OF L REE^E L A SHORT HISTORY OF EUROPE (modern) By the same Author^ and uniform ifi size and price with volume this A SHORT HISTORY OF EUROPE THE FALL OF THE ROJMAN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. FROiM With i8 Genealogical Tables and Copious Index. A FEW PRESS 304 pages. OPINIONS. " Professor Terry has seized upon what has long been a weak point of our English secondary education the failure to provide any connected view The author feels the desirability of showing how of European history. — English and European history have interacted upon each other, and with purpose has put into his pages the general course of the world's affairs this between the fall of Rome and that of Constantinople. we . . are not mistaken, will have a grateful quarters, and the unfamiliarity of its contents should work, if schoolbook. " — Pal/ Mall Gazette. . Professor Terry's welcome make it in many a popular ** Mr. Terry has certainly not failed to carry out his design nor It may readily be admitted that such are the pages crowded with dates. a work as this was much needed and may be used by student or teacher for . . . We the purpose of giving a wider basis to a first study of English history. book a clear outline of the main movements in European find in the history." *' — Morning Post. The task was difficult of execution, but Professor Terry has succeeded where many have failed. His outline is not only clear and accurate, but eminently readable. The book should prove an invaluable companion to the ordinary text-book on British history." Aberdeen F?'ee Press. — * it is ' A brisk and vigorous short history. Most readable and well indexed, — Scottish Historical Review, a capital precis of the Middle Ages."good history of the Middle Ages." "A "Concise, clear, — School World. comprehensive, and well-proportioned, it is an ex- text-book, so thoroughgoing indeed that it may well serve the purposes of more advanced students who need a trustworthy general introduction to this large subject." Scotsman. cellent — '* Professor Terry has achieved a remarkable success, and An admirable book is eminently readable and suggestive. . . . " pendium. '* " A — Aberdeen Daily Journal. wonderfully The book London full and lucid narrative." . . his — Dundee Advertiser. — Secondary Education. deserves to be widely adopted." : . com- GEORGE ROUTLEDGE & SONS, LIMITED. A SHORT HISTORY OF EUROPE FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE DISSOLUTION OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE BY CHARLES SANFORD TERRY, M.A, BURNETT-FI.ETCHER PROFESSOK OF HISTORY IX THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN fc f' » » . - ) , ' J ' I J 5 * > ^ LONDON GEORGE ROUTLEDGE & New York: E. P. SONS, Limited DUTTON & CO. ^PjLS.Ai>- First printed in igi2 < '^ -. .' * i./; '. - - r *' PREFACE The plan of this "Short History of Europe" was sufficiently explained in the Preface to the first volume published a year ago. Briefly, it is intended to be read either as a text-book of European history in the customary detached manner. Or it may be used concurrently with a text-book of British history, its chapters being interpolated at convenient junctions, in order that the student of British history may be able at every Having point to view it on a European background. in the first of traversed to the history long range regard it seemed necessary that I should indicate the In the present volume it is convenient junctions." since do the connecting links are to so, unnecessary volume '' sufficiently obvious, and in each chapter, where possible, It seemed on the maintained. a British perspective whole advisable to bring the present volume to a close with the establishment of the French and Austrian and is Holy Roman Empires, leaving to a concluding volume the history of the nineteenth century. Hence the postponement of chapters on the the dissolution of the Eastern Question and other topics which are better reserved for consecutive treatment. I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to my Assistant, Mr. Murray L. R. Beaven, for his careful reading of the proof-sheets of this volume. C. King's College, Old Aberdeen. 238856 SANFORD TERRY. CONTENTS ....... CHAPTER The Renaissance I CHAPTER PAGE i II The Era of Maritime Discovery . . . -13 ....... CHAPTER HI The Italian Wars CHAPTER The Lutheran Reformation 30 IV ..... 45 CHAPTER V Zwingli and Calvin . . CHAPTER . . -70 . . . VI Spain and the Counter-Reformation CHAPTER . ..... The Thirty Years' War CHAPTER The Wars of Louis XIV 88 VII 107 VIII . . . . .123 . . .144 CHAPTER IX The Rise of Russia . . . CHAPTER X ..... The Growth of Prussia vii 161 Contents Vlll CHAPTER XI Greater Britain PAGE . CHAPTER XII The American War of Independence CHAPTER 210 XIII The French Revolution 226 CHAPTER XIV Europe and the Revolution . 256 GENEALOGICAL TABLES PAGE I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 The Bourbon and Orleanist Kings of France The Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs The French Claims on Milan The Angevin Dynasties in Naples The Visconti and Sforza Dukes of Milan The Medici The Spanish Bourbons The Kings of Denmark The Kings of Sweden The House of Braganza in Portugal and Brazil The Dukes of Lorraine and Guise The House of Orange-Nassau The House of Romanoff The House of Hanover The House of Hohenzollern The House of Bonaparte Index .... . . . . 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 T' A SHORT HISTORY OF EUROPE CHAPTER I THE RENAISSANCE " Modern history professes to deal with mankind in a period stage of civiUsation which is in its broad outUnes famihar to us, during the period in which the problems that still occupy us came into conscious recognition, and were dealt with in ways intelligible to us as re" sembling our own (Bishop Creighton). That period dates from the second half of the fifteenth century, when the two characteristics of modern civilisation came into play the emergence of nationalities and national interests, and the release of the individual from the medieval bonds which restrained the free exercise of his faculties. when they had reached the — In the Middle Ages there was little opportunity for either the nations of Christendom or the men who composed them to develop their individuality. Medieval Christendom was a single organisation, and the nations which composed it were distinguishable only as units in it. The Crusades are typical of the submergence of national under international In them Christendom as a single fraternity placed interests. itself under the banner of the Cross, actuated by none of the motives which inspire modern wars, territorial expansion, dynastic interests, or commercial gain, but obedient to the call of religion. National particularism was lost in the conception of Christendom as a single community of Christian people. As to the individual, birth determined the groove in which his life was to run. In the Church alone merit could raise him above the degree into which he had been born. At II. —B A 2 Short History of Europe the same time the Church forbade the individual to work outside the channels itself prescribed. Independent research, such as Roger Bacon and Galileo conducted, was denounced as heretical, and invited persecution. Even his exalted position could not save Pope Sylvester II from suspicion that his great learning had been acquired by selling himself to the The arts, painting, sculpture, and architecture were devil. employed only in the Church's service. Science and philosophy were similarly restricted in their application. In the thirteenth century forces came into play which tended to differentiate the nations of Christendom, and gave to the individual the liberty of thought and action so far denied him. After Boniface VIII no Pope ventured to represent Rome as the political capital of Europe, and the unity of Christendom receded to the limbo of theories. The v/ar between France and England in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and the expedition of Charles VIII of France to Italy in 1494, opened a new era in which the nations of Christendom pursued their own aims, dynastic, territorial, and commercial. In the same period the Renaissance took its origin in Italy, and spread thence to France, Germany, Holland, Spain, Portugal, England, and Scotland. The Renaissance was far more than a revival of letters and art, " though that was its most patent manifestation. It was, in the largest sense of the term, the whole process of tran" sition in Europe from the medieval to the modern order It deprived the Empire and Papacy of pre-eminence. Their authority ceased to be international and became local and restricted. Europe resolved itself into national units, and national churches and literaThe social order of the Middle Ages also tures emerged. for commerce and industry placed hastened to its decline the merchant by the side of the knight-at-arms and landAnd with the social decay of Feudalism went a owner. transformation of the political conditions under which it had flourished. It began to be held that government exists primaThe history of England rily in the interests of the governed. in the seventeenth century exemplifies that conception in Machiavelli's The Prince and Sir Thomas More's practice. Utopia are earlier manifestations of it in theory. Enormously stimulating also were the maritime and scientific dis(Sir Richard Jebb). their ; The Renaissance 3 coveries of the period. The employment of the compass and the astrolabe facilitated maritime adventure, and led to the finding of a New World across the Atlantic, and to an enormous extension of geographical knowledge. The discovery of gunpowder revolutionised the art of war and broke up medieval society. The invention of printing widened the influence of literature and knowledge. The astronomical discovery of Copernicus, which revealed the earth to be but one of many satellites of the sun, undermined a vast structure of superstition. The most potent of the forces which conducted Europe from medievalism to modernism was the recovery of the lost culture of ancient Greece and Rome, their literature, and, above all, the habit of liberal, untrammelled thought of which it was the outcome. But it must not be supposed that the Renaissance fell upon unprepared soil. Humanism, as the revived study of classical literature was called, had been preceded by the Scholastic philosophy of the thirteenth century, though the Schoolmen, of whom the chief were Albertus Magnus (d. 1280), St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-74), and Roger Bacon (12 14 ?-94), attempted under the impulse of Aristotle's recently discovered Organon rather to codify Nor had existing knowledge than to break new ground. classical learning, the foundation of humanism, been entirely extinguished in the Middle Ages. From 528, when St. Benedict founded the Abbey of Monte Cassino, the Benedictines kept alive the study of the Latin classics. Charlemagne, and after him Otto the Great, were zealous patrons of learning. Hence a knowledge of Latin was never wholly lost, though England, France, and Germany, where Scholasticism drew scholars to the subtleties of logic and metaphysics rather than to ancient were more backward than Italy, where Scholasticism had less vogue. Greek was in a worse plight. After the fall of the Western Empire in the fifth century, knowledge of ancient Greek became almost extinct in Europe, and even in Constantinople, and no agencies existed for its teaching. Though she possessed no systematic teacher of Greek until the arrival of Manuel Chrysoloras at Florence in 1397, Italy herein also was ahead of the rest of Christendom. literature, Indeed, the career of Dante Italian sky (i 265-1 321) proves that the was already bright with the promise of dawn, A 4 and Dante's Short History of Europe Ambrogio di Bondone, or Giotto (d. 1337), and architect, was prophetic of the artistic revolution which accompanied the Renaissance. Underlying humanism and the revived study of classical literature was a new mental attitude, which was the motive force of the Renaissance and of the revolution accomplished by it. The dead authors were read as manifestations of a habit of mind, an independent outlook on life and the universe, which were absent from medieval literature. For centuries man's intellect had been in bondage to the Church, and had exercised itself only within the formulas which clerical authoBut in the Greek and Roman authors the rity sanctioned. humanists found a literature in which the writer expressed his thoughts freely and looked out on the world with his own eyes, a characteristic of the classics which the humanists found vastly engaging. They adopted it to view their own age, and found themselves forthwith in conflict with its religion, science, and philosophy. The Renaissance manifested itself in different ways. In Central and Northern Europe it supported the religious upheaval which we call the Reformation. In Spain and Portugal it displayed itself in maritime and geographical activity. Everywhere it transformed art, and in Italy that was its preeminent and particular work. It was natural that such should be the case for Italy could still look upon the monuments of her ancient glory, while her language was the offspring of She possessed that which Virgil, Horace, and Cicero spoke. friend, painter, sculptor, ; to a greater degree than elsewhere in Europe, a wealthy and leisured class, able to devote itself and its means to the cause of art and letters. In particular, the Medici of Florence were generous patrons of humanism, and Popes, such as Leo X, the friend of Raffaelle, supported a movement whose sinister influence on the Church they could not also, foresee. The father of Italian humanism was Francesco Petrarca, or Petrarch (1304-74), whose boyhood was spent at Avignon " " of the Popes. From his Babylonish Captivity during the earliest youth the history and literature of ancient Rome engaged his interest and admiration. His Latin poem, Africa, of which Scipio Africanus was the hero, revived the Virgilian He was a zealous searcher for ancient texts, inscripepic. The Renaissance 5 and records of Italy's past, his passionate affection for which made him sympathetic to Rienzi's attempted restoraAt the age of thirty-seven he tion of the Commonwealth. was crowned with laurel on the Capitol, and thenceforward was recognised as the first man of letters in Italy and Europe. His commanding position enabled him to exercise great influence on behalf of humanism, to gain for it the patronage which it needed from the wealthy, and the enthusiasm of tions, scholars. He also influenced vernacular literature of the which Dante was the founder, by the songs and sonnets which his loved Laura inspired. What Petrarch was to Italian poetry Giovanni Boccaccio Like Petrarch, Boccaccio (1313-75) was to Italian prose. was deeply interested in and illuminated Italy's past. He was the first of the Italian humanists, apparently, systemItaly, of His collection of stories, the to study Greek. Decameron, was his greatest work, and influenced not only atically the literature of Italy, but, among others, that of England through Chaucer, whose Canterbury Tales owe much to it for and incident. The enthusiasm for the classics inaugurated by Petrarch and Boccaccio spread rapidly in Italy. Giovanni di Conversino, who had come under the spell of Petrarch's enthusiasm, was the first teacher who journeyed from town to town expounding Cicero and the Latin poets. The systematic teaching of Greek was delayed until twenty years after Petrarch's death, when, from 1397 to 1400, Manuel Chrysoloras lectured at Florence, where the Signoria gave him a Chair of Greek. He was the first regular teacher of the language in Italy, a scholar whose lectures roused the enthusiasm of his hearers. His Greek Grammar was among the first modern books of its kind. He was followed by other Byzantine scholars, under whom Greek was widely studied in Italy long before the fall plot of Constantinople in 1453. Revived interest in the literature of ancient Rome was accompanied naturally by regard for the relics of her art and architecture. Bracciolini Poggio, in the first half of the fifteenth century, wrote a description of the surviving Roman monuments, and his contemporary Flavio Biondo compiled a wider work on the monuments of Pius II (1458-64) was the first Pope to attempt^ to Italy. he issued a Bull to that preserve the ruins of ancient Rome ; A 6 Short History of Europe A effect in 1462. few years later the Vatican Museum founded for the preservation of relics of ancient Rome, Raffaelle was appointed by Leo X was and of Inspector-General Antiquities. The search for texts of 'the~ancient authors'was'prosecuted The printing-press did not as yet exist, but copyzeal. ists were set to work, and libraries were formed for the re- with ception of the precious manuscripts. Nicolas V (1447-55) was the virtual founder of the most famous of them, the Vatican Library. The discovery and dissemination of texts stimulated humanistic studies. The public lecturers who followed Giovanni di Conversino, of whom Francesco Filelfo (1398-1481) and Angelo Poliziano (Politian) (1454-94) were the most famous, were aided by the establishment of humanistic schools for the young, of which Vittorino da Feltre (d. 1446) at Mantua and Guarino da Verona (d. 1460) at Ferrara were the most successful founders. Academies also, of which Florence under Cosimo de' Medici possessed the first, were formed by enthusiastic bodies of literati for the prosecution of humanistic study at Rome, Venice, Naples, and elsewhere. The printing-press of Aldo Manuzio put into the hands of scholars the text of the recovered classics. And in Leo (1513-21), the son of Lorenzo de' Medici, humanism found a papal Maecenas, a prince whose enlightened love of art made him the patron of Raffaelle. The Italian Renaissance barely survived Leo's death. The invasion of Italy by Charles V and his capture of Rome in 1527 scattered the Italian scholars whose work gave lustre to humanism, while the outbreak of the Reformation withdrew from the new learning the countenance which recent Popes had given to it. But already the Renaissance had accomplished a great work in Italy. " In the interval between the time of Petrarch and that of Leo X, a space of about a hundred and seventy years, ardent and unceasing labours bridged the gulf between the medieval and the modern world. Latin, the universal language, was purged from barbarism. Latin literature was brought back into the lull light of intelligent study. Greek was restored to the West. After centuries of intellectual poverty, men entered once more into possession of the poetry and the eloquence, the wisdom and the wit, bequeathed by ancient Greece and Rome. X . . . The Renaissance J humanism restored good standards of style in prose and verse, thereby benefiting not classical studies alone, but modern literature as well it did much for erudition, and it founded literary education prepared the ground for more it had a wide outlook, and taught men to of a liberal type Italian ; ; ; regard classical antiquity as a whole, a fruitful stage in the history of human development. Lastly, it achieved a result even larger than its work for scholarship, by diffusing a new spirit, the foe of obscurantism, the ally of all forces that make for light, for the advancement of knowledge, and for reason" able freedom (Sir Richard Jebb). from the classical revival, the Renaissance in Italy Apart exhibited itself in art and in the development of a vernacular Giovanni Villani (d. 1348) was inspired by the Jubilee in 1300 to write his Cronica or Istorie de' suoi a history of his own period. Boccaccio's Vita di literature. Roman tempi, Dante was printed in 1477. The Orlando Furioso of Ludovico Ariosto (1474-1533), which depicted the wars of Charlemagne against the Saracens, founded a school of romantic epic poetry which inspired Edmund Spenser's Faerie Queene. Torquato Tasso (1544-95) took the Crusades as the groundwork of his Gerusalemme Liberafa. In prose, though MachiaFrancesco velli stands pre-eminent, he did not stand alone. Guicciardini (i 482-1 540) was the historian of Italy for the period from Charles VIII's invasion in 1494 to 1532. He and others of lesser note wrote history in the humanistic spirit, eschewing tradition in the search for truth. None attained to the reputation of Niccolo Machiavelli 1 469-1 5 2 7). He wrote a history of his native city, Florence, ( discourses on the art of war, and on the Roman historian Titus Livius. But his greatest work was The Prince. After serving Florence as Secretary of the Council of Ten, and from 1499 on diplomatic missions, Machiavelli passed into retirement on the restoration of the Medici in 15 12. The Prince was written in the hope that it might recover him their favour. Its chief significance is in the fact, that at a time when the medieval world was crumbling and new forces and ambitions were coming into play, Machiavelli attempted to formulate rules to regulate the new order which was arising in Italy and He put forward a new conception of the State, elsewhere. laid down new stadards for the conduct of its affairs, and A B Short History of Europe did not shrink from the assertion that moraUty is irrelevant to the art of successful government, and that the end " Those who conquer," he wrote, " in justifies the means. whatever way they conquer, never reap disgrace." Other fundamental conclusions were the result of his observation and experience that men are virtuous only by compulsion, and are prone to evil rather than good that mankind in the that States and their governaggregate is similarly biased ments are naturally liable to deterioration. Hence, in Machia; ; ; view, the need for a despot, unscrupulous, deterred by no considerations of morality, working for the material interests of the State, and to be commended if his policy, however reprehensible morally, be crowned with success. In Italian art the Renaissance produced results which were not equalled elsewhere in the period and have not been surpassed since. Bramante (1444-15 14), the architect, was summoned by Julius II to Rome to plan the Vatican and the Church of St. Peter, which replaced the Basilica of Constantine. velli's Michelangelo Buonarotti (i 475-1 564), a Florentine, a passionate student of every form of art, a disciple of Savonarola, proceeded to Rome on the invitation of Julius II, and beside his frescoes and sculpture is famous as the architect of the dome of St. Peter's. Lionardo da Vinci (1452-15 19), another Florentine, was invited by Francis I to exhibit the glories of Italian art in France, where he died. Raffaelle Sanzio (14831520), the son of an artist of Urbino and the nephew of Bramante, was called to Rome by Julius II. He embellished the Vatican with frescoes, superintended under Leo the building of St. Peter's, and acted as Inspector-General of Northern Italy also had her great Antiquities at Rome. artists, though Rome did not invite them to display their X Antonio Allegri of Corregio, known as Corregio (1494-1534), Tiziano Vecelli, known as Titian (1477-1576), a Venetian, and Paolo Cagliari of Verona, known as Paul Veronese (1528-88). To the list of contemporary artists may be added the names of Andrea d'Angclo di Francesco, the son of a tailor and known as Andrea del Sarto (1486-1531), talents ; and Benvenuto Cellini (1500-71), unsurpassed as an artist in metal. Outside Italy the evangelist of the Renaissance was DesideErasmus (1466 ?-i536). A native of Holland, he was rlus The Renaissance 9 cosmopolitan Germany, and England, where he was a familiar figure at both Oxford and Cambridge, and held a Divinity Chair at the latter. Erasmus viewed the new culture from a standpoint removed from that of the Italians. The latter aimed at self-culture, Erasmus at heightening the moral standards of his age. Hence in Germany the outcome of humanism was the Reformation, and Erasmus was its pioneer. His work largely, though not exHis was the clusively, was devoted to sacred literature. first edition of the New Testament in Greek. He published a Latin version of the New Testament more critical and He edited the works of such scholarly than the Vulgate. ancient fathers of the Church as Jerome, Chrysostom, and " Athanasius. It has been said that the paramount task which the New Learning found in Germany was the elucida" tion of the Bible More than any other (Sir Richard J ebb). man Erasmus directed its activities into that field. At the same time the Renaissance in Germany developed along lines not exclusively theological. Johann Miiller of Konigsberg (1436-76), known as Regiomontanus after his birthplace, translated scientific, geographical, mathematical, and astronomical works. Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522) devoted himself to the study of Hebrew as the key to the Old Testament. Philip Melanchthon or Schwartzerd (1497-1560), Professor of Greek at Wittenberg, lectured concurrently on Homer and St. Paul's in his activities, in Italy, France, Epistle to Titus. In pictorial art the produced Albrecht Diirer (1471-1528) German Renaissance and Hans Holbein (1497-1543). In France the Renaissance, encouraged by the close connection between that country and Italy from 1494 to 1589, found a patron in Francis I (1515-47), by whom the Royal College (College de France) was founded in 1530 especially for the study of Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Mathematics. The building of the Louvre was begun, and Raff aelle, Lionardo da Vinci, literature Benvenuto In Cellini, and others were employed. France boasted her own giants. Clement Marot (1497-1544), Pierre de Ronsard (1524-85), and Joachim du Bellay (1524-60) were the fathers of French poetry, while pre-eminent among the prose writers were Fran9ois Rabelais (1443-1559), John Calvin (1509-64), and Michel de Montaigne As a classicist Guillaume Bude challenged even (1533-92). lo A Short History of Europe Erasmus. But most characteristic of the Renaissance in France was the building of her glorious chateaux, whose turrets became a feature of the so-called " baronial " architecture of Scotland. In the Iberian peninsula, though Cardinal Ximenes was its patron, the Church was too powerful to allow humanism to run in German channels, and the movement spent itself chiefly in maritime exploration. But it also encouraged the rise of a national literature, of which Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616), Luiz de Camoens (1524 ?-8o), and Lope de Vega (1562-1635) are the chief luminaries. In the Netherlands, on the other hand, the Renaissance was German rather than Italian, practical rather than aesthetic. Gerard John Vos, or Vossius 577-1 649), stimulated the scientific study of antiquity, and Grotius, or Huig van Groot (1583-1645), founded the science of international law In England humanism found a lodgment before the end of the fifteenth century, and Erasmus in 1499 professed him" " self astonished at the which harvest of ancient learning he found there. Pre-eminent among English scholars were William Selling, or William Tilly of Selling (d. 1494), his pupil Thomas Linacre (1460 ?-i524), William Grocyn (1446 ?(i Hugo . John Colet (1467 ?-i5i9), and Sir Thomas More (1478-1535), all of them pioneers of the Renaissance at Oxford. At Cambridge the study of Greek dates from the teaching of Erasmus there in 1511-14, and was encouraged by John Fisher, bishop of Rochester, the friend of and fellow-sufferer with Sir Thomas More. In 1540 the Regius Chair of Greek in the University was founded by Henry VIII. While humanism was winning the Universities the old scholastic curriculum was ousted from the schools. With his own fortune Colet founded St. Paul's School and set over it as headmaster William Lilly, one of the band of Oxford humanists. In the course of the next hundred years other schools, such as Charterhouse, Christ's Hospital, Westminster, and Merchant Taylors', were founded and adopted the classical I5i9)» curriculum. Of the Oxford humanists two stand out beyond their fellows. Colet, possibly through the influence of Savonarola, was pre-eminently the Christian humanist. Like Erasmus, humanism with him was a means to an end, the reformation The and especially and in London as Dean of on the New Testament, of society Renaissance 1 1 Both at Oxford he preached and lectured of the Church. St. Paul's striving to recover from, it the standard of right worship and belief from which the medieval Church had strayed. He was one of the first to advocate the circulation of the Bible in the vulgar tongue. Sir Thomas More, on the other hand, perished a martyr to the Church which Colet challenged, but stands with him as a disciple of the Renaissance. He was a voluminous writer both in Latin and English, and in the former language wrote his most famous work, Utopia, an attempt to sketch the conditions of the ideal state, inspired by the discoveries of Americo Vespucci which revealed the New World to Europe. English humanism reached its apogee with Shakespeare and Milton, between whom and the earliest humanists stand two men whose works did much to spread a knowledge of the ancients and their spirit. Sir Thomas Elyot (1499 ?-i546), whose The Boke named the Governour contained a store of classical reminiscences, and Thomas Wilson (1525 ?-8i), whose Arte of Rhetorique drew largely on Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian. Her traditional alliance with France exposed Scotland to the humanistic forces which influenced the former country. From the middle of the fourteenth century Paris, Orleans, and other French Universities were attended by Scottish students in large numbers. In the course of the fifteenth century three of the four Scottish Universities were founded, Andrews (141 1), Glasgow (1451), and Aberdeen by Pope Alexander VI (1495). In 1496 James IV's famous statute directed the better-to-do to send their sons to school to " acquire perfect Latin." But the Reformation, with which were bound up political questions of the largest moment to St. Scotland, plunged the country into civil war and left her little leisure to cultivate interests outside it. Further, the population of Scotland did not then much exceed half-amillion, to only about half of whom any language other than Gaelic appealed, while the poverty of the land withheld the material encouragement which aided the spread of humanistic literature and ideals in Italy. Hence the Reformation by itself absorbed the activities of Scotland and inspired her vernacular literature, of which the finest examples are 12 A John Knox's Short History of Europe (1505-72) Historie of the Reformatioun in Robert Scotland, the first original Scottish work in prose Lindesay of Pitscot tie's (1500 ?-65 ?) The Historie and Cronicles ; and Archdeacon John Bellenden's (fl. 1533-87) Scots of Hector Boece's (1465 ?-i536) Historia Gentis Scotorum, the first book written in Scottish of Scotland; translation into In Hector Boece, Principal of the University of Aberdeen, and John Major (1469-1550), the author of the Historia Majoris BritannicB Scotland possessed two Latinists of distinction. But her most admired humanist was George Buchanan (1506-82). His Latin version of the Psalms " may fairly be considered one of the representative books of the prose. , sixteenth century, expressing, as it does, in consummate form, the conjunction of piety and learning which was the ideal of the best type of humanist" (Professor Hume Brown). In his Rerum Scoticarum Historia he also wrote the history of Scotland to 1571. Such is a bare outline of the spread of humanism from its home in Italy to the chief European countries. Under the impulse of it Europe, figuratively, passed from the nursery in which truth is the dictum of an elder. Inquisitiveness is the one road to knowledge, and its converse is credulity. Under the stimulus of humanism mankind ceased to be credulous and became inquisitive. It faced the problems of and science no longer with unlife, religion, philosophy, questioning faith in tradition, but in a spirit of alert inquiry. The new habit of mind was the direct result of contact with the recovered literature of the ancients. Therein men found a secular, unfettered, and individualistic outlook to which the medieval world was a stranger, and gained from it a stimulus to intellectual activity which undermined the Church, science, and philosophy of the Middle Ages. CHAPTER II THE ERA OF MARITIME DISCOVERY The two most memorable voyages of the fifteenth century, those of Christopher Columbus to America in 1492, and of Vasco da Gama to India in 1498, were the fruit of nearly a century of effort, and the climax to a longer period of scientific Science had already contributed many investigation. notable discoveries which made possible the ocean voyages The properties of the magnetic of the fifteenth century. needle were known in the thirteenth century through the Arabs. Tradition assigns to an Italian sailor, Flavio Gioja, the association of the magnetic needle with a graduated dial, by which its movements could be readily followed in relation to the points of the compass. It came into general use about Thenceforward sailors were no longer dependent on 1420. the Pole Star to direct them, and could commit themselves confidently to an ocean course. The sextant and quadrant for taking the altitude of the sun and stars were discovered by Tycho Brah6 (i 546-1 601), and earlier still the navigator possessed in the astrolabe an instrument for that purpose. Before the middle of the sixteenth century Copernicus (14731543) disproved the Ptolemaic theory that the earth is the centre of the universe round which the seven planets revolve. Galileo (1564-1642), the inventor of the telescope, revealed the mysteries of the solar system, and demonstrated the movement of the earth round the sun. Largely owing to the Crusades, again, accurate knowledge was gained regarding the shape of the earth for through the Arabs Europe discovered that the ancient Greeks had demonstrated the earth to be a sphere. Towards the close of the fourteenth century Cardinal Pierre d'Ailly (Petrus Aliacus), Chancellor of the University of Paris, drew together in his Imago Mundi the opinions of ; 13 A 14 Short History of Europe ancient writers which conjectured or estabUshed the globular of the earth, and threw out the conclusion that the Indies or eastern parts of Asia could be reached by sailing westward from the coast of Europe. The book was in the possession of Columbus and influenced him to undertake his form voyage. The era of the Great Voyages was preceded by improvements in the art of ship-building, which gave navigators for the first time vessels in which they could brave the dangers of the high seas. So long as the commerce of Europe was carried over the Mediterranean the ships in use were of two kinds, the galley propelled by oarsmen, and the single-masted sailing ship. The former, though swift, lay too low in the water for employment on the high seas. The latter, in general use for the carriage of merchandise, was very slow, and was so unseaworthy that in the fourteenth century, when the AngloFrench war prevented the conveyance of goods overland through France to the Flemish markets, the Venetians designed a three-masted vessel, the caravel (It. caravella). It was comparatively short from stem to stern, but its high decks enabled it to encounter rough seas. In it the great voyages of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were accomplished. The discovery of gunpowder also, whose use became general in the fifteenth century, facilitated the victory of European civilisation in the new lands which the voyages revealed. If scientific development facilitated the progress of maritime discovery, the advance of geographical knowledge made it inevitable. From the time of Plato (427-347 b.c.) the existence of land in the Western Ocean had been conjectured. Plato pictured a continent west of Mount Atlas, named Atlantis, which had been submerged by earthquakes and deluges. The conception of it was still vivid to Columbus's generation, and his discovery was held to establish its identity with America. Four hundred years after Plato, Plutarch wrote of a continent in the ocean west of Britain in which Saturn was Strabo conjectured the existence of unheld a prisoner. discovered lands in the ocean west of Europe, and the Roman poet, Seneca, ventured to prophesy (Medea) their discovery. But the ancients made no effort to test these speculations, though Phoenician sailors explored the African coast and its The Era of Marittme Discovery 15 contiguous islands. Beyond the rediscovery of Britain, the Romans contributed nothing to maritime exploration. By the twelfth century the Moors or Saracens of Africa had done pioneer exploratory work of the greatest significance. They established commercial relations with the east coast of Their ships were the Africa as far south as Madagascar. carriers of the commerce of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. In India and the further islands they were the unchallenged masters of the spice trade. Equally active were they on the west coast of Africa and in the Canaries. Their caravans traversed the Sahara, and the fertile region watered was called by them " Bilad Ghana " by the Senegal river " " Guinea ") or The Land of Wealth." (whence the name In northern latitudes at an earlier period the Norsemen made important discoveries. They colonised Iceland in the ninth century. A settlement was planted in Greenland by Eric the Red in the closing years of the tenth century. A few years later Eric's son Leif is said to have discovered Vinland or Vineland, a part of the North American continent in which the American grape is indigenous. The Norsemen failed to establish themselves in Vinland, though under the names " of the New Isle " or " New Land " the tradition of their discovery survived, and played an important part in the history of fifteenth century exploration. The Middle Ages were prolific in legends of islands in the Western Ocean. The Arabs told of an Isle of Sheep which their sailors had discovered. The Portuguese had a tradition of who from the Moors in the eighth century an ocean island, in which each founded a Christian community, whence it was known as the Island of the seven bishops and found fled shelter in The Portuguese also prosecuted a vague search beyond the Azores to which they gave the name Antilha or Antilhas, meaning probably " the island in the distance." It was charted on fifteenth century maps, and on that of Martin Behaim in 1492 is shown above the Equator and midway between the coasts of Africa and Asia. The Welsh preserved the tradition of Prince Madoc, who with his followers found a home beyond the Western Ocean. Long before the time of Columbus English sailors were searching for the mythical islands Brazil and St. Brandan. The former was believed to lie somewhere west of Ireland. The latter Seven Cities. for a large island 1 6 A Short History of Europe was named after an Irish missionary who was supposed to have found his way there in the sixth century. While men were conjecturing lands to exist in the unexplored ocean between Europe and Asia, accurate knowledge was gained regarding the eastern countries on the other side of it. Among the ancients knowledge of the Far East was purely speculative, nor was it until the thirteenth century that Europe obtained first-hand knowledge of it. During the continuance of the Mongol dominion founded by Zenghiz Khan (d. 1227) in Eastern Asia, European travellers found their way overland to China or Cathay (Khitai). In the hope of converting the Mongols, Innocent IV in 1245 dispatched the Franciscan Friar John, a native of Piano Carpini in Italy, to the court of their emperor or Grand Khan, who brought back with him definite information that Cathay was washed by the ocean. A few years later (1253) Louis IX of France dispatched another emissary, William de Rubruquis, who returned with alluring tales of the riches of Cathay. More detailed information regarding the Far East was obtained by Marco Polo, the son of a Venetian merchant, who accom- panied his father to Cathay in 1271, and spent nearly twenty years there. He was admitted to high office in the service of the Grand Khan and travelled throughout his dominions. On his return to Europe he wrote an account of his adventures, and stimulated the curiosity and cupidity of Europe by his account of the wealth and opulent cities of Cathay. From him Europe heard for the first time of Japan (Cipango or Zipangu), an island where gold was in such abundance that the royal palace was declared to be roofed and paved with it. In 1292 Marco and his kinsmen left Cathay on their return to Sailing round the Indo-Chinese peninsula they Europe. touched India, and passing through the Red Sea returned to Venice, having travelled from China over the route which exactly two hundred years later Columbus attempted to follow. The intercourse between Europe and Cathay in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries stimulated a curiosity which Sir John Mandeville's (d. 1372) account of his alleged travels in the East sought to satisfy, and roused the interest of Europe with tales of the inexhaustible wealth of Cathay, the Spice Islands, and the Indies. It had also been The Era of Maritime Discovery 17 proved that Cathay was accessible by sea, a fact which About the middle of the at once acquired importance. fourteenth century a crisis occurred in the trade between Asia and Europe in jewels, silks, velvet, perfumes, and Silks and precious fabrics came overland across Asia spices. The products of India and the Spice to the Black Sea. Islands were carried in Arab vessels over the Indian Ocean and Red Sea to Alexandria. This Eastern merchandise was distributed throughout Europe by two states exclusively the Genoese monopolised the trade of the Black Sea, the Venetians that of Alexandria, a fact which inspired Western But Europe to seek an alternative route to the East. events took place which threatened the loss of the Eastern In 1368 the Mongol dynasty trade with Europe altogether. and the intercourse between Europe and in China fell, Asia which had lasted for so many generations was checked. Of even greater consequence were the conquests of the Ottoman Turks, which closed the traditional trade routes : The Mediterranean, which for centuries had The the commerce of Europe, ceased to do so. Italian cities declined in political and commercial importance, and the Western nations of Europe took their place. Thus the impulse which impelled Europe to the maritime activity of the fifteenth century was partly scientific, partly First among the countries of economic, partly political. Western Europe, Portugal and Spain resolved their domestic to the East. carried problems and were at liberty to display their activities Their geographical position, which overin a wider field. looked the routes along which the lost commerce with the East would naturally be sought, also made them the Portugal was first pioneers of the maritime movement. in the field and prosecuted a patient search which brought her tardy reward in the last years of the fifteenth century. Spain, more than half a century after Portugal began the search, and in a single voyage, that of Columbus, found a New World across the ocean. Much later, England, France, their monopoly, and Holland followed the pioneers, challenged and eventually deprived them of it. The history of Portugal's maritime exploration is intimately associated with Prince Henry (Dom Henrique), a son of King John I II. of Portugal —c and great-grandson of Edward III of 1 8 A Short History of Europe " Henry the NaviEngland. Later generations called him gator," a title which obscures his chief aim. In 1415 Portugal took possession of the port of Ceuta, which controlled access to the Atlantic coast of Africa. Its acquisition was the prelude to an exploration of the African coast, inspired by Prince Henry's wish to weld the Azores, Madeira Islands, and the Guinea region into a dependency of the crown under the Portuguese military Order of Jesus Christ, to whose charge the conversion of colonial Portugal to Christianity was entrusted. That, however, was only part of a wider project. On early fifteenth-century maps the Senegal is represented as a large river running due east and west, seemingly an easy Could a junction with avenue to Christian Abyssinia. Abyssinia be effected, Islam in Africa would be between two fires. Christian Europe to the north of it, and the expanding power of colonial Portugal below it. The alluring prospect caused Pope Martin V in 1432 to offer a plenary Indulgence to every sailor who passed the dreaded Cape Bojador. From 141 9 expeditions were sent forth almost every year to explore the African coast and to capture slaves, whose sale financed the prince's project and their conversion promised to promote But exploration prothe Christianising of Bilad Ghana. ceeded slowly. Cape Bojador was not passed until 1433. The Senegal and the Guinea Coast were reached in 1445, and Henry had reason to believe that his cherished project was about to be realised when death removed him in 1460. The Equator was crossed in 1471, and the fable of its fiery zone through which no human being could pass received its death-blow. Very slowly the coast between the Equator and the Cape was unravelled. The Congo was reached in 1484, and three years later Bartolomeo Diaz, having received his Prince sovereign's command to follow the coast^to its farthest ex" Cabo tremity, was driven past the Cape in a storm, named it Tormentoso " (the Cape of Storms), and returned to Portugal (1487). Ten years elapsed before his achievement was followed up, and in the interval Columbus seemingly solved the problem" which had engaged Portugal for seventy years. At da Gama sailed from Lisbon under to the Indies. He doubled the Cape, reached the East African port which took its name, Natal, Sailing north- length in 1497 Vasco orders to take his ships and on Christmas Day from that circumstance The Era of Maritime Discovery 19 coast, at Mozambique da Gama came Mohammedan or Arab civihsation. At MeUnde pilots who guided him across the Indian Ocean to ward along the eastern into touch with he obtained Calicut, the chief Arab port on the Malabar coast, whence the precious spices, pepper and ginger, were shipped for the Red Sea and Europe. After more than ten months' voyaging da Gama found himself in the commercial capital of the East (1498). The arrival of the Portuguese at Calicut was the first step towards the Europeanising of the East, a process which has been continuous since that time. In it Great Britain has played the chief part, whether on the Indian peninsula, the Australasian continent, or, at a later time, in Africa. But the seventeenth century dawned before she stretched her hand towards her heritage, and in the interval Portugal created an eastern empire whose extent would have staggered Prince Henry. The commerce of the Indian Ocean passed into her hands. Venice leagued with the Arabs and the Sultan of Egypt to avert the ruin which threatened her in the diversion of the Indian trade from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. Their fleet was destroyed at Diu (1509), and Venice thought of rendering the discovery of the Cape useless by cutting the Isthmus of Suez and connecting the Mediterranean and Red Seas, a project carried out by France in the nineteenth century. Undisturbed, therefore, Portugal ousted the Arabs from the monopoly which they had so long enjoyed. The founder of her power in India was Affonso de Albuquerque (1509-15). He captured Goa on the west coast The acquisition (15 10), and made it the Portuguese capital. of Hormuz gave him the control of the Persian Gulf. He cherished wild plans of draining the Nile into the Red Sea in order to ruin Egypt, and of seizing Mohammed's coffin at Medina as a hostage for the restoration of the holy places in In 151 1 he took Malacca, the junction of the trade Syria. between India and China. In 15 15 he died. Hisjsuccessors continued his work. Ceylon and Macao in China were occupied, and the Jesuit Francis Xavier strove to realise the missionary hopes which had animated Prince Henry. At its greatest extent Greater Portugal touched Africa, India, the Moluccas, and Brazil, which was accidentally discovered by Alvarez Cabral in 1500 while following da Gama's track. 20 A Short History of Europe But Portugal neither then nor since displayed any aptitude The maintenance of her commercial interests proved a heavy drain upon the resources of a small population, and her decline was almost as rapid as her Her enforced union with Spain (1580-1640) exposed rise. her to the attacks of Protestant Holland and England. Sumatra, Java, and the Spice Islands were wrested from her by the Dutch, and in 1600 the foundation of the English East India Company formally challenged the monopoly which da Gama's discovery gave her a century before. Before da Gama reached India, Spain had made an for colonial administration. astonishing discovery in the West, the import of which at was not understood. Late in the fifteenth century a conviction that the Atlantic offered a shorter route to the Indies than that which Portugal was exploring seized Christopher Columbus, whose distinction lies less in the difficulty of the voyage he accomplished, than in the fact that, abandoning the search for intervening islands, he was the first to try to reach the other side of the ocean. Columbus was a Genoese by birth. At the time of his memorable voyage he was about fifty years of age. From his youth he had been a sailor, and had acquired a maritime experience which probably excelled that of any of his contemporaries. He had visited Iceland, was familiar with the Norse legends of Vinland and the New Isle, and with the efforts of Bristol sailors to pierce the mysteries of the Atlantic. The fame of Portuguese navigation drew him to Lisbon about 1470. He married a Portuguese wife, and took part in the exploration of the African coast. His brother Bartolomeo was on board the ship in which Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope. It is possible that the seemingly endless trend of the African coast below the Equator spurred Columbus to attempt the western route. For at that period he entered into correspondence with Paolo Toscanelli of Florence, a cartographer of great repute, to whom he expressed his desire to make a western voyage to "the place where the spices grow" in other words, the East Indies. Toscanelli confirmed Columbus in his belief that the voyagejwas practicable, and minimised first — its chief For, folapparent difficulty, namely, its length. lowing the Greek geographers, Toscanelli elongated the landstretch of Europe and Asia so much that he brought the The Era of Maritime Discovery 21 coast of China or Cathay nearer to Europe by the width of the In other words, Japan appeared to be in the longitude Pacific. of Mexico, and Columbus died in complete ignorance of the fact that between the point where he touched land in the West Indies and the land he sailed to reach lay the whole width of an unexplored ocean. For nearly twenty years Columbus vainly endeavoured to procure the equipment he needed, namely, three ships provisioned for twelve months. Portugal and France were England held back until it was too late. Genoa and Venice, whose monopoly the proposed route threatened, rejected the overtures which Columbus made to them. But the fall of Granada in January, 1492, at length disposed Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of Spain, victorious approached. in their long warfare with the Moors, to grant the appli- which Columbus had made to them seven years In April, 1492, at Santa Fe, they contracted to earlier. him the ships he required and considerable financial give assistance. They also conferred on him the dignity of Admiral and Viceroy of the islands and continental regions he might cation discover. On August 3, 1492, Columbus and his three vessels, which had been manned with the utmost difficulty, set sail from Palos for the Canaries. Thence on September 6 he sailed due west for Cipango, which, according to Toscanelli, would be reached on a straight course from the Canaries. After a voyage of thirty-six days, during which his sailors were with increasing dif&culty induced to proceed, Columbus made land on October 12 at Guanahani, one of the Bahamas, and named He supposed himself to be in the region of it San Salvador. Cathay and Cipango of w^hich Marco Polo had wTitten, and after cruising about the West Indian archipelago vainly searching for the cities Marco had described, returned to Spain after seven months' absence. The Papacy forthwith (1493) conceded to Spain and Portugal the undiscovered region to which each had revealed an entrance, stipulating that Spain should approach it along the course which Columbus had travelled, and Portugal by way of the Cape. By an agreement (Treaty of Tordesillas, 1494) between the two countries, a meridian (longitude 45.37 W.) 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands v/as fixed upon as the boundary 22 A Short History of Europe it being midway between Portugal's most westerly possessions in the Azores and the newly discovered islands, an agreement which six years later allowed Portugal to claim Brazil as being within her sphere. Columbus made three more voyages to the West Indies, but his quest for gold and his incompetence as an administrator prevented him from penetrating far beyond the locality reached on his first voyage. The West Indies and the coast of Central America were his only additions to geographical knowledge. of their respective areas, He died in 1506, ignorant of the nature of the new continent upon which he had stumbled. Since the real nature of Columbus's discovery was unsuspected, the success of his voyage was judged in relation to the motive which inspired it. Its object had been the But it was soon discovery of a route to the Indies. discovered that the real India was thousands of miles from the spot Columbus had reached, and that his islands afforded none of the wealth which the Portuguese were enjoying. Hence the neglect which embittered the last years of his life. The monopoly which the agreement of Santa Fe conferred upon him was broken, and in 1499 one of his captains, Vicente Pinzon, visited the coast of Brazil. He was accompanied by a Florentine named Americo Vespucci, who, a few years later, explored more of the South American coast. With a view to his own advancement he wrote an account of voyages which confirmed the growing conviction that the South American continent was distinct from Asia and Cathay and therefore a mundus novus. In 1507, the year after Columbus's death, Americo's narrative was printed at St. Die, in Lorraine, in a primer of geography whose author suggested that Americo's name should be given to the mundus novus which he had revealed. That Columbus also had reached the new continent was not understood, and when the fact was recognised, the name America had gained too general currency to allow it to be withdrawn. Applied first to Brazil only, it was attached to both North and South America on Mercator's Map in 1569. The revelation of the Pacific was the necessary preliminary to the correction of Columbus's confusion of the West Indies with Cipango and Cathay. In 1513 Nunez de Balboa, after traversing the Isthmus of Daricn, viewed the Pacific for the his The Era of Maritime Discovery 2 <4 first time, and a few years later Panama was established as a In 15 19 the Portuguese Spanish settlement on its coast. Fernao Magalhaes (Ferdinand Magellan) sailed in the service of Spain, discovered the Straits which bear his name, traversed the Pacific, and gave it its name also. In the Philippines he met his death, but his ship, the Victoria, continued her voyage, rounded Africa, and returned to Spain in 1522, the first vessel to circumnavigate the globe. Not until the voyage of Francis Drake in 1577-80 was the exploit repeated. Even while Magellan was proving the error of the calcula- which inspired the navigatio mirabilis of 1492, Spain was learning that Columbus after all had guided her to El Dorado. At first she occupied only the Greater Antilles (Hispaniola, Porto Rico, Cuba, and Jamaica), in which she failed to discover gold in satisfactory quantities. But soon the Spaniards gathered rumours of vast stores of gold and silver on the neighbouring mainland. From a very early age gold and silver were mined in Mexico and Peru, and deposits of the precious metals had accumulated in both countries; tions they did not circulate as a medium of exchange. Their discovery and removal by the Spaniards probably made the first substantial addition to the precious metals circulating in Europe since the fall of the Roman Empire. Even after the accumulations of the Mexicans and Peruvians had been rifled and distributed, the mines themselves, especially those of Potosi in Bolivia (whence ;,^6oo,ooo,ooo are said to have been drawn in the three hundred years following their discovery), continued to flood Europe with the precious for At once Columbus's discovery acquired importance, became the ambition of the other nations of Europe to possess some portion of the New World. metals. and it Slave-hunting expeditions first brought the Spaniards from the Antilles to the continental coast of Yucatan, which lay at no great distance from Cuba. Ten years later (15 18) exploration along the shores of the Gulf gave the Spaniards the first news of a wealthy country which the Indians called Mexico, whose inhabitants, the Nahuatlaca, like the Algonquins and Iroquois of North America, had moved from their Columbia to the regions in which the Europeans found them. Amid their settlements on the plain of Anahuac in Central America were two villages, or pueblos, original seat in British A ^4 Short History of Europe which had been founded in the fourteenth century by nomads whom the Nahuatlaca called Aztecs or " Crane-people." The villages were situated on Lake Tezcuco, and when the Spaniards arrived in the country, formed the capital of a powerful confederation, a city whose size and wealth roused the admiration of the Europeans though Aztec civilisation was, in fact, not higher than that of semi-barbarous African Selected for the command of an peoples of modern times. expedition to Mexico, Hernan Cortes made himself master of the Aztec city and its territory, and in 1522 received from ; Charles V the province was title Captain-General of New Spain, as the called. Transcending Mexico in wealth and extent was the vast region of Peru, and Spain's good fortune added it also to her empire. Lying along the coast and valleys of the Andes, it was inhabited by a people who called themselves Inca (People of the Sun), whose chief seat was at Cuzco. In 1532 Francesco Pizarro, an adventurer in search of El Dorado, and a small party of soldiers arrived on the coast of Peru from Panama. The stores of gold and silver which they found drove them to deeds of dreadful cruelty, and within a few years the conquest of the country was completed. A new capital was built by Pizarro at Lima, and in 1547 Charles V took New Castile, as the province was known, under his authority. On Europe the effect of Spain's fortune was very great. After the discovery of the West Indies gold began to pour into Europe from the New World. The conquest of Mexico increased the flow and that of Peru trebled it. It is computed that by the middle of the sixteenth century there was twelve times more specie in circulation in Europe than in 1492. Much of it was employed by Charles V and his successor Philip II to support their political and religious schemes in Europe. Hence nations like England, whom those schemes particularly threatened, held the rifling of Spanish treasureships a patriotic duty as well as a lucrative employment. So vast an influx of the precious metals into Europe increased the fluid wealth in circulation and benefited the great class of producers. Hitherto land had been the principal source of wealth, and its possession conferred social and political influence upon its owners. But the diffusion of wealth in trade and commerce gave the middle class a social and The Era of Maritime Discovery 25 importance which so far it lacked, and undermined the monopoly of a land-owning aristocracy. In spite of the Papal Bull of 1493 and the determination of Spain and Portugal to exclude competitors, the dazzling wealth which both derived from their discoveries attracted other cou.ntries. The hugeness of the American continent political acts of trespass easy, and the decay of Spain and Portugal allowed their rivals to found colonial establishments of their own. In North America, where there was the greater opportunity for independent exploration, seeing that the wealth of Mexico and Peru tied the Spaniards to southern latitudes, the exploration, and ultimately, colonisation of the continent fell particularly to the English and French. In 1496, Henry VII, who had missed the chance of employing Columbus for England, issued a charter to John Cabot, an Italian mariner resident at Bristol, empowering him to explore the northern latitudes across the ocean, to take possession of such lands as he might discover in the name of the English crown, and to retain four-fifths of the profits of his voyage. Having regard to the commercial intercourse between Bristol and Iceland, there can be no doubt that Columbus's exploit had revived interest in Vinland, and that the object of Cabot's voyage was to rediscover it. In 1497, and again in 1498, he and his son Sebastian explored the coast of North America, and claimed to have found both the "New But the voyages Isle" of the Norsemen and also Cathay. yielded no profit, and though they enabled England ultimately to base her possession of North America on the ground of prior discovery, they were not followed up for more than half a century. The Cabots' voyages suggested to Portugal that, like Brazil, the regions explored by them lay to the east of the line of demarcation of 1494, and therefore in her own sphere. In 1500 and the two following years Gaspard Cortereal and his brother Miguel visited the regions which the Cabots had reached. But though Portugal charted Labrador and Newfoundland within her sphere, she took no further steps to for the return of Vasco da Gama from substantiate her claim India opened to her more promising prospects in the East. In the reign of Francis I, France entered the lists against the Spanish-Portuguese monopoly. Giovanni da Verrazzano, made ; 26 A Short History of Europe a Florentine in Francis's service, obtained practical evidence of the wealth which the Spaniards were drawing from America by the capture of three of their homeward bound Refusing to admit the monopoly treasure-ships in 1522. which the Portuguese and Spaniards claimed, and striving to divert to his own use some of the wealth which was sustaining his rival, Charles V, Francis in 1524 commissioned Verrazzano to explore the North American shore northward from Florida. On his return he claimed the region visited by him and " called it New France," the name of the defunct Latin Empire of Constantinople and, at a later time, of French Canada. Jacques Cartier, in 1534, 1535, and 1540, led France to that part of the continent which in the next century she made her own. In his first voyage Cartier explored the estuary of the St. Lawrence, and in the second ascended the river as far as Montreal. Thus before the middle of the sixteenth century the chief Powers of Western Europe had staked out claims in the New World which they afterwards developed. But the relation of the North American continent to Asia was not yet understood. Cartier believed the St. Lawrence to be the avenue to Cathay, and English voyages in the reign of Elizabeth were undertaken in the hope of discovering a NorthWest Passage thither. It was represented as a practicable waterway above North America, and the arguments which its existence are set out in Sir Humphry Gilbert's Discourse of a Discovery for a New Passage to Cataia [Cathay), published in 1576. Martin Frobisher conducted three fruitless expeditions (1576-78) for the discovery of the Passage, and claimed to have found it in Frobisher Bay on the south of Baffin Land. But the glamour of Potosi was over the whole continent, and Frobisher was diverted from further exploration by a profitless search for metalliferous ore. In 1579, in the course of his raid on the Spanish settlements in the Pacific, Drake searched for the North- West Passage north of established San Francisco, and had thoughts of returning by it to Europe with the vast booty he had gained. In 1585, 1586, and 1587 John Davis reached a more northerly point than Frobisher, and identified Cumberland Sound in Baffin Land as the desired Passage. In his second voyage he discarded it and explored the Straits which bear his own name. But though The Era of Maritime Discovery 27 Davis made valuable contributions to geographical knowledge, the North-West Passage was not discovered until the explorations of Sir John Franklin (d. 1847). The search for Cathay in the sixteenth century stimulated maritime discovery in the Arctic seas above Europe. It was conjectured that by a North-East Passage above Europe the Pacific could be reached along a route far removed from Spanish interference. The to the English and later to the Dutch. Cabot received from England the title enterprise fell first In 1549, Sebastian Grand Pilot, and at instigation the Company of Muscovy Merchants was " formed in 155 1 for the search and discovery of the northern his In 1553 its first expedition was disparts of the world." patched under the command of Sir Hugh Willoughby and Richard Chancellor. After discovering Novaya Zembla, Willoughby and two ships' crews were lost in Lapland. Chancellor entered the White Sea and succeeded in opening commercial relations with Russia. Stephen Borough followed in Willoughby 's wake in 1556. But the disappointing results led England to abandon the search for Cathay in that direction, and to turn her attention to the more promising route by the North- West. The Dutch, however, stimulated by Philip of Spain's embargo on their trade with Portugal, which he annexed in 1580, promoted voyages " to discover the Kingdoms of Cathaia and China northward from Norwa}^" In 1594 and the two following years Barents conducted three expeditions which had no better success than the English. But the time had come when Spain could no longer maintain her monopoly of the Portuguese route to the Indies. In 1595 the Dutch dispatched their first expedition to India round the Cape of Good Hope, almost a century after the historic voyage of Vasco da Gama. Six years later (1601) John Davis piloted the first English expedition along the same route. The sixteenth century was for all the Western nations of Europe pre-eminently a period of exploration, and, except in the case of Spain and Portugal, led to no permanent settlements in the newly discovered lands. The era of colonisation for other countries opened with the seventeenth century. Attempts, however, were made, and failed because the conditions of successful colony-building were not understood. The French followed up Cartier's discovery by an unsuccessful A 28 attempt 1542 to settle a colony at Quebec. in successful, though significant as the New World the Short History of Europe first as a refuge for religious exiles, Huguenot Nicolas Durand No more attempt to use the was the (Villegagnon) in effort of 1555 to French Protestant colony in Brazil, on an island which still bears his name, at the mouth of the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. Seven years later (1562) certain French Huguenots, led by Jean Ribault, were inspired by Verrazzano's recent voyage to attempt a settlement in South Carolina, near Beaufort on Port Royal Sound. But, as had happened already in Brazil, dissension broke up the colony, whose members were rescued by an English vessel. In 1564 another band of French Protestants under Rene de Laudonniere, who had served under Ribault, settled at St. John's River on the coast of Florida. As trespassers and heretics they drew on themselves the wrath of Spain, by whom, in 1565, their settlement was establish a destroyed. Nor were the colonial efforts of England more successful in the sixteenth century. Excluded altogether from the trade of the Mediterranean, and competing on unequal terms with the Dutch and Germans for the trade of the Baltic, England found in America, by reason of its geographical position relatively to herself, her first chance to compete successThe motives which impelled her fully with her neighbours. to settle colonies there are set forth by Sir Humphry Gilbert The interests of national policy required in his Discourse. her to secure to herself the raw materials necessary for shipThe building, and to promote the efficiency of her marine. settlement of over-sea colonies would relieve her of a growing population which her resources did not enable her to support, while the colonial demand for articles of English manufacture, woollens, would stimulate English commerce. There was also the motive of proselytism, and it appealed for the natives would not only be rescued with double force especially ; from heathendom, but also from Popery, if Protestant England broke Spain's monopoly. In 1577 Gilbert procured a patent from the crown empowering him to discover and " colonise remote, heathen, and barbarous lands," and him to establish therein English law and Church requiring His first attempt to carry out the patent was a discipline. complete failure (1579), and a second in 1583 cost him his life. The Era of Maritime Discovery 29 In that year he took possession of St. John's in Newfoundland, his companions were more interested in buccaneering than in colony-building, and deciding to return with more hopeful material another year, Gilbert was lost in the Golden Hind on but homeward voyage to England. The prosecution of Gilbert's colonial schemes descended his Sir Walter Ralegh, who, obtaining a patent to in 1584 similar to Gilbert's, dispatched two vessels to explore the locality of France's Protestant colonial efforts. Elizabeth herself suggested the name Virginia for the region, and in 1585 Ralegh sent Sir Richard Greynville and over one hundred colonists to the Roanoke. They, however, roused the hostility of the Indians, and were glad to take advantage of Drake's appearance to return with him to England (1586). Undaunted, Ralegh sent out another band of colonists to Roanoke in 1587. But the great struggle with the Spanish Armada in the following year prevented the dispatch to them of the necessary succour, and when in 1589 John White, to whom Ralegh's patent had been transferred, visited the colony, he found it deserted, and its members either massacred or the slaves of the Indians whom they had provoked. Thenceforward till his death Ralegh's interests turned to Guiana, an unoccupied Elizabeth's region between the Orinoco and the Amazon. caution forbade him to rouse Spain by occupying it, and her successor, James I, put him to death (161 8) to allay Spain's indignation at his voyage thither in 161 7. Thus died in 1603, England possessed claims on " New Albion," Newfoundland, Virginia, and California or founded on the efforts of Gilbert, Ralegh, and Drake respectively. In the seventeenth century she realised them. when Elizabeth CHAPTER III THE ITALIAN WARS In medieval England and elsewhere foreign policy was largely a matter of tradition. Traditionally France was England's natural enemy, while Flanders and Spain were her friends. The accession of the Tudors did not at first change England's traditional relations. Henry VII chose a Spanish wife for his successive heirs and joined the anti-French league promoted But the formation against Charles VIII by Maximilian I. of strong monarchies in the fifteenth century compelled the abandonment of a policy based on precedent for one less rigid and more adaptable to the shifting international situation. The expedition of Charles VIII to Italy in 1494 opened the new epoch. The most important event in the foreign relations of Tudor England was her contest with Spain in the reign of Elizabeth. But the recognition of Spain as her natural enemy was not made at once by England. Throughout the HabsburgValois duel, from 1494 to the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559, English foreign policy inclined now to one and anon to the other, now aiding France, now aiding the Emperor. Indeed, England's particular interests did not allow her until adopt an unreservedly anti-Habsburg attitude. To that point her foreign policy was the resultant of three first, the desire to participate in the expansion impulses of sea-power and commerce, a motive which brought her into antagonism with Spain secondly, the resolution to maintain her Protestant Church, a motive which brought her into opposition to both Spain and France and thirdly, the endeavour to balance the power of Spain and France, a policy which inclined her now to the one and anon to the other. But the after 1559 to : ; ; Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis opened a new chapter. 30 Spain The Italian Wars 31 took the place so long held by France as England's traditional foe, and held it until Holland became the chief rival to England's progress. For sixty-five years (1494-1559) Western Europe was almost continuously at war. The French claim upon two of the Italian States, Naples and Milan, was the immediate cause The French were eventually compelled to withdraw of it. from Italy, and the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis established the Habsburgs in the peninsula. They remained there until the kingdom of Italy was founded in the nineteenth century. From the year 1519 the conflict between the Valois and the Habsburgs was waged round a larger issue; for the accession of Charles of Spain to the Empire as Charles V in 1519 created a vast Habsburg power which dominated Europe for one century and took another to decay. Under a single crown were the destinies of Central and Western Europe, excluding France and the British Isles, while the wealth of the New World, and, after 1580, of the East Indies, was at the disposal of the autocrat of Christendom. When France invaded Italy in 1494 the peninsula contained five principal States, Milan, Florence, and Venice in the north, the Papal States in the centre, and Naples in the south. For the first half of the fifteenth century Milan was ruled by the Visconti, whose first duke, Gian Galeazzo, died His death in 1402, and the last, Filippo Maria, in 1447. opened the way to the French claim upon Milan nearly fifty Meanwhile, rejecting Francesco Sforza, the years later. husband of Filippo's daughter Bianca, Milan proclaimed herVenice took the opportunity to seize Lodi self a Republic. and Piacenza, and offered the young Republic support if her Milan refused, war possession of them was recognised. followed, Sforza compelled Milan to open her gates to him in 1450, and made terms (Peace of Lodi, 1454) with Venice. Until the arrival of Charles VIII in Italy Milan remained in the possession of the Sforza, and in 1476 the infant Gian Galeazzo became duke, though the real power remained in the hands of his uncle, Ludovico. The power of Venice had grown steadily since the termination of the Fourth Crusade. In the fifteenth century she was the first maritime power in the Mediterranean, and occupied in North Italy a position which drew upon her the fear and A 32 Short History of Europe The jealousy of Genoa led to a strength with her in the fourteenth century, and the surrender of the Genoese fleet in 1380, which brought the War of Chioggia to an end, left Venice supreme as a seaAt first she showed little disposition to acquire power. But in 1338 she political influence on the Italian mainland. won the Marches of Treviso, a corn-growing district valuable to a city otherwise dependent on its navy for food supply. The decline of the Visconti after 1402 enabled her to acquire Padua, Vicenza, Verona, and their districts. To these regions, which for the most part she retained down to the League of Cambray, she added Dalmatia and Friuli, the latter giving her a strong Alpine frontier on the north. But the recovery of the Visconti in Milan threatened to check the expansion envy of her neighbours. trial of of Venice in North Italy. War followed, and when Duke Filippo Maria died in 1447 the Republic was in possession of Brescia and Bergamo, almost at the gates of Milan, and of Ravenna, an acquisition which brought her into touch with the Romagna and contributed to the causes which called the Papacy into the League of Cambray against her. The Peace of Lodi The capture of (1454) gave her Crema and Treviglio. Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, however, signalled Her supremacy in the Eastern the decline of Venice. Mediterranean was challenged by them, and the Treaty of Constantinople (1479) deprived her of Scutari and of her But peace with the Turks possessions in the Morea. freed her to prosecute her ambition in Italy. attacked Ferrara, which lay between herself In 1481 she and Ravenna, and threatened the absorption of the intervening terriHence a league against her was formed by Milan, tory. Naples, and the Papacy. The war which followed strained the resources of Venice, and she was compelled to sue for peace, after inviting France to push her claims on Milan and for the Naples. The invitation proved disastrous to Italy intervention of foreign States enlarged the conflict, and ; the interests of Italy were sacrificed to those of the intruders. Venice permanently lost the commanding position which she had held so long, and the Portuguese discovery of India shattered her commercial superiority. Naples, from which Sicily had been detached by the Sicilian Vespers in 1282, was reunited to the island by The Italian Wars 33 " The Magnanimous," of Aragon. Upon his Alfonso V, death in 1458 Naples and Sicily again drew apart. Naples passed to his illegitimate son Ferrante, or Ferdinand I (1458-94), and thereafter to Ferrante's son, Alfonso II. Sicily went to Alfonso's legitimate heir, and in 1494 was ruled by " The Catholic " (1479-15 16). his nephew Ferdinand Florence, professedly a Republic, passed in 1434 under the Cosimo de' Medici, the head of the wealthy family of bankers who had long championed the populace against the rule of He maintained the Albizzi and oligarchical government. forms of constitutional government, and at his death in 1464 was mourned as pater patricB. His grandson, Lorenzo the Magnificent (d. 1492), ruled with royal pomp, and his patronage of art and letters made Florence the intellectual capital of Christendom. His son Fiero (d. 1503) was at no pains to conceal the despotic nature of his rule, and turned his back on Milan and the friendship of France. The invasion of Charles VIII caused the creation of the Florentine Republic, of which the friar Girolamo Savonarola was the guiding spirit until his death in 1498. From the thirteenth century France had particular reason to regard Italian affairs with close interest for on two of the Italian States she could advance claims. Her claim to Milan was based on the marriage of Valentina Visconti to the first duke of Orleans, whose death in 1407 plunged France into the civil war between the Burgundians and Armagnacs. Forty years later the death of Filippo Maria brought the House of Visconti to an end in the male line. ; Filippo left only an illegitimate daughter, Bianca, the wife who rescued the interests of the Visconti from ruin and continued their title. On the other hand, the marriage contract of Valentina, confirmed by Pope Clement VII, recognised her right of succession to the duchy of Milan in default of heirs male, and her claim descended to her of Francesco Sforza, grandson Louis of Orleans, who in 1498 ascended the French throne as Louis XII. On Naples the French House of The Angevin Anjou had a more complicated claim. dynasty founded in Naples by Charles I in 1266 encountered two crises in the course of the next two hundred years. Joanna I of Naples (d. 1382) disinherited her legal heir, Charles HI, of Durazzo, in favour of her distant cousin Louis II. —D A 34 Short History of Europe of Anjou, the son of the unfortunate John II of France. The disinherited Charles maintained the rights of the Durazzo when his daughter Joanna II died without and brought it to an end. She at first named Alfonso V of Aragon her heir, but resenting his attempt to forestall her death, she constituted as her heir, first, Louis III, and then, Rene the Good, grandsons of Louis of Anjou whom the earlier Joanna had named her successor. Louis died in 1434. Hne until 1435, issue Rene failed to establish himself against Alfonso V of Aragon, and on his death in 1480 devised his possessions in Provence and Naples to his nephew Charles of Mayenne, with remainder to his other nephew, Louis XI of France. In 148 1 the death of Charles of Mayenne made Louis XI heir of the House of Anjou. He rested content with the annexation of Provence, leaving his son Charles VIII, young, ambitious, desire to secure Naples as the base of a and fired with the new crusade against the Turk, to prosecute the family claims in Italy. Events conspired to invite France's intervention in Italy. The tyrannous rule of Ferrante in Naples provoked a rebellion, whose leaders, the princes of Salerno and Bisignan, chiefs of the House of San Severino, with the approval of Venice, repaired to France in 1492 and urged Charles to put forward his claims to Naples against the Aragonese tyrant. Ludovico Sforza of Milan advised the same course. His counsel was entirely self-interested for he held the young duke Gian Galeazzo in pupilage, though he was of age, and aimed to secure the dukedom for himself. Duke Gian was married to Isabella, granddaughter of Ferrante of Naples, and Neapolitan Unable to opposition to Ludovico's intrigue was certain. count on support in Italy, he trusted to benefit by Charles's ; intervention. Thus urged, Charles in 1493 assumed the and Jerusalem, the titular crown of the Sicily with the former. By title King of latter passing 1494 his preparations were complete, and while his powerful artillery and a portion of his army embarked at Genoa, Charles himself crossed the Alps by Mont Genevre and descended upon North Italy. There he met with no resistance for Milan was friendly and Venice was neutral, while Alfonso II (who succeeded his father ; Ferrante in Naples in January, 1494) disposed his troops to await the French in the Romagna. During Charles's passage The Italian Wars 35 through North Italy the young duke Gian Galeazzo died, and his uncle Ludovico assumed the title. Piero de' Medici, who had run counter to the wishes of the Florentines by taking the side of Naples, abandoned the resistance which he had His submission came organised against Charles's advance. too late, however. Florence rose against him, received Charles within its walls, and a few weeks later a republican constitution was set up under the influence of Savonarola. From Florence Charles marched on Rome, the Neapolitan troops falling back from Viterbo before him, while the infamous Borgia Pope Alexander VI shut himself up in the Castle of St. Angelo. Rejecting the advice of those who urged severer measures, Charles accepted the temporary surrender of four The papal towns, and continued his march on Naples. courage of Alfonso II evaporated on the approach of the French, and early in 1495 he abdicated in favour of his son Ferrantino, or Ferdinand II. Naples offered to submit to Charles, and five months after the beginning of the campaign the French entered the city. The success of Charles's military promenade alarmed even those who had invited it. Ferdinand of Aragon and Sicily had no desire to see the French his neighbours in Naples. Maximilian, the future Emperor, suspected Charles of designs on the Imperial crown. Venice realised the danger to her own interests from the intrusion of a foreign power in Italy. The Pope had the same motive for fear. Ludovico, who had invited Charles to advance his claim on Naples, was alarmed by the fact that the French king's cousin and successor, Louis of Orleans, was seeking by force of arms to establish his own right to the duchy of Milan. Hence the Spanish sovereigns, Maximilian, and all the Italian States save Florence, entered into a League professedly defensive, but in fact offensive, against France. Leaving part of his army in the Neapolitan kingdom to withstand Ferrantino, Charles, after three months' stay in Naples, set out on his return to He recrossed the Apennines without opposition. France. But at Fornovo, on the banks of the river Taro, Charles found the army of the League prepared to resist his entrance into Lombardy. The battle that ensued (July, 1495) was indecisive, but the French were not hindered from continuing their march. Before crossing the Alps, Charles concluded A 36 Short History of Europe the Treaty of Vercelli with Ludovico and recognised his title to the Milanese dukedom. In Naples the force which Charles had left to guard his interests maintained them for twelve months against Ferrantino. But when the latter died in October, 1496, and was succeeded by his uncle Frederick, or Federigo, the only position held by the French in the Neapolitan kingdom was Gaeta, which surrendered a month Such was the unpromising result of France's first later. intervention in Italy. Charles's death in 1498 prevented him from repeating it. But his cousin and successor, Louis XII, assumed forthwith the titles King of Sicily and Duke of Milan, and prepared to make them good. The members of the League which had been formed against Charles VIII in Italy were no longer on terms of amity, and Louis had little difficulty in gaining adherents to his projected acquisition of Milan and Naples. Pope Alexander VI and his son Caesar Borgia were intent upon building up Borgia influence in the Romagna. Venice, jealous of the power of Milan, agreed with Louis in a scheme for the partition of the duchy, under which she was to receive Cremona and the district east of the Adda. In the summer of 1499 the French again took the field in Italy. Milan was occupied with ease, Ludovico fled, and Venice seized the territories which her agreement with Louis assigned to her. Louis crossed the Alps to new acquisition, and appointed Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, a Milanese exile in the French service, as governor. But his arrogance, incompetence, and greed alienated the visit his Milanese, whose hostile demeanour caused the French their nominee to evacuate the city early in 1500. and Two days later, Ludovico, who had succeeded in collecting an army, returned to Milan. But his success was only temporary. The French again moved against him, he was captured while attempting to escape, and remained a prisoner in France until his death in 1508. Louis's success established France as the predominant power in northern and central Italy, and both Venice and Caesar Borgia had her assistance in the projects in which each was interested, the former against the Turks, the latter in the conquest of the Romagna (the old Exarchate of The Ravenna). effort Louis resolved was certain to to invite conquer Naples also. Spain the hostility of ; The Italian Wars 37 for Ferdinand of Aragon was also king of Sicily, and the establishment of French influence on the Straits of Messina could not be welcome to him. Ferdinand, however, was willing to share the plunder with Louis, and a secret treaty to that effect was concluded between them at Granada in November, 1500. In the following summer the blow fell on The Borgia Pope declared him deposed, and Federigo. confirmed the proposed partition of his kingdom between the two conspirators. Federigo made no resistance, and was given an honourable asylum in France, while the allies turned to the difficult task of dividing his kingdom. Ferdinand naturally received Calabria and Apulia, the districts contiguous to Sicily, while France took the northern region, Naples itself, and the royal dignity. But this rough demarcation left the door open for disputes, which ripened into war. In 1502 it broke out, and after suffering defeats at Seminara and Cerignola the French were compelled to leave Ferdinand They attempted its recovery and were again defeated on the Garigliano (1503) by the Spanish " Great Captain," Gonzalo de Cordova. Ferdinand was not in possession of Naples. again disturbed in his acquisition, and the insular and continental parts of the Sicilian kingdom once more came together under Aragonese rule (1504). The ambition of France had already condemned Italy to ten years of warfare. The ambition of the Pope now continued it. The issue of the Franco-Spanish war in Naples was still undecided when in August, 1503, Pope Alexander VI died. He was succeeded, after the brief pontificate of Pius III, by Julius II, who was as ambitious for the Papacy as his predecessor for his own family. Aided by the complacency of France, Caesar Borgia had succeeded in bringing the petty states of the Romagna and the March of Ancona under his personal control, Romagna by the Romagna his and father. in 1501 Julius was created duke of to recover determined for the Papacy. Venice, already possessed of Ravenna, had recently seized the occasion of Alexander's death to occupy Faenza and Rimini, and had employed the warfare just concluded to promote her own interests. Julius, therefore, had no difficulty in concluding a League against her at Cambray (December, 1508). The parties to it were the Pope, the Emperor, and the kings of France and Aragon. A 38 Short History of Europe The Pope desired to obtain the restoration of Ravenna, Rimini, Faenza and less important places in the Romagna. Spain aimed at the recovery of Otranto, Brindisi, and other places in South Italy which Venice had acquired in return for her help against the French at the time of Charles VIII's invasion. The Emperor Maximilian hoped to obtain various localities in the north of Italy which Venice either held of or had taken from the Habsburgs or the Empire, notably Friuli (Habsburg), Padua and Verona (Imperial). Venice also had recently refused him passage through her territories on his way to Rome for his coronation. As to France, she hoped to recover the eastern parts of the duchy of Milan which Venice had obtained under her agreement with Louis XII. The League of Cambray proved too powerful for Venice. The French were the first to take the field on the Adda. In 1509 they gained a victory over the Venetian army at In the Agnadello and occupied the coveted localities. Romagna and Apulia the Pope and Ferdinand recovered the cities held by Venice. In February, 15 10, Venice sued for peace and was admitted by the Pope to forgiveness and friendship. Having used the foreigner to gain his own ends, " barbarians," Julius needed the help of Venice to drive the so he termed the French, from North Italy. He had no difficulty in detaching Ferdinand and Maximilian from their recent friendship with France, and was successful in drawing " " into his Holy League the new king of England, Henry VIII, who was anxious not only to recover Guyenne, the bait held out to him, but also to play a part on the stage of European The Swiss also joined, and in 151 1 the Holy League politics. was proclaimed at Rome. The war of the Holy League opened auspiciously for France in Italy. Bologna was besieged by the allies, but was relieved by the young and brilliant governor of Milan, Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours. He recovered Brescia, but died in the moment of a successful assault on Ravenna (15 12). His death and the advent of a Swiss army in North Italy changed Forced to evacuate Tuscany, the French withdrew into Lombardy and thence were driven across the Alps. On their departure North Italy resumed the situation which had obtained before 1494. The Medici were restored in the situation. The Italian Wars 39 Florence (15 12), and Massimiliano Sforza, the son of Ludovico, received the duchy of Milan (15 12), in spite of the desire of the Emperor to secure it for his grandson Charles. Nor were these Ferdinand of the only blows to the prestige of France. Castile that with in 12 invaded and Aragon 15 incorporated part of the kingdom of Navarre which lay on the Spanish side of the Pyrenees, leaving the portion of it on the north of the mountain chain to be annexed to the French crown on the accession of the first Bourbon king, Henry IV. In the next year (15 13) England attacked France's northern frontier, and won the " Battle of the Spurs " at Guinegaste, while Scotland was defeated at Flodden attempting to divert Henry from his attack on France. On the death of Julius II in 15 13 the Holy League broke up. He had riveted his hold upon the Romagna, and may be regarded as the founder of the Papal States. He had driven the French from the peninsula, but had contributed to the conditions which laid Italy under the heel of the Habsburgs for more than three centuries. Louis XII died two years later His successor, Francis I, who also was descended (15 1 5). from Valentina Visconti, secured the friendship of England and Venice with a view to the recovery of Milan from the Sforza. In 15 15 he invaded Italy, and after a stubborn fight of two days' duration defeated the Swiss at Marignano. The Duke Massimiliano victor3'' gained him the duchy of Milan. Sforza retired to France and died there in 1530. In 1516 the " " with the French, and Swiss made the Everlasting Peace their enemies, while mercenaries to not to furnish agreed Leo X, by the Treaty of Bologna (15 16), restored Parma and Piacenza, which he had annexed in 15 12. Thus entrenched in North Italy, Francis withdrew his claim on Naples (Treaty of Noyon, 15 16), and Italy gained a brief respite from wars which had been almost continuous since 1494. On the death of Ferdinand of Aragon in 1516, his grandson, the Archduke Charles, succeeded to the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile, to the kingdom of the Two Sicilies in Italy, and to the territory of his ancestors, the Valois dukes of Burgundy, in the Netherlands and Tranche Comte. Outside Europe he was lord of the New World, whose vast wealth poured into his coffers, and in 15 19 the death of Maximilian made him Emperor. Between France and the wielder of such mighty 40 A Short History of Europe power enmity was inevitable. France could but regard with fear a sovereign whose territory touched hers on the north, south, and east. So long as Flanders, Artois, and Franche Comte remained in his hands, Paris itself was a frontier town, protected by no intervening mountain chain or broad river. As the heir of Charles the Bold of Burgundy Charles V also threatened France's vulnerable frontier by his claim on Picardy and the duchy of Burgundy, and on the south he held Navarre to the exclusion of its French owners, the d'Albrets. Unless France submitted to be throttled by the enveloping power of the Habsburgs, war was her only resource. In more than one direction also France stood in the path of Charles's ambition. As the heir of Charles the Bold he inherited the feud of his ancestors with the royal House of As Emperor he might even challenge France's absorption of Dauphine and Provence, once the kingdom of But it was in Italy that France's interests clashed Aries. most seriously with his own. That unhappy country, devoid of national sentiment or national unity, was the spoil of the foreigner. In Naples and Sicily the Spanish were established, in Milan the French, and Milan was a fief of the Empire. There was also between Charles V and Francis I a personal rivalry accentuated by their recent candidatures for the Imperial crown. Valois, War being inevitable, both princes sought allies, and especially angled for the friendship of Henry VIII of England, their late competitor for the Imperial dignity, though hardly Francis and Henry met in 1520 at the famous Field of Cloth of Gold between the castles of Guines and Ardres. But the tradition of Anglo-French hostility was still vivid, and Henry's wife, Catharine, exerted influence on behalf of her nephew the Emperor. A little more than a a serious one. fortnight later Henry met Charles at Gravelines and came to With the Pope the Emperor was also terms with him. successful, since he offered not only to check heresy within the Empire, but was ready to countenance Leo X's hopes of territorial aggrandisement in the Romagna. The war, begun by Francis and Charles in 1520 and concluded by their sons, continued for thirty-nine years. Within that period six distinct wars were waged. The first began with the French invasion of Navarre, in the course of which. The Italian Wars 41 at the siege of Pamplona (1521), Ignatius Loyola received the wound which diverted him to religion and made him the founder of the Society of Jesus. Expelled from Navarre, the French were also driven from Milan by the Imperial troops, and Francesco Sforza, the second son of Ludovico, was restored to the duchy (152 1). The Pope recovered Parma and Piacenza and obtained Imperial protection for his kinsmen, the Medici, in Florence. Henry VIII and Charles concluded an against France (Treaty of Windsor, 1522). Francis refused to accept his expulsion from Milan as final. In 1524 a French army invaded Lombardy and was defeated on the Sesia, where the Chevalier Bayard met his death. In 1525 Francis himself led an army into Italy, re-entered Milan without opposition, and besieged Pavia, where he was defeated and made a prisoner. The capture of Francis was as disastrous to France as that of John II at Agincourt, and led to a humiliating treaty. Anxious to regain his liberty, Francis (January, 1526) signed a treaty at Madrid in which he renounced his claims upon alliance None the less Naples, Genoa, and Milan, surrendered French suzerainty over Flanders and Artois, and ceded to Charles the duchy of Burgundy, which had escheated to France on the death of Charles the Bold in 1477. So disastrous a treaty could not produce a final settlement. Indeed, Francis refused to be bound by conditions extorted by force, and was absolved from them by Pope Clement VII. No sooner was he free than Francis made preparations to annul the conditions of the Treaty of Madrid. Charles's successes had roused the fears of the Italian states, and within a few weeks of Francis's release the League of Cognac (1526) was formed against the Emperor. The Pope, France, Florence, Venice, and Francesco Sforza were members of it. Henry VIII was invited to join it, but refused. Swift ruin fell upon Francis and his confederates. Milan fell to the the Florentines expelled the Medici and proImperialists claimed a Republic and in May, 1527, the Imperial army appeared before Rome, Clement VII threw himself into the castle of St. Angelo. The city was assaulted and fell, and for eight days was given up to sack and pillage. The outrage to the Pope roused Christendom, and Henry VIII threw himself into the anti- Imperial League, desirous to obtain the Pope's ; ; 42 A Short History of Europe to his projected divorce from Catharine of Francis forthwith dispatched an army into Italy, upon whose advance towards Rome the Pope was set free. Anxious rather to damage the Emperor than to recover French But the losses, the French army marched against Naples. defection of Andrea Doria, the famous Genoese admiral in the French service, broke the communications of the French army with France. Decimated by the plague, the remnant of it surrendered at Aversa. In Genoa Doria established an sanction Aragon. which lasted until 1796. Again in 1529 into Italy, but with no better fortune, and both sides agreed to treat for peace. At Cambray terms were arranged (1529) which relieved Francis of the most oligarchical Republic Francis sent an army He rehumiliating conditions of the Treaty of Madrid. nounced his claims on Naples and Milan and the suzerainty over Flanders and Artois. In exchange for two million crowns Charles withdrew his demand for the cession of the duchy of Burgundy, though he reserved his claim to it. On those terms the two sons of Francis, who had been detained in Spain as hostages, were released. Charles forthwith visited Italy, where Habsburg interests had been so amply vindicated. In 1530 he was crowned at Bologna, the last Emperor who submitted to that ceremony at the Pope's hands. In Milan the Sforza were his vassals, in Florence the Medici were restored by his means, and France's access to the peninsula was closed by the relations which Charles established with Savoy and Genoa. For nearly thirty years Charles V enjoyed the fruits of the Treaty of Cambray and resisted the endeavours of France to upset it. For, despite his renunciations in the Treaties of Madrid and Cambray, Francis had no mind to abandon Milan. In 1535 Francesco Sforza died, and Francis advanced his son's claim to the vacant duchy. Henry VIII, whose marriage to Anne Boleyn V and the Pope, was (1533) estranged Charles in alliance with Francis, whose daughter Madeleine united Scotland to his interests by her marriage (1537) to James V. Francis sought unsuccessfully the support of the Protestant League of Schmalkalden, and outraged Christendom by allying himself with Suleiman the Magnificent. In 1536 the third of the six wars between the Habsburgs and Valois broke out. Francis overran Savoy and Piedmont, The Italian Wars 43 and Charles conducted an inejEfectual invasion of Provence. In 1538 a ten years' truce (Truce of Nice) was agreed to, Francis in possession of Savoy and most of Piedmont Treaty of Cambray. But before the truce expired, the fourth war between the two princes In Piedmont the French gained a broke out (1542-44). notable victory at Ceresole (1544), and Henry VIII, rendered hostile by France's close relations with Scotland, captured Boulogne. Elsewhere the fighting was inconclusive, and in Francis again 1544 the Treaty of Crepy was agreed to. renounced Naples, Artois, and Flanders, while Charles withdrew his claim on Burgundy. Piedmont and Savoy were to remain in the hands of France pending the conclusion of a which upon left his confirmation of the alliance, never completed, which promised to end the rivalry of the two kings in Italy. By the Treaty of Ardres (1546) between England and France the restoration of Bou- matrimonial logne was promised. The death of Francis I in 1547 left to his successor Henry II the continuation of his hostility towards the EmThe latter was deeply concerned to uproot heresy peror. in Germany, and in 1552, upon the invitation of the Schmalkaldic League, Henry II opened the fifth of the ValoisHabsburg wars by annexing the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun in French-speaking Lorraine. Francis, duke of Guise, the uncle of Mary Stewart, held Metz against Charles's efforts to recover it, and France remained in possession of a region important in itself and in its promise of future expansion in the same quarter. In 1556 Charles concluded the Truce of Vaucelles with Henry II and confirmed his aggressions. In Italy, though a combined Franco-Turkish fleet gained temporary possession of Corsica, Charles held his own. For over thirty years Charles V had borne upon his shoulders the care of world-wide dominion. In October, 1555, he resigned the Netherlands to his son Philip, the husband of Mary Tudor, and in the following January (1556) surrendered to him the kingdom of Spain and its dependencies in Italy and the New World. The German possessions of the House of Habsburg he gave to his brother Ferdinand, who succeeded him as Emperor. Denuded of his dignities, Charles retired to Spain, and died there two years later (1558). The death of Charles was seized by the Franco-phil Pope 44 A Short History of Europe Paul IV as an opportunity to reverse the policy of Julius II and to attempt the expulsion of the Spaniards from Italy. Tempted by the promise of Naples, Henry II broke the Truce of Vaucelles, and dispatched Guise into Italy, who gave siege to Civitella in Naples. But a critical situation in France com- Influenced by PhiUp II of Spain, Mary Tudor had declared war (June, 1557) on Henry II, while the duke of Savoy laid siege to St. Quentin. The fall of the place (August, 1557) exposed Paris itself to the danger of an Imperialist advance. But Philip did not push his advantage, and the return of the duke of Guise and his army from Italy pelled his recall. reUeved the situation. In January, 1558, he besieged Calais and took it. Guines also was captured, and the last relic of the Plantagenet heritage in France was lost. The victory of the Imperialists at Gravelines led to negotiations, and in 1559 the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis was agreed to. The duke of Savoy was restored to Savoy and Piedmont, excepting Saluzzo, Pinerolo, Turin, and a few other places, which France France also was left in possession of the three retained. bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun. Calais was conveyed to her for eight years, and on payment of a nominal forfeit, for ever. France and Spain bound themselves to a joint crusade against Protestantism, and the treaty marks the beginning of the Counter-Reformation or Catholic reaction as an active force. It marks also the close of a chapter which France opened in 1494 when Charles VIII entered Italy. had fulfilled her appointed task in weakening the Habsburgs, whose Spanish and German branches henceforward were separated, though the treaty left them securely seated in France had also discharged a more vital duty. She Italy. had preserved her organic unity against Habsburg attacks upon her territory, and had made a beginning in the strengthening of her frontier, a policy which the Bourbons triumphantly consummated in the seventeenth century. CHAPTER IV THE LUTHERAN REFORMATION In an earlier chapter the intimate relation between the Renaissance and the Reformation has been dwelt upon. The recovered literature of pagan Greece and Rome revived the fearless rationalism, the independent vision, of which itself was the outcome. The Bible, which was also the fruit of the Renaissance, awoke in men a spiritual sense long dormant. Hence, when its pretensions were critically examined, when formalism was judged by the standard of the recovered Book of God, the medieval Church crumbled and collapsed. its For centuries the Roman pontiff had ruled an empire to which that of the Caesars alone is comparable. It embraced many In a nationalities, and was co-extensive with Christendom. perverted form of Latin it possessed a language which linked its subjects in the ritual of common worship and its hierarchy in the bond of common speech. To the nations which planted themselves on the ruins of the Roman Empire the Church was both mentor and educator. They resigned themselves un- Heaven was closed against all reservedly to its direction. who displeased it. What it sanctioned alone was orthodox, and against its judgment there was no appeal. To the laity the Bible was an unknown book. The most forceful appeal of the Bible, when it began to circulate in Christian homes, was the contrast it presented between the Apostolic Church, poor and earnest in its care for the souls of men, and the medieval Church, wealthy, immersed in worldly cares, forgetful of its spiritual charge. From an early period the contrast roused a cry for reform in the twelfth century from the Waldenses or Vaudois, followers of Pierre Waldo or Valdez of Lyons from John Wykliffe and the Lollards from John Hus in Bohemia. But in the sixteenth century the ideals of a few became the con; ; ; 45 46 A Short History of Europe and the Reformation, already threatened in the ConciHar movement, burst upon the Papacy from outside. The specific abuses which caused the Reformation were of many kinds, secular and religious. For generations the Papacy had drawn upon itself the hostility of the temporal princes by its claim to interfere in their affairs, to excomvictions of a great tract of Christendom, municate and depose them, and to advance its own inthrough its legates or ambassadors at the European courts. Equally resented was the patronage which from the time of Innocent III the Papacy exercised over church terests and similar foundations, bestowing benefices, abbeys, rich livings upon persons who never visited their charge. Both France and Spain protested that such patronage was Church, and the Statutes of Provisors and Praemunire were passed in England to meet the evil. Papal nomination to bishoprics was particularly obnoxious to the killing the temporal princes ; for the episcopate exercised great political dependence on a foreign power was unFlagrant as were the abuses attending the Papacy's patronage, its maleficent effect was intensified by the nepotism and pluralism which attended it. Bishoprics and benefices were showered upon kinsmen and favourites, and revenues, withdrawn from the countries whence they were derived, were squandered at the papal court. It was a further grievance that the Papacy everywhere enforced the immunity of the clergy from secular jurisdiction. They stood outside its control and were subject only to ecclesiastical courts of law, whose sentences were lenient. A mere smattering of knowledge established a claim influence, and its welcome. " Benefit of Clergy," as clerical immunity was termed in England, where it was restricted to bona fide clergy by From the Reformation Parliament in Henry VIII's reign. the fourteenth century, the papal Curia gave pardon to applicants on the basis of a graduated scale of fees. In the fifteenth century such pardons released their purchasers from the civil consequences of crime, and gave the Papacy an appellate jurisdiction over the civil courts of every country in Christendom. Licensed hawkers, such as John Tetzel, whose activities Luther denounced, traversed Europe to sell pardons which professed to confer God's forgiveness and to The Lutheran Reformation 47 also protected their purchasers against civil action. With the Church's claim to exemption from civil jurisdiction went a claim to immunity from secular taxation, proclaimed byBoniface VIII in the Bull Clericis laicos (1296). Having regard to the great proportion of the wealth of Christendom which the Church possessed, its attempt to evade secular obligations roused the strenuous opposition of the temporal princes. Popular opposition to Rome was based on other grounds. Her extortions, the misapplication of her wealth, and the wickedness of her court, matched her disregard for religion and for the spiritual interests of her vast diocese. Her wealth was expended on the promotion of ambitious designs in Italy, or upon the pleasures of the Roman court. Licensed sellers of pardons imposed on the credulity of the poor. Every kind " as of breach of the canon law was redeemable for money, for had been enacted this the very purpose." Decalogue though Morality had little encouragement, and the fears of hell little Of effect, when money could unbar the gates of heaven. another kind were the extortions which the Papacy employed through the sale of benefices and expectatives, that is, the reversion of benefices. The result was to fill the church with incumbents whose lives were a scandal, and their incumbency a means to extort profitable return to its purchaser. In spite of the effort of the Council of Basle to make an end of them, annates, which were roughly one-half of the annual value of a benefice, were exacted on every change of incumbent, and special tithes were demanded for special occasions. Even greater irritation v/as caused by the corrupt judicial administration of the Curia. At an early period the Papacy secured supreme jurisdiction over the spirituality and all that concerned the Church's interests. An enormous amount of legal business therefore flowed to Rome, and as early as the tenth century the venality of the Curia was In the sixteenth century it encouraged a shamesystem which extracted the utmost in fees from the notorious. less pockets of its suitors. litigation was intentionally prolonged, and causes which might easily have been settled on the spot were drawn to Rome for leisurely hearing. Abuses so patent prejudiced the dignity and honour of the A 48 papal office. Cardinals, in Short History of Europe Simony also was rampant, and to the College of whose hands was vested the election of the Pope, the Popes did not scruple to appoint their unworthykinsmen or the favourites of European princes. Alexander VI, Julius II, and Leo X exposed the Cardinalate for sale, an office next in dignity to their own, while Alexander VI and Julius II both obtained the papal chair by bribery. To such a pass had the deterioration of the Church proceeded. The Religion had divorced itself from morality. Church followed worldly interests, and with little heed to higher duties was content with the perfunctory performance of forms and ceremonies. Christendom had reverted to the standards of pagan Rome, where piety was mere formalism, the performance of prescribed ritual. The Church's interest was no longer to promote amendment and contrition, but to enforce mechanical appliances for sin's obliteration. What was needed was the infusion of a new spirit. Outside Italy the need for reform had been recognised for generations past. The causa reforniationis was raised at the Council of Constance in 141 4. The Council of Basle seventeen years later declared for the reformation of the Church in capita et membris, the curtailing of papal patronage and jurisdiction, and the abolition of annates. But the Papacy weathered the Conciliar movement, and reform was shelved. In 15 12, however, Julius II was obliged to heed denunciations of the Roman court and its scandals. A commission of cardinals was appointed by him to reform the Curia, but nothing resulted save some reduction of fees and other exactions. Hopes of reform were aroused by the assembling of the Fifth Lateran Council under Leo X, but its dissolution in 15 17 left the chief abuses untouched, and disappointment at so untoward a result confirmed the conviction that reform must come, not from the Church's hierarchy and Councils, but from outside, from the populations so shamelessly exploited, whose spiritual welfare had been so completely ignored. But so powerful was the sway which the Church exerso universal the respect for tradition and cised, and authority, that some new force was needed before men could take courage to challenge an institution under which Christendom had grown to manhood. The Renaissance provided it, while the vernacular Bible put into the hands The Lutheran Reformation of it 49 Christian people an authority higher than that which emboldened them to challenge. The printing press en- with a rapidity hitherto imaction over a large area. possible, Hence, before the fifteenth century reached its close, Christendom was in a state of ferment, and men were found in all countries bold and able to challenge those characteristics of the Church which were least able to bear instructed scrutiny. abled new ideas to spread and facilitated common Widespread as the revolt against the Church was, it was Germany that discontent first developed into revolution. There was more than one reason for the fact. In the first characteristic which they place, the Germans possessed a in shared with kindred races of the Teutonic stock, a characteristic which shows itself in Sebastian Brant's Ship of Fools which (1494), namely, a moral and religious earnestness formalism and ceremonialism failed to satisfy. In Germany humanism appealed to the deeper consciousness of man, to his soul and reason. But even more potent was a patriotic sense which papal oppression had stimulated. Exposed to financial fleecing by her association with the Holy Roman and, unlike France and England, possessing no government to stand between her and the Papacy, Germany was the particular object of papal extortion, and the Curia was detested by clergy and laity alike. The Pragmatic Sanction of Mainz in 1439, in which Germany sought to place a limit on papal authority, had no permanent result, and in the Gravamina or statement of grievances Empire, central presented to Maximilian in 15 10 the German clergy declared the old abuses to be still rampant, namely sales of pardons ; and indulgences suspensions of pardons already bought in the appointment order to compel the purchase of new ones ; ; of worthless persons to clerical benefices ; the conferring of German dignities on aliens ; the sale of expectatives, so the summoning to Rome of causes which the levy of tithes for could better be heard on the spot objects which were never fulfilled, such as Crusades against the Turk. Erasmus, though he was no revolutionary, lent the aid of his powerful pen to castigate the vices of the age, and to bring men to see that true religion is not manifested fruitful of litigation ; ; merely in externals, such as the purchase of Indulgences and veneration of II. —E relics. By his translation of the New Testament 50 A Short History of Europe he brought home to thousands the story of Christ, and forced them to see how Httle the Church had remained true to the behests of her divine Founder. Thus was the way prepared for Martin Luther (1483-1546), a German of the peasant class, a man of the most earnest spiritual nature, sickened by the formalism which did duty for religion. He was born at Eisleben in Saxony in 1483. His father was a miner in the district of Mansfeld, where the boy's childhood was spent. From the village school he passed " " to Magdeburg, and thence as a to Eisenach, poor student where he and other lads in the church choir sang in the streets for food and money. His father meanwhile prospered, and after three years at Eisenach, Luther was sent to the University of Erfurt, then the most famous in Germany, to become a lawyer. He entered the Faculty of Philosophy, and took his Master's degree in 1505. He was twenty-two years old, and ready to begin his legal course, when he suddenly joined the Augustinian convent at Erfurt. In after he explained as the reason of his sudden step, that " he doubted of himself." Earnest to procure his soul's salvation and escape from the terrors of hell, Luther, in a spasm of doubt, resolved to leave the world and its distractions. After a year's novitiate he took the vows, and found the peace he sought in the conviction that through Christ the repentant life sinner obtains forgiveness. Luther's earnest character attracted the attention of his superiors, and in 1508 he was sent to Wittenberg, whose University, founded a few years earlier, was closely associated with the Augustinian convent in that town. Here, either in the University or the convent, he began to lecture on Aristotle and to preach. In 151 1 he was sent to Rome on the business of his Order, and was brought face to face with scandals which he had so far not suspected. Though he was not unsettled in the peace he had found within the Church, he was profoundly moved by the wickedness of a " Holy Rome." He returned city which he had greeted as to Wittenberg, continued his teaching there, and gained a widening circle of listeners. He was still faithful to the Church whose orders he bore. But the spiritual struggle through which he had passed brought him nearer to his challenge of an institution which asked for Yforks and not faith, which accepted stereotyped acts £^s the The Lutheran Reformation 51 discharge of man's duty to his Creator, but made no effort to stimulate his faith and conscience. Such a rehgion was that of the Pharisee, who performed to the last detail the prescribed ritual of his cult. Luther's standpoint was that of the Publican, who humbled himself before God, smote his breast, and confessed himself a sinner. Hence Luther was led to impose a new test of the Christian life, and to require faith and not works, on which the Church set the greater store, as the justification for salvation. The peace of mind which came to him in the Augustinian convent at Erfurt marked the first crisis in Luther's life. The second occurred in 1517. Four years earlier (1513) Giovanni de' Medici ascended the papal throne as Leo X. His predeJulius II, had employed the architect Bramante to construct the great Church of St. Peter at Rome. Leo X, who inherited the tastes of his father Lorenzo the Magnificent, continued the work, and to obtain funds authorised the sale of an Indulgence. The promotion of it in Germany was entrusted to the archbishop of Mainz, who employed John Tetzel, a Dominican monk, to preach its virtues and sell Indulgence tickets throughout the country. The Elector of Saxony, in whose territory Wittenberg lay, forbade Tetzel to ply his trade in it, but many of the Wittenbergers found means to purchase the Indulgence. Luther, who was now Professor of Theology at Wittenberg, was repelled by the cessor, crude commercialism which attended Tetzel's campaign it as a faintly disguised expedient for filling the papal coffers, and as a transaction in which the salvation of the sinner ; viewing of secondary consideration. On November i, 15 17, All Saints' Day, the feast of the dedication of the Castle church of Wittenberg, the town was thronged by worshippers. At noon Luther affixed to the door of the church a Latin was document inviting public disputation on the subject of Indulgences, and setting forth ninety-five Theses or propositions in disproof of their efficacy. The main planks of Luther's argument were that by repentance only can the individual secure pardon, which, if he be sincerely repentant, is his without the intervention of an Indulgence that God alone can remit sin that an Indulgence can at most secure the sinner from the punishments ordained by the Church, the vendor of the Indulgence, : ; ; 52 A Short History of Europe but cannot release him from the punishments ordained by God, nor mitigate the punishment of souls in Purgatory, who are beyond the jurisdiction of the Church. Copies of the Theses were distributed broadcast throughout Germany, and were received with extraordinary fervour. In July, 151 8, Luther was summoned to Rome to defend his action. The summons of Luther to Rome offended German sentiment, and Leo X ordered instead that Luther should attend the Cardinal-Legate at Augsburg. Thither Luther proceeded. " " I ask only six letters from you," said the Legate, revoco Luther and sentence of excomrefused, (I recant)." expected munication. But Leo X preferred first to examine the position in Germany, and dispatched one of his chamberlains, Charles von Miltitz, for the purpose. Miltitz was appalled to discover how general was the support which Luther had from his countrymen, and was surprised to find that Luther himself was far from being a headstrong revolutionary. Outside the propositions he maintained in the ninety-five Theses Luther affirmed his loyalty to the Church, and wrote a letter of that purport to Leo, who replied. But in fact Luther was at the parting of the ways. His conscience had revealed to him conclusions which he believed He had been bidden to abjure them to be vitally true. because they conflicted with those which Rome decreed to " On be orthodox. Inevitably Luther faced the question, what authority does this papal power rest which claims to be " His studies led him to the conthe sole judge of truth ? clusion that its jurisdiction in Germany was based on evidence which could not bear investigation, and he received from John Eck of Ingoldstadt an invitation to argue the point. The disputation took place at Leipzig in 15 19. Challenged by Eck, Luther did not shrink from affirming his sympathy with some of the opinions of Wykliffe and Hus. Thereupon Eck closed the disputation, triumphing in the fact that he had forced a heretic to disclose himself. " But some victories are worse than defeats. Eck had done what the more politic Miltitz had wished to avoid. He had made Luther a central figure round which all the smouldering discontent of Germany with Rome could rally, and had made it possible for the political movement to become impregnated with the passion " of religious conviction (Dr. T. M. Lindsay). The Lutheran Reformation 53 The disputation with Eck had a profound effect on Luther. his vision. It ralUed to him Ulrich von Hiitten and the younger humanists, and with the help of his It cleared and colleague, Philip Melanchthon, Luther fearlessly accepted responsibility for his convictions. From Wittenberg in 1520 he addressed the German people in a series of " ReforTracts of which three are especially memorable, the friend mation Treatises," as they are called. The first. To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation concerning the reformation of the Christian Commonwealth, demolished the arguments which supported papal supremacy, and summoned the German people to unite in opposition to it. Luther demanded a national and autonomous German Church, ruled by a national Council analogous to the Diet which represented the political unity of the Empire. The second, On the Babylonish Captivity of the Church, asserted that the Papacy had for centuries held the Church in bondage, usurping an authority higher than its ow^n, namely, the will of God revealed in the The third, Scriptures, the one and only exposition of truth. The Liberty of a Christian Man, challenged the medieval contention, that the worshipper could be brought into touch with God and obtain the comfort of religion only through the ministrations of a mediatory priesthood. Religion, Luther contended, was a personal matter between God and the individual, and faith was the only passport to God's favour. The three Tracts made an extraordinary and instant im" Nine-tenths of Germany pression throughout Germany. " acclaim Luther," said the papal Nuncio Aleander, and the tenth condemns the The Roman Curia." sentence remaining excommunication which Rome pronounced against Luther Luther publicly burnt it at Wittenberg (December 10, 1520), an act of defiance which completed his severance from the Church. The event followed the coronation at Aachen of Charles V, who had succeeded to the Imperial throne vacant by the death of his grandfather Maximilian in 1519. In the following January (1521) he opened his first Diet at Worms. The Pope hoped to induce of made little impression in Germany. the Emperor to execute his Bull against Luther. But though Charles viewed Luther's heresies with abhorrence, he refused to act with precipitation, and cited Luther to appear before the Diet. 54 A Short History of Europe Not without misgivings his friends allowed Luther to set out from Wittenberg for on a similar errand, and, like Luther, under the protection of a passport, Hus had gone to Constance and martyrdom a hundred years before. But Luther obeyed the summons with faith and confidence, and the journey taught him that the people recognised his cause to be their own. In April, 1521, he appeared before the Diet. His writings were piled on a table, and he was asked to retract the opinions they contained. He desired time for reflection. On his next appearance, strengthened after a momentary weakening of spirit, he replied that of his challenge of the papal system he could withdraw nothing. As to the charges he had brought, he was ready to give heed to any who could prove him to be wrong. He affirmed that Popes and General Councils could err and had erred, and that the Scriptures were the one infallible authority. He was again dismissed. The Diet was anxious to delay condemnation until every effort had been made to reconcile Luther to his accusers, and a commission of eight representing its membership was appointed to negotiate with him. But between the extremes which Luther and his accusers asserted there was no possiHe was bidden to leave Worms bility of compromise. with twenty days' safe conduct, and a month later the Ban of the Empire was laid upon him. He found an asylum in the Castle of the Wartburg, near Eisenach, under the protection of his patron, Frederick the Wise of Saxony. For a year Luther remained in the Wartburg, devoting his ; leisure to the translation of the Bible. The first edition of his New Testament was published in 1522, and the whole Bible was completed in 1534. Its issue was of the last importance for Luther affirmed the to the progress of the Reformation Scriptures to be the sole repository of the infallibility which the Church claimed for itself. Its literary influence was also Written in the purer Saxon speech, Luther's Bible great. established a linguistic standard to which German dialects were led to conform. He was, in fact, the father of modern German, and his Bible stands with the English Authorised Version of the next century as a literary classic. Meanwhile at Wittenberg, Carlstadt, Luther's colleague in the University, had been denouncing the papal system. He ; was reinforced by sympathisers from outside, among them The Lutheran Reformation three " " prophets who, having 55 of Zwickau, a town in the south of Saxony, impose their opinions on their townsmen, failed to Wittenberg, where the prospect seemed more hopeful. rejected infant baptism on the ground that without faith, which an infant cannot possess, no sacrament can be Hence the Zwickau Protestants and their fellowefficacious. fled to They came to be called Anabaptists. They held themunder the direct guidance of the Holy Ghost, and that violent courses against those who differed from them were Spurred on by their fanaticism the people of justifiable. Wittenberg embarked on extreme courses. Riots broke out believers selves to be " " demanded the closing of early in 1522, and the prophets schools and colleges, unnecessary seminaries for a people guided by the Holy Spirit. These events marked a crisis in the German Reformation. Moderate and conservative as Luther was, his challenge of the Papacy enabled his enemies to represent him as a menace to constituted authority, political and ecclesiastical alike. The proceedings at Wittenberg seemed to justify their opinion and threatened to alienate middle class opinion, which was ready to support reform but not to encourage revolution. With characteristic boldness, therefore, Luther, taking his life in his hand, returned to Wittenberg (1522). On eight successive days he preached to the people in the Castle church, denouncing the excesses of which they had been guilty, and the employment of force in matters of con- His influence prevailed, and the visionaries followers were driven from the town. science. and their Luther's victory at Wittenberg assured that of the Reformafor violence would have alienated the Germany sympathy of the princes. After Luther's return to Witten^ berg, Frederick the Wise of Saxony and his brother John, who succeeded him, embraced Lutheranism. The Landgrave Philip of Hesse and Duke Ernest of Liineburg took a similar step. Frederick I of Denmark promoted Lutheranism in his kingdom and encouraged its spread in the duchy of Albert of Ansbach, Schleswig-Holstein. High Master of the Order of Teutonic Knights, declared himself a Protestant, and converted the possessions of the Order into the hereditary duchy of Prussia (1525). Charles V's sister Isabella became a Lutheran, and her husband, Christian II of Den^ tion in ; §6 A Short History of Europe mark, invited Luther to preach in his kingdom. The free Imperial cities also very generally ranged themselves under Luther's banner. Political unrest went hand in hand with social and religious unrest in Germany, and influenced the course which the Reformation took. A rising of the knights or Ritterschaft in 1522 was followed by a more serious revolt of the peasantry in 1524. The discontent of the knights or lesser tenantsin-chief was deep-rooted. Within the Diet, whose three Colleges represented the Electors, princes, and free Imperial From the Council of Regency which cities, they had no voice. Charles appointed at the Diet of Worms their class was also omitted. But their chief grievances were economic. They had been for generations a turbulent body, independent of any lord save the Emperor, taking pleasure and profit in private wars and depredations on their neighbours. But the depression of agriculture, the political growth of the several states of the Empire, and the prohibition of private war, had reduced them to poverty by interrupting the brigandage on which they mainly depended. Their discontent found utterance in 1522, when the knights of the Rhenish districts met at Landau under Franz von Sickingen, a fine soldier and a Lutheran. With the Elector of Treves he had a private feud, and laid siege to his city, anticipating the support of Luther's well-wishers within. He was disappointed, withdrew to his own castle, and was in his turn besieged. The castle was battered by artillery and Sickingen died of his wounds. His followers were dealt with with rigour, and the German Ritterschaft ceased to be either a power or menace in the Empire. The peasants' revolt, which broke out in 1524, was a more serious affair. Though Erasmus reproached Luther as the author of it, the peasant revolt was neither directly nor immediately the result of the religious movement which Luther inaugurated. At the root of the rising was the unending conflict between poverty and riches, and the grinding and increasing burden of feudal exactions and ecclesiastical extortions. Since the last decade of the fifteenth century the German peasantry had made intermittent demonstrations of discontent, and in 1493 their device, the peasant's shoe, " gained their league the name Bundschuh (the Shoe League "). Their earlier risings were put down with ease. But in 1524 The Lutheran Reformation 57 rose in Swabia. They complained of exon their lord's lands, that their own holdings were starved and neglected, their crops trampled down by their lord's hunting, lands which once had been common lands had been swept into his estate, the woods enclosed, and the rivers closed against their fishing. Other bands with similar complaints took arms, and early in 1525 all of them assembled at Memmingen in Upper Swabia. Here " Twelve they agreed upon a common programme, the serfdom demanded that Articles of Memmingen." They should be abolished, and that all other services save those to which they were legally liable should be rendered for a that the woods and rivers should be free to all for wage food and fuel that common lands which had been enclosed or seized should be restored and that the lords should no the peasantry cessive labour ; ; ; longer inflict upon them arbitrary punishments nor seize as death-dues the most valuable chattel of their tenants. The peasants had come within the Zwinglian influence which radiated from Zurich. Hence the Twelve Articles asked that each village should have liberty to choose and dismiss its own " " pastor that the little tithe of animals should be abolished and that the " great tithe " of corn should be collected solely for the pastor's stipend and relief of the poor. Before the end of the year the whole of South Germany except Bavaria was ; ; seething with rebellion. In Thuringia Thomas Miinzer, one " of the Zwickau prophets," was inoculating the peasants with communistic doctrines. In Franconia a Utopian scheme was broached for the abolition of the existing constitution of the Empire and the substitution of one in which the peasants were to be admitted to equal influence with the nobles. But in an appeal to arms the peasants were no match for the nobles. Luther threw his influence into the scale against them, and by 1526 the rising had everywhere collapsed. It is computed that it cost at least one hundred thousand peasants their lives. Revolutionary as were the results of Luther's defiance of the Papacy, he w^as constitutionally averse from excesses, and realised that the success of his movement depended upon the support of the princes and nobles. While Charles V was occupied with France he had no leisure to stem the progress of Lutheranism in the Empire, and in 1525 Philip of Hesse organised A 58 Short History of Europe a league of the most powerful supporters of Lutheranism in North Germany. In the Diet at Speyer (1526), though the representative of Charles demanded execution of the Edict of Worms against I.uther and forbade innovations in religion, the princes carried a resolution which established the principle cuius regio eius religio, that is, allowed each prince to establish within his dominions the religion which he himself But after the Treaty of Cambray (1529) Charles was free to turn his attention to Germany. The Diet assembled again at Speyer in that year, and the resolution of 1526 was revoked, but not without a formal Protest signed favoured. by six of the princes, including the Elector of Saxony, the of Hesse, and four- margrave of Ansbach, the landgrave teen of the free cities. Among the protesters were some who followed the Swiss reformer, Ulrich Zwingli. But they united for the moment with Luther in a Protest for freedom of con" " Protestant Churches took the science, and from it the name. In 1530 Charles, fresh from his coronation at Bologna, presided over the Diet at Augsburg. Since the Diet at Speyer a conference between Luther and Zwingli had been held at Marburg in the hope of bringing the two leaders of Protestantism together. But on the doctrine of the Eucharist their views were found to be irreconcilable. Llence the Zwinglians drew apart from the Lutherans at the moment when the second visit of the Emperor to Germany promised a crisis in the progress of Protestantism. Luther, as an outlaw, was not present at Augsburg, and his place was taken by Melanchthon. The Emperor asked for a categoric statement of the differences which divided the Lutherans from the Roman Church. Melanchthon thereupon drew up the famous " Confession of Augsburg," It disclosed the Lutheran position and its divergence from that of the unreformed Church of Rome, and minimised the divergence with a view to an agreement which would unite Lutheran and Romanist against Zwingli, who denounced the Confession in round terms. But no concession was forthcoming from the Roman side, and Luther took a firmer attitude as the hope of accommodation vanished. In the result the majority of the Diet decreed that if by April 15, 1 53 1, the Protestants had not become reconciled to the Church, force would be applied to that end. Meanwhile The Lutheran Reformation 59 the Lutherans were required to lend their aid in the eradication ZwingUan and Anabaptist heresies. In these circumstances, though to Luther's sincere regret, a defensive league alone seemed to promise Protestantism rescue from the dangers which threatened it. The Protestant leaders therefore met in conference at Schmalkalden, and in the course of 1531 a Protestant, the Schmalkaldic, League was drawn up. The landgrave of Hesse, Elector of Saxony, and other princes of lesser rank, together with three great northern The death cities, Magdeburg, Bremen, and Liibeck joined it. of Zwingli at Kappel in the same year allowed the Schmalkaldic League to extend its organisation in south Germany. But the threatened war did not take place. Anxiety to assure the election of his brother Ferdinand as king of the Romans moved Charles not to execute the decree of Augsburg, while a Turkish invasion under Suleiman the Magnificent in 1532 prompted him not to alienate the help of the Protestant princes. The Lutheran cause continued to advance, though the growth of sects and the excesses of the Anabaptists and John of Leyden in Miinster in 1534-35 threatened to prejudice its interests. Five years later (1539) the duchy of Saxony and Brandenburg conclusively ranged themselves with the of Protestants. The three Rhenish electorates, Cologne, Mainz, and Treves, the Habsburg territories, and the Wittelsbach influence in Bavaria and the Palatinate remained faithful to Rome. In spite of the moderation which marked Charles's relations with the German Protestants, a moderation imposed on him by his interests outside Germany, the Emperor never lost hope that an opportunity would arise to restore religious unity to the Empire. The Peace of Crepy in 1544, which reconciled him to France, gave the Emperor the freedom he needed, and on the same day the summons was issued for a General Church Council at Trent. Luther had consistently demanded a General Council of the Church, but the choice of Trent for its session was unfortunate. Its locality made it certain that the Council's composition would be Italian and Spanish rather than German, and that little sympathy with Lutheranism would be found within it. The Lutherans therefore asked that, independently of the Council, the Emperor should His refusal regularise the religious situation in Germany. 6o A Short History of Europe was held to imply that Lutheranism was appeal to arms necessary. in danger and an In 1546, the year of Luther's death, the Schmalkaldic War, so long avoided, broke out. At first the Imperial and Catholic cause triumphed. Maurice of Saxony, to whom the Emperor transferred his cousin's electorate, defeated the latter at the battle of Miihlberg (1547). The Elector Joachim II of Brandenburg and others agreed to stand neutral. Philip of Hesse made his submission and was thrown into prison. Charles himself strong enough to impose religious peace upon Germany on his own terms. In 1548 he secured from the Diet at Augsburg acceptance of the Interim, a Confession of Faith which Charles had caused to be drawn up and which he hoped would prove acceptable to both Lutherans and Catholics. While it retained such characteristics of the Roman Church as the seven sacraments, the veneration of the Virgin Mary and the Saints, and the doctrine of Transubstantiation, it conceded the Lutheran position in the matter of clerical marriages, communion in both kinds to the laity, and in a modified form accepted the Lutheran doctrine of justification by faith. But the compromise pleased neither party, and in spite of Charles's efforts to enforce it, was generally disregarded. Unpopular by reason of his determination to enforce the Interim, and from the lack of sympathy which throughout his felt had shown towards German sentiment, Charles, who was on the point of abdicating, ruined the success which he had gained by his resolution to procure his son Philip's selection as reign he king of the Romans in succession to the Emperor-designate, Ferdinand of Austria, But the prospect of a Spanish Emperor was obnoxious to a nation already uneasy under Spanish military occupation. Maurice of Saxony, who had deserted the Schmalkaldic League, again changed sides, holding the interests of religion of less moment than the weakening of a strong Habsburg monarchy in the interests of the princes. Henry II of France was approached, and in the Treaty of Fried wald (1552) promised his aid in return for the FrenchWar broke speaking bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun. out forthwith and went hardly with Charles, who reluctantly agreed in the Treaty of Passau (1552) to submit the religious settlement to a Diet. He failed to recover Toul, Metz, and Verdun from France, and his sole ally, the HohenzoUcrn The Lutheran Reformation Albert Alcibiades, was driven from Germany, though 6i his conqueror, Maurice of Saxony, was killed in the battle of Sievershausen (1553). The way was at length open for the promised Diet, and in 1555 it met at Augsburg under the presidency of Ferdinand of Austria. An attempt to put forward the Interim as the basis of a settlement failed, and the Lutheran princes assembled at Naumburg let it be known that the Confession of Augsburg alone would satisfy them. Eventually, and after agreement seemed impossible, the Diet came to a resolution, the Peace of Augsburg (1555). It conceded that each secular territorial prince should be allowed to profess and enforce upon his subjects either the Catholic or Lutheran faith, and that the Lutheran princes should retain ecclesiastical property secularised before the Treaty of Passau in 1552, provided that it was not held immediately of the Emperor. But two points threatened trouble in the future. The Catholics demanded that any holder of an ecclesiastical fief who thereafter adopted Lutheranism should forthwith vacate his lands and " " his titles, and an in those terms ecclesiastical reservation was included in the Peace. The Lutherans, however, declared themselves not bound by it. They also demanded that Lutheran subjects of Catholic princes should have toleration, but on this matter were unable to make their wishes prevail. The Peace of Augsburg destroyed the ecclesiastical unity of Germany, and sanctioned the detachment of a great part of it from the Papacy. But the settlement was neither a victory for freedom of conscience, nor was it more than a truce in a conflict some of whose most dif&cult points still had to be determined. The only persons to w^hom the Peace gave freedom of conscience were the territorial princes, and even their liberty was restricted. They might remain in communion with Rome, or they might adopt the Lutheran Confession. There was no other alternative. Neither the creed of Zwingli nor that of Calvin was countenanced, a restriction which affected South Germany, and was among the causes of the resumption of conflict in the Thirty Years' War. The German people as a whole had no liberty to choose between Rome and Wittenberg. Their conscience was in the keeping of their princes, to whose religion they were bound to conform or be banished. The Lutherans desired to relax this rule in A 62 Short History of Europe favour of their adherents in CathoHc states, and their failure compelled them to regard the Peace as merely a truce. " ecclesiastical Nor were they satisfied with the so-called and holders of spiritual which reservation," compelled bishops fiefs to surrender them if they abjured the Catholic Church; " " for the reservation preserved Catholic supremacy in West it Germany by making impossible to carry the three ecclesiastical electorates over to the Lutheran side. Outside Germany Lutheranism established itself only in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Those countries were the last of the Germanic kingdoms to receive Christianity, and until the early part of the twelfth century they were within the metropolitical province of the German see of Bremen. Of the same racial stock as the North Germans, and in the Reformation period intimately in touch with German politics, the movement inaugurated by Luther naturally spread to the In 1397 its three peoples of the Scandinavian peninsula. kingdoms had concluded the Union of Kalmar, under which, while obeying the same sovereign, each retained its own laws and customs. But the union was dynastic rather than popu- and fifty years later, on the accession (1448) of the House Oldenburg in the person of Christian I, Carl Cnutson secured the crowns of Norway and Sweden. Christian soon recovered Norway, and in 1460 was chosen duke of SchleswigHolstein. His grandson, Christian II, a strong ruler, crafty and treacherous, acquired an importance beyond that of lar, of by his marriage to the sister of Charles V. nephew of Frederick the Wise of Saxony, the patron of Luther. He had conquered Norway for his father and determined to bring back Sweden into the union. In his predecessors He was also the 1520, after winning a battle against the Swedes on the ice of Lake Asunden, he was admitted into Stockholm on a promise of amnesty to his opponents, and was crowned king of Sweden. But no sooner was he crowned than he seized and summarily executed nearly one hundred Swedish magnates assembled in the capital. Among them was the father of Gustavus Vasa, The tragedy is known as the the future king of Sweden. Stockholm Bath of Blood. It stirred Sweden to the depths, and provoked her to strike for freedom. In Denmark versity of Christian ruled wisely, encouraged the Unifor the poor, improved Copenhagen and schools The Lutheran Reformation 6^ the material resources of the country, and looked with favour on the movement which Luther was conducting in Saxony. For in all the Scandinavian kingdoms the clergy possessed enormous wealth relatively to the resources of the country. More than half of Denmark, it is said, belonged to the bishops. Yet their possessions, like those of the nobles, were exempt from public burdens. Secularism was rampant, and the higher clergy were strangers to the people among whom they lived. With an eye to a redistribution of national wealth, rather than moved by profound moral convictions. Christian in 15 19 induced his Saxon uncle to send a teacher to the University of Copenhagen to expound the Lutheran position. Christian tried to secure Luther himself, but after the Edict of Worms deemed it prudent to avoid relations with Wittenberg. However, he proposed reforms Lutheran in spirit clerical marriages, : the better education of the clergy, the forbidding of clerical non-residence, and the abolition of the Pope's appellate jurisdiction. But before these could take effect, the nobles, whom he had systematically neglected, rebelled (1523) and gave the crown to his uncle Frederick. Christian withdrew to Germany, was reconciled to the Roman communion, and after an attempt to recover the crown remained a prisoner until his death in 1559. The ten years' reign of Frederick I (1523-33), though it did not see the victory of the Reformation in Denmark, was He had purchased his election with it. an undertaking not to admit any Lutheran teachers into the country. But in fact the leaven was already working in Den" mark, and men like Hans Tausen, the Danish Luther," were the of abuses the Church and asserting publicly condemning Luther's opinions. The attempt of the Pope to provide a nonvital in preparation for Lund caused general indignation. Frederick disregarded the papal nomination, made the appointment himself, and took the fees aforetime paid to Rome. His son and successor Christian was a Lutheran, and his daughter married the Protestant Albert of Ansbach, the first duke of Prussia. In these circumstances Frederick, while he refrained from actual measures for the overthrow of the old Church, gave his countenance to Lutheran preachers, under whose stimulus the progress of Protestantism went on apace. On the death of Frederick in 1533 the bishops made a vain effort to keep his Lutheran son, Christian III, from the throne. In 1536 Chrisresident Italian to the see of A 64 Short History of Europe summoned a national assembly [Rigsdaag or Thing) to the episcopal order was overthrown, and the property of the Church was attached to the crown for national purposes. By later ordinances in the same reign the Augsburg Lutheran Confession was adopted, the monastic orders were abolished, a native and married clergy was established, and a liturgy and Bible in the vernacular were tian Copenhagen. By it provided. In Norway, which Christian III decreed to be a dependency of Denmark for all time, the episcopate fell with that of Denmark. Some of the bishops adopted Lutheranism, and Lutheran ministers were sent from Denmark. But the re- formed Church in Norway long remained wretchedly equipped. In Iceland the attempt to impose ecclesiastical innovations was strongly resisted until 1554, when the opposition was broken. In Sweden the Reformation was preceded by an insurrection, which terminated the union with Denmark, and created a national monarchy which raised Sweden to eminence in Europe. Among the nobles who were the victims of Christian II in the Stockholm Bath of Blood was Eric Johansson, whose son Gustavus had distinguished himself in the national resistance to the Danes. He had been given up as a hostage to Christian II, and in 151 8 was carried to Denmark, whence a year later he escaped to Sweden. Thfe massacre at Stockholm filled him with the resolve to rid Sweden for ever of the Danes. After two years spent in quiet preparation, he took the field in the remote province of Dalecarlia in 1521, and marched southward. The Danish garrisons were expelled, and Gustavus (known as " Vasa " from the sheaf [vasa) or faggots which was his device) was in 1523 elected king of Sweden, whose union with Denmark came to an end. bundle of The kingdom to in a pitiable plight. whose throne Gustavus was elected was Its fields lay unfilled or devastated, its mineral resources were no longer worked, its industries were at a standstill, its population was one-quarter of what it had been at the beginning of the century, and even in Stockholm most of the houses were untenanted. Amid the prevalent ruin the Church, which is said to have owned two-thirds of the soil, preserved its wealth and claimed immunity from The Lutheran Reformation 6^ had viewed the war secular taxation, while with little favour. There were it of independence grounds, therefore, to predis- pose the king to undermine the Church's authority and to Lutheran preachers had his favour, he attach its wealth. denied the competence of papal authority in his kingdom, and at his direction the Bible was translated into the vernacuIn 1527 the position was ripe for a definitive settlement, lar. and in that year Gustavus summoned a Diet [Riksrdd] to Vesteras to consider questions of faith and determine Sweden's relations with the Papacy. At the outset Gustavus through his Chancellor drew attention to the inadequacy of the public revenue, and indicated the Church as the only source from which the public income could be augmented. The clergy yielded before the king's threat that, unless his demand was granted he would leave Sweden for ever. Thereupon the " Recess of Vesteras," by which Riksrdd agreed to the famous the greater part of the Church's property was made over to the crown, the nobles were allowed to resume possession of all taxable land which had passed from them into the possession of the Church at any time, and of non-taxable land which had so passed since 1454, while liberty was given to preach the pure word of God and to teach it in the schools. Gustavus was too wise to press with undue haste the The bishops remained, shorn Protestantising of Sweden. of their former wealth, and the king created the archbishopric of Upsala. But as his reign drew towards its close the Swedish Church came into closer touch with Lutheranism. A Swedish liturgy, hymn-book, and Communion office were issued. Gustavus's son and successor, Eric (1560-68), held XIV Calvinist views and wished to make Sweden a place of refuge Amid the troubles of his reign the for his co-religionists. Church fell into dire neglect, and save on one or two minor points the position left by his father was not materially disturbed. His brother John III (1569-92), who succeeded him, held views very different from those of his predecessors. Strongly opposed to both forms of Protestantism, he restored the episcopate to its ancient powers, replaced the vernacular liturgy by one based on the Roman Missal, and endeavoured to force its use upon the clergy. The Jesuits were invited to Sweden, and the king endeavoured to restore the papal II. —F 66 A Short History of Europe At the same time, he insisted upon certain authority. concessions to Protestant feehng which the Papacy refused to grant. The attempt of the Counter-Reformation to recapture Sweden in the reign of John threatened to be continued in that of his son Sigismund, a strong Roman Cathohc. At the moment of his father's death in 1592 Sigismund was in Poland, to whose throne he had been elected in 1587. Like the Scots a generation earlier, the Swedes resolved to place Protestantism on an impregnable foundation before their sovereign's The new king's uncle, Charles, had already opposed the late king's Romanising policy, and with the consent of the Riksriid he summoned to Upsala in 1593 a Synod of the Swedish Church. Having decided that the Scriptures were the test of truth, the Council formally adopted the Lutheran Augsburg Confession as the doctrinal standard of the Swedish Church, and Luther's Catechism as the groundwork of re" Red John's liturgy, known as the ligious instruction. Book," was abolished, and the earlier vernacular liturgy sanctioned by Gustavus Vasa was restored. Sigismund made attempts to reverse the Upsala settlement, but without sucIn 1604 he was deposed, and the crown passed to his cess. uncle Charles IX, whose reign ushered in the seventeenth century, in which her recent adhesion to the Augsburg Confession allowed Sweden to play a heroic part under Charles's arrival. Gustavus Adolphus. During the years in which the medieval Church was overthrown in Germany and the Scandinavian kingdoms, a similar movement was at work in England. Though the English Reformation was influenced by Germany and Switzerland, by Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin, England was never captured, son, as the Scandinavian kingdoms were, by Lutheranism, or as Scotland and the French Protestant Church were, by Calvin. The English Reformation followed a course of its own, and evolved a Protestant Church which differed then and differs No Luther, Calvin, or Knox arose still from all her sisters. to guide its course, and the immediate cause of the breach with Rome grew out of Henry VIII's desire to secure a divorce from his wife. Subservient to the interests of the monarch at the outset, the English Reformation throughout was held in leading strings by civil authority, and the ultimate The Lutheran Reformation 67 settlement in the reign of Elizabeth was deliberately framed in the interests of the state and its ruler. In England, Colet and the English humanists were on Luther's ground in their recognition of the Scriptures as the in matters of belief. Clerical abuses onl}'' infallible authority were general. The clergy neglected their spiritual duties, even discarded clerical attire, and were absentees from the parishes committed to their charge. The bishops were occupied in the service of the State. Pluralities were general. Though all the monasteries were not equally corrupt, many of them were scandalously conducted. In such a soil the seed sown by Luther was bound to fructify, even had not Lollardy survived, especially in Buckinghamshire, to maintain the principles of Wykliffe. While he was ready to despoil the Church and its monHenry had no sympathy with Lollards or Lutherans. Many of the former were sent to the stake in his reign, and in 1521 the king received sympathetically the astic establishments, Pope's mandate ordering the public burning of Luther's writings. At Wolsey's suggestion he wrote a tract in answer to Luther's On the Babylonish Captivity of the Church, for which he received the title Fidel Defensor, which he and his successors held in spite of their abjuration of the authority which conferred it. But the king's controversy with Rome regarding his divorce, though it did not diminish his ortho- doxy, spurred him, as Luther had been spurred, to challenge the authority of a foreign prince, for such the Pope was, over the kingdom and Church of England. Accordingly, in the Reformation Parliament, which sat from 1529 to 1536, Henry established his own headship of the English Church, abolished the appellate jurisdiction of the papal Curia, and deprived the Papacy of the revenues which had so far flowed Rome-ward in the form of annates, Peter's pence, pensions, and fees. Not unwilling that his people should understand how little authority there was for the papal supremacy which he had overthrown, Henry issued the Bible in the vernacular, and towards the close of his reign allowed certain parts of divine service, such as the Creed and the Lord's Prayer, to be recited in English. Once in Henry's reign the European situation held out the prospect of union between Lutheran Germany and 68 A Short History of Europe England. A papal Bull of excommunication against Henryhad been drafted in 1535, and in 1539 there was danger that it might be executed by a Catholic crusade in which the Emperor, France, and Scotland would participate. In these circumstances Thomas Cromwell, who succeeded Wolsey in Henry's confidence after the Cardinal's fall, saw in the Schmalkaldic League a useful weapon against Charles in Germany, and negotiated a marriage between Henry and Anne, sister of William, duke of Cleves. The marriage took place in 1540. But Henry dissolved it six months later, and the hope of an Anglo-German agreement based on the Augsburg Confession was defeated by Henry's unbending orthodoxy for the Act of the Six Articles (1539) took under royal protection the doctrine of Transubstantiation, a celibate clergy, and other characteristics of the Roman Church which Lutheranism ; vehemently opposed. The death of Henry in 1547 removed one who has been " Orthodox Erastian," that is, one who redescribed as an mained true to the doctrines of the old Church while asserting the authority of the state in his person over the English branch His son Edward VI 's minority left the government in of it. the hands of his uncle, the duke of Somerset, whose sympathies were Lutheran. Many theologians from Germany and Switzerland made their way to England in the hope of influencing the movement. But though the Act of the Six Articles and earlier statutes against heretics were repealed, and in 1549 an Act of Uniformity imposed an English liturgy, the First Prayer Book of Edward VI, Cranmer's work therein owed little to After the fall of Somerset, his successor, the duke of Northumberland, for his own purposes desired to carry the Protestant movement in England further, and under Zwinglian influence a new liturgy was drawn up and was enforced by a second Act of Uniformity (1552). The foreign influence. early changes in Edward's reign probably had been popular with the majority of Englishmen. The unpopularity of the is patent from the ease with which Mary Tudor put down her Protestant rival, Lady Jane Grey. Her brother's later ones reign had witnessed the excesses of Protestant zeal. Her own reign occasioned even greater Roman Catholic intolerance. Englishmen had no liking for either extreme, and the wisdom of Elizabeth and her advisers gave England a Church which The Lutheran Reformation 69 all but the extremists could own, Protestant in much of the stately retained which a with but liturgy doctrine, ritual of the old Church, and a constitution which allowed the bishops to exercise that influence in Church and State which had distinguished them for centuries a national Church whose head on earth was the chief of the State. Such was the English Church which the Stewarts received from the Tudors. The Puritan revolt in the seventeenth century was at once the test and vindication of the wisdom of those who call their — fashioned it. CHAPTER V ZWINGLI AND CALVIN The Reformation radiated from two centres, Germany and Switzerland. England stood aloof from both and pursued a course of her own. Scotland, guided by John Knox, laid her reformed Church on Genevan or Calvinist foundations, and the French and Dutch Protestants were similarly influenced. It was the characteristic of Calvinist Protestantism that it was everywhere insurrectionary, whereas Lutheranism marched with and not in opposition to the civil power. In Scotland the Protestant Lords of the Congregation took arms against the Regent, Mary of Lorraine, and established the Reformation in defiance of their queen, Mary Stewart. The French Calvinists, or Huguenots (probably from the German Eidgenossen = coniedeT3ites) also pitted themselves against the civil power. In the Dutch Netherlands Calvinism assisted the birth of a new State, the United Provinces, the fruit of , revolt against Spain. The Swiss Cantons in the Reformation period were thirteen number. In the centre, about Lake Lucerne, lay the three round which the Confederation grew up, Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden. On the west, towards France, were Lucerne, Berne, and Freiburg. On the Rhine and bordering Germany were Basle, Solothurn, Schaffhausen, Zurich, Apj^enzell. Contiguous to Schwyz were Zug and Glarus. In addition to the thirteen cantons were allied districts the Valais, the town and abbey of St. Gall, the Graubimdcn (orGrisons), the League of the Ten Jurisdictions, and the League of God's House in the in : Engadine. The Confederation attained to the full number of twenty-two cantons in the European settlement of 1815. After the Perpetual League in 1291 the confederated cantons acquired the respect of their neighbours by their 70 Zwingli and Calvin 71 successful warfare against the Habsburgs. In 1474 Louis XI secured their services as mercenaries, and when the ambition of Charles VIII of France made Italy the battle-ground of French and German interests, the assistance of the Swiss, whose geographical position rendered their participation so convenient, was sought by both sides. Charles VIII, Louis XII, the Popes, Venice, and Savoy solicited their alliance. With the Empire they concluded a treaty in 151 1 which placed Franche Comte under their observation. Four years later, at Marignano (15 15), Francis I inflicted a crushing defeat upon them, and in 1516 secured the Everlasting Peace, in which the Swiss undertook not to furnish the enemies of France with mercenaries. Their participation in the Habsburg-Valois war in Europe had a baneful effect upon the Swiss. The activity of the commerce Confederation was directed to the career of arms ; and agriculture languished a mercenary spirit was enand the European struggle dominated their civic gendered The Reformation, on the other hand, encouraged interests. a sense of patriotism. Their close relations with Italian politics made the Swiss familiar with papal duplicity, and the Conciliar movement for ecclesiastical reform was not strange to a people in whose midst the Councils of Constance and Basle had assembled. The man who played Luther's part in Switzerland was Ulrich Zwingli, who was born early in 1484, a few weeks after Luther. Zwingli's youth was not attended by the poverty His father was the bailiff, and which hampered Luther. an uncle the priest, of Wildhaus, a village in the valley of Toggenburg on the east of the Lake of Zurich. Other relatives were in the Church, and to its service Ulrich was dedicated in his early years. His means allowed him to proceed for his education to Basle, Berne, and Vienna. In 1504 he graduated at Basle, and after two years spent as a schoolmaster was ordained to the charge of Glarus. Probably on two occasions he accompanied the Glarus contingent on their Italian campaigns. He is said to have been present at Marignano, and his experiences convinced him of the disaster which threatened Switzerland from the mercenary employment of her sons. In 15 1 8 he was called to the charge of the minster church of ; ; Ziirich. A 72 Short History of Europe To what extent Luther influenced Zwingli is a debated point. Like Luther, ZwingU's first pubHc protest was against His influence procured the the sale of an Indulgence. rejection of France's request for mercenaries in 1521, and in 1522 Ziirich discountenanced foreign service altogether. He attacked the abuses of the Church, the monastic system, fasting, tithes, the doctrine of Purgatory, and Invocation of He rejected a celibate ministry, and himself took a Saints. In 1523, the year after Luther's emergence from the wife. Wartburg, Zwingli held at Ziirich a public disputation with Johann Faber, the vicar-general of Constance, his most able The result was favourable to Zwingli, and opponent. established his influence over the municipality of Ziirich. Later in the same year, at a second disputation at Ziirich, Zwingli maintained his views against the use of pictures and images in churches, and also against the Mass. The outcome disputation was Zwingli's Short Introduction to Christian Doctrine, published in 1523, which set forth his opinions on the Mass, and was circulated with immediate In defiance of the bishop, and through the authority results. of the municipal council of Ziirich, Zwingli carried the abolition of the religious Houses, the disuse of images and organs in churches, the abolition of the Mass in 1525, and the institution of the Lord's Supper, not as a sacrament, but as a social gathering or commemoration. The progress of the Reformation in Ziirich was viewed with alarm by the Catholic cantons, Uri, Lucerne, Schwyz, Unterwalden, and Zug especially as Zurich enforced her innovations upon the Common Lands in the Aargau and Thurgau, over which she held only joint authority with other cantons. In 1524 the five cantons leagued with Freiburg for the suppression of heresy. Berne, Basle, and Schaffhausen followed Ziirich, while Glarus and Appenzell were divided. Switzerland was rent by two hostile organisations, the Christian Union of the Catholic cantons, and the Christian Civic League of the Protestants. A general war was averted by the first Peace of Kappel in 1529, which conceded liberty to each canton to adopt the religion agreeable to its inhabiBut the Catholic cantons refused the right of free tants. preaching which Zwingli and his allies were determined to At the battle of enforce, and in 1531 war broke out. of the ; Zwingli and Calvin Kappel Zwingli was slain. 