Learn about symbolic interactionism. Read what symbolic interactionism is, learn what symbolic interactionists study, and see examples of symbolic interactionism.
Updated: 11/21/2023
Symbolic Interactionism | Definition, Theory & Examples
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Symbolic Interactionism: Prompts
Study Prompt:
Make a set of flash cards that lists and defines the eight terms in bold from the lesson (paradigms, symbolic interactionism, socially constructed, quantitative data, qualitative data, participant observation, micro-interactions, macro-interactions).
Tip: If you are more of a visual learner, feel free to use illustrations to define the terms, or a combination of text and illustrations.
Scenario Prompt:
Create a scenario that describes an example of symbolic interactionism. Describe your scenario in at least one to two pages. Feel free to draw upon your own personal experiences, if you desire.
Example: Lynne never had a good relationship with her father. She always felt like he cared more about his career in theater than about her. As she became an adult, she developed deep feelings of resentment toward her father and refused to speak to him. Then, he was diagnosed with cancer. Lynne saw how he was struggling to take care of himself, so she started taking care of him. In this way, she began to see her father not as someone to be resented, but as someone who needed help and was grateful to have her in his life. Today, he is cancer-free and they enjoy each other's conversation daily.
Essay Prompt:
Write an essay of one to two pages that explains the criticisms of symbolic interactionism.
Example: One criticism is that it does not use quantitative data, so the data it relies on cannot be concretely proven or disproven.
What is the main idea of the symbolic interaction theory?
The main idea of the symbolic interaction theory is that our reality is socially constructed. Society could not exist without individuals, but the very self that we consider our individuality could not exist if we were not part of society. Individuals negotiate over the symbolic meaning of events in the world, and this is how social norms are created.
What is a good example of symbolic interactionism?
A good example of symbolic interactionism is when a person changes his self concept and his values in relation to another person that he meets. Our attributes, whether we are clever or stupid, tall or short, or whether we fall into gender norms, are mostly relative. If we meet someone who considers us tall or smart or masculine or feminine, this will in turn affect our own self concept. It may also change how we view what it means to be tall or short, stupid or smart, or within gender norms.
What is symbolic interactionism in simple terms?
Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that suggests our reality is socially constructed. Individuals do not look directly at objects in the real world, but instead their view of things is affected by the symbolic values that they attribute to objects. When individuals meet, their self concept and their ideas about the world change as they see how others see them and are affected by ideas others believe.
Table of Contents
ShowIn most people's lives, there is reality, and then there is social reality. The facts of reality hold true whether we are acting in concert with others or alone. Objective reality has rules that enforce themselves. Gravity keeps us firmly on the ground when we walk here on earth, though in outer space gravitational forces can be different. The earth revolves around the sun, and not the other way around. We need oxygen to breathe and, if we don't eat anything, we will eventually starve. But then there is social reality.
In social reality, what everyone agrees to be true and what society has accepted to be true become inviolable rules. For instance, even though the earth revolves around the sun, when Galileo made this assertion, he was forced to recant, because the social reality at the time was that the Catholic Church was very powerful, and one could be burned at the stake for disagreeing with the claim that the earth was the center of the universe. In social reality, the truth of an assertion changes with the times.
Symbolic interactionism holds that our reality is socially constructed. This is one of the paradigms of social thought, and a lens we can use through which to view the world. In symbolic interactionism, the focus is on language and symbols used in day-to-day life between and among individuals. People negotiate with other people they know for a shared view of the reality they live in. If there is a consensus that something is true, then in terms of social reality, it is true. If the consensus gradually changes to hold that the same proposition is not true, then in terms of social reality, it is not true. Symbolic interactionism tries to build out of interactions on the micro level a view of how society at large works.
Symbolic interactionism is more interested in social roles and personal identity than it is in cosmology. If we reexamine the life of Galileo, in terms of symbolic interactionism, he went from being a heretic and a sinner in his own lifetime to becoming a scientist and a saint in ours. Most people's social roles do not undergo such dramatic transformations, but the idea that our reality is socially constructed applies to all of us.
