incorporated Polish rhythms and melodies.
Florence Nightingale	A Nurse most famous for her contributions during the Crimean War, which became her central focus when reports began to filter back to Britain about the horrific conditions for the wounded.
Nihilists	Those who do not believe in any values whatsoever.
Red Shirts	The volunteers who followed Giuseppe Garibaldi in southern Italy during his Mille expedition to southern Italy, but sometimes extended to other campaigns of him. The name derived by the colour of their shirts.
Realpolitik	Policies associated initially with nation building that are said to be based on hard-headed realities rather that the romantic notions of earlier nationalists. The term has come to mean any policy based on considerations of power alone.
Bismarck’s Four Rules of War	1) Avoid war at all costs 2) Once you’re in a war, you should win as quickly as possible 3) Never fight more than one major power at a time 4) Once you win a war, make a favorable peace
Ems telegraph	The document that instigated the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. It refers to a report about an incident in the town which is a resort spa east of Koblenz on the Lahn river, at the time part of Prussia.
Haussmann	A French civic planner whose name is associated with the rebuilding of Paris in the late 19th century.
Gymnasia	The classical higher or secondary schools of Germany from the sixteenth century to the twentieth century. Students were admitted at 9 or 10 years of age and were required to have a knowledge of reading, writing and arithmetic.
Gustave Flaubert	A French novelist who is counted amoung the greatest Western novelists. He is known especially for his first publised novel Madame Bovary and for his scrupulous devotion to his art and style, best exemplified by his endless search for “the precise word”.
Ivan Turgenev	A major Russian novelist and playwright. His novel Fathers and Sons is regarded as a major work of 19th century fiction.
Rationalism	The philosophic idea that people must justify their claims by logic and reason.
Auguste Comte	A French thinker who coined the term "sociology." He is remembered for being the first to apply the scientific method to the social world.
Positivism	A theory developed in the mid-nineteenth century, at the foundation of the social sciences that the study of facts would generate accurate, or “positive”, laws of society: these laws could in turn, help in the formulation of policy and legislation.
Social Darwinism	A theory that used a distorted version of evolutionary theory to lobby for racist, sexist, and nationalist policies.
Marxism	A body of thought about organization of production, social inequity and the processes of revolutionary change as devised by the philosopher and economist Karl Marx.
Realism	A style in the arts that arose in the mid-nineteenth century and was dedicated to depicting society realistically without romantic or idealistic overtones.
Anarchism	The belief that people should not have government; it was popular among peasants and workers in the last half of the 19th century and the first decades of the 20th.
Haussmannization	The process of urban renewal followed by many governments after the middle of the nineteenth century and named after its prime practitioner, Georges-Eugene Haussmann
Kulturkampf	Literally, a “culture war,” but in the 1870s the word indicated German chancellor Otto von Bismarck’s attempt to fight the cultural power of the church through a series of injurious policies.
Nation-state	A sovereign political entity of modern times based on representing a united people.
Proletariat	The working class or, in Marxist terms, those who do not control the means of production such as factories, tools, workshops, and machines.
Russification	A program for the integration of Russia’s many nationality groups involving the forced acquisition of Russian language and the practice of Russian orthodoxy as well as the settlement of the ethnic Russians among other nationality groups.
Zemstvos	Regional councils of the Russian nobility established after the emancipation of the Serfs in 1861 to deal with education and local welfare issues.
Risorgimento	The political and social process that unified disparate states of the Italian peninsula into the single nation of Italy between the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century.
“On the Origin of Species”	Written by Charles Darwin, it was a challenge to the Judeo-Christian worldview that humanity was a unique creation of God. It held that life developed through a primal battle for survival and through the sexual selection of mates(natural selection).
Edouard Manet	A French painter who was one of the first 19th century artists to approach modern-life subjects, his art bridged the divide between Realism and Impressionism. Early masterpieces The Luncheon on the Grass and Olympia engendered great controversy.
George Eliot	The pen name of Mary Anne Evans, an English novelist. She was one of the leading writers of the Victorian era. Her novels, largely set in provincial England, are well known for their realism and psychological perspicacity.
Charles Dickens	An English novelist who paid close attention to the distressing effects of industrialization and urbanization. In addition to publishing such favorites as Oliver Twist and A Christmas Carol, he ran charitable organizations and pressed for social reforms.
Joseph Lister	An English surgeon who promoted the idea of sterile surgery while working at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. He successfully introduced carbolic acid (phenol) to sterilise surgical instruments and to clean wounds.
Crimean War	Traditional enemies for more than a century, France and Great Britain allied against Russia during the __________.
Piedmont-Sardinia	The clear leader of the movement for Italian unification was the kingdom of ____________ in the economically modernizing north of Italy.
Victor Emmanuel	In 1861, the kingdom of Italy was proclaimed with __________ at its head.
Otto von Bismarck	As the minister-president under William I of Prussia, __________ was instrumental in achieving German unification.
dual monarchy	After Austria's loss to the Prussians in 1866, the elites of Hungary forced Francis Joseph to accept a __________ that gave the Hungarian parliament control of internal policy.
Benjamin Disraeli	In 1867, the Conservatives in the English Parliament, led by __________, passed the Second Reform Bill, which made a million more men eligible to vote.
Louis Pasteur	Beginning his work by studying fermentation, ____________ advanced the germ theory of disease and its widespread implementation to protect food and increase sanitation.
Realschulen	In Prussia, a system of technical schools called __________ provided an education that emphasized math, science, and modern languages.
anarchism	Believing that the slightest infringement on freedom was unacceptable, the political theory of ________________ advocated the destruction of all state power.
Karl Marx	In Das Kapital, _____________ adopted the liberal idea that human existence was defined by the necessity of working as a way of fulfilling basic needs.
commune	After the Prussians besieged their city in 1870, Parisians declared themselves a self-governing __________ in March 1871.
Napoleon III	This ruler's intervention was a key part of Italian unification.
Franco-Prussian War	The main factor leading to the fall of Napoleon III was defeat in the __________.
Camillo di Cavour	The main architect of the Italian unification movement.
Giuseppe Garibaldi	Invaded southern Italy with a volunteer army, thereby including it in Italian unification.
Chares Darwin	Published "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, which challenged the Judeo-Christian worldview that humanity was a unique creation of God.
Auguste Comte	Creater of the theory of positivism in his System of Positive Politics, or Treatise on Sociology (1851). He claimed that careful study of facts would generate accurate, or "positive," laws of society.
Second Industrial Revolution	(1871-1914) continuation of the Industrial Revolution, led to further mechanization of manufacturing in Europe and North America
New Imperialism	The colonial expansion adopted by Europe's powers and, later, Japan and the United States, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries; approximately from the Franco-Prussian War to World War I
Scramble for Africa	The proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory during the New Imperialism period, between the 1880s and the start of World War I
Social Darwinism	The application of Darwinism to the study of human society, specifically a theory in sociology that individuals or groups achieve advantage over others as the result of genetic or biological superiority
Emile Zola	Was an influential French novelist, the most important example of the literary school of naturalism, and a major figure in the political liberalization of France
Georges Seurat	A French painter and the founder of Neoimpressionism. His large work Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte is one of the icons of 19th century painting
Claude Monet	French Impressionist painter. The term Impressionism is derived from the title of his painting Impression, Sunrise
Vincent Van Gough	Dutch draughtsman and painter, classified as a Post-Impressionist. His paintings and drawings include some of the world's best known, most popular and most expensive pieces. He suffered from recurrent bouts of mental illness
William Gladstone	British Liberal Party statesman and Prime Minister (1868–1874, 1880–1885, 1886 and 1892–1894). He was a notable political reformer, known for his populist speeches, and was for many years the main political rival of Benjamin Disraeli
Ballot Act of 1872	Required that British general elections to Parliament and local government election use the secret ballot
Reform Act of 1884	A response to the inequality in the electoral system left by Benjamin Disraeli's Reform Act 1867
Third Republic	Was the governing body of France between the Second French Empire and the Vichy Regime
Three Emperor’s League	Alliance in 1873 among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia
Kulturkampf	Refers to German policies in relation to secularity and the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, enacted from 1871 to 1878 by Otto von Bismarck
Pope Leo XIII	Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, having succeeded Pope Pius IX (1846–78) on February 20, 1878 and reigning until his death in 1903
Dual Alliance	Was created as a defensive treaty for Germany and Austria-Hungary to counter Russian aggression
Triple Alliance	The treaty by which Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy pledged on 20 May 1882 to support each others militarily in the event of an attack against any of them by two or more great powers
Leo Tolstoy	Russian novelist, writer, essayist, philosopher, Christian anarchist, pacifist, educational reformer, vegetarian, moral thinker and an influential member of the Tolstoy family
Fyodor Dostoevsky	Considered one of the greatest Russian writers. His works have had a profound and lasting effect on twentieth-century literature, his novels often feature characters living in poor conditions with disparate and extreme states of mind.
Assassination of Alexander II,1881	Killed in 1881 by the People’s Will terrorist group because of his policies
Pale of Settlement	Was a western border region of Imperial Russia in which permanent residence of Jews was allowed, extending from the pale or demarcation line, to near the border with central Europe
Kaiser William II	The last German Emperor and King of Prussia, ruling both the German Empire and Prussia from 15 June 1888 to 9 November 1918
Impressionism	A 19th century art movement that began as a loose association of Paris-based artists, the name of the movement is derived from the title of a Claude Monet work, Impression, Sunrise. Characteristics include visible brushstrokes and light colours
New unionism	In Britain in the 1880s unions began to change and allow for wider and easier membership resulting in a wider spread of unions
Second International, 1889	A transnational organization of workers established in 1889, mostly committed to Marxian socialism
Karl Benz	German engine designer and automobile engineer, generally regarded as the inventor of the gasoline-powered automobile, credited with building the first commercial automobile
Sergei Witte	Highly influential policy-maker who presided over extensive industrialization within the Russian Empire. He was also the author of the October Manifesto of 1905, a precursor to Russia's first constitution
Economic crisis of 1873	A time of prosperity during and after the Franco Prussian war gave way to nearly three decades of economic fluctuations following 1873
1882 British invasion of Egypt	After investing in the Suez Canal in the 1860s and taking over the Egyptian treasury in 1879 the British needed more insurance of Egyptian cooperation and completely occupied the country in 1882.
Belgium Congo	A territory of Africa colonized by the Belgians that suffered greatly due to Leopold II’s greed and cruelty
Cecil Rhodes	British-born South African businessman, mining magnate, and politician. He was the founder of the diamond company De Beers, which today controls 60% of the world's diamonds and at one time controlled 90% of the world's diamonds. Colonized Rhodesia
Indian National Congress, 1885	Founded in 1885 by the educated Indian elite in the hope for more representation and equality in the British dominated government
Fabian Society	British socialist intellectual movement, whose purpose is to advance the socialist cause by gradualist and reformist, rather than revolutionary, means
Charles Parnell	Irish political leader and one of the most important figures in 19th century Ireland and the United Kingdom
Indochina	Greatly colonized and supported by France in the late 1800s with the addition of Cambodia, Tonkin, Annam, and Cochin China
Boers	Descendants of Dutch farmers in the Transvaal and the Orange Free State
Jingoism	Political sloganeering, a chauvinistic patriotism. In practice, it refers to sections of the general public who advocate bullying other countries or using any means necessary to safeguard a country's national interests
Oscar Wilde	An Irish playwright sentenced to prison for sexual relations with other men.
Havelock Ellis	A British doctor, sexual psychologist and social reformer. Wrote the book Sexual Inversion to describe the sexual relations of homosexual men, something that he did not consider to be a disease.
Max Nordau	A Zionist leader, physician, author, and social critic. He played a major role in the World Zionist Organization and his relative fame certainly helped bring attention to the Zionist movement.
Sigmund Freud	An Austrian neurologist and co-founder of the psychoanalytic school of psychology. Known for his theories of the unconscious mind, involving repression; his redefinition of sexual desire as mobile and the value of dreams as insight into unconscious desire
The Interpretation of Dreams	The book introduces the Ego, and describes Freud's theory of the unconscious with respect to dream interpretation. This was widely considered to be his most important contribution to psychology.
“modernism”	Changes in the arts at the end of the nineteenth century that featured a break with realism in art and literature and with lyricism. This enabled a country to compete effectively with the leading countries at a given time.