73 The second Peace of Kappel each canton to manage its own (1531) confirmed the right of religious affairs, and Catholic minorities received protection. Thus Zwingli not only failed to establish Protestant uniformity in the Confederation, but was practically the cause of the dissolution of the old federal constitution. In 1586 Lucerne, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, Solothurn, and Freiburg " formed the Borromean League" for the maintenance of the Uri, Catholic faith. On many points Zwingli was at one with Luther. The fundamental point of difference between them was their interpretation of Christ's words when instituting the Last Supper: "This is My Body." The Roman Catholics interpreted the words literally, and held that the elements of bread and wine were actually Christ's Flesh and Blood {Transubstantiai.e. the change of the elements into another substance). Luther, while unable to accept the Roman doctrine in its fullest mystery, held that the Flesh and Blood of Christ were present with the bread and wine {Consubstantiation) Zwingli rejected both Transubstantiation and Consubstantiation. He " " is in Christ's declaration as equivainterpreted the word " lent to signifies," and the Eucharist as merely a commemorative feast. For that reason Zwingli has been called " " the of the Reformation. Again, revolutionary theologian while Lutheranism placed the Reformation under the control of the territorial princes, Zwingli carried his innovations with In both the consent of his fellow-citizens in the republic. characteristics Calvin followed his predecessor. John Cauvin or Calvin was born at Noyon in Picardy in 1509, the year of Henry VIII's accession to the throne of tion, . England, and was junior to both Luther and Zwingli by The descendant of bargemen on the river twenty-five years. Oise, Calvin's father settled at Noyon and held a reIn 1523 sponsible position under the bishop of Noyon. Calvin proceeded to Paris as an Arts student in the University. Thence he passed to Orleans (1528) and Bourges (1529) to study law, his father having decided against a clerical career He there came under the influence of the writings of Erasmus and Luther, and the persecution of the Protestants by Francis I completed his break with a Church from which for him. since 1532, when he published his first work, De dementia, 74 A Short History of Europe he had been steadily drifting. settled at Basle. In 1534 he left France and At Basle, where Erasmus and John Hausschein (CEcolampadius) had lived and worked, Calvin found himself in a Protestant atmosphere, and two years after his arrival, being then twenty-six years of age, he published (1536) his greatest work, the ChristiancB Religionis Institutio, and dedicated it to Francis I. In a preface he challenged the king's intolerance, asserted the loyalty of himself and those who shared his views, and claimed liberty of thought for the individual. The body of the book sketched his programme of ecclesiastical reform. Like Luther, Calvin admitted no authority superior to that of Holy But whereas the more Scripture. conservative Luther was willing to accept what was not forbidden by the Bible, Calvin, and Zwingli also, required positive Biblical sanction as the condition of their concurrence. Like Luther, Calvin upheld faith as the ground of But he qualified Luther's position by holding justification. that faith is a gift of God conferred or withheld irrevocably every soul entering the world with its salvation or damnation ; The sesthetic accompanialready decreed {Predestination). ments of public worship Calvin put aside. His pastor or minister was the elected mouthpiece of the congregation in prayer to God, and in the pulpit their instructor and monitor. Having finished his book, Calvin visited France for the last time, and on his return to Switzerland passed through Geneva, which two months earlier had abjured the jurisdiction of its bishop and the ancient Church. The Council of citizens was supreme, and seized the occasion of Calvin's visit to appoint him (1536) colleague of the chief pastor of the city. Calvin regarded the call as from God, and with Geneva the rest of his He set himself forthwith to life was intimately bound up. organise its Church, drew up a Short Catechism or Confession of Faith based on his Institutio, organised a mixed board of ministers and magistrates to superintend the moral deportment of the citizens, and excluded those who were unworthy from the monthly celebrations of the Lord's Supper. But Calvin's discipline proved irksome to the Genevans, and in 1538 sentence of banishment was passed upon him. For three years Calvin was debarred from returning to He first withdrew to Basle, and then accepted Geneva. Zwingli and Calvin a call 75 to a congregation of French Protestant refugees at Eventually Geneva experienced a revulsion of Strassburg. For some months feeling and Calvin was invited to return. he declined. But yielding to the supplications of his friends, he returned to Geneva in 1541, which under him became the In spite of opposition, capital of Protestantism in Europe. his death in 1564 Calvin ruled Geneva with absolute till power. duced He gave its Church an organisation which was reproand the Netherlands. His Ordon- in France, Scotland, nances Ecclesiastiques established a Consistory, composed of six ministers and twelve laymen or elders appointed by the municipal council, which met every week. Though its authority was nominally limited to matters of religion and morality, yet Calvin's view of Geneva as a ChurchState conveyed the government of the city to its keeping. The private life of every citizen was regulated by it, levity of dress and manner was corrected, attendance at public worship and the Lord's Supper was enforced, and heresy was punished as treason. To the education of the young Calvin attached first importance, a characteristic which distinguished the daughter Church in Scotland, and before ordination his ministers were obliged to satisfy ministerial examination and popular approbation. Geneva possessed a College or School and an Academy or University. At the former youths were carefully trained in the humanities and, through Calvin's Catechism, the To the Academy there flocked over Europe, especially from France, from whose number Calvin was able to supply ministers to congregations founded in accordance with his principles in France and elsewhere. It has been said of Calvin that he was the one Reformer whose influence was international. His unflinching dogmatism appealed to the determined opponents of Rome, whom Luther's more conservative attitude failed to satisfy. He was also one of the most learned men of his time, a commentator and expounder of the Bible, a great educationist, and through his French version of the Institutio, which has been described " as the first book written in French which can be described as logically composed," a father of the French language and in the principles of their faith. men from all literature. With France naturally Calvin's relations were most inti- A 76 Short History of Europe Two years after his death Geneva had sent upwards of 150 ministers to serve French Protestant congregations, of which at the time of his death there are said to have been some two thousand. A generation, however, had still to elapse before the persecuted French Protestants received liberty to exercise their religion without molestation. Unlike Germany, Switzerland, and Scotland, the Reformation in France never became a national movement. The exceptional relations of the French Church to the Papacy deprived that country of the patriotic incentives which operated in Germany and England. Her Church's liberties were assured by the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges in 1438, and the Concordat of 15 16 gave to the crown of France mate. ecclesiastical patronage. Under the impulse of the Renaissance Frenchmen turned The man who upon the Church's abuses. first called his countrymen to reflect and reform was the humanist Jacques Lefevre, who like Calvin was a native of Picardy and a student at the University of Paris. Abandoning secular studies when he was about fifty years old, Lefevre their gaze published in 15 12 a Latin version of St. Paul's Epistles, with a commentary wherein he anticipated Luther's opinions regarding justification by faith and his denial of the doctrine of Transubstantiation. Lefevre asserted the exclusive authority of Holy Scripture, rejected a celibate ministry, and condemned the offering of prayers in a dead language. Ten years later he published a Commentary on the Gospels, whose Preface has been called " the Manifesto of the French Reformation," and demanded that religion should build itself solely on the revealed word of God. To Lefevre also France owes vernacular versions of the Old and New Testaments and of the Psalms. The teaching of Lefevre was admitted forthwith into the diocese of Meaux, of which his pupil Guillaume Bri9onnet was The king's sister, Margaret duchess of Alcn9on, was in sympathy with his views, and her influence with the king allowed Bri^onnet to invite Lefevre himself to his diocese. bishop. But meanwhile Luther had sounded a note which reverberated throughout Europe. In 1521 the Sorbonne, the Faculty of Theology in the University of Paris, condemned Luther's writings, and the Paris Parlement ordered those possessed Zwingli and Calvin 77 them up or submit to fine or imprisonIn 1523 the suppression of Lefevre's Commentary was ordered, and Lefevre was cited to answer charges of heresy preferred against him. His New Testament was condemned to be burnt, and he himself went into exile (1525). For nine years Francis I pursued a vacillating policy, though he showed himself not unfavourably inclined towards the Protestants, corresponded w4th Melanchthon, and contemplated putting him at the head of the College de France. But in 1533 the delivery in the University of Paris of a Rectorial address (of which Calvin was the author) of doubtful orthodoxy roused Francis, whose interests inclined him to be on good terms with the Papacy. The following year (1534) the more fanatical of the reformers completed the king's estrangement from their party. One autumn morning the thoroughfares of Paris and other towns were placarded with " True Articles concerning the monstrous abuses of the popish of his writings to deliver ment. A Mass," coarse and scurrilous. placard was actually affixed to the door of the king's bedroom at Amboise. Indignation was general, and vigorous measures were demanded against the Protestants. A great number of persons were imprisoned and more than twenty were burnt. The persecution of the Vaudois of Provence was prosecuted with increased fervour, and many were martyred for their faith. At length, in 1535, the king issued the Edict of Coucy (where he then was), ordering the persecution to cease and inviting Protestant exiles to return. It was at this crisis, when the two religions in France had drawn apart beyond the hope of reconciliation, that Calvin's InstituHo appeared (1536). So far French Protestantism had directed itself to the remedy of practical abuses. But Calvin's InstituHo was forthwith adopted by the Huguenots as their charter and as the vindication of their Protestantism. With it the French Reformation, which had so far been the expression of profound unrest, became a veritable revolution. The ParleCalvin's pronouncement roused his opponents. ment of Paris ordered copies of it to be confiscated and burnt. The Sorbonne drew up articles to refute it, and Francis ordered more stringent measures to be taken against its professors. At Meaux, where the Protestants had organised The Fourteen of Meaux a church, fourteen persons — — A 78 Short History of Europe Other persons were burnt in Paris and and upon the unhappy Waldenses or Vaudois the full vengeance of the Catholics was allowed to fall (1545). Their villages were burnt and some three thousand persons were put to death. elsewhere, were massacred. Had his secular policy allowed him to give expression to probable that Francis I would have shown favour to the Protestants. His son and successor it his ambition so to act that Henry II (1547-59) declared " Had not Henry II reigned, the posterity should say Church would have perished." The reading of the Bible was forbidden, public employment was closed against all but those who could furnish a certificate of orthodoxy, and informers were encouraged to denounce suspects by the promise of one- his preferences, it is : A new criminal third of their victim's confiscated property. court was created, which justified its popular name, La Chambre Ardente. In two years it sent probably one hundred persons to the stake. But for the resistance of the Paris Parlement the Mary Stewart's uncle, Inquisition would have been set up the Cardinal of Lorraine, had already received from the Pope his appointment as Grand Inquisitor. ; Persecution yielded its invariable result. The Huguenots grew in numbers and resolution. In particular in Languedoc, Dauphine, Guyenne, Saintonge, Poitou, and Normandy their number In 1555 they organised themselves in congregations, following the plan of Calvin at Strassburg twenty years earlier. Paris set the example. In the following ten years more than one hundred pastors were sent from Geneva to serve the French Protestant increased. churches or churches. Before the death of Henry in 1559 two princes of the royal House, Antony of Bourbon, king of Navarre by his marriage with Jeanne d'Albret, and his brother Conde, as well as members of the noble families of France, the Admiral Gaspard de Coligny among them, joined the persecuted Church. Their adhesion gave an entirely new character to French Protestantism. Led by the nobles it offered armed and the French Wars of Religion began. The reign of the sickly Francis II (1559-60), the husband of Mary Stewart, was short but decisive in the relations of the two religions. A few weeks before his accession the Protestant resistance, churches, about fifty in number, proceeded a step further in Zwingll and Calvin 79 organisation. They held their first Synod at Paris (i559)» adopted Calvin's Confession of Faith, and gave " " Colloquy unity to their organisation by instituting a or association of neighbouring congregations (analogous above it a Provincial to the Scottish Presbyteries) and a National Synod Synod or association of Colloquies The domination of or Association of Provincial Synods. the Guises, their unpopularity as foreigners, and their uncompromising hatred of the Protestants spurred the latter to meet violence with violence. Early in 1560 the Huguenots planned to seize Francis duke of Guise and his brother Charles Cardinal of Lorraine at Amboise, where the court then was. But the plot was betrayed, and the Tumult of Amboise, as it was called, was followed by severe reprisals. The death of Francis II in 1560 interrupted the power of the Guises, and the new king, Charles IX (1560-74), began his reign under the regency of his mother Catharine de' Medici. Herself indifferent to religion, it was her desire to rule She gave her confidence to the broad-minded tolerantly. Michel de I'Hopital, and in response to the representations of the States General at Orleans, the Concordat of 15 16 was abolished. The royal patronage over the Church was in effect conveyed to a commission of clergy and laity. Non-residence was forbidden. Animated by the desire to bring the rival religions to some agreement, the Regent in 1561 summoned a " " at Poissy. Theodore Beza was the spokesman Colloquy of the Calvinists, while the Cardinal of Lorraine headed an imposing phalanx of Cardinals, bishops, and doctors of the Sorbonne. The Colloquy failed to bring about the reconciliation which Catharine hoped for, but strengthened her resolve to secure toleration for the professors of the Calvinist In January, 1562, the Edict of January granted creed. to the Huguenots the right of free assembly elsewhere than within the walls of a city. Though it was the first public recognition of their Church, the Protestants could not regard the Edict as adequate, and it spurred their opponents to resistance. It needed but a spark to fire a conflagration, and a conflict at Vassy in March, 1562, between the local Calvinists and the duke of Guise, whose escort interrupted a Protestant service, gave the signal for a civil war which lasted for more than a generation. their ; ; A 8o Short History of Europe The French Wars of Religion were eight in number. were conchided by the Edict of Nantes they Beginning in 1598. Throughout those years France was in a hapless Commerce and industry were neglected. Neither plight. side scrupled to call in the foreigner, and France became what Italy had been and Germany was still to become, the cock-pit of Europe. In the first war (1562-63), though the Protestants obtained men and money from Elizabeth of England in return for the cession of Havre and Dieppe, the campaign at the outset went badly for them. The king of in 1562 Navarre was mortally wounded at an assault on Rouen delivered by Guise, and Conde was made prisoner at the But at the siege of Orleans, which Guise battle of Dreux. undertook, the duke was shot dead by a Protestant fanatic. Catharine seized the opportunity to negotiate a peace, and the Pacification of Amboise (1563) was accepted. The terms of it were somewhat less liberal than those of the edict of the for the localities in which the Protestants previous year might exercise their religion were restricted. For four years peace was not broken. But in 1565 an event took place which boded ill for the Protestants. Two years earlier the Council of Trent had completed its session, and the Roman Catholic world was eager for a forward movement The latter was against heresy under Philip II of Spain. ; chiefly anxious to extirpate heresy in the Spanish Netherlands, and realised the difficulty of doing so, so long as Calvinism maintained itself in France. In 1565, in the course of a tour, the French court arrived at Bayonne, where Charles and his mother were visited by the Spanish queen and the duke of Alva on behalf of Philip, who was anxious to draw the French court into a Catholic League. To what extent the interview moulded the intolerant policy which Catharine eventually adopted cannot be determined, but Protestants in France and the Netherlands attributed to it the persecution which followed. The march of Alva to the Netherlands in 1567 stirred the Conde and Coligny, who formed a plan for the But their attempt capture of the young king's person. The Enterprise of Mcaux did not succeed, and the second civil war (1567-68) followed. In the course of it the Huguenots obtained possession of Rochelle, which enabled them to keep suspicions of — — Zwingli and Calvin in touch with their well-wishers in England. course of the war was indecisive, though the 8i But the general Peace of Longwhich terminated it confirmed the Treaty of Amboise. Within a few months the two parties were again in arms. A plot to seize Conde and Coligny failed, but at Jarnac (1569) the former was killed, and at Moncontour Yet in spite (1569) Coligny was severely defeated. of their ill-success in the field, the Peace of Saint-Germain (1570), which brought the third war (1568-70) to an end, accorded the Huguenots more favourable terms than so far they had obtained. They were permitted the public exercise jumeau (1568) of their religion in two cities in each of France's twelve Rochelle, Montauban, Cognac, and La Charite were given up to them, and the public services were declared provinces. open to them. The Peace of 1570 promised to conclude the unhappy war. Coligny was admitted to the Royal Council and to the favour of the king. At the same time a marriage was arranged between the king's sister Margaret and Henry of Bourbon, son of the queen of Navarre, and heir to the throne of France In 1572 the failing issue to Charles IX and his brothers. marriage was celebrated at Paris, and Coligny and a host of Huguenot nobles and gentlemen attended the ceremony. Whether the events which followed were unpremeditated or the result of a deep-laid plot is still doubtful. Catharine perhaps was anxious to withdraw Charles IX from Coligny's influence, and Spanish and Guise interests favoured any means to stamp out heresy. Four days after the Bourbon marriage Coligny was shot at and wounded in Paris. Two days later, on the Feast of St. Bartholomew, Henry duke of Guise and other Catholic nobles with their retainers appeared in arms in the streets. Coligny was murdered in bed. Henry of Navarre was spared, but was compelled to abjure Protestantism. Before the day closed several thousand Huguenots had been massacred in Paris. Deprived of their leaders, the Huguenots took instant measures for their protection in the provinces, and the operations which followed constitute the fourth war (1572-73). The Huguenots threw themselves into Nimes, Montauban, and Sancerre, and in Rochelle maintained so vigorous a defence that the Peace of Rochelle (1573) again accorded to them, 11.— G 82 A Short History of Europe satisfactory terms ; Rochelle, Montauban, and Nimes were surrendered to them. On the anniversary of St. Bartholomew the Huguenots in Languedoc and Guyenne Hnked together on the Swiss model the cities in each area, with a central assembly at Nimes and Montauban respectively. To confront this revolutionary movement the advanced and uncompromising section of the Roman Catholic party formed a Catholic League under the direction of Henry of Guise (nicknamed Balafre, the scarred). Midway between these opposing camps were the Malcontents or Politiques or Peaceable Catholics, who, remaining faithful to the old Church, wished none the At their head less for tolerance and liberty of conscience. was the king's brother Francis duke of Alen9on (afterwards of Anjou). A union of the Huguenots and Politiques led to the fifth war (1574-76). Charles IX died while it was in progress, and the new king Henry III (1574-89) made peace (the Peace of Beaulieu, or of Monsieur) in 1576 upon terms moie favourable than the Huguenots so far had received. Outside Paris they were allowed unrestricted liberty to practise their worship. Eight towns {places de surete) were surrendered to them, and legal cases in which they were concerned were to be tried by a tribunal in which half of the judges were of the Protestant religion. The terms of the agreement were viewed with dismay by Guise and the extremists. The States General at Blois (1576) demanded that the public and private exercise of the Protestant religion should be forbidden, and the king's brother, Francis of Anjou, deserted the HugueIn these circumstances the Huguenots again resorted to arms, and the sixth war (1577) ended with the Peace of Bergerac, which gave them less favourable terms than those of the previous year. Three years of peace were followed by nots. the seventh war (1580), whose terminating treaty (Peace of Fleix) confirmed its predecessor. But in 1584 the situation was altered by the death of Anjou, the youngest of the sons of Henry II and Catharine de' Medici. His death made Henry of Navarre heir apparent to the crown of France, and the prospect of his succession stirred Guise and the League to a supreme effort. With Philip II of Spain Guise made the Treaty of Joinville (1585), a joint undertaking to exclude Henry of Navarre from the Zwingli and Calvin 83 throne and to vest the succession in the Cardinal of Bourbon. To Henry III was compelled to capitulate proscribed the practice of the Protestant religion, and the new Pope Sixtus V declared Navarre incapable of succeeding to the throne of France. Navarre perforce took " The War of the three Henries " arms, and the eighth civil war, The king, divided between the desire to (1585-89) began. break the League and to repress the Huguenots, after finding himself the prisoner of the League in Paris, where Guise's partisans raised barricades and confined him to the Louvre, contrived Guise's assassination (1588). Guise's brother, the Cardinal of Guise, was put to death the following day. His treachery lost Henry the allegiance of the Catholics and compelled him to seek an accommodation with Henry of Navarre. In 1589 a treaty was agreed to, in which the king promised to refrain from molesting the Huguenots, while this powerful league (1585). He Navarre undertook to support the king. Together they marched on Paris, but on the eve of the assault the king died, the victim of an assassin (1589). His death ended the House of Valois, which had ruled France since 1328. The death of Henry III gave the crown by hereditary succession to Henry of Navarre, Henry IV (1589-1610). But The League was powerful, and his position was precarious. Henry, though he undertook not to press the claims of Protestantism unduly, was not yet prepared to adopt the religion of the majority of his subjects. The League therefore refused to recognise him, and while one section of it brought forward the Cardinal of Bourbon, another preferred the duke of Mayenne, the brother of the murdered Guise, Henry IV therefore had to win both capital and kingdom. At the battles of Arques (1589) and Ivry (1590) he proved his superiority over Mayenne, and in 1590 the Cardinal of Bourbon died. In the Edict of Mantes (1591) Henry sought without success to propitiate the Catholics by acknowledging theirs as the established religion. Two years later (1593), for his religious convictions were not very profound, Henry abjured Protestantism and thereby won the allegiance of a nation preponderantly Roman Catholic. In the following year he recovered Paris. In 1598 the Peace of Vervins relieved him of the hostility of Spain, and Henry sat secure, master of his king- dom. A 84 Short History of Europe Having relieved France of external dangers, Henry in 1598 published the Edict of Nantes and brought the religious wars to an end. The Huguenots, as the result of various edicts since Henry's accession, already possessed the right of public worship in 200 towns, 3000 castles, and also (with the chief exception of Paris) in one town in each bailliage or senechausse throughout the kingdom. The Edict of Nantes confirmed the rights of public worship already accorded, and extended them to two places in each bailliage or senechaussS, and to a number whom of the nobility of lesser jurisdiction the privilege than those to had yet been accorded. Protestant schools and colleges were sanctioned, towards which the king contributed funds. Full civil rights and public offices were thrown open to Huguenots. To hear causes in which they were concerned a special chamber was established in the Paris Parlement, and chambres mi-parties in the provincial Parlem ments of Toulouse, Grenoble, and Bordeaux, in which the two religions were equally represented on the bench. In addition to these concessions, the Huguenots were allowed for eight years (prolonged to 161 2) to retain in their hands the towns and garrisons, 200 in number, then held by them, and received public funds for their maintenance. The Edict of Nantes was blemished by obvious defects. It afforded only partial toleration, and on that ground failed to satisfy those to whom it was accorded. Yet, having regard to the fact that the Huguenots represented only a small fraction of the population of France, the surrender to them of so many towns and fortresses was in excess of their rights, and tempted them to carry further a tendency to political Hence their segregation which had already shown itself. treatment at the hands of Richelieu, who deprived them of their strongholds and paved the way for their repression by Louis XIV. Calvinism in the Netherlands underwent a more searching test, and the full resources of the Counter-Reformation were brought to bear upon it, in circumstances which will be deThe Netherlands were the tailed in the following chapter. richest part of the territory of the Burgundian Duke Charles the Bold, whose daughter's marriage to Maximilian I brought them into the possession of the Habsburgs and so of Charles V and his son Philip II of Spain. Coextensive with the Zwingli and Calvin 85 of Belgium and the Netherlands, the Spanish Netherlands, or Low Countries, consisted of the seventeen provinces which Charles V united under his rule. Four of them were duchies (Brabant, Gelderland, Limburg, Five were lordships (Friesland, Overyssel, Luxemburg). Mechlin, Groningen, Utrecht). Seven were counties (Flanders, modern kingdoms One Artois, Hainault, Holland, Zeeland, Zutphen, Namur). (Antwerp) was a marquisate. To the south of the Meuse the population was French or Flemish. In the north, where the Reformation took root, the German stock, Dutch and Flanders was wealthy and industrial. Frisian, prevailed. In the north the population was relatively poor and made its livelihood from the sea, which threatened constantly to overwhelm it. On a soil already prepared by Erasmus and the humanists Luther's challenge to Rome found a sympathetic response, and the Augustinian convent at Antwerp became the centre of In 1521, Charles V Lutheran activity and propaganda. issued his first edict against Lutheranism in the Netherlands and ordered the burning of Lutheran literature. Next year (1522) the Inquisition was organised for the suppression of heresy, and in 1523 two of the Antwerp brotherhood were Successive burnt, the first martyrs of the Reformation. " " Placards edicts or against Protestantism culminated in the Perpetual Edict of 1550, and many hundreds of Protestants had lost their lives before Philip II embarked upon Calvinism and Anabaptism had taken firm hold on the Netherlands when in 1555 Philip succeeded his father with a resolute intention to eradicate every suspicion of heresy. A war which established the independence of the Protestant Netherlands was the result. In Scotland the seed of the Reformation fell on ground Nowhere else was the particularly prepared to receive it. Church so inert and secular. Nowhere else was so large a Its proportion of the national resources absorbed by it. richest benefices were not infrequently in the hands of laymen whom the king desired to reward, or of his base-born more drastic courses. children for whom he had to provide. Ecclesiastical titles did not extinguish lay interests among those who feU at Flodden were an archbishop, two abbots, and a bishop. Lollardy early found an entrance into Scotland, and in or — 86 A Short History of Europe about 1406 James Resby, an Englishman of Wykliffe's school, was burnt at Perth for heresy. Hussitism also exerted its influence, and in 1433 Paul Craw of Prague was burnt at the " stake. In 1494 thirty persons, the Lollards of Kyle," were summoned on a charge of heresy in Ayrshire. The writings of Luther also influenced Scotland. In 1525 an Act was passed forbidding their importation, and three years later (1528) Patrick Hamilton, abbot of Feme, was burnt at St. Andrews. He was the protomartyr of the Scottish Reformation. John Knox dated the Reformation in Scotland from the death of Patrick Hamilton. But its progress and ultimate victory were delayed by the fears which the aggressive policy of England aroused in the reigns of Henry VIII and Edward VI. James V's widow, Mary of Lorraine, ruled Scotland as Regent for her daughter Mary Stewart with all the devoIn tion of her family (the Guise) for the ancient Church. Cardinal Beton she found one whose zeal matched her own, until his condemnation of the reformer George Wishart was followed by his own assassination in 1546. The Cardinal's assassins threw themselves into the castle of St. Andrews and were joined by John Knox, who was already known to the Regent as a heretic and a friend of England. On the fall of the castle, Knox and its garrison were sent to France (1547), where the reformer spent a year and a half as a galley-slave. became one of Upon his release Knox proceeded to England, Edward VI's chaplains, and was offered the The Catholic reaction which attended Tudor placed him in grave jeopardy, way to Switzerland, he came conclusively bishopric of Rochester. the accession of Mary and making his under the influence of Calvin. did not revisit Scotland until 1555, when his fearless preaching gained converts, and the Reformation proceeded apace. In 1557 the first Covenant was signed by nobles and " others styling themselves The Congregation of Jesus Christ " " in antagonism to the Congregation of Satan," as they termed the Church of Rome. Therein they bound themselves to Knox set up the reformed faith in Scotland. Fruitlessly they petitioned the Regent to take the reformation of the Church in hand, and were answered by the burning at St, Andrews of Walter Milne, the last of the Scottish Protestant martyrs. But on the accession (1558) of Elizabeth to the English throne Zwingli and Calvin 87 the prospects of Scottish Protestantism brightened. MaryStewart's open assertion of her claim to the Enghsh crown induced EUzabeth to send help to the Congregation, and in 1560 their joint forces gave siege to Leith. The Regent died in the course of it. The Treaty of Edinburgh, which brought the campaign to an end, left Scotland under the control of the Congregation until the return of Mary Stewart from France, and Knox and his associates hastened to place the Reformed Church on a secure footing before the 3^oung queen's arrival. At a meeting of the Estates (1560) a Protestant Confession of Faith, the work of Knox and his colleagues, was accepted and ratified the jurisdiction of the Pope was overthrown doctrines and practices contrary to the new Confession were condemned and the celebration of the Mass was forbidden. So much had been accomplished when the return of Mary Stewart in 1561 exposed Scotland to the attack of the CounterReformation. ; ; ; CHAPTER VI SPAIN AND THE COUNTER-REFORMATION From the close of the fourteenth century the need for reform in authoritative quarters. Under Paul III (1534-49) the Papacy ranged itself on the side of the reformers and summoned the long-looked-for General Council for the correction of abuses. The reorganisation of the old and formation of new religious Orders, the Society of Jesus in particular, and the institution of the Inquisition, gave the Papacy powerful instruments in its counter-attack upon Protestantism. The Roman Church's onslaught upon heresy is the key to the international history of the second half of the sixteenth century, and its doughtiest champions were Philip II of Spain (1556-98) and the Guises in France. The Council which effected the reform of the Roman Church assembled in 1545 at Trent on the confines of Germany and The Council Italy, whence its delegates were chiefly drawn. sat, with two suspensions, until 1563, and closed the door Whereas in the interagainst a reunion of Christendom. pretation of the text of Scripture the Protestants employed all the resources of scholarship, the Council decreed the fourth century Latin translation of the Bible by St Jerome, known as the Vulgate, to be infallible, and the Church's interpretation of it to be authoritative. The Council rejected the Protestant doctrine of justification by faith, upheld the sacraments whose efficacy the Protestants challenged, and affirmed the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, a doctrine which Luther The Council accepted incompletely, and Calvin denied. forbade the marriage of priests, and permission to receive the chalice in Communion was not generally conceded to the laity. Against the Protestant contention that public worship " understanded of the ought to be conducted in a language was admitted 88 Spain and the Counter-Reformation 89 the people," the Council, holding it an indignity to address to refused of in vernacular the converse, ordinary Almighty discard Latin as the official language of the Church's liturgy. Nor were the veneration of the Virgin Mary and the saints and the use of Indulgences abandoned. On the other hand, the Council for the first time categoricIts discipline ally defined the belief of the Roman Church. and cohesion were strengthened. The supreme authority of the Papacy was admitted and affirmed. The more flagrant The excesses of its abuses were removed or mitigated. The abuses arising from financial system were corrected. the bishops pluralities and non-residence were considered, and and clergy were enjoined to preach regularly to their flocks. The episcopate was closed to all under thirty years of age, and the priesthood to all under twenty-five years. The institution of clerical seminaries removed the reproach which the Protestants had brought against the clergy of the unreformed Church as ignorant and uninstructed. Thus, though the Council set the Roman in determined antagonism to the Protestant Church, and vetoed the hope of a reunion of Christendom, it made the Roman Church stronger by defining its beliefs and centralising the discipline wherewith to enforce them. Rejected inevitably by the Protestant powers, the decisions of the Council {Decreta Tridentina) were accepted in The Catholic princes of Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Poland. the Empire adopted them at the Diet of Augsburg (1566). In France they were acknowledged by the clergy (161 5), though they were never formally ratified by the crown. While the Council was in session Paul III took out of the papal armoury an old weapon for use against heresy. In the thirteenth century Gregory IX had instituted (1233) a papal Inquisition to eradicate the Albigensian heresy, and entrusted Its work its execution to the Dominicans and Franciscans. had long been accomplished when, more than two centuries later, the Spanish sovereigns asked for its rehabilitation to aid their crusade against the Moors and Jews. The Papacy consented (1477), and the success of the Spanish Inquisition encouraged Paul III to fashion a similar institution for the whole In 1542 he established the Holy Office of the Universal Church, a commission of six cardinals being empowered to In Italy the act as Inquisitors to try all matters of faith. Church. A 90 Short History of Europe Holy Office rapidly accomplished its work, and prominent reformers, such as Peter Martyr, were obliged to leave the country. But a judicatory so secret and relentless could not be imposed upon the other Catholic States of Christendom without their consent. Though the Guises would fain have used it, and the Cardinal of Lorraine received from the Pope the title Grand Inquisitor, the opposition of the Paris Parle- ment kept the dreaded Inquisition out of France. Philip II of Spain, on the other hand, employed it with fanatical zeal throughout his wide empire. In the Netherlands especially the excesses perpetrated by it defeated the object for which it had been created. So far from Protestantism being cowed to surrender, it was nerved to resist a ruthless tyranny, and the loss to Spain of the United Provinces was the result. Less drastic, but effective in repelling the intrusion of heretical opinions, was the institution by Paul IV in 1559 of an Index of books which the faithful were prohibited from It enumerated the reading [Index Librorum Prohibitorum) names of the heresiarchs and other authors of harmful writThe Index met with ings, and the titles of prohibited books. much opposition, even in Italy, and was condemned by the Council of Trent. In its stead was issued in 1564 the Tridentine Index, which was very generally accepted, and cut off Catholic Europe for a time from the tide of advancing thought. Every crisis in the progress of the Church had been attended by a stirring of the religious Orders. In the eleventh century . the Cluniac movement supported the ideals of Gregory VII. Innocent III had with him the Dominicans and Franciscans, and now, at the moment when great tracts of Christendom had withdrawn from her obedience, and she herself was recognising the need of reform, the Roman Church, between the years 1 524-1 641, transformed the old religious Orders and created more than fifteen new ones. Among the old ones, the Carmelites, Benedictines, and Franciscans were reformed. From the latter sprang the Capuchins, so called from the hood or cowl which they wore. The new Orders for the most part took their origin in North Italy. Among them were the Theatines (1524), and the Barnabitcs (about 1530), by whom valiant work was done for the Church in Italy and elsewhere. But the most famous of the new Orders, the Society of Jesus (1540), gave the Papacy a more aggressive and potent force Spain and the Counter-Reformation 91 had ever possessed, and accompUshed for the Church generally what the Inquisition achieved in Italy. The founder of the Jesuits, Inigo Lopez de Recalde, a Basque of noble birth, was born at the castle of Loyola in Spain in 1491. He followed the tradition of his family by adopting a soldier's career, and was seriously wounded at the siege of Pamplona by the French in 152 1. A man of mystic temperament, the whole tenor of his life was changed by his He became a student of the Scriptures and of the illness. lives of St. Dominic and St. Francis of Assisi. Convalescence found him eager to free Jerusalem from the infidel, and thither he set out as a pilgrim. He returned to Spain with the than it ambition to follow the career of his countryman, St. Dominic, as a preacher. But he lacked education, and a course of Then he proceeded University study in Spain followed. to the University of Paris, where he gathered round him a small band of visionaries, among them Francis Xavier, the Apostle of the Indies. The recovery of Jerusalem was their ambition, and in 1537 Loyola and his companions were at Venice on their way thither. But the war between the Republic and the Turks prevented their design, and Loyola proceeded to Rome to place himself at the disposal of the still Papacy. In 1540 Paul III accepted his proffered service and the Society of Jesus was founded. Its members were the militia of the Holy See, acting wherever the Pope directed them, and obeying with implicit obedience the General of the Order, Loyola himself being the first. The constitution of the Society developed gradually. Originally limited to sixty members, it was found necessary within three years of its foundation to remove the restriction. As novices the members of the Order were carefully set apart and educated to fulfil the particular career, whether religious or secular, which their superiors assigned to them. At the head of the Order was the General, who was himself supervised by an elected Admonitor and six elected Assistants (one each for Germany, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Poland). The operations of the Order were divided into Provinces, each administered by a Provincial. Its constitution was monarchical, but was a monarchy constitutional and limited. The General Congregation elected the General and alone could alter the constitution. The General could be deposed by the General it A 92 Short History of Europe Congregation, and in cases of urgency by the Assistants. In imitation of the Theatines, the Jesuits rejected the monastic habit. Nor were they tied to the conventual hfe. Their work was in the world among their fellow-men, and their influence was exerted in the pulpit, the confessional, and the arena of diplomacy. In the schoolroom they were the most efficient teachers of the young whom Europe had yet seen. Whatever the nature of their work, their success was particularly due to their severance alike from secular and monastic ties, the abandonment of their members to the spirit of the motto of the Order, ad maiorem Dei gloriam {" to the greater glory of God "), and the unswerving obedience to superior authority to which they were pledged. of the Society was rapid. When Loyola died embraced fourteen Provinces in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and their colonies, and possessed more than one hundred colleges and houses. North of the Alps its progress was less The growth in 1556 it active until after the Council of Trent rose in 1563. It then to Rome lost ground in South Germany, Bavaria, won back and the Habsburg territories. In the Belgian Netherlands In France it encountered much it was equally successful. opposition before it was able to found its chief college at Clermont (1564). In England, Scotland, and the Scandinavian kingdoms it actively seconded the efforts of the CounterReformation, though without success. In the mission-field it Francis Xavier was the Apostle spent itself with devotion. of India, China, and Japan, and at a later time the Jesuits made Canada their mission-field. In Philip II, who ascended the throne of Spain in 1556, the year of Loyola's death, the Catholic reaction found a prince who in the spirit of narrowest bigotry acted as its champion. Among his contemporaries none could boast resources comparable to his. Outside Spain he was master of the greater part of Italy by virtue of his possession of Milan, the kingdom and Sardinia. He possessed Franche Comte, and the Low Countries or Netherlands. The America and all of South America that was not Portuguese belonged to him, and provided the wealth which supported his great enterprises in Europe. His marriage to Mary Tudor in 1554 gave him the crown matrimonial of of Naples, Sicily, Artois, Flanders, whole of Central Spain and the Counter-Reformation 93 England, and his wife could claim the titular crown of France. his hopes of attaching England permanently to his political interests and religion were disappointed by a childless union. In 1555 he left England for ever, and three years later Mary Tudor died (1558). In 1580 Philip found compensation in another quarter. The union of the Portuguese and Spanish kingdoms had for long been the ambition of the Spanish sovereigns, and intermarriages between the two royal houses had been frequent. Philip's mother was a Portuguese princess, the daughter of Manoel the Great, and upon the death of the childless Henry I of Portugal in 1580, Philip advanced a claim to the vacant throne, and by bribery and the display But of military force compelled the Portuguese to accept him as their sovereign. The union of the two kingdoms continued until 1640, when the House of Braganza restored to Portugal a national dynasty which endured until the deposition of Manoel II in 1910. While the union lasted, the colonial resources of Portugal swelled those of Spain in the hands of South America and the empire which Portugal had Philip. built up round the Indian Ocean and the Spice Islands increased Spain's resources, while in Portugal itself she acquired the finest Atlantic ports it was from Lisbon that the Great Armada sailed for the destruction of England. With justifi*' cation Philip's subjects could boast the proverb When Spain stirs the whole earth shakes." The arrival of Philip in Spain in 1559 and the accession of Mary Stewart's husband Francis II to the throne of France in the same year brought the political forces of the Catholic reaction into play. It was upon Elizabeth and England that their attack was concentrated, and the battle was fought round the English Channel and the North Sea. In the circle of England's defences were three weak places (i) Scotland, In the first, Mary Stewart, (2) the Netherlands, (3) the Ocean. herself the rightful queen of England if Elizabeth's asserted illegitimacy was maintained, menaced the Protestant settlement in Scotland and England alike. While Mary threatened England's northern front, Philip's attack upon the religion and liberties of the Netherlands threatened her on the east for if Protestantism were once dislodged in the Low Countries its maintenance in England would be in jeopardy. As to the Ocean, so long as Philip's galleons ruled the high — : : ; A 94 Short History of Europe seas, the position of the for were precarious. island-kingdom and all that stood it The accession of Mary Stewart to the throne of France was followed at once by the open assertion of her claim to Elizabeth's crown. Elizabeth therefore, abandoning her previous cautious policy, sent troops to Scotland to co-operate with the Protestant Lords of the Congregation, who were already in arms against the Regent, Mary's mother, Mary of Eorraine. The Treaty of Edinburgh (1560) crowned Elizabeth's inter- The French troops withdrew from vention with success. the Scottish Estates abolished the Pope's jurisScotland and diction the celebration of the Mass was forbidden the Calvinistic Confession of Faith was adopted as that of the Scottish Church. The death of her mother and of her husband in the same year {1560) swelled the tale of Mary Stewart's misfortunes. The Guise influence at the French court gave place to that of Catharine de* Medici, the queen mother, and in August, 1561, Mary Stewart returned Like her son at a later time, her policy was to Scotland. directed upon one absorbing object, to secure recognition as Elizabeth's heir. To that end she gave her hand to her cousin Lord Darnley, a naturalised Englishman, descended like herself from the first Tudor king of England, a Catholic, and next ; ; ; after herself in lineal succession to Elizabeth. The marriage took place in 1565, and from that moment the tragedy of her domestic career stood between Mary and the accomplishment of the task which Catholic Europe imposed on her. Darnley's vicious and weak character soon turned the queen's love to hatred, and disposed her to the intrigue with the earl of Bothwell which associated her, whether rightly or wrongly is immaterial, with the crime at Kirk o' Field which removed Darnley from Both well's path. Her marriage to Both well Defeated at Carberry Hill raised Scotland against her. (1567), Mary was forced to abdicate in her son James's favour. Her political career seemed at an end. But its most dangerous period as an agent of the Catholic reaction was still to come. In 1568, after nearly a year's imprisonment, Mary escaped from Loch I>even, encountered another defeat at Langside, and fled to England. There she lived, the pivot of every plot against Elizabeth, until her execution in 1587 ended her scheming life. Spain and the Counter-Reformation 95 During the four years which intervened between Charles V's abdication of the sovereignty of the Netherlands in 1555 and Philip's departure for Spain in 1559, Philip continued his father's measures. Charles's severe edict of 1550 against the Protestants was confirmed, and the civil judicatories remained subservient to the Inquisition. To the Netherlands Philip was a foreigner, and from the outset the object of general disHis manner was distant, his temper not conciliatory, trust. and after his departure in 1559 his measures and the means by which he supported them forced the conclusion that the provinces were ruled by and in the interests of a foreign state. The Low Countries had passed from the French Valois to the Austrian Habsburgs upon the death of Charles the Bold of Burgundy in 1477, through the marriage of his heiress Mary to the future Emperor Maximilian I. From Maximilian they descended to his son Philip the Handsome, and on Philip's death in 1506 to his son Charles of Ghent, afterwards the Emperor Charles V and king of Spain. In spite of his multifarious occupations Charles retained a particular interest in the land of his birth. He gave it political unity by making the provinces one and indivisible in the Pragmatic Sanction of Brussels (1549). He increased the provinces to seventeen in number by acquiring the duchy of Gelderland, the lordships of Friesland, Groningen, Utrecht, Overyssel, and the county of Zutphen. The counties of Artois and Flanders (and also Tournay, his conquest), which since the Treaty of Verdun (843) had been in allegiance to the crown of France, were released from that attachment by the Treaties of Madrid (1526) and Cambray (1529), and were among the fiefs which the Pragmatic Sanction of Brussels formed into a single and indivisible state. For its government Charles instituted a Council of Finance a Privy at Brussels three Councils Council to control the administration of law and justice [and a Council of State, with such wide and supervisory powers that it dwarfed the other two. The measures which Charles took for the repression of heresy in the Netherlands have been detailed. They and the heavy drain of men and money which his wars entailed roused murmurs which swelled to rebellion under the less sympathetic rule of his son. : ; ; Upon Regent his departure for Spain in 1559 Philip appointed as Margaret ducheso of of the Netherlands his half-sister, 96 A Short History of Europe But the real ruler and repository of Philip's conwas Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle, bishop of Arras, who for thirty years had been Charles V's chief adviser, and Parma. fidence whom Philip gave precedence over the nobility of the Netherlands by procuring for him a Cardinal's hat and the Primacy of the Netherlands. As the agent of an unpopular policy, Granvelle was the object of much distrust and hatred. Within the Council of State he was opposed by two Flemish nobles, the count of Egmont, the victor of St. Quentin, and William of Nassau, the head of a noble family of German He origin which had acquired great possessions in Brabant. also held the principality of Orange, whose owner had the status of a sovereign prince until the Treaty of Utrecht (17 13) attached Orange to the French crown. William's discreetness " " the Silent and Charles V's gained him the sobriquet From Philip he received a seat on the Council of favour. State and the Stadtholdership of Holland, Zeeland, and to Utrecht. The national resentment which Egmont and Orange voiced was based on the presence of Spanish troops in the country, the implacable prosecution of the laws against heresy, and Philip's fulfilment of his father's scheme for the increase of the Netherland bishoprics from four to seventeen. Both nobles resigned their command of Spanish regiments, absented themselves from the Council, and with count van Hoorn, Admiral of Flanders, petitioned Philip for Granvelle's disThe Regent also was tired of his domination, and in missal. 1564 Philip dismissed him. For a short time opposition to Philip and his government ceased. But in the summer of 1564 the king sent orders to enforce the decrees of the Council of Trent, which had held Loud its last meeting in December of the previous year. protests were raised in the Council of State, to which Orange and his colleagues had returned. Although he was a member of the Roman Catholic Church, Orange spoke eloquently for and Egmont proceeded to Spain to plead with Philip. His mission was fruitless, and in 1565 Philip sent insistent orders that his commands should be " This is the beginning of a fine tragedy," Orange is obeyed. to have said when the Council was informed of the reported liberty of conscience, king's insistence. Spain and the Counter-Reformation Indignation at the king's order was general. The 97 first step towards a national resistance to it was taken by the lesser nobles, gentry, and burghers. In 1566 they formed themselves into a confederacy whose programme was set forth in a document known " as The Compromise." Orange's younger brother, Lewis of Nassau, and more than two thousand Catholics and Protestants joined the Association, undertook to uproot the Inquisition, and to protect each other from " " Compromise persecution. It was resolved to submit the in conciliatory language to the Regent in the form of a *' Request," and a deputation of nearly 1000 persons pre- sented it to her. One of her attendants referred to them contemptuously as gueux (beggars), and the name was forthwith adopted for their party by the enemies of Spain. The presentation " " induced the Regent to moderate the execution of her brother's orders pending further directions from him. The result was a striking demonstration of the strength of the religion which Philip sought to suppress. Protestant preachers, for the most part Calvinists, preached openly to the people, and conventicles were held under the very eyes of the authorities. Popular excitement found expression in acts of violence. Infuriated Protestant bands fell upon the churches. Altars, images, windows, and pictures were destroyed. At Antwerp the treasures of the cathedral were destroyed or distributed among the rioters (1566), and in the northern provinces similar scenes were The outbreak alienated the moderate Catholics. enacted. But Orange was not of their number, much as he deprecated He was ready to take arms for the deliverance of violence. his country, and failing to convince Egmont that such a step was now inevitable, he left the Netherlands for Dillenburg, the German of the Request seat of his family (1567). Orange correctly gauged the situation ; for Philip now Netherlands to a scourging which stands among the most cruel in the history of the human race. submitted the Four months after Orange withdrew to Germany, the duke and a picked force, of Alva, the most able of Philip's generals, for the most part Spaniards, arrived in the Netherlands (1567) with powers which virtually superseded all other than his own. Garrisons of Spanish troops were placed in the chief towns. II. —H 98 A Short History of Europe Egmont and Hoorn, summoned to confer with Alva, were treacherously arrested and executed (1568). Orange's heir, Philip William, count of Buren, a student at the University of Lou vain, was kidnapped and sent to Spain. To deal with the rank and file of the heretics Alva set up a special court, the Council of Troubles, popularly known as the Council of Blood, over which he himself presided. Its activities extended over the whole of the seventeen provinces. Nearly two thousand persons were put to death by its orders in three months, and when its work was done Alva boasted that his victims numbered over 18,000. Orange, who had refused to obey a summons from Alva to appear before the Council of Troubles, proceeded to organise the military operations which Egmont had neglected to undertake. But his invasion of the Netherlands in 1568 proved the strength of Alva's position. For though his brother Lewis won a barren victory at Heiligerlee, Orange was signally defeated by Alva a few weeks later at Jemmingen. But the tide turned when it was realised that Alva and his master were vulnerable at sea. As a sovereign prince, Orange issued letters of " marque, and in 1569 some eighteen vessels, manned by SeaBeggars," were preying on the Spanish shipping in the narrow seas. England at first offered them the hospitality of her But on Philip's protest the privilege was withdrawn, ports. for in 1572 a large fleet and with important consequences of the Beggars, which had been denied access to a port in England, put into Brill for shelter, and finding no Spanish garrison, sent a force on shore, took the town, and held it for ; Flushing and other towns on the coast were similarly dealt with. Alva's authority ceased in Utrecht, Zeeland, Overyssel, and Friesland, except in garrisoned places, and a meeting of the Holland Estates at Dort (1572), while acknowledging Philip as their sovereign, voted Orange supplies to rid the country of the Spaniards. In the south, the sympathy of Charles IX enabled Lewis of Nassau to capture Mons. But the Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572) changed the drift of French policy. Lewis was forced to surthe prince of Orange. render the fortress, and its capitulation was followed by the extinction of anti-Spanish activity in the southern provinces. But the attempt to recover lost ground in the north proved arduous. For seven months Haarlem held out against the Spain and the Counter-Reformation Spaniards, and Alva suffered the loss of his fleet off 99 Enkhuyzen (1573)- Already in bad odour with his master for his failure to pacify the unhappy country, Alva now begged for his recall (1573). He was succeeded by Don Luis Requesens, who cherished hopes of a settlement. But in the opinion of Philip's repre- He demanded sentative, Orange's terms were impossible. the withdrawal of the Spaniards from the country, the restoration of public charters and liberties which Philip's rule had violated, and permission to Protestants to worship and preach unmolested. It was at this time (1573) that Orange became a member of the Calvinist communion. As a boy he had been brought up in the Lutheran faith. He became a Roman Catholic upon succeeding to his Orange title, and he now adopted the creed of the people whose deliverance from Spain he believed to be his appointed task. Requesens, his hopes of accommodation dissipated, made little headway in the task in which his predecessor had failed, though Lewis of Nassau and his brother Henry were defeated and slain in the battle of Mookerheide (1574). But in the north the Sea-Beggars held their own, captured Middleburg (1574), the last Spanish stronghold in Zeeland, and sailed through the opened dykes to relieve Leyden (1574), which for months had been besieged by the Spaniards. The University of Leyden was founded in memory of the deliver- but ance. In 1576 Requesens died suddenly, and Orange took the step towards the creation of the Republic of the United Provinces. At Delft (1576) the delegates of Holland and Zeeland formed a federal union, and conferred upon William the control of its financial and military resources. He was empowered to offer the Protectorate of the provinces to a foreign prince if that course seemed necessary. The Union of Delft, in fact, contemplated breaking all connection with Spain save the slender tie of allegiance. A fearful outbreak " of Spanish violence at Antwerp (1576), the Spanish Fury," in which thousands were done to death, brought an immediate expansion of the Delft Union in the Pacification of Ghent (1576), in which the other provinces also conferred powers upon Orange for the expulsion of the Spaniards. So deep was anti-Spanish feeling that the new Spanish governor, Don first lOO A Short History of Europe John of Austria, Philip's half-brother and commander of the fleet which had won the battle of Lepanto against the Turks five years before (1571), found it necessary to yield in order to obtain recognition of his authority. Early in 1577 he " Perpetual Edict," and undertook that the foreign signed the be withdrawn. Orange, accurately gauging should soldiery Don John's sincerity, held aloof from the recognition of him which the southern provinces accorded. He acted wisely for " Don John was soon discarded by those whom his Perpetual " to Edict sought placate. Though the Catholic provinces invited the Archduke Matthias, the brother of the Emperor, to Brussels (1577), and Orange himself resumed occupation of his Brussels palace, whence he had fled ten years before, he realised that when once their common need to shake off Spanish tyranny was satisfied, the southern provinces would draw apart from the northern Protestant group. The inevitable cleavage between them was carefully fostered by the able Alexander Farnese, duke of Parma, who succeeded Don John as governor in 1578. The Catholic provinces were warned that the Pacifica; tion of Ghent would tie them to toleration of heresy in their very midst. Farnese had his reward in 1579, in the Treaty of Arras for the protection of the Catholic religion and recon- with Spain. It was answered by the northern Union which Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, and Zutphen bound themselves to support religious toleration and resistance to Spain. The Union of Utrecht was followed by the issue of a ban against Orange, which set a price upon his head and offered a patent of nobility to any who should reWilliam in reply published lieve Philip of him (1581). " his Apology," a bitter indictment of Philip's misrule. At the Hague, representatives of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, ciliation of Utrecht, in Gelderland, Brabant (where Orange's influence was strong), and Flanders published an Act of Abjuration deposing Philip (1581) on the ground of his tyranny and misrule. Orange had already taken steps to procure the foreign aid necessary to support the Hague declaration of independence, and Francis duke of Anjou, the heir to the French throne and a suitor for the hand of Elizabeth of England, accepted the sovereignty of the Netherlands. The prospects of his candidature were destroyed by his own conduct. Chafing at the restraints Spain and the Counter- Refo^matl oh ici imposed on him, Anjou attempted to make himself master by coup de main. Early in 1583 his troops were let " loose in Antwerp and the city experienced the French A few months later that his Fury." Anjou, realising position was hopeless, returned to France, and death prevented Orange from looking elsewhere for another champion. Philip's ban had already encouraged one attempt upon Orange's life. In July, 1584, a young Burgundian named Balthasar Gerard shot him dead with a pistol bought by money which Orange had given to the assassin for bringing news of Anjou 's " death. His people mourned him as the Father of the He had been denied the country." privilege of building the fabric of the Republic. But his ability and doggedness had kept its cause alive, and the foundations of the edifice were truly his. Orange's eldest son Philip William was still in Spain. The dead prince's task in the Netherlands therefore devolved upon his second son Maurice, a youth of seventeen, who proved himself more than equal to the responsibility. But meanwhile the Estates of the northern provinces pursued Orange's design to secure foreign help. An offer of the protectorship of Holland and Zeeland and sovereignty of the other provinces to Henry III of France (1585) was not accepted. England was then approached, and Elizabeth was moved to action by the success of Parma in the districts south of the Meuse, and by his capture of Antwerp. In the hands of Spain the latter was a serious menace to England, and late in the year (1585) Elizabeth sent over her favourite, the earl of Leicester. He accepted the title of GovernorGeneral, displayed little tact, and had but little success in his administration. In 1587 he withdrew. The mistakes of her adversary saved Holland at this crisis. Parma was master of the country south of the Meuse. Foreign aid had proved of little help, and nothing seemed to stand between Spain and the complete reduction of the Netherlands. But Philip himself intervened to save the confederates. His resolution to coerce the Netherlands yielded for the moment to a passionate determination to humble his arch-foe Elizabeth, to avenge the damage which English sailors had done Spain upon the high seas and in her colonies, and now that Mary Stewart was no more, to strike for a kingdom whose lO'2 A Short H'istory of Europe crown he once had worn as king-consort. After the departure of Leicester, Parma was able to do Httle more than mark time Armada called him to take part in the projected invasion of England. France also, where the Protestant Henry IV came to the throne in 1589, involved Philip in a until the great fruitless war which contributed to save the Netherlands from their sovereign's vengeance. Hence the thirty years which followed the departure of Leicester witnessed the conclusive severance of the seven northern provinces from the Belgic group, and the Dutch Republic took form as a separate state. The agents in the work of construction were Orange's son, Maurice, and Orange's Johan van Oldenbarne veldt. The latter had been appointed Advocate of Holland in 1586, held office for more than thirty years, and was the spokesman of his province in the States General. Maurice had none of his father's genius friend, for affairs, but surpassed his father in military aptitude, and was one of the finest soldiers of his day. So soon as he was of age he was created Admiral and Captain-General of the Union, and before the end of the year 1589 had been appointed Stadtholder of all the seven federated provinces save Friesland, of which his cousin, William Lewis of Nassau, was Stadtholder, and Groningen, which came later into the Union. While Oldenbarneveldt's genius made the political joints of the Union work smoothly, Maurice organised its armies and conducted them to victory against the enemy. By 1594, as the result of four campaigns, Maurice practically wiped out the Spanish garrisons upon the territory of the Union and brought the province Groningen into it, of which William Lewis was appointed Stadtholder. Such successes had their reward, and in 1596 the United Provinces were recognised by France and England, with whom they made a triple alliance, the Union furnishing a considerable force in France as well as a larger army in the Netherlands for service against the common enemy. In 1598 France and Spain came to terms in the Treaty of Vervins, and Philip settled the sovereignty of the Belgic or Catholic Netherlands upon his daughter, the Infanta Isabella, and her husband the Austrian Archduke Albert, with the proviso that failing children to them the crown should revert to Spain a contingency which came to pass on the death of Isabella in 1633. In the autumn of 1598 Philip died. — Spain and the Counter-Reformation 103 Late in the year 1599 the new sovereigns of the Netherlands their entry into Brussels, and a desultory war with the provinces of the Union followed. Both sides were thoroughly exhausted, and Oldenbarneveldt succeeded in 1609 in inducing the Estates to agree to a twelve years' truce (Truce of Antwerp) By it Spain and the archduke virtually recognised the independence of the United Provinces, and threw open to them the colonial commerce which Spain was no longer able made . to retain exclusively for herself. The years of truce were darkened by the trial and execution (1619) of Oldenbarneveldt, the victim of religious dissensions, and when war with Spain was resumed in 1621 Maurice felt the need of the statesman whose death he had sanctioned. The war was not attended by any striking successes, and in 1625 Maurice died. He was succeeded in his Orange and Netherland dignities by his brother Frederick Henry. Though Frederick Henry did not live to see the admission of the United Provinces among the States of Europe, his statesmanship made that conclusion inevitable. The times were favourable for Europe was engaged in the Thirty ; Years' War, and behind the strife of creeds the preponderance of the Habsburgs in Europe was involved. The Dutch therefore re-entered the struggle in 1621 with their own interests at issue in the wider warfare, and in 1635 an offensive and defensive alliance with France promised them half of all conquests made at the expense of Spain in the Belgic Netherlands. Four years later (1639), in the battle of the Downs, the Dutch admiral Marten van Tromp annihilated the Spanish fleet as it lay off the English coast between Dover and Deal. Though England resented the violation of her neutral waters, Frederick Henry was successful in negotiating a marriage (1641) between his son William and Charles I's daughter Mary, the parents of William III of Great Britain and Orange. Outside Europe the Republic also won for itself a position which compelled recognition. Founded in 1602, the Dutch East India Company rapidly secured the monopoly of the East Indian insular trade. The Portuguese were ousted, and the Dutch, whose seat of government in the East Indies so far had been in the small island Amboyna, established it in 161 9 at Batavia in the rich island of Java. Sumatra, Borneo, Ceylon, Malacca, and other acquisitions riveted Dutch control 104 A Short History of Europe in the East Indies. They were the first to bring tea from China in 1610 and coffee from Mocha in Arabia six years later. In Africa the foundations of Cape Colony were laid by Antoni van Riebeek in 1651, and Dutch sailors were the discoverers of Australia (which bore the name New Holland for two hundred years after), Tasmania (named after Abel Tasman, a Dutch explorer), and New Zealand (whose name also betrays its Dutch origin). The Dutch monopoly the islands of the Far East compelled the English, whom the decadence of Spain and Portugal tempted to enter their preserves, to establish factories upon the Indian mainland. In the New World also the Dutch were active. A long-continued attack upon Portuguese Brazil was without permanent success. But early in the seventeenth century the Dutch began to occupy the region of the Hudson in North America. Their settlements grew into the colony " of New Netherland," with its capital. New Amsterdam, on Manhattan Island. New Netherland and a contiguous colony of the Swedes cut off England's Puritan colonies from her Virginian group in the south, nor was it until the Treaty of Breda (1667) that England secured both. Their successful resistance to Spain, the part which they had played in the European struggle, the commercial supremacy which they had won, and the consideration due to them as a colonial power, all combined to extort from Europe recognition of the United Provinces (Holland, Zceland, of Groningen, Overyssel, Friesland, Gelderland, and Utrecht) as a new member of the European family of nations. The recognition was accorded by the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) which terminated the Thirty Years' War. The Republic was therein confirmed in the possession of its conquests at the expense of Portugal, and Amsterdam was left in unchallenged commercial supremacy by the closing of the Scheldt, the waterway over which for centuries the commerce of Western Europe passed to and from Antwerp, to whose supremacy Amsterdam had succeeded. The river remained closed until 1792, when Antwerp was declared a free port by the French. The execution of Mary Stewart in 1587, and her son James's attachment to Protestantism, left the Catholic cause without a champion in England. Philip resolved to play that part in his daughter the Infanta Isabella's behalf. There were other Spain and the Counter-Reformation for the effort 105 which PhiUp made In 1588. grounds supreme As has been pointed out in an earUer chapter, the monopoly which Spain claimed in the regions which Columbus gave her was lightly regarded by her neighbours. While in the East Indies the Dutch possessed themselves of Portugal's lucrative commerce, the Spanish settlements in the West Indies and the New World were the prey of the English. Early in Elizabeth's reign English sailors were breaking Spain's monopoly by trading with her American settlements in slaves from Africa and in other merchandise. It was upon such an enterprise that John Hawkins with his kinsman, Francis Drake, visited San Juan in the Gulf of Mexico in 1568, when he was surprised by a Spanish force and lost his cargo and some of his ships. Elizabeth herself was financially interested in the venture, but refused to be goaded by public indignation into a declaration of war against Spain. She took a step which was] equally damaging to Philip, by impounding some Spanish vessels which put into Plymouth harbour under stress of weather while conveying money to Alva in the Netherlands. Drake took his own revenge. In 1570 and 1571 he was again on the Spanish Main. In 1572 he attacked Nombre de Dios and cut off the mule-train of treasure from Peru as it crossed the Isthmus. In 1577 he sailed from England on his most memorable voyage, surprised the Spanish settlements in the Pacific, accumulated much booty, and returned to England in 1580 after circumnavigating the globe. Spain and England were nominally at peace, and from Spain came a threat of invasion. In 1584 complicity in Throckmorton's plot against the life of Elizabeth led to the expulsion of the Spanish ambassador from England. In the next year (1585) Drake with a large fleet was again in the West Indies. The death of Mary Stewart in 1587 therefore found Philip with ample cause to strike on behalf of the religion and material interests of Spain against Elizabeth and her people. Preparations for invasion were pushed forward, and the Drake, attempt was planned for the summer of 1587. however, boldly entered the harbour of Cadiz, destroyed more than thirty of the Spanish vessels assembled there, and compelled the postponement of the design. At length, in May, 1588, the great Armada put out from Lisbon. It num- io6 A Short History of Europe bered 103 ships, of which probably no more than fifty were The duke of Medina Sidonia serviceable as fighting vessels. was in command. His orders were to seize Margate, convoy Parma's force thither from the Low Countries, land a portion of his naval force, and leave Parma to complete England's conquest. Heavy weather gave the Armada a very slow passage. Not until July 19 was^it sighted off the Lizard, and on the same day the English fleet, about seventy ships under Lord Howard of Effingham, put out from Plymouth. In effective fighting strength the two fleets were not unevenly matched. But the English ships were better For a week the Armada built, less unwieldy, better manned. passed down the Channel with the English vessels on its flanks. Driven from its anchorage at Calais by fire-ships, the Armada was harried by its pursuers up the North Sea. A fierce battle Gravelines completed its rout. It followed its shattered course round the north of Scotland, down the Irish coast, and home to Spain. Over sixty ships and thousands of men were the material losses of an expedition which rang the knell of Spain's greatness and of the Catholic reaction in Western off Europe which Philip had directed. For the rest of EHzabeth's reign the naval war with Spain continued. Its most striking events were the engagement off the Azores fought by Sir Richard Greynville in the Revenge The voyage of in 1591, and the capture of Cadiz in 1596. Essex and Ralegh to the Azores in 1597, though it failed in its purpose to intercept the treasure fleet, demonstrated Spain's inability to contest the command of the sea with the English. Spain in fact was at the end of her resources, and to her deep satisfaction, but to the indignation of his own subjects, one of the earliest acts of James I was to make peace with her (1604). CHAPTER VII THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR Before the end of the sixteenth century the CathoHc reaction In England and Scotland itself in Western Europe. the defeat of the Armada signalled its collapse. In the Low Countries it assisted the birth of a new Protestant state, the United Provinces. In France the Edict of Nantes obliged it to tolerate the religion which it sought to exterminate. Beyond these disappointments, there resulted a complete shifting of the political balance in Western Europe. Protestant England and Protestant Holland stood at the end of the century in the position which Catholic Spain and Catholic Portugal occupied at the beginning of it. Yet the death of Philip II in 1598 did not end the activities of the Catholic reaction. Defeated in Western Europe it assailed Germany twenty years later, and involved the Empire, and ultimately Europe, in a war which from its duration (1618-48) is known as the Thirty Years' War. Since the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 the Catholic position in the Empire had improved. The Council of Trent breathed a new spirit into the Church, and the Jesuits successfully attacked the Protestant position. They founded schools in the had spent Western electorates, Cologne, Mainz, and Treves, as well as in Austria, Bavaria, Bohemia, Poland, and elsewhere. Sigismund III, elected to the throne of Poland in 1587, used the Jesuit organisation to exterminate heresy in his kingdom, and with success. Protestants were excluded from public The archoffices, and their churches were taken from them. duke Ferdinand, who succeeded in 1596 to the duchies of Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, and as Ferdinand II to the Imperial throne itself in 1619, pursued a similar policy. Protestant ministers were expelled, their churches were destroyed, and the archduke's subjects were made to conform to the 107 io8 A Short History of Europe About the year in which Ferdinand religion of their ruler. succeeded to Styria, Maximilian of Bavaria succeeded his father in that duchy, and aided by the Jesuit College at In Rudolf II Ingoldstadt purged it of Protestants. (1576-1612) the Empire acquired a ruler who actively promoted the interests of the Catholic Church. In Austria, Bohemia, and Moravia repressive measures against the Protestants were sanctioned. Nor was the Catholic reaction confined to the south of Germany or to localities in which Catholicism was the predominant religion. In Miinster, Osnabruck, Paderborn, Minden, Wiirzburg, Salzburg, and Bamberg, the Catholic reaction was also vigorous. Between the two Churches in the Empire there were specific matters of dispute, the legacy of the religious pacification of The Peace of Augsburg did not establish religious 1555. toleration, but merely allowed the princes of the Empire to force their own religion upon their subjects. None of the princes in 1555 belonged to the Calvinist communion, which therefore was debarred from the legal exercise of its religion. An attempt to secure toleration for the Calvinists in Saxony was defeated, and the Elector John George, who was the leader of the Lutheran party, resolutely opposed recognition " of the Reformed " or Calvinist creed. In the Palatinate, under the Elector Frederick IV (1583-1610), Calvinism was the predominant religion. That he and his co-religionists should tolerate indefinitely the non-recognition of their re- was impossible. more complicated difficulty arose out of the article of the Peace of Augsburg regarding the secularisation of Church It was the contention of the Catholics that the property. Peace impliedly vetoed the secularisation of Church property after 1552. Much Church property had been secularised since that date, however, and it was maintained by the Protestants that the Peace of Augsburg had not the limiting The " ecclesiastical effect which the Catholics asserted. " reservation attached to the Peace of Augsburg also constituted a difficulty. The Catholics insisted that if the Catholic occupant of an ecclesiastical benefice became a Protestant, he ligion A ipso facto vacated his benefice. testants declared themselves not For instance, On the other hand, the Pro" bound by the reservation." Archbishop Gebhard of Cologne, who was elected The Thirty Years' War 109 Catholic, became a Protestant, sought to retain his but was driven from it by Spanish and Bavarian troops as a see, for the transference of his vote to the Protest(1584) ants threatened to destroy the CathoHc majority in the Electoral College of the Diet. For the same reason the Catholics were perturbed by events in Aix-la-Chapelle and Magdeburg. ; Aix-la-Chapelle was a free Imperial city whose representatives sat in the College of Cities in the Diet. The city fell under Protestant influence, and the Catholics unsuccessfully sought to exclude its deputies from the Diet. Magdeburg was a secularised archbishopric, whose holder by prescriptive right was President of the College of Princes in the Diet. Its holder was a Protestant layman, and the exclusion of his deputy both from the Presidentship and the Diet itself was demanded. in 1582 The rival religions came Donau worth, a free Imperial first into active opposition at Swabian Circle. Its population was preponderantly Protestant, but the Benedictine Abbey of the Holy Cross within its walls was wont city in the to organise processions to demonstrate the vitality of its creed. In 1606 one of them took place. Its demeanour was provocative, and it was dispersed by a riotous crowd. The Emperor Rudolf laid the ban of the Empire upon the city, and commissioned Maximilian of Bavaria to execute it. His army occupied the city, the Protestant ministers fled, and the In natural alarm the ProCatholic worship was restored. testant princes demanded ratification of the ecclesiastical agreements of 1552 and 1555. Failing to obtain it, they formed a Union of the Evangelical Estates (1608). At its head was the Elector Palatine, Frederick IV. It was joined in 1609 by John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, but the Elector of Saxony held aloof. Prince Christian of Anhalt, a Calvinist, was available to command its forces should they take the field. War seemed imminent in 1609, when the death of the duke of Jiilich, Cleves, and Berg enabled the Emperor to intervene in the hope of strengthening the Catholic position in the West. Henry IV of France took arms to counter Habsburg policy, and his assassination by Fran9ois Ravaillac (1610) deprived the Evangelical Union of a powerful ally. Meanwhile the Catholic princes of the Empire had formed a League of their own (1609), under the direction of Maximilian A no Short History of Europe of Bavaria, and with the Phihp III of Spain. countenance of Pope Paul V and of war was delayed until 1618. Its course four periods. Beginning in Bohemia as a civil war within the territories of the Habsburgs (1618-20), it developed into a German war upon the entry into it of Christian IV of The outbreak falls into Denmark It became a European conflagration (1625-29). upon the intervention of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden The (1630-35) and of France under Richelieu (1635-48). Austrian Habsburgs came to terms with France and Sweden As between France and Spain the war was proin 1648. longed till the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). The opening of the war was due to the bigotry of the future Emperor Ferdinand II (1619-37) ^^^ the rashness of Frederick V, Elector Palatine (1610-32), the son-in-law of James I of Great Britain by his marriage (161 3) with Elizabeth Stewart, " the Queen of Hearts." In 161 7 the childless Emperor Matthias, anxious to prepare for the succession of Ferdinand, and heir, to the Habsburg heritage, procured from the Bohemian Estates recognition of him as king-designate of that kingdom. In Bohemia, as befitted the home of Hushis cousin siteism. Protestantism granting to all strong, and had already exacted " " II a Letter of Majesty (1609), was from the Emperor Rudolf inhabitants of Bohemia liberty to choose between the Catholic and Lutheran religions, but reserving exclusively to the nobles, knights, and royal towns (the three Bohemian Estates) the right to erect churches and schools. By a supplementary agreement permission to erect churches was conceded to tenants upon the royal domain, a term which by custom included ecclesiastical territories as well as the domains of the crown. Ferdinand, the king-designate, lost no time in demonstrating his slight regard for the " Letter of Majesty." Protestant churches which had been built in reliance upon it were closed, and two strong Catholics, Jaroslav von Martinitz and Count William Slawata, were appointed Regents. Ferdinand's reactionary policy was the more resented seeing that his recognition as king-designate of Bohemia violated the elective character of the Bohemian throne. Opposition showed itself and Count Matthias Thurn put himself at the head of it. In 1618 Protestant deputies from each Bohemian Circle assembled The Thirty Years' War iii at Prague and petitioned the Emperor for redress of grievances. They received a discouraging reply, and a deputation thereupon waited upon the unpopular Regents. High words hurled from the passed, and Martinitz and Slawata were windows of the Town House into the ditch below (1618). " " The Prague defenestration was followed by the formation of a provisional government, one of whose first acts was the banishment of the Jesuits from the kingdom. Thurn was appointed the commander of a hastily raised army. Thurn and his colleagues looked round for allies. Count Ernest von Mansfeld, a soldier of fortune, brought a small army nominally from the Elector Palatine, but actually from Charles Emmanuel, duke of Savoy, a sturdy enemy of the Thurn hoped to gain the support of the EvangeliUnion and the Elector Palatine. He therefore offered the Bohemian crown to Frederick, who proceeded to Prague and was crowned king of Bohemia (161 9), though warned of the effect upon Catholic opinion in the Empire, while his fatherTwo days later in-law James refused him active help. The his rival Ferdinand succeeded Matthias as Emperor. Habsburgs. cal " Winter- King," rallied the Catholic League to the Emperor's side, while John George of Saxony and the Lutheran princes pledged themselves to neutrality at Miihlhausen in return for an Imperial promise to respect their secularised church lands. The army of the League under Count Tilly and Maximilian of Bavaria entered Bohemia, defeated Frederick at the battle of the White Hill (1620), and drove him out of the kingdom. The Spaniards occupied the Lower Palatinate, and the Upper fell to Maximilian, to whom the Emperor transferred Frederick's electoral hat, thereby giving the Catholics a majority in the Bohemia was subjected to Ferdinand's Electoral College. vengeance. The Jesuits returned, the leaders of the revolt were executed, an enormous amount of landed property was confiscated to the crown, and Bohemia was drawn back permanently into the Catholic fold. In the other Austrian territories the Catholic reaction also pushed its triumph. The completeness of Ferdinand's victory roused apprehensions in Protestant Germany. Richelieu, who came to power in France as the chief minister of Louis XIII in 1624, viewing the Protestant cause in Germany as a means to humble ill-advised action of Frederick, the 112 A Short History of Europe " the Habsburgs, occupied the Valtelhne, one of the gates of Italy," which controlled the pass between Lombardy and Germany. James I was anxious to aid his son-in-law to recover the Palatinate, and Christian IV of Denmark was looking for an opportunity to intervene in the quarrel in his own interests. Such were the considerations which now enlarged the area of conflict. In 1623 the Protestant Lower Saxon Circle in North-West Germany agreed to put an army into the field. Christian IV, as duke of Holstein, was a member of the Circle and was anxious to protect his interests in the secularised sees of Bremen and Verden. England promised subsidies and made an attack upon Cadiz in 1625, which was farcical in execution and fruitless of result. English subsidies also proved unreliable owing to Charles I's relations with his Parliament. Still, the alliance against Ferdinand was formidable, and the resources of Maximilian and the League were strained to the utmost. Opportunely, therefore, Albrecht von Waldstein, or Wallenstein, a Bohemian of good family, dispassionate in religious matters, of great ambition and great ability, placed himself at Ferdinand's disposal. He had raised troops to repress the Bohemian rebellion, and had received from Ferdinand He w^s now (1625) created the title Prince of Friedland. commander-in-chief of the Imperial forces in the Empire and the Netherlands, and undertook to raise an army and to Its ranks were open to Protestants and Catholics officer it. alike. It subsisted upon free quarters and the contributions of localities anxious to avoid that burden. It made no call upon the Imperial exchequer, and strengthened the position of the Emperor by releasing him from his dependence Catholic League. In the campaign of 1626 Christian of on the Denmark operated North-West Germany, where Tilly and the army of the Catholic League confronted him, for the protection of Bremen and Verden. Mansfeld at the head of an army of mercenaries opposed Wallenstein on the Elbe. Defeated at the Bridge in of Dessau, Mansfeld succeeded in reaching the Transylvanian Wallenstein covered prince, Bethlen Gabor, in Hungary. Vienna against their threatened attack, and Mansfeld died before the end of the year. The Treaty of Prcssburg between Ferdinand and Bethlen Gabor removed the latter from the The Thirty Years* War 113 coalition in return for the confirmation of his possession of seven of the Hungarian counties. In North-West Germany the campaign also went well for the Imperialists. Christian Denmark, hampered by the failure of England to provide the promised subsidies, was roundly beaten by Tilly at Lutter of and retreated upon Holstein. The campaign of 1627 completed his discomfiture. Tilly and Wallenstein overran Christian sought refuge Holstein, Schleswig, and Jutland. in the islands, and the want of a fleet alone prevented the Imperialists from subjugating the Danish kingdom. Wallen" stein now assumed the title General of the Oceanic and the Baltic Sea," and devoted the campaign of 1628 to realising the Habsburg design to control the Baltic, force the Hanse towns into the Habsburg alliance, and close the Sound against the Dutch. He occupied the duchies of Mecklenburg (which were conferred upon him as Imperial fiefs) and Pomerania, and appeared before Stralsund. His failure to capture it, though he had vowed to batter it as flat as a table, encouraged the Hanse towns to reject association with the Habsburg maritime design. The Treaty of Liibeck (1629) restored Christian to his kingdom, and he withdrew his pretensions to Verden and Bremen. The seemingly impregnable position which the Imperialists occupied in 1629 induced the Catholic League to exact reward for its services. The defeat of the Elector Palatine and the dissolution of the Evangelical Union had given the victory to the Catholic League in southern Germany. The time seemed to have come to repeat its victory in the north, and with some misgiving Ferdinand issued in March, 1629, a fatal Edict of Restitution. It ordered the restitution of property appropriated by Protestants since the Peace of Passau in 1552, and thereby threatened to change the ownership of over one hundred smaller foundations, two archbishoprics (Bremen, Magdeburg), and twelve bishoprics (among them, Halberstadt, Liibeck, Minden, and Verden). The Edict roused the indignation of the Protestants and even caused friction between the League and the Emperor, who hoped to procure a share of the spoils produced by the Edict for his son, the Archduke Leopold William. Wallenstein's unpopularity, which was already great, became greater owing to his coldness towards the scheme of the Catholic reactionaries, ThQ very U.