C Cabala means a “successor” or “deputy.” The term has Koranic warrant, as when God says to David, ▶ Mysticism “We have made thee a khalifa in the land” (2:30). In this spirit, the earliest caliphs held the modest title of “successor to the emissary of God.” Since Muhammad had been “the seal of Cabalism the prophets” – the final prophet in a line extending back to Adam – his successors were ▶ Mysticism precluded from announcing further revelations. Nevertheless, their role was not entirely adminis- trative and political; they served also as spiritual leaders of the Umma, or community of believers. Cabbalism The first four caliphs, beginning with Abu Bakr, the father-in-law and close friend of the Prophet, ▶ Mysticism and continuing through ‘Umar, who launched the first waves of conquest beyond Arabia, and ‘Uthman, traditionally credited with the cod- ification of the Koran, down to the troubled Calculation caliphate of ‘Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad – and hence, his only male blood ▶ Arithmetic in Islam relative – represent an idealized golden age for Sunni Muslims; this was the period of the “rightly guided caliphs.” Shia Muslims reject this rosy view; they consider the first three caliphs as little Caliphate better than usurpers of Ali’s rightful claim to the office. It says much about this earliest formative Eric Ormsby phase of the caliphate and the inherent tensions of The Institute of Ismaili Studies, London, UK succession that all but Abu Bakr died at the hands of assassins. In 661, the murder of ‘Ali led to the rise of the Umayyad dynasty. During the ensuing The institution of the caliphate, the principle form century, the Umayyad caliphs saw themselves of governance in medieval Islam, had its begin- less as successors to Muhammad than as “God’s nings upon the death of Prophet Muhammad in caliphs,” and the status and power of the office 632. The Arabic word khalifa (“caliph”) simply swelled considerably. After the Umayyads A. Runehov, L. Oviedo (eds.), Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8, # Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013 C 304 Caliphate were overthrown by the Abbasids in 749, the The caliphate endured as an institution even as it caliphate took on even more exalted trappings. fell, increasingly after the tenth century, under the The Abbasid caliphate endured for five hundred sway of emergent dynasties such as the Shia Buyids years (750–1258) before being extirpated by the (932–1062) and, more decisively, the Seljuq Turks Mongols. During its first two centuries, the (1040–1194), whose sultans – originally vassals of caliphs wielded enormous power. Their functions the caliphs – became de facto rulers of the Abbasid ranged from the launching of expeditionary realm. The terms “caliph” and “caliphate” contin- forces, not only against such rival empires as ued to be used on occasion by various rulers, such Byzantium but against various rebels and as the Mamluk Sultans of Egypt and Syria malcontents within their territories, to the admin- (1250–1517) or the Ottoman Sultans. The title con- istration of government appointments, the levy- ferred the legitimacy of succession in a line ing of taxes, and the supervision of the judiciary extending back to the Prophet himself. In 1922, and even, in their role as defenders of the faith, to the Ottoman sultanate was abolished, and in 1924, presiding over the Friday prayer, conducting upon the establishment of the Turkish Republic, the the pilgrimage, and safeguarding, as well as caliphate itself came to its official end. An idealized occasionally formulating, articles of dogma. concept of the caliphate continues to resonate for The office had spiritual prestige as well as polit- militant Muslims, and the call to restore the caliph- ical authority; the caliph was the “imam” as well ate has become a frequent rallying cry among as the “teacher” of his subjects, and that prestige jihadists. endured even after the caliphs themselves had lost real governing power. The Abbasid caliphs were assiduous patrons Cross-References of science, art, and culture; such patronage ▶ Islam: An Overview became a fixture of caliphal rule, not only ▶ Muhammad, Prophet among the Abbasids but in rival courts, such as ▶ Philosophy in Islam those of the Fatimids of Egypt and Syria ▶ Political Theology, Theological Politics (909–1171), an Ismaili-Shia dynasty, or of the ▶ Political Theory Spanish Umayyads (756–1031) in the Iberian ▶ Science in Islam, Transmission Peninsula. Beginning in 754 with the Caliph al-Mansur, the Abbasids sponsored an ambitious “translation movement” to bring Greek (and to References a lesser extent, Indian and Persian) scientific and Al-Tabari, A. (1985). The crisis of the ‘Abba´sid caliphate: philosophical literature into Arabic. The estab- The history of al-Tabari (Vol. XXXV, trans: Saliba, G.). lishment of the Bayt al-Hikma, or “house of Albany: State University of New York Press. wisdom” in Baghdad, a rich library formed on Arnold, T. (1965). The caliphate (2nd ed.). London: an earlier Sasanian Persian model, led to the Routledge & Kegan Paul. Bosworth, C. E. (1996). The New Islamic dynasties: creation of a vast corpus of learning which was A chronological and genealogical manual. continually revised and refined for the next two New York: Columbia University Press. centuries; in this process, most of the works of Gutas, D. (1998). Greek thought, Arabic culture: The Aristotle and Plato, as well as of Galen, Ptolemy, Graeco-arabic translation movement in Baghdad and early ‘Abbasid Society (2d-4th/8th-10th centuries). and dozens of other ancient thinkers, appeared in London/New York: Routledge. Arabic versions. This in turn inspired original Haarmann, U. (Ed.) (2001). Geschichte der arabischen philosophical, medical, and scientific treatises in Welt (Rev. ed.). Munich: Beck. Arabic by such outstanding Muslim thinkers as Kennedy, H. (1981). The early Abbasid caliphate: A political history. London: Croom Helm. Kindi, Razi, Farabi, and Ibn Sina and such math- Lewis, B. (Ed./trans.) (1974). Islam: From the prophet ematicians as al-Khwarizmi, Ibn al-Haytham, Muhammad to the capture of Constantinople. Politics and al-Biruni, among others. and War (Vol. 1). New York: Harper & Row. Canonical Neurons 305 C Me´rad, A. (2008). Le califat, une autorite´ pour l’Islam? receptor at the postsynaptic membrane in connec- Paris: Descle´e de Brouwer. tion with a neurotransmitter (first messenger) that Montgomery Watt, W. (1968). Islamic political thought: The basic concepts. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University is released at a synapse to the axonal ending of Press. this neuron. cAMP in turn activates protein Sourdel, D. (1960–2009). Khalifa. In The encyclopaedia kinase A (PKA). of Islam (2nd ed., Vol. 4, pp. 937–947). Leiden: As regards short-term memory, PKA leads to a E.J. Brill. facilitation of neurotransmitter release from the C axonal ending of this neuron (sensitization). As regards long-term memory, PKA in the nucleus of the same neuron activates CREB Caloric Tests protein as transcription factor that binds to a certain DNA sequence and thus increases the Pedro L. Mangabeira Albernaz transcription of certain CRE genes. Members of Associac¸a˜o William House de Otologia and the CREB family contain enhancers (CREB1) Instituto Israelita de Ensino e Pesquisa Albert and repressors (CREB2) of transcription. Each Einstein, Sa˜o Paulo, SP, Brazil one is activated by a protein kinase, the enhancer by PKA and the repressor by MAPK (mitogen- activated protein kinase). The actions of both A functional evaluation of the external semicir- protein kinases depend on the cAMP level. The cular canals that use water or air to change the CREB1/CREB2 balance then determines temperature of the canal ampulla. These tests long-term memory associated with synaptic were perfected and standardized by C.S. Hallpike growth by axonal sprouting at the synapse of (Hallpike 1955). There are five variants: (1) the that neuron. This allows facilitation of synaptic bithermal test which is standard performance; transmission to persist (long-term sensitization). (2) the monothermal test in which a single large bolus of ice water is given instead of two irriga- tions with hot and cold; (3) the bilateral irrigation test in which both sides are irrigated simulta- Canonical Neurons neously; (4) the balloon test where a water filled balloon is used rather than water and (5) the ice Giacomo Rizzolatti and Maria Alessandra Umilta` water caloric test which is used to confirm com- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Sezione di plete loss. Fisiologia, Universita` di Parma, Parma, Italy Canonical neurons are a specific class of neurons cAMP and Memory of the monkey ventral premotor cortex that discharge during motor act execution and in Jo¨rg-Peter Ewert response to the presentation of 3-D objects. Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Typically they show congruence between the Kassel, Schauenburg, Germany motor acts they code (e.g., precision grip) and the physical properties of the observed object (e.g.w, small object). Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, cAMP, is a second messenger used in intracellular signal transduction of a neuron (cf. Question-5). Cross-References Synthesis of cAMP depends on adenylate cyclase which is activated by a Gs-protein-coupled ▶ Action Control C 306 Cardiology centuries with W. Harvey first describing the Cardiology essentials of the mammalian cardiac function and circulation in 1628. Arising from this, Cardi- Marc W. Merx and Malte Kelm ology is firmly grounded as a natural science, Department of Cardiology, Pneumology and which sees itself as a scientific endeavor with Angiology, Universityhospital, Heinrich-Heine- the aim to enhance the knowledge about the University Duesseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany organization and function of the human cardio- vascular system as well as its disease-related abnormalities. This aim of enhancing knowledge Related Terms in the fields of cardiovascular function as well as the fields of diagnosis and treatment of cardio- Circulatory system; Heart vascular disease is strived for through rigorous basic research as well as by implementation of Description clinical trials. The best of the latter are designed to be randomized, blinded, placebo controlled, Cardiology is the medical discipline dealing with and externally monitored whenever possible. the heart, its functions, and its diseases. During the course of the twentieth century, car- diovascular disease became more prevalent, espe- Characteristics cially in the industrialized nations, due to more sedentary lifestyles and altered diets (industrially Cardiology distinguishes itself from other disci- refined, fat and sugar rich). In addition, the intro- plines in many ways. duction of antibiotics toward the middle of the It involves the treatment of cardiovascular twentieth century curbed the death toll due to disease which has been the most frequent cause infection, hence extending life expectancy and of death in Europe and other industrial nations for increasing the likelihood and thus frequency of several decades. Due to advancements in the cardiovascular disease. These ongoing processes therapeutic developments in Cardiology, this have led to an ever-increasing number of patients death rate is steadily decreasing. seeking the attention of cardiologists, a trend The physiological and pathophysiological expected to carry on well throughout the next sev- processes studied and treated in Cardiology are eral decades. of a mechanistic nature compared to most other With the first balloon angioplasty of a coronary areas of medicine. For example, in valvular heart artery performed by Andreas Gruentzig in Zurich disease, a given heart valve can either be too tight in 1977 paving the way, Cardiology has been (stenosed), allow a backward flow (regurgitant) enriched by decidedly interventional treatment or be characterized by a combination (to various options. Especially the past two decades have degree) of the two phenomena. The mechanical seen the development of various interventional obstruction or dysfunction can then be treated by treatment approaches not limited to coronary catheter-based dilatation (valvuloplasty) in the artery disease but also encompassing structural case of stenosis or by catheter-based adaptation and valvular heart disease as well as heart rhythm of valve leaflets in the case of regurgitation. disorders with a major impact on the way With the increasing possibilities of interven- Cardiology is practiced today (www.escardio.org). tional cardiology the sister-disciplines of Cardi- ology, namely, Cardiothoracic Surgery and Self-Identification Cardiovascular Surgery, are merging together in providing optimal therapy for the individual Science patient in a fashion and extent unprecedented in Natural scientists and physiologists have been medicine, thus clearing the vision for new thera- attracted to the heart and circulatory system for peutic perspectives to the great benefit of patients Cardiology 307 C with cardiovascular disease (www.dgkardio.de; l’Aorte, Tome II. Maladies des Coronaires et de www.heart.org; www.acc.org). lAorte” (Clinical Papers on Diseases of the Heart and Aorta) by Henri Huchard (1844–1910) published in Paris in 1899 (Lichtlen 2002). Relevance to Science and Religion Contemporary textbooks in cardiology have predominately originated in the USA with While Cardiology and cardiovascular science are “Braunwald’s Heart Disease” and “Hurst’s The C very productive fields of science, the interaction Heart” being the two most prominent examples. with religion has been minimal. Nevertheless, the heart is important in the human collective psyche. Even before the time of Ethical Principles Romeo and Juliet, the heart has been synonymous with love, a central aspect and theme of a large Cardiology is, as is every discipline in medicine, number of religions. Furthermore, in the English ethically guided by the oath of Hippocrates, the language, and other languages, the heart is fre- Greek physician and “founding father” of medi- quently used to describe emotions (e.g., heartfelt, cine born 460 BC. More recently, this oath has heavy heart, change of heart, “Herzschmerz”). been revised under the rules of the Declaration of Helsinki of 1971. Sources of Authority Key Values Today, the authorities in Cardiology are various departments and cardiologists whose origins date The key value of Cardiology can be found in back to William Harvey, who in 1628 first improving a patient’s cardiovascular health sta- described the circulatory system in mammals. tus. This is frequently achieved in acutely One of the first prominent cardiologists in clinical life-threatening medical conditions necessitating medicine was Jean Nicolas Corvisart (1755– permanent (24 h/7 days/365 days a year) avail- 1821) who, after training in Vienna, practiced at ability as well as rapid accessibility of cardiology the Hospice de la Charite´ in Paris. His important services (optimally within minutes) for every publication “Essais sur les maladies et les lesions individual of any given population. organiques du coeur et des vaisseaux” (Essays on The gratifying value of Cardiology to those the disease and organic lesions of the heart and practicing this discipline is the fact that the dura- circulatory system), published in 1818 already tion and the quality of life can be increased sig- covered pivotal aspects of Cardiology such as nificantly for a large number of patients. structural heart disease, valvular heart disease, and heart rhythm disorders with the interesting omission of coronary artery disease/ischemic Conceptualization heart disease. One of his successors in Paris, Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec (1781– Nature/World 1826), took great interest in cardiac auscultation Nature can refer to the physical world including and is credited with inventing the first dedicated the environment and life in general including stethoscope (Lichtlen 2002). the personality. Therefore, it could be said that Among the early authoritative texts in cardi- nature is connected to the heart through the ology was that of Heinrich von Bamberg (1822– personality. 1888) published in Vienna 1857, “Lehrbuch der Krankheiten des Herzens” (Textbook of Diseases Human Being of the Heart). A further important textbook was The human being is a member of any of the races “Traite Clinique de Malades du Coeur et de of Homo sapiens, living or extinct. C 308 Cardiology Life and Death Perception Life can be described as the property or quality Perception is the awareness and knowledge of that distinguishes living organisms from any force, influence, or other sensation through dead organisms and inanimate materials. It is the senses, especially sight and hearing. considered to be the interval of time between birth and death. Time The heart is one of the first organs to assume Time is an interval separating two points on function within embryonic development with a nonspatial continuum in which events occur in pulsatile activity discernable as early as day 22 apparently irreversible succession from past of pregnancy. through present to future. In Cardiology the On the other side of life’s spectrum, death is measurement of heartbeats per minute is of frequently equated to the cessation of heart extreme importance. Interestingly, the predom- beat. While this definition of death is not correct inant heart rhythm observed in humans, so- medically, it is very widely spread across differ- called sinus rhythm has a normal range in adults ent cultures and populations and has been factu- at rest between 60 and 90 beats/min. This ally correct in nearly every case over several implies that in many situations (i.e., whenever thousand years of humanity except for the last the heart rate is 60 beats/min) the interval few decades. between two heartbeats equals 1 sec, the inter- Modern cardiologists often deal with patients national unit of time. who are resuscitated, thus blurring these seem- ingly in-permeable boundaries of life. Patients who have been resuscitated from circulatory/ Relevant Themes cardiac arrest often describe so-called near death experiences. These are frequently described to With respect to “Science and Religion” a critical encompass multiple possible sensations including issue in Cardiology lies in organ transplantation. detachment from the body, total serenity, and the General ethical questions related to organ pro- presence of a light. curement and distribution have been addressed by several organizations such as the World Reality Health Organization (www.who.int/ethics/en/ Reality is classified as that which exists objec- EB113_14) and the European Commission. tively and in fact. Most of the world’s religions support organ as a charitable act with the respective community Knowledge gaining great benefit. While Jehovah’s Witnesses Knowledge is the awareness, consciousness, or are frequently assumed to be strictly objecting to familiarity gained by experience or learning. donation due to their belief against blood trans- Knowledge that can be produced by an indi- fusion, the latter rather means that all blood must vidual from memory or intuition without be removed from the organs and tissues before consultation of external sources (other humans, they could be transplanted. books or any written form of information, audio Despite this benevolent position of the or video files) is often referred to as “to know world’s religions toward organ donors, the deci- by heart.” sion to donate the heart, be it by surviving relatives or by the donor himself, remains emo- Truth tionally and spiritually charged compared to Truth conforms to fact and actuality. It is kidney or lung transplants. Likewise, the recip- a comprehensive term and in all of its nuances ients frequently describe feeling a special implies accuracy and honesty. “Veracity is the connection toward the (in most cases) heart of morality” (Thomas H. Huxley). unknown donor. Catholic Church and Science 309 C Cross-References Categorical Imperative ▶ Biology ▶ Body Sandra Lee Dixon Department of Religious Studies, University of References Denver, Denver, CO, USA C American College of Cardiology, (http://www.acc.org) American Heart Association, (http://www.heart.org) A general and foundational rule for ethical rea- Deutsche Gesellschaft f€ ur Kardiologie – Herz- und Kreislaufforschung, (http://www.dgkardio.org) soning formulated by the Prussian philosopher European Society of Cardiology, (http://www.escardio.org) Immanuel Kant that persons must act in such a Lichtlen, P. R. (2002). Geschichte der koronaren way that their maxims, or principles of action, Herzkrankheit. In B. L€uderitz & G. Arnold (Eds.), 75 necessarily conform to a universal standard of Jahre Deutsche Gesellschaft f€ ur Kardiologie – Herz- und Kreislaufforschung (pp. 269–306). Berlin/ respect for all other human beings and that they Heidelberg/New York: Springer. be consistently valid for all persons acting in the same situation. Caregiving ▶ Attachment: Theory and Patterns Catholic Church ▶ Physics in Catholicism Cartesian Conception of the Mind Karsten R. Stueber Department of Philosophy, College of the Catholic Church and Science Holy Cross, Worcester, MA, USA Job Kozhamthadam SJ Jnana-DeepaVidyapeeth, De Nobili College, This term refers to the conception of the mind that Pune, India originated with Rene´ Descartes (1596–1650). More generally, it refers to a conception of the mind that gives primacy to the first-person Related Terms perspective in discussing issues about the nature of mental states and mental concepts. For a Papal infallibility; Science and catholicism Cartesian, mental state concepts are, for instance, defined in regard to experience to which each of us has access only introspectively. Cartesian The Science-Catholicism Relationship dualism then refers to the distinction between from Vatican I to Vatican II the mind as an immaterial, nonphysical concept and the brain as a physical, measurable entity. All through its history, Roman Catholicism has managed to come out of serious crisis situations with considerable success. One of the secrets of this remarkable resilience can be traced to its Cartography tradition of convening ecumenical councils which are very special events wherein bishops ▶ Geography in Islam and other top leaders of the Church from all C 310 Catholic Church and Science over the world, under the leadership of the Pope, MPN looked upon this whole universe as come together to deliberate on critical issues and a gigantic machine governed by the principles take appropriate steps to deal effectively with and laws of Newtonian mechanics. All living them. The Catholic Church recognizes 21 ecu- beings, including the human body, were also menical councils starting from the first one in reduced to complex machines. In its extreme Nicaea in 325 AD to Vatican II in 1962–1965. form, MPN claimed that all phenomena of our Of these three are identified as the modern era experience, including thinking, sensing, repro- councils: the Council of Trent (1545–1563), duction, etc., could be explained mechanistically. Vatican I (1869–1870), and Vatican II. In what Science could give knowledge that was absolute, follows, I offer a critical study of the documents certain, exact, and objective. It projected science of the last two councils from their historical, as the superpower that could accomplish every- religious, scientific, and philosophical context. thing, rendering God dispensable. Laplace’s Special effort will be made to discuss critically reply to Napoleon that the God hypothesis was the impact of sciences in necessitating these unnecessary to explain the functioning of the councils, shaping their different decrees and dec- universe was a clear demonstration of this atti- larations, and even guiding many important tude. Scholars like Michael Buckley have traced aspects of their course. In fact, it is important to the roots of western materialism to this world- note that these two were the only councils that view. By making the empirically validated scien- took place after the advent and development of tific knowledge the paradigm of valid knowledge, modern science and hence had to face the full it began debunking knowledge that could not be weight of its influence. subjected to empirical testing, particularly reli- gious knowledge. The Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Rev- The First Vatican Council olution was another consequence of scientific developments that transformed the mode of liv- Various developments in science and related ing and thinking of humankind mostly from 1750 fields played a crucial role in posing a serious to 1850. It brought about a mechanization of challenge to the Catholic Church to which it had industry and mass production of commodities. to respond. Not only individual theories, discov- Socially, it gave rise to a shift from an agrarian eries, and technological developments, but, even and rural to an industrial and urban society. more, the worldview shaped by science and the Dependence on erratic nature, and hence on wide impact it had on various fields of human God and religion, decreased, and reliance on sci- thinking and living offered a serious challenge to ence and technology increased. Consequently, traditional Catholicism. Space constraint com- the Church and related activities began moving pels me to confine discussion to only a few of away from its traditional central place to the these developments. This discussion is intended periphery. Material prosperity, better knowledge, to shed light on the key themes related to Vatican and greater independence naturally led to liberal I, particularly Pius IX’s Syllabus of 1864 and the perspectives and ideologies along with a critical two principal documents of the Council, both of attitude toward traditional beliefs, values, and which had as their target a number of “errors” structures. These developments influenced con- arising from developments in science. siderably the official documents of Vatican I. The Ghost of the Galileo Episode. Galileo Developments in Science, Philosophy, and failed to give convincing evidence for his support Related Areas of heliocentrism at the time of his condemnation Mechanical Philosophy of Nature. Mechanical in 1633, even at the time of his death in 1642. Philosophy of Nature (MPN) resulted from the However, it came in the middle of the nineteenth unprecedented success of science from the century, a few years before Vatican I. First, seventeenth to the end of the nineteenth century. the Foucault pendulum, a simple device to Catholic Church and Science 311 C demonstrate the daily rotation of the Earth, was Marxism. Karl Marx in mid-nineteenth cen- invented by Leon Foucault in 1851. Second, the tury mounted a scathing criticism on Christianity, ingenious observation of stellar parallax, the describing it as “the sigh of the oppressed crea- observed apparent motion of a star due to ture, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of the real motion of the Earth, gave evidence for soulless conditions. It is the opium of people.” the revolution of the Earth around the Sun. This Far from being an answer to human problems, for controversy had significant bearing on Vatican him, religion was part of the oppressive system. C I because of the central importance it gave to These ideas also posed a formidable challenge to Papal Infallibility. Although the Church’s official the Church at the time of Vatican I. condemnation of heliocentrism did not go Rationalism and Naturalism. Rationalism and directly against infallibility, for the critics, it con- naturalism were highly influential views in the siderably weakened the claim of the Church mid-nineteenth century. Rationalism assigned authorities that they had privileged divine illumi- primacy to reason, reducing divine revelation or nation concerning truths. any other supernatural source to insignificance. Darwin’s Theory of Evolution. Darwin’s the- For naturalism, the natural world of science was ory of 1859 that the different beings in the uni- all that counted, thereby dispensing with any verse appeared gradually as a result of a long recourse to the supernatural. The spread of these and complex evolutionary process questioned two philosophical positions was also a major con- the traditional teaching of the Church on the cern of Vatican I. origin of living beings, especially humans, and it challenged the reliability of scripture, partic- Developments in the World of the ularly in its literal interpretation. It was Catholic Church also a very attractive illustration of naturalistic Gallicanism and Febronianism. Gallicanism, explanation which attempted to dispense with a French ecclesiastical and political doctrine and any divine role in the creation of life and intel- practice, recognized the Papacy as a divine insti- ligent beings. tution but stood for curtailing papal influence in The Enlightenment. The Enlightenment, an the temporal field. Given the complexity and eighteenth century European philosophico- volatility prevalent in Europe for centuries, it is cultural movement, was characterized by an clear that this movement was a source of constant emphasis on reason, especially scientific reason, tension for the Pope as a person and the Papacy as based on concrete data and logical method, and an institution. Febronianism basically was the a strong dislike for tradition. While overvaluing German counterpart of Gallicanism. empirically observable facts, it tended to devalue Ultramontanism. Ultramontanism was the religious claims based on faith and authority. It opposite of Gallicanism and advocated papal was very clear that the overall effect of this supremacy and the centralization of the Roman movement was the gradual unseating of tradi- Curia. The Jesuits, with their fourth vow of spe- tional religion with its emphasis on faith and the cial loyalty to the Pope, were staunch supporters spiritual, replacing it with tangible reason and of this view. practical success. The Papal States and the Challenges of Positivism. Positivism held that all true knowl- Pius IX. The Papal States were the territories edge must be based on sense experience and that were under the temporal sovereignty of the accorded a preeminent place to science and sci- Papacy. They included parts of Italy and Avignon entific method. The development of positivism Venaissin in France from 756 to 1870. With the by Auguste Comte, undercutting the importance rise of strong nationalism in Europe, the Pope of the religious, in the middle of the nineteenth began losing these territories and finally was left century, just a few years before Vatican I, con- with a small territory of the Vatican City and its tributed considerably to the devaluation of reli- vicinity. All these developments had a profound gious faith and dogmas. impact on Pius IX, who began his pontificate in C 312 Catholic Church and Science 1846 as a sympathizer with the liberals. However, suspended the council indefinitely on 20 October the bitter experiences of later years forced him to 1870. change his attitude. Particularly devastating were The Documents of the First Vatican Council. the Revolutions of 1848 and their aftermath. This This council approved two dogmatic constitu- period proved to be one of unprecedented disas- tions: Dei Filius, “On the Catholic Faith,” and ters for the Pope. He was stripped of his political Pastor aeternus, “On the Church of Christ.” The powers, forced to flee Rome in disguise, and first talks about the precarious and alarming situ- became a “prisoner in the Vatican” when he ation caused by the rise of rationalism and natu- managed to come back in 1850. Although Pope ralism. These false doctrines have led people Pius IX’s person and reign were matters of seri- to “the abyss of pantheism, materialism, and ous controversy, even his critics admit that he atheism,” resulting in the destruction of rational placed the good of the Church before everything nature, denial of any genuine criterion of what is else. He was convinced that the new trends and right and just. They question the supernatural developments like rationalism, naturalism, liber- origin and destiny of the Church, the Magiste- alism, etc., were utterly harmful to the Church rium, and the Teaching Authority of the Church and humanity. He was determined to fight back and the importance of Holy Scripture and sacred with all the powers he could muster. The firm, tradition, and reduce religious questions to strong, and uncompromising steps he took in the a matter of individual judgment. With regard to ensuing years were to be seen in this complex the source and interpretation of Holy Scripture, it context. He fought back first by promulgating the affirms the traditional view of direct divine origin Syllabus of Errors in 1864 and then calling the and the official Church as its only authentic inter- First Vatican Council in 1869. preter. Reason and faith, it sees as a twofold order The Syllabus of Errors. The Syllabus of of knowledge, which, though distinct, do not Errors, which was 12 years in preparation with conflict since both have God as their source. 80 items, could be considered the preface to Matters of faith cannot go against reason because Vatican I since it provided most of the ideas they are confirmed by miracles and prophesies. It discussed at the Council. Scholars like T. Tackett affirms the Catholic Church as the sole custodian think that Pius IX convened Vatican I to obtain of Christian faith, the divinely ordained arbiter of conciliar confirmation for the Syllabus of Errors. what is right and wrong. Hence, Christians are The whole thrust of this document can be sum- “forbidden to defend as legitimate conclusions of marized into two tendencies both of which were science those opinions which are known to be strongly condemned: the downgrading of God contrary to the doctrine of faith.” Coming to and the divine and the upgrading of nature and dogmas, it asserts that they are part of the immu- the natural. Pope Pius IX considered Vatican I as table divine deposit, and hence, their meaning a decisive step to counter firmly this powerful must be maintained intact. threatening current. Pastor aeternus, “On the Church of Christ,” Chronology of the Events of Vatican I. had its focus on the jurisdictional primacy and According to some scholars, already in 1849, infallibility of the Pope. The major part of this Luigi Cardinal Lambruschini, a member of the document dwells on the Primacy of Peter and of Roman Curia, suggested convening a council to the Pope as his successor. It may be noted that Pius IX. The Pope himself mentioned its possi- although Vatican I is known for its definition of bility in 1864, but the initial work started only in Papal Infallibility, this point came up strongly 1865. The formal announcement was made in only toward the end of the Council; but once it 1867, and the apostolic letter of convocation came up, it became the epicenter of heated was given on 29 June 1868. The first session debates. Just before the final vote, more than started on 8 December 1869. The first voting on 60 members left Rome, and when the final vote infallibility was on 13 July 1870, and Pius IX was taken, 533 voted for and 2 against. Catholic Church and Science 313 C Since the impact of science on this document The Second Vatican Council seems to be very limited, we will limit ourselves to giving the final statement of the dogma of Features of the Council Papal Infallibility, which says: When the Pope Vatican II was, in many ways, a landmark in the speaks ex cathedra, in his office as shepherd and history of the Catholic Church. According to the teacher of all Christians, on doctrines concerning Apostolic Brief, In Spiritu Sancto, “The Second faith or morals to be held by the whole Church, Vatican Council. . . must be remembered without C “such definitions of the Roman Pontiff are of doubt among the greatest events of the Church.” themselves, and not by the consent of the Church, Not only did many new ideas emerge from it, but irreformable.” also a new approach and a new attitude arose as a consequence of this largest ever ecumenical Some Remarks council. As Oscar Cullmann observes, the The Language of the Texts. The language of the impulses of this council are as effective as its texts is clear, direct, and absolute, leaving no documents. Many of its novel and revolutionary room for doubt or misunderstanding, dialogue, ideas and path-breaking approaches are yet to or compromise. All major assertions are followed become an integral part of the Church’s official by “anathema sit,” “let him be anathema.” policy and practice. Today’s democratic and dialogical world may Vatican I and Vatican II. Since Vatican II find such an approach jarring, particularly in follows serially Vatican I, one is understandably a religion that considers love and forgiveness its tempted to consider it as a follow-up on Vatican I. characteristics marks. However, when we con- But a serious reflection on these two councils sider the nature and purpose of the text, the reveals that they were significantly different. circumstances in which the whole develop- For instance, Vatican I was very much ments took place, as given in our detailed back- institution-centered, whereas Vatican II was con- ground study, this style and tone becomes spicuously people-centered. The primary move understandable. of Vatican I was principally to conserve and Science and Vatican I. The impact of devel- confirm, while that of Vatican II was mainly to opments in science and related fields on Vatican preserve and progress. Vatican I focused on I is very evident in the documents. Many of the defining certain dogmas to bring clarity and con- decrees and affirmations of the council are formity, whereas Vatican II focused on updating targeting scientific ideas and certain ideologies Catholic teaching and heritage to make it more that emerged from them. Vatican I for the most relevant to the times. With regard to science and part took a negative, narrow attitude to these technology, Vatican I made very few references, developments, perceiving them as harmful to mostly to show their negative impact, while Vat- the Church and humanity. It seems to me that ican II addressed the subject of science and tech- this situation led scholars like Andrew White nology quite frequently, mostly in a positive tone. and John Draper at the end of the nineteenth As Giles Routhier points out, many Council century to the conflict model for the science- Fathers, particularly E.A. Blanchet, Rector of Catholicism relationship. Although this may, in the Institut Catholique of Paris, and P. Veuillot, some ways, be true during this period, when we Coadjutor Archbishop of Paris, wanted to give consider the wider period from the beginning of “positive praise to its great dignity.” Vatican modern science to the present day, the relation- I was conspicuous in its use of the language of ship is far more complex. For instance, when condemnation and “anathema sit,” whereas modern science was in its infancy, the Church Vatican II wanted to use the “medicine of mercy encouraged and supported it. As we shall see, rather than of severity.” Vatican II took a positive and collaborative Although the exact causes of this striking turn- approach toward modern science. around is difficult to pinpoint, it can be shown C 314 Catholic Church and Science that certain developments in science during the Special Features of the Council (2): Greater period between Vatican I and Vatican II, partic- Sensitivity to the Human Dimension. This council ularly relativity and quantum theory, and similar was particularly noted for its people-friendly developments in Catholicism, particularly in vision and approach. It is remarkable that it scriptural scholarship and interpretation, mis- began with a nontraditional opening “Message sionary expansion, and wider interaction with to Humanity,” “to all men.” Walter Abbott points other world religions and cultures, the fruitful out that this is the first time that a council involvement of many loyal Catholics like addresses itself to all men, not just Catholics. In Georges Lemaitre in science, played a crucial a personal note the Council Fathers assured all role in this happy transformation. that they were in solidarity with the people, car- The Chronology of the Different Events. On rying in their hearts their “hardships, the bodily 25 January 1959, Pope John XXIII announced the and mental distress, the sorrows, longings, and convening of the Council. On 17 May 1959, the hopes.” Lumen gentium, “Dogmatic Constitution “Antepreparatory Commission” was appointed of the Church,” often considered “the most by the Pope. Ten preparatory commissions and imposing achievement of Vatican II,” described 2 secretariats were established on 5 June 1960. the same predicament of contemporary humans: The council commenced on 11 October 1962 Today, humans are “buffeted between hope and under Pope John with 2450 members out of the anxiety and pressing one another with questions possible 2908 and closed on 8 December 1965 about the present course of events, they are bur- under Pope Paul VI. The council had 4 principal dened down with uneasiness.” sessions and produced 4 Constitutions, 9 Special Features of the Council (3): The Spirit Decrees, and 3 Declarations. In addition to of “Aggiornamento.” “Aggiornamento,” making these, there were also a number of “closing up-to-date, the catchword for the Council, messages” to special target groups, introduced expressed the goal that the Church must be by the Pope and read out by cardinals appointed brought up-to-date, must adapt itself to meet the by the Council. challenges of modern times, particularly due to Special Features of the Council (1): Emphasis the astounding developments in science and tech- on the Pastoral Rather than Doctrinal Dimen- nology. Pope John wanted the Church not to be sion. As the Apostolic Brief, given at the end of intimidated by science but be daring to make use the council declaring its conclusion, pointed out, of modern ideas, means, and methods, well the council always bore in mind “the necessities proven for their efficaciousness and accuracy, to of the present day, above all it sought to meet the expound and explicate the Christian teaching and pastoral needs.” According to the “opening heritage. Thus, the council would be “a step for- speech” of Pope John XXIII, the primary purpose ward toward a doctrinal penetration and of the council was not the discussion of any a formation of consciousness in faithful and per- particular doctrine but to bring “the modern fect conformity.” world into contact with the vivifying and peren- Aggiornamento in the theological context nial energies of the gospel, a world which exalts should not be reduced to an exercise of rephrasing itself with its conquest in the technical and scien- conventional theological teaching in contempo- tific fields, but which brings also the conse- rary terminology. The council clearly stated that quences of a temporal order which some have such “old wine in new skins” simply defeated the wished to recognize excluding God. This is why purpose because scientific findings had posed society is earmarked by a great material progress new questions demanding new theological to which there is not a corresponding advance in investigations. the moral field.” Thus, the council was intended Special Features of the Council (4): to remedy the serious mismatch between the A Balanced Approach. At the same time, it must advances in the world of science and technology be emphasized that this aggiornamento in no way and in that of religion and morality. meant any break with the fundamental teachings Catholic Church and Science 315 C of the Church. To dispel any doubt on this matter, sentiment was expressed by Pope Paul VI: Pope John clarified: “The substance of the ancient “From the start the Council has propagated doctrine of the deposit of faith is one thing, and a wave of serenity and of optimism . . . free of the way in which it is presented is another. And it medieval rigorous and pessimistic understanding is the latter that must be taken into great consid- of man and his customs.” This openness and eration with patience if necessary, everything optimism was very conspicuous in the welcom- being measured in the forms and proportions of ing attitude the council took toward develop- C a Magisterium which is predominantly pastoral in ments in science and technology, without losing character.” In fact, he most sincerely hoped that its rootedness in tradition. “illumined by the light of this Council, the Special Features of the Council (7): The Spirit Church . . . will become greater in spiritual riches of Partnership and Collaboration. It is remark- and . . . make men, families and peoples really able to note that the council expressed a very turn their minds to heavenly things.” Clearly, one close and intimate relationship with the scientific of the goals of this council was to help contem- community, as was articulated in the “closing porary humans living in a world dominated by message” of the Council. According to it, since science and technology to achieve a delicate bal- scientists and the Council Fathers were fellow- ance between the scientific and the religious, the seekers of truth, their paths “could not fail to material and the spiritual. cross. Your paths are never foreign to ours.” In Special Features of the Council (5): A Positive fact, the relationship between the two groups was and Non-Defensive Attitude. It could be said