John Dewey	An American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer. Known as the father of functional psychology; he was a leading representative of the progressive movement in U.S. education during the first half of the 20th century.
Max Weber	A German political economist and sociologist and one of the founders of the modern study of sociology and public administration. His major works deal with rationalization in sociology of religion and government, and he contributed to economics.
Friedrich Nietzsche	A German-born philologist and philosopher. He said, “God is dead” and used multiple viewpoints in his work as a means of challenging his reader to consider various approaches toward an issue.
Antoine Becquerel	A French scientist and a pioneer in the study of electric and luminescent phenomena. He was the first to prepare metallic elements from their ores and he invented a constant-current electrochemical cell.
Marie Curie	A Polish-French physicist and chemist. She was a pioneer in radioactivity and identified two new chemical elements— polonium and radium.
Pierre Curie	French physicist, pioneer in crystallography, magnetism, piezoelectricity and radioactivity. Won Nobel Prize in physics with his wife and Becquerel, for “extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena”
Max Planck	A German physicist. He is considered to be the founder of quantum theory, and therefore one of the most important physicists of the twentieth century.
Albert Einstein	A German-born physicist best known for the theory of relativity (mass-energy equivalence, E=mc2), he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his 1905 explanation of the photoelectric effect and "for his services to Theoretical Physics".
Special Theory of Relativity	Proposed by Albert Einstein. Stated that all uniform motion was relative, that there was no absolute and well-defined state of rest and that all observers will measure the speed of light to be the same no matter what their state of uniform linear motion.
Henri Matisse	A French artist, noted for his use of color and his fluid, brilliant and original draughtsmanship as a draughtsman, printmaker, and sculptor, but principally as a painter.
Paul Cézanne	A French artist and Post-Impressionist painter. He can be said to form the bridge between late 19th century Impressionism and the early 20th century's new line of artistic enquiry, Cubism.
Pablo Picasso	A Spanish painter and sculptor. One of the most recognized figures in 20th century art, he is best known as the co-founder, along with Georges Braque, of cubism.
Anti-Semitism	Hostility toward or prejudice against Jews as a religious, racial, or ethnic group, which can range in expression from individual hatred to institutionalized, violent persecution.
Pogroms	A form of riot directed against the Jews and characterized by destruction of their homes, businesses and religious centers. Usually these are accompanied with physical violence against the targeted people and even murder or massacre.
Alfred Dreyfus	French military officer known for being the focus of the Dreyfus affair which involved the wrongful conviction for treason of the French artillery officer of Jewish faith, and the political and judicial scandal that followed until his full rehabilitation.
Emile Zola	An influential French novelist, the most important example of the literary school of naturalism, and a major figure in the political liberalization of France.
Magyarization	A Hungarian policy aimed at maintaining the dominance of Hungarian language and culture in Hungarian-ruled regions by encouraging by forcible means people of other ethnic groups to adopt the Hungarian language, culture and identity.
Leon Pinsker	A physician, a Zionist pioneer and activist, and the founder and leader of the Hovevei Zion movement.
Theodor Herzl	An Austro-Hungarian Jewish journalist who became the founder of modern political Zionism.
Zionism	A movement that began in the late nineteenth century among European Jews to found a Jewish state.
Cecil Rhodes	British-born South African businessman, mining magnate, and politician. He was also the colonizer of the state of Rhodesia, which was named after him. He profited greatly by exploiting Southern Africa's natural resources.
Spanish-American War, 1898	BTW Spain and the US. 1898. The US won and ended the Spanish empire in the Caribbean and Pacific. After, the Treaty of Paris, which ended the conflict, gave the US control of former Spanish colonies and control over independence of Cuba (1902)
Boer War	The war between Britain and Boer (originally Dutch) inhabitants of South Africa for control of the region. Lasting between 1899 and 1902, the war convinced many British people that the empire was wrong or at least too costly to maintain.
Sino-Japanese War	BTW Qing Dynasty China and Meiji Japan over the control of Korea .Demonstrates successful westernization and modernization in Japan since the Meiji Restoration. Shift in regional dominance in Asia from China to Japan and a fatal blow to the Qing Dynasty.
Tsushima Straits	Battle of Tsushima, fought on May 27 and May 28, 1905 took place there; due east of the north part of Tsushima and due north of Iki Island between the Japanese and Russian navies in 1905; the Russian fleet was virtually destroyed by the Japanese.
Bloody Sunday	The massacre of peaceful protesters at Winters Square in St. Petersberg in 1905 that turned ordinary workers against the tsar and produced a wave of general indignation.
Georges Braque	A French painter and sculptor who, with Pablo Picasso developed cubism and the cubist style, to become one of the major figures of 20th-century art.
Edvard Munch	A Norwegian Symbolist painter and printmaker, and an important forerunner for Expressionistic art. He painted The Scream.
Isadora Duncan	An American dancer and is considered by many to be the Mother of Modern Dance.
Igor Stravinsky	Russian composer. Achieved international fame with three ballets including "The Rite of Spring". The Rite, whose premiere provoked a riot, transformed the way in which subsequent composers thought about rhythmic structure.
Claude Debussy	A French composer. Along with Maurice Ravel he is considered the most prominent figure working within the style commonly referred to as Impressionist music.
Richard Strauss	A German composer of the late Romantic era, particularly noted for his tone poems and operas. He was also a noted conductor.
Arnold Schoenberg	An Austrian and later American composer. Many of Schoenberg's works are associated with the expressionist movements in early 20th-century German poetry and art, and he was among the first composers to embrace atonal motivic development.
V.I. Lenin	A Russian revolutionary, a communist politician, the main leader of the October Revolution, the first head of the Soviet Union, and the primary theorist of Leninism, a variant of Marxism.
Bolsheviks	Members of the Marxist Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party which became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Known for seizing power during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and for founding the Soviet Union.
Mensheviks	A faction of the Russian revolutionary movement that emerged in 1903 after a dispute between Vladimir Lenin and Julius Martov, both members of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party.
Millicent Garrett Fawcett	A British suffragist and an early feminist. As a suffragist, she took a moderate line, but was a tireless campaigner, concentrating much of her energy on the struggle to improve women's opportunities for higher education.
Susan B. Anthony	A prominent, independent and well-educated American civil rights leader who played a pivotal role in the women's rights movement to secure women's suffrage in the United States. She traveled all over (to Europe) in order to speak about women’s rights.
The Women’s Social and Political Union	The leading militant organization campaigning for women's suffrage in the United Kingdom. It was the first group whose members were known as "suffragettes".
Emmeline Pankhurst	One of the founders of the British suffragette movement. In 1889, She founded the Women's Franchise League and in 1903 she founded the Women's Social and Political Union, famous for its militancy which began in 1905.
National Insurance Act of 1911	Passed by Parliament, a foundation of modern social welfare in the UK. This provided for time-limited unemployment and medical benefits. Based on actuarial principles, it would be funded by a fixed amount each from workers, employers and the government.
Russian Revolution, 1905	A protest in St. Petersburg, the result of discontent from Russian factory workers and peasants as well as an emerging nationalist sentiment among the empires minorities was put down by armed force and unrest redoubled, October strikes ensued.
Duma	Russian parliament opened in 1906, elected indirectly by universal male suffrage but with absolute veto power from the tsar.
Pyotr Stolypin	Served as Nicholas II's Prime Minister from 1906 to 1911. He became known for his heavy-handed attempts to battle revolutionary groups and for instituting the agrarian reform.
Boxer Rebellion	A Chinese rebellion, 1899 to 1901 against foreign influence during the Qing Dynasty. Many were killed by the ensuing chaos. The uprising crumbled on August 14, 1900 when 20,000 foreign troops entered the Chinese capital, Peking.
Sun Yat-Sen	A Chinese revolutionary and political leader, the “father of modern China”. Played an instrumental role in the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. The first provisional president of the Republic of China was founded in 1912. A uniting figure.
Qing Dynasty	A dynasty founded by the Manchu clan Aisin Gioro, in what is now northeast China. They expanded into China and the surrounding territories, to create the last Imperial dynasty of China.
B. G. Tilak	An Indian nationalist, social reformer and freedom fighter who was the first popular leader of the Indian Independence Movement. Known as "Father of the Indian unrest." sparked the fire for complete independence. Considered the father of Hindu nationalism
“arms race”	Describes a competition between two or more parties for military supremacy. Each party competes to produce larger numbers of weapons, greater armies, or superior military technology in a technological escalation.
Triple Alliance	Brought together Br. trade unions representing miners, railway men and transport workers. The formation of this followed a period of trade union growth and strike action and signaled a significant step towards greater unity within trade unionism.
Entente Cordiale	This denotes recognition of common interests between the United Kingdom and France. The term usually denotes the formal agreement between the two countries signed on April 8, 1904.
Triple Entente	The alliance formed in 1907 among the United Kingdom, France and Russia. Though not a military alliance, the alignment of the three powers, constituted a powerful counterweight to the "Triple Alliance" of Imperial Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
Morocco Crises, 1905 and 1911	Crises over colonial status of Morocco btw 1905 and 1906. The Kaiser remarked about Moroccan independence which aggravated Fr and Br. International tension caused by deployment of the Ger. gunboat to Agadir, 191 led to Br & Fr hostility toward Ger.
First Balkan War, 1912	The Balkan League (Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria) conquered Ottoman-held Macedonia and most of Thrace and then fell out over the division of the spoils. Montenegro started the War by declaring war against the Ottomans on October 8, 1912.
Second Balkan War, 1913	Fought in 1913 btw Bulgaria and Greece and Serbia, with Romania and the Ottoman Empire intervening against Bulgaria. Outcome turned Serbia, into an important regional power, alarmed Austria-Hungary and indirectly provided a cause for WWI.
Alfred Nobel	A Swedish chemist, engineer, innovator, armaments manufacturer and inventor of dynamite. He owned a major armaments manufacturer, previously an iron and steel mill. He used his enormous fortune to institute the Nobel Prizes.
Alfred von Tirpitz	A German Admiral, Secretary of State of the Imperial Naval Office, the administrative branch of the Kaiserliche Marine from 1897 until 1916. He wanted to achieve world power status through naval power, while addressing domestic issues.
Dreadnoughts	The United Kingdom completed this in 11 months. It carried ten 12-inch guns in 5 turrets, and was powered by revolutionary (for large ships) steam turbines. It was the first of the new breed of "all-big-gun" battleships.
Muslim League	Founded at Dhaka in 1906, was a political party in British India and was the driving force behind the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state from British India on the Indian subcontinent.
Young Turks	A coalition of various reform groups in favor of reforming the administration of Ottoman Empire. Their movement brought about the second constitutional era through a Revolution against the monarchy. The movement was initiated among military students.
Archduke Frans Ferdinand	His assassination in Sarajevo precipitated the Austrian declaration of war which triggered World War I.
Gavril Princip	A Serb member of the Young Bosnia secret society who assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife Sophie, in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. This prompted the Austrian action against Serbia that led to World War I.
“blank check”	This term was also used to describe how the Kaiser of Germany told Austria-Hungary officials that they could deal with Serbia however they wanted after Serbian Nationalists assassinated the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
Sir Edward Grey	A Br. politician and ornithologist who became Foreign Secretary with many notable accomplishments: completion of the Entente with Rus. in 1907, the peaceful settlement of the Agadir Crisis, and leading the joint mediation for the end of the Balkan Wars.
Schlieffen Plan	The Ger. plan for victory on the Western Front against Fr., was executed to near victory in the first month of WWI. A French counterattack at the Battle of the Marne, ended the German offensive and led to years of trench warfare.
Art Nouveau	An international style of art, architecture and design that peaked in popularity at the beginning of the 20th century. It is described as self-consciously radical, somewhat mannered reformist chic that formed a prelude to 20th-century modernism.
Mitteleuropa	The policy of the Central Powers during WWI which assumed the creation of several buffer states in Central Europe conquered from Russia. One of Germany's war aims was to create an economic sphere of German domination here.
New Woman	A feminist ideal which emerged in the final decades of the 19th century in Europe and North America. It was a reaction to the role, as characterized by the so-called Cult of Domesticity, ascribed to women in the Victorian era.
Psychoanalysis	Based on the work of Freud to discover connections among the unconscious parts of patients' mental processes. The goal is to liberate the patient from unconscious resistence and past patterns of relating that are not serviceable or inhibit freedom.