Central Ideas of Symbolic Interactionism
The central ideas of social interactionism are:
- Society is constructed on shared symbols, including language.
- Social reality is created on the individual, or micro, level, by each person, based on the meanings that person attaches to objects, events and relationships.
- A person's sense of self is constructed through the reflections of the self as seen through the eyes of others.
- The social roles that individuals accept are due to the way others they meet see them, and they in turn accept this interpretation of who they are.
- Shared symbols are transmitted to each generation from the previous, and this is how culture and values are maintained and evolve.
- All the institutions and conventions that we see on the macro level were generated through one-on-one interactions on the micro level.
The basic idea of symbolic interactionism is that all the structures, symbols and institutions of society are constructed in the interplay of ordinary people when they meet, talk and create joint meaning. No two people have the exact same view of reality, and our views evolve over time as we interact with more people. Just as physical objects are made of atoms, society is made up of individuals. Everything we see in society, no matter how grand and complex, originated from the day to day interactions of individuals.
Applications of the Symbolic Interaction Approach
An example of the application of symbolic interactionism as an approach to social change would be how the Catholic Church reversed its position on Galileo Galilei, and by extension on whether the earth revolved around the sun. In October 1992, Pope John Paul II was presented with a study he commissioned on the trial in 1633 in which Galileo was charged with heresy. The study concluded that Catholic theologians in the 17th century had failed to grasp the non-literal meaning of the Scriptures. In other words, since most of society in the twentieth century had already come to the conclusion that Galileo was right about cosmology, the Church as an institution changed its doctrines about how to read and interpret the Bible.
The Bible was not discarded as being "wrong." It was reinterpreted as still right and infallible, and the discrepancy between what the Bible said and what all people knew to be true was explained as an issue of misinterpretation of a figurative text in an overly literal way. The symbolic nature of the holy text was re-negotiated, due to countless interactions over the centuries between individuals who recognized that the earth revolved around the sun. When social change happens, it often takes this path in which symbols are not discarded; they are merely reinterpreted in a way that fits better with the current social climate.
Similar changes occur in fashion, architecture, medicine and countless other areas of human endeavor. In earlier societies, men wore robes or dresses, and women wore pants. Later, in an evolution of fashion, pants became reinterpreted as men's attire and dresses as women's clothing. However, the idea that men and women should wear different types of clothing, and that it is wrong for men to dress in women's clothing, remained central to western culture until very recently. Which outfit symbolized femininity or masculinity changed long before the taboo against cross-dressing was re-examined by society.
In architecture, for generations new architects copied the designs of previous centuries, even if traditional features in a newer building no longer served a structural purpose. For instance, columns in ancient Greece supported the weight of buildings. In later centuries columns were added simply to look classic, as they symbolized the tradition and wisdom of the ancient Greeks. The columns no longer served a structural purpose. In the modern era, functionalism came into vogue, and suddenly visible features of a building were designed to serve its function, and not just to provide symbolic ornamentation.
We can see that all these changes in the meaning of symbols occur on the macro level. But how did these changes first come about? How does fashion change? How is a new trend originated? Since society is composed of individuals, symbolic interactionism postulates that these changes are first negotiated when two people meet, face-to-face and one-on-one.
How do we go about observing how individuals re-negotiate the meaning of symbols? What is the methodology for investigating this phenomenon? Research in symbolic interactionism uses qualitative data from participant observation, rather than quantitative or statistical data, to try to understand how such sweeping changes on the macro level come about through the negotiations and re-interpretations of individuals in their day-to-day interactions. Typically, participants in a study are presented with questionnaires that they are asked to fill out.
Criticisms of the Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
The main arguments against the symbolic interactionist perspective are:
- The theory ignores the forces of society at large on the individual.
- The theory does not take into account emotions or individual psychology.
- The theory uses qualitative and not quantitative data, so it is subject to skewing and is not objective.
- The issues the theory tackles are too broad and too vague to be helpful.