— I. 114 -^ Short History of Europe existence of an Imperial army was resented by them, since it rendered the Emperor independent of the League. Ferdinand therefore was required to make his choice between the League and Wallenstein. He had already forbidden Wallenstein to increase his levies, and in 1630 he dismissed him. The dismissal of Wallenstein (September, 1639) almost synchronised with the landing of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in Germany (June, 1630). Though he came as the champion of Protestantism, which his father's victory over Sigismund of Poland had planted impregnably in Sweden, Gustavus's appearance in Germany was the natural sequel to the earlier activities of his reign. Wallenstein's presence in the Baltic challenged the supremacy of its waters which Gustavus held essential to Sweden's interests and expansion and his reign had done much to realise. From Russia, by the Treaty of Stolbova (161 7), he had won Carelia, Ingria, and the renunciation of her recent attempt to acquire Esthonia and Livonia. The grand duchy of Finland was already Swedish, and so far as its eastern and western coasts were concerned Gustavus could boast with truth that the Baltic was a Swedish lake. His successes brought Gustavus next against his kinsman, Sigismund of Poland, and the war between them was prolonged till 1629 (Truce of Altmark). As the result of it, Gustavus maintained his hold on Livonia, obtained a strip of the coast of Prussia, and disciplined his army to the highest degree of proficiency. He himself stands with Frederick the Great and Napoleon among the masters of military science. He made infantry a more mobile force, and revolutionised the use of artillery by introducing quicker-firing and more portable guns. When the war with Poland ended, Gustavus controlled the south coast of the Baltic east of Pomerania. But the concurrent development of the Habsburg design challenged his maritime Realising how vital it was to their interests that this desic^n should be defeated, Gustavus and Christian of Denmark jointly garrisoned Stralsund in 1628, and in 1629 Gustavus instructed his Estates that her safety demanded Sweden's intervention in the German war. Twelve months later (June, 1630), he landed his army on the island of Usedom off the Pomeranian coast. His reception was dis- supremacy. The Thirty Years' War 115 couraging. Neither the Protestant Electors of Brandenburg with him. (his brother-in-law) nor of Saxony allied themselves Gustavus stood alone until January, 1631, when Richelieu negotiated with him the Treaty of Barwalde, which promised him an annual subsidy for five years, Gustavus undertaking with some reluctance to treat Bavaria and the Catholic League as neutrals unless they attacked him (in other words to concentrate his activities against the Habsburgs, the common enemy of the allies), and to respect the Catholic religion where he found it established. The timorous policy of the two Protestant Electors tied Gustavus to the Baltic coast. He won ground in Mecklenburg, and captured Frankfort-on-the-Oder. But he did not venture to advance to the relief of Magdeburg, which, refusing to accept the Edict of Restitution, was captured by Tilly and sacked in May, 1631. The horrors committed by the ImGustavus to overcome the perialists at Magdeburg enabled He marched on timidity of his kinsman of Brandenburg. Berlin, forced the surrender of the fortress of Spandau for the duration of the war, and obtained the promise of a monthly subsidy. Hoping to prevent Saxony from taking a The similar course, Tilly's army threatened the electorate. indignant John George thereupon invited Gustavus's alliance, and their united armies inflicted upon Tilly a crushing defeat at Breitenfeld near Leipzig (September, 1631). The opposition of Tilly and the League released Gustavus from the pledge of neutrality towards Bavaria which he had given to France. Dispatching the Saxon army into Bohemia therefore, where it occupied Prague, Gustavus set out upon the astonishing march through Germany which ended with his death the next year. In planning a campaign which for the moment completely destroyed the Catholic position in the West and South-west of Germany, Gustavus w^as not influenced solely by the desire to pose as the champion of Protestantism. Rather he designed to complete the elimination of Habsburg influence from those localities in which Wallenstein had already operated to promote the Habsburg maritime design. He overran Franconia, marched to the Rhine, and before the of 1 63 1 captured Bamberg, Wiirzburg, and Mainz. Early in 1632 he continued his march against Bavaria, forced the passage of the Lech against Tilly (who retired from the end Ii6 A Short History of Europe engagement mortally wounded), and entered Munich, the Bavarian capital. It seemed probable that Gustavus's next move would be against the Austrian territories, and Ferdinand turned for help to Wallenstein, the one man whose military ability could meet the crisis. Almost sovereign powers were conferred upon him, and seemingly he was promised the revocation of the Edict of Restitution. With that to offer, and the promise of an Imperial alliance, Wallenstein obtained the withdrawal of the Saxon army from Bohemia and his own occupation of Prague. Thence Wallenstein marched against Gustavus, and barred his advance at Nurnberg. After failing to carry Wallenstein's entrenched position, Gustavus withdrew his army unmolested. Wallenstein then turned against Saxony, which had again joined Gustavus. The Swedes followed, and at Liitzen near Leipzig the two armies met. The victory rested with the Swedes, but at the irreparable cost of their king's life (1632). of his great chancellor. Axel Oxenstierna, Gustavus's daughter Christina, a child of six years, Under the guidance succeeded her father and continued the war. The plan which Gustavus had formed for the formation of a confederation of the Protestant states under his direction to balance the Habsburg interest was never realised, though Oxenstierna united the four Circles of Swabia, Franconia, Upper and Lower Rhine, in an offensive and defensive alliance (League of Heilbronn, 1633). Wallenstein meanwhile, after the death of Gustavus, withdrew into Bohemia. His negotiations for peace, conducted without regard for the policy of the extreme Catholics, gained him the hatred of Spain and the Jesuits, who poisoned the Emperor's mind against him. His own ambition demanded satisfaction either in the Palatinate, a project which roused Spain's opposition, or in Bohemia Even his officers began to desert one whose policy itself. threatened to bring the lucrative war to a conclusion. Ferdinand again dismissed him from his command, and soon afterwards he was assassinated (1634). In spite of the crime the star of the Imperialists remained in At Nordlingen (1634) the Swedes were the ascendant. decisively beaten, and the Heilbronn alliance in South collapsed. Negotiations for peace had already been proceeding with Saxony, and were brought to a conclusion Germany The Thirty Years' War 117 by the Peace of Prague (1635). Saxony acquired Lusatia. In regard to the ownership of ecclesiastical lands, it was agreed that 1627 instead of 1552 should be the determining Ecclesiastical lands held by Protestants at that date year. were to remain in their hands, or to be restored to them, for forty years, during which period a friendly settlement was to be made by a mixed and impartial tribunal. The Peace of Prague was generally accepted by the Protestant princes of the Empire, and had the religious question been the sole one at issue, Germany might have been saved But German interests were and with the formal entry of France into the war in 1635 Germany became the cock-pit of other nations' ambitions. Richelieu had already done much to further Bourbon policy by strengthening France's frontier on the Rhine. In 1632 French troops occupied the electorate Her allies the Swedes handed over Coblenz, and of Treves. in 1633 France occupied the duchy of Lorraine. After Nordlingen (1634) the Swedes abandoned Colmar and Schlettstadt in Alsace and also Philippsburg to France. These and other acquisitions in the same region were gained without an actual declaration of war for France's military strength was not yet organised, and the Huguenots rendered her internal situation insecure. But the collapse of the Protestants in Germany called France into the open field, and an attack upon thirteen more years no longer the only of warfare. issue, ; her position there gave her reasonable pretext. Early in 1635 the Imperialists recovered Philippsburg, and, shortly after, the Spaniards surprised Treves. Hence before the Treaty of Prague was published (May, 1635) Richelieu made an offensive and defensive alliance with the United Provinces, renewed the agreement with Sweden (Treaty of Compiegne), and declared war against Spain. War with Austria was not declared until 1638. The first armies which Richelieu put into the field were no match for the veterans of Austria and Spain. But she profited by experience, and the victory of Conde over the Spaniards at Rocroi in 1643 proclaimed the advent of a new military power. Bernard of Weimar and a German army in France's pay won for her Alsace and the Upper Rhine in 1638. Her ally Sweden doggedly continued the war, and her victory at Wittstock in 1636 wiped out the memory of Nordlingen. 1 1 8 A Short History of Europe Saxony withdrew from the arena, and MaximiUan of Bavaria encountered a crushing defeat at Zusmarshausen in 1648. Unable to continue the war alone, Ferdinand yielded to necessity, and peace at length was given to the distracted Empire. Terms were arranged by two treaties which were signed in 1648 at the Westphalian towns, Miinster and Osnabriick, whence the general pacification bears the name. Treaty of Westphalia. At Miinster the plenipotentiaries of the Emperor treated with France, at Osnabriick with Sweden. Outside questions of domestic interest to the Empire the vital matter which engaged the Congress was the " satisfaction " to be given to France and Sweden. France demanded and received recognition of her sovereignty over Metz, Toul, and Verdun, the three border bishoprics which Henry II had received (Treaty of Friedwald) from the Protestant princes of the Empire in 1552. Austria conveyed to France her rights in Upper (southern) and Lower (northern) Alsace (though her rights in the latter were not coextensive with the province, and their delimitation offered an excuse for Louis XIV's Chambres de Reunion in 1681), with permission to put a garrison into Philippsburg. Strassburg was expressly reserved to the Empire. In Italy France was confirmed in her possession of Pinerolo, a fortress which dominated the duchy of Savoy, whose between France and Habsburg Sweden, after formulating more territory, lying Italy, required supervision. embracing demands, was satisfied by the cession of West Pomerania (leaving East Pomerania to Brandenburg) and the secularised sees of Bremen and Verden, to be held as ducal fiefs of the Empire, with a seat in the Imperial Diet. She also received the port Wismar in Mecklenburg, the island Poel in Wismar Bay, and a money indemnity. As an Imperial pacification the most important feature of the Treaty was the settlement of the ecclesiastical dispute. The Protestants received better terms than in the Treaty of Prague, in that an earlier date, January i, 1624, was adopted for the conclusive allocation of ecclesiastical property between the two religions. The result was satisfactory to the Protestants, though it represented a distinct victory for the Catholics in the West and South-west of the Empire, where their religion had been on its defence. The controversies The Thirty Years* " War ecclesiastical reservation regarding the seeing that the situation obtaining on " 119 were also solved, January i, 1624, The occupant of ecclesiastical was to be permanent. property who deserted the religion professed on that determining date surrendered his occupancy as a matter of course. In Cathedral foundations whose governing body had been partly Catholic and partly Protestant on January i, 1624, the same proportion was to be maintained permanently. The Calvinists received a recognition of their equality with the Lutherans in the privileges conferred by the Treaty of Passau and Peace of Augsburg. The stern rule which allowed the ruler to impose his religion on his subjects was somewhat mitigated, save in the territories of the House of Austria. In addition to the settlement of religion the treaty sanctioned important territorial changes affecting members of the Empire. Brandenburg had legal rights to the whole of Pomerania (1637), t)ut was obliged to give up West Pomerania to the Swedes. She received compensation in the bishopric of Halberstadt, and the reversion (which fell in in 1680) of the archbishopric of Magdeburg, territories which expanded the electorate on the south-west. She obtained also the bishopric of Minden, which strengthened her West Germany, where Cleves, Mark, Ravensberg, which had been apportioned to the Elector by the Treaty of Xanten in 161 4 in connection with the J iilich- Cleves dispute, were confirmed to him by the Treaty of Cleves in 1666. Maximilian of Bavaria retained the Upper Palatinate and the electoral Hat. The Lower Palatinate was restored to Charles Lewis, the son of the " " Winter King " and the Queen of Hearts," and a new electorate was created in his favour (1649-80). (eighth) Finally the treaty accorded international recognition to two new States, both of which had won their independence at territorial position in and the expense of the Habsburgs the Dutch United Provinces. —the Swiss Confederation, and As between Spain and France the Treaty of Westphalia brought no conclusion. Spain was in desperate plight. Portugal recovered her independence on the accession of John IV in 1640. Catalonia broke out in revolt in the same year. In 1639 the Spanish fleet was practically destroyed by the Dutch at the battle of the Downs. The Dutch provinces t2o A Short History of Europe were lost irrevocably, and in 1647 Naples rose in revolt under a young fisherman named Tommaso Aniello (Masaniello) Roussillon on the Pyrenean frontier was in the hands of France. But the outbreak of the War of the Fronde in France in 1648 tempted Spain to continue the struggle. Though grievously hampered by the civil war, France under Mazarin held her own, and in 1658 gained the alliance of Oliver Cromwell. In 1659 Spain accepted the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which conceded to France the county of Roussillon on the . Pyrenees, Artois in the Netherlands, and arranged the marriage between Louis XIV and Maria Teresa, daughter of Philip IV, by which forty years later Louis was able to claim the throne of Spain itself for the Bourbons. The war as a whole proved most disastrous to the House of Habsburg, which not only was deprived of its territories, but of all real power within the Empire, to whose princely members the Treaty of Westphalia accorded the freedom of sovereign States in the conduct of their external policy. Alone among the powers of Western Europe Great Britain took no part in the Treaty of Westphalia. James I signalised his succession to Elizabeth's throne by making peace with Spain (1604), under the mistaken belief that the union of the protagonists of the two hostile religions would impose peace upon Christendom, Fooled by the count of Gondomar, the Spanish envoy to England, James entered into futile negotiations for a marriage between his son Charles and a Spanish princess, and Ralegh was offered as a sacrifice to the king's philo-Spanish policy. When the Bohemian revolution broke out in 1 61 8, Gondomar was again sent to England, ostensibly to resume the proposals for a Spanish match, in reality to keep James from interfering in Germany. But the fruitless visit of Charles and Buckingham to Madrid in 1623 at length opened James's eyes. Charles took a wife from France, and James turned to more warlike courses to restore the fortunes of his son-in-law, whose ill-judged intervention Bohemia had cost him his electorate. Buckingham, who ruled James for the rest of his reign, was also anxious to bring England into the field in Germany for he knew that nothing but a striking success on land or sea would remove the suspicion with which his policy was regarded, or loosen the purse of the Commons. Count Mansfeld was allowed to enin ; The Thirty list recruits in Years' War 121 England, and led them early in 1625 into where three-fourths of them perished few weeks later, shortly before his death, James entered into the relations with Christian IV of Denmark (1625) which brought the latter into the war. But the promised English subsidies were not forthcoming, and Buckingham's expedition against Cadiz (1625) was a disastrous failure. With Spain already on his hands, Buckingham did not shrink from a bid for popular favour by joining hands with the French the Netherlands, of disease. Protestants. A But the expedition in their behalf to the island in 1627 repeated the failure at Cadiz two years before. Another expedition for the relief of Rochelle in 1628 was no of Re Buckingham did not live to witness its and Charles's quarrel with Parliament moved on to Peace with external enemies was the dissolution of 1629. essential, and was concluded with France (Treaty of Susa) Charles conin 1629 and Spain (Treaty of Madrid) in 1630. more successful. failure, tinued to conduct futile negotiations for the recovery of the Palatinate for his brother-in-law. But they showed no conEventually the outbreak of sistency and had no success. civil war in Scotland and England, the only war in Europe which does not connect itself directly or indirectly with the greater struggle on the Continent, reduced England to a position of complete unimportance in the European situation. To Oliver Cromwell she owed her recovery of the influence which had been hers before the Stewarts succeeded to the throne of the abler Tudors. Before being drawn into the concluding Franco-Spanish episode of the Thirty Years' War, the Puritan Commonwealth fought and won the first round with the Dutch for maritime and commercial supremacy. The death of Charles I's son-inlaw, William II of Orange, in 1650, terminated a hazardous attempt on his part to place his rule in the United Provinces on a monarchical basis, and for more than twenty years, until the restoration of William III in 1672, the House of Orange was under a cloud. The death of Charles I in 1649 weakened the dynastic bonds uniting the two countries, who had long been rivals for the trade of the East Indies. Under James I and Charles I little effort was made to defend English interests in the East. But under Cromwell's rule a more determined attitude was adopted. In 1650 the Dutch 122 A Short History of Europe were forbidden to trade with the English royaUst colonies irl America (Virginia and others), and a large Dutch fleet which contravened the order was captured. In 1651 the English Navigation Act was passed to strengthen English shipping at the expense of Holland. It prohibited importation from outside Europe of goods which were not carried either in English vessels or in English colonial vessels whose crews were at least one-half English. Goods from European countries were excluded from English ports unless they were carried in a ship of the country whence the goods came, or in an English vessel. As Holland was the chief carrier of the world's commerce the Act hit her very hard. England's claim to search neutral vessels suspected of carrying her enemies' goods roused as much feeling in Holland as did the demand that Dutch ships should strike their flag to English vessels in the narrow seas. War broke out in 1652 and continued till 1654, when peace was made, and the Dutch acknowledged the English sovereignty of the narrow seas. Cromwell's diplomacy hesitated for some time between alliance with France or Spain. France at first refused to acknowledge the English Republic and gave shelter to Charles I's sons (grandsons of Henry IV). But in 1655 Mazarin undertook to expel Charles II and his brother James, and two years later (1657) the two countries made alliance against Spain. In Spanish Flanders the allies won Mardyk and Dunkirk. In 1656 Blake established a blockade of the Spanish coast and cut ofl the Spanish Plate fleet. In 1657 he destroyed a larger fleet in the harbour of Santa Cruz in Teneriffe. But an ambitious scheme, " The Western Deto fulfil Cromwell's hopes. failed With the object of sign," destroying the Spanish position in its very seat in the West, Cromwell dispatched an expedition under Penn and Venables, which, after an unsuccessful attack on San Domingo, achieved only the conquest of Jamaica in 1655. By the Treaty of the Pyrenees England retained Dunkirk and Mardyk, which Charles II sold to France in 1662. In spite of demands for its surrender Jamaica was retained by England, and her possession of it was acknowledged by Spain in 1670. CHAPTER VIII THE WARS OF LOUIS XIV The revival of Tudor vigour in the foreign activities of England under Cromwell did not survive the Puritan Commonwealth. The restoration of Charles II in 1660, though it was followed by a war with the Dutch Republic which added the New Netherland colony in North America to Greater Britain, •heralded a generation in which the foreign interests of England were as mismanaged as they had been by James I and Charles I. Until the advent of William of Orange the strings of English foreign policy were pulled by France, and England stood neutral or friendly while Louis XIV (1643-1715) established a supremacy in Europe which menaced England's permanent interests. Louis crowned an edifice which had been raised by his The predecessors, from Louis XII (1498-1515) onwards. territorial unity of France had been achieved already by the extinction of the fiefs which the Capetian kings conferred on their younger sons out of lands recovered from non-royal The duchy of Burgundy fell into the royal domain vassals. on the death of Charles the Bold in 1477. The extinction of the second House of Anjou on the deaths of Rene the Good (1480) and his nephew Charles of Mayenne (1481) transferred to Rene's other nephew, Louis XI, and so to France, the royal fiefs of Anjou, Maine, and Provence, Louis XII was already duke of Orleans and count of Blois when he succeeded to the throne in 1498. His successor, Francis I, in manner brought into the royal domain the county of Angouleme upon his accession in 15 15. Francis also, by his marriage to Claude of Brittany, absorbed the last of the nonroyal French fiefs, and the treason of Charles duke of Bourbon (d. 1527), whom Francis created Constable of France, forfeited his great possessions in the heart of France, namely, similar 123 A 124 Short History of Europe the duchies of Bourbon and Auvergne, the county of la Marche, and the seigniory of Beaujeu. The accession of his kinsman Henry IV in 1589 resulted in the absorption of the southern kingdom of Navarre and viscounty of Beam, with other fiefs held by the House of d'Albret in the same region. The period in which France completed her territorial unity marked also her first efforts towards external expansion. Henry II strengthened her eastern border by acquiring (1552) the three bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun. Henry IV acquired (1601) La Bresse and Bugey bordering Savoy, and broke the circle of hostile, or potentially hostile, territory which Louis XIV himself, enveloped France towards Germany. before the death of Mazarin (1661) made him his own minister, made important additions to the territories of the French crown. The Thirty Years' War wrested from the Austrian Habsburgs Alsace on the east, Roussillon on the south, and Artois (which once had been French) on the north. With these territorial changes proceeded the transformation of the medieval constitution of France into an absolutism Uetat c'est moi I expressed in Louis's famous definition From the reign of Francis I the royal court displayed a magnificence which reached its fullest splendour in Louis XIV's : Versailles. The nobility, no longer able to maintain sovereign independence upon their estates, flocked to court, eager to win the rewards which attended the king's favour. By virtue of the Concordat of 15 16 with the Pope, Francis was master and employed its benefices as pensions for gained his favour or claimed his alimony. The country was divided into generalites for police, judicial, and Some of them [pays d'elections) administrative purposes. of the Church, those who were assessed by royal functionaries, and others [pays d'e(ats) voted the money required by the crown in their own Estates. In both the interests of the crown were watched by royal Intendants. The king himself worked through the Royal Council, which concerned itself with political, financial, and administrative matters. In it sat the four secretaries, who under Louis XIV developed into veritable Secretaries of The Paris Parlement was a cypher, and Francis paid " remonregard to its traditional right of petition or " strance against acts of state submitted to it for registration by the king. State. little The Wars of Louis XIV 125 The Wars of Religion in France checked her progress towards internal consolidation. The solidarity of the realm itself was endangered, and it fell to Henry IV to reorganise The public finances were restore the royal authority. especially in need of reform, and Henry found a strong helper in his friend the duke of Sully. The taille or property tax, the gahelle or tax on the sale of salt, the aides or dues levied and sale of wine, etc., the profits of justice, and feudal incidents from the royal domains formed the normal revenue of the crown. Sully instituted more orderly and economical methods in the collection and auditing of the revenue thus on the He put down the sale of public and patents of from the class of tax-payers). He abolished the system under which seats in the Parlement were purchaseable, and in its stead imposed a tax whose payment conferred hereditary membership of it. The administration of the tax was committed to one Paulet, after whom the tax was known as the Paulette. It preserved raised. nobility (which its name removed offices their purchasers until the Revolution. Henry IV in 1610 was followed by fourteen years of weak government, until in 1624 Armand-Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu, became the chief minister of Louis XIII. His foreign policy pursued the objects which Henry IV had indicated already as the permanent interests of the country. Richelieu's internal policy aimed, and successfully, to establish the French monarchy on an absolute and autocratic basis. Constitutionalism, to which the Stewarts bowed in England, found the faintest echo in France. The States General came together in 161 4 for the last time before the Revolution (1789), and the Parlement, though it made a bid for recognition in the Wars of the Fronde, had neither the organisation, prestige, nor power to enable it to play the Richelieu therefore had part of the English Parliament. little difficulty in removing everything which opposed the In spite of Buckingham's intervention, royal supremacy. the Huguenots succumbed, and the Grace of Alais (1629) which Richelieu accorded them left them free only to exercise their religion, and by withdrawing the political safeguards conceded by the Edict of Nantes paved the way for Louis XIV's sterner policy. Richelieu met the attempt of the Parlement to exert political influence by forbidding it to The assassination of A 126 Short History of Europe " " His death (1642) address to the crown. remonstrances was followed five months later (1643) by that of Louis Their places were taken by the youthful Louis XIII. XIV, a child of less than five years of age, and Cardinal Mazarin, an Italian. In the Wars of the Fronde (1648-53) Mazarin was confronted by both Parlement and nobility. In 1648 the Parlement issued demands which aimed at depriving the monarchy of its absolute character. The Parlement, however, was not a representative assembly, but a tribunal of legal functionaries. It had no backing in the country at large, and its campaign soon collapsed. The rebellion of the nobility was more serious. It sprang partly from their detestation of Mazarin, a foreigner partly from a desire to weaken the monarchy. Headed by Conde, who did not shrink from allying himself with Spain, the revolutionaries made themselves masters of the capital. But aided by the military talents of Turenne, Mazarin was by 1653 again supreme at court. Conde lived to contribute to the glories of Louis's reign and " to win the title Great." The termination of the Fronde removed the last impediment ; to a centralised despotism. Among all classes, even among the nobility, there was a general desire for peace and quietude, and it was to the king that men looked to provide it. Louis himself had experienced the inconveniences of political anarchy. Profoundly obsessed by a sense of the respect due to his office, he took the lessons of the Fronde to heart. On the very day after the death of Mazarin (1661) he announced his resolve to be his own first minister. He was then twentytwo years old, and until his death fifty-four years later (1715) he was the autocrat of France. The foreign policy of Louis at first followed the idea pithily stated by Richelieu "to restore to France the frontiers of ancient Gaul." Until his aggressions called a European coalition into the field against him Louis achieved success, by reason partly of the state in which he received his kingdom from Mazarin and Richelieu, partly of the European situation : in which he took his place. For effective purposes Spain had disappeared from among the great Powers. England under the restored Stewarts could be depended on either to promote, or at least not to oppose, Louis's policy. The Empire, since the Treaty of Westphalia, was even less than before effective for The Wars of Louis XIV From 127 of Mohammed the appointment Grand Vizir in 1656 Turkey began to recover from the dechne which followed the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-66), and until the Treaty of Carlowitz (1699) the Turkish menace to the Habsburg territories aided Louis's piratical policy. In Holland, until 1672, the House of Orange was under a cloud. It was fortunate for Louis that such was for the fulfilment of Richelieu's the situation in Europe design demanded a policy of aggression on a large scale. To united opposition. Kiuprili as ; restore the limits of ancient Gaul, the Belgic Netherlands, Franche Comte, Lorraine, and Savoy had to be won. And Louis eventually took on his shoulders an even more gigantic task, the obliteration of the intervening Pyrenees and the union of the crowns of France and Spain. From whatever other quarter opposition might come, it was clear that the establishment of French influence in Spain would sooner or later call England and Holland into the field and revive the struggle of the sixteenth century. Of the seventy-two years of Louis's reign forty-six were given up to war. The wars with Austria and Spain which ended in 1648 and 1659 were the legacy of Louis XIII. Louis XIV was the War of with Holland (1672-78), the responsible for the remaining four Devolution (1667-68), the War : War of the League of Augsburg or Grand Alliance (1688-97), and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14). In prosecuting his ambitious policy Louis was admirably served. Attendance at his court, personal service in the civil or military establishment of the palace, or service in the army or navy, were for the nobility the sole avenues to the king's He excluded them entirely from political and favour. administrative work, which he himself conducted with a zest and ability equal to that of Philip II of Spain. For his Secretaries of State, whose work he controlled through the Conseil d'Etat and its committees charged with particular interests, Louis chose men of bourgeois or middle-class origin. Such were Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who was at once ControllerGeneral of Finance, Minister of Marine, and Secretary of State for the Household {Maison du Roi). His organisation of the finances enabled France to bear the expenses of the king's wars, his mania for building, and the splendours of the most gorgeous court in Europe. Michel le Tellier, Secretary 128 A Short History of Europe War, was succeeded by his more famous son FrancoisIn Sebastien seigneur de Louvois. Vauban Louis possessed the greatest miUtary engineer of his age, in Hugues de Lionne a Foreign Minister of genius, and in Turenne and Conde the great captains of war of the period. The death of Phihp IV (1665) left the throne of Spain to Charles II, a sickly infant four years old, the last of the Louis XIV's wife, Spanish Habsburgs in male descent. Maria Teresa, was the child of Philip IV's first marriage. Charles II and his sister, Margaret Teresa, were the issue of On her marriage Maria Teresa Philip's second marriage. renounced her right of succession to her father's throne. But the renunciation was conditional upon the payment of a dowry of half a million gold crowns, a condition which was not fulfilled. Louis therefore advanced his wife's claim to the Spanish Netherlands, and based it on the ius devolutionis (law of devolution), a local custom in Brabant which debarred a father twice married from disinheriting the children of his first in favour of the issue of his second marriage. The former were the legal heirs of their father's property while he lived, and succeeded to it when he died. Spain denied Louis's contention, and the latter took steps to enforce his case. He established friendly relations with England by the purchase (1662) of Dunkirk and Mardyk from Charles II, spoils of Cromwell's war. He made a treaty with John de Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland, wherein he guaranteed the Dutch possessions in Europe and lessened the harbour dues on Dutch vessels entering French ports (1662). In 1665 war between England and the United Provinces broke out, and Louis was obliged under his agreement with de Witt to declare against Charles. But in 1667 Charles purchased Louis's neutrality by a secret undertaking not to oppose his invasion of the Spanish Netherlands. The Dutch made peace (Treaty of Breda) with England in the same year. The death of Philip IV in 1665, if Louis's reading of the ius devolutionis was correct, placed his wife in complete ownership of the Spanish Netherlands. In May 1667 Turenne invaded Flanders. He met with slight resistance, and the southern part of the Spanish Low Countries was soon in his possession. No one stirred in Spain's behalf, and the Emperor for Michel, marquis of Leopold even made a secret treaty (1668) with Louis for the The Wars of Louis XIV 129 eventual division of the Spanish monarchy should Charles II, brother-in-law of both sovereigns, die childless. In 1668 Conde suddenly occupied Franche Comte. A few weeks earlier England and Holland, alarmed at the menacing progress of the French, concluded an agreement which ripened into a Triple Alliance between themselves and Sweden. The three powers bound themselves to force peace upon Louis, and to restrict his frontier to its limits under the The Alliance is memorable in Treaty of the Pyrenees. England and Europe alike as the first international comment upon Louis's aggressions. Though Sweden joined the Alliance in the hope of subsidies, it is not the less significant that the three Powers were precisely those which had been wont to stand together against Spain. Indeed the longer he reigned, the more did Louis take the place in Europe which Philip II held in the previous century. of surrender, Much as he resented the appearance Louis's secret agreement with the promised him eventually all Emperor and more than he was prepared By the Treaty of Aix-laChapelle (1668), therefore, he restored Franche Comte to Spain. In compensation he retained Lille, Douai, and nine other Belgian cities in the district which now forms the Departement du Nord. The four years of peace which followed the Treaty of Aixla-Chapelle were employed by Louis in preparation for an avenging war upon Holland. It was not merely that his pride was touched by the rebuff which the youngest of the European nations had administered to him. Though his mind was not yet made up to the persecution of the Huguenots which disfigured his reign, he was Rex Christianissimus and the Dutch were Calvinists, like his own Protestant subjects. Regarding the divinity of kingship as an incontestable axiom, he could but be hostile to an upstart State which obtruded republicanism among the monarchies of Europe. The Dutch also stood between France and the development of her marine, and on that account the cautious Colbert regarded war with them as a duty. Louvois, the War Minister, also recognised that the acquisition of the Spanish Netherlands could neither be made nor maintained unless the Dutch power was reduced. Louis therefore made elaborate preparations to crush them. The Triple Alliance was easily broken up. In the Secret Treaty to sacrifice for present peace. II. —K 130 A Short History of Europe Dover (1670) Charles II sold himself for an annual subsidy, and was promised Walcheren Island and the estuary of the In return he agreed to join France against the Scheldt. Dutch and to restore Catholicism in England. Sweden came to terms with Louis two years later and undertook to close the Baltic against the Dutch. The Emperor, already bound to Louis by the secret Partition Treaty, made a treaty of neutrality also in 1671. Satisfactory agreements were concluded between Louis and the German principalities on the Dutch frontier for the passage of French troops into of " " Frederick William, the of Great Elector alone stood out Louis's blandishments. Brandenburg, against He refused to join against a Protestant state, and promised (1671) the Dutch active assistance. Spain and the Elector of Mainz were the only other friends on whom the United Provinces could count. While Louis was preparing to annihilate the United Provinces, they themselves took no measures to avert or withstand the impending crisis. The close of the Thirty Years' War, which confirmed their independence, had been welcomed by them as an opportunity to reduce burdensome armaments, while the suspicions which William II's policy had aroused, and the youth of his son William III, put the House of Orange in the background, and disorganised the military system of which it was the pivot and for that reason had been allowed to decline. Louis in May, 1672, launched a huge army across the Rhine. Gelderland, Utrecht, and Overyssel were occupied, and the opening of the dykes alone Louis offered humiliating terms, and the saved Holland. country clamoured for the restoration of the House of Orange. William was forthwith proclaimed Stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland, Captain and Admiral-General of the Union, and soon received the Stadtholdership of the other provinces. John de Witt and his brother Cornelis were assassinated (1672), and like William himself, the Union was prepared to die in the last ditch rather than surrender. William had saved the situation. Had the French advance proceeded unchecked, Louis would have met the indignation of Europe with the spoils of an unprincipled war in his posAs it was, William gave Europe time to realise its session. danger. By 1673 he had concluded at the Hague a coalition Holland. The Wars of Louis XIV 131 with the Emperor and Brandenburg. Spain, Denmark, and other Protestant German States also joined, and the reversal by the English Parliament (1674) of Charles II's anti-Dutch policy left Louis with no ally save Sweden. Now that Spain had entered the war, Louis directed his attack upon her in Franche Comte and the Netherlands. He himself invaded Franche Comte and attached it to France (1674). Vauban's genius was employed against Alsace was twice invaded, and the Flemish fortresses. twice was recovered by France. Though William bound England more closely to Holland by his marriage (1677) with Mary, daughter of James of York, the Dutch insisted on opening negotiations. Louis was not unwilling to make peace. He had held his own against Europe and the prospect of substantial gain was in sight. France was exhausted, and Colbert wished for an opportunity to mend her broken finances and weaken the influence of Louvois with the king. Sweden, France's only ally, had been beaten by the Great Elector at Fehrbellin (1675), a victory which damaged Sweden's military prestige and was prophetic of Prussia's military supremacy in the eighteenth century. Peace negotiations resulted in the Treaty of Nymegen (1678). Its terms inflicted on the Dutch no territorial losses, and they obtained the withdrawal of the high tariff which France had placed on their merchandise at the beginning of On Spain it fell to satisfy Louis for abandoning hostilities. a war which his own ambition had provoked. Franche Comte and a dozen fortresses in Spanish Flanders were surrendered to him. The latter strengthened the position won by France in that quarter in the War of Devolution, and gave her France surrendered practically her present northern frontier. to the Emperor the right to garrison Philippsburg (granted by the Treaty of Westphalia) and received in exchange Breisach and Freiburg, conveniently contiguous to her position in Alsace. In Lorraine, as the price of his restoration, Duke Charles V was required to surrender to France his capital and the control of the four strategic highways through his dominions. He refused the terms, and the duchy remained in the hands of France until the Treaty of Ryswyk (1697). The Treaty of Nymegen carried the power of Louis to its zenith. He had neither annihilated the Dutch nor gained 132 A Short History of Europe the whole of the Spanish Netherlands. But he had extended France to the Rhine, and had gained a frontier in Flanders which Vauban made impregnable. Louis was under forty years of age and already was the object of his subjects' adulaThe city of Paris officially styled him Louis le Grand, tion. and his ambition, deserting for the moment his designs against Spain and Holland, carried him to the prospect which had dazzled his predecessor Francis I, namely, election to the Imperial throne itself. To secure it he deemed it necessary to strengthen the position which the Treaties of Westphalia and Nymegen gave him on the Rhine. Under cover of alleged ambiguity in those treaties, Louis took an unprecedented method to enforce his interpretation of them. The towns and " with districts ceded by them to France had been surrendered their dependencies," an expression which had reference to the conditions obtaining when the treaties were made. But Louis regarded the cession of Toul, Verdun, Metz, Alsace, and Franche Comte as the restoration to France of her own property, seeing that they had once formed part of the Frankish Empire under Charlemagne, who for the purposes of Louis's argument was deemed to be a Frenchman With the object therefore of obtaining the most liberal inter" dependency," Louis set up a Chambre pretation of the word de Reunion at Metz to deal with Metz, Toul, and Verdun. The Parlement of Besan9on was similarly charged for Franche Comte, and the Parlement of Breisach for Alsace. The evidence of charters was invoked as far back as to the days of Dagobert I in the seventh century. In the result, the flaws in Louis's claim to complete sovereignty over Alsace were brushed aside, and in 1681 he seized Strassburg, its most powerful fortress. Similarly the greater part of Luxemburg was declared to be French. Louis now dominated the Netherlands, the Rhenish electorates of Cologne, Mainz, Treves, and the Palatinate, an important position for one who might become a candidate for the Empire. Flagrant as Louis's conduct was, the military strength of France, and the Turkish menace (from which John Sobieski relieved Vienna in 1683), prevented the Emperor from opposing him. In 1684 he concluded the Truce of Ratisbon with Louis, and left in the possession of France for twenty years the places awarded by the Chambers of Reunion. Holland and Spain concurred. ! The Wars of Louis XIV 133 Twenty years of personal rule had presented Louis to Europe as a dangerous and unprincipled menace to its political equilibrium. hostility of Protestant He now Europe by invited against himself the his treatment of the Hugue- Richelieu and Mazarin, Cardinals of the Church though they were, had shown no disposition to deprive the Huguenots of the recognition which the Edict of Nantes gave to their Since the Grace of Alais they had comported themreligion. selves loyally, and not even the disorders of the Fronde nots. tempted them to recover the political safeguards of which But the French Church Richelieu had deprived them. had never been reconciled to the toleration of heresy in its midst, and Louis himself, naturally sympathetic to the influence of religion, and under the spell of Madame de Maintenon, whom he married secretly in 1684, was easily influenced to play the part which the Church expected of him. The persecution of the Huguenots, which culminated in the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, began from the moment when the death of Mazarin made Louis his own master. The Protestants in France at that time numbered about 1,000,000, or one-twelfth of the whole population of the country. In 1665 the General Assembly of the French clergy invited Louis to regulate the privileges accorded to the R.P.R. {religion pretendue reformee), as the French Calvinist The king consented, and an Church was officially styled. edict issued in 1666 for the regulation of the R.P.R. dates While affecting to conthe beginning of the persecution. firm the Edict of Nantes, Louis explicitly interdicted all that it did not expressly concede. Thus, the Huguenots were forbidden to bury their dead between the hours of six a.m. and six p.m. No more than thirty persons were allowed to attend a Protestant funeral, and at a Protestant baptism or wedding not more than twelve. Churches which had been built since 1598 were pulled down, and Huguenot schools wxre interdicted from teaching of a denominational character. Between 1666 and 1685 nearly 200 edicts of similar import were promulgated. Material inducements, such as the offer of an extended period over which to pay their debts, were employed to seduce the Huguenots from their religion, and in 1676 a public fund {caisse de converAfter sions) was instituted to buy the apostacy oi the needy. 134 A Short History of Europe the Peace of Nymegen the king's poUcy hardened, partly because the pressure of foreign affairs was released, partly because of the growing influence of Mme. de Maintenon. In 1 68 1 Louis issued a monstrous edict which, declaring that " are capable of reason and at the age of seven children choice in so important a matter as that of their salvation," gave Protestant children of that age the right to declare themselves converted to Catholicism. The edict encouraged the abduction of Protestant children from their parents, who were still compelled to maintain them. In 1682 a pastoral [Avertissement pastoral de V Eglise gallicane) was ordered to be read in all the Protestant churches, in which more disastrous consequences were threatened against those who refused to abjure their faith. The liberal professions were closed against them, they were debarred from the public service, their schools and colleges 570 out of 815 Protestant churches were shut, and by 1684, closed. In 1681 had been the royal Intendant in Poitou made use of the troops to coerce the Huguenots. In 1685 Lou vols, the War Minister, sanctioned their employment in Beam and elsewhere, and the dragonnades began. Torture and outrage forced thousands Thousands fied to give verbal adhesion to Catholicism. from persecution. Immured in Versailles, Louis was allowed to think that the R.P.R. had ceased to exist, and that the Edict of Nantes which gave it toleration was no longer necesIn October, 1685, he signed the Edict of Revocation. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes caused the flight of thousands who had made temporary abjuration of their religion in the hope of brighter days to come. Probably about half a million persons transferred their industry and abilities sary. to England, Holland, Brandenburg, and Switzerland. Many districts of France, such as Normandy, Touraine, Poitou, and Lyonnais, were either depopulated or their industry was ruined by the exodus. Nor was the proscribed religion exterminated. In the Cevennes it resisted all efforts to eradicate and the peasantry, nicknamed Camisards (since they were wont to wear shirts as a distinguishing mark during their night sorties), rose in revolt in 1702, and hampered France at a time when all her resources were needed to withstand her it, foreign foes. The year 1685 was critical in the history of Louis's reign. The Wars of Louis XIV 135 In his contemptuous disregard for international agreements he had compelled Europe to regard him as a public danger. His treatment of the Huguenots revived religious animosities which were beginning to slumber, while the accession of James II to the British thrones in 1685, his avowed Catholic and subservience to Louis, suggested that Catholicism was about to make a further attempt to destroy the ReformaSo long as he could count on England, Louis could tion. bias devote himself confidently to his Continental designs. William of Orange, therefore, who held the strings of European diplomacy, formed in 1686 the League of Augsburg, in which Spain, Sweden, Holland, Savoy, the Emperor, and other members of the Empire, formed a coalition for the maintenance of the Treaties of Westphalia and Nymegen and the Truce of Ratisbon. The immediate cause of the League was Louis's action in the Palatinate. In 1685 Charles Elector Palatine, grandson " Winter King," the last male of his line, died without of the His sister was the wife of Louis's brother, the duke issue. of Orleans, and in her behalf Louis advanced a claim to the Lower Palatinate which, if allowed, gave him an overwhelming position on the Rhine for the Palatinate was the natural extension of Alsace, which was already in Louis's ; Three years later (1688) a vacancy in the See of Cologne afforded Louis another opportunity to strengthen his hold on Rhenish Germany. He put forward the bishop of Strassburg as his candidate, and though he failed to secure his hands. election, forcibly installed him in the electorate. In September, 1688, Louis suddenly launched an army into His action the Palatinate and laid siege to Philippsburg. had the most momentous consequences for it was the direct means of converting the neutrality of England into active " Old hostility towards Louis. The birth of James's son, the Pretender," in June, 1688, promised a continuance of James's policy and was followed by an invitation to William to come to England in defence of her Protestant Church and constitution. But so long as, on the outbreak of war between France and the League, Louis's attack was likely to fall on Holland, it was useless to expect the United Provinces to spare William to accept the invitation extended to him, or to place at his disposal the troops necessary for his success. ; Louis's invasion of the Palatinate relieved the Dutch of their 136 A Short History of Europe apprehensions of immediate attack. Brandenburg sent troops for their defence, and on the day that Phihppsburg fell, William sailed for England, Before the end of the year James was an exile in France, and early in 1689 William and his wife were Scotland also proclaimed king and queen of England. deposed James, and Britain ranged herself with the active enemies of France. England's resumption of her place as the champion of Protestantism and of balance of power in Europe upset Louis's calculations and imperilled his ambitions. For their fulfilment it was imperative to restore James to the thrones which he had lost. In England there was no party prepared to strike In Scotland the death of Dundee at Killiecrankie for him. in July, 1689, and the defeat of the clans at Cromdale the following year, destroyed Jacobitism for a generation in that kingdom. In Ireland the battle of the Boyne in July, 1690, and the fall of Limerick the following year closed the door against James. Finally the battle of La Hogue, won by the Dutch and English fleets over the French in 1692, placed England out of danger of invasion and of a Stewart restoration. The wide coalition which William had engineered against France, and the accession of England to it, compelled Louis to aim rather at the preservation of what he had won than to prosecute his designs on Spain and the Empire. Early in 1689 his troops evacuated the Palatinate, after having made a desert of it by burning its towns and villages and driving forth its inhabitants. But so vast were his resources, and so admirably were they organised, that Louis was able simultaneously to engage the Spaniards in the south, from whom he wrested Catalonia the duke of Savoy, who entered the war in the hope of recovering Pinerolo and Casale (which and the Imperialists, Dutch, and Louis had seized in 1681) English on the Rhine and in the Low Countries. In the Low Countries the war became a series of sieges, of which the capture of Mons and Namur (which William recaptured) were the chief features. In the Mediterranean an English fleet operated with success, and for the first time the rivalry of the two countries was fought out in the New World, where Acadia was taken from the French. But the strain on France was great, while the defection of Savoy from the coalition in 1696 disposed the allies to peace, since it freed a French army for ; ; The Wars of Louis XIV In 1697 the Peace of service elsewhere. 137 Ryswyk was con- cluded by all the belligerents. In spite of the tenacity with which France had fought, the Peace of Ryswyk represented a surrender on her part. To England Louis accorded recognition of William's throne, and undertook not to support Jacobite attempts against it. England restored Acadia. The Dutch obtained an advantageous treaty of commerce. Spain recovered Catalonia, and in the Netherlands, Mons, Luxemburg, Ath, and Courtray. The Dutch, who were vitally concerned in the protection of the Franco-Netherlands frontier, were permitted to garrison Namur, Menin, Ypres, and other towns. To the Emperor, who delayed a settlement for some weeks after England, Spain, and Holland had come to terms, Louis surrendered all his acquisitions since the Peace of Nymegen, save Strassburg and Landau. He also withdrew from the right or German bank of the Rhine by yielding Philippsburg, Freiburg, and Breisach. Lorraine was restored to its duke, save Saarlouis, which France retained. As to his most recent provocations, Louis abandoned his candidate for the See of Cologne and withdrew his claims on the Palatinate. Louis's moderation in the Treaty of Ryswyk was due to the imminence of a struggle in which, for the first time in planning his designs, he was obliged to count upon the hostility of England. Since Charles II of Spain became king in 1665 the succession to his throne had been an urgent question. His health was precarious and he was without children. The problem was the more serious in that his death would bring the Houses of Bourbon and Austria into bitter rivalry. Both Philip HI and Philip IV gave their elder daughter in marriage to a king of France (Louis XIII and Louis XIV) and their younger daughter to the Emperor (Ferdinand III and the descendants of those four marsuccessor had to be discovered. It was rest of Europe would oppose the accession of either a Bourbon or Austrian prince to the entire Leopold I). Among riages Charles II certain that the and still 's imposing Spanish empire, and even Louis recog- nised that some scheme of dismemberment would have to be framed. The royal intermarryings of the daughters of Philip III and IV founded three rival claims to the Spanish succession Philip : 138 (i) A the Bourbon Short History of Europe ; (2) the Bavarian or Wittelsbach ; (3) the The Bourbon Claim arose from the marriage of Louis XIV and Maria Teresa, the daughter of PhiUp IV by Imperial. his first marriage. On her marriage by formal acts her hereditary rights, Maria Teresa renounced and those of her descen- dants, to the Spanish crown. But the fact that her dowry remained unpaid and that her renunciation did not receive the formal sanction of the Spanish Cortes gave Louis ground on which to contest the ability of his wife, who died in 1683, to exclude her issue and his from the rights of which she had denuded herself. The Bavarian Claim arose from the marriage of Margaret Teresa, the daughter of Philip IV's second marriage, to the Emperor Leopold I. Unlike her sister, Margaret made no renunciation of her rights at the time of her marriage, and on her father's death in 1665 (she being then unmarried) was expressly named in his will as her brother Charles II's heir. Her rights therefore descended intact to her daughter Maria Antonia, and on Maria Antonia's death in 1692 to her son Joseph Ferdinand, the electoral prince of Bavaria, who inherited his grandmother Margaret's rights unclogged any act of renunciation on her part. by The Imperial Claim had less obvious legal sanction than the Bavarian. The Emperor Leopold I was the son of a Spanish Infanta (daughter of Philip III) who had made no renunciation of her rights as a Spanish princess on her His own marriage to Margaret Teresa, however, conveyed stronger claims to his daughter than he inherited from his own mother, who represented an earlier generation. He therefore exacted from his daughter Maria Antonia a renunciation of her claims, which he transferred to the Archduke Charles, his son by another marriage. In Spain itself, at whose court French and Austrian influences were marriage. seeking to capture the favour of the dying king, Charles was at one with public sentiment in his determination, that so far as he could do so, he would avert the threatened partition of the Spanish dominions. By his first will (1698) he adopted his great-nephew, the electoral prince of Bavaria, as his heir, and after that youth's sudden death, chose on his death-bed (1700) his great-nephew, Philip of Anjou. After the signature of the Treaty of Ryswyk the health The Wars of Louis XIV 139 made the Spanish succession question acute. While the French and Austrian factions at Madrid were intriguing to procure Charles's nomination of a successor, Louis was sounding England and Holland with a view to comThe result of long negotiations was the first Parpromise. tition Treaty (1698) between France, England, and Holland. Of the three interests in the Spanish succession, that of Bavaria of Charles II was preferred by England and Holland, since Bavaria was powerful than her competitors. To the electoral prince, therefore, the Treaty assigned Spain, the Indies, the Netherlands, Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles. Saving Milan, which was assigned to the Archduke Charles, France received compensation in the acquisition by the dauphin of the rest of the Spanish possessions in Italy, namely, the kingdom of Naples and Sicily, the Tuscan ports, as well as the Spanish province Guipuzcoa contiguous to France. The Treaty was signed in secret at the Hague, but news of its contents soon reached Spain and roused great indignation. Charles countered it by a will in which he appointed the electoral prince less his universal heir. The youth was summoned educated (he was seven years old), to Spain to be but early in 1699 died of small-pox, or, as some believed, of poison. Whatever the cause of it, his death reopened the whole question in a more critical form for his removal left the Bourbon and Imperial claims face to face, and the exclusive succession of either would not prove palatable to the rest of Europe. While Louis's ; agents in Spain were working (successfully it proved) for his grandson Philip of Anjou's adoption as Charles's heir, Louis put himself again into communication with William, ostensibly to negotiate an equitable division of the Spanish monarchy between France and Austria. In 1700 a second Partition Treaty was signed between France, England, and Holland, in which the Bavarian prince's share under the first treaty was transferred to the Archduke Charles. France, as before, received compensation in Italy, where the Dauphin was to receive Milan as well as Naples and Sicily, on the understanding that Milan should be exchanged for the more desirable Lorraine. If the new treaty seemed to give the Habsburgs too much, the loss of Italy cut them off from the Mediterranean and Spain. If France took less than she might have demanded, A 140 Short History of Europe the treaty left her supreme in the Mediterranean and promised her in Lorraine a great expansion of the position which she already held in Alsace and Franche Comte. But the Emperor would have none of it. He would take the Spanish monarchy To cirfor his son whole and undivided or threatened war. cumvent the proposed division of his kingdom Charles II made a new will (October, 1700) appointing Philip of Anjou his heir. A month later Charles died. The Treaty of Partition was waste-paper. Louis accepted the will in his grandson's behalf, and in April, 1701, Philip V, the first of the Bourbon kings of Spain, entered Madrid. So great was the disinclination of England and Holland to II; resume war that at first Louis's challenge to Europe seemed But Louis's public declaration likely to pass unanswered. that his grandson was not debarred from the French throne, and his sudden seizure of some Spanish barrier fortresses, revived fears of French ambition in that quarter. England was roused by Spain's grant to the French Guinea Company of the monopoly of the slave-trade with the Spanish settlements in America. William was therefore able to form the Grand Alliance between England, Holland, and the Emperor (1701). A few days later James II died at St. Germains, and Louis, as a retort to the Grand Alliance, recognised his son, the Old Pretender, as James III of England and VIII of Scotland. Louis's action deeply stirred England, and when William died (March, 1702) it was in full knowledge that she would continue along the path of opposition to France on which he had ! The War Spanish Succession was the longest of was fought in Spain, Italy, the Low CounGermany, and the New World. On the side of the allies Louis's reign. tries, it set her. of the It produced three men of genius who continued William's the duke of Marlborough, Prince Eugene of Savoy, work and the Dutch Grand Pensionary Hcinsius. Louis had no longer round him the giants of his earlier years, and his most distinguished generals were marshal Villars and the duke of Vcndome. The adhesion of Savoy, Bavaria, and Portugal allowed Louis at first to take the offensive, and he planned to force peace on the Emperor by an attack upon Vienna itself. But the victory of Marlborough and Eugene at Blenheim (1704) saved Vienna and for the rest of the war compelled : The Wars of Louis XIV 141 France to adopt a defensive attitude. Savoy and Portugal soon (1703) deserted the Franco-Spanish alHance Savoy ; being distrustful of France, and Portugal being tempted by the Methuen Treaty of 1703, which gave her wines a preferential market in England over those of France. In Spain the erratic Lord Peterborough commanded a British force on behalf of Archduke Charles. But Vendome's victory at Villa Viciosa (1710) over an Anglo- Austrian force secured Philip on the Spanish throne and confined his rival to Catalonia. In the Low Countries, Marlborough's victory at Ramillies (1706) detached from Spain all of Brabant and the greater part of The attempt of France to recover them drew Flanders. upon her further defeat and the complete loss of Flanders at Oudenarde (1708) and Malplaquet (1709). Louis's attempt to use the Old Pretender in Scotland, where the Union with England (1707) roused much feeling, proved of little conseIn 1708 James sailed to Scotland with a French quence. expeditionary force, but did not even land. In the Mediterranean, where Philip's accession in Spain promised to give the Bourbons complete mastery, British influence was established by Sir George Rooke's seizure of Gibraltar In the New (1704) and the capture of Minorca (1708). World Acadia (Nova Scotia) was again wrested from the French. So vast was the strain upon the resources of France that Louis as early as 1706 made overtures for peace. But the allies' demand (1709) that he should, if necessary, aid them in the expulsion of his grandson from Spain rekindled the spirit of France, and the v/ar continued. The fall of the Whig ministry in England (17 10), however, and the death of the Emperor Joseph I (171 1) completely altered the European situation. The former event brought in the Tories, who were eager for peace. The latter gave Joseph's brother, the Archduke Charles, the Imperial throne and made him no longer an for the union of agreeable competitor against Philip V Madrid and Vienna threatened Europe as much as that of Paris and Madrid. Conversations were opened between Great Britain and France, and the defeat of the Dutch at Denain (1712) disposed them also to peace. In 1713 a group of treaties, known collectively as the Peace of Utrecht, brought welcome rest to Europe. The Emperor held aloof, but in ; 142 A Short History of Europe 1 7 14 he (Peace of Rastatt) and the Empire (Peace of Baden) came into the general pacification. France withdrew As between France and Great Britain : her hospitaUty from the Old Pretender, and definitively recognised the Hanoverian succession. In the New World France made concessions which heralded her colonial downfall fifty Great Britain obtained Acadia, and France years later. abandoned her claims on the Hudson Bay settlements, Newfoundland, and St. Kitts (one of the Leeward Islands, which had been in the joint occupation of the two countries since 1625). Louis also promised to dismantle Dunkirk. As between Spain and Great Britain Philip V's succession to the throne of Spain (subject to his renunciation of that of France) was recognised. Spain conceded the town and and its harbour Port Minorca also and of Gibraltar, port Mahon. The acquisition of Gibraltar, should Great Britain ever withdraw from it, was reserved to Spain. But its possession controls access to and egress from the Mediterranean and has proved strategically too valuable, especially since the cutting of the Suez Canal opened a new highway to India, to allow Great Britain to alienate it. Minorca, after under: going both loss and recovery, was finally given back to Spain by the Treaty of Amiens (1802), the more readily that Great Britain acquired Malta under the same treaty (confirmed by the Peace of Paris (1814)). The Asiento (legal compact) on the part of Spain conceded to the English South Sea Company the right to exercise for thirty years the trading to the French privileges which in 1701 Philip V had assigned Guinea Company. The Company contracted to export to the Spanish Colonies in America about 5000 slaves annually, and permission was accorded for a single British ship of 500 tons' burden to trade annually in that quarter. not exhaust the Concessions to Great Britain did to which Spain was obliged to submit in (;rder obtain international recognition of her first Bourbon king. The Treaty restricted the Spanish monarchy exclusively to the Spanish peninsula, the Balearic Isles (save Minorca), and the Indies. Italy, where she had been losses to planted since the Sicilian Vespers (1282), Spain now lost The Emperor obtained Milan, Naples, Sardinia, and the Tuscan ports. The island Sicily (with the royal title) altogether. The Wars of Louis XIV 143 was conceded to Victor Amadeus II of Savoy (who exchanged with Austria for Sardinia in 1720). Spain also lost the Belgic Netherlands after possessing them for two centuries the Treaty gave them to Austria, a transaction which was agree- it ; able to the Dutch, since it withdrew the Belgic provinces from the weak hands of Spain and from French ambition working through Spain. By the Third Barrier Treaty (171 5) the Dutch received also, under the guarantee of Great Britain, Namur, Tournay, and six other barrier fortresses, to be held by Dutch garrisons partly at the cost of Austria. Upper alike Gelderland (Obergeldern) was assigned (in lieu of the principality of Orange to which he had claims on the death of William III) to Frederick I of Prussia, but did not pass into the actual possession of Prussia for one hundred years (Treaty of Vienna, 181 5). The War of the Spanish Succession formed a sad conclusion to the glories and sacrifices of Louis XIV's long reign. He died in 1715. He left France with substantial gains in Alsace, Franche Comte, Artois, Flanders, and Roussillon. But they were the successes of his earlier years, and his ill-judged in Spain weakened Louis completed the frontier policy of his grandfather by the acquisition of Lorraine (1766). He also purchased Corsica from Genoa (1768). But France made no headway against the economic, social, and political evils of the ancien regime which had crystallised under Louis XIV, and so plunged into the Revolu- acceptance of his grandson's legacy both his own and that kingdom. tion. XV CHAPTER IX THE RISE OF RUSSIA In the history of Northern Europe in the eighteenth century the entry of Russia into the there are two capital facts European system, and the rise of Brandenburg-Prussia to the : The first is expressed in the chief position in Germany. careers of Peter the Great (1682-1725) and Catharine II (176296). Peter destroyed the domination of Sweden in the Baltic and impressed European civilisation upon his country. Catharine bound Russia yet closer to European interests by the partition of the ancient kingdom of Poland. At the present day, though the bulk of her population is in Europe, Russia owns three times as much territory in Asia as in Europe. The whole of her past, save her foundation by Scandinavian agencies, drew her to Asia until Peter the Great in the seventeenth century Europeanised her civilisation and her interests alike. There came among Russia's Slavonic population towards the end of the ninth century a band of Swedish colonists under Rurik, who founded principalities at Novgorod, Smolensk, Kief, and elsewhere. Something of the democratic characteristics of their Germanic stock the strangers from Sweden gave to the communities they founded, until the power of Moscow " " the Great in the time of Ivan III, (1462-1505), swept them away. But before that event two things of importance had happened which turned the face of young Russia away from Europe. The first was the reception of Christianity by St. Vladimir (d. 1015), Rurik's great-grandson, and the establishment of it by his son laroslav. The conversion of Russia was the work of the Eastern Orthodox Church, to which Russia belongs to this day. Hence at a time when Western civilisation was forming itself round Rome and the Papacy, her religion kept Russia outside Europe, and 144 The Rise of Russia 145 sundered her even from her Slav neighbours and kinsmen for the West Slavs of Poland, Lithuania, and Bohemia received Christianity from Rome. The second determining fact in the early history of Russia was the foundation of Moscow by luri Dolgoruki in 11 47 as a ; The geographical position •military colony among the Fins. of Moscow gave an entirely new trend to Russian history. For at Moscow, far removed from European influence, and restricted by no political boundaries, the Great Princes of Muscovy, so they were known, entered upon an ambitious career of geographical expansion. But within one hundred years of her foundation, Moscow and the other kindred After principalities succumbed to the Tartars or Mongols. the death of Zenghiz Khan (1227) a wandering Tartar horde, known as the " Golden Horde," moved westward under his grandson, Batu Khan, invaded and devastated Poland, Moravia, Hungary, and penetrated to the Adriatic. Returning thence, the Horde entered Russia. Moscow was taken (1237), Kief was sacked, and the other principalities were either exterminated or became tributary vassals of their Tartar conqueror. A century later the advance of Timur (d. 1405) shattered the empire of the Golden Horde, which after its conquering progress had spread itself over the Russian Steppes above the Black Sea, Caspian Sea, and Sea of Aral. A number of smaller khanates or principalities arose on its ruins, Krim (Crimea), Kazan, Astrakhan, and Kazimov, which the Great Princes and Tsars of Muscovy in course of time attached to their rule. " Ivan III, the Great " (i 462-1 505), completed the emancipation of Russia from the yoke of the Tartars, though they remained unruly neighbours. He brought under his direct power Novgorod and the other Slav communities which had bowed to the Tartar yoke, and extended his rule over great tracts inj:he north and north-east. His grandson, Ivan IV " the Terrible," who was the first to bear the (1533-84), title Tsar (Caesar), annexed the Tartar khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan, thereby carrying his southern frontier to the Caspian. Eastward he pushed his borders over Siberia, and he made a premature effort to reach the Baltic through Livonia. Ivan III, his son, II.— 1. and grandson had done much to make 146 A Short History of Europe Muscovy a united and powerful State. Tartar domination was a thing of the past. The great nobles [hoiavs), who had arisen in Russia as elsewhere, had been crushed, and like their French counterpart attended the Tsar as his courtiers. But one ambition the last Tsars of Rurik's line failed. In 1525 Albert of Hohenzollern, High Master of the Teutonic Order in East Prussia, adopted Protestantism and converted the territory of the Order into a duchy. A similar Order, the Knights of the Sword, ruled Livonia. United since 1237 to the Teutonic Order, the Knights of the Sword obtained their independence, and under Gottfried Kettler followed the Gottfried example of Albert of Hohenzollern in Prussia. became a Lutheran, transferred the rights of his Order in Livonia to Poland, and retained for himself and his heirs the duchy of Courland (1561). Ignorant of the effect of the great discoveries, the Baltic still retained for Russia its commercial importance as one of the two existing maritime commercial Livonia highways, the Mediterranean being the other. therefore had a double importance for her. It offered access to the Baltic, from which she was entirely cut off. In the second place, the Tsars having unwisely destroyed Novgorod as a commercial centre, its place had been taken by Riga in Livonia. Ivan IV therefore invaded Livonia in 1557, and Kettler's transference of it to Poland was the result of his inability to resist or to gain active help against the Tsar. For the next twenty years almost continual war was waged between Russia and Poland, and shortly before his death Ivan was compelled to leave Livonia in the hands of his in rival (1582). Ivan IV was succeeded by his son Theodore, upon whose death in 1598 the House of Rurik in the male line came to an end. During the fifteen years which intervened between Theodore's death and the establishment of the Romanoff dynasty in 161 3, Ivan's attempt to extend Russia to the Baltic seemed likely to end in Russia herself becoming a " false Dmitri,*' province of either Poland or Sweden. The as he is known, who claimed to be the son of Ivan IV, obtained the Russian throne (1605) with the assistance of Sigismund III of Poland, who had lost the crown of Sweden and desired Russian assistance for the recovery of that kingdom. Dmitri was also the protege of the Jesuits, and his adventure I? The Rise of Russia 147 with the efforts of the Catholic reaction elsewhere in Europe, Protestant Sweden had already expelled Sigismund and she could not remain uninterested in his connects itself Charles IX of Sweden therefore allied intrigues in Russia. himself with Vasili Shuiski, whose overthrow of Dmitri and accession as Vasili IV (1606) was followed by the appearance " " false Dmitri," known as in Russia of a second the Robber." Sigismund invaded Russia, Vasili and his party were overthrown (1610), and Sigismund's son Wladislaw (Ladislas) was elected Tsar by the Moscow boiars. Sweden now intervened with a proposal to confer the crown on a Swedish prince, and seized Novgorod. These events stimulated in Russia a strong national sentiment, and the expression of it was the election of Michael Romanoff (1613-45), the greatnephew by marriage of Ivan IV, and first of a dynasty which has ruled Russia ever since. With Poland Michael concluded a treaty (1634) which renounced Russia's claims on Livonia in return for Wladislaw's abandonment of his claims to the Russian throne, while Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden restored Novgorod in return for Ingria and Carelia (Peace of Stolbova, 1 61 7). Thus when the House of Romanoff began its career Russia's frontier was far removed from the Baltic. From the reign of Ivan III Europe and European ideas had been exerting a growing influence upon Russia. His wife was the niece of Constantine, the last Eastern EmThe Kremlin, Ivan's famous palace at Moscow, was peror. the work of a Milanese architect. Russia was in diplomatic communication with Vienna, Rome, and other European In the reign of Ivan IV the great church of Vasili at Moscow, like the Kremlin, was built by an Italian architect. During his reign the search for Cathay and the Indies, in which the Western Powers of Europe were engaging, brought Muscovy for the first time into touch with England. In 1553 the English navigator Richard Chancellor reached the White Sea and travelled thence to Moscow, The establishment of the It English Company of Muscovy Merchants followed (1555). received commercial privileges from Ivan and contributed to the development of Russia's natural resources. Antony Jenkinson, following the same quest as Chancellor, visited Moscow, travelled thence down the Volga, across the Caspian, and on to Bokhara. Jenkinson obtained for England the monopoly courts. A 148 Short History of Europe White Sea, and permission to trade with Russia over the Baltic. His contemporary Thomas Banister carried Enghsh merchandise down the Volga to Tifiis and Samarcand. Ivan IV even thought of England as a home in the event of exile, and asked for and was refused the hand of of the trade of the Elizabeth's kinswoman, Lady Mary Hastings. An Englishman, Mark Ridley, was the physician of Tsar Boris, and Timothy Willis, an alchemist, was sent to Russia by Elizabeth. Foreign merchants settled at Moscow and elsewhere, and the Tsar's army offered service to Scotsmen and other Europeans. Throughout the reigns of the first three Romanoffs, Michael, Alexis, and Theodore, Western influences continued. Michael invited the mediation of England in the Peace of Stolbova. Theodore founded an Academy at Moscow for the study of Latin and Greek, and the physician of Peter the Great was Robert Erskine, a Scotsman. Peter the Great therefore worked a soil whose surface had been already turned. Peter the Great was proclaimed Tsar in 1682 on the death of his half-brother Theodore. His accession passed over the claims of Theodore's own brother and sister, Ivan and Sophia, the first as being half -insane, and the second as a woman. But Sophia, who possessed much force of character, with the help of the palace guards {Strieltzy, or arquebusiers) instituted by Ivan IV, caused Peter and her own brother Ivan V to be proclaimed joint-Tsars under herself as Regent. For the next seven years, from his tenth to his seventeenth year, Peter was kept carefully in the background by Sophia. He went his own way, made friends among the foreign community, especially among the Germans and Dutch, showed an extraordinary aptitude for military science, and organised a regiment of " " the Regent called blackguards youthful playmates ^his them drilled by a German. A Dutchman taught him the — — rudiments of fortification, and he showed particular interest in the craft of shipbuilding. Among his friends were Patrick Gordon, a Scot, who entered the Russian military service some twenty years before Peter's accession, and a Frenchman, Fran9ois European Lefort, tour. who was chiefly responsible for Peter's In 1689, in his seventeenth year, Peter withstood a plot against himself and drove his sister Sophia into a convent. His personal reign began, though his half-brother Ivan survived The Rise of Russia 149 until 1696. Peter's first act is the key to his whole reign. Russia so far was cut off from the sea at every point save one, without means of communication with the civilised world of West of which Peter had learnt from the foreign friends of his youth. The White Sea was ice-bound for nine months out of the twelve. The Caspian, screened by Cossack and Tartar nomads, was of doubtful value, and offered no avenue to Europe. The eastern shores of the Baltic were Swedish, as in the days of Gustavus Adolphus. Peter's father Alexis, who took part in the war in which the ambition of Gustavus's nephew, Charles of Sweden, engaged the northern system, conquered a great part of Livonia. But by the Treaty of Kardis (1661) Russia withdrew from her conquests. Therefore, until Peter again challenged Sweden in the Baltic, the Black Sea offered him the only outlet. There was another reason which drew Peter there. The establishment of Russian influence in that quarter involved war with Turkey, and Turkey was not only already engaged with Austria, but was hated by Orthodox Russia as the usurper of the holy city of her faith. Peter resolved, therefore, to seize the Turkish fortress, Azof, and in 1695 ^is army gave it siege, the Tsar himself serving as lieutenant in his regiment of bombardiers. Undaunted by one failure, Peter procured expert workmen from Austria and Prussia, a the X model galley from Holland, built galleys, and launched them in 1696. the first won by Russia against the inaugurate the reforms which he country was to take a place among two warships and many Azof fell, and the victory, Turks, heartened Peter to felt to be essential if his her European neighbours. In 1697, partly to stir up Europe against the Turk (Europe at the time having its eye fixed on Louis XIV and Spain), and partly for his own education, Peter dispatched an embassy from Moscow, which he accompanied incognito as " Peter Mikhailoff." He visited Prussia, Hanover, Holland, England, and worked in the shipyards of Saardam and Deptford as an " I ordinary workman. His desire to learn was insatiable. must see for myself," was his constant remark. He even studied dentistry At Vienna he engaged the Emperor not to make peace with Turkey, and was on the point of visiting Venice when disturbing news from Moscow called him back ! to Russia. A 150 Short History of Europe On setting out on his European tour Peter left at Moscow a regency of boiars, and a small but disciplined force of regular Peter's absence entroops under the Scotsman Gordon. couraged a manifestation of the ignorant prejudice which his modernism had outraged. He gave his confidence to heretics, men who shaved their beards, and smoked tobacco. His European journey, outrageous in itself, was doubly so in that it was to be the prelude to an order compelling the boiars to send their children abroad. It was remembered that Tsar Boris (d. 1605) had done the same thing on a smaller scale, and that the youthful aristocracy of Russia, seduced by the delights of Western civilisation, had refused to return home. Peter discarded the national dress, launched on the sea monsters strange to a non-maritime people, served as a private, and followed the ordinary stages of promotion in his own army. A Frenchman and a Scotsman were at the head of it, and the Tsar walked while the Frenchman rode in the triumphal entry into Moscow after the fall of Azof. To the old Strieltzy Peter's persistent quest after efficiency was unwelcome the force did not wish to be modernised. Conservative Russia viewed the Tsar as a strange being whose a French or German father very parentage was irregular was postulated by some. The most conservative spirits in the Church believed him to be Antichrist. Peter had been absent from Russia for more than a year, and his European tour was nearing its end, when in June, 1698, the Strieltzy revolted and marched on Moscow to wreak Their rising their vengeance on the German colony there. was easily put down by Gordon. A few weeks later Peter ; ; returned. He came back resolved to force European civilisation on his people, and on the very day after his arrival clipped the beards and moustaches of his chief boiars ; for uncut beards and flowing garments were the marks of the civilisation which Peter was minded to destroy. In one of the bursts of almost incredible savagery to which he was prone, Peter exterminated the Strieltzy. His sister Sophia, whom he strove to connect with their revolt, ended her days under military guard. His wife Eudoxia he compelled to take the veil. " " Peter's plans for the transformation (his own phrase) of Russia extended into every channel of the national life. Like The Rise of Russia 151 Japan at a later time he held externals important. Following the clipping of the boiars' beards,|he imposed a tax all who thenceforth wore them. He ordered his people to wear short jackets and hose, and forbade the use of Muscovite garments. Russian women of the upper class were by custom condemned to the seclusion usual in Eastern countries to-day, and were given in marriage to husbands whom they had never seen. Peter decreed that an interval of six months should elapse between betrothal and marriage, in which the future man and wife should be allowed to meet and converse, with liberty to each to break the engagement. Peter instituted his famous assemblies, to which both sexes were summoned, and for their closer intercourse compelled them to indulge in the so-far unknown exercises of the ballroom. He revolutionised Russian feudal society by instituting a new order of precedence based on public service. He grouped those who served the state in fourteen ranks, the first eight of which conferred hereditary, and some of the others personal, nobility. Serfdom, which had been instituted in 1597, in that it supplied forced labour on the fields and a recruiting ground for Peter's regiments, was too precious to be abolished. That reform was reserved for Alexander II in 186 1. But Peter took measures to protect the peasants from ill-treatment. Proprietors were forbidden to break up a peasant's home by Cruel proprietors, who by selling its members separately. ill-treating their serfs prevented their lands from being as profitable to the community as they might be, were, in Peter's practical way, treated as lunatics, and the administration of their estates was handed over to their relations or to the State. In similar manner the noble who did no work for the State was in danger of being forbidden to marry, lest he should increase the population of drones. In the machinery of government Peter also modernised Russia. At first he continued to summon the ancient Duma, whose constitution was feudal and aristocratic. But after 1700 it vanished, and a few years later Peter instituted a " Senate " whose powers were administrative. Its numbers were small, and during Peter's absence from Russia and preoccupation in the wars it exercised supreme powers subject " " to the Tsar himself. Peter also instituted (17 17) Colleges or Departments of State, eventually nine in number, each on 152 A Short History of Europe charged with the control of some sphere of pubUc activity, For foreign affairs, war, marine, commerce, and so forth. the purposes of provincial administration Peter divided Russia " into eight Governments," a number which the conquest of The Governor, who was the Baltic provinces increased. assisted by a council elected by the provincial landlords, was charged especially with the collection and transmission of In the towns Peter fostered municipal institutions taxes. and A industrial guilds. policy which in so masterful a manner overrode preand tradition was certain to breed discontent, and the natural conservatism of the Church was likely to focus it unless that institution was also under Peter's The Patriarch Adrian, who died in 1700, was opcontrol. posed to Peter's reforms, and the Tsar took the opportunity afforded by his death to bring the Church into dependence on himself. The religious Houses were submitted to close " " or Spiritual Department regulation, and in 1721 a new " Holy Synod," was College, subsequently known as the instituted to present to the Tsar the names of suitable candidates for vacant bishoprics, and to take the necessary measures to eliminate superstition and promote learning. Omnivorous in his appetite for knowledge, Peter encouraged the means of education in Russia. He established He founded the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. schools, and promoted the study of medicine, natural science, and Russian history. He showed a practical interest in judice, ignorance, geographical science by dispatching the Dane Behring to investigate the supposed Straits of Anian in the Arctic latitudes between Asia and America, an enterprise which resulted in the discovery of the straits which bear Behring's name. He reformed the Calendar by making January ist begin the year instead of September ist (the supposed date of the creation of the world) as heretofore. He reformed the coinage, which so far had consisted only of silver kopeks and halfkopeks. He founded mints and struck gold, silver, and copper coins. He reformed the alphabet and introduced the existing " civil script." Types of the simplified alphabet for the printing press were cast in Holland and brought to Russia in 1707. Concurrently with these comprehensive, and to the astonish- The Rise of Russia 153 ment of Europe, permanent reforms, Peter raised his country to supremacy in Northern Europe. A brief war with Turkey was concluded by the Peace of the Pruth (171 1), in which Peter surrendered Azof. In 1722 he turned his arms against Persia, and acquired the eastern and southern shores of the Caspian by the cession to him of the provinces Daghestan, Masenderan, and Astrabad, a region so unhealthy, however, that