Suffragists	Founded in 1897, many were middle class women, but some were working class women. For the 1906 UK general election, the group formed committees in to persuade local parties to select pro-suffrage candidates.
Eugenics	A social philosophy which advocates the improvement of human hereditary traits through various forms of intervention. The goals have variously been to create healthier, more intelligent people, save society's resources, and lessen human suffering.
Ivan Pavlov	A Russian physiologist, psychologist, and physician awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904 and is known for first describing the phenomenon known as classical conditioning in his experiments with dogs.
Vaslav Nijinsky	A Russian ballet dancer and choreographer of Polish origin. A gifted male dancer, he is celebrated for his virtuosity and for the depth and intensity of his characterizations. He choreographed Le Sacre du Printemps which caused a riot.
Revisionism	An effort by various socialists to update Marxian doctrines to reflect the realities of the time.
Soviets	A council of workers in the former Soviet Union. The main form of government at all levels of post-revolutionary Russian Soviet Union.
Alfred Thayer Mahan	A United States Navy officer, geostrategist, and educator who wrote The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783, and The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1793-1812.
Positivism	A philosophy developed by Auguste Comte, mid 19th century that stated that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge, and that such knowledge can only come from positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific method.
“cubism”	An avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture and inspired related movements in music and literature. In artworks, objects are broken up, analyzed, and re-assembled in an abstracted form.
Anarchism	A political philosophy centered on rejection of any form of compulsory government. Thus, it is the belief that all forms of rulership (and thus also voluntary or involuntary servitude) are undesirable and should be abolished.
Pragmatism	The philosophy of what should be taken as true is that which contributes the most good over the longest course. Truth itself, is not what contributes the most good to the community, but that which contributes the most good to the individual.
Relativism	This consists of theories that some element or aspect of experience or culture is relative to some other element or aspect. The term often refers to the doctrine that there are no absolute truths.
expressionism	The tendency of an artist to distort reality for an emotional effect; it is a subjective art form. This is exhibited in many art forms, including painting, literature, film, architecture and music. The term often implies emotional angst.
The Great War	A global military conflict that took place primarily in Europe between 1914 and November 1918 but officially ended with the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919. It left millions dead and re-shaped the modern world.
Central Powers	The nations allied with Germany during World War I. They included Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.
Allies	The Central Powers’ opposition during WWI. They included the British Empire, Italy, the Russian Empire, the United States, and France.
Chlorine gas	The first killing agent employed in WWI. Fairly ineffective at killing soldiers, but did serve as a terror tactic.
Bombs	Were first dropped from airplanes late in WWI. Mainly dropped on Britain by German Zeppelins and planes.
Tanks	Invented during WWI. They functioned by getting into the enemy trenches and shooting sideways down the trench. They were extremely unreliable.
Airplanes	First saw military action during WWI. First used as communication and spy machines, then later equipped with guns.
“cult of the offensive”	In Germany and elsewhere, military officers believed that spirited attacks and high morale would lead to victory. They believed that manpower was the key to victory.
First Battle of the Marne, 1914	A World War I battle fought from September 5 to September 12, 1914. It was a Franco-British victory against the German army under German Chief of Staff Helmuth von Moltke the Younger.
Trench warfare	A form of war in which both opposing armies have static lines of defense. Characterized by terrible disease and rodent infestation.
U-Boat	German submarines that caused havoc on Allied shipping lanes.
Sinking of the Lusitania	U-boat attack that led to many British citizens dying. There were many American passengers on board and this event led to the U.S. joining the war.
Woodrow Wilson	American president during WWI. Introduced the Fourteen Points.
Battle of Jutland	The only naval battle of the war to showcase battleships. An inconclusive outcome. May 1916.
“over the top”	A phrase that describes the style of warfare that soldiers encountered. It was characterized by mindless charges across muddy fields.
Battle of Verdun, 1916	One of the most important battles in World War I on the Western Front, fought between the German and French armies from 21 February to 19 December 1916 around the city of Verdun-sur-Meuse in northeast France. Over 220000 fatalities.
Battle of the Somme, 1916	One of the largest battles of the First World War. With more than one million casualties it was also one of the bloodiest battles in human history.
Battles of attrition	Battles in which armies attempt to continually wear down the enemy.
“total war”	When an entire nation (every citizen) is involved in the war effort. All else basically shuts down.
Burgfriede	In Germany during WWI, political grievances were set aside for the sake of the war.
union sacré	n France during WWI, political grievances were set aside for the sake of the war.
Rationing	To combat the lack of war-time resources, governments resorted to permitting citizens only a small specified amount of supplies.
“turnup winter”	Between 1916-17 in Europe, the temperature was so cold that in Germany, the only food available were turnips.
unrestricted submarine warfare	Using U-boats, the German Navy was able to effectively limit British shipping capacity. The Allies had few ways to prevent this.
Russian Revolution March 1917	Revolutionaries ousted the tzar and created the Provisional government, in an effort to create political reform.
Russian Revolution Oct. 1917	After the first installment of the Russian Revolution (which brought forth the Provisional Government), Russia was in disarray. Lenin and the soviets used this to their advantage and took control of the government by force in 1918, instating Bolshevism.
Abdicated	Tzar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate by the Russian Revolutionaries in March 1917.
Provisional Government	The government that was set up at the onset of the Russian Revolution. It was made up of the members of the old Duma. Alexsandr Kerensky was PM at the time. It lasted less than a year.
Lenin	Leader of the Bolshevik takeover during the Russian Revolution.
Bolsheviks	members of a faction the RSDLP that ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Best known for seizing power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and for founding the Soviet Union
April Theses	Written by Lenin, it was a radical document that called for Russia to withdraw from the war.
Aleksandr Kerensky	A Socialist Revolutionary and Prime Minister of the Provisional Government.
Lavr Kornilov	A general who led an unsuccessful coup attempt against the Provisional Governement.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918	A treaty signed between Russia and the Central Powers, marking Russia's exit from WWI. The treaty was practically obsolete before the end of the year but is significant as a chief contributor to the independence of Finland,Estonia,Lativia,Lithuania,Poland
Russian Civil War	Lasted from 1917-1922. Was fought between the Communist (Red)army and the loosely allied anti-communist (White) forces.
Reds	Pro-Bolshevik forces during the Russian Civil War.
Whites	Anti-revolutionary forces during the Russian Civil War.
Leon Trotsky	A Jewish Bolshevik revolutionary and Marxist theorist. An influential politician in the early days of the Soviet Union, first as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and later as the founder and commander of the Red Army and People's Commissar of War.
The Cheka	The Bolshevik secret police.
Comintern	The Third International or Communist International. Founded by the Bolsheviks, its purpose was to replace the Second International as the central organization of communism.
Red Army	The Bolshevik army during the civil war and later the name of the USSR’s army.
Americans join the war, 1917	The US ended its isolationist policy regarding WWI when Germany resumed its unrestricted submarine warfare and the plan for Mexico to fight the US was exposed.
Spartacists	Radical socialist faction in Post-WWI Germany. Favoured political experience that would give workers political experience.
Karl Liebknecht	Co-founder of the Spartacists.
Rosa Luxemburg	Co-founder of the Spartacists.
Friedrich Ebert	Social Democratic leader who led Post-WWI Germany and the Weimar Republic.
Freikorps	Roving paramilitary band of students and demobilized soldiers.
Kapp Putsch	An attempt to overthrow the Weimar Republic, based in opposition to the imposed Treaty of Versailles at the end of WWI.
Weimar Republic	In February 1919, a German republic was proclaimed in Weimar. It lasted until Hitler took control.
Paris Peace Conference, 1919-1920	A massive collection of treaties which decided the fate of the combatants in WWI.
Georges Clemenceau	French premier and the French representative at the Paris Peace Conference.
David Lloyd George	British prime minister and British representative at the Paris Peace Conference.
Fourteen Points	Woodrow Wilson’s ideas that he brought to the Paris Peace Conference. Called for open diplomacy, arms reduction, an open-minded settlement of colonial issues, and the self-determination of peoples. This led to the creation of the League of Nations.
Self-determination	A concept of principle, wherein a people or nation, have a human right to statehood, and that such a state has an equal right to sovereignty.
War Guilt Clause	In the Treaty of Versailles, it was included that the Germans were at fault for the war.
Successor state	A state that takes over some or all of the territory, assets, treaty obligations and rights from a previously well-established state.
Polish corridor	Formed as a result of the Peace of Paris. Gave Poland connection to the Baltic Sea and separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany.
League of Nations	The precursor to today’s U.N. It was proposed by Wilson (though the U.S. never joined). It promised security in numbers, yet was extremely ineffective.
Collective security	A system aspiring to the maintenance of peace, in which participants agree that any "breach of the peace is to be declared to be of concern to all the participating states," and will result in a collective response.
War reparations	Money that Germany was forced to pay for their part in WWI.
John Maynard Keynes	British economist. Designed terms of credit between Britain and its continental allies during the war.
Occupation of the Ruhr	When Germany was unable to keep up payments of war reparations, France and Belgium sent troops into the Ruhr basin to take control of key coal mines. However, the citizens resisted.
Treaty of Rapallo, 1922	Treaty in which Germany and Russia renounced all territorial and financial claims against the other following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and World War I.
Treaty of Berlin, 1926	Treaty in which Germany and Russia agreed to neutrality in the event of an attack on the other by a third party.
Washington Conference, 1921	A naval conference that set the ratio of American, English, and Japanese shipbuilding industries to 5:5:3.
Hyper-inflation	Following WWI, Germany experienced a massive jump in prices due to the war reparation payments.
The Dawes Plan, 1924	Reduced payments to the victors and restored the value of German currency.
The Young Plan, 1929	Reduced payments to the victors and restored the value of German currency.
Treaty of Locarno	Treaty that provided Germany with a seat in the League of Nations.
Gustav Stresemann	A German liberal politician and statesman who served as Chancellor and Foreign Secretary during the Weimar Republic. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
“Little Entente”	Formed by Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Romania by means of a collective security agreement which protected them from Germany and Russia.
Kellogg-Briand Pact	A formal rejection of international violence signed by the major European powers, Japan, and the United States.
Roaring Twenties	The name given to the 1920’s which signified the decade’s outpouring of culture.
Women get right to vote	Universal suffrage was finally obtained in many major powers around the 1920’s.
Jozef Pilsudski	Was a Polish revolutionary and statesman, Field Marshal, first Chief of State and dictator of the Second Polish Republic, as well as head of its armed forces. Largely responsible for Polish independence.
Treaty of Versailles	Treaty which determined the fate of Germany after WWI. Famous for its “war guilt clause” and the demand for massive war reparations to be paid by Germany. Returned Alsace and Lorraine to France.
Brown Shirts	Paramilitary group who acted as bodyguards for Hitler and other Nazis. Later became the SA (Sturmabteilung).
Adolf Hitler	Leader of the Nazi party. Gained power in Germany through propaganda and oratory. Later became Chancellor and Fuhrer.
Nazis	Name for members of the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei(National Socialist German Workers Party, or NSDAP). Adolf Hitler was the leader of the party after 1921. The party was founded in 1919 as the German Workers’ Party by Anton Drexler.
Mein Kampf	“My Struggle.” A book written by Adolf Hitler while he was in prison. Somewhat an autobiography and somewhat an exposition of the political ideology of Nazism.
Munich or Beerhall Putsch	A coup d’etat launched by Adolf Hitler and Erich Luderdorff. The failure of the coup led to Hitler’s jail time.
Erich Ludendorff	A noted German general from WWI. Supported Nazism for a time and led the Beerhall Putsch with Hitler.
Ramsay MacDonald	The first Labour prime minister in Britain.
Amritsar Massacre, 1919	A massacre of protesters in India by British forces who were afraid that India would leave the Empire.
Henry Ford	American industrialist who built a massive automobile empire. Invented the assembly line.
Assembly Line	Method of production which maximizes efficiency by having each worker do an extremely specific task over and over.
Frederick Taylor	American efficiency expert who developed methods to maximize workers’ productivity.
“cult of efficiency”	An idea embraced by union leaders who found that efficiency cut down work hours.
Theodoor van de Velde	Dutch author of Ideal Marriage: Its Physiology and Technique.
D.H. Lawrence	English author who wrote Women in Love.