that one of intimate partnership and close collabora- Vatican II ushered in a new age in the life and tion, as expressed in the following words: “We attitude of the Catholic Church. In place of the are friends of your vocation as searchers, com- spirit of “anathema sit” and condemnation panions in your fatigues, admirers of your suc- prevailed that of understanding and compassion, cesses and, if necessary, consolers in your meeting “the needs of the present day by demon- discouragement and your failures.” The Council strating the validity of her teaching rather than by ardently encouraged them to continue the search condemnation.” The request of many Council “without tiring and without ever despairing of the Fathers to reconsider the Galileo case and Pope truth.” John Paul II’s follow-up on the matter were an unmistakable testimony of this spirit. Another The Main Ideas of the Council instance of this new spirit was the public expres- Importance of Science in Contemporary Society. sion of regret by Pope Paul VI and Athenagoras I, The council correctly emphasized the fact that in the Patriarch of Constantinople, on 7 December the contemporary world science was fast becom- 1965 for the mutual excommunications pro- ing the foundation of intellectual formation. nounced by their respective predecessors Pope Lumen gentium says: “Intellectual formation is Leo IX and Patriarch Cerularius in 1054. ever increasingly based on the mathematical and Special Features of the Council (6): The Spirit natural sciences and on those dealing with man of Openness and Optimism. A spirit of optimism himself, while in the practical order the technol- and positiveness that readily appreciated the good ogy which stems from these sciences takes on in other religions and systems and a spirit of mounting precedence.” Furthermore, “Technol- openness to new possibilities, even when they ogy is transforming the face of the earth, and is looked challenging and demanding, was another already trying to master outer space.” The hallmark of the Council. As Pope John said: “We advances in the biological and social sciences feel we must disagree with those prophets of too are equally powerful and effective: gloom, who are always forecasting disaster, as “Advances in biology, psychology, and the social though the end of the world were at hand. . .. sciences not only bring men hope of improved Everything, even human differences, leads to self-knowledge. In conjunction with technical the greater good of the Church.” A similar methods, they are also helping men to exert direct C 316 Catholic Church and Science influence on the life of social groups.” In short, science education both for Church leaders like in our contemporary world, intellectual forma- priests and the laity. This point is emphasized in tion is very much colored and controlled by the “Decree on Priestly Formation” and in the science and technology. The council was in “Declaration on Christian Education.” In institu- praise of the methodology of science also. “If tions of higher learning, the Church wants “in methodical investigation within every branch of a systematic way to have individual branches of learning is carried out in a genuinely scientific knowledge studied according to their own proper manner and in accordance with moral norms, it principles and methods, and with due freedom never truly conflicts with faith. For earthly mat- of scientific investigation.” According to it, ters and the concerns of faith derive from the “Catholic colleges and universities and their fac- same God.” It also affirmed “the legitimate ulties should give the maximum support to insti- autonomy of human culture and especially of tutes which primarily serve the progress of the sciences.” scientific research.” Genuine Appreciation of the Achievements of The Impact of Science on Theology. Science. According to Vatican II, far from being According to the Council, theology is an impor- the devious devices of the devil, science and tant beneficiary of these scientific developments technology are a boon to humanity, ordained by because they can “stimulate the mind to a more divine dispensation. “By divine favour, espe- accurate and penetrating grasp of the faith. cially in modern times, human genius has pro- For recent studies and findings of science, his- duced from natural material astonishing tory, and philosophy raise new questions which inventions in the field of technology.” The influence life and demand new theological Church gladly welcomes them: “As a Mother, investigations.” Hence, the council urges the Church welcomes and watches such inven- theology to be in constant touch with develop- tions with special concern.... Mother Church, to ments in the sciences, “through a sharing of be sure, recognizes that if these instruments are resources and points of view,” collaborating rightly used they bring solid nourishment to the “with men well versed in the other sciences,” human race.” and seeking “a profound understanding of Science as an Affirmation of Human Dignity – revealed truth without neglecting close contact Human Partnership in Creation. In a way, sci- with its own times.” ence is a powerful affirmation of human dignity Science at the Service of the Church’s and greatness and provides humans with a most Pastoral Mission. The council readily effective means to collaborate with the Creator in acknowledges and appreciates the positive values the ongoing plan of creation. “When with the aid accruing from the scientific spirit such as fidelity of technology man develops the earth . . . he to truth, team spirit, etc., Science and its findings simultaneously obeys the great Christian com- can be equally beneficial in the area of pastoral mandment that he place himself at the service of care. The council reminds pastors and other min- his brother men.” A prudential, judicious engage- isters to make use “in pastoral care . . . the find- ment in science can elevate humans to a higher ings of the secular sciences, especially of and more sublime level of moral and intellectual psychology and sociology.” In fact, it wants the life. “Furthermore, when a man applies himself to faithful to “blend modern science and its theories the various disciplines . . . of mathematical and with Christian morality and doctrine. Thus their natural science, he can do very much to elevate religious practice and morality can keep pace the human family to a more sublime understand- with their scientific knowledge and with an ing of truth, goodness, and beauty, and to the ever-advancing technology.” formation of judgments which embody universal Openness to the Dynamic Worldview of values.” Science. Vatican II in some ways shows an open- Science Education for Priests and Other ness to the scientific dynamic worldview in which Leaders. The council emphasizes the need for change is an essential part, particularly in Catholic Church and Science 317 C Gaudium et spes, “Pastoral Constitution on the Conclusion Church in the Modern World of Today,” where it says: “The human race has passed from a rather Our brief survey reveals considerable difference static concept of reality to a more dynamic, evo- between Vatican I and Vatican II in many respects. lutionary one.” The consequences of this para- Perhaps one of the main reasons for this marked digm shift are enormous, and the Council, well difference was the attitude each had toward sci- aware of this fact, observes: “In consequence, ence. For Vatican I, science was a contender to be C there has arisen a new series of problems, tackled firmly and decisively. For Vatican II, sci- a series as important as can be, calling for new ence is a partner with whom the Church needs to efforts of analysis and synthesis.” This sensitivity collaborate in an ongoing search for truth. It seems to the dynamic worldview of modern science and clear that this spirit will continue as Pope John this openness to its consequences played a crucial Paul wrote to Fr. George Coyne, SJ, in 1988, the role in defining the Council’s attitude to science then Director of Vatican Observatory: “The truth and technology. They can play a pivotal role in of the matter is that the Church and the scientific fostering a constructive and creative dialogue community will inevitably interact; their options between Christianity and modern science. do not include isolation.” Holistic Approach Toward the Divine and the Human. Vatican II encourages a holistic approach to the divine and the human, the super- Cross-References natural and the natural. It looks for “a spiritual renewal from which will also flow a happy ▶ Christian Cosmology impulse on behalf of human values such as sci- ▶ Christianity entific discoveries, technological advances, and ▶ Determinism and Indeterminism a wider diffusion of knowledge,” indicating ▶ Evolution a close link between spiritual renewal and scien- ▶ Mechanics tific activities, an idea reminiscent of the thought ▶ Philosophy of Science of Teilhard de Chardin. A very positive attitude ▶ Physics in Christianity toward the world that was created by God who ▶ Quantum Theory “found it good” can never be alien to the Church ▶ Rationality (Philosophical) of God. ▶ Science and Religion Dialogue and the No Excessive Importance of Science. As Pope Interreligious Dialogue John made very clear, the Church has been a vigilant and alert observer of scientific devel- opments, following “step by step the evolution of peoples, scientific progress, and social evolu- References tion.” At the same time, it “does not neglect to admonish men so that, over and above sense – Abbott, W. M. (1967). The documents of Vatican II. London: Geoffrey Chapman. perceived things – they may raise their eyes to Butler, D. C. (1936). The Vatican council (Vols I & II). God.” It has taken pains to distinguish between Jedin, H., & Dolan, J. (Eds.). (1981). History of the church “excesses associated with a spirit of scientism Vols 8 & 10. New York: Crossroad. and the permanently valid achievements of the Komonchak, J. A. (Ed.). (2005). History of Vatican II (Vol 5). Maryknoll: Orbis positive sciences over the past few centuries.” Kozhamthadam, J. (2007). Vatican II on science and tech- While recognizing the legitimate independence nology. Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia, 63, 609–629. of the world of science, it always rejects the false Tackett, T. (2012). First Vatican council. Believe reli- sense of independence, which is taken to mean gious information source web-site. http://mb-soft. com/believe/txs/firstvc.htm. Accessed 2 February that “created things do not depend on God, and 2012. that man can use them without any reference to Tanner, N. P. (2001). The councils of the church. New their God.” York: Crossroad. C 318 Catholic Perspectives in Sociology Catholic theological and philosophical analysis Catholic Perspectives in Sociology into both the “front” and “back” ends of its over- all analysis, that is, respectively, into its theoret- ▶ Catholic Sociology ical framework and into a range of possible social policy suggestions that are consistent with its cognitive analysis of social life. A Catholic soci- ology argues both the inevitability and desirabil- Catholic Social Science ity vis-a`-vis, respectively, theory and public policy, of incorporating elements of, and con- ▶ Catholic Sociology cepts from, normative analysis, especially as derived from the Catholic social doctrine, Catholic social thought, and “natural law” analy- sis. It does so without compromising its cognitive Catholic Sociology function and mission of arriving at a truthful and objective depiction of social reality. Examples of Joseph A. Varacalli such incorporated elements and concepts would Department of Sociology/Anthropology/Social be the fundamental dignity of the human being Work, Nassau Community College-S.U.N.Y., made in the image of God; the individual viewed Center for Catholic Studies, Garden City, ultimately as a spiritual being with a soul and NY, USA eternal destiny; the individual characterized as possessing free will and viewed as a responsible social agent with both duties and rights; a concern Related Terms for the common good; subsidiarity; solidarity; the family as the basic cell of civilization; and the Catholic perspectives in sociology; Catholic compatibility and complementary nature of faith social science; Faith and reason; Religious and reason. Such an interdependent, three-tiered sociology conception of a Catholic sociology has developed slowly, in fits and spurts, over the past century and a half. This is the result of two processes. The Description first is an increasing awareness that there are limits to the useful employment of specialization A Catholic sociology is a subdiscipline within the in research. The second is an increasing aware- broader discipline of sociology. It builds on gen- ness of intellectual freedom to socially construct erally agreed upon insights about the role of basic and modify intellectual perspectives encouraged sociological considerations in an analysis of in the current “post-modern” culture. social life (e.g., culture, socialization, groups, A Catholic sociology is consistent with the social stratification, etc.). It also follows the gen- argument of the Protestant scholar, George erally accepted canons of social science research Marsden (The Outrageous Idea of Christian in terms of issues, such as method, evidence, and Scholarship), that Christian ideas can and should reasoning. Catholic sociology is sociology that be incorporated into academia in a way that does takes the sociological enterprise seriously, is not violate reasonable, tradition-tested, and consciously upfront and explicit about its funda- widely accepted philosophical and methodologi- mental assumptions, and aims to contribute to cal conventions. For Marsden, whether religious its positive development by enriching the or secular in nature, worldviews “help shape not internal intellectual exchanges within the general only our overt ways of valuing things, but also discipline. our priorities. What do we see as important to At the same time, a Catholic sociology study? What is it about that subject which makes attempts selectively to incorporate elements of it interesting? What are the questions we ask that Catholic Sociology 319 C will organize our interpretations of this topic? recognizable. . .in, through, and under the What theories do we entertain as relevant to our relative. . . ‘to the absolute through the relative interpretations? What theories do we rule out?” is our device’” (1958: 196). (1997: 63). The Catholic sociologist Joseph A. One characteristic of a Catholic sociology is Varacalli similarly offers a fivefold classificatory a “moderate integration” between the metaphys- scheme of the impact of values on the social ical, empirical, and social reform realms of anal- scientific enterprise involving (1) motivation, or ysis. This characteristic generally separates C in some cases, ideological agenda; (2) choice of a Catholic sociology from more conventional research project or social problem; (3) selection understandings of the discipline, the latter which of data as relevant or, conversely, aspects of tend not to address its own metaphysical presup- social reality ignored; (4) interpretation of data, positions. A Catholic sociology, as such, rejects involving analytical concepts, definitions, and the argument of Max Weber about the possibility theoretical frameworks employed; and (5) possi- of “value-free” sociology. ble social policy recommendations (Varacalli A Catholic sociology would respond to those 2000: 7–8). who advocate Weber’s view that, to the contrary, Both the formulations of Marsden and the mutually agreed upon goal of objectivity in Varacalli are consistent with the claim that, social research requires two procedures. The first while any investigation takes place within is the introduction of a theoretical/conceptual a given frame, there is a responsibility to dialogue framework derived from, or consistent with, the with other frames as well as search out and doc- natural law and Catholic social doctrine and ument whatever is perennial in social life. The thought. The second, methodologically, is the sentiments of Marsden and Varacalli are consis- conscious juxtaposition of competing frame- tent with that of Ralph Gallagher, the first presi- works, pace Karl Mannheim (Ideology and dent of the American Catholic Sociological Utopia), as an aid in reaching a truthful and Society (founded in 1938), who declared that comprehensive analysis of issues of major ethical “there is such a thing as a Catholic sociology, import. for sociology is not, in the full sense of the In his Ideology and Utopia, Mannheim pro- word, an exact science. The method of investiga- posed that a “socially unattached intelligentsia” tion, the assembling of data, the conclusions could approximate objectivity in analysis by drawn depend frequently upon the thought and comparing competing existentially based social philosophy of the investigator.” Gallagher and historical perspectives in the attempt to weed quickly added, however, that “. . .certainly we out ideological distortion and structurally based can learn much from those whose approach is biases. Many scholars, including non-Catholics, different from ours. They have much to contrib- have concluded that Mannheim’s methodology, ute in the field of method and research. We have while broadening academic discourse, has not no intention of becoming advocates of intellec- provided, in and by itself, an escape route from tual isolation” (quoted in Varacalli 1990: 249). error and a path toward truth. For the Catholic Following the general direction of the Catholic sociologist, any path toward truth additionally sociologist of knowledge, Werner Stark (The must acknowledge some metaphysically based Sociology of Knowledge), a premise of a natural law-like analysis or a phenomenological Catholic sociology is that the pursuit of truth analysis connecting an absolute realm of eternal must work its way through culture and society, values with the relativities involved in empirical accepting and emphasizing those conceptual ele- analysis (Varacalli 2012: 103). ments and visions of humanity that can justifiably Following the logic of Jacques Maritain in lay claim to a perennial status, thus separating The Peasant of the Garonne, the metaphysical, itself from the contingent and utopian. empirical, and social reform levels of analysis in Stark argues that, through a careful analysis of Catholic sociological research are interdependent sociohistorical reality, “the absolute is and mutually shaping. For Maritain, “between C 320 Catholic Sociology faith and reason, as between grace and nature, the atheistic existentialism in Stanford Lyman’s there is essential distinction and one sometimes and Marvin Scott’s “sociology of the absurd,” in tends to lose sight of it. . .But between faith and the behaviorist assumptions underlying a rigorist reason, as between grace and nature, there is mathematical sociology, and so forth. no separation. One tends to overlook that The Catholic sociological call for a “moderate too. . .Things are that way, and so is life; there is integration” does not deny, conversely, the neces- distinction without separation” (1968: 166–167). sity, inevitability, and desirability of some signif- That there can and should be a moderate inte- icant degree of disentanglement of social science gration between the metaphysical, empirical, and from, first, theology; second, philosophy; and, social policy levels of analysis points to the asser- third, social policy. What the former does argue tion of a Catholic sociology that the general is that specialization has proceeded too far, discipline of sociology is itself not fully self- producing sub-universes of meaning that are contained but only semi-autonomous and compartmentalized and mask inevitable interdependent. Just why the broader discipline interdependencies, thus doing an injustice to the of sociology has posited a rigid segregation intellectual requirement to produce comprehen- between fields of knowledge is an important sive and holistic analyses of life that nonetheless question that involves many partial answers. are capable of making and acknowledging subtle Among others, these involve an overreliance on and necessary distinctions between faith and rea- the positivistic scholarly tradition; the perceived son and metaphysics and empirical reality. Max need to defend the integrity of sociology vis-a`-vis Scheler’s critique, in his Problems of a Sociology religion, philosophy, and the humanities; and the of Knowledge, of Auguste Comte’s zero-sum desire of sociologists to capitalize on the status evolutionary movement from myth to philosophy and material benefits that accompany the “scien- to science (or a positivistic social science) is quite tific” label. consistent with the Catholic position regarding There is no doubt that, with few exceptions, the relationship, over time, of those social con- there is vigorous opposition on the part of the structions based on the absolute to those that mainstream sociological establishment to any more reflect a relative cultural ethos. For Scheler sociological connection with a metaphysical (1980), the absolute is ever present throughout realm. As one of the most accomplished and time and space in the form of an eternally valid respected sociologists in the history of the disci- hierarchy of values although any specific cultural pline, Robert Merton, puts it in his critique of the ethos may distort the true ordering of these work of Max Scheler, any discussion of “abso- values. When this happens, for Scheler (1980: lutes” is “wholly foreign to empirical inquiry” 13–23), various “disorders of the heart” are pro- (1957: 472). The response of a Catholic sociolo- duced, that is, pathologies at the level of both gist to this claim is that all sociologies are tied to society and the individual. what the sociologist Alvin Gouldner (Enter The Catholic appropriation of sociology sets Plato) termed basic, foundational, or “domain” itself up in sharp relief from either of the two assumptions about the nature of reality, society, current and major alternatives in the field, that and human beings. These domain assumptions is, the ideological and positivistic models as can be found (to whatever degree, either explic- discussed by the sociologist Peter L. Berger itly or implicitly) in the Calvinism in the work of (2011). The ideological perspective, which Talcott Parsons and Robert N. Bellah, the Marx- gained political dominance in the mid-1960s in ism in the work of C. Wright Mills, the Lutheran the contemporary academy, assumes two things. heritage in the work of Peter L. Berger, the por- The first is that the political cause of choice is trayal of the radically “protean” or “plastic” more important than the integrity of the scholarly nature of the human being in the work of the process. The second is that the reality that the symbolic interactionist Herbert Blumer or the philosophy and personal values of the researcher dramaturgical approach of Erving Goffman, in affects the nature of the research process makes Catholic Sociology 321 C the goal of objectivity an impossible one, bears certain affinities with the thought of representing nothing more than a clever rational- St. Thomas Aquinas. Likewise, the “debunking” ization and intellectual tool used by the guardians sociology of the liberal Lutheran sociologist, of the political status quo. The positivistic Peter L. Berger, shares some affinity with the model, while arguing for objectivity, tends to thought of St. Augustine. Other sociologies are view the individual and the individual scholar as harder to reconcile, if the Catholic sociologist devoid of free will, creativity, and responsibility. affirms the parameters of acceptability as C Generally, it has fallen into the trap of outlined by the magisterium (or teaching author- a methodological fetishism encouraged by a ity) of the Catholic Church. Regarding the issue hyper-specialization focusing on topics of little of prudential application, there can be a broad or no importance to those concerned with the array (albeit not of an indiscriminate nature) of construction of a “good society.” The goal of possible social policy recommendations that flow a “Catholic sociology,” in contrast, is to analyze from the cognitive analysis of a Catholic sociol- and reconstruct the social order on the basis of ogy. In other words, there are various licit and sound/right reason and empirical evidence. What legitimately debatable means toward instituting makes it a “Catholic” sociology is the applica- the common good. tion, when appropriate, of insights and sensibili- This brings up the reality that there are both ties developed within the corpus of Catholic “official” and “unofficial” versions of a Catholic social theory to the existing body of sound social sociology. The former accepts the parameters of scientific theory, concepts, and methods, and the Church’s teaching authority (or magisterium) through a thorough public exchange (Varacalli as the field from which its intellectual and 2000: 6–11). normative formulations are chosen. The latter There are multiple (empirically existing and refuses to do so, arguing, pace the logic of “Christ theoretically possible) versions of a “Catholic of culture” thinkers like Harvey Cox (The Secular sociology.” This complexity results from consid- City), that any social construction can be consis- erations involving intellectual pluralism and pru- tent with a Catholicism undergoing constant, dential application. Regarding intellectual even radical, and officially unsupervised change. pluralism, the individual Catholic sociologist In his A Theology of Liberation, for instance, can make recourse to a variety of theological Gustavo Gutierrez, offered a “Marxist-Catholic” and philosophical schools of thought, assuming synthesis widely viewed by orthodox Catholic that the latter can be plausibly judged as existing scholars as reducing the Catholic faith to Marxist within the broad parameters of a Catholic world- categories of thought along the lines of the gen- view. Another consideration is that the discipline eral methodological critique offered in two state- of sociology itself contains many – and in certain ments issued by the Congregation for the cases, seemingly disparate – theories and schools Propagation of the Faith whose prefect was the of thought. While none of the major options then Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger. These state- within the broader sociological tradition are, in ments are the 1984 Instruction on Certain and by themselves, consistent with a Catholic Aspects of the ‘Theology of Liberation’ and the logic, some can claim a closer affinity to Catholic 1986 Instruction on Christian Freedom and thought than others. For instance, and although Liberation. Also relevant is the document differing from each other in significant ways, the published by the Congregation for Catholic Edu- “structural-functionalism” of Talcott Parsons cation in 1989, that is, Guidelines for the Study with its organic understanding of social institu- and Teaching of the Church’s Social Doctrine in tional arrangements and its discussion of a “telic” the Formation of Priests. There are currently system, and the “integral” sociology of the a plethora of unofficial (and mostly implicit) Russian Orthodox sociologist, Pitirim A. Sorokin, Catholic sociologies accepting concepts and the- with its linking of the empirical, rational, and ories (e.g., “androgyny” for radical feminists and other-worldly transcendent realms of analysis, “queer theory” for homosexual activists) which C 322 Catholic Sociology advocate positions fundamentally at odds with an assumptions of social life, especially from the official Catholic understanding of human nature nineteenth century forward. These social forces and the overall magisterial worldview. Many, included ideas derived from the eighteenth cen- although not all, of these nonmagisterial under- tury Age of the Enlightenment and the rise of standings derive from a radical, “post-modern” science, structural developments like industriali- interpretation of “social constructionism” for zation and urbanization, and historical events like both the discipline of sociology and for the the American and French Revolutions and Il broader civilization; others derive from the Risorgimento in Italy. The resulting volcanic acceptance of various visions of life based on changes produced a general divide between “modern” philosophies whose root assumptions those ascendant sectors strongly progressive and are incompatible with a Catholic vision (e.g., secular and those defending tradition, the status Communism, Freudianism, laissez faire quo, and tied to the aristocracy and a defense of Capitalism). its rigid system of social stratification. For most It should be stated immediately that the role of of the European founders, the various sociologi- the Magisterium vis-a`-vis a Catholic sociology is cal formulations were viewed as enlightened subtle. Positively viewed, it is a source of inspi- substitutes for religion, whose function was not ration regarding insights about human and social merely cognitive but served as functional existence. It does not enter, as a matter of every- replacements and equivalents for religion. This day routine, into specific sociological debates. cultural, religious, social, and academic divide Periodically, it produces statements when schools placed those advocating a reconciliation between of thought or individual scholars explicitly negate Catholicism and the newly emerging and fundamental assumptions about the existence of “modern” discipline of sociology in a “no man’s God, the nature of society, the individual, and land.” Relevant here are the stages of history as their relationships. discussed by the Catholic historian/sociologist, The origins of the idea of a Catholic sociology Christopher Dawson. As Edward King notes, arose concomitant with the development of the “Dawson characterized his sixth and final histor- general discipline. It developed “negatively,” ical era as that of ‘secularized Christendom and that is, in reaction to the non-Catholic elements the Age of Revolution’ which spanned from the influencing the emergence of the discipline eighteenth century to the present. . .(This). . .is (whether inspired by Auguste Comte, Herbert Christendom with a profound spiritual vacuum Spencer, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, or liberal at its core, and its history over three centuries Protestant thinkers). The idea also developed shows the rise of a series of secular prophets “positively,” that is, originally in “proto”- who sought to fill this vacuum” (2007: 280). Catholic sociological form, in response to the Nonetheless, there were individual attempts to developing tradition of social Catholicism make such a negotiation between Catholicism (Williams 1950). The social apostolates pro- and sociology. Increasingly more articulate moted by, for instance, Bishop William Emman- Catholic sociological formulations were created uel von Ketteler (1811–1877) in Germany and by such figures as Christopher Dawson Edward Henry Cardinal Manning (1808–1892) (1889–1970) in England (and later the United in England both influenced the content of the States), Frederic LePlay (1806–1882) in France, social encyclical, Rerum Novarum, in 1891 and Cardinal Joseph Hoffner (1906–1987) in contained implicit sociological analyses of Germany, and Don Luigi Sturzo (1871–1959) in civilization. Italy. These individual scholarly attempts were In Europe, sociology as a general intellectual part of the same social matrix which saw the perspective developed as a response to the emergence of Catholic social doctrine in the forces of exaggerated social change that tended form of such encyclicals as Rerum Novarum to undermine what the social philosopher, (1891) and Quadragesimo Anno (1931). These Alfred Schutz, termed the “taken-for-granted” attempts tried to address the needs of the “social Catholic Sociology 323 C question” for the majority mired at the societal Tracy Ellis, American Catholics and the Intellec- periphery and to provide a Catholic critique and tual Life published in 1956. alternative to such secular ideologies as capital- Advocates of a Catholic sociology made the ism, socialism, and Communism. contrary claim that the Council actually affirmed In the American context, the proto-Catholic the need for Catholics to engage in public dia- sociologists fought their own two-front war. The logue about what their religion – with its intel- first front opposed the liberal Protestant Social lectual heritage – had to offer to both the world C Gospel movement dominant at the turn into the and sociology. In their view, the Council was twentieth century which focused on establishing incorrectly interpreted as signalizing the obsoles- “God’s Kingdom here on earth.” After the car- cence of the ideal of distinctive Catholic intellec- nage of World War I, the second front opposed tual approaches (Varacalli 1990: 250–251). As the newly emerging heirs to Auguste Comte, in such, the transformation of the American the form of such positivistic sociologists like Catholic Sociological Society into the Sociology William Ogburn (1886–1959) and George of Religion in 1970 was viewed an indicator of Lundberg (1895–1966). Some key early founders the power of assimilation into the mainstream of a Catholic sociology/social science in the conventions of the secular discipline of sociol- United States were William J. Kirby ogy, with more than a few of these conventions (1870–1936), Monsignor Paul Hanly Furfey subject to legitimate criticism from a Catholic (1896–1992), and Eva J. Ross (1903–1969). intellectual perspective. The attempt from 1938 to 1970 to institution- However, that same secularization was also an alize Catholic sociology in the United States indicator of the weak tradition of, general lack of through the American Catholic Sociological competency in, and lack of enthusiasm for, the Society failed primarily because of several inter- social science enterprise on the part of the related reasons. One was a lack of institutional Catholic Church and Catholics in general vis-a`- support from an institutional Church where the vis the more completely secularized and progres- majority of its scholars felt secure that truth could sive camps within the overall discipline of be approached almost exclusively through the sociology. For decades after the conclusion of deductive disciplines of theology and philosophy. the Second Vatican Council, either an overt sec- Another was the still working-class backgrounds ularization or a more subtle “secularization from of most Catholics, a reality not amenable to within,” continued to erode any effective inter- a wide-scale acceptance of the utility of social face between Catholicism and sociology, thus science perspectives. Another was the desire of attenuating, to the point of utter dormancy, the young Catholic sociologists and social scientists reality of an official Catholic sociology. This trained in secular universities to conform to secularizing movement was carried, variously, the standards of the mainstream and secular by the general processes of assimilation into an profession. increasingly less religious society and specifi- Regarding the latter reason, the secularization cally fomented by Catholic progressive elites. that overtook the A.C.S.S. and many other This trend has now started to be reversed, in Catholic scholarly organizations in the post- part, a consequence of Pope John Paul II’s “new Vatican II period involved an interpretation of evangelization.” Also, the importance of social the significance of the theology of Vatican II science research has increasingly been accepted, (1962–1966) for Catholic scholarship that in a “taken-for-granted” fashion, by most of the argued, basically, that the state of existing increasing percentage of formally educated Catholic scholarship was inferior to the secular Catholics in the contemporary world. As but scholarship of the time. An important argument one indicator of this, the Society of Catholic laying the groundwork for this line of thinking Social Scientists was formed in 1992, convening was the essay of the influential, progressive annual national conferences; publishing American Catholic historian, Monsignor John a journal, the Catholic Social Science Review; C 324 Catholic Sociology and instituting a book series on the themes of empirical research, a Catholic sociology defi- Catholic social thought and the connection nitely leans in the humanistic direction emerging, between Catholicism and the social science dis- in part, because of its rejection of the inadequa- ciplines. Most relevant to the discussion of cies of the pseudo-scientism of positivism. a Catholic sociology is the substantial volume put together and edited by Stephen R. Sharkey, Religion Sociology and Catholic Social Teaching: Con- An “official” Catholic sociology is not defined as temporary Theory and Research (2012). Sharkey a “religion.” A semi-autonomous Catholic soci- provides a range of contemporary social scien- ology is viewed by its advocates as a licit means tists from both the S.C.S.S. and the Pontifical to actualizing one’s primary religious, intellec- Academy of Social Sciences who use their theo- tual, and moral commitments to a Catholic retical and empirical work to serve both the worldview. However, an “unofficial” Catholic Church and the broader civilization. In his dis- sociology could be defined as a religion, follow- cussion, he also notes other contemporary ing what sociologists refer to as a “functional schools of thought that can serve to foster definition” of religion. So defined, an unofficial a vivifying exchange between religion and soci- Catholic sociology combines a scholarly analysis ology (e.g., “personalist critical realism” and of Catholicism and religion with either an ulti- “integral sociology,” the latter based on the mate interest in promoting autonomy in intellec- work of Pitirim Sorokin). tual, religious, and moral affairs or in some other While the S.C.S.S. has made substantial inter- essentially secular philosophy/worldview. nal progress over its first 20 years, its ultimate fate is tied to such issues as the general reception of the idea of specifically Catholic perspectives in Characteristics scholarship among its membership, the state of Catholicism within the broader American and A Catholic sociology draws on the distinctive world civilization, as well as the direction of the insights of human personhood and sociability internal currents of the sociological profession. inhering in the Catholic intellectual tradition. Regarding the latter, Sharkey suggests that the Catholic sociology as a subdiscipline is distinc- prospects of a Catholic sociology are superior in tive in at least several ways. One is the Catholic the present post-modern society for two interre- conviction that faith and reason are compatible lated and overlapping reasons. The first is that and mutually supportive. Another is in the post-modern society is characterized by a greater attempt to systematically relate and demonstrate self-reflexivity vis-a`-vis the immediately preced- interdependencies between normative and cogni- ing post-traditional, “modern” era. The second is tive analyses, between, more specifically, the the growing rejection both of positivistic notions realms of metaphysics, empirical research, and of a “value-free” sociology and overt ideological social policy. Yet another is its attempt to reinte- scholarship. grate knowledge and produce holistic knowledge in order to provide analyses of social existence that are comprehensive, subtle, and complex. Self-Identification Science Relevance to Science and Religion A “Catholic sociology” is a subdiscipline of soci- ology which itself is an example of a social sci- A Catholic sociology is certainly interested in ence. Social science perspectives can lean in and can contribute to the scholarly area called either the scientific or humanistic direction. “Science and Religion.” A Catholic sociology Without violating the scholarly canons for accepts the idea that the discipline of sociology Catholic Sociology 325 C has inclusive tendencies, that is, that it can and 40 years after the publication of what is generally should incorporate the insights of interdisciplin- acknowledged as the first great social encyclical, ary research. A Catholic sociology also views the Rerum Novarum, issued by Pope Leo XIII in scientific enterprise as not fully autonomous, that 1891 as a response to the conditions of the work- is, that scientific activity, while maintaining ing classes as the dysfunctions of the industrial a legitimate semi-autonomous status that resists revolution in Europe became manifest. Building any facile reduction to nonscientific consider- on more than 100 years of development within C ations, is both affected by cultural and social the corpus of Catholic social thought since the factors and has tremendous consequences for publication of Rerum Novarum, Pope John Paul II the civilization in which it operates. The actual established the Pontifical Academy of Social and potential implications of current biotechno- Sciences in Rome in 1994. According to the logical revolution for civilization highlight the Vatican web site, the Pontifical Academy of latter claim. Social Sciences was founded “with the aim of promoting the study and progress of the social sciences, primarily economics, sociology, law, Sources of Authority and political science, thus offering the Church those elements which she can use in the develop- There are dual sources of authority for the idea of ment of her social doctrine, and. . .