the Tsaritsa Anne restored it a few years later. But the great and determining efforts of Peter's reign were round the Baltic. His successes were gained at the expense of Sweden, in war with a king who shared with himself the Gilan, of Europe, Charles XII (i 697-1 71 8). After the abdication of Gustavus's daughter Christina in 1654, the crown of Sweden passed to her cousin Charles The refusal of John Casimir of Poland, the (1654-60). representative of the Polish Vasa, to recognise him served as an excuse for a general war among the Baltic states, Denmark, Poland, Brandenburg, and Russia, and the intervention of France alone saved Sweden from humiliating The Treaties of Oliva (1660), Copenhagen (1660), losses. and Kardis (1661) restored peace to the Northern world. By the first Sweden recovered West Pomerania and secured while Brandenburg obtained full sovereignty of Livonia the duchy of Prussia from Poland. By the second, Denmark paid dearly for her attempt to wrest from Sweden the hegemony of the North. For while Sweden restored to Denmark the province of Trondhjem and the island of Bornholm, Sweden secured the Scandinavian provinces of Bohus, Halland, Scania, and Bleking, which extended her territory to the sea on the south, a frontier which she has ever since retained. By the third treaty Sweden was confirmed in her possession of Livonia. Charles XI (1660-97) of Sweden, after a brief union with England and Holland in the Triple Alliance (1668), reverted to the traditional relations with France, and engaged himself (1672) to make a diversion in France's favour in Germany, where Brandenburg was in arms to aid the Dutch. Her defeat by the Great Elector at Fehr- wonder X ; bellin (1675) sorely damaged Sweden's military reputation, and was followed by her expulsion from West Pomerania. But in spite of her reverses, the support of Louis XIV enabled Sweden to emerge from the war with no more loss than the .A Short History of Europe 154 Brandenburg of a strip of territory on the right Oder (Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 1679). For the rest of his reign Charles XI refused to be drawn after France as an auxihary to Louis's disturbing pohcy. He died in 1697 and left his crown to his fifteen-year-old son Charles cession to bank of the XII, the rival of Peter the Great. When Charles XII succeeded his father Sweden still held the pre-eminence in the Baltic which Gustavus Adolphus had given her. She had driven Denmark from the south of the Her German possessions were Scandinavian peninsula. intact, except for Brandenburg's comparatively trivial gain in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. From Livonia north- ward the whole of the eastern coast of the Baltic was hers. Such was her position before Peter challenged and overthrew it. Russia, Poland, Denmark, and Brandenburg were all eager to strike at Sweden. But the immediate cause of the struggle which engaged Northern Europe while the War of the Spanish progress was a Livonian squire He was a captain in the Patkul. Swedish army, but resenting Charles XI 's spoliation of the " Edicts of Reduction," had Livonian nobles under the addressed the king in such violent language, that after imprisonment he fled in order to avoid death. With a view to redressing his own grievances rather than in a spirit of patriotism, Patkul addressed himself to the formation of a league against Charles XII. Brandenburg refused to be drawn But the Elector Augustus of Saxony, who in 1697 had in. been elected Augustus II king of Poland, and Frederick IV of Denmark, who was anxious to acquire the duchy of Schleswig and Holstein, the former of which Denmark had seized but disgorged in 1689, fell in with Patkul's schemes. Peter joined the triple league in 1699. Ingria and Esthonia were to Succession was also in named Johan Reinhold be his share of the spoils. three conspirators counted on the youth and inexperience of Charles XII. In 1700 the Danes entered Schleswig. Augustus invaded Livonia. Peter, not anticipating serious resistance, led a raw army into Ingria against Narva, the key But Charles XII displayed extraordinary of the province. The vigour and unexpected ability. Falling first upon Denmark, he compelled Frederick to withdraw from the alliance against The Rise of Russia 155 him (Treaty of Traventhal, 1700), and then, appearing unexpectedly in Ingria, completely routed the Russians at Narva (1700). His victory gave Charles an erroneous idea of the resources of his Russian antagonist, and leaving an inadequate force to defend the Baltic provinces, he proceeded against Augustus. It was a natural but fatal decision. In 1701 he occupied Courland. In 1702 he invaded Poland, and in 1704 procured the deposition of Augustus of Stanislaus Leszczynski as his successor. and the election But Charles's revenge was not complete. Leading his army into Saxony, he forced Augustus to conclude with him the Treaty of Altranstadt (1706), in which Augustus renounced his antiSwedish alliances, recognised his supplanter on the Polish throne, and delivered Patkul to Charles for execution. Peter meanwhile had made the fullest use of the opportunity which Charles's pursuit of Augustus gave him, and his troops occupied (i 701-5) Carelia, Ingria, Livonia, In 1703, on Ingrian soil so recently Esthonia, and Courland. snatched from the enemy, Peter laid the foundation of his new capital, Petersburg, and its citadel, Cronstadt. At Altranstadt Charles XII received the invitation of Louis XIV to engage in the War of the Spanish Succession. His participation threatened to put a wholly different aspect on the war, and Marlborough visited him on behalf of the allies. Charles received the envoys from both camps with coldness. As a firm Protestant he had no sympathy with the policy of Louis, and the map of Russia which Marlborough found open on the king's table when he visited him showed where Charles's interests now lay. He had in fact resolved to direct his next campaign against Peter, and to dictate peace at Moscow itself. In 1708 the Russian campaign opened, and Charles marched on Moscow by way of Lithuania. On the approach of autumn he was still far distant from his objective, and had done nothing to reduce the strength of his enemy for Peter risked no battles, and devastated the country before him. Opportunely communications reached Charles from the Cossack Hetman (or chief) Mazeppa, who hated Peter's innovations and had convinced himself that Charles's was ; the winning cause. Mazeppa's friendship promised Charles the resources of the Ukraine, which the Hetman controlled. A 156 Short History of Europe Abandoning therefore the direct advance on Moscow, Charles turned southward to the Ukraine and disappointment. For Mazeppa, who had pleaded illnesL to excuse him from obeying the Tsar's orders to oppose the Swedes, was deprived of his chief ship, while the fearful winter of 1708-9, in which birds fell dead in their flight and firewood would not burn in the open air, cost Charles the lives of thousands of his men. It was with an army of about 20,000, half its original number, that he began the decisive campaign of 1709. With his face again set towards Moscow, Charles gave siege to Poltava in the Ukraine, designing to possess himself of the A month fortress while awaiting reinforcements. who had made up his mind that the time later Peter, had come " to have a final bout with the enemy," as he wrote, appeared with an overwhelmingly powerful army, and at the battle of Poltava the Swedes were almost annihilated. Charles himself, wounded and in great pain, escaped into Turkish territory. For five years he disappeared from the world in the shelter of Bender, near Odessa and the Black Sea. The victory gave " Peter a window " on the Baltic. " Now by God's help," he " are the foundations of Petersburg securely laid for wrote, all time." The battle of Poltava revived the triple alliance against Sweden which Charles XII at the outset had crushed. Peter completed his conquest of Livonia, Esthonia, and the Aland isles, and proceeded securely with the building of Petersburg. Augustus of Saxony drove Stanislaus from Poland, and Denmark secured Bremen and Verden. The coalition became more formidable on the accession to it of Frederick William I of Prussia, who coveted West Pomerania, and Hanover, whose Elector (George I of Great Britain) hoped to secure Bremen and Verden. By the end of 17 14 the partition of the Swedish dominions had been arranged, and on German soil Wismar and Stralsund alone remained in Sweden's possession. Into the latter Charles threw himself from Bender in 1714. The fortress, which had resisted Wallenstein, fell a year later (17 1 5). Wismar, the last Swedish possession on German soil, in 71 6. accession of George, second Elector of Hanover, to the throne of Great Britain and Ireland as George I (17 14) compelled that kingdom to take a particular interest in fell The 1 The Rise of Russia 157 Germany and in the struggle for the Baltic, Descended from the marriage of Henry the Lion to the daughter of Henry II of England, the House of BrunswickLiineburg attained to a position of power and influence in North-West Germany, though its two branches, Brunswick and Liineburg, separated in the thirteenth century. From the latter the dynasty which obtained the British the affairs of North throne in 171 4 descended. This, the younger, branch of the family possessed the two duchies of Celle (or LuneburgCelle) and Hanover, and the will of George I's grandfather, George duke of Hanover (d. 1641), forbade them to be Duke George's sons succeeded in turn to the two united. duchies, Hanover being always held by the second surviving son and Celle by his elder brother. By the death of his elder brothers Hanover passed in 1679 into the possession of Ernest Augustus, George I's father. Ernest Augustus was already since 1661 bishop of the secularised see of Osnabriick. His wife Sophia, daughter of Frederick V the Elector Palatine and grand-daughter of James I, was by the English Act of Succession of 1701 heir to the throne in default of issue to William HI or Anne. In 1692, in return for his undertaking to assist the Habsburg interest in the matter of the Spanish succession, Ernest Augustus received investiture as an But his entrance to the Electoral Elector of the Empire. College was opposed, and it was not until 1708 that Ernest Augustus's son George (who had succeeded his father in Hanover in 1698) secured admission to it. By his marriage to his cousin Sophia Dorothea, heiress of Celle, George became possessed of that duchy also after her father's death in 1705. As a Protestant he supported the Grand Alliance formed by his kinsman William HI against France, though he regarded his eventual succession to the throne of Great Britain with considerable indifference. Upon his succession in 1714 his position as a prince of the Empire, as also the interests of his new crown, inclined him to Austria and against France, whose sympathy with the Jacobite attempt in 171 5, however, was the last active sign of a Franco- Jacobite understanding until the more alarming enterprise of the Young Pretender, Charles Edward, in 1745-46. The hope of annexing Bremen and Verden which George brought with him to his new kingdom was not unwelcome to British merchants, though Great 158 A Short History of Europe Britain had been reckoned the friend of Sweden, and the intrusion of her enemy Russia into the ranks of the Great Powers was not wholly popular. After the fall of Stralsund in 1715 Charles XII escaped to Sweden, whence he had been absent for sixteen years. The hopeless state of Sweden's fortunes inspired his minister Gortz with the idea of making terms with Russia against Sweden's other despoilers. Among the latter was George I. The Jacobites were available to threaten his throne, and Gortz planned coincident insurrections in England and Scotland, from the latter of which James, the Old Pretender, had withdrawn in 1716 after the failure of the '15. The English Jacobites were sounded by Gortz's emissaries, and James himself was aware of what was in the wind. But The Swedish the British ministry discovered the plot. minister in London was arrested (17 17), Gortz also as he passed through Holland, and the plot came to nothing. In the following year (17 18) Gortz opened negotiations with Peter. But his plans were frustrated by the death of Charles while besieging the Norwegian fortress Friedrichshall (17 18). The death of Charles was followed by a revolution in Sweden which placed his sister Ulrica Eleonora on the throne. The crown became elective and was controlled by a small council of ministers and others. Gortz's Russian negotiations were abandoned and he was executed as a traitor (1719). Negotiations for peace were opened with the other despoilers Hanover of Sweden and bore fruit in definitive treaties. Verden. obtained Bremen and of Stockholm, 1719) (Treaty Prussia (Treaty of Stockholm, 1720) received the islands of Usedom and Wollin with Stettin and Upper Western PomeDenmark rania lying between the Oder and the Peene. (Treaty of Frederiksborg, 1720) received Schleswig and restored to Sweden Stralsund, Greifswald, and the island Riigen which she had occupied during the war. The greatest gainer by Sweden's fall was Russia. By the Peace of Nystad (1721) Sweden surrendered Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, with the adjacent islands, and the Finnish Finland west of Viborg was provinces Viborg and Carelia. The treaty represented a glorious retroceded to Sweden. triumph for Peter and his policy. He had destroyed Swedish supremacy in North^Europe and replaced it by that of Russia, The Rise of Russia 159 a power thenceforth conclusivel European. Nor did Peter's death in 1725, as had been expected, bring to an end the extraordinary reaction against Muscovitism of which he was the author. In the ordinary course Peter's grandson, afterwards Peter II (1727-30), would have succeeded his grandfather. But he inherited his father's affection for the old customs, and his accession was opposed by Alexander Menshikoff, w^ho once had been a seller of meat-pies in the streets of Moscow, and after the death of Lefort (1699) became the great Peter's chief adviser. The army supported Menshikoff and the;; dead Tsar was succeeded by his widow Catharine I (1725-27). Her short reign was remarkable for the formation of a Supreme Privy Council presided over by the sovereign, to which at once the control of the army, navy, and foreign affairs, and subsequently the supervision of the other Colleges or Departments, was transferred from the Senate. Upon her death in 1727, Catharine was succeeded by Peter the Great's grandson, Peter II (1727-30). Menshikoff, hated by the old nobility as an upstart and as a supporter of Peter I's innovations, filled the cup of their anger against him by an attempt to marry his daughter to the new Tsar. He and his family were banished to Siberia, and there he died (1730). The party of reaction was in the ascendant and had the Tsar's sympathies. He abandoned Petersburg for Moscow and even forbade the former to be mentioned in his presence. He died in 1730 on the very morning that was to have seen his marriage to the daughter of Prince Alexis Dol" Old Russian " party. goruki, a leader of the The untimely death of Peter II, and with him the extinction of the male line of Peter the Great, gave the nobles opportunity to strike against the autocracy with which Peter the Great had endowed the Tsardom, and at a system which favoured the lowly-born and neglected their order. Rejecting therefore the female issue of Peter the Great and Catharine I, the nobles selected Anne of Courland, the/second daughter of Ivan V, anticipating that she would pay their Their terms were set forth in the price for the throne. " Articles of Mittau," in which she was asked virtually to abandon her sovereign powers to the Supreme Privy Council. Anne, relying on the unpopularity of any attempt to convert , i6o A Short History of Europe the Tsardom into a limited monarchy, gave the required undertaking and began her ten years' reign (1730-40). But within " ten days of her entry into Moscow she cancelled the Articles " of Mittau amid patent signs of popular approval. The system of Peter the Great was restored, and as the result of the Russo-Turkish war of her reign, Azof, Peter's first conquest, was recovered. With the accession of Peter the Great's second daughter, Elizabeth (1741-62), after the brief reign of Ivan VI (1740-41), the influence of France supplanted that of Germany at the Russian court and in Russian society, and Russia took her part against Prussia in the great war which the ambition of Frederick the Great raised against Maria Theresa and the House of Austria. CHAPTER X THE GROWTH OF PRUSSIA Britain, on whom nature has imposed an obvious physical frontier, Prussia represents the artificial The process of unification union of scattered territories. began in the seventeenth century, was continued by the Great Elector (1640-88), Frederick William I (1713-40), Frederick the Great (1740-86), and was completed by the AustroPrussian War of 1866. Lacking common race, common religion, common history, Prussia owed her unification and progress to her rulers, the HohenzoUerns, and to the readiness of her people to yield the service which from the seventeenth century to the present day has made her the first military " the power in Europe. War, indeed, has been described as Prussian staple industry." In the history of the Prussian HohenzoUerns there are four determining dates. In 141 5 Frederick I received the electorate of Brandenburg, and was invested in it by the Emperor Sigismund two years later. In 161 8 the ninth Elector united the three territories, till then disjoined, which formed the nucleus of the modern kingdom. Eighty-three years later another Frederick I raised the electorate to the status of a kingdom (1701). Nearly a century and three-quarters later the seventh king of Prussia, William I, became Kaiser or President of the new German Empire (1871), whose foundation, resulting immediately from Prussia's victory over France in the FrancoGerman War of 1870-71, was prepared for by the abdication of Francis II, the last Holy Roman Emperor, in 1806. The HohenzoUerns are of South German origin and spring from the Counts of Zollern, who held a prominent position in the duchy of AUemannia or Swabia in the tenth century. Unlike Great The district Swabia, II. of Hohenzollern, their original patrimony in to Lake Constance, and until 1849 formed lies close —M 161 1 62 A Short History of Europe two principalities (Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-Hechingen) which their holders in that year surrendered to Prussia. An ancestor of the Swabian Hohenzollerns, Count Frederick of HohenzoUern, was burgrave of Nuremberg early From his second son descended in the thirteenth century. the Swabian Hohenzollerns who after six centuries resigned the principalities of Sigmaringen and Hechingen to Prussia. The elder branch of Frederick's family succeeded him in the burgravate of Nuremberg and acquired Bayreuth and Ansbach north and south of it. With Frederick VI of Nuremberg and I of Brandenburg the activities of this elder branch were transferred to North Germany. Frederick VI, who already united Nuremberg, Ansbach, and Bayreuth in his possession, was rewarded in 14 15 for his service to the Emperor Sigismund with the margravate of Brandenburg, one of the seven electorates of the Empire, and received investiture in it two years later, the first of a long line of Hohenzollerns who have ruled in unbroken male succession from that time until now. The Franconian territories of the Hohenzollerns, namely, Bayreuth and Ansbach, ultimately passed altogether out of their possession. Frederick I devised them to his eldest son, John the Alchemist. John's brother, the Elector Albert Achilles (147086), conferred them on his younger sons, Frederick (Ansbach) and Sigismund (Bayreuth). Both lines were extinct in 1603, and the two margravates reverted to the Elector John George's (1571-98) younger sons, whose descendants held them for two centuries. The Bayreuth line died out in 1769, and Bayreuth reverted to the margrave Charles Alexander of Ansbach. He also was the last of his line, and ceded both to Prussia in 1791. Prussia lost them both in the course of the Napoleonic wars, and they are now part of the Bavarian kingdom. The nucleus of the dominions which the Hohenzollerns fashioned into the kingdom of Prussia consisted of (i) the margravate of Brandenburg, (2) the duchy of Prussia, and In 161 8 the three (3) the duchy of Cleves on the Rhine. localities were united for the first time by John Sigismund (1608-19), the ninth Elector. Brandenburg, when Frederick I, the first HohenzoUern Elector, died in 1440 was an inland state, lying almost The Growth of entirely Prussia 163 between the Elbe and Oder, separated from the Baltic by intervening Mecklenburg and Pomerania. Placed athwart the Elbe and the Oder, the two natural waterways from the Germany, Brandenburg, though cut was marked out for future greatness. Her territories in 1440 comprised the original Mark {Altmark) on the left bank of the Elbe, Priegnitz (the Vormark or Advanced Mark) between the Elbe and the Oder,^ the Middle Mark {MiUelmark) and the Ukermark (so called after the Slavonic In the two centuries which intervened between the Ukri). accession of the first HohenzoUern Elector and 161 8, when the ninth Elector united the duchies of Prussia and Cleves to Brandenburg, the New Mark [Neumark) was bought (1455) from the Teutonic Order, and its acquisition drove a wedge of HohenzoUern territory into East Pomerania. The absorption of Ruppin (1524) linked up Priegnitz with the Ukermark, and the acquisition of Kottbus (1445) and Storkow (1571) began the south-eastern advance towards Silesia which Frederick the Great completed. With the duke of Pomerania the Elector Joachim I (i 499-1 535) made an important agreement in 1529, that failing heirs to the duke, Brandenburg should inherit the whole of Pomerania, an agreement which Baltic into the heart of off from the sea, , ^ similar agreement (1537) founded the effect in 1637. HohenzoUern claims on the duchies of Liegnitz, Wohlau, and Brieg in Silesia, which Frederick the Great made good. The elder Ansbach line on its extinction in 1603 passed to the electorate its claims on the Silesian duchy of Jagerndorf also. The Baltic province of Prussia was converted to Christianity and Germanised in the thirteenth century by the took Teutonic Order, or German Order of Knights, who coalesced in 1237 with the Knights of the Sword. But the foundation of the Jagellon dynasty in Poland and the union of Poland and Lithuania in 1386 raised up a formidable enemy to the Order. In 1 410 the Poles inflicted on it a crushing defeat at Tannen- and civil war added to its troubles. A number of towns and nobles combined to form the Prussian League or Alliance, renounced their allegiance to the Order in 1454, and offered it to Poland. It was in these straits that the Order in 1455 sold the Neumark to Brandenburg. But the decline of the Order was not stayed. In 1457 the High Master was driven from his fortress-capital, Marienburg, and nine years later berg, A 164 Short History of Europe the long war with Poland was brought to an end by the The Order surrendered Perpetual Peace of Thorn (1466). West Prussia and Ermeland to Poland, in whose possession they remained until they were incorporated into the Hohenzollern kingdom of Prussia more than three centuries later (1772 and 1793). East Prussia was confirmed to the Order as a Polish fief with its seat at Konigsberg. Forty-five years after the humiliating Peace of Thorn the permanent association of the Hohenzollerns with Prussia In 151 1 Margrave Albert of Ansbach was elected began. High Master of the Order. Having sought the advice of Luther, Albert became a Protestant, secularised the territory of the Order, and in 1525 was invested by the king of Poland in the duchy of Prussia. To the electoral Hohenzollerns at Berlin it forthwith became an object of policy to secure their eventual succession to Duke Albert's duchy. The prize was not long withheld for Duke Albert's son and successor, Albert Frederick (1568-1618), was imbecile and The Electors Joachim without surviving male issue. Frederick (1598-1608) and John Sigismund (1608-19) both married his daughters and acted as administrators of his duchy, while the latter obtained investiture from Poland as On Duke Albert his father-in-law's eventual successor. Prussia was Frederick's death in 1618 the duchy of united permanently to the electorate, at first as a fief of Poland, and from 1660 (by the Peace of Oliva with Poland) in ; full sovereignty. of the Hohenzollerns had their claim which Elector John Sigismund advanced in his wife's behalf (to whom also he owed Prussia) to the duchy of Jiilich, Cleves, and Berg. Her brother, Duke John William, died childless in 1609. Of the claimants to the scattered territories of the duchy the most important were John Sigismund, whose wife was the niece, and Wolfgang William of Neuburg, whose mother was the sister of the Their joint occupation of the disputed territories late duke. was terminated by the Treaty of Xanten in 161 4, which assigned to the Hohenzollerns Cleves, Mark, and Ravensberg, possession of which was confirmed to them by the Treaty The secularised bishopric of Minden, of Cleves (1666). contiguous to Ravensberg, was acquired by the Treaty of The Rhenish beginning in territories the The Growth of Prussia 165 Westphalia (1648), and Spanish Gelderland, bordering Cleves, was promised by the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). Such was the origin of the modern Prussian Provinces of the Rhine and WestphaUa. The gathering of the electorate, the Prussian duchy, and the Rhenish territories under John Sigismund's rule in 161 8 preceded by two years the birth of his grandson, Frederick William, the Great Elector (1640-88), who was born in 1620. He gained the title for the skill with which he guided his fortunes through the final and critical stages of the Thirty Years' War, but chiefly because he gave organic form and unity to the scattered states which his grandfather had united, Brandenburg, Prussia, and Cleves. Each administration, and, save that they obeyed the had no interests in common. had its own same ruler, Frederick William's ancestor, Joachim II (1535-71), during whose rule the Reformation was accomplished in Brandenburg, enlarged the electoral Mark by the secularisation and absorption of the Sees of Brandenburg, Lebus, and Havelberg. The Treaty of Westphalia added further spoil of the Church in the secularised See of Halberstadt and the reversion of that of Magdeburg (realised in 1680), which extended the Altmark on the south, and in the See of Minden, which strengthened the Rhenish These acquisitions afforded compensation for the territories. failure of Brandenburg to establish her claims on Pomerania under the agreement of 1529, which became operative in 1637 on the death of Bogislav XIV, the last native duke of Pomerania. But it was in Pomerania that Sweden demanded " satisfaction " for her participation in the Thirty Years' War, and the Great Elector retained of it only East Pomerania, resigning to Sweden almost the whole of the duchy west of the Oder {Vorpommern or West Pomerania). Prussia did not completely recover the abandoned region until the Peace of Stockholm (1720) and the Peace of Vienna (18 15). Though Brandenburg emerged from the Thirty Years' War with gains out of proportion to the part which she played in the struggle, Pomerania and she lost wha.t she chiefly coveted. the natural port of Berlin. Stettin, West The Treaty of Westphalia awarded them to Sweden, and for the rest of his reign the foreign policy of the Great Elector was largely guided by his anxiety to recover them. The 1 66 A Short History of Europe war between Sweden and Poland caused by the refusal acknowledge the accession of Charles X in After 1654 gave Frederick William his first opportunity. driving King John Casimir from Poland, Charles concluded with the unwilling Frederick William the Treaty of Konigsberg (1656), in which the latter repudiated the sovereignty of Poland over the duchy of Prussia, accepted it as the vassal of Sweden, and agreed to serve his new suzerain in the war When Denmark and Russia also entered against Poland. the field against him, Charles, in order to bind Frederick William to his interests, ceded (Treaty of Labiau, 1656) to him the duchy of Prussia in full sovereignty. But no sooner had Charles turned his back on Prussia and Poland to engage Denmark, than Frederick William changed sides, and received from Poland (Treaty of Wehlau, 1657) the terms which of the latter to him at Labiau. But his hope to expel Sweden from Pomerania was frustrated. By the Peace of Oliva (1660) Sweden recovered West Pomerania, and BranCharles had given denburg obtained from Poland formal recognition of her independent sovereignty over the duchy of Prussia. Frederick William took immediate steps to make his sovereignty real. The Prussian Diet submitted to a restriction of its activities, an administrative system was organised, a settled revenue was established, and the ringleader of the malcontents was summarily arrested and beheaded. In the War of Devolution which Louis XIV's ambition raised against the Spanish Netherlands Frederick William remained neutral, having on the eve of it settled the Jiilich- by the Treaty of Cleves (1666), which, while conceding Jiilich and Berg to the rival claimant, arranged that on the extinction of the male line of Neuburg its share should pass to the Hohenzollerns. A strong Calvinist, and the uncle by marriage of William III of Orange, the Elector entered the war which Louis XIV forced on the Dutch, defeated Louis's allies, the Swedes, at Fehrbellin (1675), and expelled them from West Pomerania. But once more Frederick William suffered disappointment. Louis XIV stood by Cleves question Sweden, and Brandenburg was obliged to restore West Pomerania, saving a strip of territory about Greifcnhagen on the right bank of the Oder (Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye Frederick William did not live to take part in 1679). , The Growth of Prussia 167 He AUiance against France. made a treaty with the United Provinces and joined the League of Augsburg. But in 1688 he died. His acquisition (1686) of the Schwiebus Circle in Silesia in return for his renunciation of the HohenzoUern claims upon Silesia (Jagerndorf, Liegnitz, Wohlau, Brieg) was his last territorial deal. The distinctive result of the foreign policy of the Great Elector was the regard for the interests of Brandenburg which he compelled from other countries, while his persistent opposition to Sweden and France gained him the recognition of his the War of the Grand countrymen as the champion of Germany against foreign a characteristic of the HohenzoUern House which To play such eventually obtained for it Imperial status. a part his scattered territories needed administrative unity and an army representative of and acting in the interests of them all. In each division of his dominions Frederick William reorganised the administrative machinery and set his hand to break down the corruption which prevailed. Like his contemporary Louis XIV, his executive was under his immediate eye. He attached to the electoral court a civil service whose efficiency has contributed much to the success of HohenzoUern policy from then till now. He separated the military from the civil administration, imposed an excise mainly for the support of the former, and organised a military establishment which enabled him to put into the field from 20,000 to 30,000 men. Such a burden was tolerable only for a prosperous country. Brandenburg was not only relatively a poor one, but had been grievously wasted by the Thirty Years' War, in which she lost from one-half to two-thirds of her population. Frederick William, whose youth was spent in Holland, applied himself with extraordinary resolution to attract immigrants from Holland and elsewhere. He revived and stimulated agriculture by digging canals and encouraging the practical experience of the Dutch in dairy-farms and He promoted the industrial prosperity of potato-fields. Brandenburg-Prussia and established the Brandenburg African Company, which erected a fort named Grossfriedrichsburg on the Guinea coast, though it and the Company briefly survived their founder. One of his last acts was to welcome the Huguenots whom the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) drove interests, 1 68 A Short History of Europe out of France. He offered land to those among them who were able to farm it, capital to those who were trained to pursue mercantile careers, and honourable employment to those who were of noble birth. It has been computed that so many as 20,000 French exiles eventually availed themselves of the invitation. They repeopled Berlin, furnished five regiments to the army, established new industries, and reSuch in brief is the record of the Great vived old ones. Elector's many-sided activity. It justifies his great-grandson's " With small means he achieved great reeulogy of him : sults." The Great Elector more than trebled the area of the His son and successor possessions of the Hohenzollerns. Frederick I (1688-1713), who converted the electorate into a monarchy, made few and unimportant additions to its His chief territorial acquisitions were gained in Frederick connection with the Orange-Nassau succession. was the heir-at-law of his cousin King William III, who died childless in 1702. William, however, named a more distant cousin as his heir, and Frederick's renunciation, which was confirmed in the Treaty of Utrecht, gained him in exchange the promise of Spanish Gelderland, and also (of the Orange territory. countships of Mors and Lingen (contingent to By purchase he acquired the countship of TecldenCleves). burg. From his mother (of the House of Orange) he inherited the principality of Neuchatel (now a member of the Swiss On the other hand, he gave back to the Confederation). Emperor the Schwiebus Circle which his father acquired in Silesia, though the other Silesian claims of his House, which the Great Elector compounded for Schwiebus, were left territories) the open. The retrocession of the Schwiebus Circle connects itself with the chief ambition and achievement of Frederick's rule. Pomp and ceremonialism were grateful to him. On her death-bed his wife found comfort in the thought that the arrangements for her funeral would afford him consolation At their coronation she drew upon herself demise his shocked reprimand for marring the ritual by her habit of snuff-taking. But there were other reasons which commended for her ! to Frederick the assumption of a royal title. The Treaty of Westphalia had given a strong fillip to the development of The Growth of Prussia 169 national aspirations in the several parts of the Empire, and Frederick himself witnessed some remarkable promotions to A count of Nassau royal rank among his contemporaries. found a throne across the English Channel in 1689. Hanover became an electorate in 1692, and its Electoral Prince George was heir to the throne of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1697 Augustus Elector of Saxony became king of Poland, and but for his death in 1699 the electoral prince of Bavaria might have become king of Spain. Unlike all save one of these, Frederick was, in respect of his duchy of Prussia, already sovereign in status, and the foreign policy of his reign was guided by his ambition to gain the royal title. Frederick's first essay in foreign politics followed the traditions and policy of his father. His dispatch of troops to the United Netherlands, under the Huguenot refugee Marshal Schomberg, directly aided the English Revolution by making In the War of the it possible for William to leave Holland. Grand Alliance Prussian troops bore their part, and were engaged in the important recapture of Namur in 1695, though the concluding Peace of Ryswyk brought Frederick no reward. But the Emperor Leopold, in view of his intention to advance the Habsburg claims on the Spanish dominions, was induced " Crown Treaty " with Frederick unwillingly to agree to the Therein accorded (1700). Leopold royal status to Frederick. On his part Frederick undertook to furnish a force of 8000 men in the expected war, to vote for Austrian candidates at future Imperial elections, and generally to support In 1701 at Konigsberg Austrian interests in the Diet. Frederick crowned himself and placed a diadem on the head of his wife. His independent status in Prussia naturally influenced him to attach the name of the duchy to his new At the same time, seeing that West Prussia bedignity. longed to Poland, the title "King of Prussia" was avoided, and Frederick called himself " King in Prussia." The acquisition of Polish Prussia in 1772 enabled the more comprehensive title to be adopted. In the Northern war which Patkul engineered against Charles XII of Sweden Frederick took no active part. He had in fact already received the price of the support which he afforded the Emperor in the simultaneous War of the Spanish But the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), whose comSuccession. 1 A 70 Short History of Europe pletion he did not live to see, disappointed his hopes of securIn ing for Prussia the territories of the House of Orange. addition to the compensations for his renunciation already mentioned, the treaty accorded to Prussia France and Spain's recognition of her royal status. In the internal administration of his kingdom, if Frederick was prone to extravagance in his desire to uphold his newdignity, he by no means failed to contribute to the foundations which his father had laid and on which his grandson He maintained an army He was not regardless nearly twice as large as his of the claims of science and letters. Academies of Arts and Science were established at Berlin, the University of Halle was founded (1694), ^^d the philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz gave distinction to the To prevent encroachment upon Prussian sovereignty, reign. appeals to courts outside Brandenburg-Prussia were forbidden, and a Supreme Court of Appeal was set up (1702) at Berlin. Frederick's wife, Sophia Charlotte, was the sister of George I, and their son, Frederick William I, married George I's A strain of Stewart blood therefore passed to daughter. Frederick the Great, whose character, however, gave no indication of his Stewart ancestry. The second king in Prussia, Frederick William I (1713-40), stands in the greatest contrast both to his father and his more famous son. Unlike his father he had no taste for public ceremonial, cut down the expenses of the Prussian court, and preferred to entertain his particular friends with pipes and " beer in his Tobacco College," as his evening assemblies were Unlike his son Frederick the Great he had not the styled. Yet in ability to meddle actively in international politics. the development of the Prussian state he performed an built. father's. indispensable service. He accumulated what was relatively a great treasure, completed the Great Elector's work by giving his country an administrative system which lasted until the Prussian monarchy was dismembered in 1807 (Peace of Tilsit), and put into the hands of his son, whom he ill-used, an army which in discipline and efficiency finest in existence, and in size was surpassed only by hated and was the those of France, Austria, and Russia. In the striking " testament " which Frederick William drew up for his son's guidance he concisely estimated the character The Growth of Prussia 171 own work "I have regulated the country and the army." As to the first, taking the Great Elector as his model, he encouraged immigration, especially into the duchy of Prussia, and secured valuable colonists from among the of his : Protestants of Salzburg whom their archbishop forced into He instituted a careful management of the crown lands, enlarged the operation of the urban excise (which the Great Elector had instituted) to Prussia and elsewhere, extended the monopoly of the sale of salt, and materially increased the public revenue of the kingdom. He instituted at Berlin a central administrative Bureau called the Generaldirectorium, or General Directory, divided into four Departments Exchequer, Foreign Affairs, War, Justice. In connection with the first, subsidiary Chambers were set up in the provinces, and Councillors were appointed who brought the General Directory into the closest touch with provincial and municipal finance. From the municipalities was withdrawn ahnost entirely the right of self-government the local councillor of taxes was their master for the public revenue depended largely upon the urban excise, and the value of the latter depended upon the prosperity of the urban communities. Similar supervision existed in the counties. In the same way Councillors of war were appointed locally to superintend all matters relating to the army and its needs. It was in his army that the king found his greatest pride and pleasure. Like Peter the Great he had his own regiment of playfellows when he was a boy. When he came to the throne he put the maintenance of a powerful army before " " testament invoked the every other public duty, and in his fate of Pharaoh upon his son should he ever dare to reduce the " We do not conquer with the pen military establishment. but by the sword," was a remark of his. Though he hardly used it and obtained the single territorial acquisition of his reign without firing a shot, his army was a standing army, and not, as his predecessors' had been, a war establishment mobilised only when foreign subsidies were forthcoming for its maintenance. Careful finance enabled him to maintain it at a strength of over 80,000 men, half of whom were his own subjects, an enormous burden for a State whose population was only about 2,000,000. Instead of relying, like his predecessors, upon voluntary enlistment, Frederick William exile. : : ; A 172 Short History of Europe employed both impressment and what was virtually conHis sergeants gathered recruits from other parts scription. of Germany and neighbouring countries, and did not shrink from kidnapping men of particularly physique for the The luxury University of Halle once remonstrated regarding one of its divinity students who had been seized in that manner. Among his subjects he inculcated the so-far unfamiliar doctrine, that their military service was at the disposal of the State. To each regiment was assigned its own recruiting area, within which each eligible lad ten years old was entered on the list of local recruits, took the military oath, and received a bunch of red feathers to wear in his cap. While it was necessary for the most part to exempt the middle-class for the pursuit of mercantile and other occupations necessary for the public welfare, the peasants and nobles were made to regard the army as their proper sphere. The latter were obliged to send their sons to military colleges, and the nation at large king's own company fine of giant Guards, his only ! was taught to look for its aristocracy in the army. The conditions are maintained to-day. The discipline of the army was very severe and caused a large number of desertions, but produced an efficiency unequalled in any other army in the period. The result was due above others to Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau, the inventor of the iron ramrod, the it introduction of which so greatly increased the rapidity of musket-fire. In the general affairs of Europe Frederick William played a by no means commensurate with the resources which he controlled. In the year of his accession the Treaty of Utrecht gave peace to Central Europe. But the Northern war, in which Charles XII of Sweden and Peter the Great were the protagonists, continued, and the Peace of Stockholm (1720) gave Prussia the islands of Usedom and Wollin and Upper West Pomerania between the Oder and the Pcene, including Stettin, which Frederick William occupied early in his reign on payment of a sum of money to Peter the Great and his allies. Frederick William thus obtained without effort what his In grandfather the Great Elector had striven to secure. another direction he was less successful in realising the Great Elector's hopes. The latter had conceded (Treaty of Cleves, 1666) to the House of Neuburg the territories of Jiilich and part The Growth of Prussia 173 Berg as its portion of the disputed Jiilich-Cleves inheritance, and had obtained a promise of the succession of the HohenzoUerns to them in case of the extinction of the Neuburg House in the male Une. In view of that contingency (which happened on the death of Charles Philip Elector Palatine in 1742) Frederick William was anxious that the compact of 1666 should be guaranteed. The Elector Palatine, on the other hand, desired to avoid his father's agreement in order that his successor in the electorate might not be weakened by their cession. The War of the Polish Election, which broke out upon the death of Augustus II of Poland-Saxony in 1733, brought to a head the growing estrangement with Austria due to the Emperor's failure to secure for Frederick William the succeson which his heart was set. By the Treaty of Wiisterhausen (1726) the Emperor had promised to influence the Elector Palatine to recognise the claims of Prussia on Jiilich and Berg. In return, Frederick William guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction and agreed to defend the Emperor's German territories if they were attacked. Two years later (1728) the Wiisterhausen compact was repeated and defined, Frederick William agreeing to furnish 10,000 men for the Emperor's support. But the death of Augustus II of Poland created a position which the Emperor and Frederick William viewed from different standpoints. The native candidate for the crown of Poland was Stanislaus Leszczynski, whom sion XII had called to the Polish throne in 1704. As the XV, France discerned in his election her first chance since the Peace of Utrecht to recover the Charles father-in-law of Louis Europe which that treaty had taken from her. But neither Austria nor Prussia had any desire to see French influence in influence established in Poland, while the candidature of Augustus, the son of the late king, whom the Emperor supIt was to ported, was not grateful to Frederick William. Prussia's interest that Poland should be as weak as possible, since some day it would be necessary to challenge Poland's West Prussia. Prussia therefore had no Poland and Saxony united. Frederick William, however, furnished to the Emperor the troops which he had promised, and with his son took part in the campaign of 1734 with Prince Eugene. In the next year Charles VI made possession desire to of see 174 A Short History of Europe peace (Peace of Vienna, 1735) with France on terms to which Frederick WiUiam objected. Augustus of Saxony was acknowledged king of Poland, the Empire was weakened by the cession to France of the duchies of Lorraine and Bar, and the treaty was negotiated behind Prussia's back. Four years later Charles VI came to an agreement (1739) with France which secured to the Sulzbach heir of the Neuburg House provisional occupation of the duchies of Jiilich and Berg. Frederick William therefore had abundant reason to resent the conduct of Charles VI, and his son Frederick the Great amply avenged him. Frederick William died in May, 1740. The Emperor Charles VI, who had so wofully disappointed him, died in the following October. Before the end of the same momentous year Frederick the Great invaded Silesia, and the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48) began. The death of Charles VI, the last male descendant of Charles V, brought the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg to an end in the male line, just as the death of Charles II of Spain forty years earlier terminated the Spanish branch of that House. Like the Prussian territories, those of the House of Habsburg were scattered, and were united only in their allegiance to a common ruler. They consisted of (i) the archduchy of Austria, (2) the kingdom of Bohemia with its dependencies Silesia and Moravia, (3) the kingdom of Hungary with its dependencies, Croatia and Transylvania, (4) the Belgic Netherlands, and (5) the Italian provinces. In Italy the situation had altered since the Treaty of Rastatt (1714) after the War of the Spanish Succession. By that treaty Charles VI received the duchy of Milan, Naples, Sardinia, and the Tuscan ports. But the Treaty of Vienna (1735) : changes. Austria, who in 1720 exchanged Sardinia for Sicily, abandoned both Naples and Sicily to Charles, the son of Philip V of Spain and Elizabeth Farnese. She found compensation in the duchy of Parma and Piacenza which Charles vacated, and in the grand-duchy of Tuscany, which the Treaty promised to Charles VI's son-in-law, Francis of Lorraine, on the death (1737) of Giovanni Gastone, the The settlement was on the whole last of the Medici dukes. favourable to Austria, and a bitter disappointment to Elizabeth Farnese, the wife of Philip V of Spain. made important The Growth of Prussia 175 In spite of some diminution of prestige since the days of Charles V, the Habsbiirg dominions under Charles VI were large and imposing. But like his brother and predecessor Joseph I, Charles was without male issue. To meet such a contingency their father Leopold I had made (1703) a disposition in favour of female in default of male succession, the daughters of his elder son Joseph (who were married to the Electors Augustus III of Poland-Saxony and Charles Albert of Bavaria) being preferred to those of his younger son Charles VI (of whom the elder, Maria Theresa, was the wife of Francis duke of Lorraine, who succeeded to the grand-duchy of Tuscany Charles VI, however, disregarding his father's in 1737). wishes, devised (171 3) a secret family law, ultimately pub" lished as the Pragmatic Sanction," in which he gave his own daughters priority over those of his brother, and deFrom clared his dominions to be whole and indivisible. thenceforward it was his chief care to gain as wide a recognition as possible of the Pragmatic Sanction in order to secure Maria Theresa's succession in Germany, Italy, and Belgium. The Imperial dignity she could not hold. In the effort to establish the Pragmatic Sanction Charles naturally first approached his own family, then the Estates of his dominions, and finally the European powers who might be tempted to make his difficulty their opportunity. His two nieces gave the required pledge. Augustus III of Saxony-Poland did so to procure Charles's assistance in securing the throne of Poland (1733). But Charles Albert of Bavaria, a Habsburg by descent, advanced a personal claim in respect of the will of Ferdinand I, which he alleged to have settled the Habsburg succession in the Bavarian House in default " " heirs male to the senior line. Though the will when of was found to make provision only for the failure produced " " of heirs, Charles Albert did not withdraw his legitimate claim. The Estates of his several dominions gave Charles VI assent, and thereupon his disposition was publicly " " Charles Pragmatic Sanction (1724). promulgated as the Spain proceeded to invite international recognition of it. their (in return for Charles's formal recognition of her Bourbon dynasty), France, Russia, Prussia (hoping for Jiilich and Berg), the United Netherlands, the Diet of the Empire, and Sardinia, among others, accepted it. But the acquiescence A 176 Short History of Europe Europe was gained at some sacrifice. The cession of LorWar of the PoUsh Election bought France's guarded guarantee. Spain, who had been the first to accept the Pragmatic, was bribed by the cession of Naples and Sicily. Russia's recognition was gained only by Austria's participation in the war against Turkey, and her loss of Wallachia and Servia must be added to the cost which the international of raine in the ratification of the Pragmatic entailed. But Charles neglected the best means to insure his Unlike his contemporary daughter's peaceful accession. Frederick William, he did nothing to give cohesion to his dominions. Their administrative system was medieval and inefficient. The finances were in disorder and in no condition The army was to bear the strain of a prolonged contest. reduced to about half its normal size, and its ill-fortunes in the War of the Polish Election and against Turkey had broken its spirit. Yet it was reasonably certain, in spite of the international guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction, that a powerful army alone could secure respect for its provisions. For the number of those interested to destroy it was large. Saxony-Poland coveted Moravia. Bavaria, in addition to a claim on the whole Habsburg heritage, was anxious to acquire Bohemia. Spain hoped to secure further spoils at Austria's expense in Italy. France, as in the days of Louis XIV, looked longingly towards the Belgic Netherlands. Frederick's sudden invasion of Silesia therefore was not likely to lack imitators. Only Great Britain, the United Provinces, and Russia stood to their guarantees in active support of Maria Theresa. The pretext for Frederick's sudden invasion of Silesia was the Hohenzollern claim on Brieg, Liegnitz, Wohlau, and Jagerndorf in that province, which had been kept open when the Schwiebus Circle was surrendered to the Emperor. Frederick's action was so unexpected, so faithless to his father's pledges and to his own professions to Maria Theresa, that Silesia was occupied without resistance, and at Mollwitz (1741) Frederick first displayed the wonderful qualities of the Prussian infantry. Seeing Prussia already in the field, Charles Albert whom France and Spain made agreements), Saxony, and Sardinia (who soon went over to Maria Theresa) of Bavaria (with also assumed the offensive against Austria. The War of the Austrian Succession, as it is called, lasted The Growth of Prussia 177 and was concluded by the Peace of Aix-laChapelle (1748). It was fought in three different areas and In Germany Maria involved many interests and issues. Theresa was fighting to maintain the Pragmatic Sanction and to resist the spoliation of her territories by Prussia, Bavaria, and Saxony. To an astonishing extent she succeeded for Frederick alone gained appreciably by the war, though Charles Albert of Bavaria (Charles VII) was elected Emperor by the anti-Habsburg coalition in 1742. He held the honour briefly, and on his death in 1745 it passed to Maria Theresa's husband, Francis I (1745-65). Early in the war Austria found it necessary to leave Frederick in possession of Lower for eight years, ; Silesia (Convention of Klein-Schnellendorff, 1741) in order Frederick to free her army to act against Charles Albert. required its definitive cession, and after his second victory at Chotusitz (1742) accepted the Treaty of Berlin (1742), which yielded to him Upper and Lower Silesia, including Glatz. But the Treaty of WormiS (1743) between Great Britain, Austria, and Sardinia convinced Frederick that his possession of Silesia was threatened, and in 1744 the Second Silesian War began. Saxony meanwhile had become the ally of Austria, and after winning victories at Hohenfriedberg (1745) and Sohr (1745) Frederick imposed on Maria Theresa the Peace of Dresden (1745), which confirmed to him Upper and Lower Three years later, by the concluding Silesia with Glatz. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), Frederick was left in posses- what his audacity had won. The second area of the war was in Italy, where Maria Theresa and the king of Savoy-Sardinia were on their defence The concluding Peace of 1748 against Spain and France. sion of yielded to Philip, the younger son of Elizabeth Farnese, the duchy of Parma and Piacenza, which Austria surrendered only fifteen years' possession. Savoy advanced her eastern frontier to the Ticino. The third area of the war was wider than the others. The after chief protagonists in it were France and Great Britain, and treated in the following chapter) was fought out on the Ocean, in India, and the New World. The two countries also faced each other in Europe, where George II and a Pragmatic Army won the battle of Dettingen (1743) and the duke of Cumberland lost that of Fontenoy their quarrel (which II. —N is A 178 Short History of Europe (1745). In Scotland the Jacobites again rose, and the Young Pretender's defeat at Culloden (1746) proved to be the end The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle bound France of his cause. to evacuate the Austrian Netherlands though the Dutch, to ; Maria Theresa's annoyance, retained the right conveyed by the Peace of Utrecht to garrison the barrier fortresses. To none of the chief belligerents was the Peace of Aix-laChapelle more than a truce. Maria Theresa refused to regard the loss of Silesia as irrevocable, and suspected Frederick of further designs upon her dominions. Great Britain, awake to the vital character of the world-duel which she was waging with France in the New World and India, regarded the Peace as a postponement of the final trial of strength. Frederick was aware that his acquisition of Silesia would be challenged by Austria at the first opportunity. And he was already for, drawn calculating other spoils up in the interval between the Peace of 1748 and the renewal of war in 1756, ; " " indicated the need to acquire the electorate Prussia, and West or Swedish Pomerania. In France the Peace of 1748 was received with indignation. Her alliance had given Silesia to Frederick, and spoils in Italy his testament of Saxony, West Bourbon dynasty in Spain. But France had gained nothing, and the market-women of Paris " found a new formula of insult in the phrase Ugly as peace." When the truce ended in 1756 and the Seven Years' War the belligerents were no longer (1756-63) broke out, grouped as they had been in 1748. A reversal of alliances " " had taken place which transor Diplomatic Revolution ferred France to the side of her traditional foe Austria, and Great Britain to that of Prussia. The cause of this shifting of European relationships was the appearance of Prussia among the Great Powers, a position which her success in the War of the Austrian Succession had gained her. Ever since the rivalry of Francis I and Charles V in the sixteenth century the interests of France dictated opposition to the dominant power in Germany. The recent war suggested that Prussia had supplanted Austria in that position, and the contemptuous references of Frederick to Louis XV and his favourite Mme de to the kindred herself further stimulated Louis to join the Habsburg Great Britain, anxious to fight France on the most favourable terms in India and America, turned naturally to the Pompadour camp. The Growth of Prussia 179 Power which could most easily check France on the continent. As to Austria, Maria Theresa, who is said to have been unable to restrain her tears when she saw a Silesian, reconciled herself to alliance with her old enemy France, whose friendship would relieve her of anxiety regarding the Netherlands, and whose military resources would aid her more directly to recover Silesia than Great Britain's naval strength. The circumstances which led to a regrouping of alliances began in America, where the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle left the boundary of French and British territory ill-defined. After that treaty the French proceeded to link up Canada and Louisiana by a series of forts. Alarmed at France's activity, a detachment of Virginians under George Washington was sent to build a fort on the Ohio in 1754, but suffered defeat at Great Meadows soon after. In India France and Great Britain, though nominally at peace, were acting as the auxiliaries of native princes. It was clear that the colonial quarrel would soon extend to Europe, and with a view to securing the safety of Hanover, George II made an agreement (1755) with Russia to subsidise her troops against Prussia in case of war. To further assure the protection of the electorate, Great Britain desired Austria to strengthen her military garrison in the Netherlands. Austria refused, and Great Britain turned to Prussia, the only alternative. Frederick's treaty with France was about to It had proved satisfactory to neither expire (May, 1756). side. Frederick had not been a reliable ally and had withdrawn his troops after the first and second Silesian wars. Frederick, on his part, reflected that if the Franco-Prussian alliance continued he would be aiding France's anti-German designs in Hanover, and would expose himself to the combined hostility of Great Britain, Austria, and Russia. He therefore resolved to discard his alliance with France, and early in 1756 signed the Convention of Westminster, or White- with Great Britain. The two contracting parties mutually guaranteed their territories and engaged to take up arms against any power which should invade Germany. The Anglo-Prussian agreement placed Austria in danger of isolation. Ever since the peace negotiations in 1748, the Austrian Chancellor Kaunitz had advocated an alliance with France rather than Great Britain. In 1750 he wxnt as amhall, i8o A Short History of Europe bassador to Paris to foster the idea, but with little success. The Convention of Westminster, however, rendered its adoption inevitable, and in the very month in which the Franco-Prussian alliance expired (May, 1756) France and Austria ratified the Treaty of Versailles. France undertook to respect the Austrian Netherlands, and both Powers promised assistance if the other were attacked. By a secret clause they agreed that if either was attacked by a Power allied to England, in other words Prussia, the other would intervene. To the fundamental interests of France the Treaty was fatal. It deprived her of all chance of recouping herself in the Netherlands for the losses she might incur in her colonial struggle with Great Britain. As the ally of Austria in Europe she bound herself to fight for her old rival's protection or aggrandisement without hope of return. By dividing her resources she sacrificed both of the objects before her for in the war that followed she lost her colonial empire in India and America, and failed to recover Silesia for her ally. A year later, after Frederick's sudden invasion of Saxony, France and Austria in a second Treaty of Versailles (1757) pledged themselves not to lay down their arms until Silesia and Glatz were resorted to Austria, and Magdeburg and Halberstadt to Sweden. Russia also, resenting Great Britain's desertion, joined Austria to " " bring about Prussia's humiliation. The Family Compact between France and latter to enter bound the (1761) Spain the war. Sweden also at the instigation of France joined the ; number of Frederick's foes. Aware that Maria Theresa intended to attack him so soon as her arrangements were complete, Frederick struck first and suddenly. In the summer of 1756 he invaded Saxony and forced the Saxon army to capitulate at Pirna. The Seven Years' War which followed was fought in three chief areas. Great Britain and France brought their colonial quarrel to In Western Germany Hanover was the object its conclusion. of French attack. Defeated at Hastenbeck (1757) the duke Cumberland, who was in command in Hanover, accepted the Convention of Klosterzeven (1757), which compelled him to disband his army and exposed Hanover and Prussia to French attack. Disregarding the Convention, however. Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick took Cumberland's place, freed Hanover from French occupation, and drove the of The Growth of Prussia i8i His victory at Minden (1758). Hanover in safety until the end of the war. Against these successes must be set the loss of Minorca to the French across the Rhine in 1759 placed French in 1756. The third, and from the point of view of continental interests the most important, area of the war was in central and eastern Germany, where Frederick single-handed, but by large British subsidies, faced the Austrians, Swedes, and Russians. After his invasion of Saxony in 1756 Frederick passed into Bohemia, which he proposed to offer Augustus in exchange for Saxony. Beaten by the Austrians at Kolin (1757) Frederick evacuated Bohemia, and before the year " Combined Army " of French and closed, routed the Germans at Rossbach in Saxony and the Austrians at Leuthen in Silesia. In 1758 the battle of Zorndorf saved Brandenburg from Russian attack. In 1759 the combined Russians and fortified Austrians defeated Frederick at Kunersdorf, another Prussian capitulated at Maxen, and Frederick seemed to be at the end of his resources. None the less in 1760 he was able to put 100,000 men into the field, with whom he won the battles of Liegnitz against the Austrians in Silesia and Torgau in Saxony, the last in the war. The awful losses of men and treasure were telling on Prussia, and after the fall of Pitt The accession (1762) of (1761) English subsidies ceased. Tsar Peter III, a devoted admirer of Frederick, who withdrew Russia from the anti-Prussian coalition, alone saved In 1763 Austria and Saxony made peace with Frederick. Prussia on the principle of status quo ante helium (Peace of Hubertusburg), Prussia retaining Silesia and Glatz. France and Great Britain had already made terms in the Peace of Paris. The concessions which France and Spain made to Great Britain in India, North America, and the West Indies are detailed in the next chapter. In Europe, Minorca was restored by France to Great Britain. The Seven Years' War had far-reaching results. To Great Britain it gave a colonial supremacy which not even the loss of her American colonies twenty years later interrupted. It established irrevocably the pre-eminence of Prussia within the Empire, and paved the way for the unity which Germany acquired under Prussia's leadership a century later. " By France the Peace of Paris was denounced as the dis- army 1 82 A Short History of Europe graceful peace." She had lost her colonies, her marine, and her influence in Europe. She was bankrupt, and ill-governand the monarchy unpopular. ment had rendered Louis His successor Louis XVI reaped the harvest of his grandfather's misrule and disaster in the Revolution. In the generation that followed the Peace of Hubertusburg the area of the Prussian kingdom was still further increased, and its population was nearly doubled, by territorial acquiThis sitions won by negotiation rather than by force. the later in Great Frederick the carried out by expansion, years of his reign and by his nephew Frederick William II (1786-97), was the result of three unscrupulous partitions of XV Poland in 1772, 1793, and 1795. The Polish "republic" had been formed by the union of the old kingdom of Poland and the grand-duchy of Lithuania towards the close of the fourteenth century (1386). It possessed no natural frontiers other than its Baltic shore, and — population was a medley of peoples Poles in the centre, in the west, Lithuanians and Russians in the east, whose differing religions added to the causes which prevented national cohesion. The Germans were Protestants, the Poles and Lithuanians were Roman Catholics, and the Russians belonged to the Orthodox or Eastern Church. None the less Poland played a great part in medieval history. But her greatness declined with the extinction of the Jagellon dynasty on the death of Sigismund II in 1572. The Polish nobles took the opportunity to make the monarchy elective, and at each succeeding election exacted conditions which deprived it of real power. In the seventeenth century Poland lost many of her provinces to Sweden, Brandenburg, and Russia, and under her two Saxon kings (i 697-1 764) was in a It seemed hardly possible that she could state of anarchy. of Sweden and avoid dismemberment, and both Charles On the election of. the Great Elector contemplated it. His Stanislaus Poniatowski in 1764 the end came rapidly. election was due to the influence of Catharine II of Russia, who demanded that his Orthodox and Protestant subjects should be admitted by the Roman Catholic majority to the Russia took measures political rights which were denied them. to enforce her request, and the southern Poles formed the its Germans X Confederation of Bar to protect their religion and indepen- The Growth of 183 A Russian force was sent to deal with the confederates, dence. whom Prussia it pursued into Turkish territory. Thereupon Turkey, by France, who was anxious to prevent the instigated dissolution of Poland, declared war against Russia (1768). The ensuing victories of the Russians caused great alarm in Austria, and there was grave danger that she would be driven to war in order to remove the Russians from her southern frontier. The threatened war of Turkey and Austria against Russia was not in the interest of Frederick. He feared either that he might be drawn into it as the ally of Russia (with whom he had made a defensive alliance for eight years in 1764), or that Austria and Russia might compose their differences and divide Poland between them. He therefore suggested to Maria Theresa's son Joseph II (1765-90) a triple division of Poland. With many qualms Maria Theresa agreed, and in 1772 the First Partition Treaty was signed by the three Powers. Prussia took West (or Polish) Prussia and Ermeland, but without the commercial centres Danzig and " Thorn, and changed the title of her sovereignty from King " " in Prussia to King of Prussia." Austria took Galicia, and Russia received Polish Livonia and part of Lithuania, Summoned to ratify the partition, the Polish Diet submitted to a display of force, and Stanislaus, entirely dependent on Russia, continued as nominal sovereign of what remained of the kingdom. In 1791 the nobles, to avert the doom which otherwise awaited their country, promulgated a constitution and converted Poland into a hereditary monarchy. Catharine II at once invaded Poland, and by agreement with Prussia the Second Partition followed. It allotted Great or South Russia Prussia, Posen, Thorn, and Danzig to Prussia. acquired the Polish Ukraine and a great strip of Lithuania contiguous to her acquisition in 1772. A Polish rising under Kosciusko gave a pretext for the last scene in the dismal drama. In 1795 all that remained of Poland submitted to the Third Partition between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, Prussia took as her share New East Prussia with the capital Warsaw, a region which in 181 5 was formed into a kingdom under Russian protection, and in 1832 was absorbed by impending Russia. Her acquisitions at the expense of Poland mark the extreme 184 A Short History of Europe Her progress to that the French RevoluBut and was extraordinary. rapid point tion had aheady broken out, and in the new and critical era which that event opened it was the misfortune of Prussia Before she entered on her that able rulers failed her. expansion of Prussia in Eastern Europe. culminating period of greatness she experienced the disaster of Jena (1806) and the dismemberment of her the Treaty of Tilsit (1807). monarchy by CHAPTER XI GREATER BRITAIN Simultaneously with the European wars of the last quarter and the eighteenth century a colonial of the seventeenth contest between the maritime powers took place, which developed into a duel between France and Great Britain. It terminated in the Seven Years' War, in which the statesmanship of Lord Chatham and the military genius of Wolfe and Clive destroyed Greater France and placed Greater Britain in absolute colonial supremacy. In an earlier chapter England's part in the era of maritime discovery has been followed. The discoveries of Spain and Portugal revealed to Europe the riches of America and the Far East. Both were the exclusive monopoly of the countries which discovered them, and the sixteenth century closed without any other European country having established factories in India or colonies in America, though England and France had made the attempt in the latter. But in the seventeenth century Spain and Portugal were no longer able to maintain their monopoly. England, France, and Holland gained a portion of it for themselves, and a struggle ensued among them for supremacy in the New World and India out of which Great Britain emerged victorious in 1763. In the growth of England the accession of the Stewarts in Two processes followed 1603 forms a notable landmark. from it, one of which produced the internal union of the three kingdoms, of England with Scotland in 1707, and of Great Britain with Ireland in 1800. The other developed Greater Britain, whose foundations Clive and Wolfe established Both in America and India the permanently in 1763. external expansion of England began in the seventeenth century. France made her appearance as England's rival in America and India in the same 185 period. 1 A 86 In seventeenth the colonies Short History of Europe century on the North American was established in 1732. founded England coast. A They formed twelve thirteenth, Georgia, the nucleus of the present United States and were lost to the mother country in the American War of Independence towards the close of the eighteenth century. When that event occurred they occupied the Atlantic littoral, and even that restricted area they shared originally with others France in Acadia, an illdefined region corresponding to Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Gaspe Spain in Florida the Dutch in New Netherland and the Swedes on the Delaware (1626) on the Hudson ; ; ; ; (1638). The thirteen colonies are divisible into three groups, distinct and the causes of their settlement. in their characteristics The Southern Group included five colonies Virginia, MaryNorth Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. In the main their foundation was due to economic causes, though : land, the earlier conception of colonies as centres of missionary The and ore-bearing areas was not wanting. effort Puritan tyranny in England and the royalist exiles it sent forth gave the southern group social and political characteristics which placed it in contrast with the northern. But the desire to find an outlet for the growing population of England, to increase her trade, and to develop her naval strength, were the dominant motives in the foundation of the group. To promote them a Company was formed in 1606 with two branches, one quartered at London, the other supported chiefly in the West of England and known unThe two were licensed officially as the Plymouth Company. to establish settlements between the 34th and 45th degrees of latitude, that is, between Florida and Acadia. The settlement of Virginia, the first of the English colonies, was the work of the London Company, which sent out a band of emigrants to Jamestown in 1607, and named the settlement in honour of James I. The most capable of the emigrants was Captain John Smith, who gained the friendship of the Indian chief Powhatan, the father of the famous Pocahontas who The visited England and was presented at court. colony slowly surmounted the difficulties caused by the unsatisfactory character of the first settlers and their relations with the Indians. The cultivation of tobacco began, men of Greater Britain 1B7 standing associated themselves with the colony, and in 161 9 the governor summoned a representative Assembly, the eldest daughter of the Mother of Parliaments. Four years later (1623) the colony was taken out of the hands of the London Company, and thenceforth its government assumed a form which became a pattern for the future. It consisted of a Governor, appointed by the Crown, and a two-chambered legislature, one nominated, the other elected. The colony's chief industry was the culture of the tobacco plant, and the plantations were cultivated by imported slave labour. For, after the death of Powhatan, his successor pursued the settlers with fierce hatred, and a long war led either to the extermination or dispersion of the Indians. Maryland, the second colony of the southern group in order of foundation, had an origin very different from that of Virginia. In 1632 the first Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catholic, received from Charles I a grant of the territory immediately north of Virginia. He had already attempted to settle in Newfoundland and Virginia, and died in the very year of the royal grant to him. The grant, which conveyed territorial rights and the power to legislate and to tax, was continued to his son. The Church of England was recognised, but other sects were tolerated, and a constitution of the usual type was conferred. The colony took form in 1634 on the settlement of the first colonists. It was named Maryland in honour of Henrietta Maria, the wife of Charles I. The third and fourth colonies of the southern group. North and South Carolina, differed both from Virginia and Maryland in the causes of their foundation. The territory they occupied lay between Virginia and Spanish Florida, and included the had planted his abandoned colony. was granted to Sir Robert Heath, who named it Colonists found their Carolina in honour of the king. way to it from New England, Virginia, and elsewhere. It was already largely occupied when in 1663 Charles II granted it to a small body of proprietors, who divided it into two region in which Ralegh In 1629 it provinces. Georgia, the fifth and last colony of the southern group, was founded by General James Oglethorpe mainly to provide an asylum for insolvent debtors after their discharge from Having secured from the Crown a grant of land south prison. 1 A 88 Short History of Europe Savannah river, Oglethorpe brought out to it in 1732 batch of colonists. The territory they occupied was alleged by Spain to be hers, and the establishment of the " colony was among the causes of the Anglo-Spanish Jenkins's of the the^first Ear War" verted in 1739. into After its a Crown colony conclusion Georgia was con(1752) with the customary constitution. The Middle Group consisted of four colonies New York, Delaware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. It differed from the other groups in the fact that it was captured from EuroBoth the Dutch and Swedes had founded pean countries. settlements in the region. But in 1655 the Swedish colony was seized by New Netherland, and nine years later (1664) both were captured by England, whose conquest was confirmed by the Treaty of Breda (1667). Charles II granted the region to his brother, James duke of York. New Amsterdam became New York, and the district between the Hudson and the : Delaware, which was granted by James to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, became known as New Jersey, in memory of Berkeley's defence of Jersey against the Long Parliament. It was largely peopled by fugitives from New Haven seeking to avoid incorporation with Connecticut. As to New York, population had always been of a cosmopolitan character The acquisition of the whole region was of so. for it enabled the English colonists in the great importance south to join hands with the Puritan group in the north; it secured the friendship of the Indian confederation of Five Nations, or Iroquois, who proved such bitter enemies to the French in Canada and obtained in the Hudson waterway a route which led right into the heart of French Canada. Included in the territory conquered from the Dutch was a tract which the Swedes had occupied on the south of the Delaware. It formed part of the original grant to Maryland, but the concession had not been taken up. In 1682 it was conveyed by Charles II to William Penn, in discharge of his claim against the Crown for ;^i 6,000, and became the colony of Pennsylvania. To the east of it, upon the coast, Penn organised a separate settlement which, in 1703, became the In both Pennsylvania and Delaware colony of Delaware. Penn's co-religionists the Quakers were predominant. The Northern Group, or New England, consisted of four its and remained ; ; Greater Britain 189 Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New It stands apart from the rest for it was formed by men who emigrated to establish particular political and religious principles. Unlike the southern group, in which there was a large admixture of negroes, and the middle group, whose population was cosmopolitan, the northern colonies were almost exclusively English, and were drawn chiefly from the eastern counties where Puritanism was most strongly intrenched. Its geographical position involved the group especially in conflict with Canada, while its political traditions caused it to take the lead in the War of Independence. Massachusetts and New England alike date from 1620, when a band of Puritans, the " Pilgrim Fathers," landed in Massachusetts Bay and founded Plymouth, under a mutual and solemn agreement " to combine themselves into a civil body politic." It had been their intention to settle in the south within the jurisdiction of the London Compan}'', which had recently planted Virginia. But their ship, the Mayflower, was driven from its course and landed them within the province of the Plymouth Company, which had achieved nothing since its foundation fourteen years before and was colonies: Hampshire. ; now in process of reconstruction. The exiles therefore were able to establish at Plymouth a community free from external control, and in 1627 discharged their obligations to the English merchants who had financed the undertaking. Other settlements were made in the same region. In 1628 six from the New England reconstructed Plymouth Company) the territory adjacent to Massachusetts Bay, and in the next year (1629) received a royal charter of incorporation as the " Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay." The associates were not required to hold their meetings in London, a fact which contributed to the easy transference of the Company's head-quarters and administration to the colony itself, and facilitated the rapid transformation of a trading company into a self-governing colony. Nor did the charter make any reservation regarding the Crown's supervision of the laws passed by the Assembly which the colonists were empowered to elect. Charles in fact was not eager to place difficulties in the way of a venture which promised to take the Puritans out of the country. influential English Puritans obtained Company (the 190 A Short History of Europe Before the end of 1630 the Company landed a large number emigrants in Massachusetts Bay and founded Boston, Within four years the colony thenceforth the capital. numbered sixteen townships, and by 1640 its population had increased to 20,000. From Plymouth (which was ultimately incorporated into Massachusetts) and elsewhere adventurers passed into the districts north and south of the colony in the Bay. In Connecticut three such settlements formed themselves into a separate colony in 1633, and held the frontier against the Dutch colony until its fall thirty years later. of Rhode Island, or Providence, as it first was called, was colonised by religious exiles from Massachusetts, who secured (1647) territorial rights from the Long Parliam.ent and formed themselves into a separate colony. The last and most northerly of the New England colonies. New Hampshire, was formed by the fusion of scattered settlements of traders and religious exiles. Among them was a body of associates who obtained mouth of the river Piscataqua, to the southern portion of which one of the proprietors appears to have given the name New Hampshire. Maine, the wider district to the north, was eventually annexed by Massachusetts. Besides her settlements on the American mainland, which she lost in the American War of Independence, England made other acquisitions in the same period. Her claims on Newfoundland, based on the Cabots' discovery, were maintained, though every effort to colonise the island, notably those of Humphry Gilbert and Lord Baltimore, failed. In Acadia, where the French preceded the English in the attempt to colonise, James I made a grant of Nova Scotia, co-extensive with the French province, to Sir William Alexander of Menstrie (1621), which led to no permanent result. By the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1632) Acadia was left in the hands of France, and remained in her possession for more than eighty In 1670 the Hudson Bay Company received a years longer. huge concession in Prince Rupert's Land, which the French In the West Indies the Lesser Antilles first atchallenged. tracted England's attention. Barbados was declared English in 1605 and was occupied twenty years later (1624). St. Kitts was actually the first of the group to be occupied (1623), and two years later (1625) was divided between the English and French. By the year 1650 the English islands among the land at the Greater Britain 191 Leeward and Windward Islands) Antilles (the were Anguilla, Barbuda, Antigua, Barbados, St. Kitts or To St. Christopher (with France), Nevis, and Montserrat. the north of the Greater Antilles the English held the Bermudas and Bahamas. Until the colonial war with France broke out towards the close of the seventeenth century, the only notable additions to England's possessions among the islands were Jamaica (1655) and the Virgin Isles (1672). Within the period in which the English colonies were fringing the North American coast, France built up in Canada a colony whose expansion threatened to absorb the vast territories beyond the Alleghany Mountains, and to confine the English to the coast. French interest in Canada, awakened by the voyages of Jacques Cartier, revived with Samuel Champlain, who in 1 604 sailed to Acadia with the Huguenot de Monts. The " in the latter held a commission as Lieutenant of the King country of La Cadie" (Acadia) and between the 40th and Lesser 46th degrees of northern latitude. Two years later James I assigned the same region to the Plymouth Company. Hence arose disputes which the cession of Acadia to Great Britain terminated. In 1605 Champlain made a small settlement at Port Royal (Annapolis) in Acadia, and sailing up the St. Lawrence, established (1608) a habitation or fortified store on the rocky promontory which the Indians called Quebec, signifying the " " of the great river at that point. Champlain narrowing possessed the characteristics which differentiated New France from the English colonies, namely, the desire at once to convert and to trade with the Indians, Both ambitions encouraged the rapid territorial expansion of Canada, and made its history so different from that of the English colonies, which thought chiefly of developing the territory originally occupied by them. Champlain pushed across the St. Lawrence and explored the lake which bears his name, an enterprise which brought him into conflict with the Iroquois or Five Nations, hostility which thereafter they showed towards the French. Champlain also established Montreal as an advanced station for the fur-trade with the Indians. Thus, contemporary with the struggles of the early English settlers in Virginia, the French were on the St. Lawrence and in the interior. In 1627 Richelieu, in the interests of French and founded the commerce and for the encouragement of the mercantile 192 A Short History of Europe " marine, was induced by Champlain to found the Company of New France." It received possession of the soil from Florida to the Arctic Circle, saving the supremacy of the Crown, and a trade monopoly from which only the cod and whale fisheries were excepted. In return the Company bound itself to send out to Canada at least 4000 French Catholics, and, with an eye to missionary work among the Indians, to provide three ecclesiastics for each habitation. The Company's foundation coincided with Buckingham's intervention on behalf of the Huguenots, and the English colonists seized the opportunity to protest against France's infringement of English charters in America. Both Port Royal and Quebec were taken, but were restored by the Peace of Saint-Germain- en-Laye in 1632. Canada thereafter progressed slowly. Very few colonists came out. In 1640, when the New England colonists numbered 20,000, New France could muster only 200 settlers and perhaps twice that number of soldiers. Twenty years later the whole French population of the colony was under 3000. At length, weakened and disheartened by the persistent enmity of the Iroquois, the its charter (1663). Company sun'endered A more hopeful chapter in the history of New France opened with the foundation (1664) of the Company of the West, which received the monopoly of trade with New France, the West Indies, the South American coast, and the African coast from Cape Verde to the Cape of Good Hope. Under Colbert's enlightened supervision the career of the Company opened hopefully, though the capture of the Dutch colonies on the Hudson in the year of its foundation deprived France of the chance of securing a second gate of entry into Canada, the other, the St. Lawrence, being ice-bound for half the year. The Iroquois, after two vigorous campaigns, made peace (1666) and kept it for nearly twenty years. La Systematic exploration of the vast continent began. Salle, the greatest of the French explorers, followed the Mississippi to its outflow in the Gulf of Mexico in 1682, and named the country Louisiana in honour of Louis XIV. In the years that followed, the construction of a series of French forts between the St. Lawrence and the Gulf of Mexico threatened to confine the English to the coast, a danger from which the eighteenth century struggle with France saved them, Greater Britain In the West Indies the French was reconstituted in 1635 ^s 193 Company of St. Christopher the Company of the Isles of America, with jurisdiction over the Gulf of Mexico. In addition to St. Kitts, jointly held with the English, the French took possession of Martinique, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Desirade, St. Bartholomew, Santa Cruz, and Marie-Galante. The small island Tortuga, north of Hispaniola, became the headWhen Richelieu died quarters of the French buccaneers. in 1642 the French Antilles, in marked contrast to French Canada, could boast a large and prosperous population of some 7000. By the middle of the eighteenth century they had developed a trade which exceeded that of the English islands in value, and in 1763 the wisdom of demanding Guadeloupe in return for the retrocession of Canada was seriously con- sidered by Great Britain. Such was the situation New World when of the War French and English in the Grand Alliance in Europe (1689) involved them in North America in a struggle which lasted for three-quarters of a century and destroyed France's colonial power on the mainland. At the outset there was little to indicate such a collapse as probable. The French pushed their advance unchecked into the interior and towards the Gulf of Mexico. The English colonies, which received only intermittent assistance from the mother country, showed the of the to recognise the significance of the French advance or to combine in a common effort to resist it. In the War of the Grand Alliance, or Frontenac's War (so-called after the French governor of Canada), an expedition from Massachusetts under Sir "William Phipps, the first Governor of the colony appointed by the Crown, was dispatched against Acadia, captured Port Royal (1690), but failed to surprise Quebec. On the other side, Frontenac raided Newfoundland, and also broke the power of the Iroquois, who after a long period of rest had again taken the war-path. The Peace of Rysw-yk (1697) restored the status quo ante bellum. Five years of peace intervened between the conclusion of Frontenac's War and the opening of its successor. Queen Anne's War, which was contemporary with the War of the Spanish Succession in Europe. Forts had been erected by the French on Lake Ontario (Fort Frontenac, and Fort Niagara), and the building of Fort Detroit on Lake Erie little ability II.