Ernest Hemingway	American author who wrote The Sun Also Rises and The Old Man and the Sea.
Charlie Chaplin	Internationally popular English comedian, actor, and producer who created the character of the Little Tramp.
Kathe Kollwitz	German artist who made sculptures and woodcuts that portrayed heart-wrenching scenes. Her depressing subject choices were influenced by the loss of her son in WWI.
George Grosz	Prominent member of the Dada movement. He created caricatures of Berlin life in the 1920’s and paintings of maimed soldiers and other bleak images of the war.
Dada	An artistic movement formed by artists who were shocked by the brutality of the war. Marked by nonsense, incongruity, and shrieking expressions of alienation.
Ernst Junger	Popular German author who glorified the soldiers’ lives. Called for the militarization of society.
Erich Maria Remarque	German author who wrote All Quiet on the Western Front, a best-selling anti-war novel.
T.S. Elliot	American poet who wrote “The Waste Land” and “The Hollow Men,” poems which portrayed post-war life as petty and futile.
William Butler Yeats	Irish nationalist poet who lamented the loss of old society in his poem “Sailing to Byzantium.”
Franz Kafka	Czech expressionist novelist whose The Trial and The Castle presented the world as a vast, impersonal machine.
Marcel Proust	French author who published Remembrance of Things Past.
James Joyce	Irish author of Ulysses and The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.
Virginia Woolf	British author of Mrs. Dalloway.
Bauhaus	German artistic movement that strove to make normal objects and buildings more artistic and useful. Inspired by East Asian and African art.
Josephine Baker	American dancer, singer, and actress who traveled to Europe and became very popular there.
Louis Armstrong	American jazz musician who toured Europe and became popular world-wide.
Kronstadt revolt	In spring, 1921, workers in Petrograd and sailors at a nearby naval base protested small rations and the Bolshevik corruption.
New Economic Policy (NEP)	A temporary measure invoked by Lenin that allowed peasants to sell their grain freely and to profit from free trade. This was a very capitalist method and many got rich off of it.
Alexandra Kollontai	Commissar for public welfare who promoted birth control education and the establishment of day care programs for children of the workers.
The Zhenotdel	“Women’s Bureau.” Wanted to teach women about their rights and about hygiene.
“Americanization”	Bolsheviks attempted to rid the country of its tsarist backwardness by westernizing it. However, many traditionalists rejected the new technologies and ideas.
Death of Lenin, 1924	After suffering a stroke in 1922, Lenin passed away two years later. Stalin was the chief mourner at the funeral. Lenin’s status was elevated to that of a secular god.
Joseph Stalin	General Secretary of the Communist Party. After Lenin’s death, he gained much power in the Party. Was the creator of the USSR. By 1929, no one in the Party could stop him.
General Secretary of the Communist Party	The powerful position which Stalin held from 1922-1953.
Benito Mussolini	Creator of fascism. Was appointed Italian prime minister in 1922. Led Italy through WWII. His leadership was marked by violence and mass propaganda.
Black Shirts	Mussolini’s personal army. Were a major force in bringing Mussolini to power.
March on Rome	Mussolini’s Black Shirts forced King Victor Emmanuel III to make Mussolini prime minister.
King Victor Emmanuel III	Reigned in Italy from 1900-1946. Was forced by the Black Shirts to appoint Mussolini prime minister.
Fascism	An extreme right political system started by Mussolini. It was marked by violence and a violent opposition to the left and to parliaments.
Lateran Accord	Made the Vatican a state under Papal rule. In return for ending its criticism of fascism, the church was given recognition of its right to determine marriage and family doctrine in Italy.
Easter Uprising in Ireland, 1916	After the British government failed to institute Irish home rule, Dubliners attacked government buildings. However, the attack was poorly planned.
Stock Market Crash, 1929	Due to over investing, share prices plummeted out of control, leading to a depression which lasted through much of the 1930’s.
Black Tuesday	The start of the Wall Street Crash of 1929. Share prices on the NYSE collapsed.
Mandate system	A system instated by the League of Nations. It justified the governing of weak nations by stronger nations.
Emmeline Pankhurst	Leading suffragist in Britain.
Britannia	The new, patriotic wartime name of Emmeline Pankhurst’s suffragist newspaper. Reflects the fact that even activists became nationalists during the war.
Italy joins the Allies, 1915	After being promised postwar gains, Italy entered the war.
November 11, 1918	On this day, an armistice was signed ending WWI.
Marie Stopes	British scientist who published Married Love in 1918.
Sergei Eisenstein	Innovative Russian filmmaker who added a Bolshevik view of history to his films.
The Great Depression	Was a massive global economic recession that ran from 1929 to 1941. Led to massive bank failures, high unemployment, as well as dramatic drops in GDP, industrial production, and stock market share prices.
Stock Market Crash, 1929	The steep fall in the prices of stocks due to widespread financial panic. Caused by stock brokers who called in the loans they had made to stock investors. This caused stock prices to fall, and people lost their entire life savings as banks went bankrupt
Tariffs	A tax levied on imports of goods as they cross the border
Mohandas Gandhi	The leader of the movement toward Indian independence from Britain who advocated nonviolent methods to effect social change.
Civil disobedience	Deliberate, open, and peaceful violation of laws, decrees, regulations, military or police orders, or other governmental directives.
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk	(1881-1938) Nationalist leader of Turkey who is responsible for modernizing and westernizing his country after World War I. This enabled Turkey to resist imperialist attempts at takeover by various European powers.
Ho Chi Minh	(1890-1969) Vietnamese leader who is responsible for ousting first the French, then the United States from his country. Supported by both communist China and the Soviet Union, he guided Vietnam through decades long warfare to emerge as a communist nation.
Totalitarianism	a political system in which the state, or the governing branch of the state, holds absolute authority, not allowing any opposition group.
Joseph Stalin	Russian leader who succeeded Lenin as head of the Communist Party and created a totalitarian state by purging all opposition (1879-1953)
Five Year Plans	were a series of nation-wide centralized exercises in rapid economic development in the Soviet Union. the plans were created by the Gosplan based on the general guidelines of the Communist Party for economical development
Collectivization of Agriculture	an organizational unit in agriculture in which peasants are not paid wages, but rather receive a share of the farm's net output.
Great purges	campaigns of repression organized by Stalin in the Soviet Union during the late 1930s amidst fears of treason within the civilian population and armed forces
Show trials	a type of public trial in which the judicial authorities have already determined the guilt of the accused. Tends to be retributive rather than correctional justice.
Gulags	A system of penal institutions in the Soviet Union. Under Stalin an estimated 10 million were sentenced to forced labour in the camps in the period between 1934 and 1947 alone. These prisoners were suspected of crimes against the State
Nazis	Political ideology promoting Germanic racial aspirations and a strong and centrally governed state. From 1933 to 1945 (the "Third Reich") ruled Germany and led her through WWII.
Adolph Hitler	Führer of Germany from 1933 to his death. He was leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP), better known as the Nazi Party.
Paul von Hindenburg	field marshal and Germany’s greatest military hero of World War I, served as president under the Weimar government from 1925 to 1933. He hated the Nazis, but was forced to appoint Hitler as chancellor.
Enabling Act	passed by the Reichstag on March 23, 1933. Allowed the Nazis to establish Nazi Germany by providing the government with legislative powers, effectively handing dictatorial powers to the Chancellor Adolf Hitler.
Volksgemeinschaft	was an attempt by the German Nazi Party to establish a national community. It could only be achieved by gaining control of all aspects of cultural and social life. Theatre, literature, the press and children's activities were all controlled by the Nazis.
Aryans	In Nazi racial theory, a person of pure German "blood." The term "non-Aryan" was used to designate Jews, part-Jews and others of supposedly inferior racial stock.
Nuremberg Laws, 1935	Two anti-Jewish statutes enacted September 1935 during the Nazi party's national convention in Nuremberg, taking away the Jews' civil rights
Franklin Delano Roosevelt	32nd President of the United States; elected four times; instituted New Deal to counter the great depression and led country during World War II (1882-1945)
Herbert Hoover	31st President of the United States; in 1929 the stock market crashed and the economy collapsed and was defeated for reelection by Franklin Roosevelt
Hoovervilles	Term describing a series of shanty towns that appeared following the Great Depression in the United States from 1929 through the 1930s and 1940s. These villages were often formed in desolate or unpleasant neighborhoods and were temporary residences of tho
The New Deal	President Franklin D. Roosevelt's legislative agenda for rescuing the United States from the Great Depression.
Leon Blum	French socialist leader and Prime Minister, was born in Paris, into a middle-class Jewish family.
Popular Front	an alliance of left-wing political parties (the Communists, the Socialists and the Radicals), which was in government in France from 1936 to 1938.
Virginia Woolf	was a British author and feminist. Between the world wars, was a significant figure in London literary society and a member of the Bloomsbury Group.
George Orwell	Imaginative British writer concerned with social justice (1903-1950) Wrote 1984 and Animal Farm
Rape of Nanking	refers to what many historians recognize as widespread atrocities committed by the Japanese army in and around Nanking (now Nanjing), China, after the capital's fall to Japanese in 1937.
Lebensraum	(from the German for "living space") is an idea that was used to justify the expansionist politics of Nazi Germany.
Rome-Berlin Axis	The European Powers whom in World War II opposed the Allies.
The Spanish Civil War	lasted from July 17, 1936 to April 1, 1939, was a conflict in which the Francoists or Nationalists, led by General Francisco Franco, defeated the Republicans or Loyalists of the Second Spanish Republic
General Francisco Franco	Dictator of Spain from 1939 until his death in 1975. The victor of the Spanish Civil War.
Anschluss	The annexation of Austria to Germany
Appeasement	Giving in to the demands of aggressive powers to avoid war, as long as those demands appear reasonable. Such a policy was pursued by Britain and France in dealing with Germany in the latter half of the 1930s.
Sudetenland	a strategically important region of Czechoslovakia. The Skoda Works, a huge armament facility, were situated there. It had over 2.5 million speaking German inhabitants, and according to the Versailles treaty’s rule of National Self Determination, should b
Neville Chamberlain	British statesman who as Prime Minister pursued a policy of appeasement toward fascist Germany (1869-1940)
Munich Agreement, 1938	was an agreement regarding the Sudetenland Crisis between the major powers of Europe after a conference held in Munich in Germany in 1938 and concluded on September 29.
Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression pact	pact between the two, agreeing to avoid war or armed conflict between them even if they find themselves fighting third countries, or even if one is fighting allies of the other.
Blitzkrieg	German for 'lightning war'. A military strategy used by the Germans at the beginning of World War II to achieve victory through a series of quick offensives, especially in Belgium, Holland and France.
Vichy France	French regime set up in collaboration with the Germans following the fall of France in 1940 - headed by Marshal Petain and based in the city of Vichy it governed the southern half of France until its dissolution in 1944
Henri Philippe Petain	was a French soldier and leader of Vichy France. He became a French hero because of his military leadership in World War I, yet he was tried and imprisoned for treason in his old age because of his collaboration with the Germans in World War II.
Charles de Gaulle	French general and statesman who became very popular during World War II as the leader of the Free French forces in exile (1890-1970)
Luftwaffe	the German airforce
Ultra	was the name used by the British for intelligence resulting from decryption of German communications in World War II. The term eventually became the standard designation in both Britain and the United States for all intelligence from high-level cryptanaly
Radar	A system for detecting the direction, range, or prescence of aircraft, ships, and other objects, by sending out pulses of high frequency electromagnetic waves
Battle of Britain	the prolonged bombardment of British cities by the German Luftwaffe during World War II and the aerial combat that accompanied it
Operation Sealion	was a World War II German plan to invade Britain. It was never carried out.
Blitz	A style of combat used by German panzer division "armored division". Concentrated and massed formation of tanks moved into country with amazing speed and destructive power.
Operation Barbarossa	was the German codename for Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II that commenced on June 22, 1941.
Bombing of Pearl Harbour	American naval base in Hawaii; attacked by Japanese in December 1941 and crippled America's fleet in the Pacific and caused entry of United States into World War II.
Battle of Midway	The United States Navy defeated a Japanese attack against Midway Atoll, marking a turning point in the war in the Pacific theatre.