(in). . . a Catholic sociology. The first source comes from reflecting on the application of that doctrine in the secular mainstream tradition of the discipline contemporary society.” While the Pontifical of sociology in the form of what has been termed Academy has not addressed yet the specific “basic sociology,” (James M. Henslin, Essentials issue of to what degree and in what ways the of Sociology: A Down to Earth Approach, Ninth social sciences can be “Catholicized,” the idea Edition). This tradition stresses certain funda- that objective social science can contribute to mental postulates. One would be an emphasis, Catholic social thought and the broader civiliza- relative to most philosophical and theological tion represents some initial positive movement in thought, on empirical reality. Another would be the direction of a fruitful exchange between the goal of objectivity. Another involves the Catholic social thought and the mainstream tra- requirement that all aspects of the research pro- dition of the discipline. cess be open for review and accountability and be As of now, however, a deliberate Catholic conducted under ethical guidelines. sociology exists in more or less restricted circles. The second source of authority for the Mention should also be made regarding the subdiscipline is found within the corpus of debatable issue of the degree to which the princi- Catholic social thought. Given the present influ- ples of a Catholic sociology (e.g., a positive role ence of both positivistic and ideological thinking, for values in the research process, a concern for Catholic sources of authority for this human dignity and social justice – as understood subdiscipline are not widely recognized outside in official Catholic sources – have started to the sphere of “official” Catholic thinking or that become institutionalized in Catholic colleges relatively small segment of religious thinkers and universities). who utilize the sociological discipline in their The widespread “plausibility” of a “Catholic various religious, intellectual, and policy “apos- sociology” depends on two related issues. tolates” and “ministries.” The first is the possibility of a revitalization of The establishment of a “Catholic social sci- Catholicism/Christianity in world civilization ence” was first called for in official Catholic and within the secular academy. The second, circles by Pope Pius XI in his important encycli- conversely, involves the issue of whether the cal, Quadragesimo Anno, #20, (1931). This concurrent debunking of the monopolistic status important social encyclical was produced and claims of both positivism and of ideological C 326 Catholic Sociology thinking within secular academic circles will positing of the inevitable interaction of a continue into the future. There are two questions metaphysical realm with both society and sociol- here. The first is whether the Catholic intellectual ogy in the form of the natural law or its equivalent community has the will and ability to develop that helps provide a yardstick in social analysis more fully a Catholic sociology. The second is allowing one to partially transcend the empirical whether there might be a change in attitude in reality of relativism. Another value is the positing social science circles regarding the idea that the of the existence of a supernatural realm which cognitive and normative claims of traditional rejects the idea that all phenomena in social life religion can contribute in a positive manner to can be completely and neatly explained. Both the intellectual discourse. nature of the individual – marked by an essential freedom and some degree of unpredictability – and his/her orientation to the transcendent realm Ethical Principles presuppose that some of social life remains “mys- terious.” From a Catholic sociological perspec- There are several distinctive overriding ethical tive, put another way, no finite human agency has principles which inform Catholic sociology as the ability to understand all of reality in its full- reflected in the Catholic intellectual tradition ness and complexity. Finally, one of the consti- and especially within the social encyclicals. The tutive goals of a Catholic sociology, given its first is to pursue truth, wherever that truth may positing of the ultimate other-worldly destiny of lead. A second and third is that the subdiscipline human beings, is as an aid to the individual in serves the interests of the common good and the reaching the beatific vision. fundamental dignity of the individual, in terms of the latter’s integral human needs, both spiritual and material. Conceptualization In addressing the following issues, it is important Key Values to preface the respective discussions by noting that a Catholic sociology affirms the religious/ There are several key values for the subdiscipline transcendent realm, especially as it conceptual- of a “Catholic sociology.” One is that human ized within the Catholic tradition. beings are constitutively “cultural and spiritual creatures,” however modified by an awareness Nature/World that cultural and spiritual realities are mediated The essence or substance of the created universe, and affected by (but not reduced to) material including both the supernatural and the social states of being, historical and personal realities universe, knowledge of which can be studied and exigencies, and by a human nature that, while objectively through the use of the natural, social, variegated in its manifold expressions, is essen- and theological intellectual disciplines. From tially common and unchanging. Another is that a Catholic sociological perspective, any under- human beings are not merely products of their standing of earthly life, with its promotion of the “social location.” The power of the human mind essential dignity of the human being, must be to reflect on the nature, causes, and impact of integrated into a larger transcendent vision socialization create the grounds for the assign- which understands that the ultimate origins of ment of responsibility for human thinking and life come from God and that the ultimate destiny action, however mitigated by such factors as the of the human being is the beatific vision. It is the nature of one’s inherited and present social envi- social universe as it intersects with the natural ronment, stage of human development, and state and transcendent realms that is the special pur- of mental health. Another key value is the view of a Catholic sociology as discussed by, Catholic Sociology 327 C among others, the early Catholic sociologist, Don defined as real, it is real in its consequences.” Luigi Sturzo. However, following such scholars as Werner Stark and Max Scheler, it also considers one of Human Being its goals the pursuit of truth through a scholarly The individual, possessing both a body and soul, and discerning analysis of society, the human and capable of rational thought, voluntary action, being, and the dialectical relationship between and reaching truth, whose rights and duties derive the two. C from God through the natural law. Constitutive components of the human being as depicted by Truth a Catholic sociology include a foundational spir- Objective factual/cognitive reality in the natural itual and cultural dimension as well as the oper- universe and objective factual/cognitive and moral/ ation of the “natural law” written into the heart. normative reality in the social universe, reached through the two complimentary wings of faith and Life and Death reason. The desire to know the truth is intrinsic to Viewed in terms of the earthly existence of the the human being. A distinguishing characteristic of human being, activity which begins at the a Catholic sociology is the goal to identify truth and moment of conception and terminates with morality in society and social relations. earthly death. Theologically, the soul continues in the next life within the spheres of Heaven, Perception Hell, or temporarily, Purgatory. A Catholic soci- A way of understanding or interpreting. A Catholic ology, in its social policy aspects, is committed to sociology accepts, but only as a partial truth, that protecting and promoting the fundamental dig- varying cognitive and normative understandings nity all human life from the moment of concep- of reality inevitably are generated by the sociolog- tion through natural death. ical reality of a differential socialization along a host of variables (e.g., cultural context, socioeco- Reality nomic class, age, cohort, education, region, occu- All that exists objectively in the natural and social pation, lifestyle, etc.). These cognitive and universe, that is, outside the mind of the individ- normative definitions are amenable, to a certain ual. Regarding social existence, the dictum of the degree, to being documented through conventional classical sociologist, Emile Durkheim, is rele- sociological research. However, Catholic sociolo- vant, that is, that “social facts are things.” One gists also affirm a deeper form of knowledge that focus of a Catholic sociology is the determination comes not from purely empirical data gathering of which social constructions are consistent with techniques but from the exercise of what the early the natural law. Catholic sociologist, Monsignor Paul Hanly Furfey, referred to as “noesis” or the ability of Knowledge the mind to immediately perceive certain truths The cognitive understanding of God, the histori- or fundamental essences in the tradition of cal and social universe, the individual, and their Plato and, derivatively, in the Catholic sociologi- relationships. Knowledge is acquired through cal work of scholars like Max Scheler and reason and the senses but is aided and strength- Werner Stark. ened by revealed truth and the invisible opera- tions of grace. A Catholic sociology takes from Time the sociology of knowledge the distinction The sum total of past, present, and future periods between the “plausibility” and “truthfulness” of of existence. A Catholic sociology simulta- knowledge claims. Regarding the former, it neously takes into account different secular and accepts the dictum of the early “Chicago school” religious conceptions of the temporal without sociologist, W.I. Thomas, that “if something is violating the overall Catholic narrative on the C 328 Catholic Sociology purpose of meaning of human existence. These the bureaucratic mentality, supposedly based on include a straightforward understanding of chro- rationality/reason, in the modern world. nological time; time understood as divided into cultural, political, and historical categories (e.g., Mystery the “Age of the Enlightenment”); time viewed The theological, anthropological, and sociologi- from contrasting traditional and modern perspec- cal reality that no purely human, finite agency can tives (e.g., the past as eternally present vs. explain the fullness of the natural, social, and a future open to human calculation and planning); religious universe. The Catholic sociological and time viewed from a perspective centering on acceptance of a significant role for mystery in the creation of the universe by God, the historical social affairs lends itself strongly to the human- reality and salvific mission of Jesus Christ, and istic and “actionist” perspectives within the over- the future anticipation of God’s plans for civili- all sociological tradition. zation and humanity. Consciousness Relevant Themes A subjective and immediate awareness either of the external world and transcendent realm or of The utility and logic of the idea of a “Catholic some intra-subjective mental state. Relatedly, sociology” depends on more than the exercise individual consciousness/conscience may or may of reason and an examination of historical reality. not be more or less in line with objective reality/ Accepted here is the premise of the sociology of truth/morality depending on a combination of cir- knowledge that ideas do not rise or fall (at least in cumstance, choice, and grace. One tenet of the short run) on the issue of truth. Rather, all a Catholic sociology is that consciousness/ ideas, whether true/logical/useful (or not), depend conscience is in a dialectical relationship with the on what sociologist Peter L. Berger has termed state of the surrounding civilization and one’s a “social base” or “plausibility structure” (The primary group attachments. One important Sacred Canopy). The plausibility of an idea Catholic sociological concern involves an analysis depends significantly on unpredictable future his- of modern consciousness and the question of its torical developments. It is scholarly paradigm openness to the transcendent realm. (Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Rev- olutions; Robert W. Friedrich, A Sociology of Rationality/Reason Sociology) awaiting its moment. A faculty of the human being to reach or at least approximate truth, despite the reality of original Sin and the inevitability of human error. Reason Cross-References is meant to be assisted by Faith. Faith without reason produces a fideism which ignores/ ▶ Cognitive Science of Religion underplays the reasoning capability of the indi- ▶ Critical Realism in Theology and Science vidual typical of formulations generated by advo- ▶ Ethics/Moral Theology, Roman-Catholic, cates of the Protestant Reformation. Reason Europe without faith produces a rationalism which over- ▶ Faith and Belief extends itself and lends itself to a destructive uto- ▶ History of Ideas (Intellectual History) pianism typical of advocates of revolutionary ▶ Interreligious Dialogue thought and action (e.g., French Revolution, Com- ▶ Knowledge, Sociology of munist revolutions in Russia and, later, China, ▶ Religion, Sociology of etc.). One important Catholic sociological concern ▶ Science and Religion Dialogue and the involves an analysis of the dysfunctions associated Interreligious Dialogue with the increased growth of bureaucracies and ▶ Science and Scientific Knowledge, Sociology of Causality in Physics 329 C References Causality Berger, P. L. (2011). Adventures of an accidental sociol- ogist: How to explain the world without becoming ▶ Attribution/Attribution Theory a bore. Amherst: Prometheus Books. King, E. (2007). Christopher Dawson (1889–1970). In M. L. Coulter et al. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of catholic social thought, social science, and social Causality in Physics C policy (Vol. I, pp. 276–280). Lanham: Scarecrow Press. Maritain, J. (1968). The peasant of the Garonne: an old John R. Albright layman questions himself about the present time. Lutheran School of Theology, Chicago, IL, USA New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Purdue University Calumet, IN, USA Marsden, G. (1997). The outrageous idea of Christian scholarship. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Florida State University, FL, USA Merton, R. K. (1957). The sociology of knowledge, Chapter 12. In R. K. Merton (Ed.), Social theory and social structure (pp. 456–488). Glencoe, Illinois: The Related Terms Free Press. Scheler, M. (1980). Problems of a sociology of knowledge. London: Routledge/Kegan Paul. Causation; Determinism; Fatalism; Predestina- Sharkey, S. R. (Ed.). (2012). Sociology and catholic social tion; Predictability teaching: Contemporary theory and research. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. Stark, W. (1958). The sociology of knowledge: An essay in aid of a deeper understanding of the history of ideas. Religious Aspects of Causality London: Routledge/Kegan Paul. Varacalli, J. A. (1990). Catholic sociology in Ancient Judaism covers so many centuries that it America: A comment on the fiftieth anniversary issue of sociological analysis. International Journal is not surprising that it does not present a unified of Politics, Culture, and Society, 4(2), 249–262. picture. The earliest of the literary prophets, such Winter. as Amos and Hosea (eighth century BCE), clearly Varacalli, J. A. (2000). Bright promise, failed community: believed that humans have free will, that their Catholics and the American public order. Lanham: Lexington Books. future is not predestined, but it is conditional Varacalli, J. A. (2012). Beyond the dictatorship of relativ- depending on the behavior of the people. Predic- ism: Toward a sociology of knowledge, catholic style. tions of doom and destruction are meant to instill In S. R. Sharkey (Ed.), Sociology and catholic social ethical practices specifically to avert the dire teaching: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 91–123). Lanham: Scarecrow Press. predictions. Williams, M. J. (1950). Catholic social thought: Its Deuteronomy (seventh century BCE) speaks approach to contemporary social problems. clearly of a choice between following Torah New York: The Ronald Press. (law) and disobeying it. A certain element of causality (but not predestination) is maintained. The correct choice leads to prosperity and happiness, but the wrong choice leads to ruin Catoptrics (Deuteronomy 30:15–20). Although Jeremiah (early sixth century BCE) ▶ Optics in Islam often sounds as though people have choice, he is much more predestinarian than his predecessors. Even his birth is seen as predestined by God, as is his calling as a prophet. Times were much worse; Causal Inference the political, military, and economic welfare of Judah had come close to destruction, and predes- ▶ Attribution/Attribution Theory tination seemed the only explanation: We do not C 330 Causality in Physics like it, but God’s plan has something good as an In the thirteenth century, Thomas Aquinas outcome. took full advantage of manuscripts previously Prophets of the exile such as Ezekiel and unknown in the West to understand Aristotle Second Isaiah (Deutero-Isaiah, chs. 40–55 of and to incorporate his ideas – including those on canonical Isaiah) were preaching to a powerless causality – into his systematic theology. He used people. They considered that only God’s will and causality as one category of proof for the exis- strength could restore the Jews to a measure of tence of God: For every effect, there is a cause; freedom and ability to practice their inherited but a cause is also an effect; by induction there is religion. Predestination offered hope. a chain of causality; either it is an infinite regress During the Persian, Greek, and Roman periods, (absurd), or there is an uncaused cause, a First a religious fragmentation of Jewish thought was in Cause, called God. place. Pharisees, for example, believed in predes- In the Reformation period, Martin Luther, tination; Sadducees opposed it. Early Christianity John Calvin, and Huldrich Zwingli were all presented a mixture of ideas on the subject. Paul, strongly in favor of causality and predestination. a former Pharisee, taught predestination. The Luther engaged with Erasmus of Rotterdam Gospels are not nearly so clear about it. (opposed to predestination) in an exchange of Ancient Greek philosophy was concerned treatises on predestination; neither one convinced with causality. From the religious point of view, the other. Confessional documents of the Refor- the most important figure was Aristotle because mation era appeared among the religious groups his ideas were adopted by Christians and of Western Europe. In 1530, the Augsburg Con- Muslims in the Middle Ages, and his categories fession (Lutheran) was written and presented are still a part of some schools of Christian phi- publicly by Philip Melanchthon. It was very dip- losophy. Aristotle identifies four types of cause: lomatic about predestination, too much so for 1. Material (causa materialis) Luther. In 1547, the Roman Catholic Church in 2. Efficient (causa efficiens) the Council of Trent adopted similar statements. 3. Formal (causa formalis) In 1562, the Church of England adopted the 39 4. Final (causa finalis) Articles of Religion, of which several deal with To illustrate these, consider a house, predestination; there too an inclusive spirit according to Aristotelian notions of causality. prevailed, trying to contain a broad spectrum of 1. Material: the bricks, mortar, wood, glass, etc. opinions in the Church. The Lutherans continued 2. Efficient: the action of the workers who built to argue over predestination until 1575, when the house. they adopted a Formula of Concord, which was 3. Formal: the blueprint, the design by which the conciliatory toward both sides of the issue. construction was guided. Calvinists met in 1620 at Dordrecht in the 4. Final: The owner wished to have a pleasant Netherlands (Synod of Dort) and adopted place to live. a strongly predestinarian statement. Of these four, only the efficient cause survives By this time, the state churches of Western in science today. The study of final causes was Europe had taken a stand, and it was in general considered important in the Middles Ages, but it forbidden that theologians should debate any was attacked savagely during the Enlightenment, more about predestination. Such strictures have even though vestiges survive today, often well been largely ignored in America. disguised. Disagreement about predestination came to a focus in the dispute between Augustine (for Causality During the Enlightenment predestination) and Pelagius (against it). The for- mer was the clear winner, since he became Saint The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw Augustine, while one speaks of the Pelagian a great emphasis on rationality and a rejection heresy. of Aristotelian causal categories except the Causality in Physics 331 C efficient cause. God was seen as possibly the First not know how to explain it. Newton and Hume Cause, but beyond that no divine action was had little choice but to ignore it. considered as more than superstition. This is essentially Deism. The action of objects in the world was considered as if they were mechanisms Alternative Formulation: Fields driven by rather impersonal forces, much like cogs in a machine. Political and economic free- The problem of action at a distance is also present C doms were mostly not valued, and determinism in for magnets and for electrical charges. The best nature was accepted, with mechanics as the fore- description of the situation was developed by most branch of science. Michael Faraday, who described magnetic forces Descartes, Galileo, and Spinoza were intellec- by using a force field. Magnet A sets up tual leaders, pointing the way toward mechanism a magnetic field in its surrounding space. Magnet and determinism. Newton and Huygens formu- B interacts locally with A’s field, and we say that lated mathematical systems for this cause. B experiences a force from A. But Magnet B also Newton’s laws became the model of enlighten- sets up a field that locally causes a force on A. ment because they contained the essence of These two forces are equal in magnitude and a causal and deterministic outlook. opposite in direction, just as Newton’s third law Newton’s second law, F ¼ ma, force equals requires. mass times acceleration, takes causal form The field concept works just as well for elec- because acceleration is the second derivative of trostatic forces and gravitational forces. James the spatial position of an object. In other words, Maxwell showed how the electric and magnetic velocity is the rate of change of a coordinate, and fields fit into a set of four interlocking equations. acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity. Attempts to integrate gravity into the system have If the position and velocity of an object are failed so far. However, the forces described by known at a particular time, and if the forces are these fields continue to describe a causal and known, it becomes possible to calculate the posi- deterministic motion. tion and the velocity for all subsequent times, and also to calculate backward in time to learn the past history of the object. This condition of the Alternative Formulation: Global knowledge is mathematical determinism. By Theories the end of the eighteenth century, it was widely accepted as the way the world works. The idea that it is important to maximize or David Hume wrote on causality and did not minimize some value goes back to Newton and repudiate Newton. His writings had a great influ- to Wilhelm Gottfried Leibniz, both of whom ence on Immanuel Kant, who examined every invented calculus to do this. One of Leibniz’s aspect of causality that was accessible at that disciples, Moreau de Maupertuis, tried to formu- time (Torretti, ch. 3). Hume added further causal late a quantity that he called “action,” calculated conditions, most notably the requirements of by adding contributions from all of the space; sequence and contiguity. Both of these appear to minimizing the action would then give you the be plain common sense: The cause must precede answer to how the system behaves. For both the effect, and effects such as telekinesis and personal and professional reasons, Maupertuis levitation are excluded. Although it is attractive made enemies, one of whom was Voltaire, to insist on contiguity (objects must touch to whose novel Candide was a biting satire of cause anything), there is a problem when a force Leibniz, Maupertuis, and their ideas. Voltaire such as gravity acts across a distance. The sun’s believed that their attempts to maximize or gravitational attraction keeps the earth in orbit, minimize asserted that we live in the best of yet the earth and the sun are not contiguous. all possible worlds, an idea he found easy Newton was aware of this problem, and he did to ridicule. C 332 Causality in Physics Although the formulation by Maupertuis was based on the impossibility of predicting outcome a bit confusing, his scientific endeavors had con- for a sufficiently complicated system. Dice are siderable merit, as was shown by Leonhard Euler a Newtonian mechanical system, and therefore and Joseph-Louis Lagrange. By more carefully ought to be predictable, except that (1) the initial defining the action, Lagrange was able to set up conditions are not properly known, and (2) the a well-posed problem of minimization, and by calculations are too difficult. So it is better to using Euler’s calculus of variations, he was able assume an aleatory system and analyze it as such. to find the minimum. In doing so, he found, With the rise of statistics as a mathematical Newton’s second law appears. Thus, a global tool to study aleatory systems, there arose principle of least action – which is not manifestly a problem that needs to be noticed. Sometimes causal – leads to the same causal equations of two types of events seem to be associated, and motion that arise from the local theory of statistical tests show that they are correlated. But Newton, valid point by point. correlation does not prove causality. It could be Subsequent developments have shown that the that both events are caused by the same prior global approach can be quite powerful provided cause, and that neither one is the cause of the that the action is properly defined. The global other. The Latin adage is actually false: post hoc approach not only can reproduce the results of ergo propter hoc (after this therefore because of the local one, but it sometimes provides addi- this). It is a fallacy to be avoided. tional insight and information that theories based on a single point cannot produce. Statistical Mechanisms Pierre Simon de Laplace Physicists such as James Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann, and Josiah Willard Gibbs invented In the period of the French Revolution and the statistical mechanics to describe a system of Napoleonic Wars, an important scholar of causal- many particles, each of which moves according ity was Pierre Simon de Laplace (Gillespie 1997). to the laws of classical mechanics. The motion is His treatise on celestial mechanism carried causal at root, but by treating the motion as if it Newton’s mechanics to an impressive level of were random, one can use statistics to describe understanding of the motions in the solar system. the entire system on the average. The results In particular, he proved the stability of the solar frequently agree well with observations, espe- system against small perturbations, and demon- cially for many commonly encountered gases strated that Newton’s laws were more impressive at room temperature and one atmosphere of than Newton himself had realized. He articulated pressure. the idea of Laplacian determinism, which states By the early twentieth century, the satisfaction that given the initial conditions, you can use with statistical mechanics was badly undermined Newton’s laws to predict the subsequent motion. by annoying discoveries of which we list three It is interesting that Laplace, famous in his outstanding examples: (1) Classical statistics own time for the causality of mechanics, should fails dismally to predict the shape of the electro- have achieved more lasting fame for his work on magnetic spectrum. Max Planck in 1900 finally the theory of probability. He was not the first to succeeded in getting agreement with experiment attack the subject. The Bernoulli family placed by introducing packets of energy, which he called probability on a good mathematical basis. The quanta, to replace the classical idea that energy motivation for studying the systematics of multi- can come in whatever size you like. (2) The spe- ple events, supposedly random and noncausal, cific heat of a solid at very low temperature does was initially aimed at dice and card games. not follow any rational classical form. Albert Laplacean probability does not really examine Einstein used Planck’s distribution to improve whether the randomness is ontological or simply the situation, but there was still measurable Causality in Physics 333 C discrepancy. Pieter Debye’s theory went further People still argue about the detailed interpretation in the direction of quantization to fix things up. of quantum mechanics, but there is broad agree- (3) The behavior of electrons in a metal is quite ment about the outlines, including indeterminacy. far from the predictions of classical statistics. How firm is the uncertainty principle? It is Enrico Fermi in the 1920s used quantum ideas very robust. It follows by airtight logic from the to gain the needed understanding. basic assumptions of quantum mechanics. If we wish to deny the uncertainty principle, we have to C abandon quantum mechanics, and we will be left Quantum Mechanics with no working theory of molecules, atoms, nuclei, and subatomic particles. That price The need for a better theory than classical would be too high. mechanics was evident by the 1920s, and for As a way to save both quantum mechanics and reasons beyond the examples listed above from determinism, it has been suggested that there are statistics. The atomic theory of Niels Bohr, based hidden variables that are deterministic in their on classical mechanics but with the ad hoc addi- nature, but which can mimic the result predicted tion of quantized angular momentum, was not by the Schro¨dinger equation. A definitive test was a satisfactory answer. There was need for some- performed experimentally by Alain Aspect and thing new. his coworkers; they found strong evidence In 1925, Werner Heisenberg pointed toward against hidden variables in favor of conventional a new theory (quantum mechanics, or QM) by quantum mechanics. positing that one should use only quantities that are observable. This start (somewhat misguided) was good in that it removed the classical Bohr Quantum Mechanics: Evidence Against orbits from the center of attention. It motivated Causality Paul Dirac to invent a particular type of noncommuting algebra that led to better insights. The argument against causality begins with the In 1926, Erwin Schro¨dinger constructed his wave uncertainty principle. For a single particle equation to accomplish the same things that Dirac constrained to move in one dimension, the uncer- and Heisenberg were doing. Multiple papers tainty principle states that DxDp  h/4p where x appeared that year showing that the three is the position, p is the momentum, and h is approaches were equivalent. Planck’s constant; the symbol D means “standard In the summer of 1927, Heisenberg showed that deviation” or uncertainty. the formalism of quantum mechanics implies the It is permissible in quantum mechanics to nar- famous principle of uncertainty: The position and row down and refine your knowledge of the posi- the momentum of an object cannot be known tion coordinate. In doing so, you will thereby lose simultaneously to arbitrary accuracy. Hence, the information about the momentum. Similarly, you requirement for classical determinism cannot be can know the momentum to great precision, satisfied, and the motion can never be fully deter- but you will not know much about where the mined. At the Solvay Conference in Brussels in particle is. October of 1927, there was a titanic struggle In classical mechanics, one can construct between Einstein (determinist) and Bohr (indeter- a two-dimensional space with coordinates x and minist). Neither was able to shake the other’s firm p. The particle’s initial state is represented by beliefs (Moore 1966, 163 et seq.). The debate went a point in this space (phase space); its motion, on for another 8 years before it finally subsided, governed by Newton’s laws, is a curve in phase mainly because Bohr’s interests had changed space. (Phase space: for a system of N particles, toward the phenomenology of nuclear physics. the 3N-dimensional space of the coordinates is With a few exceptions, physicists active today called configuration space. If the 3N components agree that Bohr was right and Einstein was wrong. of the momenta of these particles are added, the C 334 Causality in Physics resulting 6Ndimensional space is called phase the mean life of the excited state. When such space.) In quantum mechanics, the idea of calculations are performed for atoms, the results a single point in phase space is without meaning. agree with experiment. For example, of two tran- The initial state of the particle appears as a cloud sitions, if one is twice as probable as the other, the of points in phase space in an area at least as big more probable one will appear as a spectral line as h/4p. The density of the cloud is nonuniform; twice as bright as the other. its local density is given by the square of the wave function at that point. If the problem is generalized to allow motion Quantum Mechanics: Evidence for in three dimensions, then the three components x, Causality y, z of the particle’s position will have uncertainty relations with their respective components of Although the spirit of quantum mechanics is momentum px, py, pz,. There is no uncertainty probabilistic or aleatory, there are some ways in relation between, say, x and py. which it describes behavior with certainty. The energy E of the particle has a conjugate A particle whose wave function is known at relation with the time t, and so there is the relation a specific time for all points in space will propa- DEDt  h/4p. This relation comes into play gate in space in a very predictable way, as long as when physicists try to study very short-lived par- external forces are absent. This statement is ticles. If a particle’s lifetime is so short that the a direct result of the time-dependent Schro¨dinger time of its decay is known rather accurately, then equation; it is in a sense the quantum version of the measurement of the energy will be corre- Newton’s first law of motion. spondingly inaccurate. Occasionally, one encounters a quantum system One extreme case is given by resonances in the that is unstable and that has only one decay option. scattering of pi mesons from protons. The cross In that case, it is perfectly predictable which option section (a measure of the probability) of the scat- will occur, but it is still not possible to predict the tering increases rapidly from low energy and precise time when the decay will occur. peaks when the energy (in the center-of- For many systems that obey quantum statisti- momentum system) is about 1,240 MeV cal mechanics, the average behavior will be based (million electron volts). The peak is quite broad, on enough particles so that the uncertainty in the DE ¼ 120 MeV, corresponding to a time interval motion will be quite small, and the system will be of 1023 s (seconds). The usual interpretation of deterministic. It is effectively at the classical such resonances is that they are really particles limit, and the predictive power of Newton’s with very short lifetimes, and therefore, there is laws will appear. considerable uncertainty in their mass (energy). An example of the opposite sort is provided by a continuous-wave laser, where the photons have Monte Carlo Calculations a long time interval for their production and extremely well-defined frequency. An interesting and useful technique for computa- Another important example of noncausal phe- tion is called Monte Carlo (for the famous gam- nomena in QM is the case of an electron in an bling center) because it is based on randomness. excited state of an atom. If the excitation energy One uses random numbers in quantity to simulate is high enough, there may be several states, something which could perhaps be modeled by an including the ground state, of lower energy. For analytic calculation, but where the accuracy one such electron, QM cannot tell you into which achieved in a given amount of computer opera- state it will make its downward transition, nor can tion is greater for the Monte Carlo method. it tell exactly when the transition will occur. A simple example would be to calculate What it can do is to calculate the respective the value of p by using random numbers. Con- probabilities of the various transitions and also sider a circle of radius equal to unity, centered at Causality in Physics 335 C the origin of coordinates. A square is computer could ever produce random numbers. circumscribed about the circle with 1 < x < +1 The pseudo-random sequence that comes from as the mathematical definition. Generate random a computer is in fact totally deterministic, but it numbers in pairs, uniformly distributed between passes certain statistical tests for randomness. 1 and +1; call them x and y. Then calculate Chaotic systems are quite analogous. They are x2 + y2; if the result is greater than 1, discard it; if governed by the laws of classical mechanics and less than 1, keep it, and keep track of the total should thereby be deterministic. Yet they exhibit C number of pairs generated. The fraction of keepers behavior that appears wildly unpredictable. will be p/4. The more trials you make, the more A simple example is a pendulum with a accurately will your answer resemble the correct magnet at its end, allowed to swing freely in one. what is basically two dimensions, the two angles The simple example of a circle converges to that it takes to specify the instantaneous location the correct answer slowly enough that one should of the pendulum. Two (or more) additional mag- really do the calculation some other way. That is nets, placed just below spots where the pendulum because the example is in essence two dimen- can go, complete the arrangement. If the pendu- sional; Monte Carlo converges more slowly lum is released and allowed to swing freely, the than other methods until you encounter a problem motion is surprisingly unpredictable. with five or more dimensions, and after that, it is Many other examples of chaotic behavior faster than most other methods. could be listed: (a) Population dynamics in bio- Monte Carlo is in essence a method of inte- logical systems provides many specific types. gration, i.e., finding areas, volumes, or (b) The earth’s atmosphere is a chaotic system hypervolumes. that renders impossible accurate predictions of A serious question arises in computer calcula- weather more than a few days in advance. (c) If tions using Monte Carlo. Where does the com- 15 billiard balls are placed in an equilateral trian- puter get a large supply of random numbers in gular array and then struck with a sixteenth ball a short time? The customary answer is to use (the cue ball), the resulting motion is quite a multiplicative congruential method. A suitable unpredictable. The list could be continued. chosen number is caused to multiply another All these chaotic systems share a few impor- suitably chosen number many times, and each tant properties: (a) Their motion is inordinately successive result is the next random number. sensitive to initial conditions. (b) Their equations These numbers are of course not truly random: of motion contain nonlinearity. (c) They mostly They are perfectly causal, but the casual observer move in a phase space of three or more dimen- cannot see the connection. The numbers are sions. (Population dynamics is an exception, called “pseudo-random.” since it is governed by a nonlinear difference It happens that there are potentially harmful equation rather than a differential equation). correlations in pseudo-random numbers from (d) Their time evolution ought to be causal and multiplicative congruential generators. This fact deterministic, but in practice, it is not. was discovered by George Marsaglia, who In these nonlinear systems, there is typically also discovered the cure: Use a different some parameter (or set of parameters) that can be multiplicative congruential generator to do adjusted, along with the initial conditions. It very a pseudo-random shuffle of the numbers from often happens that there are regions in phase the original one. space that correspond to stable and predictable motion, and likewise, there are regions of phase space that are characterized by unstable, chaotic Causality and Chaos behavior. There is a boundary between these two regions, and it is here that some of the most It seems illogical that a causal, deterministic interesting phenomena occur (Kauffman 1995, device such as a properly operating digital Ch. 6). It appears that life itself is C 336 Causation a phenomenon associated with the boundary between order and disorder. Cells ▶ Histology, Cytology Cross-References ▶ Christian Cosmology ▶ Classical and Quantum Realism Cerebrovascular Diseases ▶ Creator – Co-creator ▶ Deism M. G. Hennerici ▶ Determinism and Indeterminism Department of Neurology, University of ▶ Divine Action Heidelberg, Universit€atsmedizin Mannheim, ▶ Energy in Physics Mannheim, Germany ▶ Free Will ▶ Mechanics ▶ Physics Diseases of the nervous system covered by ▶ Quantum Theory neurology mainly affect the brain, spinal cord, ▶ Statistics and Probability peripheral nerves, and muscles. Different mechanisms contribute to focal or global brain lesions which today can be diagnosed based on References clinical signs and symptoms, the history of onset, follow-up with progression or recovery Gillespie, Charles Coulston. (1997). Pierre Simon de and rehabilitation, modern brain imaging, and Laplace (1749–1827): A life in exact science. neurophysiological as well as laboratory inves- Princeton: Princeton University Press. Kauffman, Stuart. (1995). At home in the universe: The tigations. Management and emergency or inten- search for laws of self-organization and complexity. sive care treatment are based on neurobiology, New York: Oxford University Press. neurophysiology, pathophysiology, and clinical Moore, Ruth. (1966). Niels Bohr: The man, his science, and the world they changed. Cambridge, MA: The study evidence. MIT Press. Stroke is one of the most frequent diseases treated by neurologists in industrialized countries of North America, Europe, Asia, and Australasia. This disease has been known since the times of Hippocrates (about 400 B.C.) who already Causation observed that many blood vessels connected the brain – he believed they were filled with air ▶ Causality in Physics providing the spirit of mankind: He considered interruptions of this air flow to be responsible for hemiplegia and convulsions with paralysis of the right arm and the loss of speech (probably the first Celebration written account of aphasia) as already described in his Epidemics. This was confirmed later by ▶ Ritual Galen who attributed apoplexia to an accumula- tion of phlegm in the arteries once this obstructed the passage of animal spirits within the ventricles. However, it took more than 1,500 years until the Celibacy discovery of the anatomy of the brain from dissections by Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) ▶ Biology of Religion and his outstanding artist Jan Stephan Kalkar Cerebrovascular Diseases 337 C based on his anatomical observations. His name continues to be associated with stroke in our days: Since 2005, the European Stroke Conference annu- ally honors outstanding contributors to clinical and/or experimental stroke research with the most prestigious stroke award available, named Johann Jacob Wepfer Award (www.eurostroke.eu) C (Fig. 2). Despite increasing efforts during subsequent centuries, it took another 500 years to understand and acknowledge the importance of cerebrovas- cular diseases in neurology and medicine: Stroke is the third leading cause of mortality and the second one of economic burden worldwide due to its frequent lack of full recovery and impact on dependency of its victims. Only since more than a few decades ago, the management and prevention of cerebrovascular diseases became the most challenging task for Cerebrovascular Diseases, Fig. 1 Thomas Willis (Wikimedia Italia) neurologists because of an estimated prevalence in Europe of nearly 10 million people. World- wide stroke kills an estimated 5.7 million people who in their book Fabrica presented outstanding annually, it is a major public health issue and neuroanatomical diagrams in copper plates and among the leading causes of immobility and woodcuts. Thomas Willis (1621–1675) (Fig. 1) long-term disability. There are two main types indeed coined the term neurology taking its root of stroke, the most common is ischemic stroke neuro from the Greek in his Cerebri Anatome, caused by thromboembolic clots narrowing or although the structure for which he is still remem- blocking blood vessels (about 80%), followed bered was actually described earlier by several by hemorrhagic stroke caused by bleeds from others, such as Gabriel Fallopius (1523–1562), blood vessels in the brain or in the subarachnoid Johann Vesling (1595–1649), professor of anat- space (about 20%). With increasing age, hemor- omy and surgery at Padua, and Johann Jacob rhagic stroke becomes more frequent and is esti- Wepfer (1620–1695), a Swiss physician from mated to grow within the next decade up to 30%. Schaffhausen, who was affiliated to a convent The onset of stroke is often sudden; however, where he was able to follow his patients from about one third of the patients present with warn- disease to autopsy. Actually Wepfer’s vascular ing signs followed by immediate full recovery anatomy of the brain in his Historiae apoplecticum within minutes or a few hours (so-called TIAs – described the polygon of arteries at the bottom of transient ischemic attacks). Although TIAs have the brain already years before Willis. In addition, gained increasing public awareness, they are he identified the carotids penetrating from the often misinterpreted as benign events although extra- to the intracranial space forming a segment the immediate risk of permanent stroke after now known as carotid siphon. His insight into a TIA can be as high as eight- to tenfold within clinical correlations was also advanced over his a few weeks after the qualifying event in the time since he reported on the sudden clinical man- presence of active carotid or cardiogenic sources ifestations secondary to carotid artery blocking as of embolism. It is, therefore, important to seek well as bleeding into the brain as causes for apo- emergency advice in a specialized stroke center, plexy and was the first to emphasize the associa- whether or not full recovery of symptoms occurs. tion of speech disorders with right hemiplegia This new management of stroke has decreased C 338 Cerebrovascular Diseases Cerebrovascular Diseases, Fig. 2 Johann Jacob Wepfer award (European Stroke Conference ESC) mortality significantly. Furthermore, acute treat- neurologists, internists, clinicians, physiothera- ment of patients early after onset in stroke units pists, speech therapists, etc. and comprehensive stroke centers has improved However, with increasing age, cardiogenic the chances for full recovery and independence causes of ischemic stroke have also increased strikingly, mainly because of early thrombolysis and along with small vessel diseases today of acute ischemic stroke. Increase in public contribute to more than 50% of stroke etiologies awareness has advanced general knowledge potentially leading to vascular dementia. Risk about risk factors, early signs of symptoms, and factors of atherosclerosis such as hypertension, potential treatment facilities: Time is brain and hyperlipidemia, smoking, diabetes mellitus, and stroke is an emergency has been coined for health anticoagulation disorders increase with aging but care strategies and information in the newspa- are already present in younger stroke victims. pers, television, and advertisements. Conse- People with risk factors for stroke need careful quently appropriate diagnosis and treatment has control and regular advice with regard to medi- been disseminated around the world by multiple cation and recommended lifestyle changes. The professional medical specialties including para- value of physical activity as well as continuous medics, emergency and general physicians, mental and cognitive