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George Herbert Mead is credited with founding the symbolic interactionist school of thought, though his student Herbert Blumer is the one who introduced and represented Mead's ideas to the world in a more systematic fashion. Mind, Self and Society is a book that contains Mead's ideas, based on his lectures, but it was organized and published by his students, Blumer chief among them. Mead's contribution to the theory is the that a human being has a self and a concept of the self. Blumer's contribution is that of the mirrored self. Blumer believed that our concept of who we are does not come directly from within ourselves, nor directly from others, but that it is based on what we think others think of us. Charles Horton Cooley added to the theory by showing that individuals and society can only be examined in reference to one another. There can be no society without individuals, and no individuals with a self concept can exist outside of society. Feral children do not develop a self concept, because they are deprived of society. We need to look into the mirror of another's view of us, before we can know what we are.
An example of this would be when we first meet a new acquaintance. While they are sizing us up, and we are sizing them up and we adjust the way we think of ourselves, based on their reactions to us, and vice versa. Our vision of who we are changes and adjusts with each new person that we meet, and in turn we are helping them change their view of themselves. According to Mead, the self is a social process, constantly in flux.
If a person enters a room full of people much taller than himself, then that person will think of himself as short. But if he then enters another room full of people much shorter, he will suddenly see himself as a giant. As we make our journey through life, we meet many different people whose reaction to us helps to shape our self-concept. Some people will be more intelligent than we are, inducing in us feelings of inferiority, and some will see us as rather clever, boosting our self-image. Even perceptions about gender norms and ethnicity can change depending on the social environment. In one room, a person may be perceived as dark-skinned or effeminate in comparison to others, and in another place that same person is seen as light-skinned or virile. Many of our self-concepts are relative, rather than absolute. For this reason, the socially constructed self is constantly in flux.
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George Herbert Mead is the founder of the social theory of symbolic interactionism. Mead postulated that the individual has a self that is socially constructed. Herbert Blumer, a student of Mead, added the concept of the reflected self, holding that we base our self concept on what we think others think of us. The self and our sense of reality are constantly in flux according to this theory, as individuals meet different people throughout their lifetime. Charles Horton Cooley added to the theory by stating that individuals and society can be examined only in reference to one another. Symbolic interactionism holds that reality is socially constructed. Something that is true today may be false tomorrow, depending on the social environment. This would explain why Galileo was a heretic in the seventeenth century but is seen as a martyr today. The theory of symbolic interactionism is focused on the micro level and day to day interactions of individuals . Research in this sociological paradigm uses participant observation, which is a type of qualitative data. Symbolic interactionism has been criticized for ignoring the macro level of society at large, for not using quantitative data and for being too general and broad to be useful. However, this is one of the prevalent paradigms for sociological investigation, and a useful lens through which to view society.
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Video Transcript
Definition of Symbolic Interactionism
Paradigms provide a starting place to help understand what is being witnessed in day-to-day life and in experiments. If you imagine that paradigms are like lenses in a pair of eyeglasses, there are several different lens styles worn by sociologists and symbolic interactionism is one of them.
Symbolic interactionism tends to focus on the language and symbols that help us give meaning to the experiences in our life. They notice that as we interact with the world, we change the way we behave based on the meaning we give social interactions. We spend time thinking about what we will do next and adjust our approach depending on how we believe others perceive us.
Social interactionists believe that communications and interactions form reality as we know it. Reality, in this belief, is socially constructed, or created by conversations, thoughts, and ideas. Early thinkers in this approach focused on the face-to-face experiences of individuals, though now we would likely include many more types of interactions, including the experiences we have online or through text messaging on our phones, for instance.
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In this view, individuals are powerful in how they shape the world and not merely victims conforming to larger societal forces. Individuals both create and shape society, and the change occurring is constant and ongoing. Social interactionists are interested in the patterns created by our interactions and how this reality makes up our very existence.
Examples of Symbolic Interactionism
To better understand how those wearing this lens view reality, we can look at a specific example. Imagine you have a sibling with whom you have had a rivalry your whole life. You see your sister as having always received an unfair bias, getting what she wanted more than you have. You perceive her as picking at your flaws when you interact or cutting you down in some way. All of these experiences take place through a series of communications, social situations, and thoughts you have about your sister.