Island hopping	Island hopping refers to crossing an ocean by a series of shorter journeys between islands, as opposed to a single journey directly across the orefers to crossing an ocean by a series of shorter journeys between islands, as opposed to a single journey dir
SS	It was the military wing of the Nazi party, which served as Hitler's personal bodyguard and provided guards for concentration camps, also raised élite combat formations for the field armies.
Holocaust	Genocide of European Jews by Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 40s; about six million Jewish men, women, and children were put to death in Nazi concentration camps.
Final Solution	The Nazi plan for the physical destruction of all of Europe's Jewish population.
Stalingrad	was a major turning point in World War II, and is considered the bloodiest battle in human history and arguably one of the greatest come-backs in military history.
Operation Overlord	The Codename for the D-Day Battle of Normandy, was fought in 1944 between the German forces occupying Western Europe and the invading Allied forces. Remains the largest sea borne invasion in history
General Dwight D. Eisenhower	American soldier and politician, was the 34th President of the United States (1953–1961) and supreme commander of the Allied forces in Europe during World War II, with the rank of General of the Army.
Guadalcanal	was one of the most important battles of World War II. The assault on the Japanese-occupied island of Guadalcanal by the Allied navies and 16,000 United States troops on 7 August, 1942, was the first offensive by US land forces in the Pacific Campaign
Kamikaze	The "Divine Wind" which saved Japan from the Mongol invaders . During World War II the name was applied to Japan's suicide bombers.
Cold War	The period of conflict, tension and competition between the United States and the Soviet Union and their allies from the mid 1940s until the early 1990s.
“baby boom”	A period of greatly increased birth rate within temporal and usually geographical bounds.
buffer zone	Demilitarized zones and certain restrictive easement zones and greenbelts. set up to prevent violence, protect the environment, protect residential and commercial zones from industrial accidents or natural disasters.
satellite countries	A country which is formally independent but which is primarily subject to the domination of another, larger power. Initially used to refer to Central and Eastern European countries of the Warsaw Pact during the Cold War.
Truman Doctrine	A United States foreign policy designed to contain Communism by stopping its spread to Greece and Turkey. The United States proclaimed the this on March 12, 1947.
Marshall Plan	European Recovery Program (ERP). The primary plan of the United States for rebuilding the allied countries of Europe and repelling communism after World War II.
Berlin Blockade	One of the first major crises of the new Cold War. The Soviet Union blocked railroad and street access to West Berlin.
Berlin Airlift, 1948-49	A massive operation using both civil and military aircraft (ultimately lasting 462 days) that flew supplies into the Western-held sectors of Berlin over the blockade. Lt. General William H. Tunner was in charge.
NATO	An international organization for collective security established in 1949, in support of the North Atlantic Treaty.
Warsaw Pact	An organization of Central and Eastern European communist states, established on May 1, 1955 in Warsaw, Poland to counter the alleged threat from the NATO alliance.
Nuremberg Trials	A series of trials most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military and economic leadership of Nazi Germany.
1949 Communist Revolution in China	A conflict in China between the Guomindang (GMD) and the Chinese Communist Party.
Mao Zedong	A Chinese Marxist military and political leader and writer, who led the Communist Party in the Chinese Civil War. Led the establishment of the People’s Republic of China.
Joseph McCarthy	A Republican U.S. Senator, noted for aggressively investigating claims that there were Communist and Soviet spies and sympathizers inside the federal government.
European Coal and Steel Community	Was founded in 1951 (Treaty of Paris), by France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands to pool the steel and coal resources of its member-states.
Treaty of Rome, 1957	Established the European Economic Community. Signed by France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg
European Economic Community EEC	An organization established by the Treaty of Rome between the ECSC countries Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany, known informally as the Common Market.
Common Market	A customs union with common policies on product regulation, and freedom of movement of all the four factors of production.
COMECON	An economic organization of communist states, an Eastern Bloc equivalent to—but more inclusive than—the European Economic Community.
Nikita Khruschev	The leader of the Soviet Union after the death of Joseph Stalin. First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964.
“cult of personality”	A political institution in which a country’s leader uses mass media to create a larger-than-life public image through unquestioning flattery and praise.
Hungary Revolution of 1956	A spontaneous nationwide revolt against the Communist government of Hungary and its Soviet-imposed policies, lasting from October 23 until November 10, 1956.
Sputnik	The first artificial satellite, launched on October 4, 1957 by the Soviet Nation.
Yuri Gagarin	A Soviet cosmonaut. the first human in space and the first human to orbit the Earth.
NASA	An agency of the United States Government, responsible for the nation's public space program. Established on July 29, 1958.
“decolonization”	The achievement of independence by the various Western colonies and protectorates in Asia and Africa following World War II.
Korean War 1950-53	A civil war between the states of North Korea and South Korea that were created out of the post-World War II Soviet and American occupation zones in Korea.
French Indo-China	A federation of protectorates and one directly ruled colony in Southeast Asia, part of the French colonial empire. It consisted of Cochin China, Tonkin, Annam, Laos, and Cambodia.
Dien Bien Phu, 1954	A Vietnamese town known for its opium traffic. The region was fortified in November 1953 by the French Union force in the biggest airborne operation of the 1946-1954 First Indochina War, Operation Castor.
The Geneva Convention, 1954	Consist of four treaties formulated in Geneva, Switzerland, that set the standards for international law for humanitarian concerns.
Creation of Israel, 1948	The first in a series of armed conflicts fought between Israel and its Arab neighbors in the ongoing Arab-Israeli conflict.
Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser	The President of Egypt from 1954 until his death in 1970. Well-known for his Arab nationalist and anti-colonial foreign policy.
Suez Crisis 1956	A war fought on Egyptian territory in 1956. The conflict pitted Egypt against Israel, the United Kingdom and France.
UN peace keepers	Persons who monitor and observe peace processes in post-conflict areas and assist ex-combatants in implementing the peace agreements they may have signed.
NAACP	One of the oldest and most influential civil rights organizations in the United States.
Martin Luther King Jr.	A famous leader of the American civil rights movement, a political activist, and a Baptist minister. Assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee on April 4, 1968.
Elvis Presley	"The King of Rock 'n' Roll." An American singer, musician and actor.
Voice of America	the official international radio and television broadcasting service of the United States federal government.
Jackson Pollock	An influential American painter and a major force in the abstract expressionist movement.
John Fitzgerald Kennedy	35th President of the United States, served from 1961 to his assassination in 1963.
Fidel Castro	the current President of Cuba, led the revolution overthrowing Fulgencio Batista in 1959.
CIA	An intelligence agency of the United States Government. Its primary function is obtaining and analyzing information about foreign governments, corporations, and persons.
Bay of Pigs	An unsuccessful United States-planned and funded attempted invasion to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro by armed Cuban exiles in southwest Cuba.
Cuban Missile Crisis	A confrontation during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States regarding the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba.
Existentialism	A philosophical movement that deals with human freedom. A revolt against traditional philosophy. 'What is the nature of human freedom?'
Charles De Gaulle	A French military leader and statesman who advocated the concentrated use of armored and aviation forces. During World War II, he reached the rank of Brigade.
Abstract expressionism	An American post-World War II art movement, the first specifically American movement to achieve worldwide influence and also the one that put New York City at the center of the art world
Weimar Republic	Historical name for the democracy that governed Germany from 1919 to 1933. The democracy was named after a German city, where a national assembly convened to produce a new constitution.
Locarno Treaties	A series of treaties signed by the Allied powers and the countries of Europe in an attempt to ensure peace after the tragedy of World War I.
Young Plan, 1929	This plan was basically a renewal of the Dawes Plan which was a program to help Germany pay their reparations debts after World War I.
Dawes Plan, 1924	A plan that allowed Germany to make payments on their reparations by recieving loans from the American governemnt. It solved the problem of hyper-inflation.
Occupation of the Ruhr, 1923	Troops from France and Belgium took over this area when the German Weimar Republic failed to make reparation payments in the aftermath of World War I.
Hyper-Inflation	Following the First World War, the Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to pay significant reparations to the nations that won the war. Germany printed worthless paper money which soon lost it value and prices dramatically increased.
Munich / Beer Hall Putsch	The third failed attempt to overthrow the Weimar republic, but Hitler's first attempt to gain power. Ended when Hitler was arrested.
Spartacists	This was a failed attempt to overthrow the Weimar Republic by communists led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht.
Mien Kampf	Adolf Hitler's book which was written in jail after the failed Beerhall Putsch. Combining elements of autobiography with an exposition of Hitler's political ideology of Nazism.
Mussolini	Led Italy from 1922 to 1943. He created a Fascist state through the use of diplomacy and propaganda. Using his charisma, total control of the media, outright violence and intimidation against political rivals, he disassembled the democratic government.
Black Shirts	A Fascist paramilitary group in Italy during the period immediately following World War I and until the end of World War II. Originally reformers, their methods became harsher as Mussolini's power grew, and they used violence and fear to gain power.
Lateran Accord	Three agreements made in 1929 between the Kingdom of Italy and the Catholic Church. The church recognized Mussolini as the leader of Italy and Vatican City was created.
Chamberlain	This leader's political legacy is defined by his dealings with an appeasement of Nazi Germany. He signed the Munich Agreement with Adolf Hitler in 1938 it effectively allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland.
Munich Agreement	An agreement between Chamberlain and Hitler that was part of the policy of appeasement. It gave the Sudatenland (Part of Czechoslovakia) to Nazi Germany.
Anschluss	The 1938 joining of Austria and Germany by the Nazi Regime. Originally the joining of these 2 countries had been banned by the Treaty of Versailles.
Sudentenland	The part of Czechoslovakia that was given to Germany as part of the policy of appeasement.
Rhineland	This area was demilitarized under the Treaty of Versailles. German forces reoccupied the territory in 1936, three years before the outbreak of the Second World War.
Spanish Civil War, 1936	A conflict in which the Spanish Republic and political left-wing groups fought against a right-wing nationalist insurrection led by General Francisco Franco, who eventually succeeded winning the war with the help of Germany and Italy.
Hitler	Chancellor of Germany from 1933 Leader of Germany from 1934 until his death. He was leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party, better known as the Nazi Party. He was responsible for the death of millions of Jews and other minorities.
Brown shirts	Usually translated as stormtroopers. They functioned as a paramilitary organization of the German Nazi party. They played a key role in Adolf Hitler’s rise to power in the 1930s.
Enabling Act	Passed by Germany's parliament (the Reichstag) on March 23, 1933. It was the second major step after the Reichstag Fire Decree through which the Nazis obtained dictatorial powers using largely legal means. It gave Hitler absolute rule.
Nuremberg Laws	These laws were passed by the government of Nazi Germany. They were the basis for the racial discrimination against Jews.
Night of Long Knives	Also known as "the Blood Purge", it was a lethal purge of Adolf Hitler’s potential political rivals including Ernst Rohm.
Kristallnacht	The Night of Broken Glass, was a massive nationwide pogrom in Germany and Austria on the night of November 9, 1938. It was directed at Jewish citizens throughout the country who had their shops, homes and synagogues destroyed.
Propaganda	Messages, directly aimed at influencing the opinions of people, rather than telling the truth. Throughout the twentieth century this was a common tactic of political leaders particularily during periods of war.
Lebensraum	The German term for habitat or "living space". A term for Nazi Germany’s expansionist policies, to provide extra space for the growth of the German population.
Aryan Race	Another term for "master race". This idea was often intertwined with Anti-Semitic ideas. Hitler believed that Germans came from a true pure race that was destined to rule the world.
Final Solution	The German Nazis’ plan to engage in systematic genocide against the European Jewish population during World War II. The execution of the Final Solution resulted in the most deadly phase of the Holocaust.
Holocaust	The name applied to the state-led systematic persecution and genocide of the Jews and other minority groups of Europe and North Africa during World War II by Nazi Germany and its collaborators by the use of killing squads and extermination camps.
Mass Rallies	Very large-scale events that took place in Germany that relied mostly on propaganda. They were used to provide support for the Nazis and to develop ultra nationalism.
Nazism	The beliefs of Adolph Hitler and his followers.
Totalitarianism	A political system in which the state, or the governing branch of the state, holds absolute authority, not allowing any opposition group.
Paul von Hindenburg	Germany’s greatest military hero of World War I who served as president under the Weimar government from 1925 to 1933. He hated the Nazis, but was forced to appoint Hitler as chancellor after the burning of the Reichstag.
Rome-Berlin Axis	The military alliance between Germany and Italy signed by Hitler and Mussolini.