— o 194 ^ Short History of Europe Canada a step nearer to her junction with Louisiana. Of the war itself the only notable events were the final capture of Port Royal (1710), which was renamed Annapolis in honour of the queen, and an unsuccessful attempt to capture Quebec. The Peace of Utrecht, however, exacted from France concarried cessions out of proportion to her actual losses in America, where Louis sacrificed the real interests of France in order to establish his grandson in Spain. France abandoned her claims on the Hudson Bay territories and Newfoundland, ceded Acadia, evacuated St. Kitts, and recognised as British subjects the Iroquois, who at the beginning of the war had made an assignment of their lands to William III. The Peace of Utrecht bristled with points which threatened a renewal of war between the two nations. The boundaries between the Hudson Bay Company's territory and Canada were left undetermined, and the French sought to restrict the cession of Acadia to Nova Scotia. Newfoundland was abandoned to Great Britain, but fishing rights thereon were reserved to the French, the source of much friction in the future. The islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence also remained The most important of them. in the possession of France. Cape Breton and lie de St. Jean (Prince Edward Isle), so far had not attracted settlers. But after 1713 Acadian exiles were drawn to them. Louisbourg was built and fortified on Cape Breton, and to mark its enhanced importance the island was renamed lie Roy ale. Louisbourg obviously menaced the British Acadian shore, and in another direction the Peace of Utrecht threatened trouble. By the A siento Great Britain received for a period of thirty years (1713-43) a monopoly of the slave trade between Africa and Spain's American possessions. The concession was vested in the English South Sea Company, which also received permission to send annually a ship of 500 tons' burden with a miscellaneous cargo to Spanish America, a concession whose interpretation led to the outbreak of war between the two countries shortly before the term of the A siento expired. After the Peace of Utrecht the British colonies steadily progressed. Their population trebled and stood at one and a half millions in 1755. Yale, Columbia, Princeton, and other educational foundations took their places by the side of the older Harvard. Canada showed no such advance, and blindly Greater Britain 195 refused admission to hundreds of Huguenot exiles, who betook themselves instead to the Carolinas, a region hallowed by the memories of earlier French exiles for religion's sake. None the less the wide scheme of French expansion in the West went forward. New Orleans was founded at the mouth of the Mississippi (17 18), and the construction of forts along the great river's course strengthened France's hold on the interior. The erection of Fort Oswego on Lake Ontario was Great Britain's only effort to counter the steady advance of her rival. In 1739, when the Asiento still had four years to run, the differences arising out of it led Spain and Great Britain into a war which broadened into a renewed contest with France. The Asiento had caused a great deal of contraband trade with the Spanish American ports, in which the South Sea Company and colonial smugglers engaged profitably. To put it down, Spain sent out guarda-costas, while unofficial privateers also preyed on British shipping. Outcry was raised in England, and the case of Robert Jenkins, who lost an ear in an encounter with a Spanish guarda-costa, roused such feeling that Robert Walpole reluctantly declared war upon Spain in 1739. Admiral Vernon captured Porto Bello and Chagres, hard by the scene of Drake's exploit on the Isthmus of Darien (1739). An attack upon Cartagena on the Spanish Main failed, but Commodore Anson, who was sent into the Pacific, sailed his ship, the Centurion, round the world (1740-44) and took much Spanish treasure. The outbreak of the Austrian Succession War in 1740 drew in France and Spain as auxiliaries of Bavaria, and in 1744 Louis XV formally declared war upon Great Britain. Its single important episode in America was the capture of Louisbourg (1745) by the New Englanders, to whose bitter disappointment the island was restored to France by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). The treaty also renewed the Asiento for four years, that period of the original concession having remained unexpired at the opening of war in 1739. It was the good fortune of Great Britain that she fought the final contest with colonial France under the inspiration of William Pitt, Lord Chatham. Since the accession of George I British foreign policy had been dominated by the vulnerability of Hanover to attack, and the colonial struggle had been 196 A Short History of Europe viewed in the general scheme of defence which the interests of the electorate demanded. Pitt, however, was the first to see that the abiding interests of Britain were in the New World and India, and to act on that conviction. In the Seven Years* War which destroyed Greater France he poured subsidies into Europe and British troops into America and India. The neglect of France to follow his example made Great Britain's victory the more assured. Hardly had the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle been concluded when the conflicting interests of France and Great Britain came into collision on the Ohio. The region was claimed by the British provinces under their original charter, and by France in virtue of La Salle's discoveries. The possession of it was vital to her scheme of linking Canada and Louisiana, and in 1749 an expedition was sent from Canada to expel British traders who had found their way thither, George II having invested a British Ohio Company with rights in that region. Dinwiddie, the deputy-governor of Virginia, was one of the few men among the colonists who discerned how vital the issue was. To protect British interests he dispatched George Washington, at that time a young man of twenty-two, to build a fort on the Ohio. Washington defeated a small French force sent for the same purpose, was beaten at Great Meadows in 1754, and at the forks of the Ohio the French built Fort Duquesne on the site of modern Pittsburg. In Acadia, where the British Government had built Halifax (1749) to balance the restoration of Louisbourg, the expulsion of the French habitants in 1755 completed the immediate causes of friction between the two The pathetic story told by Longfellow in for the Evangeline does not fully represent the facts deportation of the Acadians was rendered necessary by their persistent refusal, for which their priests were responsible, to give allegiance to the British Crown after the cession of Acadia countries. ; in 1713. It has been pointed out in the previous chapter that these events led Great Britain to take her place alongside Prussia against Austria and France in the Seven Years' War. Before broke out in 1756 France and Great Britain were it already at war in the New World. Representations had been made by Dinwiddie and others to the British Government. Greater Britain 197 Money was voted by Parliament, and troops were dispatched under General Braddock. Scantily supported by the colonies themselves, Braddock advanced against Fort Duquesne, but was defeated and killed by a mixed force of French and Indians (1755). The disaster heralded others. In 1756 Montcalm, the French commander, captured Fort Oswego on Lake Ontario, and pressing down Lake Champlain built a French fort at Ticonderoga, threatening to isolate the New In 1757 he England colonies from those in the south. advanced a step nearer to that result by the capture of Fort William Henry at the head of Lake George. But in 1758, after Pitt had come to power, the tide turned. The French advance towards the Hudson was hurled back. Fort Duquesne was captured, and the fall of Fort Frontenac placed Montreal in peril. Louisbourg fell to Wolfe and Amherst, and the year's tale of victories was dimmed only by the death of Lord Howe in the repulse at Ticonderoga. Next year (1759) the British attack was pushed home along the routes which the previous campaign had laid open. Wolfe captured Quebec, and, like his fine antagonist Montcalm, died in the encounter on the Heights of Abraham which forced the city's surrender. Amherst, advancing by Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence, received the unconditional surrender of Montreal in 1760, and French rule in Canada was at an end. In the Peace of Paris (1763) France unreservedly acknow- She ledged Acadia with all its dependencies to be British. ceded Canada, Cape Breton, and all the other islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, save St. Pierre and Miquelon which were left to her (and are still in her possession) for her fishermen, whose fishing rights off the Newfoundland coast were confirmed. France abandoned also her claims upon the All that remained of territory east of the Mississippi. Louisiana after that deduction France ceded with New Orleans to Spain, in compensation for Florida, which Spain abandoned to Great Britain, who retained it for twenty years In the West Indies, Great Britain obtained (1763-83). Grenada, the Grenadines, St. Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago, while France received St. Lucia. For the administration of the territories acquired by the treaty Great Britain created Grenada for the West (1763) four separate governments Indies Quebec, East Florida, and West Florida for North : ; A 198 Short History of Europe America. All the interior west of the Mississippi not included in the three governments was constituted Crown land for the use of the Indians, a reservation which checked the opening up of the country by individual enterprise. Momentous in the history of America, the Peace of Paris Both France and England (1763) was equally so in India. were drawn thither early in the seventeenth century, and until the second generation of the eighteenth neither showed any disposition to transform their original commercial status into political rule and influence. But from the death of Aurungzeb in 1707 the Moghul empire, in spite of an imposing Its feudatories lightly exterior, was already in decay. regarded their obligations to it, determined foes pressed in upon it, and the comparatively brief struggle between France and Great Britain in India which ended in 1763 in fact determined which of them was to become the heir of the Moghuls. The Moghul or Mongol empire in India was founded by Babar, a descendant of Tamerlane, the chief of a small principality (Ferghana) beyond the Oxus. He conducted five expeditions into India, and at his death (1530) held the country to the frontiers of Bengal. Driven from India after Babar's death, the Moghuls returned, and Babar's grandson Akbar, a man of wide and enlightened toleration, reconciled the Hindu population to his rule by respecting their Mahmud and pushed his rule southward roughly to the Godavery and the frontier of the Deccan. With his grandson Shah Jehan (1627-57) the Moghul empire reached its most magnificent period. Akbar's great-grandson Aurungzeb (1657-1707) extended his rule over the Deccan, and expanded the empire beyond his ability to administer it. The operations of the Moghuls in the Deccan brought them into touch with the Hindu Marathas, a people who had never been completely subdued by the earlier Mohammedan invaders of India. One religion, river of their leaders, Sivaji (d. i68o), fiercely resisted the encroach- ments of the Moghuls, and after Aurungzeb's death Poona became the capital of a Maratha confederation which stood for the Hindu race and religion in opposition to Mohammedanism and Moghul rule. In the eighteenth century it even threatened to bar Great the eventual succession of Moghul's rule in India. Great Britain to the latter endured in The Greater Britain name on it 199 and a half longer (to 1858). Foes pressed from the north and the Marathas from the south. The for a century Nizam or Viceroy of the southern province of the empire became independent and founded in the Deccan the present state of Haidarabad. Oudh and Bengal were on the same road, and the Afghan Rohillas Nadir Shah of Persia settled themselves in Rohil- (d. 1747) wrested from the empire its territories west of the Indus. Ahmad Shah of Afghanistan followed in his wake, and at Panipat (1761) routed the Marathas, though on his withdrawal the latter became the masters of Delhi and of the emperor himself. Forty years later (1803) the Marathas were driven from Delhi by the British, and the emperor, whose jurisdiction did not then extend beyond the walls of his palace, retained his title under British protection until 1858, when the fiction of his rule came to an end. khand. It is important to remember that when the English and French approached India, the Moghul power was increasing and continued to be imposing for one hundred years longer. At its zenith it seemed incomparably wealthy and irresistible. Hence the motives which drew colonists from France and England to America were absent. There was no thought of an asylum for political and religious liberty, none of colonisation as a mission against the heathen. India was simply an enormously wealthy country to trade with which would be Neither French nor English contemplated the profitable. assumption of political responsibilities in it, a fact which is of the first importance in following their history in India. Of equal importance is the reflection, that the political disorder of India in the eighteenth century made it inevitable that France and Britain should abandon their non-intervention in Indian politics in order to protect their commercial interests. In fact, the war which eliminated French power in India laid on Great Britain a responsibility which she could not shirk, though she faced it with reluctance. Further, the idea that British dominion in India subjected the country to an experience unwelcome because it was strange must be dismissed. The history of India from the eleventh century is nothing but the history of foreign domination. At no time has a native power emerged strong enough to resist successive foreign and British rule differs from its predecessors only invaders, 200 A Short History of Europe in the justice on which its foundations are laid, and in the fact that it is the first whose maintenance has depended on the command of the sea. The foundation of the EngHsh East India Company (1600) took place during the reign of Akbar, the virtual founder of the Moghul empire. The Company was a private association of London merchants and received the exclusive right to trade with the East Indies for a period of fifteen years, a limitation which was removed nine years later. In 1601 the first expedition was dispatched to India under James Lancaster, with John Davis of Arctic fame as chief pilot. It reached Sumatra and Java, and returned to England with valuable cargoes. In 1604 a second expedition was dispatched to the Spice Islands under Sir Henry Middleton, when for the first time the English vessels encountered the Dutch. The Dutch East India Company had been founded in 1602 and had no intention of admitting another European nation to a share In 161 9 a treaty between them of the Spice Islands. declared the commerce of the East open to both nations, but the massacre of the English merchants at Amboyna (1623) virtually put an end to the competition of England with the Dutch in the islands. Under these circumstances the English Company was led to the mainland of India, where the Portuguese still retained their portion of the west coast north and south of Goa. They offered vigorous but ineffectual opposition to the Englishman, William Hawkins, who visited Akbar's son Jehangir at Agra in 1608 to request permission to open a factory. Not until 1 61 3 was the imperial decree received granting a site at Surat and three other places in the Gulf of Cambay. In the following year the defeat of the Portuguese in the Swally Roads (1614) established the prestige of the new-comers. On the west coast Their progress thereafter was steady. factories were opened at Bombay and Calicut. On the Coromandel or Carnatic coast the Company in 1639 acquired Madras at a yearly rental, and in the next year built Fort In Bengal the Company St. George to protect the factory. established (1651) a settlement at the mouth of the Hooghly, whose trade was discharged from the payment of dues in gratitude for the services of one of the Company's doctors to the Emperor's sick daughter. Other factories in Bengal were Greater Britain 2oi Patna and Cassimbazar. Not until 1690 was a permanent English factory established at Calcutta. Bombay was made over to the Company in 1668 by Charles II, to whom it had come as part of the dowry of his wife Catharine of settled at Braganza. The attention of France turned towards India at the time when both England and Holland were organising East Indian But more than half the seventeenth century ran course before she established a factory in India. Voyages by private traders led Henry IV in 1604 to grant a charter for fifteen years to a French East India Company, but the country was too weakened by the Wars of Religion to make effective use of it. Richelieu in 1642 reconstituted the Company. It failed to make any establishment in India, but made settlements on Madagascar and the lie de Bourbon Companies. its (Reunion). Twenty years later the Company was again reconstituted (1664) under the supervision of Colbert and with the financial support of the king and court. The early efforts of the new Company were expended on Madagascar and the lie de Bourbon, and it was not until 1668 that the first Indian factory was established at Surat. Next year (1669) another was added on the east coast at Masulipatam. In 1 67 1 a powerful French fleet arrived in India, whose coming synchronised with the outbreak of war between France and Holland. Hence St. Thome on the Carnatic coast, which the French fleet seized, was wrested from them by the Dutch. The loss was soon repaired for in the same year (1674) the French Company established at Pondicherry in the Carnatic a settlement which became the capital of French India. In the course of the War of the Grand Alliance it was captured by the Dutch, but was restored by the Treaty of Ryswyk Ill Bengal the French obtained (1697). Chandernagore and ; received (1676) permission to fortify it. With their establishments placed in proximity in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal, the two Companies pursued their commercial interests without hostility. The War of the Spanish Succession was not taken advantage of by either Company to harass its rival. The Dutch concluded a treaty of neutrality, and Great Britain sent no armaments to the East. Both also maintained a policy of strict non-intervention in native affairs. At the same time the continuance of a Companies 202 A Short History of Europe was difficult, if not impossible. The Moghul empire was already in ruins. Rulers of secondary rank, the Nawab (Nabob) of the Carnatic, the Nizam of the Deccan, the Nawab Subahdar of Bengal, and the Marathas, were, along with the French and English Companies, factors in a situation whose development it was impossible to gauge. The possibilities which the disorder of the Moghul empire offered were discerned by many, but the wisdom to take advantage of it displayed itself first in the French. The new policy was inaugurated by Dumas, the French governor of policy of abstention Pondicherry (1735-41). Dynastic troubles in Tan j ore in the south of the Carnatic enabled Dumas in return for assistance to obtain (1739) Karikal on the Coromandel coast. In the following year (1740) a Maratha invasion of the Carnatic dethroned the Nawab Dost Ali. His family and that of his son-in-law Chanda Sahib found shelter in Pondicherry, and Dumas did not hesitate to refuse the Maratha demand for their surrender. Through the instrumentality of the dead Nawab, Dumas already had received from the Great Moghul permission to establish a mint, and now, in addition to the gift of a sword of honour from the Nizam, he received the title Nawab. Dumas's successor, Joseph Dupleix, from his experience at Chandernagore, had already gauged the opportunities which the Indian situation presented for an ambitious policy, and realised that the first step towards the aggrandisement of France in India was the crippling of the English factories. To prepare Pondicherry for the task was his first care upon his promotion from Chandernagore in 1741, and his preparawar between France and Great tions were not complete when Britain was declared (1744). The War of the Austrian Succession in India, though it resulted in the restoration of the status quo ante helium, left the French at Pondicherry much superior in prestige to their At the outset the arrival of a British fleet rivals in Madras. ofi Pondicherry (1745) threatened Dupleix's plans, since the blundering of France deprived him of a fleet which Labourdonnais, governor of Mauritius (tic dc France) and Bourbon, had prepared. Dupleix could only act on the defensive, and obtained from the Nawab an order forbidding the British to fight their quarrels on his territory. But the arrival of Labour- Greater Britain 203 donnais in 1746 was followed by the capture of Madras, and the Nawab Anwar-ud-din, who demanded and was refused surrender to himself, sent a force for its recovery its v/hich suffered defeat at the hands of a small French force at St. Thome, The fortunes of France elsewhere cheated Dupleix of his conquest, and Madras was restored to the British Company by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). But the capture of the place and the defeat of the Nawab's army at St. Thome bore fruit immediately. There were two states which Dupleix especially regarded as possible areas of French political influence. The Deccan, which once had been the seat of the southern Viceroy or Nizam of the Great Moghul, was now virtually an independent state with its capital at Haidarabad, and counted among its vassals the Nawab of the Carnatic, whose seat was at Arcot. In 1748 the Nizam died. He had disinherited his eldest son, Nasir Jang, as a rebel, selecting as his successor Mozaffar Jang, the son of one of his daughters. In 1748 also, Chanda Sahib, who had been the prisoner of the Marathas since their raid on the Carnatic, regained his liberty. The two princes first entered into an agreement for mutual support, and then approached Dupleix with offers of territorial concessions in return for French assistance. Dupleix recognised that he was invited to take a course which might involve him with the Company in France. But he had reason to know that if he refused, the British at Madras were ready to provide the assistance which he withheld. He therefore accepted the proposals of the two princes, furnished a force of 400 French and a larger body of native troops {sipahis, sepoys) under French officers, and took the field against Anwar-ud-din in Chanda Sahib's behalf. At the battle of Ambur (1749) Anwar-ud-din was defeated and killed, and his heir Mohammad Ali threw himself into Trichinopoly. Chanda Sahib was declared Nawab by Mozaffar Jang, and ruled the Carnatic under Dupleix's control until his death. Mozaffar Jang, after falling into the hands of his rival, Nasir Jang, recovered his liberty on the death of the latter (1750), and was enthroned at Pondicherry as Nizam. In reward Masulipatam was made over to the French, and Dupleix re" Ever Brave and Victorious," with ceived the appellation vague powers of vice-royalty over southern India. In the following year the Nizam was conducted to Haidarabad, and A 104 Short History of Europe a body of French troops under the marquis de Bussy was stationed there for his protection and to maintain French influence. Meanwhile the English, realising the import of Dupleix's great efforts for the relief of Mohammad Ali in Robert Clive, who had for eight years been Trichinopoly. in the Company's service, proposed and was allowed to carry through his scheme to raise the siege of Trichinopoly by seizing and holding Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic. Clive's capture and defence of the place (1751) was the turning point in Dupleix's fortunes. Next year, after defeating the French commander Law at Coveripak, Clive compelled him to surrender before Trichinopoly. The death of Chanda Sahib at the same time removed France's puppet Nawab in the Carnatic (1752). For two years longer the war continued. success, made Dupleix won no victories, and his treasury was empty. The whom in France, he had neglected to inform candidly regarding his projects, neither understood nor sympathised with his ambitions. In London authorities of the Company similar apathy prevailed. Conferences between the two Companies were held, and on its own initiative the French Company sent out Godeheu, one of its directors, to terminate Dupleix's intervention in native affairs and to come to a settlement with the English. Godeheu arrived in 1754, and made a provisional treaty with Madras (which was never ratified owing to the outbreak of the Seven Years' War) for mutual abstention from native disputes and renunciation of native titles and offices. In the same year Dupleix returned to France, neglect, poverty, and death (1763). The Seven Years' War which followed Dupleix's departure put an end to French dominion in India, and laid the foundations of British rule in Bengal, which so far had not been disturbed by the rivalry of the two Companies. In 1758 Count de Lally, the son of an Irish refugee, assumed the command in the Carnatic, and at first achieved considerable success. He captured the lesser British settlements, and in preparation for an attack upon Madras unwisely recalled de Bussy from Haidarabad. With his departure French influence at the court of the Nizam came to an end. From the Northern Circars, which they owed to their friendly relations with the Nizam, the French were also driven (1759), and nine years Greater Britain 205 later Clive obtained the cession of that region to the Company In 1760 the victory of Eyre Coote over Lally at (1768). Wandiwash drove him to the shelter of Pondicherry, which was invested and in 1761 capitulated. Lally returned to France, was made the scapegoat of France's reverses, and most unjustly was beheaded. Pondicherry and other possessions were restored to France by the Peace of Paris (1763). But her political power was destroyed altogether by the restriction which the Treaty imposed upon the size of the armed force which she was allowed to maintain in the Carnatic, and by the exclusion of her subjects in any other capacity than that of merchants from Bengal and the Northern Circars. In 1769 the privileges of the French Company were suspended, and its Indian settlements passed under the control of the French crown. Meanwhile momentous events had been taking place in BenSince the beginning of the eighteenth century Bengal and Bihar were ruled by a Nawab or Subahdar independent of the Great Moghul at Delhi in all but name. The chief European settlements, the English at Calcutta, the French at Chandernagore, and the Dutch at Chinsura, lay within thirty miles of each other, and until the accession (1756) of Siraj-ud-daula, the fifth of the Bengal Nawabs, were at peace with themselves and the native power. Never having experienced the probability of war, they were neither fortified nor defended by any The garrison of Calcutta was less than considerable force. 300 men, and the French could muster only half that number gal. at Chandernagore. Siraj-ud-daula, the new ruler of Bengal, was a young man of vicious habits, a hater of the under twenty years of age, Europeans, and especially powerful than the French accession he demanded the the English as being more Shortly after his surrender of his cousin, who had fled to Calcutta for safety. His request was not complied with. A further aggravation was offered in the fact that the EngUsh, in view of the imminence of war with France, had begun to fortify Calcutta. Siraj-ud-daula commanded them to desist and sent his army against the town. The women and children escaped by the river on the third day of the The garrison held out for two days longer and then siege. That hot summer night 146 prisoners were surrendered. of and Dutch. A 2o6 Short History of Europe " confined in the punishment-cell of the fort, the Black Hole '* of Calcutta. In the morning only 23 of them came out alive. In spite of the impending war with France, the Madras council determined at once to recover Calcutta, and Clive, who had just returned from England, was placed in command of an expedition for that purpose. Calcutta was recaptured (1757), the right to fortify it was conceded, and the English also received permission to establish a mint. The arrangement was not adequate to the punishment which Siraj-ud-daula deserved. But Clive was anxious to come to terms with him in order to be free to deal with the French, against whom war had been declared. Three months after the recapture of Calcutta, Clive and Admiral Watson, who commanded the British fleet, attacked Chandernagore and forced its surrender. The fear of French interference being removed, Clive became a party to a plot to depose Siraj-uddaula and to raise up in his room Mir Jafar, a man of high position at his court. Mir Jafar paid heavily for what proved to be an uneasy throne, /i, 500, 000 were guaranteed to the Company and the European inhabitants as compensation for The members of the Siraj-ud-daula's seizure of Calcutta. Calcutta council also received gratuities, and Clive himself was promised nearly a quarter of a million sterling. In all, Mir Jafar pledged, to the extent of over two millions and a quarter, a treasury which was found ultimately to contain only one and a half millions sterling. By a discreditable trick Omichand, a native through whom the intrigue with Mir Jafar was carried on, was cheated by Clive of his share in this lavish distribution of bribes. At Plassey (1757) Clive, with a force of about 1000 English and 2000 native troops, encountered Siraj-ud-daula The battle was momentfifty thousand strong. but not distinguished. Mir Jafar's contingent took no and an army ous, part in it, the rest of the army fled in panic, Siraj-ud-daula was captured and put to death, and Mir Jafar was forthwith Soon after, for his defence of Mir Jafar installed as Nawab. against a coalition between the future emperor Alam II and the Nawab of Oudh, Clive was rewarded by the grant of the property south of Calcutta leased by the Company. The annual quit-rent, valued at ;^30,ooo, was transferred to him as a jagir or fief. In respect of it he became the landlord of Greater Britain 207 the Company, a position which the Directors some years later refused to recognise. In 1759 a futile attempt of the Dutch at Chinsura to cripple the growing power of the English led to the seizure of their fleet and the defeat of their army. When Clive left India in 1760 both the French and Dutch were reduced to insignificant positions in Bengal, and it was at the instance of Clive himself that the Peace of 1763 permitted the former to remain in Bengal as merchants only. The Peace of 1763, while it left to Great Britain the only important European interest on the mainland of India, placed the Company in an anomalous position. It had intervened in a dynastic revolution in Bengal and its army was the chief support of its nominee on the throne. Its officials had laid upon him insupportable burdens. Yet while they rendered the task of governing difficult, the Company's servants held aloof from the responsibilities which their own actions invited. Great fortunes were won easily, and their acquisition became The importance of the the first and only consideration. generation of Indian history which followed Plassey lies in the endeavour to raise the standard of public conduct, and to clarify the anomalous position of the Company in relation to the native ruler. On his third and last visit to India Clive effected a temporary solution of the latter problem. He obtained from the emperor Alam the diwani of the province of Bengal (1765). The Company thereby was charged to collect and administer the revenues of Bengal, to discharge the expenses of the government, to pay a fixed sum annually to the Nawab, and to remit the annual tribute to The " dual system " thus created was due to the emperor. Clive's natural disinclination to give the Company the full Nor did he contemplate any sovereignty of the province. beneficial results from an immediate extension of territory and of the responsibilities which the arrangement entailed. With the neighbouring state of Oudh he made a treaty which virtually constituted it a buffer state between Bengal and the Marathas, a position which it retained until it was annexed in 1856. With the appointment of Warren Hastings as Governor in Bengal in 1772 a new chapter opened in the history of India. While Great Britain's first colonial empire was sUpping away in the New World, public interest was increasingly directed to 2o8 A Short History of Europe her position in India. That a trading company should be charged with great pohtical responsibihties was recognised as an anomaly and a danger, and successive efforts were made, in the Regulating Act (1773), Fox's India Bill (1783), and Pitt's India Act (1784), to bring the political activities of the Company under Parliamentary rule. At the outset of his governorship Warren Hastings was instructed to destroy the " " of Clive. The disinclination which Clive had dual system shown to employ English officials and collectors of revenue The native deputy-Nawabs of Bengal and Bihar were removed. English collectors were appointed, and the treasury was transferred from the native capital, The collectors also exercised Murshidabad, to Calcutta. certain powers of civil jurisdiction, though the criminal administration remained in native hands, and for the supervision of both Hastings organised Courts of Appeal at was discarded. Calcutta. The Regulating Act (1773) went but a little way towards the ultimate solution of the relations between the Company and the native ruler. It converted the Governor in Bengal into the Governor-General of the three Indian Presidencies, and appointed a Council of four to advise him. Political and military matters were to be submitted to the Secretary of State before the dispatch of instructions to India. A supreme Court of Judicature was set up at Calcutta for the protection The of the natives, though the Act failed to define its powers. in fact is chiefly important as an indication of an awakened conscience in the mother country, and as an admission of her responsibility to the distant millions whom the Company To that also, rather than to any especial virtually ruled. harshness in his government, was due the impeachment which closed Hastings's Indian career. The Regulating Act was superseded in 1784 by Pitt's India Act, which marked a further step towards the ultimate acceptance by Great Britain of the sovereignty of India. It withdrew from the Company the control of civil, military, and revenue matters, leaving to it solely the regulation of its The powers thus withdrawn affairs as a trading corporation. were conveyed to a new public department, a Board of Control, which consisted of representatives of the Government and four Privy Councillors, whose instructions were trans- Act Greater Britain milted to the Governor- General 209 and Council in India through a Secret Committee of three Directors in London. Such remained the administration of India until the Indian Mutinyterminated the anomaly of a century. In 1858 the government of India was attached to the British Crown. In 1786 Lord Cornwallis came out to India as the first On him and his successor it Viceroy under Pitt's Act. to meet the revival of French activity in India which followed the outbreak of the French Revolution. France fell had already in the War of American Independence wreaked vengeance on her conqueror in Canada. In India she was not so successful for British expansion there dates from and was the consequence of France's intervention. Until then the Company's territorial position remained as Clive and Warren Hastings had fashioned it, and in 1792 embraced the following districts (i) Bengal and Bihar, of which the administration had been taken over by Clive in ; : (2) the Northern Circars along the east coast, ceded to 1765 the Company in 1768 (3) the districts round Madras and Fort St. David in the Carnatic which the Company had (4) Lord Cornwallis's annexations from originally occupied Mysore in 1792, namely, Malabar on the west coast, and Baramahal and Dindigul in the Carnatic (5) the island of Bombay. As dependent allies the Company reckoned the Nawab of Oudh, the Nawab of the Carnatic, and the Rajahs of Travancore, Tan j ore, and Cochin. ; ; ; ; II.— p CHAPTER XII THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE In 1763 Great Britain stood alone in North America, save in Spain's newly acquired colony of Louisiana, or West Florida. But her supremacy was short-lived for in 1775 she was involved in a war whose issue deprived her of her original colonies on the Atlantic coast and left her in possession only of the territory which she had won from the French in 1763. The causes of so sudden and complete a fall are found partly in the elimination of France from North America in 1763, and largely in the relations of Great Britain with her own ; colonies. As Burke pointed out, the love of freedom and a determination to maintain it were characteristics which the English The New England colonies acquired with their foundation. colonies especially were established as a protest against Stewart tyranny, and fought George III under the watchwords In marked contradistinction also to of Pym and Hampden. Canada, which throughout its history as a French colony was held in leading strings, the English colonies were practically autonomous, and managed their internal affairs in their own representative Assemblies. Outside commercial circles there was little interest in or knowledge of them, and there was a considerable spice of truth in the witty remark of a contemporary, that Great Britain lost America because, unlike his predecessors, a British statesman read colonial dispatches. A minister of George II is even said to have been ignorant that the words Cape Breton betokened an island. Thus neglected, and with seventeenth-century traditions still vivid among them, the colonies fell naturally into an attitude of indifference or opposition. They were invariably reluctant to admit the authority of Parliament over their local affairs, and its attempt to induce them to 210 settle a fixed and regular The American War of Independence 211 upon their governors was resisted on the grounds which caused the seventeenth-century EngHsh Parhaments to withhold a life-income from the Crown, namely, to force the dependence of the executive upon the legislature. Equally resented as infringing their liberty were attempts at different times to regulate their currency, and to veto the use of paper specie. The powers conveyed by Parliament to British revenue officials and to the Courts of Admiralty in America, and colonial Assemblies and its occasional interference with charters, were also the source of ill-feeling. salary Though the pernicious effect of them is capable of exaggera- commercial restrictions which, in accordance with the economic theories of the seventeenth century. Great Britain imposed upon her colonies were irksome, and tolerTheir able only because they were systematically evaded. for it was industrial development had no encouragement not in the interests of the mother country to allow them to compete with herself as producers. Their exports were for the most part raw materials, timber, salt, fish, tar, and corn from the northern group furs, iron ore, cattle, and com and chiefly tobacco and rice from from the middle group the south. On these exports, however, the mother country established a prior lien for her own use, and the most important of them might only be shipped to a British port while, under the Navigation Act of 1660, imports (except salt) could be carried to colonial harbours only in British vessels. The expulsion of the French from Canada in 1763 created a new situation between Great Britain and her daughter colonies. They had fought side by side in the late war, but not to the increase of their mutual liking or respect. Colonial feeling had also been a good deal stirred by the indifference tion, the ; ; ; ; to colonial interests displayed by the mother country in her balancing of Guadeloupe against Canada on the conclusion But of chief importance, the expulsion of the of the war. French from the St. Lawrence and the interior relieved the colonies of a great and increasing menace to their prosperity. As was foreseen at the time, it lessened their dependence on their natural protector. Hence, though at the outset the colonists showed no disposition to formulate or press a policy of separation, it was easier for them after 1763 to present a bold front against the mother country, and to resist her 212 A Short History of Europe request that they should contribute to Imperial burdens. They did so on the ground (which was sufficiently absurd in view of the state of the representative systemjin Great Britain) that they were not represented in the British Parliament, though they owed allegiance to the British Crown. As to Great Britain, the issue of the Seven Years' War set her a problem which she was wholly without experience to It left her the mistress of one empire in the New solve. World and the potential ruler of another in India. For their acquisition she had expended much blood and treasure, and had accumulated a debt which approached the then appalling That Greater should share with total of ;^i40, 000,000. Great Britain the maintenance of a common possession seemed obvious. But the idea bristled with difficulties and dangers, and presented a problem which to this day, with the added experience of a century and a half, has not been solved. It is only within recent years that a renewed attempt has been made to make the daughter-dominions of the Empire The attempt co-sharers in the burden of its maintenance. has come from the dominions themselves, however, and their proffered assistance is entirely voluntary, whereas in 1765 Great Britain proposed to enforce what maturer experience has taught her to accept as a gift. Further, by imposing taxes for revenue upon her American colonies she laid herself open to the retort, that they were already indirect contributors to the Imperial exchequer in respect of the commercial restrictions imposed on them, and that the revenue obtainable from such impositions as the Stamp Act was insignificant by the side of the advantages which the mother country derived from her monopoly of their trade. British policy after 1763 was it was inadequate to the irritating to the colonists object which inspired it, and it represented an invasion of Parliamentary authority into a province so far exempt. On neither side, therefore, the war concluded in 1763 made for harmony. In America the idea of separation had not yet But loyalty to the fired the imagination of the colonists. doubly ; mother country was generally apathetic, and in aristocratic Virginia as in more democratic New England there was an active minority which, now that France was removed, did not shrink from the idea of separation if that was the necessary consequence of refusal to submit to interference from the The American War of Independence home Government. materially aggravated 213 The danger of such a cleavage was by the wilful ignorance of the Americans, their interests, and their ambitions, which prevailed in the old country. In such an atmosphere of suspicion and ignorance George Grenville, the virtual leader of the Tory and ministerial party, gave notice in 1764 of a measure for the imposition of a duty-paid stamp on legal documents in the colonies, expressing at the same time his willingness to accept an alternative scheme if the colonial Assemblies could suggest one. Grenville's proposal was entirely without precedent. From the close of the seventeenth century the general supervision was in the hands of the Board of Trade and Plantations. That body was responsible for the restrictive measures which had been passed for the restraint or regulation of colonial trade, and for the institution of Admiralty Courts to try without a jury offenders against the trade laws. The competence of the mother country to impose external taxation in the form of commercial regulations was not questioned, and was acquiesced in by the colonists the more readily seeing that they were very widely evaded. But the power of Parliament to impose direct or internal taxes, though asserted by English lawyers, had never been exercised, and when suggested to him was rejected by Walpole with his customary caution. Grenville, therefore, by his motion threatened to bring the mother country and her colonies into wholly new of the colonies relations. Introduced in the following year (1765) the Stamp Act enumerated forty-three purposes for which the duty was payable, and the price of the stamped paper varied from twopence to ;^io. At the same time the Government resolved to enforce the existing trade laws, which were very indeed, only one-tenth of the tea congenerally evaded sumed in America was cleared legally through British ports. Grenville therefore gave instructions to the colonial governors to repress illicit trading, and placed the resources of the navy at their disposal for the purpose and for the collection of the revenue. Another Act (1764) forbade the importation of sugar or molasses into the colonies from the French and Spanish West Indies. Grenville's measures had in view the provision of a revenue for the maintenance of a standing ; ^ 214 Short History of Europe — itself was intro^ military force in America the Stamp Act " " of the duced on the plea of providing for the protection offered from was No alternative scheme colonies. America, and the Act passed with very little opposition in Parliament. It came into force in November, 1765. Apart from the over-riding of the taxing powers of the colonial Assemblies by the British Parliament, the Stamp Act was unwelcome in that, unlike the customs, there was no chance of evading it. It was, however, on their threatened " " that the colonists took their stand. They contended that their allegiance to the British Crown did not convey to the British Parliament any rights over them and that their own Assemblies were alone competent to tax them, seeing that in them alone the taxpaying colonists " " Sons of Liberty were represented. Under the name of of A were formed. Associations congress delegates patriotic at New York, at which only four of the thirteen colonies were not represented, denounced the Stamp Act and claimed The resolution and a general the right of self -taxation. statement of colonial grievances were dispatched to the king liberty ; and the British Parliament. The depth of colonial feeling surprised the mother country and filled the commercial community with apprehensions. Their representations were supported on other grounds by Edmund Burke, at that time the private secretary of Lord Rockingham, and also by Lord Chatham, who had taken no part in the debates on the Stamp Act. Four months after it came into force, therefore, Rockingham, who had succeeded Grenville, carried the repeal of the obnoxious measure (1766). At the same time, the obstinacy of George III, the general feeling of the country, and the challenge of the colonists seemed to demand at least an assertion of the legality of the abandoned measure. So, with extraordinary ignorance of the situation on the other side of the Atlantic, the Government passed an Act declaratory of the general right of Parlia- ment to tax the Americans. The Declaratory Act and the colonial Congress of 1765 proclaimed conflicting principles which threatened disturbance. Nevertheless the home Government revived Grenville's proposal to raise a revenue from the Americans, while avoiding the method which had raised such an outcry. Upon the fall The American War of Independence 215 six months after^the'repeal Chatham succeeded him as first minister. But the state of his health kept him out of touch with the Cabinet and left Charles Townshend, who had been a member of Grenville's ministry, a free hand in Parliament. Townshend of Rockingham's ministry less than of the Stamp Act, used his opportunity to carry a measure (1767) imposing duties on tea, glass, paper, lead, and painters' colours entering The total yield of the new duties was esticolonial ports. mated at no more than ;^40,ooo, and was to be applied to the provision of a civil list for the maintenance of colonial Governors and Judges, a proposal towards which the colonists had long since shown their resentment. The new duties further exasperated colonial feeling, and Massachusetts especially emphasised had done over the Stamp Act. its indignation, as it Assembly adopted a strenuous protest against the proposed duties, and communicated it Its to the other colonies for their endorsement. Upon the Assembly was dissolved by the Governor. Its members, however, refused to separate, and as an informal Convention exerted great inAt Boston the fluence upon the course of the agitation. its refusal to withdraw the circular, Custom House officials were resisted, an attempt to quarter town was successfully opposed, and on the thin soldiers in the pretext of anticipated French intervention the populace provided themselves with fire-arms. In 1770 a fracas occurred between the soldiery and the townsmen (disproportionately " Boston Massacre "), in which three of the described as the killed. It was exploited as an example of British the object of annual commemoration. and became tyranny Meanwhile the retirement of Chatham and the death of Townshend (1767) made George III practically his own Prime For the blunders that followed he must be held Minister. chiefly responsible, though the policy was nominally that of Townshend's successor at the Exchequer, Lord North. Alarmed at the clamour in America, British commercial interests again intervened, and in 1769 Townshend's obnoxious duties were repealed, save that on tea, which, like the Declaratory Act a few years before, was retained in order to assert the right of Parliament to impose duties which it had deemed it politic to withdraw. In fact, the right to impose them was the only thing of value in regard to them latter were ; A 2i6 Short History of Europe from the America had been less than ;^20oo annually, and each £1 of revenue So patent was it that her fiscal cost actually £^ to collect. regulations did not yield the mother country a revenue, that the colonists were able to brush aside the argument that they formed a precedent for the direct taxation recently for during the preceding thirty years the total yield fiscal regulations imposed by the mother country in imposed. But the withdrawal of all the new duties save that on tea The Massachusetts pacify colonial opposition. Assembly even denied the right of the British legislature to lay duties on colonial trade, and a revenue-cutter, the Gaspee, which was watching the Rhode Island coast, was boarded by smugglers and burnt. That the colonists were not animated simply by objection to the amount of the duties is clear from a memorable event at Boston in 1773. In the previous year Lord North, who had become Prime Minister, passed a measure to permit the East India Company to export tea failed to Instead, as heretofore, of paying a at a British port before reaching the shilling per pound duty colonial market, tea was now purchasable by the colonial consumer direct from the plantations, subject only to the threedirect to the colonies. penny per pound duty which Townshend had imposed. But, as Burke warned Parliament, no commodity will bear a threepenny or even a penny duty when the general feelings of men are irritated. Even tea cheaper by ninepence a pound was too dear for men who had already staked their opposition, rightly or wrongly, on the illegality of any duty laid by In 1773, therefore, upon the arrival of East Parliament. Indiamen at Philadelphia, New York, and Charlestown, the sale of their cargoes was not permitted, and at Boston the chests of tea were thrown overboard by a band of persons disguised as Indians. Irritating as had been the conduct of the home Government, In 1774 Boston clearly laid itself open to punishment. Parliament passed measures against the offending colony, which closed the port of Boston, transferred its trade to conveyed to the Crown the appointment of and other officials. General Gage was at the same time sent to Boston as Governor and commander-in-chief. The treatment of Massachusetts evoked general apprehension Salem, and judicial The American War of Independence I17 Washington declared his readiness to raise a force for the rehef of Boston. Virginia and Maryland resolved to cut off the supply of tobacco to the British market. At Philadelphia delegates assembled from every colony save Georgia, and the First Continental Congress began its sessions that the (1774). Though such men as John Adams declared " as unpopular as the Stamp Act," idea of independence was the Congress by its resolutions virtually closed the door against British authority, on the ground of rights derived " " natural from so-called law, from colonial charters, and from the British constitution itself. At the same time an address to the king and people of the mother country was drafted, in which the idea that independence was " aimed at was scouted as a calumny." It professed loyalty to the Crown, provided that things were restored to their Canada was invited to position before the Stamp Act. make common cause with the colonists, a danger which Great Britain countered by the Quebec Act of 1774, which confirmed to the Canadians their institutions and and sympathy. religion. " We have thrown a pebble at a mastiff and are surprised not frightened," wrote Horace Walpole in 1774. An incident local to Boston had gathered the whole Atlantic seait is board from New Hampshire to the Carolinas in a solid phalanx of suspicion and enmity. Lord North realised the magnitude of the crisis but met defiance with defiance. He proposed to cut off all the colonies, save Georgia and North Carolina, which were too poor to merit punishment, and New York, whose geographical position made her strategically too valuable to offend, from the American fisheries and commercial intercourse with the mother country, and to strengthen the In the colonies the establishment in America. were training, mob violence was not infrequent, and the first shots were fired (1775) at Lexington in Massuchusetts, where the colonists inflicted considerable loss upon a British force which had been sent to seize a store of arms and ammunition at Concord. Meanwhile, Lord North made (1775) a belated effort to propitiate colonial feeling by a measure providing that colonies which made a grant for Imperial purposes should be exempt from Imperial taxation. The concession was re- military militia 21 A 8 Short History of Europe by the Second Continental Congress at Philadelphia and Benjamin Franklin, the colonial agent in London, England. The Congress also took steps to raise an army, jected (1775), left and in order to enlist the support of the southerners appointed Washington to the command-in-chief. For the skirmish at Lexington was followed a few weeks later by a more determined engagement at Bunker Hill (1775), a height commanding Boston, whence Sir William Howe, who had reinforced and superseded Gage, was only able with difficulty and heavy who beleaguered the town. After however, Howe's position in Boston became precarious, and in March he withdrew his forces from loss to drive the colonials Washington's Boston and arrival, New York to Halifax. Four months later, on 1776, whose anniversary Americans over all the world piously observe, the Continental Congress at Philadelphia issued the famous Declaration of Independence, drafted by " are Samuel Jefferson, affirming that the thirteen colonies July 4, and independent states," that their Crown was dissolved, and their political connection with Great Britain at an end for ever. The Declaration of Independence, based in part upon an assertion of the rights of man which was soon to have a more terrible proclamation in the French Revolution, broke the solidarity of the English race, and also for the moment cleft the populations on both sides of the Atlantic in twain. Among the colonists there was a large section which viewed severance from the mother country with dismay and fought to prevent it. In the mother country also opinion was divided. There was much sympathy with the colonists in commercial and Nonconformist circles, among the Irish, who shortly made an effort to follow America's example, and among the Whigs, who regarded the colonists as allies in opposition to George HI and Tory rule. That Great Britain would fail to coerce the colonies was recognised from the The enormous surface which they presented, the outset. extent of the coast-line which had to be contained, weak generalship, an entire lack of enthusiasm on her own side, and above all, the formation of the European coalition against her and the consequent loss of her command of the sea after Nor were 1778, were the causes of Great Britain's failure. the Americans without their difficulties. There was a singular and ought to be free allegiance to the British The American War of Independence 219 absence of general enthusiasm, a want of cohesion among the various colonies, persistent friction between them and the Congress, and between the Congress and the army, which might have more than counterbalanced the difficulties which beset their opponent had it not been for the commanding and ability of Washington. Beginning in 1775 with the engagements at Lexington and Bunker Hill, the American war continued until the British personality, tact, patience, Yorktown in the autumn of 1781. The contest, prolonged into 1782 by reason of the entrance of France into it in 1778 and of Spain in the following year, was concluded by the general Peace of Versailles in 1783. The intervention of France, Spain, Holland, and other European powers changed the character of the war. For it developed into an attempt by Great Britain's defeated rivals to avenge themselves on her through her own rebellious colonies. The area of the struggle also was enlarged. The maritime supremacy of Great Britain was challenged on the ocean, in the West In India French intrigue Indies, and in the Mediterranean was busy among the native princes. At the opening of the American campaign of 1776 interest was concentrated on Boston and New England. Here was established the military force sent out from England in 1775, commanded by Sir William Howe, who had superseded Gage. An attempt of the Americans to disturb the Canadians in 1775 had failed, the latter being satisfied with the consideration shown them in the Quebec Act, and having no desire to commit their fortunes to the colonials. Among the British colonies the royal Governors had generally made their escape after the battle of Lexington, and in the south disaster at . little effort was made to wards the close of the war. restore British authority until toIn 1776 therefore Boston was the key of the military position, and it was lost to Great Britain the Declaration of Independence was proclaimed by Congress on July 4. After Bunker Hill the British garrison was confined to Boston, while around the town lay the New England militia, the nucleus of the Continental army which Washington was appointed to command. After Bunker Hill Washington joined his forces, and in March, 1776, four months before before the Declaration of Independence, compelled Howe and the British troops to evacuate Boston and withdraw to A 220 Short History of Europe The troops in New York withdrew Scotia. time, and for some weeks colonial territory was free from British military occupation. Upon the abandonment of Boston, interest turned to the Halifax in at the Nova same locality which controlled the whole military Possession the Hudson. New York and situation, namely. of it enabled its owner to operate equally against New England in the north and Virginia in the south. It controlled a route into Canada also, New a fact of importance to both sides, while in New York, Jersey, and Pennsylvania loyalist feeling was especially strong. The control of the locality was therefore as necessary After Howe's evacuation of for Washington as for Howe. Boston Washington made his head-quarters at New York. But preparations were already on foot to restore British To the indignation of the colonials, German troops were sent over to act against them, and four months after his prestige. evacuation of Boston, four days after the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, Howe appeared before New York, compelled Washington to draw off his army from Long Island a month later, and entered the city. Until the end of the war it remained the British head-quarters. Washington withdrew across the Delaware upon Philadelphia, the seat of the Congress, and the remainder of the year's campaign, which included successful attacks upon Trenton, where Howe had established the Hessian troops, and Princeton, left Washington successful in the effort to maintain the spirit of his army and keep open his communications with New England. Howe devoted the campaign of 1777 to the task of clearing Washington from the Delaware and of securing the town of Defeated at Brandywine, Washington was Philadelphia. unable to withstand Howe's advance. Philadelphia was occupied by him, and after a further repulse at Germantown, Washington withdrew to winter quarters at Valley Forge. Howe's success was more than counterbalanced by a disaster elsewhere which entailed the most serious consequences. Some weeks before the battle of Brandywine, General Burgoyne, with a force largely composed of German mercenaries, set out from Canada and descended Lake Champlain to effect a junction with Howe on the Hudson. The movement threatened to isolate the New England colonies and to The American War of Independence cut colonial resistance in twain. But by the most error Howe was not informed of Burgoyne's plans co-operate with him, and Burgoyne, confronted by colonial army under General Gates, surrendered force at Saratoga in October, 1777. The disaster had two important results. feeling in England. The sympathy of 221 disastrous time to a growing in his whole It stirred public France with the Americans was known, and the nation looked to Chatham to extricate it from threatened humiliation. He was offered a post in the Cabinet, but refused to take it because he was not allowed to form an entirely new ministry. He viewed with equal horror the king's policy of coercion, and the apparently imminent cleavage of an empire which he had done so much to build up, and the last public act of his life was an unfinished speech in the Lords against the dismemberment In May, 1778, he died, and a of the British monarchy. reasonable policy of pacification died with him. A few weeks before his death Lord North's last effort towards conciliation was rejected by the colonial Congress. He offered to repeal the tea duty, to abandon the claim of Parliament to impose internal taxation, and to place the fiscal revenue entirely at the disposal of the colony in which it was raised. Parliament also appointed commissioners to treat with Congress, with power to suspend Acts of Parliament passed since 1763 and to grant pardons. But the Americans demanded, as a preliminary to any diplomatic conversations, a categorical admission of the independence of the United States. The war therefore continued, and under conditions which promised almost certain success to the colonial cause. Burgoyne's disaster emboldened France to range herself as the ally of the colonies. At the very outset of the war the " Congress had appointed a committee to correspond with the friends of America in other countries," and Benjamin Franklin was sent to Paris, where he was successful in stimulating enthusiasm for the American cause. Volunteers came forward in considerable numbers, among them the young marquis of Lafayette. Even Marie Antoinette, ignorant of the tragic bearing of the American revolt on her own fortunes, " spoke of the colonists as our dear republicans." Burgoyne's surrender at Saratoga converted passive enthusiasm into active alliance. In 1 778 the two countries mutually guaranteed 222 A Short History of Europe their possessions in the New World, and France pledged herself not to lay down arms until the independence of her ally was recognised by Great Britain. In the next year (1779) her influence brought Spain into the American alliance, though she did not share France's enthusiasm for the principles of the Declaration of Independence, and was chiefly influenced by the hope of recovering Gibraltar. The entrance of France into the war completely altered the conditions under which Great Britain so far had waged it. As yet she had held unchallenged command of the sea, and virtue of it was mistress of three important bases, New York, Rhode Island, and Philadelphia. But the threatened arrival of a French fleet on the coast compelled concentration of the British position. Hence in 1778 the first act of General Clinton, who superseded Howe, was to abandon Philadelphia and return to New York. Once more Washington transferred his army to the Hudson, and remained there until by swoop upon Cornwallis at Yorktown three years The New England colonies were already lost to the mother country, and any attempt to reduce them was rendered the more difficult by the arrival of a French force at NewBut in the south the way was still open to port (1780). for at the outset it was in the West recover lost ground Indies and not on the American coast that the French maritime activity showed itself, with results very damaging to his final later. ; While the colonists were mastering the Ohio most distinguished sailor Paul Jones was their flag on the coast of Great Britain itself, displaying Great Britain. territory, and their Clinton directed operations for the recovery of the south. Georgia was reduced, and upon the fall of Charlestown (1780) Clinton took in hand the conquest of the Carolinas. Lord Cornwallis, Clinton's lieutenant, defeated his opponent, General Gates, and entered North Carolina. In the next year (1781) he pushed into Virginia. Disappointed at the apathy of the loyalists, while hard fighting had reduced his force to some 3000 men, Cornwallis established himself at Yorktown on the coast to await reinforcement from Clinton. Washing- had come. Effecting a junction with the French^orce lately^arrived at Newport, Washington made forced marches against Cornwallis. The opportune a presence of a French fleet closed Chesapeake Bay against ton's opportunity at length The American War of Independence relieving force, from and on the very day that Clinton New York to carry succour to him, 223 set sail Cornwallis surrendered Yorktown (October, 1781). As between Great Britain and the Americans Yorktown ended the war. Outside New York, Charlestown, and Savannah, the whole country was under the control of the colonists, and Charlestown and Savannah were forthwith evacuated. But in the wider maritime conflict Yorktown was an incentive at to Britain's enemies to continue, rather than an occasion to withdraw. In 1780 Russia, Denmark, Sweden, and Holland formed an Armed Neutrality to protect neutral shipping against the right of search which Great Britain claimed and exercised during the colonial war. Not until 1856, in the Declaration of Paris, did Great Britain accede to the principle " that Free ships make free goods," excepting contraband of war. Holland suffered greatly in the war and temporarily lost the valuable island of St. Eustatius in the West Indies. France also lost the island of St. Lucia. But Great Britain's losses in that region were much greater, and included every one of her possessions in the Antilles except Jamaica, Barba- and Antigua, The defeat of the French fleet by Rodney Dominica in 1782 disappointed France's hopes of obtaining Jamaica and restored the maritime predominance of Great Britain in those waters. In India also the French took the dos, off opportunity to attempt the destruction of British power. While the Marathas threatened Bombay, Haidar Ali of Mysore strove to make himself the chief power in the south, and de Suffren, the ablest French sailor of the period, was active in the Indian Seas. The defeat of Haidar Ali at Porto Novo (1781) by the veteran Sir Eyre Coote, and the firmness of Warren Hastings, enabled Great Britain attempt to avenge her losses of to survive France's twenty years before. Spain, who had gained Minorca, realised her inability to recapture Gibraltar. The relief of that fortress in 1782, and the defeat of the French fleet in the West Indies in the same year, disposed the allies to peace, and terms were ratified by the Treaty of Versailles in 1783. To the Americans Great Britain conceded the independence which their leading statesmen had declared to be far from their thoughts a few years before, but which their struggle with the mother country and her inability to coerce them ^ 224 had made Short History of Europe inevitable. colonies to be " free, The treaty recognised the and independent sovereign, thirteen states," " and renounced on the part of Great Britain all claim to the and territorial rights of the same and government, propriety, every part thereof." The Mississippi was constituted their western boundary. Great Britain retaining navigable rights In other words, the Americans received on the great river. from the mistress of Canada possession of the region which had been the chief bone of contention between themselves and French Canada earlier in the century. The new territory was rapidly developed, and upon it by the middle of the nineteenth century nine new states (Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Michigan, and Wisconsin) were added to the Union. The Americans also were admitted to the Newfoundland and other fisheries. Six years later a federal constitution came into force, and Washington became the first president of the United States of America (1789). The claim of Great Britain for compensation on behalf of the American loyalists was abandoned. The irreconcilables among the latter 60,000 in number, it is said —preferred — to emigrate into Canada, Nova Scotia, and other British territory, and the mother country herself provided about ^4, 000, 000 in their behalf. So far as territorial gains are concerned, the war improved In addition to St. France's position in the New World. Lucia, which was restored to her, she received Tobago, and her possession of St. Pierre and Miquelon Islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence was confirmed. In Africa she received Goree and Senegal. In India she regained possession of Pondicherry and other places of which the war had deprived her. Spain, disappointed of Gibraltar, was permitted to retain Minorca, and regained the peninsula of Florida, or East Florida, which she had ceded to Great Britain in 1763. She continued to maintain her rights to West Florida, being that part of the old French colony of Louisiana which lay to the west of the Mississippi, but in 181 9 sold both Floridas to the United States. For nearly one hundred years, until the revived imperialism which Lord Beaconsfield fostered, the issue of the American War of Independence bred a feeling of pessimism in Great Britain and elsewhere regarding the relation of colonies to- The American War of Independence 225 wards the countries from whence they had sprung. The action of the Americans was regarded as the normal rule of colonial development, and men were impressed by the image of colonies as fruit which falls away naturally from the parent tree directly it is mature. But these reflections have long since been abandoned. It is admitted now that in the regulation of their commerce, and in the political measures by which Great Britain sought to bind them to her interests, the mother country was the cause of her own misfortune. And she was wise enough to understand and apply the lesson. For the war doomed the mercantile system which Great Britain had adopted in common with her neighbours, and helped to establish broader and saner ideas as to the proper administrative relations between Europe and her colonies. Nor did that lesson exhaust the effect of the war. Though she retained her great possessions in the East Indies, Holland's losses in the war completed her decline. On Spain also the for the lessons of the American revolt were war reacted applied by her own colonies at a later time. But the greatest and immediate effect of the war was upon ; and through France upon Europe. The French and Rousseau set men thinking and talking on the rights of man, the sovereignty of the people, and the inequalities of class privilege, while the issue of Thomas Paine's Common Sense in America on the France, writers Montesquieu, Voltaire, eve of the revolt did much to stimulate the colonists to Confronted by privilege and corruption, with resistance. her society still based upon an antique feudalism, and amid patent signs of administrative incompetence and national bankruptcy, France seized the watchwords of her American ally, and used them to demolish a system incomparably worse. II.— Q CHAPTER XIII THE FRENCH REVOLUTION Following the American Revolution, the more awful upheaval France was the outcome of a literary movement acting upon material wrongs. In the eighteenth century an intellectual stirring moved Europe, and especially France, which is com- in parable to, as it was also the corollary of, the Renaissance. Its general features were those of its predecessor hostility to established ideas, political, ecclesiastical, social, and economic. It was negative or destructive rather than constructive in its conclusions, and owed much to the philosophy of the English thinkers of the previous century. For in England the impetus of the Renaissance carried conclusions more advanced than those reached elsewhere, and the Puritan rebellion established conditions of liberty and toleration which made her the envy of her neighbours and her constitution the object of their admiring study. In his writings John Locke (1632 -1704) expounded the principles on which her polity was based, and from them the French philosophers of the eighteenth century drew their inspiration. He was in fact the founder of : analytical philosophy. In the eighteenth century French speculative literature Though her philosophers did not actually cause the Revolution, they hastened its outbreak and eased its course by their ruthless analysis of the social and political Pre-eminent among those whose writings gave situation. confidence to the assailants of the old order were Charles de Secondat de La Brede de Montesquieu (i 689-1 755), Fran9oisMarie Arouet, better known as Voltaire (i 694-1 788), and Jean- was pre-eminent. Jacques Rousseau (1712-78), as well as the French Encycloand Economists. pedists Montesquieu published anonymously his first satirical on society, the Persian Letters {Lettres persanes), reflections 226 The French Revolution 227 achieved a reputation which gained him ad1 72 1, and mission to the French Academy a few years later. Travels in England, Germany, and Italy prepared him for the publication in The Spirit of the Laws [Esprit des influence which it exerted that it was the So profound lois). an historical has been described as " more than a book In it Montesquieu attempted a systematic landmark." analysis of the different forms of government and the principles on which they rest. His investigation convinced him that the in 1748 of his chief work. ; and well-being c*! its forces within it, the moving subjects legislature, executive, and judiciary, shall be distinct and independent, as in the English constitution, which had his admiration. The condition was wanting in the French constitution as Richelieu and the Bourbon kings had fashioned of the old order it, and Montesquieu supposed that the evils could be remedied only by placing the executive and administrative functions of the monarchy under the control and supervision of the people in a legislative Assembly. His stability of the State and the demand that the liberty three conclusions were adopted in the French Constitution of 1791. Voltaire had already published (1734) in his Letters on the English [Lettres philosophiques sur I'Angleterre) his praise of the constitution which Montesquieu held up as a model to his countrymen. The work was the fruit of three years' exile (1726-29) in England, and was the first indictment of the ancien regime in France by the French Philosophers. Captivated by the freedom of action and speech which he found in England, Montesquieu defined the function of government to be the carrying out of the will of the community declared in legislation for which it was collectively responsible through representatives. But his witty and mordant pen Of the Church restricted to constitutional abuses. was not and its pretensions he was the bitterest opponent, and his enmity led him to adopt atheistical opinions, which the Revolution its encouraged later. To intolerant ignorance in all its manifestations he was a stern enemy, and if he wrote in the spirit of a was the greater through the genius which enabled him to put into concrete form the thoughts of the ordinary man, and to impale with ridicule or scorn the abuses of which the latter was conscious, but which he could not diagnose unaided. brilliant journalist, his influence j A 22 8 Short History of Europe Rousseau, chief of the " SentimentaUsts," exercised an inand was wider than that of either Montesquieu or Voltaire. Unlike them, he belonged by birth to the people his father was a watchmaker at Geneva. While they aimed at reforming society, Rousseau was a revolutionary. Profoundly convinced that the social and political order around him was hopelessly at fault, and that the inequalities of birth, opportunity, wealth, and influence were the consequence of wrong ideas and systems, Rousseau applied himself to the solution in his Discourse on the Origin of Inequality {Discours sur Vorigine et les fondements de I'inegalite) (1753) and in his masterpiece, the Social Contract fluence which differed from — {Contrat He and popularised, as early chapter in the society, a sort of golden age, to which society (1762). social) pictured Hobbes and Locke before him, an history of human needed again to conform. Rousseau's later judgment rejected this unhistorical speculation, but it exercised great influence upon the ignorant and miserable victims of the order which Rousseau In his later and most famous work he Hobbes and Locke, that the sanction of sovereignty was derived from an original compact or contract in which the community had voluntarily and in its own concluded, assailed. like conveyed powers to the sovereign. In other words, if it did not sovereignty was a trust conferred by the people rest on the consent of the people, it was void, and if it did not continue true to its trust and duty, it was liable to be withdrawn. Rousseau's contention was a direct challenge to the existing order in France for it negatived the alleged divine right on which it was founded. Further, in protest against the hopeless misery of the vast majority of Frenchmen, Rousseau taught that the well-being of the governed is the end and justification of government that the will of the greatest number ought to prevail, and the government itself to rest on the widest democratic basis. Rousseau was passionately read, and planted deep the principle on which the Revolution took its stand the sovereignty of the people. interests ; ; ; — The famous Encyclopedia began to appear in 175T, and was completed more than twenty years later. It was described " by its promoters" as a dictionary of the sciences, arts, and trades," and a conspectus of human thought." Its contributors were invited, as it were, to re-edit human know- The French Revolution 2I9 ledge, and the supervision of the work was entrusted to Diderot, a philosopher, and d'Alembert, a mathematician. Voltaire, Montesquieu, Buffon the great naturalist, Turgot, Necker, and other leaders of the intellectual movement which was It examined stirring France were contributors to it. with fearless analysis the political, religious, social, and economic situation. Of equal influence was the scientific spirit and method which it inculcated. It demonstrated the need to investigate and the value of facts, and focussed a critical and instructed lens upon the evils that were prevalent. The contributors to the Encyclopedia included writers whose views revolutionised established ideas regarding wealth and industry. Among them was Quesnay, Madame de Pompadour's physician, whose Physiocratie or The Government of " Nature caused his followers to be known as Physiocrats." Like Adam Smith, whose Wealth of Nations was published in 1776, they investigated the conditions of industry, the relations of capital and labour, the sources of national wealth, the conditions most favourable to its development, and rejected the restrictive or protective system which had survived the Middle Ages. It was a contemporary of Quesnay who is said to have been the first to express in the formula laisser faire et laisser alter the principle of non-interference guided the new era of free trade. which Though the writers of the eighteenth century exercised a great influence on its development, the fundamental causes of the French Revolution were political, economic, and social French society in the eighteenth century comabuses. prehended three separate orders or classes, the Clergy, the Noblesse or Nobility, and the Third Estate or commonalty. Since the end of the seventeenth century the population of France had doubled, owing to natural increase and to the expansion of French territory. On the eve of the Revolution it stood at about 25,000,000. Of that number, about half a " " that is, million, 2 per cent of the whole, were privileged enjoyed rights which set them apart from the other 98 per cent of the population at whose expense their privileges existed. The privileged people were the nobility, the clergy, and a small section of the middle or professional class holding public posts which conferred the status of nobility. They were exempt from taxation, or contributed disproportionately to it. — A 230 Short History of Europe The army, diplomatic service, and the court were exclusively open to them. The Clergy, the first of the three orders in right of their regulars, or members spiritual functions, were of two kinds of the religious orders (of both sexes), and seculars, or parochial Their total number was under 200,000. The Church clergy. controlled enormous wealth for it possessed one-fifth or more of the soil, and its annual revenue was about half of that of the State at the accession of Louis XVI. The greater part of it was the perquisite of the upper hierarchy of the Church, whose members were drawn from the nobility. The incomes of the 134 archbishops and bishops of the French Church varied considerably. Some were able to maintain enormous establishments for instance, the bishop of Strassburg had a revenue of about ^^25,000 a year, and kept nearly two hundred horses in his stables. The lower clergy, on the other hand, were poorly paid, and were chiefly drawn fromtthe Third Estate, whose privations they shared. Like it, they contributed " " to out of proportion to their means to the Church's gifts the State, and their wretched lot caused them to view the Revolution with a friendly eye. About two-fifths of the total revenue of the Church was drawn from the peasant cultivators of the soil in the form of tithes, which were the more grudgingly paid in that they often went to distant cathedrals and abbeys instead of to the ill-paid parish priest. The French Church did little to discharge the obligations which its wealth and Save among its parochial clergy position imposed upon it. secularism was rampant. Its upper hierarchy were courtiers and owed their appointment to the Crown, in whose hand (Concordat of 15 16) the patronage of the Church lay. The religious orders were no longer a spiritual or intellectual force, and their membership was declining. The Second Estate, the Noblesse, differed in material points In England the Crown, the from the English nobility. fountain of honour, alone can raise an individual from the : ; ; commoner to that of noble, whereas France possessed In France, nobility which was also hereditary. smaller landowners or country the included the noblesse again, gentry, who in England are commoners. Though some of the status of an official French nobles were very rich, the majority of them were poor, with little revenue beyond what their feudal or seignorial The French Revolution 231 As a class they were unpopular because they stood apart from the nation. The haute noblesse were with the king at Versailles, and visited their property only when they needed to retrench or were in disgrace at court. rights brought them. The poorer nobles spent their lives in their country chdieaux, but poverty prevented them from endearing themselves to their peasants. They could not mend their fortunes by a wealthy marriage for they might not mate with the bourgeois. Though the fury of the Revolution fell upon their order, it was not due to an exceptional average of wrong-doing. Their pride of caste was provocative. Their proprietary rights were As a class irritating and checked agricultural development. they occupied no distinctive niche in the public economy. The bureaucratic government of the crown deprived them of political influence, and caste forbade them to pursue useful ; careers in trade and other spheres of public activity. Their ranks were also divided and their downfall was the easier. The French nobility was of two classes. The " nobility of " the sword {noblesse d'epee) included the grande noblesse, or court nobility, in attendance upon the king at Versailles, and Both were of the petite noblesse, or provincial nobility. " ancient lineage, and looked down upon the nobility of the " robe {noblesse de robe), whose status was derived from particular offices held in the service of the State. About 4000 judicial and administrative posts in the Parliaments, Sovereign Courts, and Public Departments conferred nobility upon their holders, were openly sold, and subject to the payment of a tax were hereditary in the family of the purchaser. Drawn chiefly from the well-to-do bourgeois families, the nobility of the robe were looked down upon by those of the sword, and in their turn viewed the Third Estate with disdain. The Third Estate drew its membership from town and country. But numerically urban members were so inand the rural or peasant its significant that the Third Estate population of France may be held synonymous. It included ranks twenty out of every twenty-five persons in France, or twenty of the twenty-five millions of the French On that ground alone there was justice and population. " What is the Third Estate ? moderation in a brochure of 1789 so far ? What has it been What Everything Nothing To become something " The bourgeois does it want ? within its : ! ! ! 