Events will also be symbolic to you, representing more to you than the objective facts might suggest. For instance, she receives a promotion with her company within a year of being hired. Since you don't believe she has the skills for the job, you give the situation a particular meaning, specifically, that it is unfair and that it is an example of how your sister always gets what she wants.
Perhaps then your sister loses her job abruptly with no other job in sight and comes to you for emotional support as she recovers from the loss. You and she grow closer as she expresses appreciation for your help and solicits advice from you on how to move forward. Your role changes from that of a critical onlooker who is jealous to one who is needed for support and compassion. The loss of her job becomes an opportunity to connect with other aspects of who your sister is as a person, rather than seeing her as your sister who has an unfair advantage in the world. You give your sister a new meaning: that of a person in need of your support and perhaps not always as lucky as you had thought.
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Symbolic interactionists would look at this series of events and note how your experiences and interactions with your sister form your understanding of reality. Before she loses her job, you have one version of reality in your mind. Symbolically, you see your sister as having an unfair advantage in the world and hold this idea in your mind. When the dynamic shifts and you play a role of supporting her in a time of need, the meaning you give your sister's life fluctuates, changes, and develops. All of this is based on the social interactions you have, the language used to communicate, and the symbolic meaning you give to these events and thoughts.
Criticisms of the Framework
Many sociologists argue that the theory is too wide-ranging in what it tackles to give clear direction on understanding the nature of how reality is socially constructed. Those who utilize the framework respond that it is a good foundation for theories and that it doesn't claim to be specific enough for use on its own.
Another criticism is that the data for using the approach is qualitative rather than quantitative. Quantitative data can be tested and proven correct or incorrect. Quantitative data would include numbers that can be measured, such as survey data that produces results by counting answer choices by participants, for instance.
Qualitative data, on the other hand, is observed rather than measured. This method of data collection includes watching and analyzing how people behave, known as participant observation. Critics of this form of data claim it is much easier to be biased based on your own views since the data cannot be scrutinized mathematically in the way quantitative data can be. Those using the symbolic interactionism lens respond that they strive to stay aware of their own values in the process.
Another criticism of symbolic interactionism is its narrow focus. The paradigm is centered on small sets of people and the micro-interactions they have in everyday life. Micro-interactions take place between one or a few individuals, while macro-interactions take place at a larger scale. The approach does not place emphasis on global macro-forces acting on the individuals, such as shifts in economics, politics, or technology. There is little emphasis on being born into a world with existing social and political structures that affect our experience of reality. Over time, the symbolic interactionist framework has changed and expanded, incorporating more of the macro-level in some cases.
Lesson Summary
Paradigms provides a starting place to help understand what is being witnessed in day-to-day life and in experiments. If you imagine that paradigms are like lenses in a pair of eyeglasses, there are several different lens styles worn by sociologists, and symbolic interactionism is one of them.
Symbolic interactionism tends to focus on the language and symbols that help us give meaning to the experiences in our life. They notice that as we interact with the world, we change the way we behave based on the meaning we give social interactions. Reality, in this belief, is socially constructed, or created by conversations, thoughts, and ideas.
Those looking at the world through this particular lens believe that reality is socially constructed and created mainly as a result of many micro-interactions between individuals. Micro-interactions take place between one or a few individuals
Due to this fundamental belief, symbolic interactionists draw conclusions about how we develop our sense of the world through the way we interact with other people and the symbolic meaning we give these experiences.
A criticism is that the data for using the approach is qualitative rather than quantitative. Quantitative data can be tested and proven correct or incorrect. Qualitative data, on the other hand, is observed rather than measured.
Key Terms Related to Symbolic Interactionism
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- Symbolic interactionism: The focus on how language and symbols give people meaning to the experiences in their lives
- Paradigm: A typical pattern or model
- Socially constructed: Created through conversations, thoughts, and ideas
- Qualitative data: Observations
- Quantitative data: Can be tested and proven right or wrong
Learning Outcomes
As you complete the lesson, you should set a goal to:
- Define symbolic interactionism
- Recognize examples of symbolic interactionism
- Discuss the criticism that the theory receives
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Symbolic Interactionism | Definition, Theory & Examples
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