General Francisco Franco	Generalísimo Francisco Franco, was dictator of Spain from 1939 until his death in 1975. His army won the Spanish Civil War.
Appeasement	Giving in to the demands of aggressive powers to avoid war, as long as those demands appear reasonable. Such a policy was pursued by Britain and France in dealing with Germany in the latter half of the 1930s.
Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression pact	An agreement between Nazi Germany and the USSR not to attack each other and to split up Poland after Germany invaded it.
Kapp Putsch	An attempt to overthrow the Weimar Republic by the Freikorps lead by Kapp. It failed when the citizens of Germany went on a general strike and did not support the revolt.
Friedkorps	A group of ex-army veterans who put down the Sparatcist Putsch and then tried to take over the Weimar Republic themselves. They failed because they did not have the support of the army or the general public.
Rearming of Germany	One of the first steps Hitler took after becoming leader of Germany. He did this to end the depression and to put people back to work. It was in direct conflict with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.
Treaty of Versailles – (1919)	This peace treaty officially ended World War I between the Allied Powers and Germany. After six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference, it was signed as a follow-up to the armistice (signed in November 1918) in Compiègne Forest
Woodrow Wilson	President from 1913 –1921 of the U.S. After the WW I, he participated in negotiations with the stated aim of assuring statehood for formerly oppressed nations and an equitable peace. On January 8, 1918, he made his famous Fourteen Points address.
League of Nations	An international organization founded after the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. Their goals included disarmament; preventing war through collective security; settling disputes between countries through negotiation diplomacy; and improving global welfare.
Self- Determination	A theoretical principle that people ought to be able to determine their own governmental forms and structures
David Lloyd-George	As representation of Britain at the Versailles Peace Conference, he wanted to punish Germany politically and economically, clashing with French Premier Georges Clemenceau, American President Woodrow Wilson and Italian Prime Minister Vittorio.
Georges Clemenceau	He served as the forceful wartime premier of France from 1914 to 1918. Clemenceau was a major contributor to the Allied victory in World War I. France's diplomatic position at the Paris Peace Conference was repeatedly jeopardized by Clemenceaus mistrust o
War Guilt Clause	Germany was forced to take complete responsibility for starting World War I. This simply served to anger the Germans and ensure that they would seek revenge.
War reparations	Russia agreed to pay for damage under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Germany 'agreed' to pay 132 billion gold marks to the Entente under the Treaty of Versailes, and Bulgaria paid 90 million pounds to the Entente, according to the Treaty of Neuilly.
Collective Security	A system aspiring to the maintenance of peace, in which participants agree that any "breach of the peace is to be declared to be of concern to all the participating states," and will result in a collective response.
Appeasement	Britain and France followed this policy which allowed Germany whatever they wanted because of other priorities and unwanted remake of history.
Russo-Japanese War, 1905	A war fought between a rising Eastern imperial power and a decaying European empire. The first time an Asian country defeated a European power in a war.
Bloody Sunday	In 1905, in front of the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, protesters brought a petition to the tzar. They were gunned down by the Imperial Guard, sparking the Revolution of 1905.
Duma	As a result of the Revolution of 1905, Tzar Nicholas II created this elected parliament to appease the people. In reality however, the group had virtually no power and the Tzar could dissolve it at any time.
Romanov Dynasty	The ruling family of Russia for 300 years. Was brought to an end with the abdication of Tzar Nicholas II.
Provisional Government	The government that was set up at the onset of the Russian Revolution. It was made up of the members of the old Duma with Alexsandr Kerensky as PM. It lasted less than a year.
Lenin	A Russian revolutionary, communist politician, the first head of the Soviet Union, and the main leader of the October Revolution.
Bolsheviks	A Russian political party with a radical perspective on socialism in economics and national identity. They seized power in Russia during the October Revolution period of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and founded the Soviet Union.
Tsar Nicholas II	The last Emperor of Russia. He ruled from 1894 until his forced abdication in 1917, due to his inability to manage Russia in political turmoil and command its army in World War I.
Rasputin	A Russian mystic who held an influence over the Tsar and Tsarina in the later days of Russia's Romanov dynasty for his alleged ability to cure Alexis, their only son, who suffered from hemophilia.
Kerensky	A Russian revolutionary leader who was instrumental in toppling the Russian monarchy. He served as the second Prime Minister of the Russian Provisional Government until Vladimir Lenin seized power following the October Revolution.
Soviet	A group of Russian workers. Similar to a workers union but in Russia they had enormous political power.
Leon Trotsky	A Jewish Bolshevik revolutionary, Marxist theorist and an influential politician in the early days of the Soviet Union, first as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and later as the founder and commander of the Red Army and People's Commissar of War.
“Peace, Land, Bread”	Lenin's revolutionary slogan.
Russian Civil War	It began immediately after the collapse of the Russian provisional government and the Bolshevik takeover (1917). Hostilities took place between Communist Red Army and the anti-Communist White Army. Communists won after 4 years and created the Soviet Union
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk	A peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918, between Russia and the Central Powers. This marked Russia's exit from World War I.
Communism	An ideology that seeks to establish a classless, stateless social organization, based upon common ownership of the means of production. It can be classified as a branch of the broader socialist movement.
Foreign Intervention	Britain, France, Canada and the United States, along with other World War I Allied countries, conducted a ______________, entering the Russian Civil War on the side of the White Army.
Red Army	The armed forces first organized by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War in 1918. Sometimes known as the Peasants' and Workers' Army.
White Army	Comprised of some of the Russian forces, both political and military, which opposed the Bolsheviks after the October Revolution and fought against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War from 1918 to 1921.
U.S.S.R.	The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or the Soviet Union. A constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922-1991 often incorrectly referred to as Russia. It was one of the world's two superpowers at that time, along with the USA.
War Communism	Harsh economic policies adopted by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War in which everything (food, munition, clothes) went to the army. One of the first signs of totalitarian communism.
New Economic Policy	Policy issued by the Commumist Party that allowed a limited middle class to exist by permitting small businesses in minor economic spheres(farming etc.) Lenin justified this decision with his "two steps forward, one step back" philosophy.
Stalin	General Secretary of the Communist Party from 1922 until 1953. After Lenin's death he eventually became the de facto party leader and dictator of the Soviet Union. Ruled with an iron grip, modernizing the country with his ruthless five year plans.
“Socialism in one Country”	Stalin's belief that socialism must first be successfully established in the Soviet Union before it could spread to other countries.
General Secretary of Communist Party	Stalin's first position in the Communist Party. Following Lenin's death he used this post to appoint those officials loyal to him and in this way built up his support base. Soon thereafter he was recognized as the official party leader.
Collectivization of Agriculture	Agricultural plan introduced by Stalin in which peasants were required to put their lands together to form large joint farms. This was meant to increase productivity but was a dismal failure causing mass starvation.
State Farm	Generally created by the state when confiscating large estates, workers were paid regular wages and farms were run like factories.
Collective Farm	A government owned farm where peasants worked on a quota system. Animals and machinery were pooled together to increase productivity.
Kulaks	Literally meaning tight-fisted, it is a term referring to the relatively wealthy peasants in the Russian Empire who owned larger farms and used hired labourers.
Resistance to collectivization	Peasants and farmers (Kulaks especially) resisted the new agricultural organization in which government took a large share of grain and animals. They slaughtered their own livestock and burnt crops to prevent the Soviets from having them.
Great Purges	Stalin's campaign of political repression and persecution in the Soviet Union in the late 1930s. Led to persecutions, suspicions, imprisonment, and killings.
Show trials	Loyal Bolsheviks and party members that Stalin saw as any kind of threat, were subject such great stress, fear, and abuse that they made public confessions to crimes against the state of which they were innocent.
Five Year Plans	A series of nation-wide centralized exercises in rapid economic development in the Soviet Union. Stalin introduced the first one in 1928.
Comintern	An international Communist organization founded in March 1919, in the midst of the "war communism" period (1918-1921), by Vladimir Lenin and the Russian Communist Party. It's aim was to spread communism worldwide.
Treaty of Rapallo	Military agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union under which each renounced all territorial and financial claims against the other following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and WWI. A secret annex allowed Germany to train their military in Russia
Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact	A non-aggression treaty between the German Third Reich and the Soviet Union, signed in Moscow on August 23, 1939. Short-lived, it lasted only as far as Operation Barbarossa.
Operation Barbarossa	The codename for Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II that commenced on June 22, 1941
Archduke Frans Ferdinand	His assasination in Sarajevo provoked Austria to declare war on Serbia and sparked the beginning of WWI.
Gavrillo Princip	His murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in Sarajevo triggered WWI by prompting Austria to declare war on Serbia for the government's apparent hand in the assasination.
Triple Entente	France, Russia and Britain entered WWI as a result of this alliance.
Triple Alliance	A military alliance formed before World War One between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Often called the Central Powers.
"The Blank Cheque"	Germany's guaranteed of support of Austria. So they could take action against Serbia after the assassination of Archduke Frans Ferdinand.
Dreadnought	The development of this new type of battleship was a key component of the arms race which preceded WWI between Britain and Germany.
Schlieffen Plan	A German war plan: wage war against one enemy at a time (first France), win quickly, and then move on to the next opponent (Russia). This failed at the Battle of the Marne as France was stronger than expected and Russia mobilized quicker than expected.
First Battle of the Marne	The first battle or World War I fought in France. After this battle the hopes of the Schlieffen Plan were destroyed and battle tactics had to be changed. The war turned to a stalemate of trench warfare.
Tanks	Developed by Britain as a solution to the stalemate of trench warfare. These machines were built so they could navigate over the trenches and then shoot into the trenches. They were a major technological development and they made trench warfare obsolete.
Gas	A major military innovation, this weapon caused large scale destruction. Chlorine was the first successful killing agent used and it was first deployed by the Germans. It depicted a major change in war tactics.
Airplanes	These were initially used in the war for reconnaissance. Towards the end of the war, they were also used in combat for the first time. A major technological innovation that came about during World War I.
Submarines	The German called them U-boats. Because the German U-boats destroyed American ships, the United States entered the war.
Trench Warfare	A battle tactic first used in World War I which found both sides digging ditches in order to defend themselves from the enemy. This led to a war of attrition where little ground was ever gained and the amount of causalities were high.
Battles of Attrition	A military engagement in which neither side has any tactical advantage, so that the only result of the fighting is the great loss of men and material on both sides. One side tries to outlast the other.
Battle of the Somme	In 1916, it was one of the largest battles of WWI. The battle resulted with more than a million casualties and was the bloodiest battle for the British army. They suffered 60,000 casualties on the first day. No decisive advances were made.
Battle of Verdun	This 1916 battle was fought between the German and French armies and resulted in more than a quarter of a million deaths and about half a million wounded. It was the longest battle and one of the bloodiest in World War I.
Russian Revolution	As a result of the impact of World War I this event in 1917 eventually led to the establishment of the Soviet Union, which lasted until its dissolution in 1991.
US enters the war	Unrestricted German submarine warfare resulted in the sinking of the Lusitania and raised tensions between Germany and the US. Germany's attempt for a military alliance with Mexico agaisnt the States, led to this event which was the turning point in WWI.
French troops mutiny	Senseless battles of attrition led to this mutiny in 1917.
Gallipoli	A 1915-16 battle that took place in Turkey. The battle was an absolute failure for the Allies. The ANZAC forces were desimated after they landed at an impossible cliffside location. An entire generation of Australian and New Zealand men were killed.
Balfour Declaration	A promise to make a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Palestine had been promised to both the Arabs and the Jews. In fact, it wasn't given to anybody. Instead, the British kept it as a mandate. This has led to the Arab-Jewish tensions that continue today.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk	A treaty signed by Lenin and the Central Powers on March 3, 1918, which marked Russia's exit from WWI.
Battle of Jutland	The largest naval battle of World War I. It pitted the British Royal Navy's Grand Fleet against the German High Seas Fleet in the North Sea near Denmark. This was the only battle that truly showcased battleships. It was non-decisive.
Suffragettes	Name given to members of the British women's movement who during the early twentieth century fought for the vote.
Total War	When an entire country consecrates themselves to a war effort. When most production sectors change their production to war supplies. From shells to guns and tanks. Also the government is allowed to make decisions without the regular steps and stages.