232 A Short History of Europe section of the Third Estate represented the professional and commercial class. The lawyers, who played a leading part in the Revolution, and well-to-do men of business belonged In fact, the Third Estate held much of the soil France, possessed nearly all the capital, and looked with wrath and contempt on a government which so wofuUy mismanaged the national finances. It may be likened to the English middle class, and as was the case in the Puritan rebellion, the leaders of the French Revolution, with a few to it. of exceptions (Mirabeau and Lafayette), came from it. The rural population of France not only formed the bulk of the Third Estate, but represented about four-fifths of the whole population of the country, or in figures, about 20,000,000 out of 25,000,000. Though some of them were still in a condition of serfdom, and some were agricultural labourers working for a wage, by far the greater number of the peasants were proprietors of the soil. It has been computed that while the Crown, the Church, and the nobility each held about one-fifth of the land, the Third Estate (practically the peasants) were actual or part owners of two-fifths of it. Seeing that both the taille and the tithe were drawn from the land it is clear how concerned the peasants were in the unfair incidence of taxation. Outside the comparatively small number of those who were still in a state of serfdom, the peasant population of France contained (i) wage-earning labourers, (2) freeholders owning small farms, and (3) metayers, that is, peasant farmers working their land on capital advanced in part by their seigneurs, to whom a portion of the produce was due. Of the three classes, the first and the second were not numerous for wage-earning labourers were not needed on small farms, and large farms ; were only found in Normandy, Picardy, Artois, Flanders, and the old duchy of France. Nor were peasant proprietors Out of the whole farming their own freehold numerous. number of peasant proprietors possibly seven out of eight were metayers. The metayers and small proprietors were the first to rise against the seigneurs. For the latter, taking advantage of the peasants' desire to acquire land, did not sell the outright possession or freehold of it to them, but conditioned their tenure with the perpetual payment of a rent charge, and the rendering of services which had been customary under the The French Revolution 233 manorial system. These services pressed irritatingly upon the The corvee gave the peasants, and were of many kinds. seigneur the peasants' labour without pay at certain seasons. Champart, or field-rent, the seigneur's tithe, had to be paid before the crop could be carried. The hanalites were dues which the seigneur exacted for the use of his mill, his wine-press, and his oven, to which the peasant was compelled to take his corn to be ground, his grapes to be pressed, and his bread to be baked. The peages were tolls which the seigneur exacted for the use of his roads and rivers. The droit de chasse reserved to him exclusively the hunting and destruction of game, no matter what damage it might do to the peasants' crops. The droit de colomhier permitted his pigeons to feed in the peasants' cornfields. When the king's demands had also been satisfied by the payment of direct taxes, it has been computed that out of 100 francs of revenue the peasant farmer retained for his own use little more than 18 francs. Out of that meagre residue he still had to pay the salt and other indirect Such a system, besides the misery it caused, gave taxes. little encouragement to agricultural development, and it is probable that the average yield of the land in France compared with that of England was in the proportion of 3 to 8, or less than one-half. At the same time the peasantry had no reserves behind them, and exceptional seasons weighed hardly upon them. Owing to the bad harvest of 1788, and the severity of the succeeding winter, misery was very prevalent. To social and economic evils France added bad government and suicidal finance. Her government was an absolute monarchy. One man was her master, and the administration was so over-centralised that stagnation and inaction were inevitable. There was no representative body save the States General, which met only at the king's bidding, and had not been convoked since 161 4. Deprived of protection against also without the protection of common law. Lettres de cachet, or warrants under the privy seal, sufficed to send those who incurred the Crown's displeasure to prison without cause shown. There was no Habeas Corpus Act, as in England, to compel the crown to bring the accused to trial. The administrative capital of France was the great palace of Versailles which Louis XIV built ten miles out of Paris. arbitrary government, Frenchmen were ^ 234 Short History of Europe Here the king held the most magnificent and luxurious court in Europe, where were congregated nearly 20,000 persons, courtiers, members of the royal households, civil and military. In the royal mews were nearly 1900 horses and over 200 Every year some ;^4,ooo,ooo were drawn from carriages. the public revenue for the support of this imposing but wasteful The administration was conducted by the magnificence. Royal Council, in which the king was assisted by the Chancellor or Keeper of the Seals, the Controller-General of Finances, the four Secretaries of State (Royal Household, Foreign Affairs, War, Navy), and a number of other Councillors without portCommittees of the Council were charged with the folio. particular supervision of foreign affairs, provincial business, finance and commerce, and war. The Council had far more work than it could perform for the simplest detail of local administration required its consideration, and it also exercised appellate jurisdiction over the courts of law. While the multiplicity of business made it impossible for the Royal Council to adequately superintend the interests of the nation, the provincial administration was chaotic. The French kingdom had attained to political unity by the absorption of the great fiefs into the royal domain, and by the annexation of neighbouring territory. Originally the French fiefs but on the eve or provinces possessed Estates of their own of the Revolution only two of them survived to exercise any The early those of Brittany and Languedoc. real power as the French of the monarchy independent French practice fiefs fell to it was to divide them into hailliages and senechaussees, each administered by a bailli or senechal, a royal This method of provincial administration became official. obsolete, and was eventually superseded by the institution of gouvernements or Governments, which corresponded to the They numbered original fiefs or provinces of the kingdom. forty at the time of the Revolution, and provided sinecure For offices as governors for members of the hauie noblesse. administrative purposes they had been superseded by a new unit of local government which Richelieu created, the ; ; — generalite, of which there were thirty-six, named usually after the principal town within them, and administered by Intendants who were the executive agents of the bureaucracy at Versailles. But apart from the fact that the Inten- The French Revolution 235 dants were the servants of the same authority, there was no uniformity in the provincial Governments. Weights and measures, usages, fiscal regulations, even the laws themselves varied, while bureaucratic government sapped local initiative and progress. The French judicial system before the Revolution was There are said to have been not less than 360 legal chaotic. The systems in force in different parts of the kingdom. Royal Courts were of three degrees (i) Parlements, (2) presidiaux, and (3) courts of bailliages and senechaussees. The Parlements, of which that of Paris was the most important, were thirteen in number, namely, those of Paris, Toulouse, Grenoble, Bordeaux, Dijon, Rouen, Aix, Rennes, Pau, Metz, Douai, Nancy, and Besan9on. They were more than law courts since they claimed the privilege to register, and — therefore by implication to reject, royal edicts. As courts law they were sovereign courts from which there was no appeal, though the Royal Council did not scruple to revise or quash their decisions. The presidiaux, or presidial courts, 102 in number, had been instituted in 1551 by Henry II, partly as courts of appeal from lesser jurisdictions. They exercised Below them were the courts of civil and criminal powers. bailliages and senichaussees, which had been originally instituted to maintain the royal authority over the king's great feudatories. At the period of the Revolution they still of acted as courts of appeal over non-royal or feudal courts, of which an enormous number existed. In all the Royal Courts the magistrates were proprietaires of their offices, either as the heirs of their fathers in the same office or as purchasers of them from the Crown. The legal code was ferocious, though not more so than elsewhere, in its treatment of comparatively venial offences, especially those against property. In its administration it was partial for the nobles were exempt from certain punishments to which commoners were liable. That the financial system of France before the Revolution involved the country in hopeless insolvency was almost the ; The public debt increased between and the Revolution only fifteen years by 3,260,000,000 francs, or more than ;^i30,ooo,ooo. Payment of the interest upon it absorbed half of the annual revenue, and when that was paid there remained a quite inof least Louis its XVI 's — evils. accession — 236 A Short History of Europe adequate sum to meet the expense of the pubUc service. The extravagance of the monarchy since Francis I, and a hopelessly unsound system of finance, brought the country within for with her national credit exhausted sight of national ruin the maintenance of France's position as a great Power was im; possible. The direct taxes were the taille, or property tax, capitation The taille, in some districts a or poll tax, and vingtieme tax on land, but generally on personal property, was fixed annually as to its amount by the Royal Council, except in the pays d'etats, whose local assemblies voted the sum demanded by the Council. Elsewhere, in the pays d'elections, so-called . from fiscal officials known as elus (though they had long ceased to be elected), the amount of the taille to be raised in each generalite was divided among the several districts or The sum allotted to each election was apelections in it. portioned by the elus among the parishes in it, and finally among the inhabitants of each parish. The privileged classes were exempt from it, and the proportion of the taille allotted to each individual was determined by his presumed wealth. Hence the tax encouraged a low standard of living, and for prosperity invited increased taxadiscouraged industry The capitation, or poll-tax on the head of each housetion. hold, was instituted by Louis XIV in 1695 as a war-tax, but was retained as a source of regular revenue until 1791. For its assessment the whole community was grouped in classes on the basis of social status, the amount of tax varying The vingtieme was first imposed at the beginning in each. of the eighteenth century (1710), and was increased in amount until it represented about one-sixth of the payer's income. Both the capitation and the vingtidme fell chiefly upon the for the clergy and nobility evaded or lessened Third Estate the imposts as affecting themselves, while the clergy claimed that the free gift, don gratuit, voted by them every five years, ; ; them from both capitation and vingtidme. Indirect taxation assumed many shapes. The aides were an excise upon wines and other commodities. The traites, transit dues or customs, were levied by noble, clerical, and released municipal owners upon goods passing over their territory. The most oppressive tax was the gabelle, or salt-tax. The sale of salt was a government monopoly, and from eight upwards, The French Revolution 237 every individual was compelled to purchase a large and specified amount indictable of it offence. {sel du devoir). Persons Failure to do so was an to buy who had not money bread were actually punished for not buying salt. The aide on wine was equally arbitrary. Every family, irrespective of its size, was of&cially limited to the consumption of a fixed An excess of that quantity, known as quantity of wine. le trop bu, could only be indulged in by paying a special tax, on the ground that the extra wine could be required only for clandestine sale. The iniquity of the aides and gahelle was increased by the fact that they were sold to and levied by fermiers who bought the privilege. It was a further aggravation that the incidence of taxation was not uniform, and that one parish might be exempt from burdens which pressed heavily on its neighbours. The conclusion of the Seven Years' War left in France bitter feelings against Great Britain, who had deprived her of and inflicted upon her a humiliating peace in India. Canada To be avenged was the absorbing hope of the due de Choiseul, who became Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in 1758, and remained in power for more than ten years. The army and navy were reorganised and strengthened. In marked contrast to the policy which Great Britain pursued towards her colonies, Choiseul fostered the trade of the French West Indies. To balance Great Britain's possessions in the Mediterranean he purchased Corsica from Genoa (1768), and acquired the duchy of Lorraine (1766) in accordance with the Treaty With Spain and the Bourbon princes in of Vienna of 1735. " " Family Compact Naples and Parma he concluded the (1761), which bore fruit eighteen years later, when Spain came into line with France as the ally of the Americans. Choiseul's domestic administration is memorable chiefly for the suppression of the Jesuits and their expulsion from The enormous political influence exerted by the France. Order made it the object of fear and suspicion. The Philoit. The merchants were open engagement in trade. Even the papacy under Benedict XIV rebuked (1741) its secular interests. A suit against it before the Paris Parlement gave opportunity to examine its constitution, and its General's declaration, that the Order would remain as it was or not at all, forced sophers directed their criticism upon jealous of its 238 A Short History of Europe the Government's hand. In 1764 it was forbidden to exist any longer in France. A similar fate befell it in Portugal and other Catholic countries, and in 1773 the Order was abolished by the Pope. It was restored in 18 14. Within a few years of the suppression of the Jesuits the Paris Parlement also succumbed to the royal displeasure. In the absence of any representative body it had criticised the Crown's policy, and in 1 77 1 both it and the twelve provincial Parlements were suppressed. In 1774 Louis XVI succeeded his grandfather on the throne. only twenty, untrained to the responsibilities which he inherited, a keen sportsman, a weak character, without confidence in his own judgment, and at the most critical period of his reign dependent for counsel on his wife, Marie Antoinette, the daughter of Maria Theresa, unpopular among her subjects as one of the nation whose alliance had cost France so dear, He was pleasure-loving and frivolous, and wantonly extravagant. The and relief at his death gave his unpopularity of Louis successor at first the loyalty of the nation. On the advice of the comte de Maurepas, who courted popularity, he restored the Parlements, a step which, though it pleased those who regarded the Parlements as the champions of liberty, was For they represented the privileged orders and unwise. opposed the urgent reforms by which Turgot and Necker sought to fend off the great upheaval. XV Louis's reign opened with a serious but short-lived effort to evils which were sapping the life of France. But after the dismissal of Turgot in 1776, France's injudicious participation in the American war and the reckless finance of cope with the crisis which made the Revolution inTurgot, whom Louis first of all appointed Minister of Marine and then Controller-General of Finances, was a native of Normandy, under fifty years old, and lately Intendant of the Limousin. He was a disciple of Quesnay, the founder of the Physiocrats, had made a deep study of economic With subjects, and was a contributor to the Encyclopedia. the Physiocrats he believed that the fewer the restrictions on production and distribution the greater the prosperity of the community. With them also he held that the land was the ultimate source of wealth, and therefore advocated a general land-tax in place of indirect taxation. Faced with a large Calonne produced a evitable. The French Revolution 239 deficit in the annual balance-sheet, and determined neither to impose new taxes nor to raise money by ruinous borrowing, Turgot drew upon himself the unpopularity of the Court by ruthlessly cutting down the expenses of the king's civil and miUtary households. Economies were effected in other branches of the public service, and though he held office for only two years, Turgot wiped off a budget deficit of 22,000,000 livres and enormously strengthened the public credit. Nor did he fail to put into practice the theories of his economic school. Under the established system the sale of corn was closely restricted, with the object of keeping the corn in the country and of ensuring food for the people. But the regulations made the country and caused on great hardship in grain, imported dependent bad seasons. In 1774 Turgot abolished restrictions upon the sale and circulation of corn within France. He also removed restrictions on the sale of wine. Though he did not do away with the wasteful system, Turgot reformed some of the abuses which attended the practice of farming-out the taxes, and refused the heavy bribe from the Farmers-General which his predecessors had regarded as their perquisite. His activity extended into every department of public life, and in the last year of his administration (1776) he introduced two measures which were only carried by compulsion in the Paris Parlement actually discouraged the growing of corn, . suppressed the privileges of the trade guilds and rescued industry from the shackling conditions which those Henceforward every survivals of medievalism imposed. man was free to labour in his own way at his trade, and a great The first upon individual initiative and individual progress was removed. Turgot also mitigated the hardships of the corvee by compelling all proprietors, whether privileged or not, to pay for the upkeep of the roads, instead of maintaining them by forced labour. Turgot's reforms roused much opposition against him among the courtiers and the privileged classes. The clergy disliked him for the unorthodoxy of his opinions (he had given up a projected career in the Church on conscientious grounds), and for his desire to mitigate the laws which pressed so hardly on the Protestants. Marie Antoinette also threw her in" fluence into the scale against the minister. Myself and M. " are on one the only friends said the occasion, king Turgot," restraint A 240 Short History of Europe the people have." Malesherbes, Secretary of the Royal In Household, shared Turgot's unpopularity at Court. sympathy with the Philosophers he had advocated the impartial incidence of taxation, and endeavoured to abolish leitres de cachet and to secure better treatment for the ProtesHis resignation was followed by the dismissal of tants. Turgot himself. reflecting A forged letter which represented upon the king and queen influenced Louis him as to sanction the dismissal of the greatest Controller-General of Finances Had he been supported by Louis, France might have been spared the horrors of the Revolution, Turgot's fall was followed by the revival of the corvee and the withdrawal of his edicts freeing the corn trade and industrial labour. After an interval his place at the Treasury was taken by Necker, a Protestant and a banker, and like Rousseau, a native of Geneva. He was a man of great wealth, and was known already to the French Government by his As a foreigner financial transactions with the Treasury. and a Protestant he was debarred from the actual title of Controller-General, and was appointed instead DirectorGeneral of Finances. Necker saw as clearly as Turgot the need of economy, scrutinised and reduced the expenditure of since Colbert. the court, limited the number of pensioners who battened upon the Court, and made an effort to check the ruinous waste involved in the farming of the public revenues by reducing the number of Farmers-General. He took the aides under the direct collection of the Treasury and introduced beneficial reforms in the collection of the taille. He abolished the last traces of serfdom upon the royal domains and, following the lead of Turgot, endeavoured to rescue France from her over-centralised bureaucracy by creating four provincial assemblies, representative of the three orders, charged with local powers of administration. Those of Upper Guyenne and Berry alone survived until the Revolution. France's ill-judged enthusiasm for the American cause and her active alliance with the colonists threw the country again into the financial chaos from which Turgot and Necker had The war have cost France nearly begun to draw her. ;^5o,ooo,ooo. Huge sums were borrowed is said to at high interest. Loans were obtained with increasing difficulty, and in 1781, with the permission of Louis, Necker published a statement of The French Revolution 241 the public revenue and expenditure in his famous Compte rendu au roi, in which he succeeded in conveying the false conclusion that the public revenue was in excess of expenditure. The statement restored confidence in financial for there was no means of checking the calculacircles tions of the Treasury, and the publication of the Compte rendu was entirely contrary to precedent. Trade too was expanding, for the American war gave French commerce access to markets hitherto closed against it. But Necker did not benefit by these improving conditions. He completed the estrangement of the courtiers by publishing in his Compte rendu a list of frelons or drones, as a contemporary called them, in receipt of undeserved pensions. His demand that though a Protestant he should be admitted to full cabinet rank caused his fall. In 1781 he resigned, and with him ended the endeavour to introduce economy and business methods into the financial system of the doomed monarchy. After an interval of two years, during which the financial situation went from bad to worse, the Treasury was entrusted to Calonne (1783), whose finance proved to be of the most " he who reckless character. Following the maxim that ; would borrow must appear to be rich," he showered gold upon the court. In a single year and at a cost of 24,000,000 livres Marie Antoinette bought Saint-Cloud and the king Rambouillet, while the king's brothers had their heavy debts paid. Huge sums were borrowed at ruinous interest. But in 1786 the The Treasury was empty save for an insignificant sum. Government's credit was broken, new loans could not be floated, and Calonne was obliged to suspend payment of the The financial system of the old interest due on old ones. With Turgot's regime in fact had collapsed irrevocably. plans to guide him Calonne suggested a general land-tax from which neither the privileged classes nor the Crown lands should be exempt. He also proposed the abolition of the corvee and the substitution of a poll-tax on those who had so far provided forced labour, the revival of Turgot's enlightened provisions freeing the sale and circulation of corn, and the diminution of the burdensome gabelle on salt. That the privileged classes would support proposals which affected them adversely was unlikely, and the Parlement's However, Calonne, adopting the opposition was certain. II.— R 24'2 A Short History of Europe plan of Henry IV, convoked an assembly of Notables to The Notables, in number 142, consisted Versailles in 1787. of princes of the blood, clergy, nobles, members of the royal Councils, judges of the sovereign Courts, and others. Almost exclusively they were drawn from the ranks of those concerned to maintain privilege. The assembly, in which Necker seat, asked for a full statement of the causes of the financial crisis and an explanation of Calonne's demands. It soon became clear that Calonne did not possess the confidence of thelNotables, and that their suspicion of him was shared by theTcountry. Louis therefore dismissed him. Proceedings were threatened against him in the Parlement, and he fled to England. Lomenie de Brienne, archbishop of Toulouse, who succeeded Calonne, drew from the Notables permission to negotiate a loan. But they refused to countenance the new land-tax, objecting that they had no power to lay a tax upon the country. Lafayette, a member of the assembly, even raised a demand for the States General. So the Notables were dissolved. They had done nothing to ease the financial situation. But they had forced the administration for the first time to expose publicly the abuses of the old Hence their abortive session contributed directly regime. to the Revolution. Though the Notables had not sanctioned them, the reforms of Calonne still represented the policy of the Government, and needed the consent of the Parlement. The proposed freedom of trade in corn, the creation of provincial assemblies in the pays d'elections, and the transformation of the corvee into a poll-tax were registered by that body without opposiBut the proposed land-tax and a stamp-tax were in tion. another category, and were only passed compulsorily in a special session or lit de justice (so called from the peculiar chair of state used by the king at such ceremonies). The Parlement protested, afiirming that the States General alone could lay fresh taxes on the people, and was forthwith exiled to Troyes. Rioting broke out in Paris, and the queen was " Madame Deficit." Exile at Troyes proved lampooned as irksome to the Parlement, and Brienne was at his wits' end for means to replenish the Treasury. A compromise was therefore arrived at. Brienne undertook to withdraw the obnoxious stamp-tax and land-tax, and the Parlement agreed Iq had ^a The French Revolution 243 increase the vingtieme. Money was needed immediately, and Brienne resorted to Calonne's expedient of loans. But the fund-holders were now thoroughly enlightened as to the in- security of the Government's credit, and were ripe for any movement which promised better conditions. The Parlement, therefore, anxious to resumed its de justice to keep in line with popular sentiment, Once more Louis held a opposition. force registration of an edict authorising lit a large loan by annual instalments until 1792, when the States General so insistently demanded were promised. The duke " of Orleans, Philippe Egalite," challenged the legality of the "It is legal," was the answer, " because I king's conduct. will it." The provincial Parlements assumed a similar atti- tude, and Brienne proposed to restrict all the thirteen Parlements to judicial functions and to take in hand a much-needed reform of their procedure. Their political function he proposed to transfer to a new Cour pleniere composed of nominated The edicts instituting the change were stoutly dignitaries. resisted in the provincial Parlements, the cry for an immediate assembling of the States General became more insistent, and at length, in 1788, when the Treasury contained only a few thousand pounds, the Government yielded with a promise to summon the States General for May, 1789. Necker was recalled and admitted to the Council. The proceedings against the Parlements were abandoned, and the hopes which filled the nation were expressed by a rise of 30 per cent in the funds. Not since 1614 had the States General met. On that remote occasion the three Estates voted separately, thereby depriving the Third Estate of any influence. The Parlement had no desire to see the Third Estate endowed with greater powers than it possessed in 1614, and therefore, when registering the edict summoning the States General, attached the condition that the precedent of 161 4 should be followed. But by the nation at large the States General was regarded as the harbinger of reform. To allow the privileged orders to rule its constitution and procedure as in 161 4 would doom it to inaction on matters which were most vital. Hence public interest was directed to two questions Was the representation of the Third Estate to be in proportion to its numerical preponderance over the other two ? Were the three Estates to de: A 244 Short History of Europe and vote par ordre or par tete ; that is, Was each individual to vote ? or the Estate to which he belonged ? Leaving the latter question unanswered, Necker early in 1789 issued an ordinance which fixed the total membership of the States liberate General at not less than 1000, and gave to the Third Estate a numerical representation equal to the other two together. On the first Monday in May, 1789, the States General assembled at Versailles and was formally opened by Louis on the following day. The precincts of the palace were selected for its session owing to the desire of the court to avoid the expense and inconvenience of a journey to a profor the danger of meeting in Paris was already vincial town ; patent. The king also was unwilling to suffer any interruption " of his hunting. Hence the palace of Louis XIV became the birthplace of modern democracy, as it afterwards became that " The of the German Empire (Professor F. C. Montague). numbered about twelve hundred persons, of than half represented the Third Estate. As far as was possible the precedent of 161 4 had been followed Paris and a few in the mode of electing the delegates. But other cities were treated as separate constituencies. elsewhere the towns were part of the feudal hailliages and senechaussees which formed the electoral divisions. In each States General whom more The hierarchy, the parish Houses formed the electors of and curates, religious priests, the First Estate. Every noble twenty-five years of age was Estate the franchise was generous. permitted to vote for the representatives of his Order. In the Third Estate every Frenchman twenty-five years old, except such as were paupers or members of the poorest class of labourers, had a vote. The nobles and beneficed clergy in each constituency elected their representatives by direct vote. But the unbeneficed clergy and Third Estate elected delegates or secondary electors, who formally elected the deputies at a divisional assembly of the three Estates held usually in the largest church of the chief town in each In these assemblies each Estate elected its electoral area. allotted number of divisional representatives to the States General, and at the same time drew up a cahier or statement of desired reforms for them to present to that For the States General, like the English Parliament body. at an earlier period, was not a legislating but a petitioning The French Revolution body. The ministers of the crown 245 had no seat in it. The many and fundamental cahiers of the constituencies indicated projects of reform, though the king expected of the States General nothing more than extrication from his financial troubles on the cheapest terms he could obtain. The States General met in the Salle des Menus Plaisirs, a large hall in the neighbourhood of the' palace, used ordinarily for the entertainments of the court. It had been fitted up for the Notables in 1787, and was dismantled in 1790. After a colourless speech from the king and a long financial statement from Necker the three Estates drew apart. As being the most numerous the Third Estate retained the large Salle des Menus Plaisirs, while the other Estates withdrew The fact was important, for the Salle was large and could accommodate spectators, who watched with interest elsewhere. the proceedings of the Third Estate. From the outset the latter shrewdly posed as the representative of the nation and not merely of its own class. The king and Necker had timidly left open the question whether the voting should be par ordre or par tHe. But the Third Estate at once proposed that the preliminary verification of the deputies' commissions should be conducted in joint sessions of the three Orders. By a majority of exactly four to one (188 to 47) the nobles refused the proposal. The clergy, many of whose members were in close sympathy with the Third Estate, defeated the proposal by a narrow majority. Negotiations proved unavailing, and at length the Third Estate proceeded alone to verify the commissions of its members. Having completed " the task, the Third Estate on June 17 declared itself The National Assembly," as representing the majority of the nation. The declaration was the first act in the Revolution. It was followed by a resolution to frame a constitution, and to sanction existing taxation only until the new constitution was set up. The clergy by a bare majority resolved to join the Third Estate, and Louis deemed it necessary to intervene. On June 20 the members of the Third Estate found the Salle des Menus Plaisirs in the occupation of workmen who were repairing it for a royal session. Believing their dissolution to be threatened, the deputies repaired to a neighbouring tennis-court and there bound themselves by oath not to A 246 Short History of Europe separate until the reformed constitution had been estabhshed. Again the king made a futile effort to frustrate the National Assembly. Its members on the following day (June 21) found the tennis-court engaged by the king's brother, the count of Artois. They obtained a new meeting-place in the church of St. Louis, where the majority of the clergy and some of the nobles joined them on the 22nd. The next day (June 23) Louis held a royal session of the three Estates in the Salle des Menus Plaisirs. He annulled the resolution of June " The National Assembly," ordered the 17 constituting Estates to resume their tri-cameral constitution, and invited their co-operation in certain minor reforms. Upon his withdrawal the nobles and most of the clergy left the Hall, but the Third Estate refused to do so. Deprecating the employment of force, Louis gave way, and the Third Estate remained in The king's unprincipled cousin, possession of the Hall. " ifegalite," duke of Orleans, joined them, and was Philip followed, at Louis' own bidding, by the rest of the nobility and the clergy. The old regime died at the moment the crown placed a National Assembly by its side. The latter at once appointed a committee to draft a constitution, and having completed the verification of the credentials of its members, declared itself a Constituent Assembly (July 9). The reactionary influences which surrounded Louis now succeeded in inducing the king to dismiss Necker. To confront the certain opposition which that step would invite, a large force of troops, chiefly foreign regiments in French pay, were drawn round Paris and Versailles under the command of marshal de Broglie, a veteran of the Seven Years' War. The Assembly vainly demanded the withdrawal of the troops, and on July II Necker and four other ministers were dismissed. The news caused consternation in Paris, where the Palais Royal, the residence of the duke of Orleans, was the headquarters of disaffection. Anticipating disturbance in the capital, whose weak municipal council consisted of nominees of the crown, the electors (about three hundred in number) of the Paris representatives of the Third Estate in the government, and took measures for the formation of a volunteer National Guard to overawe the lawless elements in the community, whom famine had driven to rioting in the past winter, and Assembly constituted themselves the civic The French Revolution 147 whose demonstrations had assumed a meeting of the States General. political tone on the Necker's dismissal, the insidious representations of the unscrupulous Orleans, the concentration of the army upon Paris, carried the entirely out of hand. and captured. On and mob July 14 the Bastille was stormed As the prison in which State prisoners were symbolised the old regime itself. Its fall thrilled France and was followed by a general rising of the peasants The king's brother, the count of against the seigneurs. interned it Artois, and other prominent participators Necker fled the country, the first of the emigres. to the storm. in the plot against Louis bowed The regiments were withdrawn, Necker was and on July 17 the king visited Paris, confirmed the municipality, and received at the hands of Lafa^^ette, the commander of the National Guard, the tricolour of white (the royal colour) and red and blue (the colours of the city of Paris), the badge of the Revolution. Throughout the provinces the example 'of Paris was copied and popular municipal councils and National or civic Guards were formed. The law courts ceased to sit, the Ro5^al Council found itself shorn of administrative authority, and the impossibility of getting in the revenue made it difficult to maintain the army, the one institution which stood between the ancien regime and destruction. In the provinces recalled, new the peasantry were already wreaking their vengeance on the seigneurs, and France plunged into the horrors of another Jacquerie. At a memorable meeting on August 4 the Assembly in a fervour of enthusiasm abolished feudal tenures and privileges and vexatious seignorial rights and jurisdictions. With the feudal system fell also the exclusive guilds and other corporations regulating industry in the towns. With reason " the St. Bartholothe famous session was afterwards called mew of property." The more difficult task of replacing what had been destroyed remained to be undertaken. The Assembly concluded the session of August 4 by hailing " the king as the Restorer of French Liberty." But week followed week and Louis gave no indication of his countenance of the revolution which had been accomplished. On October i Paris was inflamed by stories of a banquet which the officers of the royal gardes du corps at Versailles had given to the Flanders regiment lately summoned to reinforce them. It A 248 Short History of Europe was alleged that in the queen's presence the officers had thrown the tricolour on the ground and stamped it under foot. The story no doubt was an exaggeration, and for its dissemination the duke of Orleans was probably responsible. But its consequences were momentous. On October 5 a mob of armed men and women dragging cannon with them marched from Paris to Versailles. Lafayette and the National Guard followed to protect the king and queen from violence. But their precautions proved insufficient. Early next morning the palace was broken into, and the queen was only saved from death by the devotion of the guards who defended her door while she fled to the king's apartment. Lafayette arrived in time to prevent further violence, and at his suggestion Louis showed himself from a window to the people and assented to their demand that he should accompany them back to Paris. Thither the king and queen and royal family " No set out, escorted by the mob and the National Guard. " for we bring back fear of starvation now," shouted the crowd, with us the baker, the baker's wife, and the baker's boy." Thus on October 6 the court abandoned Versailles for ever, and took residence at the Tuileries, the palace built two hundred years earlier for Catharine de' Medici. On October 19 the Assembly also transferred itself to Paris and took up its quarters in the Riding- School {Salle du Manege) of Both king and Assembly had placed themthe Tuileries. selves in the power of the people, who thenceforward directed the Revolution in the path themselves ordained. The Assembly had already voted a Declaration of the Rights of Man (August 27, 1789), following the American precedent, it continued to draft the new constitution. In and at Paris preparation for it the old provincial administrative areas were abolished and France was divided into eighty-three Departments. On July 14, 1790, the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille, it was resolved to consummate the national federation or union, which so far had been the work of royal ambition or conquest, and to establish it on the sanction of a national act. A huge amphitheatre was constructed in the Champ de Mars, in which the Paris National Guards, deputations from the provincial National Guards, and from the army and navy, assembled round an Altar of Liberty erected for the occasion and took an oath of fidelity to the Nation, the The French Revolution 249 But national unity was placed in grave jeopardy by the Assembly's treatment of the Church. Tithes already had been suppressed, robbing the Church of nearly half her revenues. Her landed property also had been declared the possession of the nation, and its sale had been ordered to defray public debts. The religious houses had been suppressed and the formation of new ones was forbidden. And now the " Civil Constitution of the Clergy " was passed by the Assembly. It abolished the old historical dioceses, and attached a single bishop to each of the new Departments. Fanatically devoted to the principle of election, a natural reaction from the long reign of privilege, the Constitution made the ecclesiastical, like the secular, officials of the Department elective. The bishop was to be elected by the electors of the Department and the village priest by the assembly of the local District. Neither bishop nor priest might absent himself from his charge for more than a few days without leave, and their stipends were fixed on a comparatively modest scale. The cathedral chapters were suppressed, and each bishop was required to act with a council of clergy, whose Law, and the King. approval was necessary to validate his acts of jurisdiction. Also, by forbidding the recognition of any metropolitan whose see lay outside the kingdom, the Civil Constitution withdrew the French Church from papal jurisdiction. An oath of acquiescence in the Constitution was required from all clergy and deprivation was the penalty of refusal. Louis reluctantly sanctioned the Constitution (August 27, 1790). But he refused to recognise the conforming clergy, and since in Paris he was able to employ no others, he determined to attend mass on Easter Day (April, 1791) at Saint-Cloud. His journey thither was prevented by a mob which thronged the court of the Tuileries, and Louis resolved to find liberty in On June 20, 1791, the king and queen and their flight. children in disguise set out for the frontier. At Varennes they were arrested and were brought back to Paris. The attempted flight of the king created a new position. Louis left behind him a proclamation in which he retracted his assent to the recent measures of the Assembly. The inevitable inference from his flight was that he hoped to obtain from Austria or elsewhere the military force necessary to coerce that body. Up to that point there had been no sugges- 250 A Short History of Europe tion of abandoning the monarchical principle in the reformed constitution on whose drafting the Assembly was engaged. Even extremists like Robespierre, Marat, and Danton were But the king's flight gave birth to the still monarchists. Republican party, and Danton's Club, the Cordeliers so — — from the Franciscan Convent in which they met clamoured for justice against Louis, le coupable, as they termed him. But the Assembly was not prepared to adopt extreme measures, and contented itself with the suspension of the king's prerogatives until the new constitution was comMeanwhile Louis and his family remained under pleted. Three months later the Assembly in the Tuileries. guard concluded its labours, and on September 14, 1791, Louis accepted the new constitution and swore to maintain it. called A It had unwisely Assembly dissolved. members should not sit in the Legislative Assembly which was to take its place. The Constitution of 1791, after rehearsing the Declaration week later resolved that the its of the Rights of Man, re-enacted the Assembly's measures relating to the abolition of privilege, the new Departmental divisions, municipal organisation, the religious Orders, and It created a Legislative Assembly of 745 other matters. members elected by a body of voters chosen for that duty by " " active citizens the (tax-payers 25 years of age) in each Department. The Legislative was independent of the king in that it was empowered to sit for two years without any danger of prorogation or dissolution at his The king could suspend, but could not veto, its hands. measures were excepted even from The king was constituted the supreme executive official, and so important did it seem to keep the executive and legislature apart, that members of the Assembly were expressly barred from accepting office in the legislation, and financial his suspensory powers. ministry. In the executive, the army, navy, and diplomatic service the king retained his patronage. But the independence and irresponsibility of the crown had gone. An independent legislature confronted it. The National Guard, and to a great extent the army, were independent of it. The judiciary and were now elected bodies, and the power to declare war was withdrawn from the sovereign. With many local authorities defects, the result of inexperience, the Constitution of 1791 The French Revolution 251 at least established the principles for which the reformers had clamoured, though it proved a step towards a conclusion which had been far from their minds. The Constitution of 1791 gave France a limited monarchy. But it endured only until September 21, 1792, less than one year, when the Republic took its place. Causes both internal and external contributed to make the king's position impossible under the new constitution. The application of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy plunged France into disorders in which the king's sympathies, and also his powers, were exercised in favour of the nonconforming clergy. Outside France the attitude of foreign powers and of the French emigres, which culminated in 1 792 in actual invasion of French territory, placed the king in a dangerous position, since it enabled his enemies to represent him as being in league with the invaders of the Fatherland. Hence the king's suspension in August, 1792, the abolition of the monarchy a few weeks later, and the murder of both king and queen in the following of 1789 year. The Legislative Assembly met in the Salle du Manege on October i, 1791. It numbered 745 members, of whom about half were lawyers or journalists. Members of the late Assembly had been expressly excluded from its successor, and the most prominent men, Danton, Marat, and Robespierre had no seat in it. Carefully superintended by the Jacobin Club, the most influential organisation in Paris, and in close touch with about 2000 affiliated branches in the provinces, the elections to the Legislative Assembly had yielded a far larger representation of the extremists than public opinion entitled them to. Even so they formed a minority, though the most efficiently organised party, in the Assembl}^ The Right consisted of Constitutional Royalists, men who were satisfied with the Constitution of 1791. They are known " also as Feuillants," after their Club, which held its meetings in the disused Convent of the Feuillants (an offshoot of the Order of St. " " Bernard). The Left, classed generally as from the Dominican Convent in the Rue St. Honore where the Club met, was opposed to the Constitution of 1 791 and anxious to overthrow it. United at the outset the Left eventually broke into two divisions, Jacobins and " Girondins," the latter so-called from the fact that their Jacobins 252 A Short History of Europe came from Bordeaux, the capital of the Gironde. Centre, or Independents, at first outnumbered both the Right and Left, Feuillants and Jacobins. But alarmed at the growing power of the Jacobins, terrorised by the intrusions of the chief orators The mob, and by the Jacobins' insistence that each member should publicly and individually declare his vote [appel nominal) in the Assembly, the Independents dwindled in numbers and influence. By the express terms of the Constitution of 1791 the Its first Legislative Assembly was incompetent to alter it. activities were directed upon the critical position of the The clerical Civil Constitution was exceedingly country. devout Catholic laity, and French emigres had greatly number since the king's brother, the count of distasteful to the clergy and the resistance to it was general. The increased in Artois, led the way after the fall of the Bastille. The greater part of the officers of the army and navy had joined them, and awaited the opportunity to recross the frontier for the In August, 1791, the Emperor Leopold and Frederick William II of Prussia promulgated the Declaration of Pilnitz announcing their intention to intervene provided the other sovereigns of Europe co-operated with them, a threat not less significant because it was not immediately carried into practice. The Legislative Assembly, in three decrees passed before the end of 1791, sought to meet these dangers. By the first, Louis's brother, the count king's deliverance. II of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII), who made his flight from France at the time of Louis's abortive effort, was bidden to return within two months on pain of losing his By rights as eventual regent to his nephew the Dauphin. a second decree the emigres were ordered to return before the end of the year under penalty of death and confiscation of their property. clergy {pretres A third decree dealt with the non-juring non assermentes), who were bidden to take the oath of acquiescence in the Civil Constitution within eight days or lose their benefices. Louis, who had little cause to be satisfied with their conduct, ordered his brothers to return to France, an injunction which they declined to obey. But he refused, as his enemies had shrewdly calculated, to confirm the Assembly's decrees against the non-juring priests and the He vetoed both measures and laid his action open emigres. to sinister interpretation. The French Revolution With the opening 253 1792 the relations of France and other topics. The death of Leopold II early in the year, and the accession of his inexperienced son Francis II, favoured the adoption of a war policy by Austria. In France also several interests desired war. The Jacobins opposed it, in fear lest a successful campaign might strengthen the king's position. But the Girondins, from whose party Louis had drawn his ministry, favoured war as a means to continue their influence. Lafayette, who had resigned his command of the National Guard and now led one of the French armies in the field, was also anxious for war as a means to strengthen the monarchy and to check the power of the Jacobins. The diplomatic relations between the two countries became increasingly tense, and a peremptory ultimatum from Vienna bidding France put her house in order was followed on April 20, 1792 by 'a formal declaration Austria of overshadowed all j / \ /' ( / / / | •' \ \ war against Austria. The object for which the king's friends advocated war was completely defeated by the disasters which attended its opening. The Jacobins were able to represent to the nation that the king was in league with its enemies, and that treachery on his part could alone account for the reverses which of attended the campaign against Austrian Belgium. In a suspicious mood the Assembly decreed the abolition of the king's guards, the establishment of 20,000 volunteers under the walls of Paris, and the deportation of all priests who had not taken the oath. True to his principles, Louis vetoed the expatriation of the priests and the establishment of the military camp, a proposal which had been made with a view to coerce moderate opinion in the city. His Girondin ministry Louis refused, the besought Louis to withdraw his veto. ministry fell, and from that moment Girondins and Jacobins alike were united in their determination to destroy the Constitution. To that end the insurrectionary leaders organised a popular demonstration for June 20, 1792. An armed mob visited the Assembly, demanded the restoration of the ministry, and gave expression to their distrust of the king. The demonstrators then proceeded to the Tuileries and broke into the apartments of the king and queen, who for hours were subjected to danger and insult without any attempt by those , ; A 254 Short History of Europe The bravery of the king's authority to protect them. and the insult to which he had been subjected, gained him general sympathy throughout the country. Prussia was moved to join Austria, and an allied force crossed the frontier and advanced upon Paris. But its commander did ill-service to Louis by issuing a proclamation threatening all who opposed him with the fate of rebels, and holding Paris responsible for the king's welfare under pain of in bearing, destruction. The insurrectionary party worked openly for the king's downfall. A " Directory of Insurrection " was formed, and under the pretext of commemorating the Federation volunteers were invited to Paris to aid the conspirators to destroy the king. Among them was a contingent from Marseilles, who traversed France singing the song composed by Rouget de Lisle for the Army of the Rhine, which as the Marseillaise became the war-song of the Revolution. On August lo the long-planned attack on the Tuileries took place. The king's Swiss Guard, which had evaded the order for its disbanding, was the only reliable force available for the defence of the palace. It was overpowered by numbers the king and queen and their children sought the Assembly's protection in the Salle du Manege, while the mob pillaged the deserted palace. The revolution of August lo had been deliberately planned by a small but resolute body, of which Danton, an official of the Paris Commune or municipality, was the leader. In the small hours of the loth this body assembled at the Hotel de Ville and declared the Commune dissolved and itself its successor the Commune du lo aoiit. It was the lawless authority of mob rule and terrorism and for the moment ruled the situation. At its bidding the royal family was removed from the Luxembourg Palace, which the Assembly had assigned to it, and was transferred to the Tower or Keep of the Temple, the ancient castle of the Templars until their The subservient Assembly, in which suppression in 13 12. only about one-third of its members dared to record their votes, confirmed the Commune's usurpation of municipal power and enlarged it to nearly 300 members, with whom Robespierre, who had carefully held aloof from the proceedings of August 10, now associated himself. The Assembly also appointed a provisional ministry, in : — The French Revolution 255 which Danton held the portfoho of justice, suspended the king from the exercise of his functions under the Constitution of 1 791, and summoned a National Convention to determine the fate of the monarchy. Also at the bidding of its master the Assembly set up a tribunal, elected by the constituents of the insurrectionary Commune, to try summarily " the enemies of the people." Until the National Convention assembled a month later Danton was the master of Paris, and indeed of France. He used his power to destroy the Moderates and royalists, whom he regarded as enemies of his country. Supported by the ferocious Marat, on the pretext of searching for arms Danton organised a systematic house to house visitation in Paris, and filled the prisons with men and women of the Moderate anti- Jacobin party. The advance of the allies was another incentive to the policy of terrorism which Danton, Marat, and Robespierre favoured v/ith a view to influence the elections for the National Convention. On September 2 the allies made themselves masters of Verdun, and though the news of its fall did not reach Paris until forty-eight hours later, Danton determined to use its investment to goad the mob to the requisite pitch of fury and excitement. On September 2 the tocsin sounded from the Hotel de Ville. A black flag " The Fatherland is in danger " was hung bearing the legend out. Impassioned appeals were made to the mob, while a band of assassins in the pay of the Commune visited the prisons and murdered in cold blood all the prisoners found there, to the number of 1400, of whom not a few were women and boys. Marat urged a similar massacre to be conducted throughout the several Departments, but happily with or comparatively little result. On September 20 the Legislative Assembly, which had been powerless to control the brutality of the Commune, sat for the last time the elections to the National Convention being complete. On the same day the allies' advance was stayed at Valmy and Paris was safe. On September 21 the National Convention held its first meeting in the Salle du Manege. Summoned to give France a new constitution, at its first session it abolished the monarchy and proclaimed the Republic. Three months later Louis XVI was sent to the block (January, 1793), and Marie Antoinette followed ; laim to the guillotine in the autumn (October, 1793). / CHAPTER XIV EUROPE AND THE REVOLUTION France's declaration of war on Austria in April, 1792, was the beginning of a conflict which lasted for twenty- three years, embroiled the whole of Europe, and shook it to its foundations. In the early stages of the Revolution there was no indication that the spirit and policy of Louis XIV were again to disturb Europe. Nor were France's neighbours concerned to intervene between her and, as it seemed, her own act of suicide. But thus early two parties in France desired war. The royalists anticipated from it either the restoration of the king by his Austrian friends, or, in the event of their defeat, an enhancement of the monarchy's prestige sufficient to bring about the same result. The Girondins, who were in power, favoured war as the readiest means by which to maintain their ascendancy. As early as August 4, 1789, Europe was taught that the Revolution was a menace to France's neighbours. For the Assembly's abolition of feudal rights on that date affected the Rhenish Electors, the bishops of Strassburg, Speyer, Basle, and others who possessed feudal rights in Alsace and elsewhere which had been guaranteed when the territories were ceded to France. As early as February, 1790, a protest from them reached the Assembly. Obtaining only vague promises of indemnity the princes possessiones referred their claim to the Diet of the Empire and demanded redress. The Papacy also had a grievance. The county of Venaissin had belonged to it since 1229 and the city of Avignon since 1348. But taking advantage of the disorders which resulted from the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, the Republic annexed the territory and constituted it France's eighty-fourth Department (September, 1791). Before the year 1792 closed the Revolution bred in France a spirit of aggression which called Europe into the 256 Europe and the Revolution field against her. One was to declare (Nov. of the earliest acts of the 257 Convention 1792) France's readiness to extend her help to countries which desired to follow her example, A month later (Dec. 15, 1792) the Convention announced that in every country occupied by its armies, the constitution 19, would be overthrown, the sovereignty of the proclaimed, and nobility, serfdom, and all feudal monopolies be abolished. The confiscation to the French Republic of all property belonging to the people be rights and use of the sovereign, adherents, and any civil and religious corporation in countries so occupied was also threatened, and the Republic's enmity was declared against all who persisted in retaining a monarchy and privileged classes. Nor was the Republic's aggressiveness confined to the cause of liberty and equality. Its statesmen realised that nothing would so firmly establish the Republic as success in war. Hence, while overthrowing the constitution of the ancien regime, the Republic borrowed its foreign policy, and the expansion of France to her " " natural frontiers, in other words the recovery of the boundaries of ancient Gaul, was the object of republican foreign policy as it had been of Richelieu, Mazarin, and his Louis XIV. The grievances of the princes possessiones on the Rhine, the hospitality accorded to the emigres by the Electors of Treves and Mainz, and the fears of an understanding between Louis XVI and the Emperor, caused increasing tension between France and Austria. In answer to the Assembly's protests Leopold announced (November 1791) that he had requested the Elector of Treves to disperse the emigres ; but that should the Elector be attacked, Austrian troops would support him. The Girondin ministry, regarding the reply as unsatisfactory, placed three armies on the frontier, one of them under Lafayette's command, and threatened war unless a satisfactory answer was received from Vienna by March 4, Three days before the ultimatum expired Leopold 1792. His successor, died, and his cautious policy with him. Francis II, the last sovereign of the Holy Roman Empire, was deeply hostile to the anti-monarchical movements in France and concerned in the treatment of his aunt, Marie Antoinette. Leopold had already concluded a treaty with Prussia (Feb., 1792) guaranteeing mutual assistance in case II.— s 258 A Short History of Europe and Francis dispatched an answer to France which demanded the re-estabhshment of the princes possessiones of attack, in their rights, the restoration of Avignon and the Venaissin to the Pope, and the suppression in France of conditions which constituted a menace to the rest of Europe. Five days after the receipt of this message Louis himself in the Assembly read a declaration of war on the King of Hungary and Bohemia, designating Francis by those titles in order to signify that the quarrel was with the head of the House of Habsburg and not with the Empire (x\pril 20, 1792). Though the Revolution seriously affected the organisation, equipment, and discipline of the French army, the war which faced it made at the outset no extraordinary demand on Gustavus III of Sweden, an uncompromising powers. the Revolution, was murdered a few weeks after Leopold's death, and relationship with the Bourbons moved neither Sardinia, Spain, nor Naples to take the field. The Girondin ministry was therefore able to concentrate its attack upon the Austrian Netherlands. But the unsuspected demoralisation of the French armies compelled the abandonment of the invasion, and the Paris mob was thus early " Austrian encouraged to entertain invidious stories of an Committee " at the Tuileries, and to prepare itself for the attack which it delivered on August 10, 1792. Meanwhile an Austro-Prussian army under the Duke of Brunswick crossed the Rhine into Lorraine. On September 2 Verdun fell. It had been hoped that the Argonne, a line of thickly wooded hills giving access to Champagne from the east, would stay the invasion. But on September 13 Brunswick penetrated its defiles. Paris, where Danton and the Commune were directing the September Massacres, was only a week's march distant, and Louis's deliverance from the Temple seemingly Unable to impede the Prussian advance, the imminent. French army was brilliantly guided by Dumouriez to throw itself across the line of Brunswick's retreat and cut his communications. At Valmy, with his back to Paris, Brunswick on September 20 fought an indecisive battle which was converted into a French victory by his resolution to retreat. The German poet Goethe, who was present, predicted that the day would mark the beginning of a new epoch. And indeed on the morrow the French monarchy ceased to exist and the its foe of Europe and the Revolution 259 Year I of the French RepubHc began. A few weeks later Brunswick's army recrossed the frontier. It was in the exhilaration caused by the retreat of the allies that the Convention issued its invitation to other countries to follow France's example, and declared its intention to establish the sovereignty of the people in all countries The invasion of Belgium, whose occupied by its armies. relations with Austria had provoked revolt in the reign of Joseph II and promised encouraging soil for revolutionary propaganda, was resumed. On November 6, 1792, Dumouriez's victory at Jemappes forced the Austrians out of the country, and a body of commissioners headed by Danton hastened from Paris to establish a Belgian Republic on the French pattern. On the same day as the battle of Jemappes, the Convention, obligations, opened the Scheldt and proclaimed Antwerp a free port, a measure which called Great Britain into the arena as a belligerent. With rapid success " " France recovered her natural frontier on the Rhine by her of Worms and Mainz, and early in 1 793 deoccupation Speyer, " " clared them reunited to her. In Italy the Republic's armies in defiance of treaty met with similar success. The county of Savoj' and duchy of Nice were wrested from the king of Sardinia and were formed into the Departments of Mont Blanc and the Maritime Alps. The Convention's declaration of its intention to accord " " *' to all people qui voudront recouvrer fraternite et secours leur liberte," the opening of the Scheldt in violation of treaties, the acquisition of Antwerp, whose position opposite the mouth of the Thames made the port, in Napoleon's words, " a pistol pointed at the heart of England," and the probability of French aggressions in Holland, whom Great Britain was under treaty obligations to defend, were matters in which the British government was vitally concerned. William Pitt warned France (December, 1792) that he could not recognise the opening of the Scheldt, nor suffer her to make herself the sovereign of the Tow Countries, directly or indirectly. He cautioned her that if she desired to retain the friendship of Great Britain "she must show herself disposed to renounce her views of aggression and aggrandisement, and to confine herself within her own territory, without insulting other governments, without disturbing their tranquillity, without violating their rights." Three weeks later, when the news of A 26o Short History of Europe Louis's execution reached London, the French envoy was at once requested to leave the country. On February i, 1793, France declared war on England and Holland, and a few weeks later on Spain. The Papal States, Portugal, and Naples joined the coalition against France, outside which the only neutral countries were Denmark, For two years Sweden, Switzerland, Venice, and Turkey. France withstood the united strength of the First Coalition, but the campaign of 1 793 was marked by general disaster. After defeating Dumouriez at Neerwinden (March) the Austrians The Prussians captured Mainz (July), regained Belgium. reoccupied the left bank of the Rhine, and might once more have set themselves on the march to Paris but for disagreements with Austria in regard to the Polish question. On the south the Spaniards crossed the Pyrenees, and a Piedmontese army invaded Savoy. On the northern frontier an Anglo-Hanoverian force gave siege to Dunkirk, until defeat at Hondschoote (September) caused its withdrawal. As in 1792, the crisis reacted upon the political situation " In June the Mountain," as the Jacobin party was termed (from the lofty seats which it occupied in the Convention, which now met in the Tuileries), acting with the Paris Commune, at length compassed the fall of the Girondins. Throughout the country there was widespread revolt against this further manifestation of mob violence. The assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday (July 13, 1793) was inspired by in Paris. it. A few weeks later Toulon was actually delivered to an Anglo-Spanish fleet by insurgents against the Convention, and was not recovered until the end of the year. The Mountain meanwhile preserved its ascendancy by inaugurating the Marie Antoinette was sent to the block (October, 1793), and also the infamous Philip ligalite, who as a member of the Convention had voted the execution of his cousin the king at the beginning of the year. The massacres continued until Robespierre's tyranny ended with his downfall and execution (10 Thermidor (July 28), 1794). In the war France held her own, and in 1794 the tide of Lord Howe won the victory again set towards her. battle of the First of June over the Brest fleet. But on land the French armies advanced on every hand. A victory at Fleurus (June, 1794) placed France once more in occupation " reign of terror." Europe and the Revolution 261 of Belgium. By the beginning of 1795 the United Provinces submitted. WiUiam V fled to England, and the Stadtholdership was abolished. On the Rhine the French recovered "^their position, and Savoy was delivered from its invaders. The Spaniards were driven across the Pyrenees and their own Her successes country was invaded by a French force. inclined France to peace with a view to consolidating what she had won. In the ranks of the Coalition also there was a Austria and general disinclination to continue the war. Russia came to an agreement regarding the partition of Poland in January, 1795, and Prussia was anxious to be free to promote her own interests in the impending dissolution of her The grand-duke of Tuscany, the Emperor's neighbour. brother, alarmed at the activity of the French Army of Italy, in which Bonaparte was serving as commander of the artillery, was the first to desert the Coalition and made peace in February, In the following April Prussia signed the Treaty of 1795. Basle, which gave France a free hand on the left bank of the Rhine. Holland, proclaimed as the Batavian Republic in 1798, made peace in the following month, and became the ally of France against Great Britain. The death of the unhappy boy Louis XVII in the Temple (June, 1795) removed an impediment in the way of peace and was followed a few weeks later (July, 1795) by a treaty, also signed at Basle, between Spain and France, in which the former surrendered her portion of San Domingo in the Antilles, while France recalled her army from Spanish soil. Before the end of the year Saxony and other German belligerents, Portugal, the Pope, Parma, and Naples made peace. The foes of the Republic narrowed down to Great Britain and Austria. The victories of the Republic were accompanied by the formulation of a new Constitution that of the Year Three (1795), which established the Directory. The experience of the Constituent and Legislative Assemblies and of the Convention had shown that a serious weakness in the republican constitution was the powerlessness of the executive, due to the attempt to control it by a public assembly subjected frequently to mob pressure. Experience also had shown the advantages of a two-chambered legislature, an institution which had not been adopted in 1791 in order to avoid a too slavish copying of the English system. The constitution of ; 262 A Short History of Europe the Year Three (1795) created a Directory of five persons elected by the Legislature, to whom jointly the powers of the executive were confided. The Convention gave place to two Chambers, the Council of Five Hundred, and the Council of Anciens, the latter a sort of revising Senate. The new condition endured until the coup d'etat of 19 Brumaire (November 10), 1799, which established the Consulate. For the campaign of 1796 the Directory prepared elaborate schemes against Great Britain on sea and Austria on land. But the only serious attack upon Great Britain was the expedition which Hoche conducted to Ireland in December. Bad weather and mismanagement defeated the plans of the Similar Directory and the expedition did not even land. demonstrations on the Welsh coast proved equally unavailing. Even the mutinies which disorganised the British fleets at Spithead and the Nore early in 1797 yielded no advantage to France, and Admiral Duncan in that year inflicted a crushing defeat at Camperdown upon France's ally, the Dutch fleet, while Nelson showed his genius in the victory of St. Vincent. Against Austria the plans of the Directory in 1796 contemplated a triple and converging attack. The Army of the Rhine was to advance on Vienna from Strassburg, the Army of the Sambre-et-Meuse from the Rhenish provinces, while the Army of Italy under Bonaparte was to cross the Alps and Neither of the armies in join hands with the other two. Germany achieved success, and the eyes of France were riveted on Bonaparte and a brilliant campaign which began a new era in the history of Italy and laid the foundations of the young general's fortunes. The campaign lasted from April, 1796, to April, 1797, and ranged from the Gulf of Genoa, over the plains of Piedmont and Lombardy, across the Austrian Alps to Leoben, within eighty miles of Vienna, where Bonaparte forced his enemy to agree to preliminaries ^ Operating first in Piedmont, Bonaparte compeace. Victor Amadcus III to accept the armistice of Cherasco, which established the neutrality of the kingdom of of pelled Following the Austrians into Lombardy, Bonaparte the battle of Lodi and entered Milan. The finest pictures from its galleries were sent to France, as well as great sums of money which Bonaparte exacted from the dukes of Modena Sardinia. won Europe and the Revolution 263 and Parma, and the Pope, welcome contributions which Directors to the young general's masterful determination to conduct the war in his own way, and also gained him the enthusiastic admiration of France. Mantua, which commanded the valley of the Adige, the route to Germany, fell after a long siege in February, 1797. The way was open to Vienna, and Bonaparte had advanced as far as Leoben when, on April 18, 1797, he signed preliminaries of peace with Austria. His position was precarious and he was reconciled the ignorant of the Directory's military preparations to support his appearance in The gist of the Germany. Leoben Preliminaries was an understanding that Venice should be sacrificed to Austria in compensation for the latter's surrender to the demands of France elsewhere. Events played into Bonaparte's hands. From the beginning of the Italian campaign the neutrality of Venice had been violated by the French, who had also laid exactions upon the territory of the Republic. Taking advantage of Bonaparte's absence in the Austrian Alps a demonstration against the French took place on Easter Day, 1797, at Verona, in which a number of soldiers and civilians were killed. Similar outbreaks took place elsewhere and furnished Bonaparte with a pretext to carry out his secret designs against Venice. " a second Attila " to the city, Threatening that he would be Bonaparte compelled the Venetians to abandon their oligarchical constitution and to form a Republic. A French force was admitted into the city and an offensive alliance between the two States was concluded. The Treaty of Campo Formio (October, 1797) sealed the fate of Venice and brought the War of the First Coalition to an end. Austria abandoned Belgium and Lombardy (converted by Bonaparte into the Cisalpine Republic, into which the Cispadane Republic Modena, Bologna, Reggio and Ferrara had already been merged), and recognised the Ligurian Republic which Bonaparte had formed in Genoa. France retained Venice's Ionian Isles for herself, gave up to Austria Venice and Venetian territory as far as the Adige, with Istria and Dalmatia, and secured Austria's countenance of her acquisition of the left bank of the Rhine, which the Congress at Rastatt confirmed to her in the following March. Early in 1798, amid scenes of anger and despair, Venice was handed over to her new masters by the French — — A 264 after they had Short History of Europe rifled its arsenals and robbed its galleries of their chief glories. The conclusion of the Treaty of Campo Formio left Great Britain alone confronting the Directory, and on his return from Italy Bonaparte was nominated (February, 1798) to command the Army of England which was designed to repeat Hoche's effort on a larger scale and with more effect. Bonaparte, however, was alive to the great difflculties of the project and to its doubtful chances of success. He had no intention of risking his reputation and had already planned an expedition to Egypt, which would place himself in a picturesque setting and damage Great Britain's position in the Eastern Mediterranean and India. Not unwilling to remove the young and masterful general as far from Paris as possible the Directory sanctioned Bonaparte's scheme, and in May, 1798, disregarding the movements of Nelson and the British fleet, the expedition Malta was seized, the Grand Master having been sailed. bribed in advance, and the fleet anchored safely at Aboukir Bay. Subject to the suzerainty of the Sultan, the masters of Egypt were the Mamelukes, whose power dated from the thirteenth century. Bonaparte posed as the friend of the Egyptian populace against their masters and as the vindicator of the authority of the Sultan, and after winning the Battle of the Pyramids entered Cairo. But almost at the same moment Nelson destroyed the French fleet in Aboukir Bay (the Battle of the Nile) and cut off from Bonaparte the power to retreat. Influenced by Great Britain, Turkey declared war upon France (September, 1798), and Bonaparte forestalled attack by advancing into Syria. He captured Jaffa but Acre, strengthened by the support of Sir Sidney Smith and a British squadron, held out against him. Returning to Egypt he defeated a Turkish force, and a month later ; (August, 1799) with a few officers embarked for France. For two years longer the French army maintained its hold on Egypt. But in 1801 Sir Ralph Abercromby's victory outside Alexandria caused the surrender of the French garrisons there and at Cairo, and the army was conveyed back to France. The exploit had been singularly unsuccessful. Bonaparte's hasty departure from Egypt was caused by the critical situation which had developed in France during his absence in the East. Not content with its gains at Campo Europe and the Revolution 265 Formio and Rastatt, the Directory had embarked upon a pohcy of renewed aggression which rapidly caused a Second Coahtion against France. With repubUcanism firmly seated in northern Italy it was natural that sympathetic aspirations should be stirred in Rome among those who were malcontent with the Pope's temporal rule. Encouraged by the French ambassador at Rome, Bonaparte's brother Joseph, the Roman democrats organised demonstrations at the French Embassy, which caused the intervention of the papal troops and the death of General Duphot, whom Bonaparte had associated with his brother. Joseph Bonaparte refused to accept the apology of the Papal government, a French army was in motion upon Rome, and menaced the city while the democrats within restored the Roman Republic (February, 1798). The aged Pope Pius VI was expelled from Rome and died a year later in the south of France. Equally high-handed was the Directory's treatment of the Cisalpine Republic, which found the liberty guaranteed by the Treaty of Campo put Formio practically annulled, its policy strictly controlled, and its resources utilised for the French Republic (March, At about the same time French intervention, which 1798). had for some time been contemplated, took place in SwitzerThe Confederacy was dissolved and the Helvetic land. Republic was set up in its place, with a constitution modelled on that of the Directory (1798). Three cantons, Bienne, Geneva, and Miihlhausen were annexed to France. The result of these aggressions was the formation of the Second Coalition, which Great Britain organised against France on the grounds on which one hundred years before she had fashioned the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV. The Coalition was joined by Ferdinand IV of Naples, whose Paul of Russia, wife was the sister of Marie Antoinette. who detested the revolutionary regime in France and resented Bonaparte's seizure of Malta, of whose Knightly Order he had recently accepted the title of Protector, threw himself with zest into the Coalition and undertook to send an army into Italy. Turkey also, provoked by Bonaparte's occupation of Egypt, joined the league, to which Austria and other German States gave their support. Encouraged by the news of Nelson's victory of the Nile Ferdinand of Naples rushed His army entered Rome (November, precipitately into war. A 266 Short History of Europe 1798) and forced the French to retire. A fortnight later they reoccupied Rome, and in January, 1799, overran the Neapohtan kingdom. Ferdinand and his wife fled to Sicily on board Nelson's fleet, and Naples was converted into the Parthen- The two remaining independent Italian opean Republic. States, Piedmont and Tuscany, were also occupied by France. Piedmont was conquered without even a pretext being offered. Charles Emmanuel IV abdicated (December, 1798), and took refuge in Sardinia. Tuscany was wantonly attacked, the grand-duke Ferdinand III was deposed, and in March, 1799, the French occupied Florence. Disaster followed swiftly upon these acts of aggression. Russian army under Suvoroff appeared in North Italy in April, 1799, and inflicted heavy defeats at the Adda, Trebia, and Novi upon the French, whose influence in the peninsula was for the moment obliterated. The Cisalpine, Roman, and A Parthenopean Republics collapsed, and Ferdinand of Naples marked his restoration by reprisals of great cruelty against English fleet destroyed the Dutch fleet in the Texel (August, 1799) and an Anglo-Russian force under the duke of York threatened Amsterdam, but in the following October accepted the Convention of Alkmaar and evacuated the country. In Germany a French army directed against Vienna was defeated at Stockach (March, 1799), though France's hold upon Switzerland was maintained by Massena's victory at Zurich (September, 1 799) over a Russian force. Outside Italy, France had recovered from her reverses when in October, 1799, Bonaparte returned from Egypt. But the Directory was unpopular, and Bonaparte readily lent himself and his prestige to overthrow it. On the loth November, 1799 (19th Brumaire), the two Legislative Councils were overawed by military force, and a small body of deputies voted a commission to draw up a constitution. The new constitution had already been drafted by the Director Sieyes. But Bonaparte fashioned it to his own liking. He compelled the creation of a First Consul, with virtually sovereign powers, and took the office himself. To conceal the actual character of his position he approved the appointment of a Second and Third Consul, whose powers were purely From the Consulate to the Empire was a simple advisory. his subjects. transition. An Europe and A the Revolution 267 campaign in 1800 sufficed to demonstrate the and success of France's new government, whose task was the easier by the withdrawal of Russia and of Austria's ablest general, the Archduke Charles. One army was organised to operate against the Austrians in the Rhine Valley. A second was to hold North Italy pending the First Consul's The scheme was planned to arrival with a third army. procure for Bonaparte the glory of dealing the conclusive blow in the struggle. In May, 1800, he crossed the St. Gothard Pass into Italy and a month later crushed the Austrian army at Marengo near Alessandria, where he concluded an armistice which compelled the Austrians to evacuate Northern Italy The army in Germany won the battle of to the Mincio. Hochstett a few days later, Munich fell to the French, and Austria agreed to a suspension of hostilities, and upon its conclusion experienced another defeat at Hohenlinden single ability (December, 1800). was signed. The Treaty of In February, 1801, the Treaty of Lune villa Luneville, like its predecessor of Campo Formio, recognised the left bank of the Rhine as France's frontier, and ratified her hold upon Belgium and Holland. In Italy France recovered the position to which her victory at entitled her. Naples, owing to the offices of Tsar Paul, was left undisturbed upon her undertaking not to admit British vessels to her ports. The Pope was restored to his possessions, except Bologna and Ferrara which had been In North Italy the attached to the Cisalpine Republic. Ligurian and Cisalpine Republics were reconstructed. Tuscany, taken from its Austrian grand-duke, was constituted the kingdom of Etruria, and was conferred on Prince Louis of Marengo Parma in exchange for Spain's mont was annexed to France. cession of Louisiana. Pied- Once more Great Britain found herself alone in the field and the object of an Armed Neutrality. The latter was organised by the Tsar, whose hatred of revolutionary France had yielded to a glowing admiration of Bonaparte. He also resented Great Britain's refusal to surrender Malta (which "she had taken in 1800) to the Knights Hospitaller, of whose Order he had become Grand Master. He therefore induced Sweden and Denmark to revive the Armed Neutrality of the North (December, 1800), which Prussia also joined, for the purpose 16S A Short History of Europe any interference on Great Britain's part with their The British government treated the Armed Neutrality as a hostile league, and a fleet was forthwith sent to the In April, 1801, Nelson won the battle of Copenhagen Baltic. and forced Denmark to withdraw from the Coalition. A few days earlier Paul was assassinated, and the Armed Neubroke up. The position in Egypt was cleared trality by the surrender of the French garrisons in the summer. Though neither France nor Great Britain anticipated more than a breathing space in their implacable enmity, a pause was recognised as necessary on both sides, and in March, 1802, the Peace of Amiens was signed. Great Britain undertook the restoration of her colonial conquests, save Ceylon and Trinidad, which she had captured from Holland and Spain. Malta and Egypt were to be restored to the Knights Hospitallers and Turkey respectively. The conclusion of peace with Great Britain took Bonaparte a step further towards a throne. In August, 1802, he was appointed First Consul for life, with power to nominate his successor. The partisans of the House of Bourbon saw with dismay, that while France was drifting back to a monarchy, Bonaparte barred a restoration of the line of Capet. After the Peace of Amiens a dangerous plot for a Bourbon restoration was hatched, of which the chief movers were Georges Cadoudal, one of the Breton rebels against the tyranny of the Terrorist Commune in 1794, and Pichegru, an officer who had served the Republic. The count of Artois was privy to the plot, the existence of which became known to the First of resisting commerce. In February, 1804, the conspirators were arrested. Cadoudal was put to death, and Pichegru died in prison. Moreau, who was privy to their plans, was exiled to the United States. Determined to retaliate on the Bourbon and unable to get into his hands the late king's princes, brothers, the counts of Provence and Artois, Bonaparte ordered the arrest of the duke of Enghicn, though he was not a party to Cadoudal's plot and was living in the grand-duchy of Baden. There, in defiance of international law, he was He was taken to Vincennes, condemned by court arrested. martial as an emigre who had borne arms against France, and was summarily shot (March, 1804). Cadoudal's plot hastened Consul. the transformation of the Consulate into a hereditary mon- Europe and the Revolution 269 An invitation to Bonaparte to assume the royal was conveyed by the Senate and was supported by a popular plebiscite, in which less than 3000 voted against a proposal which more than 3,000,000 by their votes approved. So discredited were the early watchwords of the Revolution, and so indelibly had Bonaparte impressed his abilities upon On December 2, 1804, at Paris, in the his countrymen. presence of Pope Pius VII, he crowned himself Emperor of archy. title the French. Four months (August 18, 1804) before the coronation of the Emperor of the French, the last Emperor of the Holy first Roman Empire, Francis II, proclaimed himself Francis I Hereditary Emperor of Austria," and two years later, the older title which he and his predecessors had borne for more than a thousand years lapsed for ever. The immediate event which caused the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was the expansion of France to the left bank of the Rhine. The Treaty of Luneville (1801) undertook that the dispossessed princes should receive compensation elsewhere, and the Imperial Diet assembled at Ratisbon in that year to dispose of the matter. But the settlement which received its sanction in 1803 was imposed by France and Russia, whose interests were so far identical that both were averse from strengthening Austria and Prussia. The reconstitution of Germany sanctioned by the Diet of Ratisbon destroyed the predominance of Austria and of the Roman Catholic religion in the Empire. All the clerical States which the Reformation had spared were secularised, while the Rhenish electoral archbishoprics of Cologne and Treves disappeared, their territories being in the hands of A single ecclesiastical Elector, the archbishop of France. Mainz, remained by the side of the lay Electors, who since the union of the Bavarian and Palatinate dignities in 1777 were five in number (Bohemia, Brandenburg, Bavaria, Saxony, and Hanover). To these the Diet added four new Electors, the margrave of Baden, the duke of Wurtemberg, the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, and the Elector of Salzburg (the last being the Emperor's brother, Ferdinand of Tuscany). Hence in the College of Electors of the Imperial Diet a Roman Catholic majority was converted into a Protestant majority and Austrian influence was correspondingly de" 270 A Short History of Europe A similar result was secured in the College of Princes, which especially Austrian influence had been able to control the Diet. But in 1803, owing to the secularisation of pressed. in the Catholic bishoprics, the number of members of the College was greatly curtailed, and though about one quarter of the votes represented spiritual fiefs, the latter were now secularised The third College of the Diet, that of the Free property. Imperial Cities, disappeared, since only six of its fifty-one members (Augsburg, Bremen, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Hamburg, Liibeck, and Nuremberg) retained their privileges. While the reorganisation of the Diet weakened the influence of Austria, the distribution of the secularised States benefited her less than her neighbours, and the dispossessed Rhenish princes practically not at all. Prussia was the chief gainer by her acquisition of the bishoprics of Hildesheim, Paderborn, Erfurt, part of Miinster, and other ecclesiastical territories, which she received in exchange for her Rhenish Hanover received the bishopric of Osnabriick, provinces. and the general result of these allocations of property was a vast simplification of the Empire as the Treaty of Westphalia had ordered it. One hundred and twelve States were suppressed. After his victory at Austerlitz Napoleon completed the reconstruction of Germany and brought the Holy Roman Empire to an end by compelling the: formal abdication of At Napoleon's instigation the newly created Francis II. kings of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg and thirteen other German princes formed the Confederation of the Rhine (July, 1806), accepted the French Emperor as their Protector, bound themselves to furnish contingents to his armies, and declared themselves for ever separated from the Germanic body. After the Treaty of Tilsit (July, 1807) the Confederation was greatly enlarged, and included, in the region between the Rhine and the Elbe, the four kingdoms of Bavaria, Wiirtem- Westphalia (formed in 1807 for Jerome Bonaparte), and Saxony (created a kingdom by Napoleon in 1806), and numerous other principalities, with a population of 20,000,000 and a Diet at Frankfort. berg, The establishment of the Confederation involved the dis- appearance of the Holy Roman Empire. formation Napoleon summoned Francis A month II to lay after its down the Europe and the Revolution 271 Holy Roman Emperor. Francis yielded and thenceforward held only the Austrian title which he had assumed title of two years before. On August 6, 1806, his abdication was made, and on that day the Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist, an institution which connected the nineteenth century with the European system of Otto the Great, Charlemagne, and the Roman Ca'sars. • w o iz: < o m m W O ;z; PQ ^ 'i t— - < H H t < ^3 < U •J o o o rj <: w w o o P< O w w w I O ^ C/2 M I— t 1-1 1— I I/) w (A > u w n3 <-• - C3 0) J3 -4-> Q C/2 to m O D W c3 > O O P Pi c 1-1 PQoo OJ S o H ^ ;d s- C . U-) 'U S < P-t c/2 - oT c O — ^^ . rs to l-H • (/3 c o C! O rQ C <L) LO h-l hH > O o X3 rt rt rt o >^ Q 00 V 'a o O CO VO < o lA 2 ^ o C/5 3 O c O V oi -u o G O I o CO --^ ^3 "^ C/3 Q 3 o - 3 o G tJ3 '^^^ - o — -co & O X- o oo X! 