Propaganda	In France and Britain, the Germans were portrayed as evil monsters that would destroy everything in their paths.. This is also often used to gain support from the people of a country, widely used in the USA to promote total war.
Censorship	The editing, removing, or otherwise changing of speech and other forms of human expression. In WWI it was used to cover up the truth in lettres coming from the front. They would all be profread and the parts that the masses shouldn't know were eliminated.
The Paris Peace Conference	Was organized by the victors of World War I to negotiate the peace treaties between the Allied and the defeated Central Powers. The Treaty of Versailles was the treaty signed with Germany as part of this conference.
Treaty of Versailles	The treaty that determined the fate of the Germany after WWI. It imposed a 132 trillion Mark indemnity as well as returned Alscace Lorraine to France. The War Guilt clause and a limitation on the Germany military were also part of this treaty.
Treaty of St.Germain	The peace treaty signed with Austria after World War I. I was part of the Paris Peace Talks.
Treaty of Neuilly	The peace treaty signed with Bulgaria after World War I. It was part of the Paris Peace Conference.
Treaty of Trianon	The peace treaty signed with Hungary after World War I. It was part of the Paris Peace Conference.
Treaty of Sevres	The peace treaty signed with the Ottoman Empire after World War I. It was part of the Paris Peace Conference.
The Big Three	They were the most significant policy makers at the treaty of Versailles. Clemenceau, Lloyd George, Woodrow Wilson.
Woodrow Wilson	Made the Fourteen Points address. Introduced the idea of a League of Nations. For his peacemaking efforts was awarded the 1919 Nobel Peace Prize. His failure to win U.S. entry into the League as the biggest mistake of his administration.
David Lloyd George	British representative at the Treaty of Versailles who did not want to utterly destroy the German economy and political system because he felt they should be a trading partner. His priority was the British Empire and mandates.
Georges Clemenceau	Led France during WWI, was a major voice behind the Treaty of Versailles. He was anti-German and made sure the Treaty of Versailles was especially punishing for Germany.
Fourteen Points	Formulated by Woodrow Wilson as a blueprint for European peace after WWI. Resulted in the German surrender in WWI in hopes of a just peace but many points were surrendered to the harsher British and French leaders.
Self-Determination	Allows people of similar background the right to their own state or nation. Was the basis for many of the new countries formed after WWI but was overlooked in places such as the Polish corridor, the Sudetenland, and Yugoslavia.
Diktat	A treaty in which the nation recieving has no say in anything. Led to bitterness about the harshness of the Treaty of Versailles by the German people.
League of Nations	International organization formed after the Paris Peace Conference, intended to help maintain peace and the balance of power but lacked an armed force to ensure this. aIt was an unsuccessful attempt at collective security.
Collective Security	The theory that if one nation is attacked that all the other countries will react in opposition to the aggressor nation. It was the basis of the League of Nations.
War Guilt Clause	Germany was forced to take complete responsibility for starting World War I. This simply served to anger the Germans and ensure that they would seek revenge.
War reparations	Germany was told to pay 132 billion gold marks to the Allies under the Treaty of Versailes because of the damage they had caused during World War I.
Chamberlain	In 1917 Chamberlain became Prime Minister. Chamberlain's political legacy is defined by his dealings with an appeasement of Nazi Germany. He signed the Munich Agreement with Adolf Hitler in 1938 it effectively allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland.
Munich Agreement	An agreement regarding the Sudetenland Crisis between the major powers of Europe after a conference held in Munich, Germany in 1938 and signed on September 29. The Sudentenland was an area of Czechoslovakia where ethnic Germans formed a majority.
Anschluss	The 1938 "inclusion" of Austria into “Greater Germany” by the Nazi Regime. Originally the joining of these 2 countries had been banned by the Treaty of Versailles.
Sudentenland	Conflict over the Sudetenland began immediately after the Anschluss of Austria into the Third Reich in March 1938. This led to the Czechoslovak Crisis. The Nazis - together with their Sudeten German allies - claimed throughout the year that the Sudeten Ge
Rhineland	The western part of Rhineland was occupied by Entente forces, then demilitarized under the Treaty of Versailles. German forces reoccupied the territory in 1936, three years before the outbreak of the Second World War
Spanish Civil War	Between July 18, 1936 and April 1, 1939. A conflict in which the incumbent Second Spanish Republic and political left-wing groups fought against a right-wing nationalist insurrection led by General Francisco Franco, who eventually succeeded in ousting the
Hitler	Chancellor of Germany from 1933 Leader of Germany from 1934 until his death. He was leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party, better known as the Nazi Party. He was responsible for the death of millions of Jews and other minorities
Brown shirts	Usually translated as stormtroopers. They functioned as a paramilitary organization of the German Nazi party. It played a key role in Adolf Hitler’s rise to power in the 1930s. SA men were often known as brown shirts from the colour of their uniform and t
Enabling Acts	Passed by Germany's parliament (the Reichstag) on March 23, 1933. It was the second major step after the Reichstag Fire Decree through which the Nazis obtained dictatorial powers using largely legal means. The Act enabled Chancellor Adolf Hitler and his c
Nuremberg Laws	In 1935 these denaturalization laws were passed by the government of Nazi Germany. They used a pseudoscientific basis for racial discrimination against Jews. Mainly looking at family origin they determined the pure race of Germans from the mixed race of G
Night of Long Knives	Also known as "the Blood Purge", it was a lethal purge of Adolf Hitler’s potential political rivals in the Sturmabteilung (SA; also known as storm troopers or brown shirts).
Kristallnacht	The Night of Broken Glass, was a massive nationwide pogrom in Germany and Austria on the night of November 9, 1938 (including the early hours of the following day). It was directed at Jewish citizens throughout the country and portended the events of the
Propaganda	A specific type of message presentation directly aimed at influencing the opinions of people, rather than impartially providing information. Throughout the twentieth century this was a common tactic of political leaders.
Lebensraum	The German term for habitat (used both in ecological and sociological contexts; literally, "living space") is used in English to refer to a motivation for Nazi Germany’s expansionist policies, to provide extra space for the growth of the German population
Aryan Race	Found under Nazism, this idea was often intertwined with Anti-Semitic ideas. Hitler believed that a true pure race was composed of Aryans. It was thought of as the "master race" and many went to great lengths to "maintain the purity".
Final Solution	The German Nazis’ plan to engage in systematic genocide against the European Jewish population during World War II. The execution of the Final Solution resulted in the most deadly phase of the Holocaust.
Holocaust	The name applied to the state-led systematic persecution and genocide of the Jews and other minority groups of Europe and North Africa during World War II by Nazi Germany and its collaborators. The use of killing squads and extermination camps was a massi
Mass Rallies	Many rallies were held throughout the twentieth century. However, some very large-scale rallies took place in Germany that relied mostly on propaganda. These were the Nuremberg Rallies. (Officially, Reichsparteitag, literally "national party congress") w
Nazism	The ideology held by the National Socialist German Workers Party. It was led by Adolf Hitler in Germany from 1933 to 1945.
Allies	World War II military alliance of Britain, France, the Soviet Union, the United States, Canada, China, and 45 other countries
Axis	World War II military alliance of Germany, Italy, Japan, and six other countries
Battle of Midway	A turning point battle fought in 1942 in the Pacific during which American planes sank four Japanese aircraft carriers who were never able to recover from this defeat and afterwards were always on the defensive.
Invasion of Poland	Germany's use of the blitzkrieg on this country led to the start of World War II.
Blitzkrieg	"lightning war " German military tactic for quick victory by use of massed airplanes, tanks and mobile infrantry.
Phony War	A period of time following the German invasion of Poland. Although the European powers had declared war on one another, there was little combat.
Dunkirk	Allied soldiers were cut off in northern France by a German armoured advance. Over 330,000 Allied troops caught in the pocket were subsequently evacuated by sea to England. The majority of British troops were able to survive and fight another day.
Battle of Britain	Germany's failed attempt to subdue Britain in 1940 in preparation for an invasion (Operation Sealion). This was the first battle fought entirely in the air and the first time that Hitler suffered a military setback.
Operation Barbarossa	The codename for Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II.
Pearl Harbor	The suprise attack by Japan on U.S naval base in Hawaii, December 7, 1941. This brought the United States into World War II.
D-Day	The Normandy Landings, June 6, 1944 — the day on which "Operation Overlord" began commencing the Western Allied effort to liberate mainland Europe from Nazi occupation during World War II.
Battle of Stalingrad	City in Russia, site of a Red Army victory over the Germany army in 1942-1943. The turning point in the war between Germany and the Soviet Union, this battle is marked by heavy losses on both sides and fierce combat--much of it hand to hand.
El Alamein	The site for a major battle where the British were able to defeat the Germans who were led by Rommel. Success in this turning point battle ended the North African Campaign and set up the invasion of Italy.
Manhattan Project	The American effort to develop the first nuclear weapons. Leads to the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Japan's surrender during World War II.
Hiroshima	On August 6, 1945 the nuclear weapon Little Boy was dropped by Americans, killing an estimated 80,000 people and heavily damaging 80% of the city. The first use of atomic weapons in history.
Nagasaki	The second city that an atomic bomb was dropped on by the U.S. during World War II. This lead to Japan's surrender to the Allied Powers.
Lend-Lease Act	The United States becomes the "arsenal of democracy" and provides the material for an Allied victory in World War II once Britain couldn’t pay for them any more under the Cash and Carry plan.
Battle of the Bulge	Germany's last attempt to push back the Allies in Western Europe. Hitler was hoping that a quick victory here might cause the Allies to negotiate a peace treaty.
island hopping	Allied strategy of capturing Japanese-held islands. From these bases the United States could bomb the main islands of Japan, including the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
kamikaze	During World War II Japanese pilots were trained to make a suicidal crash attack, upon American ships. Very successful and had huge effect of allied moral.
Holocaust	Germany's systematic elimination of Europe's Jews during World War II. Over 6 million Jews were killed.
Nuremberg Trials	22 leading representatives of the Nazi regime had to answer to the International Military Tribunal of the victorious powers on four counts: conspiracy, crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity.
Adolf Hitler	Born in Austria, he became a radical German nationalist during World War I. He led the National Socialist German Workers' Party-the Nazi Party-in the 1920s and became dictator of Germany in 1933. He led Europe into World War II.
Invasion of Norway	This gave Germany access to good naval bases from which they could launch their U-boat operations, and it also secured their shipments of iron-ore from Sweden.
Fall of France, 1940	This resulted in Germany's control of Western Europe. For the Axis, the campaign was a spectacular victory.
Vichy France	Was thought of as a satellite state or "puppet state" of Germany after the fall of France in 1940.
Operation Sea Lion	A World War II Nazi Germany plan to invade the United Kingdom, beginning in 1940. It never actually happened because Germany lost the Battle of Britain.
Luftwaffe	The German airforce during the Second World War.
Radar	Secrect weapon used by British during the Battle of Britian. It allowed the British to identify enemy aircrafts and then intercept them.
The Blitz	The German's intense bombing campaign on London, during the Battle of Britain. Considered one of Hitler's mistakes of WWII.
General Rommel	He was the commander of the Afrika Korps. His nickname was The Desert Fox because of the skillful military campaigns he waged for Germany in North Africa. He was later in command of the German forces opposing the Allies in the invasion of Normandy.
Winston Churchill	Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. He was one of the most important leaders in modern British and world history.
Battle of the Atlantic	At the beginning of the war German U-boats devastated Allied shipping and navies. Nearly cut off Britain from supplies and support but was eventually slowed and halted by Allied weapon advances.
Battle of Kursk	One of the turning point battles of World War II. A German defeat by Soviets. Afterward Germany was totally on the defensive. The largest tank battle in history.
Operation Torch	Allied invasion of northwestern Africa. Improved naval control of the Mediterranean, and prepared an invasion of Southern Europe 1943.
Operation Husky	The Allied invasion of Sicily which leads to an Allied victory in Italy, July 1943.
Siege of Leningrad	Germans beseiged this city for 3 years, from 1941-1944. The Soviets were able to stop the German advance in the north here. The German plan was coded as Operation Nordlicht. The siege lasted from September 8, 1941 to January 18 1944.
Battle of the Coral Sea	In May 1940, a battle between Japan and the USA; a battle at sea but fought entirely by aircraft carriers. A tactical victory for the United States as the Japanese plan for the invasion of Australia was cancelled.