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CJ O D ^3 00 - a, rl- W Q Q 2 < _ <: O O. o u TJ "if o o ci Ph o c3 G O 0) ^-•^ <u - -i^ < H-« On 00 I ^_oi (/] o O to 00 ON 00 > H-l t I c3 - 1^ I CO 3 t— oo (—1 00 <u aj 00 I t/3 O 1 lO . 00 CO ON ^<C ON t-H I CO (U oo ci > OvvO oo o^ 3 O w O a o u d 00 CJ 6 Ov^ o VO ^ Xi a o 00 Q VO I CO I Xi (U *— en 3 O (UVO "-< •h t/i u S H w .VO *-' Ph rn 1/1 »> CJ P^ > uj H (/3 VO ai o O.H o T3 S V4 —u—w - S < < T3 H o .. O . 1-1 OO <L) WVO f^ u <U <L) '" — OQ ^ c > 3 u » O 285 (71 -4-» O > o > o I CO <: 3 1-1 V- o C/J p H O c^ j-i I " vo -^ . w ON 3 w h5 u <u C O fA D W :3 < — C/5 o w rt O W > W p< h-1 O O .s W PQ to o s <u 1-1 o < p:i 3 o Q "So Q vo rOrrt - Q w (A ^ M 13 s K H 'g c o — x: -^ .y '-' . O o a> — WO c3 "5 G O ^ f' t; o in a ,: <u tJ3 —^ — w V t/3 to w G P4 O I c5 U cJ t^ vo 'U en en O . u T3 2 H CO w «-> "> o hi o O vona Q 1-1 o a O O ffi O H H u w o u 14 > - '^ W i-H ,r 286 VO H (—1 _X! O T3 T^ CO -so m o a, I—t QO On ^ vS VO 00 00 On 0^ I CO LO 00 0^ <u LO o o - s „ o — 00 o S ^^ pj tx w o 3 < fn I o VO I oo 00 VO i-i >4 O o u £o w O e: <5l (U o • p-H O (/] 3 I fO '6 o o I ON VO oo < T3 1-1 I—( HH-^ ^ I-I o u I J3 .0. W .Q_Q. o p - w Q **^ Ps; — -^ Q-Q- 00 00 o hJ VO 3 Ml s !^' o o i-i s ^ ^ o o o 00 oo I bJ3 o O 3 •73 W Q a O o KH*^ o > O 1-1 I o •U O I ON <U ON 00 1 u in t— I I VO 00 I oo o < Vl 0) • r-1 00 a P< Pi flH fe 00 00 00 13) *3 - 300 iJ . O K o Woo o M 'i'„ . c g _ —(u I O c o :^ H < Ph < o 'S 3 o a w Phoo OJCO o ^ (U o o rt<>0 o ^ CQ • i-H l-l • r, . Oh '^ < .1:: iH Q. ^ T3 INDEX Aachen. Aleander, Girolamo, 33 Alembert, Jean Baptiste le Rond de, 229 Alen9on, Margaret, Duchess of, 76 Alexander VI, Pope, 11, 35, 36, 37, 48 Alexander, Sir William, of Men- See Aix-la-Chapelle Abercromby, Sir Ralph, 264 Aberdeen, University of, II, 12 Abyssinia, Portugal and, 18 Academies, foundation of, 6 Acadia, taken from France, 136 restored to strie, 190 Alexandria, port of Eastern trade, : France, 137, 190 ceded to Great Britain, 142, 194: Champlain in, 191 expulsion of the Acadians, 196 ; boundaries of, 186 ; 17. Alexis, Tsar of Russia, 14S, 149 Alfonso V, King of Aragon, 34 Alfonso II, King of Naples, 34, 35 Alkmaar, Convention of (1799), 266 ; Acre, Bonaparte repulsed at, 264 Adams, John, 217 Adrian, Patriarch of Russia, 152 Africa, Phoenician voyages round, 14 ; Portuguese exploration, 18, 20 the Dutch in, 104 Africa^ Petrarch's, 4 Agnadello, Battle of, 38 Ahmad Shah, 199 Aides, the French, 125, 236, 237, Alsace, France obtains, 117, 118, 124; invasion of, 131; Louis XIV and, 132; abolition of feudal rights in, 256 Altmark, Truce of (1629), 114 Altranstadt, Treaty of (1706), 155 ; Alva, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, Duke of, Amboise, 80, 97-9 Pacification of (1563), 80, Si 240 Ailly, Cardinal Pierre d', 13 Aix, Parlement of, 235 crowned Aix-la-Chapelle, Charles at, 53 ; Catholic attempt to dis- V franchise, 109 Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaties of (1668), 129, 195; (1748), 177, 178, 179, Amboise, Tumult of, 79 Amboyna, the Dutch in, 103 ; massacre of English merchants at, 200 Ambur, Battle of, 203 America, identified with Atlantis, Norse discoveries in, 15 14 203 Akbar, Moghul Emperor, 198 Alabama State, formation of, 224 Grace of (1629), 125 Alam II, Moghul Emperor, 206, 207 Albertus Magnus, 3 Alais, Albigenses, the, 89 Albizzi, the, in Florence, 33 Albuquerque, Affonso de, 19 II.— U 2 89 ; Columbus and, ; 21 origin of the name, 22 ; Spanish conquests in, 23 ; English voyages to, 25 ; French voyages to, 26 the North- West Passage, ib.; Huguenot settlements in, 28 ; early : ; English settlements in, ib., 29; the Navigation Act, 122 War of Grand Alliance in, 136; France and the slave-trade, 140 ; the Treaty of Utrecht and, 142 ; ; Index 290 French and English on the Ohio, Arabs, the, and geographical 179; the English colonies, 186- coveries, 15 Arcot, siege of, 204 Ardres, Treaty of (1546), 43 Ariosto, Ludovico, 7 Aries, Kingdom of, 40 Armada, the Spanish, 105 Armed Neutrality, the (1780), 223; (1800), 267 Arques, Battle of, 83 Arras, Treaty of (1579), 100 Art, the Renaissance and, 8, 9 Ai'ie of Rheto7'ique, il ; England and the West Indies, 190 ; the French in Canada, 191 ; the French in the West Indies, 193 ; the Anglo-French 90 War to 1763, 193-8; British administrative system in 1763, 197 ; War of Independence, chap. 12 Amherst, Jeffrey, Lord, 197 Amiens, Peace of (1S02), 142, 268 Amsterdam, commercial supremacy of, 104 Anabaptists, the, origin of, 55 ; in iVIiinster, 59 Anahuac, Aztec settlements in, 23 Ancona, March of, Cassar Borgia and, 37 Angouleme, County of, passes to the French crown, 123 Anguilla, a British possession, 191 Anhalt, Prince Christian of, 109 County of, passes to the French crown, 123 Anjou, Francis, Duke of, 82, 100, Anjou, loi Anjou, Louis I, Duke of, 33 Anjou, Louis III, Duke of, 34 Annapolis, Port Royal renamed, 194 Annates, 47 Anne, Tsaritsa of Russia, 159 AnneBoleyn, Queen of England, 42 Anne of Cleves, Queen of England, 68 Ansbach, Margravate of, 162 Ansbach, George, Margrave of, 58 Anson, George, Viscount, 195 Antigua, a British possession, 191, 223 Antilha, search for, 15 Antilles, the, occupied by Spain, British losses in, 223 23 ; Antony of Bourbon, King of Navarre, 78, 80 Antwerp, Marquisate martyrs of, 85 break at, 97; "Spanish Fury" at, 99; "French Fury" at, loi; declared a free port, 104, 259 Antwerp, Truce of (1609), 103 Appenzell, canton, 70, 72 Aquinas, St. Thomas, 3 ; County of, Francis I abandons French suzerainty over, 41, a member of the Spanish 42, 43 ceded to Netherlands, 85, 95 France, 120, 124 Artois, ; ; Artois, Charles Philippe, Count of (Charles X), 246, 247, 268 Asicnio, the, 142, 194 Astrakhan, Khanate of, 145 Astrolabe, the, 3 of, 62 Ath, restored to Spain, 137 Athanasius, St., 9 AtlafJtzs, and America, 14 Augsburg, Luther summoned to, Confession of, 58, 61, 64, 52 66; Diets of (1530), 58; (1548), 60; (1555). 61; (1566), 89; Peace of (1555), 61, 107; League of (1686), 135; survives as a Free Imperial city, 270 Augustus II, King of Poland, 154, 155, 156, 173 Augustus III, King of Poland, 174, Asunden, Lake, Battle ; 175 Austerlitz, Battle of, 270 Australia, Dutch discovery of, 104 Austria, the Jesuits in, 107, 108 ; Treaty of Utrecht and, 143 ; Charles VI and the Pragmatic Sanction, 174; Frederick the Great 85 ; protoProtestant outof, dis- and, alliance, tion and, Austria, ; Treaty of chap. 14 and, 263 Ferdi- Campo Formio nand the French French Revolu- 176 180; ; ; II Emperor of, 270 Archduke Albert of, 102, 103 Austria, Austria, Don John of, 100 Archduke Matthias of, 100 Index Austria, of, Archduke Leopold William 113 Austrian Succession, War of the, 174-78 in India, 202 Auvergne, County of, escheats to the French crown, 124 Aversa, French surrender at, 42 Avignon, annexed to France, 256 Azof, captured by Peter the Great, 149; restored to Turkey, 153; recovered by Russia, 160 ; Azores, the, Portugal and, 18 ; Greynville's engagement off, 106 ; voyage of Essex and Ralegh to, 106 Aztecs, the, 24 ; ; the Jesuits in, 92, obtains electoral in; Gustavus Adolphus and neutrality of, 115; receives the Upper Palatinate, 119; dignity, Spanish Succession and, 138; created a kingdom, 270 Bavaria, Charles Albert, Elector of, 17s, 176 Bavaria, Joseph Ferdinand, Electoral Prince of, 138, 139 Bavaria, Maximilian, Elector of, 108-11, 118, 119 Bayard, Pierre de Terrail, Seigneur de, 41 Beaconsfield, ; elect- Bahamas, the, discovered by ColumEnglish possession of, 191 Batlhages, 234 Balboa, Nunez de, 22 Baltimore, George Calvert, Lord, 187, 190 Bamberg, Bishopric of. Catholic reaction 108 ; Gustavus in, Adolphus in, 115 Banalites, 233 Banister, Thomas, 148 Bar, Confederation of, 182 Baramahal, annexation of, 209 Barbados, English occupation of, 190, 223 Barbuda, a British possession, 191 Barnabites, the, 90 Barrier Treaty (1715), the, 143, 171 Barwalde, Treaty of (163 1), 115 Basle, Council of, 48 University of, 71; Canton, 70, 72; Calvin of at, 74,256; Treaty (1795), 261 Bastille, storming of the, 247 Batavia, the Dutch at, 103 Batavian Republic, the, 261, 262, 267 Batu Khan, 145 Bavaria, Duchy of, rejects Luther; agree- Bayreuth, Margravate of, 162 Bayreuth, Albert Alcibiades, Margrave of, 61 B ; anism, 59 108 107, Bayonne, Franco-Spanish ment at (1565), 80 Babar, Mahmud, 198 Bacon, Roger, 2, 3 Baden, Peace of (1714), 142 orate of, 269 bus, 21 291 Earl Benjamin Disraeli, 224 Beam, Viscounty of, passes to the French crown, 124 dragonnades in, 134 Beaujeu, Seignory of, escheats to the French crown, 124 Beaulieu, Peace of (1576), 82 Behaim, Martin, 15 of, ; Behring's 152 Straits, discovery of, Joachim du, 9 Bellenden, John, 12 Bender, Charles XII at, 156 Benedict XIV, Pope, 237 Benedictines, the, 90 Benefit of Clergy^ 46 Bengal and Bihar, 205, 209 Berg, Duchy of, succession to, 109 Hohenzollern claim on, 164 Bergamo, Venice acquires, 32 Bergerac, Peace of (1577), 82 Berkeley, John, Lord, 188 Berlin, the Huguenots and, 168 Bellay, Treaty of (1742), 177 Bermudas, English possession ; ; of, 191 Berne, Canton, 70, 72 Eerry, Estates of, 240 Besancjon, Parlement of, the, 235 Beton, David, Cardinal, 86 Beza, Theodore, 79 132, Index 292 Bourbon, Duchy of, escheats to the French crown, 124 Bourbon, Charles, Cardinal of, 83 Bourbon, Charles, Duke of, 123 Bourges, Pragmatic Sanction of of, 76 ; (1438), University 73 Boyne, Battle of the, 136 Brabant, Duchy of, 85 Braddock, Edward, General, Bible, the, 9, 11, 45. 48, 49, 54, 64, 65, 67, 75, 76, 88 Bilad Ghana, the Portuguese and, 15, 18 Biondo Flavio, 5 Bisignan, Prince of, urges French intervention in Italy, 34 Black Sea, the, Genoa and, 17 Blake, Robert, Admiral, 122 Bleking, ceded to Sweden, 153 Blenheim, Battle of, 140 County of, passes to the French crown, 123 Board of Trade and Plantations, the, 213 197 Brahe, Tycho, 13 Blois, Boccaccio, Giovanni, Boece, Hector, 12 8, Brandenburg, Electorate of, adopts Lutheranism, 59 and the Thirty 5, 7 ; Bohus, ceded to Sweden, 153 Bojador, Cape, 18 treaty of, Bologna, siege of, 38 39 Charles V crowned at, 42 Bombay, English factory at, 200, 201 ; threatened by the Marathas, 223 Bonaparte, Joseph, King of Westphalia, 265, 270 See NapoBonaparte, Napoleon. ; ; leon I Bondone, Ambrogio di, 4 Boniface VIII, Pope, 2, 47 Bordeaux, Parlement of, 84, 235 Borgia, Caesar, 36, 37 Boris, Tsar of Russia, 150 Borneo, acquired by the Dutch, Years' War, chap. 6 f>assi?n ; East Pomerania, 118; her gains under the Treaty of Westphalia, 119; joins coalition the against Louis XIV, 131 Northern War and, 153 origin retains ; ; and history of see of, (to 1701), 161-69; acquired by Joachim II, 165 Brandenburg, Albert Achilles, Elector of, 162 Brandenburg, Frederick of, I, Elector 161 Brandenburg, Frederick William, the Great Elector of, 130, 131, 136, 153, 164-68 Brandenburg, George William, Elector of, 115 Brandenburg, Joachim of, Elector I, 163 Brandenburg, Joachim of, 60, II, Elector 165 Brandenburg, Joachim Frederick, 103 Bornholm, island, restored to Denmark, 153 Borough, Stephen, 27 Borromean League, the, ']1 Boston, foundation of, 190; "Massacre," 215 ; "Tea-Party," 216 Howe evacuport closed, 216 ates, 218, 219 Bothwell, James Hepburn, Earl of, ; ; 94 Boulogne, captured by Henry VIII, 43 restoration to France prom; Lazzari, 51 Bohemia, Kingdom of, the Jesuits 108 ; revolt against in, 107, Ferdinand II, no; the Elector Palatine driven from, in ; fall of Protestantism in, in ised, ib. Donato Bramante, Elector of, 164 Brandenburg, John George, Elector of, 162 Brandenburg, Elector John Sigismund, 109, 162, 164 Brandywine, Battle of, 220 Brant, Sebastian, 49 Brazil, a fabulous island, 15 Brazil, discovery of, 19, 22 Huguenot settlement in, 28 Breda, Treaty of {1667), 104, 128, of, ; 188 Breisach, ceded to France, 131 ; Index restored by Louis XIV, 137 ; Parleinent of, 132 Breitenfeld, Battle of, 115 Bremen, archbishopric of, joins the Schmalkaldic League, Scandinavian jurisdiction Christian of, 59 62 ; ; IV and, 112, 113; ceded to Sweden, 118 ; Denmark ceded to Hanover, 270 Brescia, Venice acquires, 32 ; recovered by the French, 38 Bri^onnet, Guillaume, Bishop of obtains, 156 158 ; ; city of, Meaux, 76 293 Bussy, Marquis de, 204 Cabot, John, 25 Cabot, Sebastian, 25, 27 Cabral, Alvarez, 19 Cadiz, Drake at, 105 ; Charles expedition against, 112, 121 Cadoudal, Georges, 268 Cagliari, Paolo, 8 Cairo, Bonaparte in, 264 evacuation Calais, siege and Armada 106 Brieg, Duchy of, Hohenzollern claims on, 163, 167, 176 Calcutta, siege " Brienne, Lomenie de, 242, 243 Brill, capture of, 98 Calicut, da Brindisi, Venice acquires, 38 Bristol, voyages of exploration from, 20, 25 Brittany, Duchy of, falls to the French crown, 123 Broglie, Marshal de, 246 Brunswick, Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of, 258 Brunswick, Prince Ferdinand of, 180 Hole of, fall 205 of, ; the of, 44 the "Black ; 206 Gama 19; English at, factory at, 200 California, English claims in, 29 Calonne, Charles-Alexandre de, 241 Calvin, John, 9, 73-5, 77 characteristics Calvinism, 70, of, condition under the Treaty of Augsburg, 108 receives recognition under Treaty of Westphalia, 118 72, 73, 74, 75 ; ; Cambray, League 37 of, ; Treaty of (1529), 42, 43. 48 House Brunswick-LUneburg, of, Cambridge, Erasmus and, 9 Renaissance Brussels, French ; 264 of, at, I's Pragmatic (1549)? 95 I Sanction Orange returns of to, 100 Buchanan, George, 12 Buckingham, George Villiers, Duke of, 120, 121 at, Camisa7'ds, the, 134 Camperdown, Camperdown, Battle of, Adam, 262 fall of (i797)> of, 197 the ; ; > Quebec Act, 217 of, Burgoyne, John, General, 220 Burgundy, Duchy of, falls to the French crown, 123 ceded to the cession Charles V, 41 compounded by Francis I, 42 and abandoned by Charles V, 43 Burgundy, Charles the Bold, Duke ; ; ; of, 123 Burke, Edmund, 210, 214, 216 262 Viscount, 263 Canada, the Jesuits in, 92, 179 French occupation of, 191-7 Btindschtih, the, 56 Bunker Hill, Battle of, 218 Buonarotti, Michelangelo, 8 Buren, Philip William, Count 98, lOI the Camoens, Luiz de, 10 Campo Formio, Treaty Bude, Guillaume, 9 Bugey, ceded to France, 124 ; 10 Canaries, the, Columbus 21 Canterbury Cape of, sails from, Tales., the, 5 of Good 18 Hope, Breton France, 194 Cape Isle, ; the, discovery fortified Great Dutch 104 Britain, 197 Cape Colony, Capilatioii, the by ceded to 236 Capuchins, the, 90 Caravel, the, 14 in, Index 294 Carberry Hill, Battle of, 94 Carelia, acquired by Sweden, 1 14, 147 occupied by Russia, 156 ; ceded to Russia, 158 ; Carinthia, Carlstadt, Duchy of, 107 Andrew Bodenstein of, Carmelites, the, 90 Carnatic, Anglo-French rivalry in, 202-9 Nawabof, Carnatic, Anwar-ud-din, 203 Carnatic, Chanda Sahib, Nawab 203 of, Carnatic, Dost Ali, Nawab of, 202 Carniola, Duchy of, 107 Carolina, Huguenot settlement in, 28 English colonies founded in, 187 ; Cornwallis in, 222 Cartagena, attack on, 195 ; Carteret, Sir George, 188 Cartier, Jacques, 26, 191 Casale, taken Cassimbazar, by France, 136 English factory Ceylon, the Portuguese in, 19 acquired by the Dutch, 103 ; Great Britain, captured by 268 Chagres, captured by Vernon, 195 Chatnpart, 233 Champlain, Samuel, 191, 192 ; de Mars, celebration of French Federation in, 248 Champs Chancellor, Richard, 27, 147 Chanda Sahib, Nawab of the Carnatic, 203, 204 Chandernagore, French factory 201, 202, 206 Charlemagne, Emperor, 3, 7 Charles V, Emperor, 6, 24, 31, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 53, 56, 58, 59, 60, 85, 95, 96 Charles VI, at, by Louis XIV, 136 ; the 137 Spain, Charles in, 141 seized restored to 119; Archduke ; Cateau - Cambresis, of Treaty (1559), 30, 44 Catharine of Aragon, Queen of England, 40, 42 139, 2, 71 Charles IX, King of France, 79, 80, 82, revolt of, Catalonia, Emperor, 138, 141, 173, 174-6 Charles VII, Emperor, 177 Charles VIII, King of France, 7, 30, 34, 201 at, Charles 98 I, 112, 120, King of Great Britain, 121 Charles II, King of Great Britain, 122, 128, 129 Charles I, King of Naples, 33 Charles III, King of Naples, 33 Charles II, King of Spain, 128, Catharine H, Tsaritsa of Russia, 182 137, 139 Charles IX, King of Sweden, 66, 147 Charles X, King of Sweden, 149, I53» 166 Charles XI, King of Sweden, 153 Charles XII, King of Sweden, Columbus to, 16 the Cabots and, 25 ; and, 21 and the North-East Passage, 27 Catholic League (1C09), the, 109, 153-6, 158 Edward Stewart, the Charles "Young Pretender," 157, 178 Charles Emmanuel IV, King of III, 112, 113, 114, 115 Celle, Duchy of, 157 Cellini, Benvenuto, 8 Centurion, the, 195 Sardinia, 266 Charlestown, fall of, 222 evacuated, 223 Charterhouse School, 10 Chasse, Droit de, 233 Chatham, William Pitt, Lord, 181, 195, 214, 215, 221 Catharine de' Medici, Queen of France, 79, 80, 81, 94 Catharine I, Tsaritsa of Russia, Cathay, journeys ; ; Ceresole, French victory at, 43 Cerignola, Battle of, 37 Cervantes, Miguel de, 10 Ceuta, taken by Portugal, 18 Cevennes, revolt of the Camisards in, 134 ; Chaucer, Geoffrey, 5 Chevasco, armistice of, 262 China, fall of Mongol dynasty in, Index 17 the ; the Portuguese reach, 19 Dutch in, 104. See Cathay ; Chinsura, Dutch factory at, 205, 207 Chioggia, War of, 32 Choiseul, Etienne-Fran9ois, Due de, 237 Chotusitz, Battle of, 177 Christ's Hospital, 10 Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, 62 Christian II, King of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, 55, 62, 63 Christian III, Denmark of King and Norway, 63 King of Denmark and Norway, 112, 113, 114, 121 Christian Civic League, the Swiss, Christian IV, 72 _ Christian Union, the Swiss, 72 Christiaiice Religioiiis Institution Calvin's, 74 Christina, Queen of Sweden, 116 Chrysoloras, Manuel, 3, 5 Chrysostom, St., 9 Cipango, Marco Polo and, 16, 21 Cisalpine Republic, the, 263, 265, 266, 267 Cispadane Republic, the, 263 Civil Constitution of the Clergy, the French, 249, 252 by the French, 44 Claude of Brittany, Queen of France, Civitella, besieged 123 Clement VII, Pope, 33, 41 Clericis laicos, Bull, 47 Clermont, Jesuit College at, 92 Cleves, Treaty of (1666), 119, 164, 166, 172; Duchy of, see JiilichCleves Cleves, William, Duke of, 68 Clinton, General, 222 Clive, Robert, Lord, 204 Cnutson, Carl, in Norway and Sweden, 62 Coalition, the First, 260 ; the Second, 265 Coblenz, handed over to France by Sweden, 117 Cochin, Rajah of, 209 Cognac, League nots and, 81 of, 41 295 Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 131, 192 Colet, John, 10, 67 Coligny, Gaspard de, France, 78, 80, 81 ; Hugue- 129, Admiral of College de France, the, 9, 77 abandoned to France, 117 Cologne, Electorate of, rejects Luth- Colmar, eranism, 59 the Jesuits in, 107 ; ; Archbishop Gebhard and, 108 ; Louis XIV and, 135, 137 ; severed from the Empire, 269 Droit Colombiery de, 233 Columbia University, foundation of, 194 Columbus, Bartolomeo, 20 Columbus, Christopher, 13, 14, 20 Commune of August 10, the, 254 Compass, the, discovery of, 3, 13 Compiegne, Treaty of (1635), 117 "Compromise," the, 97 Concordat of 15 16, the, Conde, Louis I, Prince 76, 79 78, 80, of, 81 ^ Conde, Louis II, Prince of, 117, 126, 128, 129 Confession of Faith, the Lutheran, 58 ; the Calvinist, 74 ; the Scottish, 87, Congo 94 river, discovery of, 18 Congregation of Jesus Christ, the, in Scotland, 86, 94 Connecticut, foundation of, 190 Constance, Council of, 48 Constantine, Basilica of, 8 Constantinople, taken by the Turks, 32 ; Treaty of, ib. Constituent Assembly, the, 246 Consubstantiation, definition of, 73 Consulate, the, 266 Continental Congress, the first, 217; the second, 218 Contrat Social, Rousseau's, 228 Conversino, Giovanni di, 5, 6 Coote, Sir Eyre, 205, 223 Copenhagen, University of, 62, 63 Treaty of (1660), 153 Battle of, ; ; 268 Copernicus, Nicholas, the 127, 3, 13 Corday, Charlotte, 260 Cordeliers, Club of the, 250 Cordova, Gonzalo de, 37 Index 296 Cornwallls, Charles, Marquis, 209, 222 Corregio, Antonio Allegri of, 8 Corsica, captured by a FrancoTurkish fleet, 43 purchased by ; France, 143, 237 Cortereal, Gaspard, 25 Cortereal, Miguel, 25 Cortes, Hernan, 24 Corvt^e, the, 233, 239, 240, 241 Coucy, Edict of, 77 Council of Blood, the, 98 Council of Troubles, the, 98 Counter-Reformation, the, 4, chap. 6; 107-8, 147 Courland, Duchy foundation of, 146 ; Peter the Great occupies, 155 Courtray, restored to Spain, 137 Cranmer, Thomas, Archbishop of of, Dauphine, the Huguenots Davis, John, 26, 27, 200 Decameron, the, 5 De in, 78 Clemetitia, Calvin's, 73 Delaware, the Swedes on the, 186, 188; English colony, 188 Delft, the Union of, 99 Denain, Battle of, 141 Denmark, the Reformation in, 55, and the Thirty 56, 62 et seq. Years' War, 112 joins Coalition losses against Louis XIV, 131 Charles against Charles X, 153 XII and, 154, 156 joins the Armed Neutrality, 223 Desirade, French occupation of, ; ; ; ; ; 193 Dessau, Bridge feated at, 112 of, Mansfeld de- Cremona, acquired by Venice, 36 Dettingen, Battle of, 177 Devolution, War of, 128 ; Brandenburg and, 166 Diaz, Bartolomeo, 18, 20 Diderot, Denis, 229 Dieppe, ceded to England, 80 Crepy, Treaty of (1544), 43, 59 Cromdale, Battle of, 136 Dijon, Parlement of, 235 Dillenburg, William the Silent Canterbury, 68 Coveripak, Battle of, 204 Craw, Paul, 86 Crema, Venice acquires, 32 Cromwell, Oliver, Lord Protector, 120 Dindigul, annexation Dinwiddle, Robert, Cromwell, Thomas, 68 Cronstadt, foundation of, 155 Crown Treaty, the (1701), 169 Crusades, the, 7, 13 Cuba, occupied loy Spain, 23 Cuius 7'egio ems religio^ 58 Culloden, Battle of, 178 Cumberland, William Augustus, Duke of, 177, 180 Cuzco, capital of the Inca^ 24 at, .97. of, 209 Lieutenant- Governor of Virginia, 196 Directory, the French, 261 Diu, Battle of, 19 Dmitri, the "false," 147 Dmitri, the "Robber," 147 Dolgoruki, Prince Alexis, 159 Dolgoruki, luri, 145 Dominica, French occupation of, 193 ; acquired by Great Britain, French defeat off, 223 197 Donauworth, religious disturbances ; D Daghestan, ceded to Russia, 153 Dalecarlia, Gustavus Vasa in, 64 Dalmatia, acquired by Venice, 32 Dante Alighieri, Vita, 7 3 ; Boccaccio's Danton, Georges-Jacques, 250, 251, 254. 255 Danzig, annexed by Prussia, 183 Darlen, Isthmus of, the Spaniards in, 22 Darnley, Henry Stewart, Lord, 94 at, 109 Doria, Andrea, 42 Dort, the Holland Estates at, 98 Douai, ceded to France, 129; Par/ement of, 235 Dover, Secret Treaty of (1670), 130 Downs, Battle of the, 103, 119 Drake, Sir Francis, 26, 29, 105 Dresden, Peace of (1745), ^77 Dreux, Battle of, 80 Duma, the Russian, 151 Index Dumas, Benoit, Governor of Pondicherry, 202 Charles Frangois, General, 258, 259, 260 See CamperAdmiral. Duncan, down, Viscount - Dumouriez, ; alliance 136 Dunkirk, ceded to England, 122 bought by Louis XIV, 128 ; Louis XIV promises to dis- vinces, mantle, 142 Duphot, Leonard, General, 265 Governor of Dupleix, Joseph, Pondicherry, 202-4 Durand, Nicolas, 28 Diirer, Albrecht, 9 E East India Company, the Dutch, the English, 200 the 103 ; French, 201 ; Eck, John, of Ingoldstadt, 52 Edinburgh, Treaty of (1560), 87, 94 Edward VI, King of England, 68 of, 96, Egmont, Lamoral, Count 97*98 Egypt, Bonaparte in, 264 Eisleben, Luther's birthplace, 50 Elizabeth, Queen of England, 29, 67, 68, 80, 87, 94, loi, 105 Elizabeth, Tsaritsa of Russia, 160 Elizabeth Farnese, Queen of Spain, 174 Elizabeth Elyot, Sir Queen Stewart, Bohemia, no of ii Thomas, the French, 228, 238 Enghien, Louis-Antoine-Henri de Bourbon, Duke of, 268 England, scholasticism in, 3 and the 10; rejects Renaissance, Columbus's overtures, 21 Spanish treasure and, 24 ; early voyages to America, 25 ; the NorthWest Passage, 26 the NorthEast Passage, 27 early attempts to colonise America, 28 Tudor Encyclopaedia, ; : ; 102 ; with the Provinces, Dundee, John Graham, Viscount, ; 297 and, 40 ; loss of Calais, 44 and Papal patronage, 46 ; the Reformation in, 66 ; the Jesuits and, 92 ; the Counter Reformation and, 93 ; recognises the United matrimonial United Pro- the Armada, 105 ; 103 naval war and peace with Spain, 106 ; Thirty Years' War and, chap. 6 passivi, 120-22 ; war with the United Provinces, 121 ; alliance with Mazarin, 122 joins Alliance the against Triple France, 129 the Secret Treaty ; ; ; of Dover, 130 Treaty of Ryswyk and, 137 ; and the Spanish Succession, 139 ; early relations with Russia, 147 ; Bonaparte and the See Great invasion of, 264. Britain ; Enkhuyzen, naval engagement 99 Erasmus, Desiderius, 74 8, 10, 49, 56, Erfurt, University of, 50 ; Augustinian convent at, 50 ; bishopric of, attached to Prussia, 270 Eric XIV, King of Sweden, 65 Eric the Red, 15 Ericsson, Leif, 15 Ermeland, ceded to Poland, 164 Erskine, Robert, 148 Esprit des Lois, 227 Esthonia, Russia abandons, 114; Peter the Great occupies, I55» 156 ; ceded to Russia, 158 Essex, Robert Devereux, Earl of, 106 Kingdom of, 267 Eudoxia, Tsaritsa of Russia, 150 Eugene, Prince, of Savoy, 140, Etruria, 173 Evangelical Estates, Union of, 109, 113 Evangeline, Longfellow's, 196 Everlasting Peace, the (1516), 39, 71 ; policy, Holy League, 30 38 ; ; enters Charles the V ; to Prussia, 183 ; foreign off, Faber, Johann, 72 Faenza, Venice acquires, 37, 38 Index 298 Faerie Queene, the, 7 Florida, French Huguenots in, 28 ceded to Great Britain, 197 ; West F. or Louisiana ceded to Spain, 197 ; East Florida restored to Spain, 224 ; sold to the United ; Family Compact, the (1761), 180, 237. See Frederick, Federigo. King of Naples Fehrbellin, Battle of, 131, 153, 166 Feltre, Vittorino da, 6 Ferdinand I, Emperor, States, 224 Flushing, capture of, 98 Foix, Gaston de, Duke mours, 38 Fontenoy, Battle of, 177 Fornovo, Battle of, 35 43, 59, 60, 61 Ferdinand II, Emperor, 107, no, III, 112, 113, 114, 116, 118 Ferdinand III, Emperor, 137 Ferdinand II, King of Aragon, 21, Fort Fort Fort Fort Fort Fort Fort Fort 33, 35, 37, 38, 39 Ferdinand Ferdinand I, King of Naples, 33, 34 King of Naples, 35, II, Ferdinand IV, King of Naples, 265, 266 See Ferdinand I, King Ferrante. Oswego, 195, 197 St. ; Ferdinand II, ; ; at, 6 ; attacked attached to the Ferrara, by Venice, 32 ; Cisalpine Republic, 267 Feuillants, Club of the, 251 Field of Cloth of Gold, the, 40 ; ; ; Filelfo, Francesco, 6 Finland, Grand Duchy of, in possession of Sweden, 114; retroceded ; ; ; Anglo-Imperial alliance against, ib. joins League of Cognac against Charles V, ib.'a wars Treaty of Cambray, 42 with Charles V, 42 annexe; Metz, Toul, and Verdun, 43 Sweden, 158 Pavia, 41 First of June, Battle of the, 260 Flanders, County of, 85, 95 ; ; Fran- ; abandons French suzerainty Turenne invades, 128; Marlborough in, 141 Fleix, Peace of (1580), 82 Fleurus, Battle of, 260 Flodden, Battle of, 39, 85 cis I , declares war against; 44; results of Italian wars, ib.\ the Reformation and Wars of and the Religion in, 76-84 Tridentine decrees, 89 the Inquisition excluded from, 90; the Jesuits in, 92 ; recognises the United Provinces, 102 alliance Mary Tudor ; ; ; Florence, Manuel Chrysoloras at, 3, 5 Academy of, 6 Machia; ; History of, 7 the Medici and, 33 downfall of the Medici, stands aloof from the league 35 against France, ib. ; the Medici velli's ; ; with the United Provinces, 103, 117; enters the Thirty Years' War, 117 Treaty of the Pyrenees with Spain, 120; alliance with the English Commonwealth, 122; achievement of territorial unity, ; ; X restored in, 38 Leo and, 41 of Cognac joins the League Medici ib. the Charles ; V, against expelled from, 41 ; the Medici restored by Charles V, 42 ; ; ; Fisher, John, Bishop of Rochester, 10 over, 41,42,43 196, 197 Frontenac, 193, 197 Niagara, 193 ; humanism to Detroit, 193 Duquesne, David, 209 St. George, 200 William Henry, 197 the France, scholasticism in, 3 Renaissance in, 9 rejects Columbus's overtures, 21 early voyages the Huguenots to America, 25 and America, 28 invited to push her claims in Italy, 32, 33 ; Charles VIII in Italy, 34 Louis XII in Italy, 36 enters League of Cambray against Venice, 37 ; the Holy League against, 38 Francis I in Italy, 39 Charles V Francis I defeated at and, 40 36 of Naples, 33 See Ferrantino. King of Naples Ne- of ; ; I 123 124 ; ; early external growth of, under Henry IV and Sully, Index 125 under Richelieu, 125 under Mazarin, 126 under Louis XIV, 1 26-43 and Polish Election War, ; ; ; ; 173 ; Silesian Wars and the Austrian alliance, 178, 180; the Ohio and, 179 the Peace of 299 Friuli, Venice acquires, 32, 38 Frobisher, Martin, 26 Fronde, Wars of the, 120, 125, 126 Frontenac, Louis, Count of, 193 ; Paris, 181 Anglo-French rivalry the War of India, 201-209 American Independenceand,22i, the Revolution in, 224, 240 ; in '> ; chap. 13, 14; foundation of the Empire, 269 Franche Comte, 71 Conde invades, 129; Louis XIV invades, 131; ; ceded to France, 131, 132 Francis I, Emperor, 177 Francis II, Emperor, 253, 257, 269, 270, 271 Francis 1, King of France, 8, 9, 25, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, T2,, 74> 76, 123 Francis II, King of France, 78, 93 Franciscans, the, 90 Franconia, the Peasants' revolt in, S7 Frankfort-on-the-Oder, taken by Gustavus Adolphus, 115 Frankfort-on-the-Main, 270 Franklin, Benjamin, 218, 221 Franklin, Sir John, 27 Frederick I, King of Denmark, 55, 63 Frederick IV, King of Denmark, 154 Frederick, King of Naples, 36, 37 Frederick I, King of Prussia, 143, 168-70 Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, 176-81 Frederick William I, King of Prussia, 156 Frederick 236 Gabelle^ the, 125, Gaeta, evacuated by France, 36 Gage, Thomas, General, 216, 218 Galicia, annexed by Austria, 183 Galilei, Galileo, 2, 13 Gama, Vasco da, 13, 18, 25 Garigliano, river, French defeat at, 37 Gaspee, the, 216 Duchy of, 85, 95, lOO, 102, 104, 130; Upper G. assigned to Prussia, 143, 165, 168 Gen^ralites^ 124, 234 Geneva, Calvin at, 74, 75, 78 ; Gelderland, annexed to France, 265 Genoa, and the Black Sea trade, 17 rejects Columbus's overtures, 21 war of Chioggia with Venice, 32 Charles VIII's army embarks Francis I and, for Naples at, 34 41 republic established by Doria in, 42 ; Bonaparte and, 263 George I, King of Great Britain, ; ; ; ; ; 156, 157 George II, of Great Britain, King 177, 179 George 215 III, King of Great Britain, Georgia, foundation of, 187, 222 Gerard, Balthasar, loi Germany, scholasticism in, 3 the Renaissance and, 9 ; the Reformation in, 49 the knights' and peasants' revolts, 56 ; Charles V and the Reformation in, 58 ; the ; ; WiHiam II, King of Prussia, 170-74, 182, 252 Frederiksborg, Treaty of (1720), 158 Freiburg^ ; ; Canton, 70, 72, 73 ; (Breisgau) surrendered to France, 131 restored to the Empire, 137 ; Friedrichshall, siege of, 158 Friedwald, Treaty of (1552), 60, 118 Friesland, Lordship 102, 104 Schmalkaldic League, 59 60 Schmalkaldic War, Peace of Augsburg, 61 English Reformation and, of, 85, 95, 98, ; the the the 68 ; the Thirty Years' War in, chap. 6 Diet of Ratisbon and, 269 ; Confederation of the Rhine, 270 dissolution of Holy Roman Em; ; pire, 271 Genisalemjiie Liberaia, 7 Index 300 Ghent, Pacification of (1576), 99, 100 Gibraltar, captured by Sir George Rooke, 141 ; ceded to Great Britain, 142 ; siege of, 223 Gilan, ceded to Russia, 153 Gilbert, Sir Humphry, 2, 9, his Discourse, 26, 28 190 ; Gioja, Flavio, 13 See Bondone Giotto. Girondins, the, 251, 253, 256, 257 Glarus, Canton, 70, 72 Zwingli ; 71 at, Glasgow, University of, 1 1 Glatz, ceded to Prussia, 177, 181 Goa, captured by the Portuguese, Grenville, George, 213 Godeheu, Director of French East India Company, 204 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 258 Goree, ceded to France, 224 Gouvernements, the French, 234 Grey, Lady Jane, 68 Greynville, Sir Richard, 29, 106 Grisons, the, 70 Grocyn, William, 10 Groningen, Lordship of, 85, 95, 102, 104 Groot, Pluig van, 10 Grossfriedrichsburg, 167 See Groot Grotius. Guadeloupe, French possession of, 193 Golden Horde, the, 145 Sarmiento Gondomar, Diego d'Acunha, Count of, 120 Gordon, General Patrick, 148, 150 Gortz, George Henrik, Baron, 158 Granada, fall of, 21 Alliance, War of the, 136 Granvelle, Antoine Perrenot de, Bishop of Arras, 96 Grand Graublinden, the, 70 Gravamina Gravelines, V meet (15 10), the, 49 Henry VHI and Charles at, 40 ; Battle of, 44 ; the Armada off, 160 Great Britain, the Treaty of Utrecht and, 142 guarantees the Barrier the Austrian SucTreaty, 143 cession and Siberian Wars and, ; ; rivalry with France alliance with Frederick the Great, 179 ; colonial '^n^ 17S ; on the Ohio, 179; development in America of, ; in India, chap. 1 1 21 Guiana, Ralegh and, 29 Guicciardini, Francesco, 7 See Bilad Ghana Guinea. Guinegaste, English victory at, 39 Guines, fall of, 44 Guise, Francis, Duke of, 43, 44, 79> 80 Guise, Henry, Duke of, 81, 82, 83 Guise, Louis, Cardinal of, 83 Gunpowder, discovery of, 3, 14 of Gustavus King Adolphus, Sweden, 1 14-16, 147 Gustavus Vasa, King of Sweden, 62, 64 Gustavus III, King of Sweden, 258 Guyenne, the Huguenots in, 78, 82; Estates of, 240 H chap. and the French Revolution, 259-71. See also England 1 1 Guanahani, sighted by Columbus, ; Great Meadows, Battle of, 179, 196 Greek, study of, 3, 5, 10 Greenland, colonised by the Norse- men, 15 Gregory IX, Pope, 89 Greifswald, restored to Sweden, 158 Grenada, acquired by Great Britain, 197 Grenadines, the, acquired by Great Britain, 197 Grenoble, Parlement of, 84, 235 Haarlem, siege of, 98 Haidar Ali, of Mysore, 223 Hainault, County of, 85 Halberstadt, secularised bishopric of, 113 ; ceded to Brandenburg, 119, 165 Halifax, built by the French, 196; Howe withdraws to, 218, 219 Halland, ceded to Sweden, 153 Ilalle, University of, 170 Hamburg, City of, 270 Hamilton, Patrick, Abbot of Feme, 86 Index Hanover, Electorate of, 157; obtains Bremen and Verden, 158 ; Convention of Klosterzeven, 180 receives Osnabrtick, 270 Hanover, Ernest Augustus, Elector ; of, 157 Holbein, Hans, 9 Holland, County loi, 102, 104 85, 96, 100, of, Duchy of, 62 the Reformation in, 55 Christian IV and, 112; Wallenstein in, 113 Holstein, Hanover, Electress Sophia, of, 157 Harvard University, 194 Hastenbeck, Battle of, Havre, ceded to England, 80 Hawkins, John, 105 Hawkins, William, 200 Heath, Sir Robert, 187 Heilbronn, League of, 116 Heiligerlee, Battle of, 98 Heinsius, Anton, Grand Pensionary, 140 Helvetic Republic, the, 265 Henries, War of the Three, VH, King ; ; Holy League, the, 38 Holy Roman Empire, 180 Hastings, Lady Mary, 148 Hastings, Warren, 207, 223 Hausschein, John, 74 Havelberg, See of, acquired by Brandenburg, 165 Henry 301 Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Principality of, 162 dissolution of the, 269-71 Hoorn, Philippe de Montmorency, Count of, 96, 98 Hopital, Michel de 1', 79 Hormuz, acquired by Portugal, 19 Howard of Effingham, William Lord, 106 Howe, Richard, Earl, 197, 260 Howe, Sir William, 218, 219, 220, 222 Plubertusburg, Peace of(i763), 181 Hudson Bay Company, 190 ; French claims on abandoned, 142, 194 Huguenots, S;^ of England, 25, of England, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43> 66, 67, 68 Henry II, King of France, 43, 44, 60, 78, 124, 235 Henry III, King of France, 82, 83, lOI Henry IV, King of France, 81, 82, 83, 102, 109, 124, 125 Henry I, King of Portugal, 93 Henry, Prince, of Portugal, 17 Hildesheim, Bishopric of, attached of, 28 origin of the ; persecution of, 76 ; Richelieu and, 125 ; Louis XIV and, 133; revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 134 ; in Brandenburg, 168 ; refused admission to name, 70 Henry VIII, King the, settlements in the New World ; Canada, 195 Humanism, 3, 49 Hus, John, 45 Hiitten, Ulrich von, 53 to Prussia, 270 Hispaniola, occupied by Spain, 23 Hesse, Philip, Landgrave of, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60 Hesse-Cassel, Electorate of, 269 Hoche, Lazare, General, 262 Hochstett, Battle of, 267 Hohenfriedberg, Battle of, 177 Hohenlinden, Battle of, 267 HohenzoUern, House of, origin in, 64 Illinois State, 224 Imago Mundi, 13 Inca, the, 24 Index, the Papal, 90 of, 161 ; the Triden- 90 India, European trade with, 17 Dutch and Portuguese in, 19 English expeditions to, 27 Dutch tine, 5 HohenzoUern, Count, Frederick of, Burgrave of Nuremberg, 162 PrinciHohenzollern-Hechingen, pality of, Iceland, colonised by the Norsemen, 15 ; Columbus and, 20 ; Bristol and, 25 ; the Reformation 162 ; ; settlements Empire, 198 103 the Moghul English settlements in, ; ; Index 302 in, 199; French settlements 201 ; Anglo-French in, rivalry in, the Regulating Act, 208 ; Lord Cornwallis, 209 French intrigue in, 223 Indiana State, 224 Ingoldstadt, Jesuit College at, loS Ingria, acquired by Sweden, 114, 147; occupied by Russia, 156; ceded to Russia, 158 202-9 > ; Innocent IV, Pope, 16 Inquisition, the, 78, 85, 89, 90 liitetidants, the French, 124, 234 Interim^ the, 60, 61 Ireland, Hoche's expedition Iroquois, the, 188, to, 262 193, 194 Isabella, Isabella, Queen of Castile, 21 Queen of Denmark, 55 Isabella, Infanta, sovereign of the Belgic Netherlands, 102, 103, 104 Island of the Seven Cities, the, 15 Islands, fabulous, 15 Isle of Sheep, the, 15 Isles of ; 191 James and VI, King of Great I Britain, 29, 94, 104, 106, iir, 112, 120, 121 James II and VII, King of Great 122, Britain, 135, 136, 140, 188 James IV, King of Scotland, 1 1 James V, King of Scotland, 42 James Francis Edward Stewart, "Old the Pretender," 135, 140, 141, 142, 158 192, 191, Jamaica, occupied by Spain, 23 taken by England, 122, 123, America, French Company of the, 193 Italy, study of Greek in, 3, 5 ; the Renaissance in, 4 ; early histories of, 7 ; Ilapsburg-Valois wars in, chap. 3 ; Charles VIII invades, 34 league against France, 35 ; Louis XII invades, 36 Francis I and, 39 ; and the Council of Trent, 89 ; the Inquisition in, 89 the Jesuits in, 92 ; Treaty of Rastatt and, 142 ; Treaty of ; ; ; Vienna and, 174 Bonaparte's campaigns in, 262, 265, 267 Ivan III, Tsar of Russia, 144, 145 Ivan IV, Tsar of Russia, 145, 146, ; Jamestown, settlement of, 186 January (1562), the Edict of, 79 Japan, discovery of, Jarnac, Battle of, 81 16, 21 Java, the Dutch in, 103 Jefferson, Samuel, 218 Moghul Emperor, 200 Jehangir, Jemappes, 259 Jemmingen, Battle of, 98 Jenkins, Robert, 188, 195 Jenkinson, Antony, 147 Jerome, St., 9 Jesuits, the, 65, 90, 107, 108, 116, 146, 237, 238 in, Jesus Christ, Portuguese Order of, 18 Joanna I, Queen of Naples, 33 Joanna II, Queen of Naples, 34 Johansson, Eric, father of Gustavus Vasa, 64 John II, King of France, 34 John I, King of Portugal, 17 John IV, King of Portugal, 1 19 John III, King of Sweden. 65 John Casimir, King of Poland, 153, 166 Joinville, Treaty of (1585), 82 Jones, Paul, 222 148 Ivan V, Tsar of Russia, 148 Ivan VI, Tsar of Russia, 160 Joseph Joseph Ivry, Battle 166, Prussia's claim on, 173 succession Jiilich-Cleves, Duchy of, to, 109, 119 ; Hohenzollern claim on, 164, 166, 172 JUlich-Cleves, John William, Duke of, 83 Jiilich, 172 J Jacobin Club, the, 250, 253 Jaffa, Bonaparte at, 264 Jagerndorff, Duchy of, Hohenzollern claims on, 163, 167, 176 of, Emperor, 141, 175 Emperor, 183 assigned to Neuburg, I, II, ; 164 Julius II, Pope, 8, 37, 38, 39, 48, 51 Index Jutland, Wallenstein Lancaster, James, 2C0 113 in, 303 Landau, at, K death of Calvin Langside, Battle of, 94 Languedoc, the Huguenots at, La de, 192 League of the Ten Vizir, 127 Convention Klein-Schnellendorfif, of (1741), 177 ^ Laudonniere, Rene de, 28 Law, Jacques-Francois, 204 League of God's House, the, 70 136 of, of, 3 Latin, study State, 224 Kettler, Gottfried, Duke of Cour- Mohammed, Grand Salle, Robert Cavelier, Sieur Lateran Council, the Fifth, 48 Kentucky land, 146 Killiecrankie, Battle in, 78, 82 59 73 Kardis, Treaty of (1661), 149, I53 Karikal, the French obtain, 202 Kaunitz, Wenzel Anton, Prince von, 179 Kazimov, Khanate of, 145 Kiuprili, XIV, 137 Kalmar, Union of, 62 Kappel, Peaceof(i529), 72; (1531), ; rising of the Ritterschaft 56; retained by Louis Jurisdictions, 70 Lebus, See of, acquired by Brandenburg, 165 Lech, the, Gustavus Adolphus crosses, 1 15 Klosterzeven, Convention of (17571, Lefevre, Jacques, 76 Lefort, Francois, 148, 159 180 Knights of the Legislative Assembly, the, 250 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 170 Sword, the, 146, Leicester, Robert Dudley, Earl of, 163 Knox, John, 12, 86, Kolin, Battle of, 87 181 166 Konigsberg, Treaty of (1656), Frederick I crowned at, 169 Kottbus, acquired by Branden; burg, 163 Kremlin, the, 147 Krim, Khanate of, 145 Kunersdorf, Battle of, 181 the Lollards of, 86 by Portugal, 25 La Bresse, acquired by France, 124 Lafayette, Marquis 247.253 La Hogue, Battle , Lally, ^ . . . , , ^ ^. Leoben, Preliminaries of (i797)) 263 Leopold I, Emperor, 128, 130, 131, Hu- 100 Lepanto, Battle of, Le Tellier, Michel, 127 Letter of Majesty, the, no Lettres de cachet, 233, 240 Leuthen, Battle of, 181 Lexington, Battle of, 217 Leyden, John University Liegnitz, 221, 232, ^ 136 Thomas Arthur, Count of, 204 La Marche, County of, escheats to the French crown, 124 of, of, 59 ; siege of, 99 ; 99 Duchy of, Hohenzollern claim on, 163, 167, 176 of, of, of, the to 5I' 52, 53 87 4. 6, 8, 39, 40, 48> 132, I35> 137, 138. 140, 175 252, 253, Labiau, Treaty of (1656), 166 Labourdonnais, Bertrand-Fran9ois Mahe de, 202 Labrador, claimed from England Charite, yielded guenots, 81 of, Leo X, Pope, Leopold n. Emperor, 257 Kyle, La loi, 102 Leith, siege ; Battle 181 Ligurian Republic, the, 263, 267 Lille, ceded to France, 129 10 Lilly, William, Ivima, 24 Limburg, Duchy of, 85 Linacre, Thomas, 10 12 Lindesay, Robert, of Pitscottie, Index 304 Lingen, County assigned of, to Louisiana, Prussia, i68 ; Livonia, Knights of the Sword in, 146 transferred to Poland, 146 Ivan IV invades, 146 Russia abandons claim on, 114, 147; overrun by Alexis and restored to ; ; ; Sweden, 149, 153 ; occupied by Russia, 155, 156 ; ceded to Russia, 158 ; Austria obtains part of, 183 Locke, John, 226 Peace Lodi, seized by Venice, 31 of (1454), 32 ; Battle of, 262 Lollards, the, 45, 85, 86 London Company, the, 186 Longjumeau, Peace of (1568), 81 ; Louis Louis Duchy 117, XIV, XV, occupied by of, 131 137 restored ; ; 143, 237 by by exchanged acquired ; for Tuscany, 174 Lorraine, Charles V, Duke Lorraine, Charles, Cardinal of, 131 of, 78, link Louvain, University of, 98 Louvois, Frangois-Michel, Marquis of, 128, 129, 134 Louvre, the, building of, 9 ; Henry III confined in, 83 Loyola, Ignatius, 41, 91, 92 Liibeck, secularised See of, joins the Schmalkaldic League, 59 Treaty of, 113 Edict of Resti- ; ; tution and, 113 city of, 270 Lucerne, Canton, 70, 72, 73 Duke of, 55 Llineburg, Ernest, Luneville, Treaty of (180 1), 267 to ceded Lusatia, Saxony, 117 Luther, Martin, 46, 50-62 Lutheranism, recognised by the in DenPeace of Augsburg, 61 in Norway, 64 in mark, 62 Sweden, ib. and Calvinism com; ; ; ; ; pared, 73, 74 ; Treaty of Prague and, 117 ; the Treaty of Westphalia and, 118 Lutter, Battle of, 113 Liitzen, Battle of, 1 Luxemburg, Duchy XIV and, 132 ; 16 of, 85 ; Louis restored to Spain, 138 M 79,90 Louis IX, King of France, 16 Louis XI, King of France, 34, 71, 123 Louis XII, King of France, 33, 35. 36,37,38, 39, 71, 123 Louis XIII, King of France, iii, Macao, the Portuguese occupy, 19 Macchiavelli, Niccolo, 7 Madagascar, the French Madeira Islands, the, 18 Louis XIV, King of France, 120, chap, d passim ; 153, 155, 233, 236 Louis XV, King of France, 143, 178, 182 Louis XVI, King of France, 182, chap. IT, passim Louis XVII, King of France, 261 Louis XVIII, King of France, 252 Louisbourg, fortification of, 194 capture and restoration of, 195; capture by Wolfe and Amherst, ; in, 201 Madeleine, Queen of Scotland, 42 Madoc, Prince, 125, 126, 137 197 to effort ; Lionne, Hugues de, 128 Lisbon, 18, 20, 105 Lisle, Rouget de, 254 Lit de Justice, held by Louis XVI, 242, 243 Lithuania, Grand Duchy of, union with Poland, 182 Austria annexes part of, 183 Lorraine, France, French with Canada, 179 foundation of, 192 ; ceded to Spain, 197, 210 15 Madras, English factory at, 200 ; captured and restored by the French, 203, 209 Madrid, Treaty of (1526), 41 ; (1630), 121 Magdeburg, Archbishopric of, joins the Schmalkaldic League, 59 ; Catholic attempt to exclude it from the Diet, 109 ; effect of Edict of Restitution on, 113; sacked by Tilly, 115; ceded to Brandenburg, 119, 165 Magellan, Ferdinand, 23 Index Maritime Maine, County of, passes to the French crown, 123 Maine, annexed to Massachusetts, 190 ; the Jesuits 107 ; 59 occupied by Gustavus Adolphus, 115; French i^migr^s in, 257; French occupation of, 259 ; taken by the Prussians, 260, 269 Mainz, John Philip, Elector of, 130 Major, John, 12 Malabar, annexation of, 209 ism, in, Malacca, obtains, 19 Portugal acquired by the Dutch, 103 Malesherbes, Chretien-G. de, 240 Malplaquet, Battle of, 141 Malta, seized by Bonaparte, 264 restored to the Knights, 268 ceded to Great Britain, 142 Alps, Department ; Mark, County of, confirmed to Brandenburg, 119, 164 Marlborough, John Churchill, Duke of, 140, 141, 155 Marot, Clement, 9 Marseillaise^ the, 254 Martin V, Pope, 18 Martinique, French possession of, 193 Martinitz, Jaroslav von, no Martyr, Peter, 90 Mary Tudor, Queen of England, 44, 68, 86, 92, 93 Mary of York, Queen of England, 131 Mary of Lorraine, Regent of Scot- land, 86, 94 ; ; Mary Stewart, Queen of Scotland, S6, 87, 93, 94, 104 Mamelukes, Maryland, foundation sympathy with Boston Manoel the Great, King Masaniello 120 the, 264 Mandeville, Sir John, 16 of Portu- gal, 93 II, King of Portugal, 93 Mansfeld, Count Ernest von, iii, 112, 120 Mantes, Edict of, 83 Mantua, humanism at, 6 ; fall of, Manoel 263 Manuzio, Aldo, 6 Marat, Jean-Paul, 250, 251, 255, 260 Marathas, the, 198, 223 conference between Marburg, Luther and Zwingli at, 58 ceded to Mardyk, England, 122 bought by Louis XIV, 128 Marengo, Battle of, 267 Margaret, Queen of France, 81 Margaret Teresa, Empress, 128, ; 138 Maria Teresa, Queen of France, 120, 128, 138 Maria Theresa, Empress, 175 Marie Antoinette, Queen of France, 221, 238, 239, 241, 242, 255, 260 Marie Galante, French occupation of, II.— X (Tommaso of, in, of, 39, 71 187; 217 Aniello), Masenderan, ceded to Russia, 153 Massachusetts, foundation of, 189 ; the stamp and tea duties in, 215 Massacres, the September, in Paris, Marshal Andre, Massena, France, 266 Masulipatam, French factory of at, 201 Matthias, Emperor, no, ill Jean-Frederic Comte Maurepas, de, 238 Maxen, Prussian Maximilian I, defeat at, 181 Emperor, 30, 35, 37, 38, 39 Mayenne, Charles, Count of, 34, 123 Mayenne, Duke of, 83 Mayflotver, the, 1S9 Mazarin, Jules, Cardinal, 120, 126 Mazeppa, Hetman of the Ukraine, 155 the of, 80 Fourteen of, 77 Mechlin, Lordship of, 85 Mecklenburg, Duchies of, Wallen- Meaux, the Enterprise ; stein occupies, 113 193 Marignano, Battle of; 259 Maintenon, Madame de, 133, 134 Mainz, Pragmatic Sanction of, 49 electorate of, rejects Lutheran; 305 Medici, Cosimo de', 6, 33 Index 3o6 Giovanni de'. X, Pope Medici, Lorenzo de', 6, Medici, Piero de', 33, Leo See Medici, 7, 33, 38 35 Medina Sidonia, Alfonso Perez de Guzman, Duke of, 106 Melanchthon, Philip, 9, 53, 58, Melinde, da Gama at, 19 of, ; Brandenburg, Twelve Articles the Memmingen, *]'] 137 Menshikoff, Alexander, 159 Mercator, Map of (1569), 22 in, Merchant Taylors' School, 10 circulation precious, in Europe, 23, 24 Methuen Treaty, 132 Mexico, Spanish conquest of, 23 Michael Romanoff, Tsar of Russia, 147 Michelangelo. See Buonarotti Michigan State, 224 Middleburg, taken by the Beggars, 99 Middleton, Sir Henry, 200 Milan, Duchy ; of, the Sforza dukes joins the French expelled from, 41 Francis I at, 41 ; French claims abandoned, 41 ; joins League of Cognac against Charles V, ib. ; the Imperialists in, ib. ; the Treaty of Cambray and, 42 ; ; ceded to Austria, 142 Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti, Duke of, 31-3 Milan, Francesco Sforza, Duke of, 31,33,41,42 Duke Gian Galeazzo of, 31, 34, Visconti, 35 Milan, Ludovico Sforza, Duke 31, 34, 35, 36 Great by captured Island, retained by France, 197, 224 Mirabeau, Honore-Gabriel, Count, 232 Jafar, Nawab of Bengal, 206 Mississippi, La Salle on the, 192 ; State, 224 Mittau, the Articles of, 159 Mocha, coffee first brought from, Mir 104 ; Milan, 165; 164, Britain, 141 ; ceded to Great Britain, 142 ; restored to Spain the taken by (1802), 142; French (1756), 181 ; restored to Great Britain, 181 Moghul Empire, Sea- league against Venice, 32 ; French claim on, the ; 33, 35 league against joins France, 35 ; Treaty of Vercelli Louis XII with France, 36 ib. ; and, by the occupied French, 36 ; the Sforza restored, 39 ; recovered by Francis I, ib. ; 31 119, 181 of, Miquelon the (1703), 141 Metz, Bishopric of, annexed by France, 43, 60, 124; confirmed to France, 118 ; Louis XIV and, of, Battle Minorca, 57 Menin, Dutch garrison Metals, Milan, Massimiliano Sforza, Duke of, 39 Milne, Walter, 85 Miltitz, Charles von, 52 Milton, John, 1 1 Minden, Bishopric of, Catholic reaction in, 108, 113 ceded to of, Mohammed Ali, the, 198 203 Mollwitz, Battle of, 176 Moluccas, the, 19 Moncontour, Battle of, 81 Mons, taken by Lewis of Nassau, 98 siege of, 136 ; restored to ; Spain, 137 Monsieur, Peace of (1576), 82 Montaigne, Michel de, 9 Montauban, yielded to the Hugue- nots, 81, 82 Mont Blanc, Department of, 259 Montcalm, Louis Joseph, Marquis of, 197 Monte Cassino, Abbey of, 3 Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat de la Brede de, 226, 229 Montreal, French settlement at, taken by Amherst, 26, 191 ; 197 Montserrat, 191 a British possession, Mookerheide, Battle of, 99 Moravia, Catholic reaction in, 108 More, Sir Thomas, 10, 11 Morea, Venice loses her possessions in, 32 Index Mors, County assigned of, to Prussia, 168 Moscow, foundation ** Mountain," Mozaffar the, of, 145 260 Nizam Jang, of the Deccan, 203 Mozambique, 19 Muhlberg, Battle of, 60 Miihlhausen, pact of, ill to France, 265 Miiller, Johann, 9 ; annexed Subahdar of the Jang, Deccan, 203 Nassau, Count, Henry of, 99 Nassau, Count, Lewis of, 97, 98, 99 Nassau, Count, William Lewis of, Nasir 102 Natal, origin of the name, 18 National Convention, the, 255 National Guard, the French, 247 Naumburg, Lutheran Gustavus Adolphus in, taken by the French, 267 Miinster, Bishopric of. Anabaptists CathoHc reaction in, 108 ; in, 59 Prussia and, 270 Miinzer, Thomas, 57 Muscovy Merchants, the Company of, 27, 147 ; ; at, princes 61 by Ferdinand of Aragon, 39; French invasion of, 40 ; falls to the French crown, Navarre, Munich, 116 307 seized 123 Navarre, Jean, Queen of, 78, 124 Navigation Act, the, 122, 211 Necker, Jacques, 229, 240, 241, 243, 246, 247 Neerwinden, Battle of, 260 Horatio, Viscount, 262, 264, 266, 268 Netherlands, the Austrian, ceded by Spain, 143 ; the French Revolution and, 260-67 the the Netherlands, Spanish, Renaissance in, 10; Philip II V and, and, 80, 95-102 Charles 84 ; constitution of, 85, 95 ; the the Beggars, 97 ; Jesuits in, 90 Nelson, N Nadir Shah, 199 Nahuatlaca, the, 23 Namur, siege of, 136 ; Dutch garrison in, 137, 143 ; County of, 85 Nancy, Parlement of, 235 Nantes, Edict of, 84; revocation of, 134 Naples, humanism at, 6 ; joins league against Venice, 32 ; reunited to Sicily, ib. ; separates from Sicily, 33 ; French claim on, 33 Angevin dynasty in, 33 occupied by Charles VIII, 35 ; French expelled from, 36 ; Louis XII and, ib. French again expelled from, 37 ; reunited to Sicily, ib. ; Francis I withdraws claim on, 39, 41, 42, 43 ; Henry II and, 44 ; revolt of Masaniello in, 120 ; ceded to ; ; ; ; ; Alva ib. in, sedes Alva, Delft, settled ib. ; on ; Requesens super- the Union of Parma and, loi 99 ; ; Infanta Isabella, 102; Louis XIV claims, 128; Truce of Ratisbon and, 132 the to Austria, ceded 143 French Republic and, 258 Netherlands, United Provinces of ; ; the, depose Philip II, loo ; death of William the Silent, loi ; EnglOi ; Maurice of land and, Family Compact, 237; connected with the Parthenopean Republic, 266 ; the Treaty of Luneville and, 267 Napoleon, Emperor of the French, and Oldenbarneveldt, recognised by England and France, 102 ; and by Spain, 103 ; Frederick Henry of Orange, 103 ; alliance with France, 103 ; commercial activity in the East in China, 104 ; Indies, 103, 104 in Australasia, 104 ; in the New World, 104 ; settlement of New 261-70 Narva, defeat of Peter the Great Netherland, 104 ; recognised by the Treaty of Westphalia, 104, Austria, 142 granted to Carlos of 174; Spain, ; at, 155 Don the Orange 102 ; ; 119; war with English Common- Index 3o8 wealth, 121 ; lossof New Netherland in America, 123 Louis XIV and, 128 ; join the Triple Alliance, 129; war with Louis XIV, 130 ; restoration of House of Orange, 130; join League of Augsburg, 135 ; Treaty of Ryswyk and, 138; the Spanish Succession, 139 join the Armed Neutrality, 223 ; the French Republic declares war on, 260; fall of the Stadtholderate, 261 the Batavian Republic, 261 ; ; ; Wolfgang Neuburg, William, Count Palatine of, 164 Neuchatel, principality of, acquired by Prussia, 168 Neumark, bought by Brandenburg, 163 Nevis, island, a British possession, 191 New Amsterdam, 104 New Castile, 24 New England, foundation of, 188 New England Company, the, 189 Newfoundland, claimed from England by Portugal, 25 ; France abandons her claims on, 142, 194 ; failure of English attempts to colonise, 190 France, meanings of the name, 26 Company of, 192 New Hampshire, foundation of, ; 190 Dios, Drake at, 105 Nordlingen, Battle of, 116 Nore, mutiny at the, 262 the Normandy, Norsemen, America Huguenots in, discoveries the, 78 in 15 North, Frederick, Lord, 215, 216, 221 217, of, North-East Passage, the, 27 North-West Passage, the, 26 Northumberland, John Dudley, Duke of, 68 Northern Circars, French expelled from, 204, 209 Norway, Union of Kalmar and, 62 ; Reformation in, 64 Notables, the, at Versailles, 242 Nova Scotia, attempted Scottish settlement of, 190 Novaya Zembla, discovery of, 27 Novgorod, founded by Rurik, 144 ; seized by Sweden, 147 ; restored to Russia, 147 Novi, Battle of, 266 Noyon, Calvin's 73 > 39 Nuremberg, the Hohenzollerns and, 162, 270 Nymegen, Treaty of (1678), 131 Nystad, Peace of (172 1), 158 birthplace, (1 5 16), Haven, 188 Holland (Australia), 104 O Isle, the, 15, 20, 25 Jersey, foundation of, 188 Netherland, Dutch colony of, 104, 123, 186, 188 Orleans, settlement of, 195 ; ceded to Spain, 197 New Spain, 24 New York, colony, foundation of, 188 ; congress at, 214 ; tea-ships at, 216; Howe evacuates, 218, 219 ; Washington occupies, 220 Howe forces Washington from, 220 ; Clinton reoccupies, 222 New Zealand, discovered by the ; Dutch, 104 Truce of, 43 France, 259 QEcolampadius. See Hausschein, John New Nice, Nombre de Treaty of New New New New New New Nicolas V, Pope, 6 Nile, Battle of the, 264 Nimes, the Huguenots in, 8r, 82 Noblesse, the French, 229, 230 Oglethorpe, James, General, 187 Ohio, French and English rivalry in, 179, 196; State, 224 Oldenbarneveldt, Johan van, 102, 103 Oldenburg, House of, 62 Oliva, Treaty of (1660), 153, 164, 166 Orange, Principality of, 96, 143 Orange, Frederick Henry, Prince of, ; annexed to 103 Orange, Mary, Princess of, 103 Orange, Maurice, Prince of, 101-3 Index Orange, William the Silent, Prince of, 96-101 Orange, William II, Prince of, 103, 121 Orange, William III. See William III Ordoimances EccUsiastiques, Cal- vin's, 75 80 University of, *]t^ ; siege Duchy of, 123 Orleans, Louis, Duke of, 33 Orleans, Philippe Egalite, Duke of, of, 243, 246, 248, 260 Catholic Osnabriick, Bishopric of. reaction in, 108 ; Ernest Augustus of Hanover and, 156; attached to Hanover, 270 Otranto, Venice acquires, 38 Otto the Great, Emperor, 3 Oudenarde, Battle of, 141 Overyssel, Lordship of, 85, 95, 98, 102, 104, 130 Oxenstierna, Axel, Chancellor of Sweden, 116 Oudh, Nawab of, 206, 207, 209 Oxford, Erasmus and, 9 the Re; 10 at, Paris, University of, 7^, 76, 77, 91 ; ; Par lenient of, 76-8, 84, 90, 124-6, 235, 237, 242, 243 the French Parlements, (1789), 235, 238> 243 Parma, Duchy of, restored by Leo X, 39 ; recovered by the Papacy, 41 ; Austria obtains in for Sicily and Naples, 174 ; Austria abandons to Don Philip of Spain, 177 ; enters the Family Compact, 237 Parma, Alexander Farnese, Duke exchange of, Pacific Ocean, discovery named by Magellan, 23 Drake 22 Francis of, ; ; in the, 105 Paderborn, Bishopric of, attached to Prussia, 270 Padna, acquired by Venice, 32, 38 Palatinate, the, rejects Lutheranism, 59; Calvinism in, 108; Frederick V accepts Bohemian crown, III ; occupied by Spain and Bavaria, in the Treaty of Westphalia and, 119; Lower P. claimed by Louis XIV, 135 ; Louis evacuates, 136, 137 ; Palatinate, Charles, Count Palatine, 135 Palatinate, Charles Lewis, Count Palatine, 119 Palatinate, Charles Philip, Count Palatine, 173 Palatinate, Frederick Palatine, 108, 109 IV, ; "barricades" (1588), 83; Louis XVI in, 247 ; the Commune in, 254 September massacres in, 255 ; Peace of (1763), 181, 205, 207; Peace of (1814), Declaration of (1856), 223 ; 142 the ; naissance Papacy, the, joins league against Venice, 32 ; the Reformation and, the French Rechaps. 4 and 5 pubhc and the, 265 ; Orlando Furioso^ 7 Orleans, 309 V, Count Palatinate, Frederick Palatine, no, in, 113, 157 Palos, Columbus sails from, 21 Pamplona, siege of, 41, 91 Panama, Spanish settlement at, 23 Count 100, lOI Parma, Prince Louis of, 267 Parma, Margaret, Duchess of, 97 Parma, Philip, Duke of, 177 Parthenopean Republic, the, 266 Partition Treaties, the Spanish (1698-1700), 139 Passau, Treaty of (1552), 60, 61, 113 Patkul, Johan Reinhold von, 154, 15s Patna, English factory at, 201 Pau, Parlement of, 235 Paul III, Pope, 88, 89 Paul IV, Pope, 44, 90 Paul V, Pope, no Paul, Tsar of Russia, 265, 267 Paulelte, the, 125 Pavia, defeat of Francis I at, 41 Pays d' Elections, 124, 236 Pays d'^tats, 124, 236 Peages, 233 Peasants' revolt, the, in Germany 56 Penn, William, 188 Index 310 Pennsylvania, foundation of, i88 Perpetual Edict (1550), the, 85, 100 Perpetual League, the, 70 Persia, Peter the Great and, 153 Perth, James Resby burnt at, 86 Peru, Spanish conquest of, 24 Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia, 148-59 Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, Earl of, 141 Petersburg, foundation of, 155 ; abandoned by Peter II, 159 Petrarca, Francesco, 4 216 ; Plymouth (New England), founded, 189 (England), Spanish treasure; ships seized at, 105 Plymouth Company, the, 186, 189, 191 East Indiamen at, First Continental Congress Second Continental 217 ; Congress at, 218; occupied by Howe, 220 Clinton evacuates, 222 at, ; King of Spain, 24, 43, 44, 60, 80, 82, 90, 92, 93, 96-102, Philip II, 104 Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan, 186 Poel Island, ceded to Sweden, 118 PoggiOj Bracciolini, 5 Poissy, Colloquy of, 79 Poland, Kingdom of, accepts the Tridentine the decrees, 89 obtains Livonia, Jesuits in, 107 Charles XII 146, 147 and, 154; Polish Election War, 173 ; Partition of, 182-4 Poland, John III (Sobieski), King of, 132 ; ; ; Philip III, King of Spain, no, 137 Philip IV, King of Spain, 120, 128, 137 Philip V, King of Spain, 140, 142, 174 Philippsburg, abandoned to France, 117; recovered by the Empire, ib. ; France obtains right to gar118; France abandons, rison, 131 ; besieged by Louis XIV, 135 137 ; confirmed to France, 118, 136 Pinzon, Vincente, 22 Pima, Capitulation of, 180 Pitt, William, 259 Pius II, Pope, 5 Pius III, Pope, 37 Pius VI, Pope, 265 Pizarro, Francesco, 24 Piano Carpini, Friar John of, 16 Plassey, Battle of, 206 Peter II, Tsar of Russia, 159 Peter III, Tsar of Russia, 181 Philadelphia, Pinerolo, acquired by France, 44 restored ; the to Empire, Polish Election, War of the, 173 See Poliziano Politian. Polifiques, the, 82 Poliziano, Angelo, 6 Polo, Marco, 16, 21 Poltava, Battle of, Pomerania, Duchy Phipps, Sir William, 193 Physiocrats, the, 229 Piacenza, seized by Venice, 31 ; restored by Leo X, 39 recovered by the Papacy, 41 exchanged by Austria for Naples and Sicily, 174; Austria abandons to Don Philip of Spain, 177 ; ; Pichegru, Charles, General, 268 Piedmont, invaded by Francis 42, 43 ; I, restored to Savoy, 44 ; French Revolution and, 262-6 to annexed France, 267 the ; Pilgrim Fathers, the, 189 Pilnitz, Declaration of (1791), 252 156 occupied by P. ceded to Sweden, 118, 153, 165; East Wallenstein, 113 P. to 165 ; of, ; West Brandenburg, 118, 119, cessions to Brandenburg in W. Pomerania, 154, 158 origin of Brandenburg's claim on, 163 ; Pomerania, Bogislav XIV, Duke of, 165 Pompadour, Jeanne - Antoinette Marquise, de, 178 Pondicherry, French factory at, 201 ; taken by the English, 205 ; restored to the French, 224 Port Royal, French settlement at, captured and restored, captured by Great Britain, 191, 192 193 194 ; ; Index of Pilnitz, claration Porto Bello, captured by Vernon, 254, 255 ; war with the French Republic, 195 Porto Novo, Battle of, 223 Porto Rico, occupied by Spain, 23 Portugal, the Renaissance in, 4, 10 maritime and colonial activity union with Spain, 20, of, 17; ; 93 31 ; loss of her colonial acquisi- Columbus's overthe Treaty of Tordescontests illas with Spain, ib. England's discoveries in North tions, ib. tures, 21 rejects ; ; ; annexed by Spain, America, 25 27 and the Council of Trent, 89 ; ; ; the Treaty of Basle, 261 ; ; acquisitions under the settlement of 1803, 270 Prussia, Albert of Ansbach, Duke of, 55, 63, 146, 164 Prussia, Albert Frederick, Duke of, 258 164 Pruth, Peace of the (171 1), 153 Puritan rebellion, the, 69 Pyramids, Battle of the, 264 Pyrenees, Treaty of (1659), 120, 129 the Jesuits in, 92 ; accession of House of Braganza, 119; in alli- ance with Louis XIV, 140 abandons French alliance, 141 Posen, annexed by Prussia, 183 Potosi, mines of, 23 Powhatan, Indian chief, 186 ; Pr?emunire, Statute of, 46 Pragmatic Sanction, the, 175 Prague, "defenestration" of Regents at, III the Saxons occupy, 115 Wallenstein at, 116 ; Peace of (1635), 117, 118 Q Quebec, French settlement at, 28, attacks on, 193, 194 ; taken by Wolfe, 192; Act (1774), 217, 219 Queen Anne's War, 193 Quesnay, Fran9ois, 229 191, 192 ; R ; ; Predestination, 74 Prisidiaux, the French, 235 Pressburg, Treaty of (1626), 112 Prince, The, 2, 7 Prince Edward Isle, 194 Prince Rupert's Land, 190 University of, foundaattack on, 220 Printing, invention of, 3, 48 Protestantism, origin of the name, Princeton, tion of, 194 ; Provence, County of, 123 annexed by Louis XI, 34 ; invaded by Charles V, 42 Providence, foundation of, 190 Provisors, Statute of, 46 Prussia, Duchy of, foundation of, ; receives 163 ; Brandenburg sovereignty over, 153, 164, West Prussia ceded to ; East Prussia a Poland, 164 Polish fief, 164 ; West P. taken by Frederick the Great, 183 Prussia, Kingdom of, gains under the Treaty of Stockholm, 158; history of (to 1795), 161-84 ; De146, full 166 ; Rabelais, Fran9ois, 9 Rafifaelle Sanzio, 4, 6, 8, 9 Ralegh, Sir Walter, 29, 106 Ramillies, Battle of, 141 Rambouillet, bought for Louis XVI, 241 Rastatt, Peace of (i 714), 142; Congress of (i797)> 263 Ratisbon, Truce of (1684), 132; Diet of (1801), 269 Ravaillac, Frangois, 109 Ravenna, Venice acquires, 32, 38 French victory at, 38 j Ravensberg, confirmed to Brandenburg, 119, 164 Re, English expedition to, 121 Reformation, the, chaps. 4 and 5 5 causes of, 45 abuses of medieval in Germany, 49 ; Church, 46 in Denmark, 63 ; in Norway, 64 in Sweden, 65 ; in England, 66 ; in Switzerland, 71-5 ; in France, 76-84 ; in the Netherin Scotland, 85 ; lands, 84 treatises, 53, 6^ ; Knox's history ; ; ; ; of, 12 Regiomontanus. Johann See Miiller, Index 312 Regulating Act, the (1773), 208 Reign of Terror, the, 260 Renaissance, the, chap, i ; in Spain, 4 ; in Portugal, ib. ; in Italy, ib. ; art, 8 ; in Germany, 9 ; in France, zb. ; in Spain and Portugal, 10 ; in the Netherlands, ib. ; in in Scotland, England, zb. II and the Reformation, 48 Rene the Good, King of Naples, ; ; no Riigen, island, restored to Sweden, 163 Russia, early English relations with, "Request," the, 97 Resby, James, 86 the 124 Rubruquis, William de, 16 Rudolf II, Emperor, 108, 109, 158 Ruppin, absorbed by Brandenburg, 34, 123 Rennes, Farlement of, 235 Requesens, Don Luis, 99 Restitution, Ronsard, Pierre de, 9 Rossbach, Battle of, 181 Rouen, assault on, 80 ; Farlement of, 235 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 226, 228 Roussillon, France obtains, 120, Edict of (1629), 113 Reuchlin, Johann, 9 27 ; Gustavus Adolphus and, 114; history of (1462-1741), and the Austrian Suc144 ; . Reunion the f Chambres de, 132 ; island, 201 Rhine, Confederation of the (1806), cession and Silesian Wars, 180, 181 ; the Partition of Poland and, 182, 183 ; joins the Armed NeutraUty, 223 Ryswyk, Peace of (1697), 270 Rhode Island, -foundation of, 190 Ribault, Jean, 28 Richelieu, Armand-Jean du Plessis, Cardinal, iii, 115, 117, 125, 126, 191, 201 Saarlouis, retained by France, 137 Andrews, Patrick Hamilton burnt at, 86; John Knox at, ib.', Walter Milne burnt at, ib. ; Uni- Ridley, Mark, 148 Riebeek, Antoni van, 104 Rienzi, Cola di, 5 Rimini, Venice acquires, 37, 38 St. Ritterschaft^ rising of the, 56 St. versity of, Maximilien Marie Robespierre, Isidore, 250, 251, 254, 260 Rochelle, the Huguenots and, 80, Peace of (1573), 81 81, 82 ; Rockingham, Charles, Marquis of, 214 Rocroi, Battle of, 117 Rodney, George, Lord, 223 Rohillas, the, 199 Romagna, the, Caesar Borgia and, 36, 37 ; Julius II and, 38, 39 Romanoff, House of, accession of, 147 Rome, classic monuments of, 5 humanism at, 6 captured by ; ; Charles V, ib. ; Renaissance art 8 ; Charles VIII in, 35 ; at, sacked by the Imperialists, 41 ; Luther at, 50 ; republic restored Ferdinand of Naples 265 and, 265 at, ; 137, 193, 201 tion St. St. 1 1 Bartholomew, French occupaof, 193 ; massacre, 81, 98 Brandan, a fabulous island, 15 Christopher, French Company 193 Cloud, bought for Marie Antoinette, 241, 249 St. Die, the name America and, 22 of, Saint St. - Eustatius, lost by the Dutch, 223 St. Gall, abbey of, 70 St. Germain, Peace of (1570), 81 Peace of (1632), 190 ; ; Peace of (1679), 154, 166 St. Jean, Isle de, 194 St. Kitts, Anglo-French occupation 193 ; France withdraws from, 142, 194; English occupation of, 190 St. Lawrence, the, explored by of, Cartier, 26 St. Lucia, France acquires, 197 ; Index lost by the French, 223 ; restored, 224 3^3 refuses toleration to anism, 59 ; Calvinism, 108 the Thirty Years' War and, chap. 6, passim ; Charles XII and, 154 ; invaded by Frederick the Great, 180 ; peace with ; St. Paul's School, foundation of, 10 St. Peter's, Rome, building of, 8, 51 Pierre Island, retained by France, 197, 224 St. Quentin, siege of, 44 St. Thome, taken from the French, 201 French victory at, 203 St. Vincent, acquired by Great Prussia, 181 Kingdom of, 270 Saxony, Christian II, Elector of, 109 Saxony, Frederick II, Elector of, 55 Saxony, John, Elector of, 55, 58, 59 Saxony, John Frederick I, Elector of, 60 Britain, 197 Saintonge, the Huguenots in, 78 Salem, Boston trade transferred to, 216 Salerno, Prince of, 34 Saxony, John George St. ; ; Elector I, 108, III, 115, 118 Saxony, Maurice of, 60, 61 Scania, ceded to Sweden, 153 of, Schaffhausen, Canton, 70, 72 Sa//e dii manege, 248 ; des menus plaisirs, 245 Saluzzo, acquired by France, 44 Salzburg, Electorate of, 269 Sancerre, the Huguenots in, 81 Scheldt, the, closing of, 104 opening of, 259 Schleswig-Holstein, Duchy of, 62 ; the Reformation in, 55 ; Wallen- San Domingo, Cromwell's unsuc- Schmalkalden, League cessful expedition against, 122; Spain withdraws from, 261 San Juan, Drake and Hawkins at, 105 San Salvador, named by Columbus, 21 Santa Cruz, Blake's victory at, 122; French occupation Santa Fe, 21, 22 of, 193 to at, ; ; ; ; montese, invasion of, 260, 261 Savoy, Charles Emmanuel, Duke III of, 44 Saxony, Duchy of, 42, 43, Marshal, de. 169 Schoolmen, the, 3 abandoned Schlettstadt, to France, 117 Schwiebus Circle, acquired by the Great Elector, 167 retroceded Emperor, 168, 176 Schwyz, Canton, 70, "72, 73 " baronial architecture the Renaissance in, 12 ; early histories of, ib. ; defeated at Flodden, 39 ; the Reformation the Jesuits and, 92 ; in, 85, 94 Elizabeth's intervention in, 94 ; the deposes James VII, 136 Union and Jacobite attempt of of, 10 ; ; ; 1708, 141 Scutari, acquired Philibert, Duke adopts Luther- by Turkey from Venice, 32 Sea-Beggars, the, 98 Selling, William, 10 Seminara, Battle of, 37 Seneca, his Medea, 14 Senechaussees, 234 Senegal, ceded to France, 224 French defeat on the, 41 Seven of, Denmark, 158 59,68 Schomberg, Charles Sesia, river, Emmanuel to Scotland, ; Savannah, evacuation of, 223 Savonarola, Girolamo, 10, t,i, 35 Savoy, Duchy of, invaded by Francis I, 42. 43 restored to Savoy, 44 Treaty of Westphalia and, 118; joins League of Augsburg, 135; deserts the League, 136; allies with Louis XIV, 140 abandons French alliance, 141 ; annexed to France, 259 Pied- of. ; ; Austria, 142 exchanged for Sicily, 143 ; in alliance with Maria Theresa, 177 Sarto, Andrea del, 8 Savoy, stein in, 113 to the Saratoga, Burgoyne's surrender 221 Sardinia, ceded ; Years' in India, 204 War, the, 178-82; Index 314 Shah Jehan, 198 land, Shakespeare, William, 1 1 Ship of Fools, Brant's, 49 Lower (1493), the, 56 Siberia, Russian advance in, 145 Sicilian Vespers, the, 32 Kingdom veyed Sicily, of the separates from Naples, 33 ; ; 32 and, 137 ; the War of Succession, 137 losses under the Treaty of Utrecht, 142 ; the Family Compact, 180; the Asienio, 194 ; and the War of American Independence, 222, 224 ; the French Republic declares war on, 260 ; Treaty of Basle, 261 Spandau, surrendered to Gustavus Ryswyk ; crown assumed by Charles VIII, 34, and Louis XII, 36 Calabria and ; ; ; Apulia attached to, 37 reunited to Naples under Ferdinand the ceded to Savoy, Catholic, y] 142 exchanged for Sardinia, 143 to Don Carlos of Spain, 174 Sickingen, Franz von, 56 ; ; ; Sievershausen, Battle Sigismund King III, of, Adolphus, 115 Spanish Succession, 137 ; in India, 201 61 of Poland, 66, 107, 114, 146, 147 Frederick the Silesia, Nawab War of the, Spenser, Edmund, 7 Speyer, Diet of, 58 ; abolition of feudal rights in, 256 ; French Great and, 176-81 Siraj-ud-daula, 205, 206 the ; ; of, ; occupies ; Two, con- to Charles IV, 174 reunited to Naples, m Treaty of the Pyrenees with France, 120 ; the War of Devolution with 128 coalition France, joins against Louis XIV, 131 Truce of Ratisbon and, 132 joins League of Augsburg, 135 Treaty of Shoe League Sicilies, 120 ; 106, Palatinate, of Bengal, Maratha leader, 198 Sivaji, Six Articles, Act of the, 68 Sixtus V, Pope, 83 Slawata, Count William, no Smith, Adam, 229 Smith, Captain John, 186 Smith, Sir Sidney, 264 Sohr, Battle of, 177 Solothurn, Canton, 70, 73 Somerset, Edward Seymour, Duke of, 68 Sons of Liberty, Association of, 214 Sophia, Regent of Russia, 148 Sophia Charlotte, Queen of Prussia, 170 occupation of, 259 Spice Islands, the, 16, 17, 200 Spithead, Mutiny at, 262 Spurs, Battle of the, 39 Stanislaus Leszczynski, King of Poland, 155, 156, 173 Stanislaus Poniatowski, King of Poland, 182 Stamp Act, the, 213 States General of France, the, at Orleans (1560), 79; at Blois (1576), 82; (1614), 125; (1789), 243-55 ceded to Prussia, 158 Stettin, Stockholm Bath of Blood, the, 62, 64 Treaty of(i7i9), 158 Treaty ; ; (1720), 158, 165, 172 Stockach, Battle of, 266 of, Sophia Dorothea, wife of George I of Great Britain, 157 Sorbonne, the, 76, 77 South Sea Company, the, 142 Spain, the Renaissance in, 4, 10 maritime and colonial activity of, 20 the Treaty of Tordesillas with and the Council of Portugal, 21 the Jesuits in, 92 Trent, 89 union with Portugal, 93 relations with the Netherlands, 95-102 England and the Armada, 105 naval war and peace with Eng; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Stolbova, Treaty of, 114, 147, 148 Storkow, acquired by Brandenburg, 163 Stralsund, besieged by Wallenstein, 113; garrisoned by Sweden and Denmark, 114; fall of (1715), 156 restored to Sweden, 158 Strassburg, Calvin at, 75 ; reserved ; Empire by Treaty of Westphalia, 1 18; seized by Louis XIV, 132, 137 ; abolition of feudal to the rights in, 256 Index 315 Sirielizy, the, 148, 150 Tasman, Abel, 104 Styria, Duchy of, 107 Suez, Isthmus of, cutting of, projected by Venice, 19 Suffren, Pierre-Andre de, Admiral, Tasmania, discovered by the Dutch, 223 Suleiman the Magnificent, Sultan of Turkey, 42, 59 104 Tasso, Torquato, 7 Tausen, Hans, 63 Tecklenburg, County by Prussia, 168 Temple, Louis XVI Sully, Maximilien, Duke Sumatra, acquired by the Dutch, 103 Surat, English factory French factory at, 200 ; 201 at, Susa, Treaty of (1629), 121 Suvorofif, Alexander, General, 266 Swabia, peasants' revolt in, 57 Swally Roads, Portuguese defeat at, 200 Sweden, Union of Kalmar and, 62 conquered by Christian II, 62 the Reformation in, 64 et seq. ; accession of Gustavus Vasa, 64 ; Gustavus Adolphus and the 114-20; Thirty Years' War, gains under the Treaty of Westphalia, 118; joins the Triple makes terms Alliance, 129 with France, 130, 131 defeated ; ; ; ; at Fehrbellin, 153 131, ; joins League of Augsburg, 135; Charles IX and Russia, 147 under Charles X, 153 Charles XII of, ; ; Gortz and, 158 Ulrica 154 Eleanora of, 158; Peace of ; ; Nystad and, 158 joins alliance ; against Frederick the Great, 180 joins 223 Swiss the the Armed Confederation, at ; Neutrality, the, Holy League, 38 ; joins defeated Marignano, 39 Everlasting Peace with France, ib. Constitution of, 70 the Reformation in, 71-6 ; international recogni; ; ; tion of, 119 dissolved, 265 Sylvester II, Pope, 2 ; 254 Tennessee State, 224 Tennis Court, Oath of Tanjore, Rajah Tannenberg, Battle of, of, 163 confined in the, 245 Tetzel, John, 46, 51 Teutonic Knights, Order of, secularised, 55, 146, 164; sell Neumark to Brandenburg, 163; early history in Prussia of, 163 Tezcuco, Lake, 24 Theatines, the, 90 Theodore I, Tsar of Russia, 146 Theodore II or III, Tsar of Russia, 148 Thermidorean reaction, the, 260 Third Estate, the French, 231 Thirty Years' War, the, 107-20; Brandenburg and, 165 Thorn, Perpetual Peace of (1466), 164 annexed by Prussia, 183 Throckmorton's Plot, 105 ; Thuringia, the peasants' revolt in, 57 Thurn, Count Matthias, 1 10, III Ticonderoga, f>ench fort at, 197 Tilly, Count John Tzerklaes von, III, 112, 113, 115 Tilly, Tilsit, William, 10 Treaty of (1807), 270 Titian. See Vecelli Tobago, acquired by Great Britain, 197 ; ceded to France, 224 Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494), 21 Torgau, Battle of, 181 Toscanelli, Paolo, 20 Toul, Bishopric of^ annexed by France, 43, 60, 124; confirmed to France, 1 18 ; Louis XIV and, 132 Toulon, surrender of, 260 Toulouse, Parlenient of, 84, 235 Tournay, acquired by Charles V, 95 Dutch garrison in, 143 Townshend, Charles, 215 ; 240 209 laille, the, 125, 236, acquired the, 125 of, of, Traites, 236 Transubstantiation, T^ Index 3i6 Bethlen Transylvania, Prince of, 112 Gabor, Travancore, Rajah of, 209 Traventhal, Treaty of (1700), 155 Trent, Council of, 59, 80, 88, 96, 107 Trenton, attack on, 220 Treves, Electorate of, the Ritterschaft and, 56 ; rejects Lutheranism, 59 ; the Jesuits in, 107 ; occupied by Richelieu, 117 ; the French driven from, 117 ; French ^/fiigr^s in, 257 Treviso, Marches of, acquired by Venice, 32 Treviglio, Venice acquires, 32 Trichinopoly, Mohammed Ali in, 203, 204 Tricolour, the French, 247 Trinidad, retained by Great Britain, 268 Ulrica Eleanora, Queen of Sweden, Edward VI's Acts of, 68 Unterwalden, Canton, 70, 72, 73 65 ; Archbishopric of, Upsala, Synod of, 66 Uri, Canton, 70, 72, 73 Usedom, Gustavus Adolphus lands on, 114; ceded to Prussia, 158 Uniformity, Utopia, 2, II Utrecht, Peace of (1713), 141, 194; Union of, 100 ; lordship of, 85, 95, 98, 100, 102, 104, 130 V Valais, the, 70 Valdez, Pierre, 45 Valley Forge, Washington at, 220 Valmy, Austro-Prussian advance stayed at, 255, 258 Valtelline, the, occupied Trivulzio, Gian Giacomo, 36 Tromp, Admiral Marten van, 103 Trondhjem, restored to Denmark, 153 Louis XVI brought the mob break into, 248 253, 254 Turenne, Henri Viscount of, 126, Tuileries, the, to, by France, 112 Triple Alliance, the, 129, 153 ; 128 Varennes, Louis XVI arrested 249 Vasili IV, Tsar of Russia, 147 Vassy, Massacre of, 79 Vatican, building 6 museum, 6 of, 8; at, library, ; Vauban, Sebastien, Seigneur de, 128, 131, 132 Vaucelles, Truce of (1556), 43, 44 Anne Robat Jacques, Turgot, Baron, 229, 238, 240 retained Turin, by France, 44 Turkey, relations of Venice with, the menaces 32 ; Habsburg terriwar with Peter the tories, 127 - - ; declares war Great, 149, 153 war against Russia (1768), 183 with France (1798), 264, 265 ; ; Tuscany, Ferdinand III, Grandduke of, 261, 266, 269 Tuscany, Francis, Grand-duke of, 174, 175. Tuscany, Giovanni Gastone, Grand- duke of, 174 Troyes, Parlement exiled to, 242 Vaudois, the, 45, 77, 78 Vecelli, Tiziano, 8 Vega, Lope de, 10 Venaissin, County of, annexed to French Republic, 256 Vendome, Louis-Joseph, Duke of, 140, 141 eastern Venice, humanism at, 6 trade of, 17 opposes the Portuguese in India, 19; seizes Lodi and Piacenza, 31 ; growth of, after the Fourth Crusade, 32 ; supports invitation to Charles VIII of France to enter Italy, 34 ; joins anti-French League, 35 ; joins Louis XII against Milan, 36 League of Cambray ; ; ; U 37 ; joins the Holy League against France, 38 and the League of Cognac against Charles V, 41 ; Bonaparte and, against, ; Ukraine, 155 183 ; Charles Polish, XII in the, annexed by Russia, 263 Index Treaty of, 36 Verden, See of, Christian IV of Denmark and, 112, 113; ceded to Sweden, 118; Denmark obceded to Hanover, tains, 156 Vercelli, ; 317 Voltaire (Fran9ois-Marie Arouet), 226, 227, 229 Vos, Gerard John, 10 See Vos Vossius. Vulgate, the, 88 158 Verdun, Bishopric of, annexed by France, 43, 60, 124 confirmed Louis XIV and, to France, 118 W ; ; 132 ; fall of, 255, 258 Vernon, Sir Edward, Admiral, 195 Verona, acquired by Venice, 32, 38 Bonaparte and, 263 Verona, Guarino da, 6 ; See Paul. Veronese, Cagliari, Paolo Verrazzano, Giovanni da, 25 Versailles, the French Court at, 233 the Notables at, 242, 245 States General at, 244 march of the women to, 247 ; the King and Queen quit, 248 Treaty of (1756), 180; Treaty of (1783), 223 Vervins, Peace of (1598), 83, 102 Vespucci, Americo, 11, 22 Vesteras, Diet of, 65 Recess of, 65 Vlborg, ceded to Russia, 158 Vicenza, acquired by Venice, 32 ; ; ; ; ; Victor Amadeus II, King of Sar- dinia, 136, 143 Victor Amadeus III, King of Sar- dinia, 262 Victoria, the, Walcheren Island, promised England, 130 Waldenses, the, 45, 78 Waldo, Pierre, 45 Wallenstein, Albrecht von, to 112, 113, 114, 116 Walpole, Horace, 217 Walpole, Robert, 195, 213 Warsaw, annexed by Prussia, 183 ; absorbed by Russia, 183 Wartburg, Castle of the, 54 Washington, George, 179, 196,217, 219, 220, 222 Watson, Charles, Admiral, 206 Wehlau, Treaty of (1657), 166 Weimar, Bernard of, 117 West, French Company of the, 192 Indies, Columbus and the, British interests in, 105, 190; French islands in, 193 ; British West 21 ; gains in, 197 ; American War of Independence and, 223 Western Design, the, 122 Westminster, Convention of (1756), 179 School, 10 Westphalia, Treaty of (1648), 104, 118 Kingdom of, 270 ; circumnavigates the globe, 23 Vienna, relieved by John Sobieski, 132; Peace of (1735), 174, 237 Villa Viciosa, Battle of, 141 ; White, John, 29 White Hill, Battle of the, ill Villani, Giovanni, 7 Wildhaus, 71 William III, Prince of Orange, King of Great Britain, 121, 130, See Durand, Nicolas Vinci, Lionardo da, 8, 9 Vingiiemes, 236 Vinland the Good, the Norsemen 131, 13s, 136, 138, 140 Willis, Timothy, 148 Willoughby, Sir Hugh, 27 Wilson, Thomas, ii Cabot's voyages and, 15, 20 and, 25 Virgin Isles, England acquires, 191 Virginia, Ralegh's settlements in, foundation of the colony, 29 196 ; sympathy with Boston in, 217 ; Cornwallis in, 222 Visconti, Bianca, 31, 33 Visconti, Valentina, 33 Windsor, Treaty of (1522), 41 Wisconsin State, 224 Wismar, ceded to Sweden, 118 Villars, Claude, Marshal, 140 Villegagnon. ; ; ; fall 156 Witt, Cornelis de, 130 Witt, John de, 128, 130 Wittenberg^ Melanchthon at, 9 ; University of, 50 ; Luther's theses published at, 51, 53 ; Luther of, Index 3i8 burns the Papal Bull at, 53 ; Luther returns to, 55 Wittstock, Battle of, 117 Wohlau, Duchy of, Xavier, Francis, 19, 91, 92 Hohenzollern claim on, 163, 167, 176 Wolfe, James, General, 197 Wollin, ceded to Prussia, 158 Yale University, foundation of, 194 Yorktown, surrender of Cornwallis at, 223 Wolsey, Thomas, Cardinal, 67 Worms, Diet of, 53, 56 Luther at, 54 execution of its Edict against Luther demanded, 58 French occupation of, 259 Treaty of Ypres, Dutch garrison in, Zeeland, 85, 137 ; ; ; ; (1743). 177 WUrtemberg, Kingdom of, Electorate of, 269 ; 270 County "5 Wiisterhausen, Treaty of (1726), 173 Wykliffe, John, 45 96, 98, See Cipango Zipangu. Wiirzburg, Catholic reaction in, 108 ; occupied by Gustavus Adolphus, of, 100, loi, 102, 104 Zenghiz Khan, 16 Zollern, Counts of, 161 Zorndorf, Battle of, 181 Zug, Canton, 70, 72, 73 Zurich, Canton, 70, 72 Zwingli at, French victory at, 266 71, 72 ; ; Zusmarshausen, Battle of, 118 Zutphen, County of, 85, 95, 100 Zwickau, the "Three Prophets" Xanten, 164 Treaty of (1614), 119, of, 55, 57 Zwingli, Ulrich, 57, 58, 59, 71-3 WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LTD, PKINTEKS. PLYMOUTH New Books Routledge's FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. TO THE STUDY OF AN INTRODUCTION E. AND LOCAL. HISTORY Morris, M.A., 64 Illustrations. each 2s. 6d. net. ANTIQUITIES. Litt.D., and Crown 8vo, Humphrey Jordan, cloth, net. 4s. 6cl. By J. B.A. Or With in 2 vols., LIFE AND MANNERS UNDER ROMANEARLY Ludwig Friedlander. EMPIRE. THE By Translated, with the Author's consent, from the Seventh Edition " and of the Sittengeschichte Roms," by J. H. Freese, M.A., Leonard A. Magnus, LL.B. Cloth extra, gilt, crown 8vo. 3 vols. ' Each 6s. 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