Strategic Bombing	A military strategy that attempts to destroy the economic ability of a nation-state to wage war. A tactic used in world war two that utilized aircraft to disable key targets. A major factor in the defeat of both Germany and Japan.
Battle for Leyte Gulf	Largest naval battle in history. Fought by the Empire of Japan and the Allies between Ocotber 23-26 1944. Last major naval battle of WWII. The first use of Kamikazees.
Auschwitz	The largest of Nazi Germany's concentration camps and extermination camps. This camp was a major element in the perpetration of the Holocaust; at least 1.1 million people were killed there, and 90% of them were Jews.
Yalta Conference	The 'big three' (Churchill, Stalin and Roosevelt) met to decide how to divide up Europe after the defeat of Germany.
Harry Truman	Was president from 1945–1953 he took over from Roosevelt due to Roosevelt’s Death. He was the president in power when the Atomic Bombs were dropped.
Potsdam Conference	The Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the U.S represented by Joseph Stalin, Prime Minister Clement Attlee, and President Harry S. Truman. They tried to decide what to do with a defeated Germany but couldn’t come to an agreement.
The Cold War	Tension and competition between the United States and the Soviet Union and their allies from the mid 1940s until the early 1990s.There never was a direct military engagement between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.
Buffer Zone	Made up of the countries that are between the Soviet Union and Western Europe that were under Soviet control. If there was an western invasion then the fighting would take place there.(Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania)
Bipolar World	After World War II the world is "divided" into two camps: The USA and USSR.(communism vs. capitalism)
Spheres of Influence	The areas close/beside a super power. They are influenced to follow policies because of where they are located. Sometimes considered a superpower's "backyard".
Truman Doctrine	A U.S. foreign policy announced by President Harry S. Truman in March 1947 that the U.S. government would support any country in the world with military and economic aid to prevent their falling into the Soviet orbit.
“iron curtain”	A Western term made famous by Winston Churchill referring to the boundary that symbolically, ideologically, and physically divided Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II until the end of the Cold War, roughly 1945 to 1990.
Marshall Plan	Known officially following its enactment as the European Recovery Program, was the primary plan of the United States for rebuilding the allied countries of Europe and repelling communism after World War II.(the economic part of the Truman Doctrine)
Berlin Blockade	One of the first major crisises of the Cold War, occurred from June 24, 1948 to May 11, 1949 when the Soviet Union blocked railroad and street access to West Berlin.
Berlin Airlift	The Soviet Union blocked railroad and street access to West Berlin. American, British and French airlifts of food and other provisions to the Western-held sectors of Berlin. 462 days that flew supplies into the Western-held sectors of Berlin.
NATO	A military alliance created in 1949. Western countries agreed to support each other in case of Soviet aggression.
Warsaw Pact	An organization of Central and Eastern European Communist states. It was established in 1955 to counter the alleged threat from the NATO alliance.
Chinese Revolution, 1949	Refers to the final stage of the fighting in the Chinese Civil War. Ended with the communist party taking over.
McCarthyism	A time of intense anti-Communist suspicion in the United States that lasted roughly from the late 1940s to the late 1950s. Joe McCarty was the main political leader.
Korean War	Some consider this Cold War-era conflict to have been a proxy war between the U.S. and its allies and the Communist powers of the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union. It was the first time that UN members sent a combined force a conflict.
Nikita Khrushchev	After the death of Stalin, he became the leader of the U.S.S.R. He wasnt the ruthless leader as Stalin was and ruled less intensley. He started de-stalinization and was the founder of the Warsaw Pact.
De-Stalinization	A period of relative peaceful co-existance between East and West. It was started by Nikita Khrushchev. after Stalin's death when he denounced some of Stalin's hardline policies.
Sino-Soviet Split	A major diplomatic rift between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Caused by de-Stainization, and the Soviets not willing to share the atomic bomb with China.
Hungarian Revolution, 1956	Spontaneous nationwide revolt against the communist government. When the government tried to leave the Warsaw Pact, Soviet tanks were sent in to crush the rebellion.
Imre Nagy	A Hungarian politician, appointed Prime Minister of Hungary on two occasions. His non-Soviet-backed government was brought down by Soviet invasion in the failed Hungarian Uprising of 1956.
U-2	A single-seat, single-engine, high-altitude surveillance aircraft, flown by the United States Air Force.
The Berlin Wall	A barrier between West Berlin and East Germany created to stop East Germans exodus from the communist system. Began on August 13, 1961, and it was dismantled in the weeks following November 9, 1989.
Cuban Missile Crisis	A confrontation during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States caused by the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba.
Fidel Castro	He led the revolution overthrowing Fulgencio Batista in 1959 and shortly after was sworn in as the leader of Cuba. He transformed Cuba into a one-party socialist republic.
Bay of Pigs	A 1961 US supported invasion by Cuban exiles intent on overthrowing the communist government of Fidel Castro. Kennedy would not provide air cover and so it was a total failure.
Quarantine of Cuba	Kennedy's response to the Cuban Missle Crisis. During the crisis all ships enroute for Cuba were stopped and searched for missles and other weapons.
Brinkmanship	The point of war when both sides are head to head and neither side wants to give up. If neither side gives in the repercutions could cause world destrution. Example: Cuban Missile Crisis.
J.F.K	35th and youngest ever president of the U.S.A. Major events included The Bay of Pigs invasion, Cuban Missile Crisis and the starting of the Space Race. Assasinated on Nov. 22, 1963.
Sputnik	Worlds first satelite placed into space by Russia in 1957.
Space Race	The competition between The U.S.A and the U.S.S.R to be the most technologically space age advanced nation. Russians had the first satelite and person in space. American landed a man on the moon.
Yuri Gagarin	A Russian astronaut who was the first person in space on april 12, 1961. Completed one orbit of the earth in 108 minutes.
Alan Shepard	First American in space.
Brezhnev	Leader of the Soviet Union, 1964-1982.
"Guns or Butter"	When a country has to choose between spending its money on defense or consumer goods. When Ronald Reagan was increasing defense spending in the 1980s, the Soviet Union was forced to choose between military spending or civilian spending.
Czechoslavkia, 1968	This Soviet invasion was a response to the policy of "socialism with a human face", a liberal reform movement beagan by Alexander Dubcek. Soviet troops put an end to the "Prague Spring" by use of force. Prompted the declaration of the Brezhnev Doctrine.
Brezhnev Doctrine	After ordering troops into Czehoslovakia, Brezhnev stated that the USSR has a duty to intervene in any other communist state to maintain communist control.
Lech Walesa	A Polish politician, a former trade union and human rights activist. He co-founded Solidarity, the Soviet bloc's first independent trade union, won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1983, and served as President of Poland from 1990 to 1995.
Solidarity	A Polish trade union founded in September 1980, and originally led by Lech Wałęsa. In the 1980s it was a broad anti-communist social movement. After 1989, a coalition government was formed and in December Wałęsa was elected president.
Detente	The easing of tensions by the two super powers during the 1970's. Examples: Brandt's Ostpolitik, SALT I, Helsinki Accords and Nixon's visit to China in 1972.
SALT I	An agreement reached during the Detente Era that linited the amount of anti-ballistic missiles both superpowers had.
Helsinki Accords, 1975	An agreement made in the Detente era that recongized all 1945 European borders in exchange for a Soviet comminment to improve human rights behind the Iron Curtain.
"ping-pong diplomacy"	The cultural exchange of ping pong players of the United States and People's Republic of China (PRC) in the 1970s. This marked a thaw in U.S.-China relations that led the way to a visit to Beijing by President Richard Nixon. Part of the Detente era.
Nixon vists China, 1972	The first step in formally normalizing relations between the United States and the People's Republic of China. It also marked the first time a U.S. president had visited the PRC. Part of the Detente era.
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 1979	This action drew harsh criticism from many countries and effectively ended the period of Detente. SALT II was cancelled, the Moscow Olympics were boycotted and the Soviets found themselves in their own Vietnam.
Boycott of Moscow Olympics, 1980	Was a part of a package of actions to protest against the December 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
Ronald Reagan	President of the US from 1981-1989. He initiated the SDI or Star Wars program that eventually bankrupted the USSR and led to the fall of communism.
Vietnam War	A military conflict in occurring from 1959 to April 30, 1975. It was an attempt to stop the spread of Communism in Asia.
French Indo-China	Part of the French colonial empire in southeast Asia, consisting of the present day countries of Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. French rule was ended by the Geneva Agreement, 1954.
Ho Chi Minh	Leader of the North Vietnamese in their fight against French colonial rule, 1946-1954 and against the Americans in Vietnam.
Dein Bien Phu, 1954	The site of a major battle between the French and the Communist forces in Vietnam. As a result of losing this battle the French withdraw from French -Indo China.
Ho Chi Minh Trail	A complex maze of truck routes, paths for foot and bicycle traffic, and river transportation systems used to provide support, in the form of manpower and material, to the Vietcong during the Vietnam War. It ran through the countries of Laos and Cambodia.
Geneva Agreement, 1954	The agreement that officially ended French involvement in Vietnam and created four new countries: North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos.
Domino Theory	A term used by the Americans meaning that if a country became Communist, then its neighbouring countries would likewise fall to communism, like a row of dominoes. This theory was the basis of the American involvement in Vietnam.
Gulf of Tonkin Incident, 1964	A US destroyer was supposedly attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats. Johnson used this incident to get legislation passed which allowed him a free hand in dealing with the Vietnam conflict and led to US troop involvement.
Lyndon Johnson	Became president of the United States after the assassination of JFK. Attempted to implement reforms in the US called his "Great Society". Deeply involved in the Vietnam War. Sent US troops into Vietnam after the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was passed.
Tet Offensive	A tactical defeat for the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces, but it inflicted severe damage on American civilian morale and contributed to the demand for the withdrawal of American forces from Vietnam.
Richard Nixon	American President from 1968-1974. Ended the war in Vietnam with his policy of Vietnamization, became the first US president to visit communist China and resigned rather than face impeachment after the Watergate Scandal.
Vietnamization	Nixon's plan to withdraw from Vietnam by gradually building up the strength of the South Vietnamese armed forces, and to re-equip them with modern weapons so that they could defend their nation on their own.
MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction)	A Cold War term meaning that there was safety in both the US and the USSR possessing large nuclear arsenals as neither would use its arsenal for fear of retaliation. If either side attacked it would lead to the destruction of the world.
"Star Wars" or SDI	Proposed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan in 1983 to use ground-based and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles. One factor in the fall of communism as the USSR could not keep up financially.
The Great Society	President Johnson's domestic policy, which included improved living conditions for the poor, civil rights, educational reforms, and urban renewal. Many of his aims were not achieved because of the Vietnam War's drain on government finances.
Civil Rights Movement	A movement in the 1950's and 1960's which attempted to bring equal voting, education, employment to blacks in the United States.
Mikhail Gorbachev	Leader of the Soviet Union from 1985-1991. His policies of Glasnost and Perestroika brought on political and economic change that ended up bringing down both the Communist Party and the Soviet Union itself.
Glasnost	A policy started by Gorbachev that allowed "openness" in the Soviet Union. For the first time under communism people were allowed to express their true feelings. One of the factors that leads to the fall of communism.
Perestroika	A Russian word meaning "restructuring". One of Gorbachev's plans that lead to the fall of communism and the end of the USSR.
Boris Yeltsin	Was the first President of the Russian Federation from 1991 to 1999 after the end of Communism.
Chernobyl Disaster	A nuclear power station near Kiev, in the Ukraine. In 1986 a reactor malfunctioned, resulting in large amounts of radioactive material being released into the atmosphere. The effects locally were devastating and were felt as far away as the Britain.
Fall of Berlin Wall	Was dismantled in the weeks following November 9, 1989. It was an iconic symbol of the Cold War. This was the first step toward German reunification and symbolized the end of the iron curtain and communism in eastern Europe.
Ostpolitik	German Reunification. Eleven months after the fall of the Berlin Wall, East and West Germany joined to form one country.
Collapse of the Soviet Union, 1991	Caused by Gorbachev's policies of glasnost and peristroika as well as the advent of mass communications.
Willi Brandt	His "ostpolitik" (policy towards the Eastern Bloc" resulted in treaties with the Soviet Union, Poland and East Germany that recognized the post-1945 borders. He began the first step toward German Unification.

Created by: alfromcanada

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