activity has only recently Cerebrovascular Diseases 339 C been addressed scientifically both in experimen- utmost importance as is the correct interpretation tal and clinical studies. There is no doubt about of signs of stroke: Complete infarction in the their effectiveness in stroke prevention and stra- largest territory of the middle cerebral artery tegic capacity of best aging. Lifestyle changes (MCA) is a life-threatening event and can cause should be added to modification of risk factors deviation of the head and eyes from the and urgent action should be taken both for pri- hemiplegic side involving face, arm, and leg, mary and secondary prevention (of recurrent sometimes along with hemisensory loss and hom- C stroke after a qualifying event). High blood pres- onymous hemianopia. Dominant hemisphere sure should be lowered (<130/80–85 mmHg), lesions produce various sorts of speech distur- and diabetes mellitus be controlled to maintain bances (aphasia) while nondominant hemisphere HbA1c values below 6.5% levels. People with lesions produce contralateral neglect with dysar- cholesterol levels >190 mg/dl and cardiovascular thria, sometimes dysphagia and impairment in disease, including TIAs/stroke, are likely to ben- spatial orientation. It has to be mentioned, how- efit from cholesterol-lowering regimens as do ever, that occlusions of branches of the MCA can patients with multiple risk factors, requesting cause quite strange, sometimes misdiagnosed or statins in many conditions. Smokers can reduce even silent deficits, i.e., non-fluent speech, their overall risk of cardiovascular mortality and impaired repetition ability, calculation failures, morbidity considerably by cessation of smoking, body texture abnormalities, position sense distur- and alcohol intake should be limited to reason- bances, etc. Emotional apathy and constructional able doses. By the age of 55, healthy people impairment, mutism, abulia, muteness, and should regularly be controlled for silent cardio- reduced spontaneity may result from branch vascular disease; in particular, they should occlusions of the anterior cerebral arteries, and undergo regular noninvasive diagnostic testing memory disturbances, illusions, cortical blind- in order not to oversee developing diseases such ness, and agitation are characteristic signs as atrial fibrillation and atherosclerosis. resulting from occluded branches of the posterior Mechanisms of recovery and rehabilitation are cerebral artery, all sometimes difficult to identify. by far better understood than 10 or 20 years ago Spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) and offer a spectacular potential for patients with accounts for 10–15% of all strokes and has focal disturbances of sensori-motor and neuro- a higher mortality rate than ischemic stroke or psychological deficits. This is of utmost impor- subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). Most frequent tance because neurodegeneration and vascular causes are hypertension, cerebral amyloid diseases of the brain coincide in the elderly and angiopathy, coagulopathy, vascular anomalies, cause multiple cognitive problems and changes in tumors, and drugs; however, hypertension is the personality: Emotional disturbances, depression, greatest modifiable risk factor for ICH. psychomotor retardation slowing of executive Bleedings into the vessel walls (so-called dis- cognitive function as well as decline of intellec- sections) and blockage of draining veins and tual power may all limit people’s independency sinuses are common causes of hemorrhagic stroke and are among the most feared and disastrous in younger men and women and may be complications in otherwise healthy aging overlooked both by patients and nonexpert populations. healthcare people. Once severe ICH has occurred, Diagnostic instruments have improved and treatment is still limited, unfortunately. This is to contributed to much better strategies in stroke some extent also true for SAH, mainly caused by prevention and treatment. Based on clinical aneurysmal bleedings (80%) from ruptured forma- signs and symptoms, they are prepared to identify tions. In the older literature, saccular aneurysms sources and degree of brain lesions quickly and are sometimes called “congenital” which is mis- noninvasively without producing harm to the leading; although a hereditary defect of the vessel patient in the acute condition. In addition, identi- wall is likely to contribute foremost, aneurysms fication of subjects at risk for recurrences is of the develop during the course of life, enlarge over C 340 Ceremony years to decades until they become symptomatic in young and middle aged patients. Today they can Chan be identified in advance by noninvasive vascular/ brain imaging (CTA/MRA). However, it is largely Steffen Do¨ll unknown why some patients develop aneurysms Japan Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universit€at and others do not. Surgery may be indicated in M€unchen, Munich, Germany patients with a high risk for bleeding complication and after SAH in the presence of multiple aneurysms. Description In summary, the history of stroke and cerebro- vascular diseases covers more than 2000 years of The term “Chan” contracts channa, the Chinese well-known but misunderstood clinical signs and transliteration of Sanskrit dhya¯na or meditation/ symptoms. Emergency management, prevention contemplation. Chan denotes a school of Chinese of first ever and recurrent events has only very Buddhism that, generally speaking, values medi- recently been achieved. Today we are faced with tative insight over scholastic knowledge. Chan challenging questions about recovery and reha- denies to be based on scriptural exegesis (as is bilitation as important mechanisms of brain reor- the case with all the other schools of Buddhism) ganization and plasticity anticipating healthy and therefore sees itself as a unique – and supe- aging as well as repair mechanisms after detri- rior – tradition within Buddhism in general. Its mental lesions. With increasing age of modern key concepts are those of transmission and populations, neuro- and vascular degeneration of immediacy. the brain will become a major issue for transla- This entry will present Chan in terms of its tional research (¼ basic experimental and clinical intradenominational characterization, its hagiog- research) to prevent people from dementing raphy, its religious practice, and its relevance as illnesses causing disastrous cognitive decline an object of scholarly analysis. and loss of intact personality. Characteristics Cross-References Central to Chan’s self-representation is the claim ▶ Dementia that the Buddha transmitted not only teachings as ▶ History pointers toward and mediations of truth but also awakening itself as immediate realization of truth. The transmission of awakening is based References on direct communication between the heart of European Stroke Conference. www.eurostroke.eu the Buddha (and/or his successors, the so-called Fields, W. S., & Lemak N. A. (1989). A history of stroke. Chan patriarchs, chanzu) and the heart of the New York: Oxford University Press disciple. This process is commonly called Hennerici, M. G., Kern, R., Szabo, K., & Binder, J. (eds) “using the heart to transmit the heart” (yixin (2012). Stroke. UK: Oxford University Press zhuanxin) and crystallized in a lineage of Chan Mohr, J. P., et al. (Eds.). (2011). Stroke: Pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management (5th ed.). New York: teachers who took custody of awakening, passing Churchill Livingstone. it on unaltered through the ages. Thus, every World Stroke Organisation. www.world-stroke.org/ Chan practitioner, if a part of this enlightened tradition, has access to the same awakening that the Buddha himself had experienced. Ceremony Chan is, in general, critical of what is taken to be the scholastic profanization of language and ▶ Ritual hesitant to employ discursive and argumentative Chan 341 C prose. This is because in light of the importance verbalization, his teachings could not but remain of heart-to-heart transmission, the communica- at the level of mere approximation, relative in tion between master and disciple holds soterio- nature, and as such incongruent with the abso- logical significance that supersedes linguistic luteness of reality. Out of this incongruity, Chan interpretation or textual analysis. The disciple is derives its founding myth: On one occasion, urged, not to intellectually understand a certain instead of delivering the expected sermon, the dogma but to transform her existence precisely by Buddha simply presented a flower to his congre- C abandoning the intellect’s restrictions. Specific gation. This met with incomprehension in every communicative models include nonverbal ele- but one case: Ka¯s´yapa, a long-standing disciple ments (blows, gestures, silence, shouts, etc.) as of the Buddha, smiled in understanding. There- well as sophisticated verbal strategies (anecdotal upon, the Buddha declared that a transverbal trans- and poetic quotations, seemingly random inter- mission had taken place and that Ka¯s´yapa was to jections, pithy remarks, spite, etc.). These are be revered as his successor and the future custo- used to weaken the student’s rational attachment dian of awakening (Wumenguan 2005, case 6). to self and world. Having deconstructed rational- Through Ka¯s´yapa, a lineage of transmission ity as the main impediment to immediacy, the had formed that in its 28th (sometimes also 29th) student is referred to the ancient patriarchs and generation reached China in the person of the her present master as objects of mimesis. Awak- Indian monk Bodhidharma around the turn of ening is, in a manner of speaking, rehearsed the sixth century. When Bodhidharma had spent mimetically, and at some point, the student 9 years in unbroken and motionless meditation achieves the same immediate realization of truth inside a cave, he accepted his first disciple as the Buddha. She is then acknowledged by her (though only after the latter had cut off his own master as a follower of the Chan tradition and arm below the elbow to prove his determination; thus a direct successor of the Buddha himself. Wumenguan 2005, case 41). Thus, Bodhidharma In summary, by traditional account, Chan: came to be regarded as the founding father and • Establishes neither words nor letters first Chinese patriarch of Chan. His exchange • Is a separate tradition beyond the teachings with emperor Wu of Liang (r. 502–549) is • Points directly to the human heart among the most famous of Chan anecdotes. • Reveals awakening in every practitioner’s Upon their first meeting, the emperor, being an nature and perfects the Buddha ardent supporter of Buddhism, inquired as to how many merits his considerable endowments had earned him. Bodhidharma cut him short: “No Hagiography merits at all.” When the emperor then asked about the nature of truth, Bodhidharma again In keeping with the pivotal role accorded to gave a short-spoken answer: “Everything lies in authentic transmission, Chan relies heavily on plain view, and nothing sacred is in sight” (Biyanlu anecdotes that present the ancient masters as 2003, case 1), thereby thoroughly negating the blueprints of impersonated enlightenment. This possibility to earn merits, rationally explain truth, tendency resulted in a vast corpus of anecdotal or speculate on the underlying nature of reality. literature that typically belongs to the “recorded By the Tang dynasty (618–907), a Chan com- sayings” (yulu) genre. These texts form an inte- munity had begun to grow on Chinese soil that gral part of Chan’s self-understanding and con- over the years drew more and more followers. cisely outline its hagiography. Some examples The fifth Chinese patriarch, Hongren, supervised shall be given below. a congregation of considerable size but was In the traditional account, the Buddha, having unable to decide on a suitable successor. Having awakened to the ultimate truth by way of silent called on his advanced students to give expres- meditation, began his teaching career. But as sion to the profundity of their insight in rhyme, he his awakening surpassed the limitations of praised his disciple Shenxiu’s work above all C 342 Chan others: “The body is the bodhi tree under which early thirteenth century and was made known the Buddha had his awakening, and the heart is internationally in modern times. like a bright mirror’s pedestal. Take pains to Nowadays, Chan remains a dynamic, even always wipe it clean! Let no speck of dust settle vibrant tradition in Taiwan and continues to draw upon it!” However, Huineng, an illiterate kitchen followers also on the Chinese mainland. It has had helper, heard about these verses and in reply had major influence on the development of Korean Son, his own version inscribed on the monastery’s Japanese Zen, and meditative forms of East Asian walls: “Actually, there is no tree in awakening, Buddhism as received in the Americas and Europe. and a pedestal has nothing to do with the bright mirror. Originally, there is not a single thing. So how could there be any place for dust to settle Practice upon?” (Liuzu tanjing 2008) Officially, master Hongren scolded Huineng for his temerity but in In terms of practice, Chan relies heavily on seated secret revealed him to be the actual inheritor of meditation (zuochan; hence its name). Roughly the Buddha’s awakening. speaking, two different meditative techniques Subsequently, a dispute over the patriarchal may be distinguished: succession arose, and Chan was divided into the • Insight into an Anecdote (kanhua): The master Northern school of Shenxiu and the Southern presents her disciple with an anecdote or school of Huineng. As the quotation above indi- a rationally irresolvable dilemmatic question cates, matters came to a head over the ideological (a so-called gong’an, literally “public notice”) issue of whether enlightenment was a gradual which forms the basis of meditative practice. process (the Northern position) or a sudden • Silent Illumination (mozhao): Practice is breakthrough (the Southern position). Within reduced to silent, objectless sitting meditation; only a few decades, the gradualist position had prolonged practice produces spontaneous relegated into other, more speculative and scho- enlightenment. lastic traditions. Subitism became the only ideo- Beyond these, however, in Chan monasteries – logical and rhetorical standard for Chan. Even while entertaining close ties to a considerable today, every existing lineage traces itself back community of lay followers, Chan has developed to Huineng as sixth patriarch and adheres to the forms of monasticism that have had major impe- sudden enlightenment approach he advocated. tus on the general development of Buddhist insti- A series of great masters furthered Chan’s tutions in East Asia – there is also an array of development in the eighth and ninth centuries rituals that may be employed in varying degrees. and produced parallel lineages: the so-called These include work around the buildings and Five Houses (wujia) with distinct “family styles” gardens (zuomu), one-on-one encounters with (jiafeng). These ranged from metaphysical spec- the master (canchan), question-and-answer ses- ulation (Caodong faction) to eclectic consider- sions (wendang) during which a student’s doubts ations about the fundamental unity of Buddhist are addressed or her enlightenment put to the test, diversity (Fayan/Yunmen factions) and to radical recitation of scriptures (kanjing), teachings and antinomianism (Linji/Guiyang factions). These interpretative readings by advanced monks (fayu), diverse readings of what constitutes the Chan and observations on memorial days, prayer, social tradition dominated the general Buddhist dis- work, etc. If based on the proper Chan-like atti- course in China well into the Song dynasty period tude, all these are seen as spiritual practices of (960–1279). Under the guidance of the Five equal value. Houses, Chan reached its apex. Later Chinese developments are traditionally regarded as mere Criticism repetitions at best, deteriorations at worst. In this mature form Chan was transmitted to Japan While the traditional narrative outlined above (where it is called Zen) in the late twelfth and remains unbroken in denominational circles, Chan 343 C Chan’s self-characterization in terms of authen- a product of subitist rhetoric that attempted ticity and immediacy has increasingly been chal- to marginalize gradualism and deny its lenged from philological and historical influence. perspectives and in academic circles is counted • An analysis of the tenth-century texts has as a hagiographical and ideological construct. yielded data that the traditional focus on med- This antitraditional reading of Chan became pos- itative experience and authoritative lineage sible, above all else, by the discovery of a large had been challenged by scripture-focused C corpus of Chinese manuscripts dating from the approaches within Chan itself. fifth to the eleventh centuries in a sealed cave • Ritual has been emphasized as a main, if not near the Silk Road oasis of Dunhuang (Gansu the major concept in an analysis of Chan prac- prefecture, western China) in the year 1900. tice, casting doubts over the claim to radical This corpus included several hitherto unknown iconoclasm and meditational authenticity Buddhist texts that shed new light on the histor- (cf. Heine & Wright, 2008). ical development of Chan and resulted in the • Chan’s self-representation has convincingly acknowledgement that Chan had to be seen not been shown to be a Song era and even later as a transhistorical absolute but as a phenomenon product that owes much of its present-day in historical context (cf. especially the ground- popularity to the missionary efforts of Suzuki breaking studies by Yanagida Seizan (1922– and his epigones. 2006)). In scientific terms, Chan is, far from being Thus, in recent years Chan has come to be a manifestation of unchanging reality beyond the understood less as a monolith of religious truth contingencies of time, a relatively late development but as a historically conditioned, highly complex in the history of Buddhism that draws on a plurality sociopolitical phenomenon. Its critical analysis of sources for inspiration and legitimation. continues to produce relevant insights into, While this viewpoint has met with consider- among others, the historical relation between able resistance from the believers’ side (cf. the state and religion or society and tradition, respec- dispute between Hu Shi (1891–1962) and Suzuki tively; the role of meditation vis-a`-vis ritual in Daisetsu (1870–1966) in Philosophy East and religious practice; strategic issues centering on West 3/1 (1953)), the “Golden Age” of Chan the authoritative nature of scripture versus tradi- iconoclasts during the Tang era has been proved tion; and problems in the transcultural reception to be a mythological construct. For the sake of of religions and ideas. securing religious prestige – and actual political power as well – Song dynasty adherents of Chan developed a narrative that allowed them to pre- sent their own tradition as the superior form of Cross-References Buddhism. In consequence, Song Chan has come to command scholarly attention (cf. Gregory and ▶ Awakening Getz 2002; Schl€ utter 2008). At the same time, ▶ Buddha (Historical) efforts continue to contextualize Tang Chan, ▶ Buddhist Canonical Literature resulting in the deconstruction of traditional hagi- ▶ Buddhist Meditation Practices ography (cf. McRae 1986; Faure 1991; Welter ▶ Ritual 2008). To give a few examples: • Bodhidharma has been disclosed as a pan- denominational figure that is not only an anti- nomian Chan master but also incorporates References ritual aspects as well as scholastic modes of Takakusu, J., & Watanabe, K., (Eds.). (1924–1932). argumentation. Taisho¯ shinshu¯ daizo¯kyo¯ (Vol. 100). Tokyo: Taisho¯ • The schism between the Northern and the issaikyo¯ kanko¯kai. Abbreviated as T; references are Southern school has turned out to be rather by volume, serial number, page, and column. C 344 Character Primary Sources Description Biyanlu, T48.2003:139a–225c (T. Cleary & J. C. Cleary (Trans.) (1977). The blue cliff record. Boston: Thermodynamics originated from study of heat Shambhala). Liuzu tanjing, T 48.2008:346a-362b, J.R. McRae (Trans.) engines, engines that convert heat to mechanical (2000). The platform sutra of the sixth patriarch. motion. Prior to the invention and the use of Translated from the Chinese Tongkao. Berkeley: steam engines (James Watt obtained a patent for Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. his version of the steam engine in 1769), the Wumenguan, T48. 2005:292a–299c (R. Aitken (Trans.) (1990). The gateless barrier: The Wu-Men Kuan machines of the eighteenth century were driven (Mumonkan). San Francisco: North Point Press). by wind, water, and animals: They transformed one type of motion to another. In contrast, the Secondary Sources steam engine converted heat to motion: an Faure, B. (1991). The rhetoric of immediacy: A cultural entirely new way of generating motion, which critique of Chan/Zen Buddhism. Princeton: Princeton heralded the industrial revolution. Only in the University Press. Gregory, P. N., & Getz, D. A., Jr. (Eds.). (2002). Buddhism following century, when the steam engine’s role in the Sung. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. in transforming society was plainly visible, was Heine, S., & Wright, D. S. (Eds.). (2008). Zen Ritual: a systematic study of its fundamentals under- Studies of Zen Buddhist theory in practice. Oxford/ taken. The most significant contribution to this New York: Oxford University Press. McRae, J. (1986). The northern school and the formation field came from Nicolas Le´onard Sadi Carnot, of early Ch’an Buddhism. Honolulu: University of who discovered the fundamental limits to the Hawai’i Press. efficiency of heat engines that convert heat to Schl€utter, M. (2008). How Zen became Zen: The dispute mechanical energy. This line of work eventually over enlightenment and the formation of Chan Buddhism in Song-Dynasty China. Honolulu: Univer- led, in the hands of Rudolph Clausius, Lord sity of Hawai’i Press. Kelvin, and others, to the formulation of the Welter, A. (2008). The Linji lu and the creation of Chan Second Law of Thermodynamics. This law orthodoxy. The development of Chan’s records of established the fundamental irreversibility of nat- sayings literature. Oxford/New York: Oxford Univer- sity Press. ural processes, or the arrow of time as an objec- tive reality (http en wikipedia org wiki Entropy 2999). During the nineteenth century, with the new Character instruments that were constructed, heat, electric- ity, and chemical reactions were investigated and ▶ Personality Psychology many new laws governing these phenomena were formulated. It also became evident, that all these phenomena were interrelated: Chemical reac- tions could produce heat (exothermic reactions), and heat could drive chemical reactions (endo- Chemical Thermodynamics thermic reactions); so it was with electricity which could drive “electrochemical” reactions Dilip Kondepudi and vice versa; heat could generate motion and Department of Chemistry, Wake Forest motion could generate electricity. While these University, Salem, NC, USA interconnected processes were being investi- gated, the idea that there was one quantity, the energy, that was conserved in all these transfor- Related Terms mations was born. Many contributed to this con- cept, most notably, James Prescott Joule, Energy; Entropy; Gibbs energy; Helmholtz Germain Henry Hess, Julius Robert von Mayer, energy; Rate of entropy production; Self- and Herman von Helmholtz. This development organization; Thermodynamics and understanding of the concept of energy and Chemical Thermodynamics 345 C its conservation led to the formulation of the First has raised profound questions about our universe, Law of Thermodynamics, which states that in the arrow of time and the theory of evolution. every transformation, total energy of all systems In the twenty-first century, thermodynamics involved must be conserved; transformations in will find new areas, such as sustainable which the energy is not conserved do not take energy use and economies, to which it will place in nature – though we can easily conceive contribute. of them. Heat and Energy. The concept of kinetic and C The two laws of thermodynamics are the foun- potential energy and the conditions under which dation of the subject. In the nineteenth century, their sum, the total mechanical energy, is con- Clausius, Kelvin, Gibbs brought all the contribu- served was well known in the nineteenth century. tions to the subject into coherent whole and for- This formalism also included the concept of mulated what is currently called classical mechanical work, which is defined as the product thermodynamics. As will be shown below, this of force and the displacement of the body upon formalism made thermodynamics a theory of which the force acted. The unit for measuring states and has no direct connections to the pro- mechanical energy was the erg. But the nature cesses that transformed the states. Later, two of heat was still under debate in the nineteenth other laws were added to the formalism, called century. The caloric theory of heat, which posited the Zeroth Law and the Third Law. The Zeroth that heat was some sort of fluid, and the amount of Law states that if system A is in thermal equilib- heat was measured by its effect in raising the rium with system B, and B is in thermal equilib- temperature of a substance; the unit for the mea- rium with C, then A must be in thermal suring the amount of heat was called the calorie, equilibrium with C. The Third Law gives us the a term still in use along with the term “calorime- means to assign an absolute value to entropy; it try,” the science of measuring heat. On the other states that as the temperature approaches zero, the hand, the mechanical theory argued that heat was entropy of a system also approaches zero. a measure of mechanical motion of molecules. Though these two laws are essential for the com- The experiments of James Prescott Joule pleteness of the formalism of thermodynamics, established the equivalence between mechanical their physical consequences are not as far energy and heat energy. With his carefully reaching as those of the First and Second Laws. designed experiments, and state of the art calo- During the twentieth century, contributions to rimetry, Joule proved that when mechanical thermodynamics made by Lars Onsager and Ilya energy is converted to heat, there was an equiva- Prigogine made thermodynamics a theory of irre- lence: The amount of heat generated was propor- versible processes (Ji 2012; Kondepudi 2008). It tional to the mechanical energy or work in the related the production of entropy directly to nat- conversion process, regardless of the means or ural processes and essentially restated the Second method through which the conversion took place. Law in terms of processes and gave us a way to This implied that the two quantities, mechanical relate the rates of production of entropy to the energy and calories, are two measures of the same rates of processes such as heat flow. The contri- quantity, and that the calorie and the erg were butions of Ilya Prigogine and his colleagues also measuring the same quantity – just as Celsius and gave us insight into the dual role of irreversible Fahrenheit measure the same quantity, viz. tem- processes: as both creators and destroyers of perature. Similarly, the measurement of energy in order (http en wikipedia org wiki Entropy other processes, such as electromagnetic and 2999; Prigogine 1947). Thermodynamics has chemical energies, can be proven to be equiva- given us two fundamental quantities, energy and lent. This has led us to the current SI (Systeme entropy, and two universal laws that govern International) energy unit, which is the Joule. In them. The universality and practicality of these the currently used of units (Syste`me international laws make thermodynamics one of the most units), Joule’s experiments established that 1 important branches of human knowledge. And it cal ¼ 4.18 J. C 346 Chemical Thermodynamics The First Law of Thermodynamics. The for- now called the neutrino, was predicted on the mulation of the First Law of Thermodynamics is basis of this law and experiments confirmed the based on the contributions of many scientists. prediction. Any theory of natural processes that One of the early contributions came from violates the law of conservation of energy is Germain Hess, who established the fact that rejected as impossible. heat released or absorbed during a chemical reac- The Second Law of Thermodynamics. The ori- tion, called the heat of reaction, depended only on gin of this law can be traced back to 1824, when the initial and final states of the system, and not Nicolas Le´onard Sadi Carnot, a brilliant military on the manner in which the transformation was engineer, published a remarkable book, “Re´flex- accomplished. This led Hess to the formulation of ions sur la Puissance Motrice du Feu, et sur les the law of additivity of heats of reaction: The Machines Propres a De´velopper cette Puissance” total heat released or absorbed in an overall (“Reflections on the Motive Force of Fire and on chemical reaction is equal to the sum of the heat the Machines Fitted to Develop that Power”). In it released or absorbed in the chemical steps that he came to a far-reaching conclusion that even- constitute the overall reaction. This law enabled tually led to the formulation of the Second Law of the chemists to assign energy to each chemical Thermodynamics. Carnot analysis showed that compounds and measure the changes in their while the energy of mechanical motion can all energy in a chemical transformation. The law of (100 %) be converted to heat, the inverse process, Hess implies that the total amount of energy, the conversion of heat energy to mechanical chemical plus heat released or absorbed plus energy, has limitations. Carnot’s work showed mechanical work (due to changes in the system’s that maximum efficiency of conversion of heat volume), remains the same during the chemical energy to mechanical energy by a heat engine reaction. This is the law of conservation of energy depends not on the mechanism of conversion in the field of chemistry. but only on the temperatures between which it is Following the work of Joule, Hess, and others, operating. In contemporary formulation of ther- Julius Robert von Mayer and Herman von modynamics, this upper limit of efficiency is Helmholtz suggested a universal conservation of expressed as (1Tcold/Thot), in which Tcold and energy, a quantity conserved in all natural pro- Thot are the temperatures in Kelvin. Tcold and Thot cesses. This is the First Law of Thermodynamics. are the temperatures between which the heat Thus, every system could be said to have certain engine operates, i.e., the temperatures between amount of energy, U. This energy is a state func- which heat flow takes place. Carnot’s observation tion, i.e., it depends only on the current state of brought to light the fundamental irreversibility in the system, not on the manner in which that state the conversion of mechanical energy to heat. was reached. Carnot’s work led Rudolph Clausius to formulate While it is true that our current understanding the concept of entropy and Second Law of of the atomic structure of matter reveals that all Thermodynamics, which established the funda- energy is, in its essence, kinetic and potential, in mental irreversibility of all natural processes. practice, the measurement of energy is not based Entropy. The irreversibility that Carnot dis- on this understanding. Indeed, the First Law of covered in his study of heat engines led to the Thermodynamics can be formulated and could be formulation of the concept of entropy by Rudolph stated entirely in macroscopic terms, regardless Clausius. The formalism he developed showed of the structure of matter. It is important to note that entropy is a state function, i.e., an objectively that the laws of thermodynamics can be stated measurable entropy, S, could be associated with and verified entirely in macroscopic terms. The every system in equilibrium. The entropy of sys- First Law of Thermodynamics or the law of con- tem depends on its current state and not on the servation of energy is the cornerstone of science. manner in which the state was reached. The It has withstood countless experimental tests. entropy of a system is independent of its history. Even the existence of an elementary particle, Like energy, entropy is expressed as a function of Chemical Thermodynamics 347 C the variables, such as temperature, volume, and an isolated system is not predicted by the second chemical composition that specify the state of law, but that the processes within the system will a system. However, in the classical formalism of monotonously increase the entropy until it Clausius, when a system’s state changes from one reaches its maximum value is its prediction. equilibrium state to another, the changes in the When the system reaches its maximum entropy, entropy of a system can only be computed for an it is in a state of equilibrium. Closed systems idealized reversible process. A reversible pro- exchange energy with their environment in the C cesses takes place at an infinitesimal rate, such form of heat and mechanical work, but they do that entire evolution can be reversed returning the not exchange matter. Systems whose temperature system and the rest of the universe exactly to their and volume are maintained constant also reach original state. For such a processes, the change in the state of equilibrium. In doing so, they mini- entropy is: mize a quantity called Helmholtz free energy or simply Helmholtz energy, denoted by F. If U is dS ¼ dQ=T (1) the total energy of the system, Helmholtz energy F ¼ UTS, in which T is the system’s tempera- in which dQ is the heat exchanged by the system ture and S is its entropy. Similarly, if the pressure and T is its temperature. Natural processes, how- and temperature of a system are maintained con- ever, are not reversible and they occur at a finite stant, the systems evolution minimizes a quantity rate, not at an infinitesimal, rate. For such pro- termed Gibbs free energy or simply Gibbs cesses, Clausius gave the inequality: energy, denoted by G. The Gibbs energy G ¼ UTS + PV, in which P is the system’s dS  dQ=T (2) pressure and V its volume. The minimization of Helmholtz and Gibbs energies are a direct conse- This inequality implies that the entropy can quence of the second law. Gibbs energy is much only increase or, in the case of idealized revers- used in chemical thermodynamics and biology. ible process, remain unchanged, but never Similarly, depending on the constraints on the decrease. Thus, the statement of the Second system, other quantities reach their minimum Law: Natural processes increase the entropy of value. Such quantities are sometime referred to the universe. The formalism gains its power and as thermodynamic potentials. Closed systems applicability because changes in entropy between may or may not reach equilibrium. For example, two equilibrium states depend only on the initial if one part of a system is heated while another is and final states, and not on the manner in which cooled, there will be a continuous flow of heat the change from the initial to the final state took through the system which keeps it from reaching place. Thus, the changes in entropy due to irre- a state of equilibrium. The state of equilibrium is versible processes can be computed using ideal- characterized by uniformity of temperature ized reversible processes for which we have the throughout the system in which there is no flow equality (Eq. 1). It is tacitly assumed that any of heat. Open systems are those that exchange irreversible transformation of state from one both energy and matter with its exterior. Such equilibrium state to another can also be achieved systems are generally maintained in a through a reversible process for which dS ¼ dQ/T. nonequilibrium state through the flow of energy Thermodynamic Systems. To understand the and matter. As will be described below, under implications of the laws of thermodynamics, it appropriate conditions, such systems spontane- is convenient to classify systems into isolated, ously make transitions to states that are “orga- closed, and open systems. Isolated systems do nized” with more structure than equilibrium not exchange any matter or energy with their systems. Living systems are examples of systems environment. In such systems, the entropy that maintain their structure through continuous reaches its maximum possible value. The rate at exchange of matter and energy with their which entropy will reach its maximum value in environment. C 348 Chemical Thermodynamics Twentieth Century Thermodynamics Formal- or negative. For instance, in a closed system ism. Though the wide range of applications and which exchanges heat, deS ¼ dQ/T, depending usefulness of classical thermodynamics are on whether the system is receiving heat or releas- beyond any question, its limitations are quite ing heat, deS is positive or negative, respectively. clear in its formalism. As expressed in equation The second term, diS, relates entropy to irrevers- (Eq. 1) the change in entropy, dS ¼ dQ/T, can be ible processes. It might be thought as a term that calculated only for reversible processes. For irre- converts the inequality (Eq. 2) to an equality. It is versible processes, we only have an inequality: dS expressed in terms of thermodynamic forces, Fk  dQ/T. The formalism does not have a way to and thermodynamic flows Jk (the subscripts iden- calculate the changes in entropy for an irrevers- tify different forces and corresponding flows). ible process. So it confines itself to calculating Each irreversible process is associated with changes in entropy between the “initial” and a thermodynamic force and a thermodynamic “final” states of a transformation by constructing flow. Thermodynamic forces drive thermody- a reversible process that connects the same states. namic flows. For example, a gradient of temper- Consequently, in this formalism, entropy has no ature is the thermodynamic force that drives the direct link to irreversible processes that produce flow of heat. The change in entropy due to irre- the entropy that is computed. Classical thermo- versible processes, in a time interval dt, is dynamics is thus a theory of thermodynamic expressed as: states; irreversible processes are not a part of the theory. The processes for which entropy di S ¼ ðFk Jk Þdt  0; or di S=dt ¼ Fk Jk  0 (4) changes can be computed are idealized, infinitely slow reversible processes. As a result, the theory That is, the product of a force and flow is the does not consider rates of changes of thermody- rate at which entropy is produced by that pro- namic quantities. In short, there is no time in the cesses. When several forces and flows are at theory. To relate entropy to irreversible pro- work, di,S/dt, the rate of entropy production, is cesses and convert inequality (Eq. 2) to an the sum of all the force-flow products. In chem- equality, we need to know how entropy is related ical systems, the thermodynamic force that drives to irreversible processes that we observe in chemical reactions is called Affinity, a quantity nature. During the twentieth century, contribu- introduced by De Donder (Kondepudi and tions made by Onsager, Prigogine, (both Prigogine 1998). In this formalism, the second received the Nobel Prize for their contributions law is stated as: to thermodynamics) and others, thermodynam- ics became a theory that is capable of describing di S  0: (5) irreversible processes. The twentieth century formalism, which we will refer to as modern thermodynamics, expresses the changes in That is, all irreversible processes increase entropy of a system, dS, as a sum of two parts entropy. All processes in nature are irreversible (http en wikipedia org wiki Entropy 2999; Ji and take place at a nonzero, finite rate. Thus, the 2012; Kondepudi 2008; Kondepudi and second law states that every natural process Prigogine 1998): increases entropy. However, the entropy of a given system need not increase. In isolated dS ¼ de S þ di S (3) systems, deS ¼ 0; the changes in entropy are entirely due to processes within the system, diS, in which deS is the change in the entropy of the and they are always positive, i.e., the entropy of system due to the exchange of energy and matter an isolated system can only increase. When the with its exterior while diS is the change in entropy system reaches equilibrium, diS ¼ 0; there are no of the system due to irreversible processes that processes taking place in the system. Everything take place within the system. deS can be positive in the system is static and the temperature is Chemical Thermodynamics 349 C uniform. In closed and open systems, deS could interpretation of the second law is that when be positive or negative (sometimes called chemical reactions take place, the entropy “negentropy” if it is negative) but the entropy increases. When the BZ system is sufficiently produced by the processes within the system far from equilibrium, however, the concentra- diS  0, in accordance with the second law. The tions begin to oscillate spontaneously, like an change in entropy of a system, dS ¼ deS + diS, organized clock. The non-monotonic oscillatory can be negative if deS is negative and sufficiently change in concentrations is perfectly consistent C large in magnitude to overcome the positive with the second law because it is the consequence contribution of diS. This is what happens in of irreversible chemical reactions which increase living cells whose entropy can decrease. Such the entropy. The same irreversible chemical pro- a decrease in entropy of a system is not in any cesses lead to both monotonic concentration way in contradiction with the second law which changes toward static equilibrium state and the mandates diS  0. dynamic, “organized” oscillatory changes in con- The Dual Role of Irreversible Processes. centration. They destroy order when close to an Twentieth century thermodynamics brought to equilibrium state but create order when a system light an important aspect of nature: self- is far from equilibrium. The realization of the role organization. The inexorable evolution to equi- of irreversible processes (that dissipate free librium has often been talked about as evolution energy) while creating ordered states has toward “disorder.” The association of the concept given rise to the term Dissipative Structures, of entropy to “disorder” is unfortunate and has led structures we see in nature that are generated to much confusion. It had misled people to think and maintained by entropy producing dissipative that the second law implied that a system could processes. This term was coined by Ilya not spontaneously evolve to an ordered state in Prigogine and represents an important concept which its entropy decreases. All this changed, in understanding order and disorder in nature however, when it was discovered in the early (Nicolis and Prigogine 1977). Dissipative struc- part of twentieth century that when a system is tures are often used synonymously with “self- far from equilibrium, it can spontaneously organizing chemical reaction diffusion systems” become ordered. One of the first and much stud- (Nicolis and Prigogine 1977). The Belousov- ied system is the Belousov-Zhabotinsky (BZ) Zhabotinsky reaction is a widely recognized reaction in which the concentrations of the reac- example of self-organization; the Bernard tants oscillate periodically like a clock. Under convection cells provide another type of example other conditions, the same system generates (Ji 2012, p. 17). propagating chemical concentration waves Thermodynamic Entropy versus Information- (Nicolis and Prigogine 1977). These and other Theoretic Entropy. The term “entropy” was systems that were discovered and studied subse- coined by Rudolf Clausius in 1865 as quently revealed an important aspect of irrevers- a thermodynamic state function. In 1948, upon ible processes (Nicolis and Prigogine 1977): their the recommendation of von Neumann, Shannon dual role as both creators and destroyers of order. employed the same term to refer to H, When a system is close to thermodynamic equi- a mathematical function (later known as the librium and evolving toward it, irreversible pro- Shannon entropy) that he invented to quantify cesses tend to reduce order. For example, when the average amount in bits of the information the BZ system is close to thermodynamic equi- transmitted by a message. It had no connection librium, the concentrations change monotoni- to the physical entropy that originated in cally toward their equilibrium value at which Carnot-Clausius formulation of the concept. Fur- the entire system becomes homogenous and thermore, Shannon’s formalism uses the term static. This monotonic behavior has been associ- “information” in a very narrow sense. The main ated with the inexorable increase in entropy, success of Shannon’s concept is in coding theory. hence the second law. But the correct Shannon’s H is a measure of how much a message C 350 Chemical Thermodynamics coded in bits can be compressed by appropriately objects (also called particles), both macroscopic coding it. The association of Shannon’s H with and microscopic, in space and time. “entropy” is due to similar mathematical expres- sion used to define the entropy of thermodynamic system in terms of the micro-states of the system. Relevance to Science and Religion To overcome terminological confusions and facilitate logical analysis of the theoretical rela- Since chemical thermodynamics is one of the tion between the thermodynamic entropy and best established branches of natural sciences, it information-theoretic entropy, it was suggested should shed important light on the relation in (Ji 2012, pp. 97–101) that the former be between science and religion. For example, the referred to as the Boltzmann-Clausius entropy fact that both organisms and abiotic objects such (designated as SBC) and the latter as the Shannon as rocks and stars are constituted of the same set entropy (SS) and that SBC be viewed as a subset of of chemical elements and subject to the same set SS. According to these suggestions, there are of thermodynamic principles (e.g., the First and many different kinds of SS, of which only SBC is the Second Laws) may have profound conse- subject to the Second Law of thermodynamics. In quences for the basic tenets of many religions in contrast, Jaynes and his followers, for example, the world. Although both organisms and abiotic assert that SS and SBC are identical within pro- systems are built out of the same building blocks, portionality constant, implying that SS also obeys their properties and behaviors are dramatically the Second Law of thermodynamics which is different because the way these building blocks thought to be false. are organized in space and time is different. Self-identification Sources of Authority Science The authority of chemical thermodynamics as Chemical thermodynamics is a subdiscipline of a subdiscipline of thermodynamics derives from thermodynamics, one of the major branches of the fact that the laws of thermodynamics have natural sciences which include astronomy, been tested and upheld by experiments without Newtonian mechanics, optics, electromagnetism, any exception so far, since the late eighteenth relativity theory, quantum mechanics, and statis- century. tical mechanics. All these disciples represent systematic knowledge about the universe that has been acquired through observations/ Ethical Principles experimentations, analysis of data utilizing math- ematical and computational methods, and testing The principle of honesty and objectivity in logically inferred predictions. accepting the results of experiments as they pre- sent themselves to us is paramount in all scientific activities, irrespective of whether or not the Characteristics experimental data fit our theoretical conjectures. Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the changes in heat production or absorption and Key Values structural organization and disorganization that result from chemical transformations in macro- The principles and accumulated knowledge of scopic and microscopic scales. This contrasts, for chemical thermodynamics are essential for scien- example, with mechanics whose main focus is the tists and engineers to explain and understand their study of the motions and their causes of material experimental data about material transformations Chemical Thermodynamics 351 C in and around us, which is a prerequisite for Truth solving practical problems in industry and bio- A statement or proposition that has been formu- medical sciences. lated based on logic, experimental data, and daily life experiences. Conceptualization Perception The sum total of the stimuli that enters our con- C Nature/World sciousness, leading to some registered traces in It is common among chemical thermodynami- our nervous system. cists to accept the model of nature and the uni- verse formulated on the basis of astrophysical Time observations in the form of the Big Bang theory. A physical parameter that increases unidirection- ally just as the entropy of an isolated system does. Human Being Human being or Homo sapiens is thought to have Consciousness originated on this planet about 2 million years The property of our nervous system that is aware ago in Africa and spread around the world there- of its surrounding and its own activity, i.e., self- after. Analysis of fossils gathered in Africa shows aware. that Homo sapiens has evolved from the first living systems that originated on this planet Rationality/Reason some 3–4 billion years ago through spontaneous The ability of our mind to carry out thought generation of self-reproducing chemical reac- processes in accordance with a set of logical tions-diffusion systems, probably driven by ther- rules as well as natural laws. mal gradient on the earth surface or deep in the ocean floor. Mystery Although much has been learned about the laws Life and Death and principles underlying chemical transforma- There are now sufficient chemical and computa- tions in abiotic systems, there still remain many tional evidence to indicate that life could have mysteries in chemical thermodynamics, espe- originated on this planet from primordial pools of cially when applied to living processes. For ordinary chemical compounds subject to temper- example, we all know that life cannot exist with- ature gradient some 3–4 billion years ago. Some out chemical reactions (e.g., eating food) and yet simple aspects of life, which is astronomically the molecular and submolecular mechanisms that complex phenomenon, have been and is being couple chemical reactions to even the simplest of successfully reproduced in laboratories around living processes, e.g., muscle contraction or the world. active transport, are still poorly understood. Reality Chemical thermodynamicists tend to view reality Relevant Themes as something that exists out there objectively and independently of the observer and that the regu- With rise of computers that can manipulate digi- larities embedded in reality can be uncovered tal sequences, the coding of “information” using through experiments, logical analysis of data, digital sequences has resulted in a growing inter- and hypothesis testing. est in the concept of information. This has led some to identify two major theoretical and phil- Knowledge osophical problems facing contemporary thermo- A system of organized information that can be dynamics – (a) the relation between entropy and applied to solving practical problems. information, and (b) the relation between energy C 352 Child Surgery and information. The debate on the entropy- information relation began in 1948 with the Child Surgery appearance of Shannon’s entropy formula for the average amount of information carried by Dietrich von Schweinitz a message, and the discussion of the energy- Pediatric Surgical Clinic, Dr. von Hauner information relation may be said to have begun Children’s Hospital, University of Munich, in 1985 when it was postulated that all living Muenchen, Germany processes are driven by gnergy, defined as the complementary union of energy and information (reviewed in Sect. 2.3.2, 4.7 and 4.13 in (Ji Related Terms 2012)). There are scholars who believe that entropy and information are basically identical. Paediatric surgery; Pediatric surgery; Surgery in There are equally numerous scientists and philos- childhood ophers who support the opposite views. These debates are relevant to the science-religion dis- courses because science is primarily concerned Description with energy and matter, while religion has its own perspectives on the origin of everything in Child surgery deals with all diseases of child- our Universe including energy, matter, and hood, for which a surgical operation may contrib- information. ute to therapy. Childhood comprises all humans from birth to 16 years of age and also includes fetuses and premature newborns (The European Cross-References Pediatric Surgeons’ Association; The American Pediatric Surgical Association; World Federation ▶ Astrophysics of Associations of Pediatric Surgeons). While ▶ Complex Systems child surgery encloses diseases of all organs of ▶ Energy in Physics the body and thus is the historical root of the ▶ Physics discipline ▶ pediatric surgery, the latter nowa- ▶ Time days concentrates in most countries on diseases of the inner organs and skeletomuscular system (Ashcraft et al. 2005; Oldham et al. 2005). Espe- References cially surgery of the heart, the eyes, the ears, and the brain concerning specialized operations in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy children have recently become subspecialties of Ji, S. (2012). Molecular theory of the living cell: Concepts, the organ surgery specialties. Because of the rel- molecular mechanisms, and biomedical applications. ative rarity of many surgical diseases of child- New York: Springer. Kondepudi, D. (2008). Introduction to modern thermody- hood, pediatric surgery is more and more namics. Chichester: Wiley. concentrated to large children’s hospitals and Kondepudi, D., & Prigogine, I. (1998). Modern thermo- university clinics. dynamics: From heat engines to dissipative structures. Chichester: Wiley. Nicolis, G., & Prigogine, I. (1977). Self-organization in non-equilibrium systems. London: Wiley. Self-Identification Prigogine, I. (1947). Etude thermodynamique des processus irreversibles. Liege: Desoer. Science Prigogine, I. (1967). Introduction to thermodynamics of irreversible processes. New York: Wiley. Pediatric surgery deals with the treatment as well Prigogine, I., & Defay, R. (1954). Chemical thermody- as research of diseases of humans during the namics. London: Longmans. period of growth and differentiation, that is, Child Surgery 353 C fetuses to approximately 16 years of age. Characteristics Important aspects are the normal physiology of growing organs and tissues, as well as the patho- Pediatric surgery is one specialty of human med- physiology of abnormal developments and icine. It is distinctive to other medical disciplines resulting malformations. Furthermore, surgically in that it is concerned with disorders of fetuses, relevant acquired diseases of childhood caused children, and adolescents with a surgical rele- by infections and inflammation, trauma and neo- vance, that is, may need a surgical operation. C plastic (tumor) growth are subject of research and Therefore, the special interest lies on the biology, treatment in pediatric surgery. diagnosis, and treatment of these diseases and In research, pediatric surgery is active in malformations. performing (1) basic biological investigations and (2) clinical studies. Here, methods and tech- niques of cellular biology, molecular biology, Relevance to Science and Religion genetics, physiology, anatomy, physics, chemis- try, microbiology, biology, mathematics and Because of the many relationships the developing statistics are applied according to the rules of human individual is bound to and the many influ- these natural science disciplines. For clinical ences he or she is subject to, pediatric surgery is research single or multicenter randomized or interested in many scholarly areas. This accounts nonrandomized patient studies are used for all disciplines of human biology, as far as they according to the rules of good clinical practice are dealing with the development of humans and in order to develop evidence-based guidelines for their malformations and diseases, also all special- treatment (von Schweinitz and Ure 2009). ties concerned with the body, mind, and soul of In clinical practice, pediatric surgery deals children and adolescents, but also with scholarly with a broad spectrum of malformations and dis- areas engaged in the living and welfare of fami- eases (subspecialties in parenthesis): those of the lies, education, sociology, culture, and politics inner organs of the thorax and the abdomen including national and international conflicts (pediatric visceral surgery), of the urogenital (i.e., pediatric traumatology and war damages), system (pediatric urology), traumatic alterations finally ethics and religions. of the skeletomuscular system (pediatric traumatology), traumata and malformations of the spine and the brain (pediatric neurosurgery), Sources of Authority malformations in the newborn period (neonatal surgery), and – at this time still mostly experi- Historically, the first authorities in the developing mental – of the fetus (fetal surgery). For diag- discipline of pediatric surgery were surgeons who nostics in pediatric surgery, all modern realized that the treatment of children with techniques of clinical investigation, laboratory, malformations or diseases need specially trained and radiology are applied modified to the physicians as well as a clinical setting adapted to needs of children. For treatment, pediatric sur- the needs of children. In the nineteenth century, gery utilizes all modalities of surgery, drug ther- first departments of pediatric surgery were apy, physical therapy, and psychology used also established in Boston – USA, Paris – France, in adults but modified to the needs of the indi- London – UK, Munich – Germany, and other vidual age of the patients (Ashcraft et al. 2005; European countries. Today, authorities for pedi- Oldham et al. 2005; von Schweinitz and Ure atric surgery and its subspecialties exist world- 2009). In research and clinical practice, pediat- wide. These usually have published handbooks ric surgery is a close partner discipline to (some see reference list) and are organized in all subspecialties of interne child medicine, national and international scientific pediatric that is, pediatrics. surgical organizations (see reference list). C 354 Child Surgery Important periodicals are the Journal of Pediatric the human being the possibility of feeling and Surgery, the European Journal of Pediatric Sur- abstract thinking, of philosophical and religious gery, and Pediatric Surgery International. conceptualization. The body as well as the mind are subject to development from one cell at the beginning pregnancy. Ethical Principles Life and Death As a medical discipline, Pediatric Surgery Life is the presence of functions of biological throughout the world acknowledges and is guided systems including reproduction, growth, and dif- by the Hippocratic Oath and the rules of the ferentiation. Death is the termination and absence Declaration of Helsinki of 1971. Because fetuses, of such functions. newborns, and children are not able to give informed consent as adults, a special concern Reality for the welfare of the individual patient in clinical Reality is understood as the materialistic world as practice and research is mandatory for pediatric well as actions and products of minds, which can surgeons. be sensed by the individual human being. Knowledge Key Values Knowledge is the accumulation of experiences, facts, ideas by biological systems including the The key values of Pediatric Surgery are: human being as well as by physical systems as 1. The optimal treatment of malformations and books, electronic devices, and others. acquired diseases of the growing human being of all age groups, Truth 2. The care of theses patients in the clinical set- Truth is defined as the realities and ideas proven ting and at their home, by multiple experiences of human beings or laws 3. To undertake research to better understand the of nature, which both are thought to have univer- causes, pathophysiology, diagnostics, and sal character. possible treatment of these malformations and diseases, Perception 4. To teach medical students and physicians all Perception is explained as the conscious sensa- aspects of this discipline. tions and experiences of all aspects of the physi- cal world of a human being in dependency of health and disease, the momentary situation, and Conceptualization the developmental stage. Nature/World Time Nature and its rules and interactions are the basis of Time is a physical category of chronically ongo- life and thus also of the human body, its organs and ing processes in the material world, which can tissues, its cells and its development, growth and be perceived by human beings and objectively differentiation. The world comprises of the mate- measured, implementing aging of biological rials of all planets and the interspersed space of the systems. universe as well as all aspects of human mind and possible other intelligences unknown to us. Consciousness Consciousness is understood as the status of the Human Being human mind, which enables the individual to The human being is a product of nature with perception, mental workup, active reaction, and a body including a highly developed brain, giving storage of external influences. Christian Cosmology 355 C Rationality/Reason These are thought to be the ability of the human Chiliastic mind to explain, to deal with, and to react to perceptions, feelings, and other influences using Hans Schwarz logical thoughts. This is dependent on metal Institute of Protestant Theology, University of health status as well as on the stage of mental Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany development during childhood. C Mystery The term is derived from the Greek chilioi, mean- Mysteries are perceptions, feelings, and other ing a thousand (years). The idea was widely held influences, which cannot be explained rationally that one thousand years after Christ, Christ will by an individual. This is dependent on mental return and a new age will dawn. This led to the health status and mental development, but expectation of a thousand years’ rule of Christ. also on experiences, culture, religion, and educa- This idea was secularized by Marx and Engels tion of an individual and/or group of human and later by the Nazi ideology into a secular beings. Thousand Years’ Reich. It can also mean the tri- umphant and overzealous attitude to bring about paradisiacal conditions through one’s own efforts. Relevant Themes The most relevant issues of Pediatric Surgery are Chinese Psychology of Religion not only cure from surgical diseases and malformations of the growing human being, but ▶ Psychology of Religion China/Asia furthermore the well-being of children in all aspects of life in order to facilitate their develop- ment to healthy, mentally intact, and responsible adults (The European Pediatric Surgeons’ Asso- Chorography ciation; The American Pediatric Surgical Associ- ation; World Federation of Associations of ▶ Geography in Islam Pediatric Surgeons). Christ Event References ▶ Divine Action Ashcraft, K. W., Holcomb, G. W., & Murphy, J. P. (Eds.). (2005). Pediatric surgery (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders. Oldham, K. T., Colombani, P. M., Foglia, R. P., & Skinner, M. A. (Eds.). (2005). Principles and practice Christian Cosmology of pediatric surgery. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Anna Ijjas The American Pediatric Surgical Association. http:// www.eapsa.org. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA The European Pediatric Surgeons’ Association. http:// www.eupsa.org. von Schweinitz, D., & Ure, B. (Eds.). (2009). Related Terms Kinderchirugie – Allgemeine und viszerale Chirurgie des Kindesalters. Heidelberg: Springer. World Federation of Associations of Pediatric Surgeons. Big bang cosmology; Creatio continua; Creatio http://www.wofaps.co.za. ex nihilo; Creation; Multiverse; Natural evil C 356 Christian Cosmology Cosmology is the scientific study of the Universe According to the classic understanding of as a whole, seeking to understand its origin, evo- Genesis 1:1, creatio ex nihilo entails that the lution, and structure. Until modern times, there Universe had a temporal beginning. However, was no difference between scientific and reli- following the tradition of Boethius, Anselm, and gious cosmologies; scientific cosmology was at Aquinas, divine perfection requires that God the same time religious cosmology. Its major exists outside of time, is timeless. Understanding concern was to strengthen and unfold the biblical the world as temporal while God as atemporal idea of creation as depicted in the book of Gene- became one of the major problems for philoso- sis, by invoking empirical insights about the phers of religion. Hence, some modern theologi- world. Simultaneously, in introducing God as cal concepts assert that God is genuinely in time the ultimate cause of natural processes, one even if God created a world ex nihilo (open could provide an explanation for all empirical theism) or formed an eternally existing “stuff” facts involved. Many contemporary theologians (process theology). follow the ancient thought, that is, how to embed scientific findings the biblical message and the Understanding God as Temporal Cause of the core Christian doctrines – the product of centu- Universe ries-old theological reflection based on the first Traditionally, the question if God can be consid- chapter of Genesis. However, after science ered as the temporal cause of the Universe arose became decoupled from theology, the compe- in the context of the so-called kala¯m cosmologi- tences have been redefined. Given the (methodo- cal argument, which was introduced by medieval logical) autonomy of science, contemporary Arabic theologians – therefore also the name Christian cosmology seems to be best understood kala¯m that was applied to the argumentative the- as theological reflection about physical cosmolo- ism employed in defense of Islamic orthodoxy gies in terms of a coherence test, which means, in beginning in the ninth century. More recently, the reflecting scientific cosmologies, theologians see kala¯m argument was revived and defended by it as their task to integrate new scientific insights American philosopher William Lane Craig into the traditional doctrines of Christianity as (cf. Craig and Smith 1995). The kala¯m argument well as to reinterpret (or reformulate) these doc- infers from the existence of the universe to trines insofar as that is necessary for the integra- God’sexistence by proving that the universe is tion of scientific theories (cf. Barbour 2000). in need of a temporal cause, in reconciling the Consequently, while physical cosmology seeks traditional doctrine of creatio ex nihilo with phys- to understand the origin, evolution, and structure ical cosmology. The question is, thus, if the of the Universe, Christian cosmology seeks to Universe is in need of a temporal cause? integrate the results of the scientific endeavor Contemporary proponents of the traditional into the core Christian doctrines of divine understanding appeal to two different scientific creation. developments to support the doctrine of creatio ex nihilo, namely, mathematics of infinity and the big bang theory. Allegedly, the mathematics of The Origin of the Universe infinity could provide an a priori argument for a finite-age universe insofar as a (temporally) The traditional Christian doctrine – as formu- infinite universe implies the existence of an lated, for example, by Saint Augustine – states actual infinite. Thereby, an actual infinite repre- that in the beginning God created the Universe sents a timeless totality that neither decreases nor out of nothing (creatio ex nihilo), which means, increases in the number of members it contains, directly or indirectly, everything owes its exis- whereas a potential infinite is a process that tence to God, or to put it another way, God is the comes closer and closer to infinity but never ultimate cause of the Universe (cf. Craig and reaches it – a distinction originally introduced Copan 2004). by Aristotle to resolve Zeno’s paradox Christian Cosmology 357 C (cf. Bostock 1973). By referring, for example, to goes through repetitive cycles of expansion and a hotel as an actual infinite which can accommo- contraction; a new big bang occurs when the date a new guest even if its fully occupied (called antecedent big bang universe reached its end Hilbert’s Hotel, cf. Gamow 1989), proponents of phase, that is, after it arrived at a completely the a priori argument from the mathematics of homogeneous, highly dense, and extremely hot infinity argue that the existence of an actual infi- state (Big Crunch). Another possibility to avoid nite seems intuitively absurd, which leads them to a temporal beginning provides the theory of infla- C the conclusion that an absolute infinite cannot tion, first suggested by MIT-physicist Alan Guth exist. That is to say, with regard to its temporal in 1981. Inflation posits a stage of rapid expan- extension, the Universe represents a potential but sion in the very early universe, originating in no actual infinite. However, this a priori argument a quantum vacuum state. Thus in the framework counts as a fairly week one, mainly because it of inflationary cosmology, the universe does not seems to tell us more about our cognitive capac- need to have a temporal beginning insofar as the ities than about reality itself. For it is at least not quantum vacuum might be eternal. While cyclic evident that things we cannot imagine (or con- universe cosmologies are often considered as too sider to be an absurdity) cannot exist. If that were speculative, the theory of inflation is widely the case, general relativity or quantum physics regarded as a necessary complement of standard should also be regarded as absurdities, which big bang cosmology, filling the explanatory gaps surely is not the case. In conclusion, mathematics of the latter, the striking large-scale homogeneity of infinity is not very helpful, insofar as it is of our universe, and the origin of structure. Yet, impossible to prove by way of a priori consider- even if inflationary theory does not necessarily ations that the Universe is a potential and not an rule out a temporal beginning insofar as the quan- actual infinite. tum vacuum state does not need to be eternal, the In order to reconcile the traditional under- classic interpretation of standard cosmology is standing of creatio ex nihilo with modern science, not compelling. Indeed, the fact that the field it is perhaps more promising to appeal to the equations lead to a singularity (when tracked standard big bang theory (Cf. article on ▶ cos- back in time) could simply mean that general mology by Kenneth R. Lang in this volume). As relativity does not apply to the epoch before a matter of fact, the classic interpretation of the inflation, so that we are in need of new physics fact that the universe (including space-time) to explain that era. arose out of a singularity, that is, out of an orig- To sum up, if the classic interpretation of inal state of infinite density and temperature, and standard big bang cosmology turns out to be the no size (i.e., the universe had a temporal begin- only proper understanding of the theory, the tra- ning), was mostly welcomed among theologians. ditional understanding of creatio ex nihilo can be Indeed, the big bang theory suggests that physical considered compatible with science. However, cosmology directly supports the core theistic until there are serious alternative theories (or belief in creatio ex nihilo. interpretations), the empirical basis of the creatio However, the classic interpretation of big bang ex nihilo doctrine (understood in terms of theory is not fully accepted by all physicists. The a temporal beginning) remains questionable. possibility that a physical theory could prove that Not only scientists question the assumption of science has reached its boundaries appears a temporal beginning for the Universe, also theo- dissatisfying to most physicists. Therefore, vari- logians have their doubts. It has often been ous alternative theories were developed. Such an argued that a proper interpretation of the Bible alternative theory, or rather bundle of theories, is does not imply a temporal beginning. Rather, the the theory of oscillating or cyclic universes as opening verses of Genesis start with depicting presented by Paul Steinhardt, Neil Turok, or a watery chaos: “The earth was without form Roger Penrose, stating that our big bang is but and void, and darkness was upon the face of the one in a series of countless “bangs”: The universe deep and the spirit of God was moving over the C 358 Christian Cosmology face of the waters.” In fact, church historians truth of the proposition God exists, if God exists have recently pointed out that the idea of creatio were false, then four exists would be false ex nihilo was first formulated in the second cen- (Matthew Davidson 1999). In turn, this means tury, as a response to the Gnosis teaching that that four is a contingent being, that is, dependent matter is evil. Accordingly, the doctrine of upon the existence of another being (be it contin- creatio ex nihilo had a twofold aim. Firstly, it gent also or necessary). Another approach to asserted that God is the source of matter as well understanding necessary and contingent beings as form against claims that a preexisting matter comes from modal or metaphysical logics. could limit divine power. Secondly, it asserted Understood as such, a necessary being exists in God’s transcendence against the idea that the all possible worlds, while there is at least one world was an emanation of God, made of the possible world in which a contingent being does divine substance and sharing its characteristics. not exist. Indeed, the interpretation of creatio ex nihilo in By applying this distinction, proponents of the terms of a temporal beginning was first elabo- metaphysical argument believe to have shown rated by Augustine and cannot, therefore, be that even if the Universe has no temporal begin- regarded important for the self-definition of the ning, it is contingent and thus depends on some- early church. Particularly, scientist-theologians thing else. Here an additional premise is assumed, Ian Barbour and John Polkinghorne argued however, according to which a contingent being against conceiving of God as a temporal cause always has a cause of its existence – this assump- of the Universe (Barbour 2000 and Polkinghorne tion is usually called the principle of sufficient 2006). They hold that such a view rests upon reason. In fact, it is this principle that calls for a theological misunderstanding of Genesis a necessary being to be the ultimate cause of the that – sooner or later – becomes entangled in Universe. The final goal of the argument is then to contradictions with science. Instead, they empha- show that this necessary being can only be God. sized that we should think of divine creation as To sum up, if it turns out that standard big a “fundamental and enduring relationship” bang theory implies a temporal beginning of the between the faithful God and the world (creatio Universe, the doctrine of creatio ex nihilo can be continua). As a proper interpretation of Genesis considered valid in its classic interpretation; on 1:1, they suggested to conceive of God, the the other hand, regardless whether science pre- Creator, as the nontemporal or metaphysical dicts a temporal beginning of the Universe, God cause of the Universe (Cf. article on ▶ divine can be considered as the ultimate metaphysical creativity by Gloria Shaab and the article on (or nontemporal) cause of the Universe, respon- ▶ creator – co-creator by Barbara Ann Strassberg sible for its origin and for sustaining it (as under- in this volume). stood in terms of creatio continua). However, compatibility does not imply exclusivity. That is God as Metaphysical Cause of the Universe to say, the scientific picture clearly allows for The common strategy to argue for God as the both a theistic explanation and a naturalistic metaphysical cause of the Universe operates by interpretation. distinguishing different kinds of modality, con- tingency, and necessity. That God is conceived of as a necessary being The Evolution and Structure of the is known as the sovereignty-aseity intuition Universe (Plantinga 1980, Davidson 1999). Thereby, the idea is the following: Necessarily, x depends on y The more philosophical question whether God for its existence iff y were not to exist, neither can be conceived of as the ultimate cause of the would x. In other words, if the number four Universe is closely related to the problem of depends on God for its existence, then the truth explaining the evolution and structure of the of four exists depends counterfactually on the Universe. Suppose that an ultimate metaphysical Christian Cosmology 359 C cause (which might be a necessary being) is linked with the conditions here on Earth, in par- needed to count for the existence of the Universe. ticular with human life. If the Creator wanted However, whether this ultimate cause is indeed intelligent life to evolve somewhere in the God as God is understood in classical theism, Universe – so the argument runs – the Creator depends on whether the Universe as it is can be had to establish the laws such that they allow for ascribed to a morally perfect, omniscient, and the evolution of intelligent life. That means, the omnipotent being. Furthermore, according to structure of the entire Universe has to reflect the C Immanuel Kant, it is not evident that the neces- possibility of intelligent life – even if intelligent sary being (ens necessarium) is the absolute (or life can factually evolve only within a tiny frac- mostly real) being (ens realissimum). Nor can the tion of the entire Universe. biblical account of divine creation be reduced to In order to strengthen this somewhat bold idea the belief that God is the ultimate cause of the and to harmonize it with current scientific Universe (Cf. further article on ▶ divine action). insights, theologians usually refer to the fact of In fact, to reinforce naturalistic interpretations fine-tuning, that is, that both the mathematical of big bang cosmology, it has often been claimed form of the laws and the values or constellation that, though the Universe could be contingent, of the fundamental parameters which together God cannot be considered its ultimate cause, characterize the structure and evolution of the insofar as characteristic features of the Universe Universe are such that even minimal deviations are incompatible with the Christian image of from the observed values would have led to mas- a faithful God. In this context, particularly the sive changes in the physical evolution, possibly problem of evil (cf. further article ▶ evil, prob- ruling out the emergence of intelligent life. lem of, by Thomas Anderberg in this volume) has Consider, for example, the mass ratio between been often cited as an argument against divine proton and neutron: Although their mass differ- creation – whether in terms of creatio ex nihilo or ence is only 1.29 MeV (0.14 %), which is in terms of creatio continua. vanishingly small, it is nevertheless bigger than the tiny mass of the electron (1/1,836 of the The Fine-Tuning Argument proton mass). However, if the electron were Contemporary cosmologists study the laws more massive than the mass difference between governing the entire Universe and hence focus proton and neutron, free neutrons would be stable (primarily) on physical laws describing the struc- and could not decay into a proton-electron- ture and evolution of the Universe. While so antineutrino triple. As a consequence, most of doing, they assume the cosmological principle. the protons and electrons in the early Universe Usually, the cosmological principle says that, would have combined to form neutrons and neu- “viewed on a sufficiently large scale, the proper- trinos. In such a universe, only neutron stars ties of the Universe are the same for all could have emerged, the emergence of atoms or observers” (Keel 2007). This implies that the other chemical elements would not have been Universe is homogeneous and isotropic, which possible, not to mention the emergence of life. means, despite its immense size, the same natural If instead of changing the mass ratios, we would laws apply everywhere in the Universe. change the electromagnetic into gravitational The cosmological principle is regarded empir- force strength ratio of 1,036 by reducing it to, ically extremely well confirmed – the most strik- for example, 1,033, the consequence would be ing evidence comes, again, from the impressing that only a short-lived miniature universe could homogeneity of the cosmic microwave radiation exist. Hence, there would simply be no time for we already discussed above as empirical evi- biological evolution. The probability that we find dence for an expanding universe. In several even a few fundamental parameters having the theological reflections, it is – unsurprisingly – observed ratio to one another, which is necessary precisely the cosmological principle by way of for our very existence, appears to be extremely which the characteristic traits of the Universe are small, and the totality of them together vastly C 360 Christian Cosmology more so; according to calculations of physicist appear more promising: To solve the fine-tuning Lee Smolin, the probability is about one chance problem, scientists have questioned the apparent in 10229. Recognizing this remarkable coinci- uniqueness of our Universe by referring to quan- dence, scientists in the 1960s suggested that it tum many-worlds or inflationary multiverse sce- should be considered a physical phenomenon narios. If our Universe – so the argument runs – is (or explanatory pattern) sui generis, which but one among infinitely many other universes, it became known as the anthropic principle (Tipler seems hardly surprising that in one of these uni- and Barrow 1988). This principle is based on verses the observed constellation is realized. For observations that the laws of nature and parame- the sake of argument, let us suppose that there are ters of the Universe necessarily take on values indeed infinitely many universes. What would the consistent with the conditions for life on Earth. existence of such a bundle of universes mean for For theological considerations, the point of Christian Cosmology? Consider the following anthropic reasoning lies in the post hoc character two cases: (1) All universes in the multiverse of the argumentation, reducing cosmic fine- are described by the same Theory of Everything tuning to the existence of intelligent life. Even (2) The universes in the multiverse can be grouped though it is not supposed to be an implication of into bundles, which are described by different the scientific argument, in facing the extremely theories of everything, respectively. In the first small probability of the observed constellation, case, the problem of fine-tuning is only shifted, anthropic reasoning seems nevertheless to suggest insofar as the question still remains open why the a teleological interpretation (cf. Leslie 1989). If multiverse is described by the given Theory of the Universe has expected us from the very begin- Everything, characterized by certain fundamental ning, assuming the existence of a divine creator parameters and a certain mathematical form. In the appears fairly plausible. By reverse conclusion, second case, the fine-tuning argument can be the anthropic principle might present an empirical regarded resolved only if all mathematically pos- argument for the existence of God. Moreover, it sible forms are realized. This, however, entails the has the potential to refute another empirical argu- extension of physical reality over tremendous ment against the existence of God, namely, the dimensions, while the only motivation for this is atheistic claim according to which the Darwinian a purely metaphysical one, to provide a naturalistic explanation of the origin and evolution of life on interpretation of cosmic fine-tuning. Earth in terms of random mutations and natural All in all, there is a price to pay when the selection makes the creation hypothesis obsolete. theistic interpretation of cosmic fine-tuning In order for evolutionary processes to occur, the should be replaced by way of multiverse theories, observed fine-tuned parameters, initial conditions, and in face of the ontological curiosity multiverse and natural laws are needed. This, in turn, brings theories entail, it is in the final analysis left to the God back into play. philosophical or theological preferences if one asserts the theological or the naturalistic alterna- Objections tive. Yet, being merely metaphysical assump- However, the anthropic principle has been tions, multiverse theories cannot be considered largely criticized. The argument is that none of as a serious objection to a theistic or Christian the finely tuned phenomena require human life or interpretation of cosmic fine-tuning. Further- some other sort of carbon-based life. Rather, it is more, if our Universe is not the best of all possible said, any form of intelligent life would do worlds (which seems quite likely), it is even (Stenger 2011). In response to criticism, the plausible to claim that God created all universes anthropic principle has recently been redefined above a certain axiological threshold than to in the argument from fine-tuning. assume that God created only our Universe However, the only scientific alternative while neglecting to create any better ones. That approach to explaining fine-tuning does not is to say, it seems possible that neither just one Christian Epistemology 361 C universe exists solitarily nor all possible uni- ▶ Divine Action verses exist simultaneously, but God created ▶ Divine Creativity a subset of all logically possible universes, ▶ Evil, Problem of whether interconnected, whether causally inert. Clearly, advancing the possibility of creating a world that is a multiverse, the most important References question is why God chose the actual world, why C God preferred one possible world to an enormous Barbour, I. (2000). When science meets religion: Enemies, strangers, or partners? New York: number of others. In other words, for a multiverse HarperCollins. theory to be successful, it is necessary to identify Bostock, D. (1973). Aristotle, zeno, and the potential world-good-making properties, that is, condi- infinite. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, tions for a world to be worthy of creating. Indeed, 73(1973), 37–51. Craig, W. L., & Copan, P. (2004). Creation out of nothing: developing a comprehensive theory of theistic A biblical, philosophical, and scientific exploration. multiverse is today an emerging research field Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. in both theology and philosophy of religion Craig, W. L., & Smith, Q. (1995). Theism, atheism, (Kraay 2012). In the near future, we can hope and big bang cosmology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. for interesting results. Davidson, M. (1999). A demonstration against theistic activism. Religious Studies, 35, 277–290. Gamow, G. (1989). One two three infinity: Facts and Concluding Remarks speculations of science. New York: Dover. Keel, W. C. (2007). The road to galaxy formation. Heidelberg: Springer-Praxis. Christian Cosmology has always been conceived Kraay, K. J. (2012). The theistic multiverse: Problems and of as the endeavor to reconcile the biblical mes- prospects. In Y. Nagasawa (Ed.), Scientific approaches sage of creation with the actual scientific insights to the philosophy of religion (pp. 143–162). Palgrave MacMillan: Houndsmills. concerning the origin, structure, and evolution of Leslie, J. (1989). Universes. London/New York: the entire Universe. Understood as theological Routledge. reflection about physical cosmologies from Plantinga, A. (1980). The nature of necessity. Clarendon: a Christian point of view, Christian cosmology Oxford University Press. Polkinghorne, J. (2006). Science and creation: The is not about direct inference from facts about the search for understanding. West Conshohocken: world to knowledge of ultimate reality but can be TempletonPress. a powerful tool to harmonize the biblical idea of Stenger, V. (2011). The fallacy of fine-tuning: Why the creation with contemporary culture. Therefore, universe is not designed for us. New York: PrometheusBooks. promoting the dialogue between scientific and Tipler, F. J., & Barrow, J. D. (1988). The anthropic Christian cosmologies appears inevitable to cosmological principle. Oxford: Oxford University make the biblical message understandable in Press. modern societies. At the same time, Christian belief can provide an overall context for scien- tific cosmologies, demonstrating that the mutual interaction of science and religion can Christian Education indeed arrive at a comprehensive and coherent worldview. ▶ Religious Education, Protestant Cross-References Christian Epistemology ▶ Cosmology ▶ Creator – Co-creator ▶ Epistemology, Reformed C 362 Christian Ethics in metaethics. The distinction between normative Christian Ethics ethics and metaethics should serve us well as we consider a variety of approaches and topics Kevin Jung within Christian ethics. School of Divinity, Wake Forest University, Winston Salem, NC, USA Normative Issues in Christian Ethics Ethics is commonly defined as the knowledge of right and wrong (as well as good and bad). Description This short definition, though insufficient to capture all areas of ethics, highlights something important Christian ethics is an enormously rich and diverse in ordinary moral reasoning: standards of moral field of study that investigates a wide range of judgments. We human beings make moral ethical topics and issues using moral resources judgments about the actions and characters of often drawn from but not necessarily limited to moral agents, which are implicitly or explicitly the Christian tradition. As a critical reflection on based on certain moral standards. Though Christian morality, Christian ethics seeks to answer normative ethics has become a highly specialized hard questions about the sources and criteria of field within analytic moral philosophy, ethical moral knowledge as well as the normative claims discourse involving moral standards still made by Christian morality in response to various largely draws upon the traditional normative ethical issues and problems. Despite the fact that theories: psychological egoism, ethical egoism, the phrase “Christian morality” may seem to sug- deontologism, consequentialism, and ▶ virtue gest otherwise, all Christians of course do not hold ethics. Our question in this section is whether the same moral views; the Christian moral tradition Christian theologians and ethicists ever appeal to is more like a huge repository of many divergent the moral standards proposed by these normative ideas, beliefs, and practices born out of distinct theories. Christian communities than a monolithic system. The short answer to this question is clearly, Thus, it should be of no surprise that there are “yes.” From Christian love ethics to ▶ liberation a number of ways in which the study of Christian theology and from just war theory to biomedical ethics is done and can be done. So how should we ethics, the kinds of moral judgments commonly attempt to canvass this vast field in a limited space? made in Christian ethics cannot avoid using For our purposes, I suggest that we make use moral norms. Let me illustrate this by focusing of some conceptual distinctions often used by on the debate over moral norms from the 1960s to moral philosophers in order to clarify and outline 1980s, during which Christian ethics in Europe some of the important ideas and schools of and North America was deeply engaged with the Christian ethics. criteria of moral norms. Ethical issues such as We can begin by noting a distinction between contraception, abortion, and euthanasia often first-order accounts and second-order accounts of dominated Christian ethical discourse. Interests moral reasoning. The former, typically referred to in such issues were not accidental; this era saw an as normative ethics, raises questions about the unprecedented technological development in content of ethical claims, such as the standards medicine that engendered ethical questions of moral judgments and the rules of moral about certain reproductive and medical practices, obligation. The latter, often known as metaethics, and the debates about these questions eventually is concerned with the status and nature of ethical became a part of the contemporary social and claims. Metaethics seeks, among other things, to political landscape. answer questions about the nature of moral If there was one book in Christian ethics that knowledge and truth as well as the metaphysical created a firestorm during this era of social and status of moral properties. Later in Part two, I will cultural upheaval, it was Joseph Fletcher’s Situ- discuss only some of the epistemological issues ation Ethics. In this book, Fletcher argued that Christian Ethics 363 C there are no moral absolutes except love (Fletcher to consequentialism, calling its harmful effects the 1966). The basic idea was first the claim that the “wastelands of relativism.” Like Fletcher, Ramsey only legitimate criterion for judging the moral viewed Christian love as central to Christian moral- status of an action is whether it can be justified ity; however, these thinkers could not be farther by love, that is, the New Testament notion of from one another in terms of how they understood ▶ agape, and second, the assertion that love jus- the normative meaning of Christian love. For tifies the means to any given end. Alarmed by the Ramsey, Christian love, which is grounded in the C denial of moral absolutes and moral laxity in the righteousness of God and Jesus’ teaching about the wider culture and in the church, the Roman Cath- Kingdom of God, has a covenantal character. olic Church began to confront these questions According to him, Christian love signifies disinter- head-on. In his papal encyclical letter Humanae ested love for one’s neighbor in obedience to the Vitae, published in 1968, Pope Paul VI made it sovereign rule of God. For Ramsey, the point of clear that direct sterilization, artificial contracep- Christian moral life is not to maximize happiness tion, and abortion (with the exception of thera- for oneself or others but to value each human for his peutic abortion) are illicit. Paul VI’s views on or her own sake as the image of God. His ethics is these matters would be reaffirmed later by Pope also noteworthy because it regards moral rules as John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI. What is specifiable or revisable in light of certain moral important for our purposes is that they all facts relevant to moral cases. On this view, since insisted, based on their interpretation of natural they impose actual rather than prima facie moral law and church tradition, that there are certain duties, alleged exceptions to moral rules are not acts that are intrinsically evil by virtue of the really exceptions, but instead should be considered material means they used, and regardless of the further specifications of moral rules (Ramsey agent’s intentions or the consequences of the act. 1968). This view is often called “absolute, exceptionless All this clearly indicates that various positions moral norms” and it created a controversy not among Christian thinkers involve normative ethical only among Catholic moral theologians but also theories. On closer examination, Fletcher’s situa- among Protestant ethicists. Proportionalists, tion ethics is a form of act-utilitarianism (or act- a group of Catholic moral theologians such as agapism) which uses the principle of utility as the Peter Knauer, Joseph Fuchs, Louis Janssens, only criterion of morality. In contrast, the official Richard McCormick, and Bruno Sch€ uller, instead teachings of the Catholic Church advocate a rigid argued that the morality of an act cannot be deter- deontologism that allows no exception to moral mined without considering carefully the final end rules. Catholic proportionalists, however, disagree or the intention of the agent (finis operantis) and with this official position by offering a version of the end of the act (finis operis). Briefly, their view rule-utilitarianism that holds to the primacy of is that we may permit the evil effect of our act moral rules in promoting the utility of an action. only if (1) this result is not intended in itself (i.e., Ramsey’s Protestant ethics offers a moderate the end is indirect) and (2) it is justified by deontologism that recognizes the possibility that a commensurate reason (i.e., it is proportionate prima facie moral duties can be overridden by to the morally acceptable intention of the agent other actual moral duties. within the totality of his act). In contrast, those Ironically, the fierce debate about moral norms who hold the absolutist position have accused helped other Christian thinkers to shift their focus proportionalists of being consequentialists who onto a different kind of moral standards: virtue hold that one may do evil in order that good (Hauerwas 1981; Porter 1995). Since 1980s, there may come. has been a movement against rule-oriented ethics We should also note a Protestant ethicist who and toward character-oriented ethics. Virtue ethics, was particularly interested in the debate about of course, is not uniquely a contemporary phenom- moral norms. Paul Ramsey, a well-known ethicist enon; it is traceable to, among others, the ethics of in the twentieth century, was vehemently opposed Aristotle and Aquinas. Yet, the recent resurgence of C 364 Christian Ethics virtue ethics is not accidental. On the one hand, it is Though there are plenty of people who believe that a critical reaction to modern individualism and the the Bible gives us unambiguous moral truths, it is Enlightenment morality that emphasized the role of an undeniable historical fact that, since the early reason in moral judgment. On the other hand, it is church, the correct interpretation of the Bible has also an effort to reclaim the distinct moral ethos of been highly disputed. Christian theologians have the Christian community. long been aware of the difficulty of using the Bible as a moral guide. To mention only a few, Epistemological Issues in Christian Ethics St. Clement introduced allegorical method of From the early church to the contemporary church, biblical interpretation in order to avoid literal inter- there have been various claims to religious and pretations of the Bible. St. Augustine rationalized moral knowledge. Disagreement between Christian the idea of just war by appealing to the love of one’s communities makes these claims appear problem- neighbor. St. Aquinas explained self-defense as atic; what a particular Christian community pur- a natural right for all, and did so in the face of ports to be a true belief is not always the same as a long-standing church tradition on the contrary. what another Christian community holds to be true. Therefore, it should come as no surprise that Unfortunately, differences in beliefs between many contemporary Christian ethicists caution distinct Christian communities have often led to against attempts to declare the Bible as the ulti- social oppression and even political persecution, mate authority for Christian ethics or to equate as seen during the Radical Reformation, the biblical ethics with Christian ethics. For example, 30 Years War, the English Reformation, and the arguing that there are many sources of moral American Puritan struggle for religious freedom. reflection for Christians, H. Richard Niebuhr has Sometimes, change of moral beliefs has occurred said that his ethics is “bible-informed,” and not within the same religious community as a result of “bible-centered” (Niebuhr 1963). Niebuhr’s posi- such periods of oppression. Consider the history tion is just an instance of the more general con- of Christian attitudes toward usury, slavery, and temporary move deviating from the use of women’s suffrage; in these examples, we see a scriptures as infallible proof of Christian long-standing church tradition changing its course moral claims. after a long and difficult period of social, political, and religious transformation. Tradition or Community All this should raise a question about how true Christians often appeal to their tradition or com- moral beliefs in a given Christian community can munity as the grounds for justifying their moral be held justifiedly. Can those who claim to possess beliefs. Historically, the Roman Catholic knowledge give sufficient grounds for holding their Church has long held that it is the apostolic tra- beliefs to be true? Have Christians or Christian dition of the church that gives authority to scrip- communities tried to offer such grounds for ture. In his famous debate with Martin Luther, for justification? In the following, we will consider instance, John Eck renewed the Catholic doctrine some commonly cited sources of evidence in of the authority of tradition over against that of Christian ethics. Scripture. In his view, it is the church that had created Scripture and established its cannon, Scripture and thus, the church has proper authority over Christians have long depended upon the Bible for Scripture. moral guidance, and have done so for a good rea- In recent years, however, there has been son: the Bible has been believed to be or to contain a wider appeal to the Christian community as the Word of God and, thus, is thought to possess the grounds for justifying moral beliefs. One normative authority for the Christian moral life. Of important source of influence, in this regard, has course, assuming that this is true, we can raise an been a particular version of Wittgensteinian additional question of whether the biblical text is philosophy, according to which truth is not really a good evidential basis for moral knowledge. a property that a statement has when it Christian Ethics 365 C corresponds to reality, but rather is merely Experience a function of language. George Lindbeck, Ever since Latin American liberation theology known as a representative of the Yale School of came to the fore in 1960s, there has been “narrative” theology, along with Hans Frei, made a plethora of new ethical theories that make the it his theological thesis that Christian truth claims particular experience of a certain group of should not be understood as propositions that can Christians their centerpiece: black liberation the- be known as true or false outside of one’s partic- ology and ethics, feminist ethics, womanist C ular linguistic community or as expressions of ethics, Asian liberation theology, postcolonial individual religious experience, but rather should theology, Latino/Latina ethics, and so on. In this be viewed as referring to the world only as regard, these theologies and ethics employ an described by the users of a particular linguistic inductive approach to moral knowledge, deriving community (Frei 1974; Lindbeck 1984). the latter from experience. Despite many differ- Lindbeck held that since the meaning of ences among these theologies and ethics, there is a linguistic statement is a function of its use, the one important commonality. In a way, they are all truth of any given statement is explainable in distant relatives of the nineteenth century’s lib- terms of the linguistic rules accepted and eral theology, which made human experience the employed by the statement’s users. most important source of doing theology. In any Another source of influence is the rejection of such experience-based Christian ethics, the expe- universal, objective morality based on rience of a particular group becomes both the foundationalist ▶ epistemology. Some Christian source and the criterion of moral knowledge. thinkers complain that Christian ethics has lost its Another similarity among these theologies distinct message in the liberal state by trying and ethics is that they all seek liberation as their to make the Christian narrative more palatable goal. To put this in a simplistic manner, Latin and intelligible to those who are not Christians American liberation theology, for instance, and by adopting the public moral language of the focuses on the liberation of the poor and those liberal state. Stanley Hauerwas and John who are politically and economically oppressed Milbank, for instance, claim that because all in Latin America; feminist ethics seeks to eman- morality is particular to historical, social, and cipate women from patriarchy and gender-based societal practices there is no such thing as inequality; womanist ethics seeks to liberate a universal morality. According to them, there black women from their oppressive social, cul- is no Archimedean point of view from which we tural, and economic systems. However, there is can judge the moral beliefs of a particular society a widely shared view among contemporary liber- other than our own. What this means is that no ationists that all who are oppressed are connected one outside of the Christian community has with each other not only through their shared the authority or ability to judge the truth of suffering but also the oppressive systems them- Christian convictions. They submit that only the selves. In this regard, there is a growing tendency Christian community can furnish the principal among various groups of liberationists to collab- criterion for justifying Christian beliefs, and orate and join the resistance movement. One such hold that the intelligibility of theology and example is an alliance between feminists and ethics derives only from the practices of the environmentalists, both of whom are interested church. in addressing the degradation of nature, which Critics of such contextualist theory of justifi- many feminists believe mirrors the oppression cation point out that this kind of Christian ethics of women. Thus, ecofeminists argue that the lib- is a sectarian theology that divorces the Christian eration of women can also lead to the liberation of community from the wider world (Gustafson nature and vice versa (Ruether 2005). Needless to 1985). They also argue that it is a form of moral say, there are many divergent views among lib- relativism since the truth of moral beliefs is made erationists, and this makes a fair assessment of relative to particular societies. their ethics very difficult. Having said this, there C 366 Christian Ethics are two main difficulties with experience-based (e.g., Audi and Shafer-Landau) claim that some ethics. First, they are prone to identity-dependent basic moral truths are knowable through reason ethical and political discourse where members of upon due reflection. They explain that this moral certain social, cultural, or religious groups are knowledge is supervenient upon natural facts often overly sensitive to external criticisms by without the former being reducible to the latter. appeal to their shared experiences, and second, Is Christian ethics compatible with intuitionism? their attempts to justify values such as equality If we consider reason to be an integral part of and individual liberty may be self-defeating, Christian morality and if we take revelation to be since they also deny the very existence of univer- an additional resource to reason, it may be possi- sal human values based on shared human ble for Christian ethics to accept intuitionism. experience. More importantly, Christian ethics can still draw upon other sources of Christian morality but also Reason insist that reason plays a critical role in justifying Historically speaking, reason has held a venera- Christian moral beliefs. ble position in Christian ethics. Many early church fathers tried to defend the Christian faith in the time of persecution, emphasizing the har- Cross-References mony of reason and faith. In the Middle Ages, Aquinas continued this emphasis by synthesizing ▶ Agape reason and revelation in his twofold theory of ▶ Deontology happiness. Bishop Butler, John Wesley, and ▶ Epistemology Jonathan Edwards all acknowledged that there ▶ Liberation, Theology of is an important place for reason and for natural ▶ Metaphysics morality derived from reason. Most significantly, ▶ Virtue Ethics the Catholic moral law tradition has long consid- ered reason to be a reliable, though not perfect, guide to basic moral knowledge. According to References this tradition, God imprinted natural law on rea- Fletcher, J. F. (1966). Situation ethics: The new morality. son so that basic moral truths can be known to Philadelphia: Westminster Press. rational people upon due reflection. Frei, H. W. (1974). The eclipse of biblical narrative: A study Though reason has been one of the major in eighteenth and nineteenth century hermeneutics. sources of Christian ethics, interest in the study New Haven: Yale University Press. Gustafson, J. M. (1985). The sectarian temptation: Reflec- of reason as the source or criterion of moral knowl- tions on theology, church, and the university. Proceed- edge has waned significantly in the recent decades. ings of the Catholic Theological Society, 40, 83–94. This is in large part due to the wide influence of Hauerwas, S. (1981). A community of character: Toward postmodernism in the field. Briefly, postmodern- a constructive Christian social ethic. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. ism is a school of thought that seeks to critique the Lindbeck, G. A. (1984). The nature of doctrine: Religion and notion of universal reason and the objectivity of theology in a postliberal age. Louisville: Westminster knowledge. In particular, postmodern ethics has John Knox Press. strongly assailed any appeal to universal morality Niebuhr, H. R. (1963). The responsible self: An essay in Christian moral philosophy. New York: Harper & Row. and the rule of law based in reason. Porter, J. (1995). Moral action and Christian ethics. Can reason, contrary to the claims of the post- Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. modernists, furnish basic moral knowledge? In Ramsey, P. (1968). The case of the curious exception. In contemporary analytic moral philosophy, moder- G. H. Outka, P. Ramsey, & F. S. Carney (Eds.), Norm and context in Christian ethics. New York: Scribner. ate intuitionism (distinguished from the classic Ruether, R. R. (2005). Integrating ecofeminism, globali- intuitionism of Sidgwick and Moore) is zation, and world religions. Lanham: Rowman & gaining new momentum. Moderate intuitionists Littlefield. Christian Existentialism 367 C the social structure changed from having been Christian Existentialism a rigidly hierarchical one to a relatively horizontal one. In its turn, this implied firstly Pia Søltoft that social identities were unusually fluid and Department of Systematic Theology, Faculty of secondly that there was a proliferation of nor- Theology, University of Copenhagen, malizing institutions which produced pseudo- Copenhagen K, Denmark individuals. Hence, it became more and more C Kierkegaard Library, Søren Kierkegaard difficult to find one’s identity. One of Research Centre, Copenhagen K, Denmark Kierkegaard’s greatest concerns was “how to become a Christian in Christendom.” His con- cern about identity with a focus on Christian Related Terms identity is why he is regarded not only as the father of existentialism but also as a Christian Kierkegaardianism existentialist. One of the major works done within Christian Perhaps the main representative for Christian existentialism is Begrebet Angest (The Concept existentialism is the Danish philosopher and of Anxiety) (1844), in which he makes a revision theologian Søren Aaby Kierkegaard, of the traditional doctrine of original sin going (1813–1855) whose thinking had a broad but back to St. Augustine. He emphasizes that sin prominent influence on systematic theology, con- always enters the world through the concrete sin tinental philosophy, literature, and arts. Within of the single individual, whereby sin must not be dogmatics, his thoughts have renewed and understood as a hereditary deformity of human inspired both Christology (Karl Barth and Rudolf nature. In this work, he starts with analyzing the Bultmann) and Harmatiology (Paul Tillich, first anxiety experienced by human beings, Christof Gestrich, and Wolfhart Pannenberg). namely, Adam’s anxiety related to whether he Also, his view upon ethics and philosophy of should or should not eat from God’s tree of religion has been innovative and of consider- knowledge. The act that he did eat from the tree able importance in the process of rethinking of knowledge became known as the original sin. Christianity on postmodern premises. That he suffered from anxiety has also to do Kierkegaard’s status as founding father of exis- with Adam having a free will, the will to obey tentialism is well known and recognized as is God (staying away from “that” tree) or not, to his concrete influence on Martin Heidegger, sin or not. According to Kierkegaard then, anxi- Gabriel Marcel, Jean Paul Sartre, and Albert ety preceding sin is the presupposition for Camus. Also, dialogical philosophy has been hereditary sin. However, anxiety also has the inspired by Kierkegaard’s view on subjectivity power to save individuals because it informs and its relational nature, and Franz Rosenzweig, them of their choices, self-awareness, and Martin Buber and Emmanuel Le´vinas have personal responsibility. Anxiety is the bridge through a critical dialog continued the inspira- between unself-consciousness and self- tional path following from Kierkegaard’s rela- consciousness. tional thoughts. Many authors, play writers, In Philosophiske Smuler eller En Smule poets, and other artists from all over the world Philosophie (Philosophical Fragments) (1844), have also been inspired or bewitched by the Kierkegaard writes under the pseudonym Kierkegaardian universe. Johannes Climacus and sharpens the understand- At that time, Denmark changed from having ing of faith and Christianity. He takes his point of been a feudal society into a capitalist society. departure in Socrates, who presupposes that Many people moved from the rural areas into human beings posit the truth within themselves the cities, which among other things caused that and therefore they can reach it in an immanent C 368 Christian Faith way. As an alternative to this understanding, In Sygdommen til Døden, En christelig Climacus claims that Christianity presupposes psychologisk Udvikling till Opvækkelse. (The that human beings are in sin by their own guilt Sickness unto Death, A Christian psychological and therefore it is not possible for them to relate exposition for edification and awakening) to the truth by themselves but only through (1849) by anti-Climacus, the exposition of sin a transcendent power. From this thought stems from The Concept of Anxiety is continued, and the understanding of God as the absolute here Kierkegaard analyzes key concepts like paradox. despair and offence as constitutive for true Kierkegaard’s doctrine of the absolute para- Christianity. dox is fully developed in Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift til de philosophiske Smuler (Concluding Unscientific Postscript) Cross-References (1846). In addition, this work is written under his pseudonym Climacus. The paradox is a key ▶ Christianity concept in Kierkegaard’s attempt to interpret ▶ Concept of God in Contemporary Philosophy Christianity as a contradictory unity of time and of Religion eternity, which defies discursive understanding. ▶ Existentialism The Christian paradox consists in the fact that the ▶ Love (Affective, Sexual) eternal truth is a paradox: the infinite God has ▶ Love (Alterity, Relationship) become a finite human being at a certain point ▶ Names of God in history and as such has suffered death on the cross. This is also shown in the doctrine of the stages References as a theory about the relation between the three spheres of existence: the aesthetic, the ethical, Cappelørn, N. J., & Deuser, H. (Eds.). (1996). Kierke- gaard studies, yearbook 1996. Berlin, New York: and the religious. In the religious stage, the ethi- Walter de Gruyter. cal commitment is combined with faith in Cappelørn, N. J., & Stewart, J. (Eds.). (1997). Kierke- a personal God (religiousness A), who not only gaard studies, monograph series. Berlin, New York: demands obedience but also forgives human Walter de Gruyter. Cappelørn, N. J., Garff, J., Hansen, A. M., & Kondrup, J. beings their disobedience, their sin, in Christ (Eds.). (1996). Søren kierkegaard skrifter. Copenha- (religiousness B, or the paradoxical religious- gen: GAD. ness). The transition to religiousness B happens Hong, H. V. & Hong, E. H. (Eds.). (1998/2009). by a leap of faith. Kierkegaard’s Writings, XXIII: The Moment and Late Writings. Søren Kierkegaard. Jersey: Princeton In the authorship after 1846, Kierkegaard rad- University Press. icalizes his understanding of Christianity and Kierkegaardiana (Vol. 1–23). Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzels stresses that suffering, martyrdom, and imitation Forlag, 1955-. Here you will also find a full biography are essential signs of true Christianity. from 1953 to 2004. Kirmmse, B. H. & So¨derquist, B. K. (Trans., Eds.). (2007). Kjerlighedens Gjerninger, Nogle christelige Kierkegaard’s journals and notebooks. New Jersey: Overveielser i Talers Form (Works of Love, Princeton University Press. Some Christian Reflections in the Form of Perkins, R. L. (Ed.). (1983). International Kierkegaard Discourses) (1847) analyzes the relation between commentary. Macon: Mercer University Press. human love and neighbor love and represents Kierkegaard’s contribution to Christian ethics. It is in Works of Love that the radicalization of Christianity and the critique of “Christendom,” Christian Faith the notion of Christianity as a cultural artifact, are visible. ▶ Revelation Christian Healing Cultures 369 C The life work of Hildegard von Bingen is Christian Healing Cultures generally regarded as the high point of cloister medicine. Her nine-volume “Physica” comprises Florian Mildenberger descriptions of the effects of about 500 medicinal Europa University Viadrina, Frankfurt/Oder, plants, foodstuffs, elements, metals, and stones. It Frankfurt/Oder, Germany can be assumed that she had advisors assisting her in writing her books. Bingen describes how herbs C are to be boiled up, smoked, and applied in pow- Related Terms der form. Centuries of experience with monastic and folk medicine are summed up here and Christianity supplemented with therapeutic suggestions. The cloister medicine of the High Middle Ages relied primarily on dietetics as a means of Description preventing illnesses or of rapidly restoring health by intervening to maintain the humoral The rise of Christianity in Late Antiquity until its pathological balance of humors, or body fluids. establishment as state religion of the Roman To this end, various poisons, phytotherapeutic Empire led to a change in the societal status of medicines, or foodstuffs were employed; various professions, including of physicians. their power was supposed to be revealed solely Doctors lost their relatively independent position, to knowing and believing Christians and to be since quotations from the Old and New Testa- effective solely in the latter’s hands. Dosages ments indicated that God the Father and his son varied greatly, depending on the region and the Jesus appeared as physicians and the medical art traditions of ancient writings. To recognize dis- had to subordinate itself to Christian premises eases and prepare the medication therapy, monks (Ex. 32.39; Lk. 5.31; Mk. 2.17). and nuns used the diagnostic method of uroscopy. From the sixth to the twelfth century, cloister Taking the pulse played only a subordinate role medicine was the most important form of profes- (in contrast to Arabic medicine). If the therapeu- sional medical practice. It had already been cod- tic measures taken did not seem to help, the ified in the “Institutiones” of the Benedictine medieval physician shifted to isolating the patient monk Cassiodorus around 560, and in the follow- while continuing comprehensive pastoral care. In ing centuries, other monastic orders and the this way, it was possible to contain leprosy, for increase in the supply of resources (pharmacies, example. monastery gardens, collections of lore) expanded In the course of the High Middle Ages, the it. The Benedictines regarded medicine as part of proponents of cloister medicine lost their domi- lived faith. The initiative to establish and main- nant position in the treatment of disease with the tain medical facilities was the purview of the development of worldly educational institutions, local heads of the Church; there were no defined the greater spread of physicians with private prac- medical curricula and qualifying tests. The med- tices in the flourishing cities, and the develop- ical knowledge of Antiquity was passed down in ment of folk-medicine networks. But, with their the Mediterranean region by Isidor de Sevilla and religiously argued concepts based on the ancient others, and in the following centuries, Irish and doctrine of the humors, all the healing profes- Scottish monks on missionary journeys spread sions had great difficulties treating the plague, this knowledge throughout the Occident, often or Black Death, after 1348. This failure of med- in the form of copies or interpretations of the icine led to intellectual unrest in occidental “Corpus Hippocraticum” and texts from Late society. Antiquity. Research done by Arab physicians In the following centuries, there was a gradual also influenced Western Christian medicine. movement, repeatedly interrupted and influenced C 370 Christian Healing Cultures by reverse tendencies, to break with the founda- Europe. The question of scientific validity did not tions of medieval healing arts. Anatomical inves- arise in this period. After the loss of this position tigations spread in the early modern period, the in the nineteenth century, explicitly, Christian Reformation ended the dominance of cloister doctors have regarded themselves as belonging medicine for good, and the institution of state to conventional medical culture but claim to be control instruments for the supervision of public the sole representatives of special ethical health limited the Church’s influence in the field principles. of medicine. Discoveries in physics, chemistry, anatomy, Religion and geography increasingly made it difficult to The basis for these actors’ work is the Christian explain disease in terms of divine influence. religion. They regard themselves as agents of the There was a final unfolding of Christian healing divine will. cultures in the period of idealism, in which the invocation of the healing vital powers harmo- nized with the idea of a comprehensive system Characteristics of dietetics and an appeal to humoral pathological approaches that integrated the discoveries of the While clergy are primarily concerned with the natural sciences since 1750. The discovery of the welfare of people’s souls in the afterlife or law of the preservation of energy, the develop- beyond, representatives of the healing cultures ment of inorganic chemistry, cell pathology, and are mainly engaged for health in this world. bacteriology, as well as the spread of Charles They thus function both as a marginal organiza- Darwin’s theories lastingly destroyed Christian tion and as a special complex within an increas- healing cultures’ theoretical foundations and ingly secularized Christian world. attempts to explain the behavior of the human organism. In the decades after 1880, Christian physicians reoriented themselves toward issues Relevance to Science and Religion of medical ethics. They thereby adhere to static, unchanging moral principles, for example, plac- The representatives of the healing cultures regard ing the right and duty to live above all secular themselves as an integral component of the Chris- considerations. They can, but need not, have tian world, and they are recognized as such not a rejecting attitude toward Darwin’s theory of only by their hierarchical superiors but also by evolution. This is true also of the clergy who some vehement opponents of Christianity. In appeared as forerunners of modern complemen- missionary regions, they are especially often the tary medicine, for example, the hydrotherapist targets of terrorist attacks. Sebastian Kneipp and the “clay pastor” Emanuel Felke, who combined naturopathy and homeopa- thy. Homeopathy itself entails belief in divine Sources of Authority curing power and can thus be regarded as located on the margins of Christian healing cultures. They derive their authority from two sources: first, their success in treating patients and second, their membership in the clergy of the Churches. Self-identification Science Ethical Principles/Key Values The adherents of Christian healing cultures were for centuries the sole practitioners of natural sci- The fundamental principle of Christian healing entific, medical, and transcendental research in cultures is the orientation toward a Christian Christianity 371 C worldview. This means that one sees oneself as the agent of the divine will and that the only Christianity ethical guidance one accepts is the Bible, divine revelation, and the doctrines of salient Church Lluis Oviedo scholars (for example, popes). Pontifical University Antonianum, Roma, Italy C Description Conceptualization Christianity is, from a historic point of view, The same conditions for action, regulations, and a religion born from the life, preaching, and des- considerations are valid as for all actors of the tiny of Jesus, called “the Christ” by His followers. Christian Churches. The attitude toward death The collected memories about that man gave rise has a special role: adherents of Christian healing to a growing network of communities in the first cultures stand in a dilemma in this regard. On the century A.D., forming what has been designed one hand, they see it as their duty to preserve life; ever as since “the Church.” This institution has on the other hand, reverence for the divine indi- fixed doctrines, codes, and ritual practices that rectly obligates them not to interfere in its work- constitute a tradition going back over 20 centu- ings. Here, individual case decisions dominate, ries, and diversifying into many expressions or for example, in questions of life-extending mea- “denominations.” sures, abortion, and whether to regard brain death Scholars have pointed to a broader sense of as the end of life. Standards on these questions are “Christianity” beyond the institutional bound- not unified in either Protestant or Catholic com- aries of the churches and their creeds and even munities of faith. beyond the limits of organized religion. It reflects rather an “idea” or understanding of reality, based on concepts such as “▶ incarnation” – the conti- nuity between the divine, human, and immanent References reality; “redemption” – the assumption that evil can be overcome through repentance, sacrifice, Deininger, R. (1998). Kultur und Kult in der Medizin. Eine medizinhistorische Betrachtung, Stuttgart: regeneration, and radical love. This is a rather G. Fischer. cultural program that influences our way of Jankrift, K.-P. (2003). Krankheit und Heilkunde seeing human nature, society, and the whole of im Mittelalter. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche reality. Obviously, this second sense of the word Buchgesellschaft. Lauter, W. (Hg.). (1998). Hildgard von Bingen. presupposes a tradition too, even if it feels less Internationale wissenschaftliche Bibliographie. bound to doctrinal constraints or to institutional Mainz: Gesellschaft f€ ur rheinische Kirchengeschichte. duties. Niedermeyer, A. (1953). Compendium der Pastoralmedizin. Concerning developments, it is worthy to take Wien: Maudrich Publishing. Schipperges, H. (1965). Zur Tradition des “christus into account the following: denominalization, medicus” im fr€uhen Christentum und in der €altesten modernization, secularization, and revival. Heilkunde. Arzt und Christ, 11, 11–20. “Denominalization” refers to the steady frag- mentation of Christian churches into ever smaller communities, trying to adapt to social, cultural, and ethnic niches, resulting in an extensive pluralism of expressions. As a result of this frag- Christian Theology mentation process, seen primarily in the Americas, the “internal competition” between ▶ Constructive Theology denominations has increased, dynamizing most C 372 Christianity of the churches in many areas. This competition Characteristics contrasts with religious entities living in a regime of monopoly, such as the state religions of Reflecting about the most distinctive traits of Europe. However, the fragmentation process Christianity, the following can be proposed: the has at the same time brought confusion resulting idea of ▶ incarnation, of redemption, of commu- in too many contrasts, endangering any nity, and of the human. The “incarnated God” is ecumenical attempt or sense of communal perhaps one of the most exclusive doctrines belonging. among developed religions; even if it finds roots “Modernization” can be considered together and similarities in many other religious tradi- with “rationalization” as forms of adaptation to tions, the most far reaching has been this faith: modern times and societies. Christianity – in its stating that God becomes man, and hence the many expressions – has attempted to renew itself divine becomes worldly, breaking the usual assuming formats that try to be more fitting in separation between transcendence and imma- advanced societies. This process has been nence. The idea of a “suffering God” to redeem pioneered by the so-called ▶ “liberal” theology or liberate humankind is also unique. Christianity and churches but is characteristic of many proclaims that God incarnated suffers an atro- denominations struggling to survive in cultural cious death to rescue humans from ▶ evil and environments radically different from those that ▶ death. Even if this is an archetype of the reli- existed in their historical beginning and long gious mind, Christian faith has brought this tradition. Many strategies have been tried. Not motive to its latest consequences. The idea of every attempt has shown equal effectiveness. community or church is intrinsic and distinctive “▶ Secularization” is closely linked with to Christian faith and praxis, which encourages modernization since it refers to both: the process the formation of social units, presided over by the of assimilation of Christian communities to their law of mutual ▶ love, forgiveness, and engage- modern, secular entourage, discharging part of ment. The Christian ▶ anthropology assumes their own “religious burden;” and the negative a particular format, describing human beings as effect of an increasingly secular society that “images of God” fallen into sin and self- erodes the influence of churches and lowers the destructive tendencies but rescued by grace to levels of commitment of their faithful. This live a new life in faith and love. Such development is threatening the continuity of a distinctive anthropology is the base of Christian many Christian entities in Western countries; it view of human dignity, rights, and respect. is indeed the religious tradition most affected by Christianity is clearly distinctive among other such a disruptive tendency. This circumstance religious traditions. This distinction probably has caused many scholars to think that Christian- works in a clearer way with some of them and ity is intrinsically a “secularizing” religion or is less with others. Christianity, for an instance, is worldly driven by its own structure and identity. very close to ▶ Judaism; indeed, it shares a good “Revival” goes against the former tendency. deal of its sacred texts and values; some of its It describes movements that, in a cyclical way, ritual practices have been inspired by Jewish have since the ninetieth century brought ▶ rituals, and the boundaries between both reli- constant impulses of enthusiastic missionary gions sometimes become fuzzy. The distinction engagement, revitalizing entire churches or big is clearly sharper regarding Eastern religions, like sectors of them. Over the last few decades, there Hinduism and ▶ Buddhism; there is often have been several waves of revival, most at a completely different worldview, anthropology, the hands of Evangelicals and Pentecostals, and values system. Often in recent times, the bringing a deep transformation of Christianity in distance has prompted greater interest in these many regions of the world, beyond the local Eastern religions, while at the same time the traditions that have been present for many proximity has sometimes nourished misunder- centuries. standing and hostility. Christianity 373 C Relevance to Science and Religion influence small, even at the level of teaching or formation of leaders. The expectation is that Christianity is one of the religious traditions more a greater awareness of the risks born from ignor- involved in the area of “science and religion.” ing the challenge. The opportunities involved in Just looking at the data of specialized societies this dialogue may prompt a deeper engagement membership, scholarly papers, and books, there is from theologians and pastors to an adequate an overwhelming majority of Christians among Christian message to a cultural environment mas- C the practitioners of that subdiscipline. However, sively influenced by science. some nuances seem pertinent at this point. Not all Christian churches are involved in a similar way in that endeavor, indeed rather a minority of Sources of Authority them. And only some of their theologians have shown interest on this field. Some historical The most important source of authority for all developments need to be recalled. Christian Christian churches is the Bible, which is never- thought was very committed to contemporary theless interpreted in various ways, in a spectrum expressions of reason and science during middle that goes from more fundamentalist to more flex- ages. At some point in the ulterior history, ible forms of understanding the sacred text; these a deepening differentiation began to grow distinctive positions correspond with the identi- between the realms of theology and sciences. ties and styles of different Christian denomina- Even if many scientific developments up until tions. Indeed for those more “Evangelicals,” the modern times were delivered by clergymen and Bible becomes the only authority to be taken into very committed Christians, the growing tendency account. What makes the Bible authoritative is its has been a rising independence between both character of being “revealed” by God, in the sense realms, and even a mutual ignorance and of transmitting God’s will and message for human- discredit. Some Christian branches have been ity; no other text shares this unique characteristic. more interested in scientific progress, especially Other Christian churches stress the value of the liberal ones, while those more orthodox or traditions codified in dogmas or corpus of traditional usually found themselves suspicious doctrines and the authority of the so-called Big about the scientific milieu and progress. Tradition, including the most recognized masters The current situation is heir of the split of the ancient and medieval church; this is more experienced during the last century and reflecting present in some traditional churches, like Catholic, two different mentalities: one more engaging Eastern Orthodox, and, to some extent, the Angli- with their own culture, society, and time; and can Communion. Other sources of authority other marking more its distinction, sometimes depend on the structure and organization of the reacting to contemporary developments, and churches. Every church has its distinctive author- proclaiming the self-sufficiency of faith before ities, like the Pope and councils for Catholics, the the perceived threat of competing ideas or world- bishops for many traditional churches, or pastors views. At the present, some churches stress more in others. Theologians usually keep some author- than others the importance of engaging in ity but almost always only in the academic field. a serious dialogue between faith and reason that Indeed, there is a clear correlation between type of obviously includes the sciences. It happens that authority – more or less centralized – and the unity most revivalist Christian expressions often – if or cohesion of a church. not always – refuse to go into a mutually engag- The question of authority is today closely ing relationship with science. linked to choices about the most effective way to It is not easy to assess the implications that preserve a church’s own identity and to adapt to “science and religion” as a living steady dialogue changing times. Decisions need to be made after have in the real life of Christian churches. Prob- the perceived need to cope with different aims: to ably the reach of this effort is rather short and its keep unity – and to be able to diversify – to be C 374 Christianity faithful to tradition, and to be open to dialogue need to struggle. The value of love has been with contemporary reason. From the tensions already exposed. Probably other values rank between the extremes and the search for balance, high in this tradition as well, like the disposition different strategies and ecclesial forms arise. to ▶ conversion or changing one’s mind and life in the pursuit of ▶ truth and salvation. However, trying to become more concrete and essential, the Ethical Principles highest value for Christians would be to feel God’s presence and love, which explains the The main ethical principle for Christians is the interest and passion of mystics, a special branch commandment of ▶ love. This is however a too of very committed Christians, as a way to better broad stance to become meaningful. Indeed, the express this superior value. Christian idea of love has gone through many discussions and knows a certain degree of plural- ism. Some consensus has been reached resorting Relevant Themes to philological analysis: love expresses at least three different attitudes: renouncement of self for There are several questions that clearly interfere the benefit of others (▶ agape), emotional attrac- in the relationship between Christian faith and tion and engagement (eros), and friendship that science and that need to be taken into account: implies mutuality (philia). Christian love repre- • Cosmological issues, especially concerning the sents some pluralism of expressions, or would try origin of the universe, are important because to keep some balance between these three dimen- creationists are indeed a branch of Christian sions, even if the first one has seemed for an entire fundamentalists, and they are clashing vehe- modern tradition the most pertinent or specific to mently with evolutionists and scientific views Christian identity. In any case, love is proposed in in general, endangering a peaceful dialogue radical terms in the canonical Christian texts and with science. There is nevertheless a main- experiences: as a disposition to sacrifice one’s stream of Christians who take for granted a own life for God and for others or as complete compatibility of the Christian doctrine describ- forgiveness and love even to one’s enemies. ing God as creator and provident, and the sci- entific view of reality. There is furthermore a sometimes diverging way to understand Key Values time, the possibility of God’s action, and the limits of the real, including the limits of sci- The key values of this tradition are in tune with ence. These are points of contention but not of the described ethical principles. However, broad- exclusion preventing a fruitful interaction. ening the presentation, it could be stated that the • Anthropological issues are important because key values are those of ▶ faith, ▶ hope, and few religious traditions are committed to ▶ love. Briefly, faith refers to an attitude of com- a view of human beings exalting their plete trust in God that invites one to follow His dignity, freedom, and spiritual dimension, as will as expressed in His revealed texts; this is Christianity does. Such a view has been ren- a more of a behavioral than a cognitive disposi- dered less plausible after the rise of more tion since faith not only assumes a code of beliefs scientific anthropologies. This poses problems but also a way of living. Hope is born from faith of mutual understanding and criticism since it and expresses a conviction that God will accom- tries to debunk some of the Christian tradi- plish His promises and will deliver His blessing tional insights. Secular humanists have often and will provide a good life to everybody who led the censure against reductive views of follows the Gospel. Hope is lived even if appar- human beings born by scientific develop- ently those without faith or far from divine com- ments; Christians are probably more akin to mandments are better off, while many believers this humanist position. Classical and Quantum Realism 375 C • Social issues are important because the Ratzinger, J. (1969). Introduction to Christianity. London: Christian view of society is tailored after Search Press. Richard Niebuhr, H. (1951). Christ and culture. ideals of “God’s Kingdom” expressing New York: Harper. a growing fraternity, while the models derived Stark, R. (1996). The rise of Christianity: A sociologist from social sciences – especially economics reconsiders history. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univer- and political science – often conflict with the sity Press. Wogaman, J. (1993). Philip, Christian ethics: A historical expected Christian idea of human organiza- introduction. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John C tions and social links, giving rise to divergent Knox Press. paths of social progress. Mainstream Christianity aims at offering a positive contribution for the progress of human- kind; however, sometimes its way to understand Christology what is better for humans contrasts with what other voices deem as better. In the end, a dialogue is ▶ Incarnation necessary that can be built on different models and values, not just on issues of detail. Chronic Pain Cross-References ▶ Pain Medicine ▶ Agape ▶ Anthropology ▶ Buddhism ▶ Christian Healing Cultures Church ▶ Conversion ▶ Death ▶ Ecclesiology ▶ Evil ▶ Religious Education Theory, Roman-Catholic, ▶ Faith Southern Europe ▶ Hope ▶ Incarnation ▶ Judaism ▶ Liberal Theology Circulatory System ▶ Love ▶ Messianic Judaism ▶ Cardiology ▶ Rite ▶ Secularization ▶ Truth Classical and Quantum Realism Jens Hebor References Department of Education, Philosophy and Religious Studies, University of Southern Martin, D. (2011). The future of Christianity: Reflections on violence and democracy, religion and Denmark, Odense, Denmark secularisation. Farnham: Ashgate. McGrath, A. E. (1997). An introduction to Christianity. Oxford: Blackwell. Rahner, K. (1978). Foundations of Christian faith: An Related Terms introduction to the idea of Christianity. London: Darton, Longman and Todd. Classical physics; Quantum physics; Realism C 376 Classical and Quantum Realism Introduction we also tend to demand that this account is under- standable. Conversely, we often say that if Fundamental physics deals with some of the most a theory is not understandable it cannot be general, abstract, and basic concepts in our view accepted as a realistic description of reality. The of the world such as space, time, mass, energy, alternative would be to admit that the human interaction, or causality. The revolutionary mind cannot understand reality – which most changes in fundamental physics have challenged physicists and philosophers would regard as an our usual concepts and view of the world leading admission of a defeat in the scientific enterprise. to a prompt philosophical rethinking of some of Now, these broad concepts of realism and our basic presuppositions in the description intelligibility are actually full of pitfalls, as we of nature or even a fundamental reorientation shall see later. For now we may just record the with regard to our cognitive or ontological posi- fact that the main concerns about quantum tions in relation to the world. The emergence of mechanics are that it is (a) not realistic and/or quantum theory is a paradigmatic example of (b) not intelligible or, in brief, that it does not such revolutionary change. provide a realistic understanding of the quantum- The elementary, nonrelativistic quantum world. mechanics is without any doubt the most widely discussed and controversial theory in modern physics. It is routinely considered to be the empir- Intelligibility and Realism ically most successful theory of twentieth century physics and, at the same time, to be There is no doubt that quantum mechanics is incomprehensible, mystifying, or intrinsically non-intuitive in so far as it is both (a) non- anti-realistic. Its relativistic generalizations in pictorable (non-visualizable) and (b) radically the form of quantum field theories provide contra-intuitive or “strange” in the broader the conceptual framework which is at the basis sense of being very different from everything of the so-called standard model in modern parti- we are accustomed to – both ordinary common cle physics, that is, the fundamental theory of sense experience and classical physics. The diffi- elementary particles and basic forces in the culty, however, is in deciding what exactly to universe. However, quantum field theory inherits make out of this. First, it is difficult to give an all of the strangeness of quantum mechanics and absolute sense to the notion of strangeness adds some of its own. This is why most of the or contra-intuitiveness (b), for things are discussions have been focused on elementary either strange or not strange relative to our quantum mechanics. Here the problems may be expectations – formed from earlier experience – seen clearer and, furthermore, it is often thought or theories, and if we systematically rejected that we have to get a proper understanding of everything which seemed counterintuitive in the elementary quantum mechanics first, before we light of established knowledge, then we would can hope to disentangle the open issues in quan- never discover anything really new (non- tum field theory (Cushing 1988). Euclidean geometries, theories of relativity, the Two of the main issues of quantum mechanics heliocentric world-picture, Darwinian evolution, are the questions about realism and intelligibility, etc.). Intuitiveness in the narrower sense of that is, (a) Can the theory be seen as an objective pictorability (a) appears to be more absolute – at description of an independent physical reality? least if it is released from the vague notions of and (b) Is the theory physically understandable, mental imagery and defined in terms of the that is, does it provide us with an understanding possibility of a comprehensive model in space of the physical world? Certainly these issues are and time – but it is still unclear if this is really connected in the sense that, in so far as we are necessary for intelligibility: Aren’t there a lot of realists about the physical world and want our things which we may claim to understand theories to give a realistic account of the world, but which are not picturable in this sense? Classical and Quantum Realism 377 C And, even so, it is not at all clear why reality up with questions of ontology. When it is said that should conform to this standard. Our ordinary quantum mechanics is intrinsically anti-realistic experience unfolds continuously in space and just because it does not exemplify universal time and so does the world according to classical value-definiteness like classical physics, quan- physics, but it would be a sheer prejudice or tum mechanics is actually measured by the anthropomorphism to suppose that the micro- standards of classical physics, by criteria of world has to conform to such conceptual struc- reality borrowed from the ontological framework C ture. Therefore, we should be aware of uncriti- of classical physics. In this sense, it is actually cally identifying or even defining intelligibility in just a complaint that quantum mechanics is not terms of criteria borrowed from ordinary experi- like classical physics. Gibbins refers to this ence or classical physics. And furthermore, we highly widespread attitude when he says: “Real- should be even more careful of using such ism in the philosophy of quantum mechanics established or accustomed notions of intelligibil- means the idea that quantum systems are really ity as criteria for realism. like classical particles” (Gibbins 1987, p. ix). As for realism, it is important to recognize that In exactly the same way, the arguments that realism is a transitive concept. You cannot just be quantum mechanics is necessarily anti-realistic a realist full stop, that is, a realist about nothing in just because it is intrinsically probabilistic, or particular. The realistic stance is always about just because it contains discontinuities in the something X (which may be God, platonic time-development (measurement collapse), or ideas, the physical world, moral values, or just because it does not give us a spatiotemporal whatever) where X is the ontological content of picture of the quantum world are implicitly using the realism in question. In this sense, the formal criteria of reality which stem from classical phys- scheme for realism is (1) X exists objectively, ical experience and which are at home only in the that is, independently of our minds and knowl- classical physical world-picture or ontology. edge (metaphysical realism) and (2) we have or The same, of course, goes for the general attitude may obtain knowledge of X (epistemological that quantum mechanics must be false or mean- realism). ingless as it is “strange” or “weird” in the broader Actually, standard accounts of the so-called sense that it is contra-intuitive in terms of our scientific realism are variations on this scheme: ordinary experience or classical physics. We are scientific realists in so far as we (1) take We should clearly separate questions about scientific theories as true or false accounts of the realism from questions about ontology, that is, objective world (metaphysical component) and questions about the particular nature and struc- (2) take sufficiently well-confirmed, explanatory, ture of physical reality. Every fundamental successful, etc., scientific theories as true physical theory contains a physical ontology (approximately true, valid in a given domain and very different physical theories may contain or the like) theories of the objective world very different physical ontologies, which may (epistemological component) (Ladyman 2007, involve different conceptions of intelligibility p. 335f; Chakravartty 2007, Chap 1). Such defi- and even different criteria of what counts as nitions are, as they should be, quite neutral with a realistic description. We are not just physical regard to which theories actually are true or realists or not (at least unless one is simply deny- should be accepted as true, that is, they are quite ing the very existence of the physical world), but neutral with regard to what actually the world is realists concerning some particular physical like and what kind of entities and structures our theory(ies) or other and therefore about what best theories are going to introduce in our scien- this theory(ies) says(say) about the world, and tific world-picture. hence about some particular physical ontology. Nonetheless, in the quantum-discussions the As all known physical theories are ascribing concept of realism is handled with much less care states to physical systems, lay down dynamical in so far as questions of realism are often mixed laws for the time-evolution of the states, establish C 378 Classical and Quantum Realism connections between states and observables classical physics of which classical particle and (alias physical quantities), and eventually intro- field theories are just variants, and which sets duce fundamental physical constants, we may say classical physics apart from quantum physics – that full-fledged realism concerning physical and so actually justifies the contrast classical theory T involves something as follows: versus quantum physics. This ontological struc- (R) (a) Realism about the kind of physical ture is such a deep-seated, well-integrated con- systems described by T (i.e., entity- ceptual framework, involving its own criteria of realism) objectivity, completeness, intelligibility, and (b) Realism about the state-descriptions reality, that the acceptance of this conceptual and dynamical laws of T (i.e., physi- framework may be defined as a particular kind cal state-realism and nomic realism) of realism, namely, a realism concerning classi- (c) Realism about observables which are cal ontology or, briefly, classical realism. As this well defined on the state of the physi- ontology is presumably more familiar to most cal system concerned, including the people than is quantum ontology, this entry has values, if any, of such observables been presented very briefly (for details cf. (Hebor (realism about observables or 2005, Chap. 3)). It could be formally described by quantities means of the following: (d) Realism about any fundamental con- stants figuring in T (universal Basic Classical Ontological Structure constant realism) (1) Classical state-observable structure: In this sense, physical realism may be said to (a) Every state S of a classical physical sys- be realism concerning a particular physical tem is a real function of (in principle) observ- ontology, namely, the ontological structure able physical quantities (called state obtained by concretely completing items (a–d) variables or observables) os and is for a particular physical theory or set of theories. represented by real numbers: Sðos1 ; :::; osn Þ; In terms of such a scheme one may be a realist (b) The state Sðos1 ; :::; osn Þ uniquely deter- about different physical theories and so about mines the value of every other observable quite different physical ontologies. No particular os 2 = fos gpertaining to the system in state S, physical theory or associated physical ontology so actually (the values of) all observables o can be said to define what physical realism is. pertaining to a system are functions of the small set of state observables oðos Þ. (2) Value-definiteness: Every observable in Classical Realism classical physics has (at all times) a definite value, namely a real number, for every phys- Classical physics is fundamentally classical ical system for which it is defined at all. mechanics and classical field theory which, of (3) Space-time character of observables: Classi- course, are quite different theories associated cal observables are defined in space-time, with different physical ontologies, namely, that is, every observable ok is a function that a classical particle ontology and a classical field essentially includes space and time in its ontology. If classical particles or classical elec- domain of definition: ok ¼ f(a, b, . . ., r, t), tromagnetic fields are put under items (a), (b), where a, b, . . . may be other physical etc., in the scheme (R), realisms will be obtained quantities, themselves being observables, r a for the different ontologies of classical particle position vector, and t time. mechanics and classical electromagnetism (4) Non-quantum postulate (continuity): The (Hebor 2005, p. 39). Nonetheless, and this being state observables os and hence the states are the important point here, there is an underlying continuous functions of time, and classical ontological deep structure common to all of physics allows continuity of fundamental Classical and Quantum Realism 379 C physical interactions, that is, there is no limit Consequences for Classical Physical to the gradually turning off an interaction: for Epistemology any positive e the physical action (Energy  (8) Classical description: Observed and Time or Momentum  Length) may be less unobserved systems are described in exactly than e. the same way. That is (a) observed systems are Comment: This excludes any Planck-like con- (ideally) described as if they were unobserved stant like h. and (b) unobserved systems are described as if C (5) Classical non-superposition of states: (a) At continually observed. In brief: observation or any time t a classical system is in a definite measurement does not figure at all as an essen- state (by (1) and (2)); (b) no state S is tial (non-eliminable) factor in theoretical a superposition of states S1 and S2 such that description. This means more particularly any observable oS belonging to S is not sim- (a) No measurement problem: Any measure- ply a function oS ¼ f ðoS1 ; oS2 Þ of observables ment-interaction is continuous and may belonging to S1 and S2 and hence value- be neglected or controlled so that the definite. observed system may be described as if (6) Separability: Any classical state for the measurement-interaction actually a composite system is separable, that is, it was nil (Ideal of detached observer). may at any time t be thought of as composed (b) Visualizability: Unobserved systems are of independently existing, spatially coordi- described as if they were subjected to nated, physically well-defined sub-states optimal, idealized observation (a God’s pertaining to (a) the constituent subsystems eye-view of the world). and hence (by (3)) to (b) every spatial domain Comment: (8b) should not be understood in the or location of the composite system in sense of mental imagery (mental images of four- question. dimensional curved space-time or even dr/dt Comment: Note that this does not mention inter- cannot be formed in classical physics) but rather actions between physical (sub)systems and so is in the sense of a comprehensive, continuous not a locality principle. Principles of general geometrical picture in space and time. In this locality (no actions-at-a-distance) or relativistic sense (a) classical states are visualizable in as locality (no super-luminal interactions) hold in much as systems and observables are embedded both classical and quantum physics. However, in a comprehensive spatial model and (b) classi- separability means that any correlations between cal processes are visualizable in the sense that observables pertaining to distant systems have to any time-evolution is seen as a continuous be by way of present causal interactions or com- sequence of states in time. mon causes. Comment: In this regard, classical physics is in (7) Classical determinism: The specification of fact much more tied to observational categories state at any time t0 uniquely determines than is quantum mechanics. As classical states (by way of dynamical laws which may be are functions of value-definite observables the represented as differential equations: world is actually described as if continuously Hamilton’s equations, Maxwell’s equations, observed by an omnipresent, detached observer. etc.) the state of the system at any other time (9) Classical completeness: A complete descrip- t (for an isolated system). Any lack of knowl- tion of the state of a physical system must by edge of future states (predictability) is purely way of the state-observables (implicitly) epistemic, not ontological, and this also goes specify the values of all observables for the so-called chaotic systems. pertaining to the system. Comment: By (1) this means that all observables Comment: Any lack of value-definiteness in the for the system at t are determined by the state description is, thus, a sure sign of the incomplete- at t0. ness of the description. C 380 Classical and Quantum Realism (10) Classical objectivity: A physical description product H (state space, Hilbert space). D of a physical system S is objective in so (b) Observables (dynamical physical quanti- far as D represents S as it is in itself, that is, ties) A, B, . . . are represented by generally the nature and state of S as it is or would be non-commuting linear self-adjoint operators independent of the description D, including ^ B, A, ^ . . . acting on vectors in H, each defining any experiments or measurements that may a spectrum of definite eigenvalues {a1, a2,. . .}, underlie D. {b1, b2, . . .} and an associated set of eigenvec- (11) Classical realism: Physical systems (a) exist tors {jai i}, {jbi i}. . . satisfying eigenvalue objectively, that is, independently of any equations A^jai i ¼ ai jai i, B^jbi i ¼ bi jbi i. . ., (physical) description and of any conscious- such that each set of eigenvectors {jai i}, ness, and (b) they always exist objectively {jbi i}. . . provides complete, though (gener- in definite classical states and hence also (c) ally) different, eigenbases for the state space, are objectively characterized by definite that is, every state vector in H may be values for every observable pertaining to expressed as linear combinations of state the system. Furthermore, (d) universal vectors for the various operators jci ¼ P P constants, if any (like c in relativity), are han j cijan i ¼ hbn j cijbn i ¼ ::: ¼ the integral parts of the state-description and so n n have objective existence. same state vector in different representations. Comment: These are just (a–d) in the general Comment: For convenience (1) considers only the scheme (R). It should be clear that the traits discrete case. For operators with continuous specific to classical physics are contained in eigenvalue spectra the sums must be replaced items (b) and (c), that is, the classical structure by integrals. The fact that jci represents individ- for states and observables, namely, (1) and ual systems is what separates quantum realism (2) above. from statistical ensemble interpretations, and This classical realism (11) with its associated that it does so completely is what separates it ontology (1–6) and epistemology (7–10) is from hidden variables theories (see below). It largely a quantitative refinement and extension should further be noticed that neither the abstract of our ordinary empirical common sense with state vectors nor the operators by themselves regard to our macroscopic environment. Hence, provide any physical information. The state- this kind of conceptual structure seems to be observable structure of quantum mechanics is deeply ingrained in our instinctive way of an integrated vector-operator structure. seeing the physical world. Quantum mechanics, (2) Value-indefiniteness: In a quantum state jci, however, presents quite another conceptual struc- there are generally no definite values for any ture if seen as a realist description of physical of the physical observables, the exception reality. being when jci is an eigenstate for observ- ^ Furthermore there able A (eigenvector for A). are never definite values for all observables Quantum Realism pertaining to the systems in question, there being no common eigenbases for non- commuting operators, A^B^  B^A^ ¼ iC, ^ so Quantum realism could be formally described by means of the following: that jci being an eigenstate for A^ entails jcigenerally not being an eigenstate for B^ Basic Quantum Ontological Structure but rather a superposition of such states P (1) Nonclassical state-observable structure: (a) jc i ¼ hbn j cijbn i, and vice versa. For Every (pure) state of an individual quantum canonically conjugate observables like posi- system is completely represented by tion and momentum there are no common a normalized vector (state vector) jci in eigenstates at all, the commutator being a complex, linear vector space with inner Q^P^  P^Q^ ¼ ih and resulting in the famous Classical and Quantum Realism 381 C P P Heisenberg relations Dqi Dpi   h=2. What Thus, jci ¼ hqn j cijqn i¼ hpn j ci n n the vector-operator structure does allow, jpn i ¼ . . . ; which means that jci at the however, are definite values when jci is an ^ A^jai i ¼ ai jai i, specification same time may be in a superposition of posi- eigenstate of A, tion eigenstates jqi i and momentum of the possible values for observable ^ eigenstates jpi i with neither position nor A (spectrum of eigenvalues for A), momentum definite. C probabilities for getting result ai in Comment: The superposition principle in itself a measurement of A on a system in state entails value-indefiniteness, and in contrast to jci, Pðai jjciÞ ¼ jhai j cij2 (Born-rule) and some interpretations of the Heisenberg-relations, expectation values h Ai ¼ hcjA^jci. it is clear that this kind of value-indefiniteness is Comment: The universality of definite values in not a result of measurement-disturbances. The classical physics is, thus, replaced by largely value-indefiniteness here is ontological – the sys- probabilistic magnitudes. It is, however, crucial tem simply has not definite values for position that the theory does provide non-probabilistic and momentum – if you accept the reality of information by way of eigenvalue spectra and quantum states. Such superpositions cannot be actual eigenvalues too. Any statistical test of described in classical language and it is important expectation values and transition probabilities to be aware of attempts to do so in popular and has to be done in terms of actual and not just semi-popular expositions. possible values for observables. Hence, the (6) Non-separability or entanglement: Quantum importance of the measurement collapse into states for composite systems which have eigenstates for the measured observable. interacted in the past generally are not sepa- (3) Non-space-time character of observables: rable, that is (for a two-particle system), the Corresponding to the general value- state for the composite system jCi12 cannot indefiniteness, quantum operators are defined be expressed asEa product of single-particle on state-space and not physical space-time. states, jci i1 cj , but instead has to be (4) Quantum postulate (discontinuity): Quantum 2 expressed as a sum (integral) P E such over mechanics is based on the fundamental product-states:jCi12 ¼ aij jci i1 cj . In constant  h with the dimension of action ij such entangled or non-separable 2 states (Energy  Time ¼ Momentum  Length). (a) there is a well-defined quantum state for The finite value of h entails a fundamental the whole system but individual states for the discontinuity in all quantum interactions component systems are not defined at all, (even though eventually hidden by the super- which (b) shows itself in the fact that there position principle as in quantum entangle- are correlations between the results of ment, see below). the possible measurements on the two Comment: The discontinuity does not show up in particles – correlations which are quite inde- the continuous time-development of the pendent of the distance. Schro¨dinger equation for an isolated system, but Comment: It is worth noticing that non- reveals itself with a vengeance in the measure- separability is just a consequence of the superpo- ment collapse. sition principle for many-particle systems in that (5) Quantum superposition of states: It follows the entangled states are simply superpositions of from the very vector structure of quantum different product-states for the component sys- mechanics that a (normalized) linear combi- tems involved. The existence of non-separable nation of two different states is a new state two-particle states lay at the root of the original (superposition principle), and it follows from version of the EPR-paradox (Einstein et al. 1935) the completeness of eigenbases that any state and has, in general, been a subject of extensive may be expanded as a linear combination discussions on the foundations and interpretation of any operator from the same state space. of quantum mechanics. The simple example C 382 Classical and Quantum Realism 1 of the spin-½ singlet state jCi12 ¼ 2 =2 indeterministic feature in so far as for non-   jþi1 ji2  ji1 jþi2 shows the essential fea- eigenstates the theory only gives probabili- tures. Regardless of the distance between the ties for different results within the spectrum two particles and regardless of the spin direction of possible results (the Born-rule). chosen to measure, opposite values are always to Comment: Whether this is of any relevance for be obtained (perfect anti-correlation) as long as human freedom is at best unclear. It is not clear the measurement is done along the same direction that the human brain operates by measurement- on both particles. And if different measurement- like collapses on quantum-level, and beyond that directions are chosen for the two particles, stron- it is not clear that human freedom can be identi- ger correlations may be obtained than that is fied with pure chance. possible if the particles were in separable states, which is the content of Bell’s inequality (Bell Consequences for Quantum Physical 1964; Auletta 2000, Chap. 34f.). The existence Epistemology of such strong quantum-correlations has since (8) Quantum description: Unobserved systems been amply confirmed experimentally, but this are represented by abstract state vectors, and result unfortunately is often summed up in the state vectors are not observables. Observed statement that local realistic theories are ruled systems are described by the result of opera- out – that is, if realism is maintained the correla- tors acting on state vectors. Definite values tions can be accounted for only by introducing for observables are generally obtained at the non-local (superluminal) interactions between cost of non-eliminable interactions with the the particles – and that quantum mechanics is system, resulting in discontinuous collapse of nonrealistic. Actually Bell’s theorem follows the state vector. This leads more particularly from the twin assumptions of separability and to the following: locality so what is called “realism” here is not (a) Measurement problem: The question of realism but the separability assumption in classi- what is necessary and sufficient for cal physics (Hebor 2005, Chap. 5). This is a clear collapse, and where the boundary between instance of the fallacy of confusing physical real- quantum superpositions and the definite- ism with the specific assumptions in classical ness of macroscopic bodies is, is an ontology, that is, with classical realism. Further, unsolved problem (Auletta, pt. IV). It is non-separability should not be confused with sometimes inferred from this that we non-locality, for in as much as the component should deny the existence of state-collapse systems have no individual states it has no sense and try to apply the superposition princi- to speak of interactions between the systems. ple even to macroscopic bodies (Non- Beyond this it can be proved that non-separability collapse theories, see below). Another cannot be used for any kind of superluminal com- response, however, is to say that the munication (Auletta 2000, p. 633f.). domain of the superposition principle is (7) Quantum determinism and indeterminism: what is at present not known and thus, The time-development of state vectors for something to be investigated rather than isolated systems, the so-called unitary time- just replacing the lack of knowledge by evolution as given by the time-dependent extrapolations (Primas 1983; Hebor 2005, Schro¨dinger equation, H^jci ¼ ih @@t j ci , is Chap. 6). as deterministic as any classical dynamical (b) Non-visualizability: The description of law (being given by a first-order differential unobserved systems by state vectors equation). The state vector, however, gener- means that the quantum world is radically ally does not contain values for the observ- non-visualizable. From a quantum realist ables (and never for all, cf. (2)), and obtaining point of view, however, jci has to be these by measurement introduces the regarded as a symbolic (not picturable) Classical and Quantum Realism 383 C representation of the intrinsically are theoretically, not just practically, non- non-visualizable quantum state but, notice, eliminable when we are investigating a physical still a representation of something real. system. Taking the theory seriously, thus, means to (9) Quantum completeness: A complete descrip- accept the interactions as part and parcel of the tion of the state of a quantum system S means phenomena to be investigated and integrated in that the state is represented by a non- the very description of the phenomena. So objec- degenerate state vector, that is, when there tivity here rather means including, not excluding, C is only one state vector corresponding to any the interactions in the description (Bohr 1949). In possible eigenvalue resulting from measure- this sense, quantum mechanics may be seen as ment on S. Or more formally, jci is complete a theory of interactions rather than as a theory of if jci is defined in a state space spanned independent, interaction-free substances. by eigenvectors of a maximal  set of (11) Quantum realism: Physical systems (a) exist commuting operators M ¼ A; ^ B; ^ C;^ ::: objectively, that is, independently of any Max corresponding to observables defined for S, (physical) description and of any conscious- maximality of M just meaning that the addi- ness, and (b) they always exist objectively tion of any single operator to M results in in definite quantum states (exception: sub- a non-commuting set of operators. systems in entangled states, but pure states Comment: Equivalent to this is the statement that exist for the whole system). Therefore, all observables are fully represented by self- (c) definite values never exist for all observ- adjoint operators. The hidden variables of hidden ables but at best for a set of observables variable theories (see below), on the other hand, corresponding to a maximal set of commut- are exactly physical variables which are not ing operators. (d) h lays at the basis of the represented by self-adjoint operators so that the whole conceptual structure and so the quan- state vector is not seen as a complete representa- tum of action has objective existence. tion of the physical state in hidden variables Comment: This again is a concrete implementa- theories (Bohm and Hiley 1993; Auletta 2000 tion of scheme (R) but of course in terms of quite Chap. 32). So the quantum realist assertion of another physical ontology than is classical real- the essential completeness of quantum mechanics ism. The specific features again are contained in is the denial of hidden variables, not the statement items (b) and (c) corresponding to the radical that physics is completed. nonclassical state-observable structure in quan- (10) Quantum objectivity: In quantum physics, tum mechanics, namely, (1) and (2) above. no interaction-free observation or description (by way of at least preparation) is possible according to the very nature of the theory. An Outlook and Alternatives objective description accordingly includes the interaction of the system with all other Of course, it might be tempting to try avoiding systems in so far as these systems are part of this kind of quantum realism. However, there is the quantum-description (by way of entan- no easy way out if one wants to be true to what the glement) and with the whole measurement experiments say. setup: contextuality of quantum measure- It might be tempting to try denying that quan- ment (Bohr 1949). This holds for the descrip- tum mechanics deals with individual systems tion of states and for the measurement of and opt for a statistical ensemble theory. Then, observables, respectively. of course, the strange features like value- Comment: This is again very different from what indefiniteness, superposition, and entanglement objectivity means in classical physics. From are just properties of ensembles and not the indi- a quantum realist perspective, however, the physi- vidual systems. But this does not account for the cal world is governed by  h (cf. (4)) and interactions 2-slit experiment and other experiments which C 384 Classical and Quantum Realism may be made on individual systems (at a time). In emergence of definite values in the classical general, ensemble theories are either quite unclear domain (Schlosshauer 2007) and the attempt to with regard to the individual systems, or they have simply accept the unrestricted superposition prin- to say that there are differences between individual ciple for macroscopic bodies, including ourselves systems in the same quantum state and in that case, and our measurement devices, as in the different they just degenerate to hidden variable theories variants of the Many-world theories are certainly without explicit specification of the hidden vari- not less bizarre than is standard quantum mechan- ables (Home and Whitaker 1992). ics. (For the many faces of Many-worlds cf. It might be tempting to try denying that quan- (Barrett 1999), and for some of the technical tum mechanics gives a complete description of problems cf. (Jaeger 2009, p. 139f)). the individual systems and so opt for the exis- Then of course, realism may itself be given up, tence of hidden variables, that is, variables not but this seems just to give up trying to understand represented by operators and so not part of the the physical world at all. In short, it is difficult not quantum description of states. There are, to admit that the micro-world has very strange however, several no-go theorems severely features from a human perspective. constraining the nature of such hidden variables, As for connections to religion there have showing that they have to be both nonlocal certainly been attempts to solve the quantum (allowing superluminal causal interactions) and perplexities by introducing God and divine inter- contextual (values of different observables not vention (Baggott 2004, p. 257f.), but most people being independent of each other). Hence, the would see this as a clear instance of obscurum per advertised intelligibility typically disappears on obscurium, and the same goes for the several closer inspection (Auletta 2000, Chap. 32; Cush- attempts of invoking eastern wisdom here ing et al. 1995). The most popular variant, (Stenger 1995, Chap. 1). A more promising link Bohmian mechanics, may look plausible as long might be to see the micro-world as a great as the focus is on the nice drawings of continuous “other,” trying to tell us something very impor- particle tracks (Bohm and Hiley 1993, pp. 33, 53, tant and strange about the world and our place in 76), but such particle tracks are brought in at the it – in a nonpictorial language that we must strug- expense of a multidimensional, nonlocal “guid- gle to understand. ing field” which has all the features of a pure ghost field. It carries no energy, has no sources, but nonetheless instantaneously and distance- References independently guides the particles without being acted on by the particles, and it is only defined in Auletta, G. (2000). Foundations and interpretation of quantum mechanics. Singapore: World Scientific. an N-dimensional configuration space (N >> 3). Baggott, J. (2004). Beyond measure: Modern physics, Nevertheless, it has to be assumed real if the philosophy, and the meaning of quantum theory Bohmian theory is to be understood at all realis- (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. tically (Holland 1993, pp. 278–279). If a realist Barrett, J. (1999). The quantum mechanics of minds and worlds. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. understanding of the guiding field is given up, Bell, J. S. (1964). On the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen para- a realist understanding of Bohm’s theory is dox, Chap. 2. In J. S. Bell (Ed.), Speakable and given up – and if so, why bother with the hidden unspeakable in quantum mechanics. Cambridge: Cam- variables? bridge University Press, 1989. Bohm, D., & Hiley, B. (1993). The undivided universe. It might be tempting to try giving up the London: Routledge. assumption of measurement collapse and so to Bohr, N. (1949). Discussion with Einstein on epistemolog- try applying standard quantum mechanics to ical problems in atomic physics. In Schilpp, P. (ed.), macroscopic bodies and measurement devices Albert Einstein: Philosopher-scientist (pp. 199–241). La Salle (711): Cambridge University Press. (so-called Non-collapse theories). However, the Chakravartty, A. (2007). A metaphysics for scientific real- so-called Decoherence theories actually do not ism: Knowing the unobservable. Cambridge: solve the problem of accounting for the Cambridge University Press. Classics 385 C Cushing, J. (1988). Foundational problems in and meth- odological lessons from quantum field theory, Chap. 2. Classical Studies In H. Brown & R. Harre´ (Eds.), Philosophical founda- tions of quantum field theory. Oxford: Clarendon. Cushing, J. (1994). Quantum mechanics. Historical con- ▶ Classics tingency and the Copenhagen hegemony. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Cushing, J., Fine, A., & Goldstein, S. (Eds.). (1995). Bohmian mechanics and quantum theory. Dordrecht: C Kluwer. Classics Einstein, A., Podolsky, B., & Rosen, N. (1935). Can quantum-mechanical description of physical reality Deborah Vause be considered complete? Physical Review, 47, 777–780. Department of English and Humanities, York Gibbins, P. (1987). Particles and paradoxes. Cambridge/ College of Pennsylvania, York, PA, USA New York: Cambridge University Press. Hebor, J. (2005). The standard conception as genuine quantum realism. Odense: University Press of South- ern Denmark. Related Terms Holland, P. (1993). The quantum theory of motion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Classical philology; Classical studies Home, D., & Whitaker, A. (1992). Ensemble interpreta- tions of quantum mechanics: A modern perspective. Physics Reports, 210, 223–317. Jaeger, G. (2009). Entanglement, information, and Description the interpretation of quantum mechanics. Berlin/ Heidelberg: Springer. In contemporary academia, Classics is an Ladyman, J. (2007). Ontological, epistemological, and methodological positions. In T. Kuipers (Ed.), Philoso- umbrella term that refers to an interdisciplinary phy of science: Focal issues, handbook of the philosophy field of study, unified by its focus on the world of of science (pp. 303–376). Amsterdam: Elsevier. ancient Greece and Rome from prehistory to late Primas, H. (1983). Chemistry, quantum mechanics and antiquity. And because the Greco-Roman culture reductionism. Berlin/New York: Springer. Schlosshauer, M. (2007). Decoherence and the quantum- had such a far-reaching sphere of influence to-classical transition. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer. through trade and conquest, study of any of the Stenger, V. (1995). The unconscious quantum. Amherst: early Mediterranean civilizations, such as that of Prometheus Books. Persia, Egypt, Israel, and so on, might also be considered as fitting under the Classics umbrella. Within this broad field, a wide range of disci- plines intersect: anthropology, history, archaeol- Classical Mechanics ogy, philology, literature, art, linguistics, and many others. Each discipline employs its own methodol- ▶ Mechanics ogy and perspective even though the evidence being studied from one discipline to another remains the same – artifacts such as manuscripts, Classical Philology inscriptions, works of art, architecture, and other material remains of these ancient cultures. Suc- ▶ Classics cessful scholarship in the field almost always requires knowledge of ancient languages and liter- atures, particularly classical Greek and Latin. Study of the Classics has long been Classical Physics intertwined with the concept of education in the Western tradition and so has been seen as study- ▶ Classical and Quantum Realism ing the origins of Western culture. In fact, it could ▶ Energy in Physics be considered the oldest of the academic C 386 Classics disciplines, being the forerunner of the modern include the study of objects of art, politics, reli- ▶ Humanities. The concept of the Classics began gion, archaeology, and myriad other facets of with the ancient Greeks and Romans themselves, classical civilization. who educated their future citizens by having stu- The etymology of the term Classics explains dents imitate great works of literature. This prac- why this field of study has been so valued in the tice was intended to teach rhetoric, grammar, past as well as why its influence appears to be ethics, aesthetics, and the best elements of culture currently declining. In its original usage, classic from one generation to the next. Classical scholars indicated socioeconomic status. The classici were began compiling lists of the works worthy of being the ancient Romans in the top socioeconomic clas- imitated and discussing criteria for the assessment ses, the opposite of the proletarii, who were in the of such works. Although such lists varied from one lowest. Then, in the second century C.E., the individual to another, the practice developed into Roman author Aulus Gellius applied the judgment the concept of the canon, the “standard” works of of classic to literature, distinguishing a scriptor literature, history, and philosophy identified as classicus, a writer of high quality, from a scriptor being those with which any educated person proletarius, or a writer of common quality (Sandys would be familiar. Even though the individual 1988, p. 200). For Gellius, the determining feature works identified as canonical changed, belief in of a scriptor classicus was that it provided a model the value of a classical canon to provide an educa- worthy of being followed, and his terminology tional foundation persisted. implied a connection to the highest level of socio- This concept of the classical canon influenced economic status. Studying the canon, studying the Western European education for centuries, long “best” works, was a practice of the upper class, and after the time when the classical languages of the judgment of the works included in the canon, Latin and Greek ceased common usage. In the the “best” works to study, arose from the values of Middle Ages, a formal education began when the upper class. children first learned Latin through the imitation And to identify something as a classic today of selected classical works of literature, history, still attaches the connotation of having a valued and philosophy. Then, institutions of higher social status. In the postmodern, international learning used a Christianized canon to teach rhe- world of the early twenty-first century, such toric, grammar, and logic, the foundation neces- value is increasingly questioned rather than sary for any advanced study. With the spread of merely accepted as it was in previous genera- humanism during the Renaissance, knowledge of tions. Thus study of the Classics is increasingly classical texts expanded beyond medieval becoming marginalized. Classical Latin and Christian boundaries, and application of classical Greek are no longer widely taught in public concepts appeared in everyday life, including school systems. The once-mandatory classical education. So classical authors and their concepts canon has been replaced with canons reflecting of a literary canon shaped the educational prac- the modern nationalism of individual countries. tices of the European Renaissance. Study of the Classicists today face the challenge of justifying classical canon of texts, along with the classical the value of their work in the modern world, an Latin and Greek languages, remained the foun- ironic situation at a time when new technologies dation of Western European education until the and archaeological discoveries are exponentially rise of the modern university system. increasing their knowledge of the ancient world. By the nineteenth century, the new discoveries and the development of new methodologies that accompanied the creation of modern academic Self-Identification disciplines had remodeled the Western tradition of education. It had also expanded the definition Science of the field of Classics beyond studying classical The Classics is defined by subject matter and languages and a specific canon of literature to purpose of understanding classical Greek and Classics 387 C Roman civilization. It is possible, though, for an science and religion. In addition, study of the individual topic being researched with the empir- Classics reveals the differences between the ical methodology of a science to fall within the perspectives of the ancient and modern worlds. Classics paradigm if the subject matter and pur- The basic conceptual category of “science” as it pose of the research are appropriate. is understood in modern times was not used in the classical era, even though many of the Religion subject areas and methodologies now consid- C Religion may be a discipline of study contained ered to belong to “science” were being devel- within the Classics paradigm. Understanding oped and explored during that time. Perception the various religious practices and beliefs of of the conceptual divide between the ancient the classical era helps Classics scholars under- and modern worlds allows an intellectual dis- stand the literary and philosophical texts of that tancing from modern assumptions and so time. In addition, scholars interested in the mod- encourages a critical examination of modern ern discipline of religion frequently find knowl- understanding. edge of the Classics essential because that era shaped the development of the world’s major religions – Islam, Judaism, and Christianity – Sources of Authority as well as some of the less widely practiced religions. The most authoritative source in the study of the Classics is primary source material. Because such a vast period of time exists between the Characteristics modern and the classical world, scholars must rely first on the only objective information avail- Study of the modern Classics is distinct among able, primary source material, rather than relying other disciplines because its existence relies on on prior interpretations of that information to the interaction between a variety of disciplines in build knowledge. order to understand the ancient civilizations of Another type of authoritative source is found Greece and Rome. Its focus on understanding the in the classical canon; the selection of Greek and past is similar to several other individual disci- Latin works judged to possess the most merit and plines. History concerns itself with cause and so considered to have been influential in shaping effect as it attempts to reconstruct the order of Western culture. The fact that the canon is human events. Anthropology studies the beliefs, primary source material selected to reflect a practices, and cultures of living human beings particular set of values can make it problematic while archaeology studies human culture by to use in understanding the classical world examining the material remains of human beings. because every era has identified its own canon. Philology is the study of language and literature. Careful attention must be given to who has made The Classics relies on all of these disciplines as it the judgments about the works included. For focuses on creating as complete an understanding example, relying on fifteenth century selections as possible of the culture of a specific time period to understand life in first century Rome must be and geographic location. suspect. And yet if the canonical decisions being examined were made in the first century, then they reflect significant insights into the values of Relevance to Science and Religion that time. The canon is usually more relevant to understanding recent eras than classical ones Study of the Classics is relevant to “Science and because it gives insights into how a particular Religion” because it reveals the philosophical time period interpreted the classical authors and/or historical foundation for contemporary and objects of art judged to be worthy of study Western concepts and practices in both in that time. C 388 Cleverness Ethical Principles perspective. So identifying a single definition for each term is not possible. The ethical principle guiding study in the Classics is remaining as true as possible to the primary source material. Knowledge of a broad range of Relevant Themes source material – archaeological evidence, objects of art, literary/philosophical/historical texts – is No other issues/themes/concepts are critical to essential as well to ensure understanding the a discussion of Science and Religion. source within the context of its own time period. This also necessitates knowledge of a range of interacting disciplines and methodologies, such Cross-References as literature with skills in textual analysis, philol- ogy with skills in translation, philosophy with ▶ Christianity knowledge of philosophical argument, archaeol- ▶ Humanities ogy with the use of statistics, and so on. ▶ Monism ▶ Monotheism ▶ Religion, History of Key Values ▶ Soul Study of the Classics demands respect for the culture of classical Greece and Rome, as well as References the belief that this culture is relevant to present and future civilization. This relevance might Calder, W. M., & Kramer, D. J. (1992). An introductory bibliography to the history of classical scholarship come from the direct influence and/or knowledge chiefly in the XIXth and XXth centuries. Hildesheim: of classical traditions and values in the present Olms. culture or it might come from the interaction of Pfeiffer, R. (1968). History of classical scholarship from previous historical eras with the classical culture. the beginnings to the end of the Hellenistic Age. Clarendon Press: Oxford. Reissued 1998. In addition, Classics scholars work directly with Pfeiffer, R. (1976). History of classical scholarship from primary materials from the classical era, so direct 1300 to 1850. Oxford: Clarendon. Reissued 1999. knowledge of the ancient languages and cultures Platnauer, M. (1968). Fifty years (& twelve) of classical is important. New discoveries are regular, and so scholarship. New York: Barnes & Noble. Sandys, J. E. (1988). A history of classical scholarship. the field is constantly growing. Finally, because Bristol: Thoemmes Press. the Classics is an interdisciplinary field, the con- The Classical Association (2011). http://www. stant interaction between disciplines requires classicalassociation.org/ openness and responsiveness to a variety of Von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, U. (1982). History of classical scholarship. London: Duckworth. methodologies and conclusions of a range of perspectives. Conceptualization Cleverness Because the Classics exists at the intersection of a ▶ Intelligence variety of disciplines, defining these terms depends on the individual perspective being applied at any specific time. For example, in one context, a term might carry the meaning used Clinical Genetics during the classical era, while in another context, the term might carry a modern disciplinary ▶ Medical Genetics Clinical Neurophysiology 389 C magnetic counterpart of the EEG called magne- Clinical Health Psychology toencephalography (MEG). Particularly in Scandinavian countries (but now ▶ Behavioral Medicine and Health Psychology also in UK, Italy, Spain, and many other countries) CN progressively became a discipline of its own, being treated as a separate entity from Neurology even if in several countries it is still regarded as C Clinical Microbiology part of neurological specialty (i.e., Germany). Modern EEG aims at clinical evaluation of ▶ Medical Microbiology epileptic syndromes, sleep disturbances, comatous states (with the impelling discrimina- tion between a “brain death” and “brain vegeta- tive” conditions, a prerequisite for organs Clinical Neurophysiology donation); MEG is mainly employed in neurosci- entific research and in presurgical localization of Paolo M. Rossini high-risk brain centers (i.e., language) for drug- Catholic University, Policlinic A. Gemelli, resistant epilepsy undergoing neurosurgical pro- Rome, Italy cedures; EMG and ENG help in diagnosing peripheral nerves and muscles disease, while TMS helps in evaluating brain excitability and Description corticospinal fibers conductivity in multiple scle- rosis and spinal cord diseases, as well as in fol- Today clinical neurophysiology (CN) is mainly lowing up brain plastic reorganization following devoted to diagnosis and objective measures for a traumatic or vascular (i.e., stroke) lesion. the clinical syndromes caused by diseases affect- ing the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves (electroneurography, ENG), and skeletal muscles Self-Identification (electromyography, EMG). History of modern CN is usually dated back to the discovery of the Science electroencephalogram (EEG) and its clinical CN has followed the track of basic research in applications by the German scientist Hans Berger neurophysiology as a natural science. It sees itself (1873–1941) between 1920 and 1930. Immedi- as a scientific instrument to enhance knowledge ately before and after World War II, neurophys- about the pathophysiology of the human ▶ ner- iological techniques devoted to the study of vous system and the related musculature. In muscle fibers and peripheral nerves by Lord a clinical context, it has been progressively used Adrian in UK and Fritz Buchtal in Denmark as an extension and refinement of the neurologi- enlarged the scenario of modern clinical neuro- cal examination, being able to provide objective physiology. More recently (from mid-1970s), measurements as well as to unveil abnormalities techniques able to capture selective brain and in a preclinical state (i.e., before a neurological spinal cord signals in response to specific stimuli, disease is provoking symptoms). Correlations as well as able to identify brain responses to between electrophysiological abnormalities and cognitive tasks were acquired under the heading structural damage were developed in decades of stimulus-related and event-related evoked following the introduction of computerized potentials. Since the 1980s, techniques for non- tomography and of magnetic resonance imaging invasive electric and magnetic transcranial brain of the brain allowing to test in vivo the presence, stimulation have been introduced. During the nature, and extension of the lesion. same year, Sam Williamson & Collaborators In line with neurology, CN applies the scien- introduced modern sensors to capture the tific methods of the natural sciences for clinical C 390 Clinical Neurophysiology and basic research as well as for diagnostic pro- connected with the damaged area, even if they cedures. For instance, CN definitely established are structurally healthy. This is an important con- a causative relationship with the generalized or cept which helps understanding how CN can localized presence of transient paroxysms in the nicely integrate techniques which only evaluate EEG like spikes, spike-and-waves, and alpha brain structure and not function. depression and various types of epilepsies, and to understand that sleep is not a simple and con- tinuous state, but is the result of a complex pat- Relevance to Science and Religion tern of micro-states which develop according to a well-defined hierarchy during the hours sepa- CN is sometimes touching areas relevant to rating falling asleep from awakenings. a religious view of life, particularly when it is More recently, neurophysiological parameters employed to find out a “sign of death” to define were integrated with information from tech- the end of life of a living person. The most uni- niques investigating brain function by measuring versally accepted instrumental parameters for local blood flow and metabolism (i.e., oxygen “brain death” definition are nowadays the com- and glucose consumption) as well as production plete lack of any EEG activity and the absence of of neurotransmitters as in functional MRI and pos- any vital sign from the brain stem (an area con- itron emission tomography (PET). International trolling autonomic life including heart rate, res- CN is governed since 1949 by the International piration, blood pressure, etc.). Federation of CN (IFCN) to which more than 50 national societies are affiliated. IFCN – on its Sources of Authority own – is divided into geographical chapters (i.e., European, Latino-American). IFCN has a scien- Since its beginning, CN has been quite close to tific journal with an about 60-year long tradition, human basic physiology on one side and to clin- originally entitled Electroencephalography & ical neurology on the other. Along the neurophys- Clinical Neurophysiology and recently renamed iological tradition, there are a number of Nobel Clinical Neurophysiology. Prizes (i.e., Adrian for neuronal excitation mech- anisms), excellent physiologists (i.e., Moruzzi & Magoun for sleep mechanisms), and outstanding Characteristics clinicians (i.e., Gastaut for epilepsy). More recently, Guidelines & Recommendations regu- CN is mainly dealing with function of brain, larly published by IFCN, Handbooks of CN, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, and muscles as and – most important – the official organ of the reflected by their electromagnetic spontaneous Federation the journal Clinical Neurophysiology or stimulus-related activities. Moreover, CN represent a first line of authoritative information aims to establish a strong relationship between and sources of references for doctors and techni- clinical symptoms on one side and the topogra- cians working in the field of CN phy of lesion on the other. Symptoms – broadly Along the history of this specialty, the group speaking – include movement deficits, abnormal- of Pisa (Giuseppe Moruzzi) was the frontline ities in sensory perception/processing, cognitive world place for the study of sleep mechanisms, abnormalities (i.e., memory disturbances). Neu- the team of Marseille (Henry Gastaut) was rophysiological recordings in the presence of a center of excellence for epilepsy in the 1950s such symptoms (particularly when they are and 1960s, the University of London was transient) help in identifying which is the neural a reference place for Evoked Potentials (Martin network affected. In fact, once a lesion has been Halliday who recently disappeared), the research established, it can produce symptoms due to the group in Iowa City (Jun Kimura) was following neural tissue directly damaged, but also from the the pioneering studies of Buchtal in Copenhagen indirect effects at distance in all the relays on electromyography and reflexes. Clinical Neurophysiology 391 C Ethical Principles Life and Death Life is conceptualized as the presence of brain As for every medical discipline, CN follows the activity as measurable via EEG and evoked rules of the “Hippocratic Oath,” i.e., a set of potentials recordings, particularly for those sig- ethical principles for the medical community nals originating from the brain stem. Lack of such regarding the care and treatment of patients activity for a prolonged period of time (i.e., 6 or which were developed by the ancient Greek phy- 12 h according to different national legislations) C sician Hippocrates, and the more recent lines of leads to the definition of “▶ brain death.” the Declaration of Helsinki of 1971 which is a set of ethical principles for the medical community Reality regarding studies with human beings. The decla- Reality is considered the physical world (exter- ration was developed by the World Medical nal, outside the body, and internal to the body, Association, as well as of the Good Medical i.e., visceral activity) in direct contact with the Practice as requested by the European Union. nervous system through senses. Knowledge Key Values Learning and knowledge is now seen as a complex mechanism of transient (minutes or Along the vein of the “mother discipline” of hours) or prolonged (months and years) modifi- neurology the key values of CN is helping to cations of synaptic contacts and neuronal wiring diagnose and treat properly symptoms and defi- leading to storage of physical, educational, and cits due to ▶ nervous system and muscles dis- emotional experiences. This is based on cellular eases, finally ending in physical, mental, and mechanisms named after the Nobel Prize Eric cognitive/behavioral impairments. Kandel, Long-Term Potentiation and Depres- sion (together with the genetic and proteic and biochemical changes combined to them) Conceptualization and can be represented as a dynamic process (probably consolidated by certain function of Nature/World night sleep) continuously evolving from birth The field of such conceptualization is – for CN – to death. restricted to the human being which is approached within the frame of the types and Truth patterns of electromagnetic activities that the liv- Truth is conceptualized as the scientific validity ing brain, spinal cord, nerves, and muscles are of a theory which has usually a midlife of producing throughout life (including maturation 5–10 years, with the exception of some and aging). The “world” is only conceptualized basic concepts including those for cellular either as a micro-environment (namely the one excitability. within or around the individual neuronal cell and its prolongations and contacts) or as a macro- Perception environment, that is, the physical space within Perception can be conscious, preconscious, and which the patient is living. unconscious; modern techniques of CN (partic- ularly event-related potentials) help in classify- Human Being ing. Perception is usually linked to one of the As previously stated, all the basic and highly five senses or – more frequently – is an amalgam sophisticated functions of the nervous systems of multisensory and emotional matrix which and muscles are conceptualized within a frame makes perception an exquisitely individualized taking into account their electromagnetic experience, still within the frame of a counterpart. general world. C 392 Clinical Psychology Time Description Time is a brain category aiming to classify mod- ifications in the physical world (external and From a historical point of view, clinical psychol- internal) as well as the human feelings related or ogy is a relatively young discipline that devel- combined to such changes. oped out of medicine, psychiatry, and philosophy at the end of the nineteenth century. Broadly Consciousness speaking, it applies knowledge about psycholog- Consciousness is the ability to voluntarily perceive, ical processes to the understanding, assessment, classify, and eventually react to any physical stim- prevention, and treatment of psychological dis- ulus in the outside or inside world. Different types tress of individuals (children, adolescents, and and levels of consciousness can be defined either in adults), couples, families, and groups. Its normal (i.e., awake, drowsy, and sleeping states) or history has been dominated by four major in pathological situations which affect transiently, theoretical approaches: (a) psychoanalytic/ acutely or progressively and steadily consciousness psychodynamic, (b) learning/cognitive-behav- (i.e., epileptic attack, dementia, light or deep coma, ioral, (c) humanistic/experiential, and (d) family vegetative comatous state, etc.). and systems (Hersen and Gross 2008). Although each of these four approaches Relevant Themes encompasses a broad array of evolving theories and clinical applications, they each have Critical points within these concepts include the a number of specific assumptions and foci that definition of the conceptualization of the SELF distinguish them from the other theoretical both in normal situations (i.e., in the newborn) approaches. The psychoanalytic approach, and in brain diseases which steadily (i.e., in which originated in the work of Freud, mainly severe retardation, dementia, etc.) or transiently focuses on the role of psychological conflict, the (i.e., epileptic attack, post-traumatic amnesia, importance of unconscious factors, and the com- transient global amnesia) affect the ability for plex ways early development influences psycho- sensory processing/classification, problem solv- logical functioning across the life span. The ing, and decision taking. learning/cognitive-behavioral approach focuses primarily on learning processes and how these give rise to cognitive-affective schemas that Clinical Psychology influence our perceptions and behavior. Human- istic/experiential approaches center on an under- Patrick Luyten standing of the whole person and the self- Department of Psychology, Center for Research actualizing tendencies and potentialities within in Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic each person. Family and systems approaches Psychology, University of Leuven, focus on the complex interactional processes Leuven, Belgium within couples and families and how these deter- Research Department of Clinical, Educational, mine the functioning of the individual, couple, and Health Psychology, University College and family. London, London, UK Within each of these approaches, interven- Center for the Psychology of Religion, Free tions have been developed that are still widely University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands practiced today and that have been the subject of systematic treatment evaluation in both con- Related Terms trolled and naturalistic research (Lambert 2004). This includes, for example, long-term and brief Counseling psychology; Mental disease/disorder psychoanalytic psychotherapy (psychoanalytic treatment; Psychiatry; Psychopathology; approach); (cognitive-) behavioral, dialectical, Psychotherapy and more recently mindfulness-based therapy Clinical Psychology 393 C (learning/cognitive-behavioral approach); client- theoretical approaches. Hence, each of the centered, gestalt, and humanistic therapy major theoretical approaches is based on partly (humanistic tradition); and family and couple incommensurable assumptions about human therapy (family/systems tradition). The continu- nature, normal and disrupted development, and ing influence of these four theoretical approaches the aims and nature of prevention and treatment is also exemplified by the fact that major figures strategies. Thus, currently, “assimilative within these approaches are among the integrationism” (Messer 1986), which means C most famous and most cited psychologists, that concepts, hypotheses, and therapeutic tech- including Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson niques borrowed from other theoretical orienta- (psychoanalytic tradition), Burrhus F. Skinner tions are assimilated in a theoretically and Hans J. Eysenck (learning psychology), meaningful way in an existing theoretical frame- Carl Rogers (humanistic/experiential tradition), work, predominates. A truly integrative theoreti- and Gregory Bateson and Paul Watzlawick cal framework, therefore, is unlikely to emerge in (family/systems theory). the near future. The last decades have witnessed clear integra- In addition, clinical psychology has made tive trends among these major theoretical major contributions in the areas of assessment approaches both in research and practice of both normal and disrupted psychological (Lambert 2004). For instance, many practitioners capacities and processes (e.g., intelligence, per- use insights, methods, and techniques from these sonality, neuropsychology, and psychopathol- various approaches in their clinical work. In this ogy) and the classification of psychiatric context, at least two forms of integration have disorders (Hersen 2008). More recently, the been distinguished. First, there are clear trends field has witnessed an important shift from toward technical integration, with practitioners a focus on psychopathology and its treatment to from various orientations incorporating tech- the prevention of psychopathology and behav- niques used in other theoretical approaches. Sec- ioral problems and distress more generally ond, there are increasing signs of theoretical (Lambert 2004). The fields of behavioral medicine integration with the aim of developing more and health psychology in particular have emerged encompassing and overarching theories about as a strong force within clinical psychology, which normal and disrupted psychological develop- has resulted in a substantial broadening of the ment. Both these trends have resulted in integra- scope of clinical psychology, encompassing so- tive “waves” within each tradition. Within the called positive psychology (the scientific study of psychoanalytic tradition, for instance, there has happiness and well-being), and interventions been more attention to experiential, cognitive and aimed at ameliorating quality of life and well- behavioral aspects in human functioning, which being in patients confronted with somatic disease also has led to the development of shorter, more and other health problems. focused treatments. Within the cognitive- The future of the field of clinical psychology is behavioral tradition, in turn, there has been difficult to predict as many scientific and a growing openness for more dynamic, interper- extrascientific factors influence its course. As sonal, developmental, and experiential issues. noted, integrative trends are likely to continue, Within the experiential and family/systems tradi- but it seems highly unlikely that the field will tions in particular, ideas and techniques from reach a consensus soon with regard to the classi- both the psychoanalytic and cognitive-behavioral fication, assessment, and prevention/treatment tradition have been widely incorporated. of psychological problems, as major differences Yet, integration between the various remain between the various theoretical approaches continues to be hampered by various approaches with respect to their views of human factors, not in the least because each of these nature and, ultimately, their worldview. Other major approaches has in part developed in reac- factors that are likely to determine the future of tion to (perceived) shortcomings of the other the field include the increasing influence and C 394 Clinical Psychology pressure of managed care and economic consid- reality. Therefore, within this tradition, science is erations (e.g., concerning the cost-effectiveness not only valued as a way of gaining knowledge of psychotherapy) as well as the growing dia- but also provides a model for treatment. logue and integration with the neurosciences. Historically, psychodynamic, experiential, Finally, the rapidly expanding fields of behav- and family/systems approaches, although gener- ioral medicine and health psychology, with psy- ally acknowledging the importance of science, chologists being involved in increasingly broader tend to emphasize equally and sometimes per- domains, including the prevention of both phys- haps more the importance of intuition and per- ical and mental disease, are likely to transform sonal factors and qualities. Within these clinical psychology as it exists today. The assim- approaches, clinical psychology (and psychother- ilation and integration of these influences are apy in particular) is seen not only as a science but major challenges for the future of clinical also as an art. Or, perhaps better, it is seen as psychology. a profession that not only involves and is based in scientific knowledge but also necessitates spe- cific personal qualities (such as empathy and Self-identification psychological mindedness) as well as a personal growth process that involves learning from expe- Science rience. Thus, for example, we see the emphasis in Although clinical psychology self-identifies as these approaches on extended and, to a certain a science, based on the rigorous empirical scru- extent, lifelong supervision and even personal tiny of its theoretical assumptions, techniques, therapy. and methods (Kazdin 2003), there are important Although there is growing consensus in the differences in this regard among the four major field that clinical psychology is not a “pure sci- theoretical approaches. Without any doubt, the ence,” differences in opinion about the role and learning/cognitive-behavioral tradition identifies importance of the “science” versus “art” issue most strongly with the view of clinical psychol- remain. These differences continue to lead to ogy as a science. This tradition has been the heated debate. strongest advocate of the so-called scientist- practitioner model, which stresses that practi- Religion tioners should rigorously train in and apply The relationship between (clinical) psychology scientific findings in the prevention and treatment and religion has been a troubled one ever since of psychological problems. Thus, the learning/ Freud’s claim, in his seminal work The Future of cognitive-behavioral tradition has strongly an Illusion, that religion is an expression of infan- emphasized the value of the scientific model, as tile needs, a “childhood neurosis” (Freud 1927, is also exemplified in the emphasis on the sys- p. 53), relegating religion and religious experi- tematic evaluation of interventions, use of ences more generally to the realm of illusion. evidence-based techniques and methods, and, This led psychoanalysts and subsequent clinical perhaps even more importantly, the view that psychologists more generally to regard religion the scientific model also provides a model for with suspicion and even disdain and associate the prevention and treatment of psychological religion with infantile longings for protection, problems. Indeed, although some current models omnipotence, and omniscience. This negative tend to adopt a somewhat different view, the attitude was further reinforced by Freud’s cognitive-behavioral approach started from the assertion that “The religions of mankind must assumption that patient and therapist should be classed among the mass delusions” become involved in a so-called collaborative (Freud 1930, p. 81). Similarly, Albert Ellis empiricist stance attempting to identify and then (1960), one of the founding fathers of learning/ falsify particular beliefs and assumptions about cognitive-behavioral tradition, saw religion as Clinical Psychology 395 C a set of irrational assumptions from which indi- Christian elements such as prayer and biblical viduals had to be liberated. exegesis or Eastern practices such as yoga and In recent years, a more positive and even rec- meditation with traditional forms of counseling onciliatory attitude toward religion has devel- and psychotherapy to the development of oped within clinical psychology. While religious/spiritually inspired forms of psycho- psychologists and psychiatrists continue to be therapy. Findings that religion and spirituality far less religious than their clients, most psychol- are often positive for both physical and mental C ogists and psychiatrists have a positive attitude health, and that integrating religious/spiritual ele- toward religious issues in clients. This is further ments is associated with better treatment out- exemplified by a more positive attitude and come, especially among religious clients, have acceptance of religiosity and religious experi- further promoted these developments. Yet, criti- ences as well as spirituality. This growing open- cism remains, arguing that clinical psychology as ness is also the result of a shift in what is currently a science should remain neutral with regard to conceived of as religion, specifically, a shift away religious issues and should not strive to promote from traditional, organized religion that is religious or spiritual beliefs. focused on the truth of religious beliefs, toward a more personal interpretation and experience of religion. Likewise, in psychoanalysis, there has Characteristics been a growing appreciation of the realm of illu- sion. This can be traced back at least to Because of its focus on both normal and disrupted Winnicott’s (1953) work, particularly his work human development, clinical psychology has on the importance of transitional space. Simi- close ties with neighboring sciences and larly, within the cognitive-behavioral tradition, approaches, most notably psychiatry and other Eastern spiritual practices are increasingly incor- social sciences (e.g., sociology, philosophy, porated and integrated in so-called mindfulness- anthropology) and, to some extent, also religious based and acceptance and commitment-based and spiritual worldviews (Lambert 2004). Its treatments (Hayes et al. 2003). Moreover, the strong focus on the importance and role of psy- shift within religion and religiosity to a greater chological processes in explaining normal and emphasis on personal experience, rather than an disrupted human development distinguishes clin- emphasis on organized religion and the endorse- ical psychology from neighboring scientific ment of particular beliefs, has also fostered the approaches such as psychiatry (which focuses dialogue with humanistic and experiential more on biological factors) or sociology (which approaches within clinical psychology that focuses primarily on social factors). Yet, given always have had a greater openness toward spir- our increasing knowledge of interactions among itual issues and experiences. This is further psychosocial and biological factors, the bound- reinforced by the growing role of qualitative aries between these various scientific disciplines approaches to research, often inspired by con- are increasingly becoming blurred. The future is structivism and critical theory, that focus much likely to witness the emergence of a more inte- more on personal, intimate experiences and how grative science of human behavior. these are shaped in part by cultural forces, includ- The focus on psychological factors distin- ing religion and spirituality. guishes clinical psychology from religious and Finally, the growing dialogue between reli- spiritual traditions as it studies the role of gion and clinical psychology is also exemplified psychological factors within religion/spirituality by the emergence of a so-called spiritual strategy, but does not attempt to explain (or explain promoting the integration of religion and/or spir- away) religion and spirituality as such nor ituality and psychotherapy. These proposals have does it attempt to offer a consistent worldview ranged from the integration of traditional (“Weltanschauung”). C 396 Clinical Psychology Relevance to Science and Religion and continues to influence the field. Also, the scientific method, particularly the strong dedica- Clinical psychology has always had a vivid inter- tion to quantitative research and statistics from est in the science-religion debate. In some a neopositivistic perspective, is an important respects, (clinical) psychology originated from source of authority (Kazdin 2003). More what was conceived as a need for emancipation recently, the importance of qualitative methods from religious views and explanations, particu- and narrative and constructivist approaches is larly concerning so-called abnormal behavior, increasingly recognized. These lead to more rel- replacing religious explanations with psycholog- ativistic, constructivistic view of scientific ical explanations of these phenomena. For knowledge rather than the neopositivist corre- instance, behaviors that were seen as an expres- spondence view of the relationship between sci- sion of possession by evil forces such as the devil entific knowledge and reality that dominated or the result of sinful behavior were explained in much of clinical psychology in the past. psychological terms (e.g., projection, wish fulfill- Authoritative journals, evidenced by their ment). Moreover, psychological explanations high impact factor, include Annual Review of were invoked to explain the origin of religious/ Clinical Psychology, Clinical Psychology spiritual explanations and religion/spirituality Review, Development and Psychopathology, itself. As noted, Freud’s theories about religion Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, as reflecting the human need for certainty and Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Journal of control over the forces of nature (Freud 1927, Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Journal of 1930) and Ellis’s views of religious belief as Abnormal Child Psychology, Neuropsychology a set of irrational attitudes that provide a false Review, and Psychological Medicine. sense of control and purpose in life (Ellis 1960) are cases in point. In general, historically, clinical Ethical Principles psychology has been very critical of religious/ spiritual beliefs, largely reducing them to psycho- Despite obvious differences in the worldview and logical needs for certainty, control, and purpose view of human nature underlying the different in life. Yet, paradoxically, there have always theoretical approaches within clinical psychol- been more favorable views of religion within ogy, there has been a remarkable agreement on clinical psychology, particularly within humanis- the basic ethical principles guiding the discipline tic approaches. Finally, clinical psychology has across these theoretical approaches. The Ameri- largely abandoned attempts to explain the origins can Psychological Association Ethical Principles of religion; it currently focuses mainly on the role and Code of Conduct, for instance, specifies the of psychological processes in religion and reli- following ethical principles that are largely gious behavior rather than attempting to explain shared by all clinical psychologists: (a) benefi- religion as such. cence and nonmaleficence, (b) fidelity and responsibility, (c) integrity, (d) justice, and (e) respect for people’s rights and dignity. More- Sources of Authority over, as a profession, clinical psychology has invested much effort in the development, dissemi- Major sources of authority include seminal fig- nation, and use of ethical guidelines in the conduct ures that have played a key role in the develop- of research and the practice of clinical psychology. ment of clinical psychology, many of which are still among the most highly cited psychologists, including Sigmund Freud, Burrhus F. Skinner, Key Values Hans J. Eysenck, Ivan Pavlov, Carl Rogers, Paul Watzlawick, and Aaron Beck, to name only In agreement with its ethical principles, these a few. Their influence can still be felt nowadays include respect and openness for the person’s Clinical Psychology 397 C rights and dignity (e.g., concerning gender orien- Clinical psychology has documented how com- tation, spiritual/religious beliefs, values), trust, ing to terms with issues such as mortality and integrity, and the attainment of a satisfying bal- death characterizes the human condition and ance between autonomy (e.g., individuation) and may lead to considerable distress (e.g., narcissistic relatedness (e.g., the capacity to attach to others denial of mortality by vigorously pursuing power in meaningful ways), enabling individuals a and status, feelings of depression). The psychoan- greater sense of internal freedom and satisfaction alyst Erik Erikson was among the first to concep- C with life. In this context, clinical psychology tualize this process of coming to terms with life and generally promotes a benevolent neutrality death. He pointed out that unsuccessfully working toward religious/spiritual issues, leaving it to the through these issues can lead to despair, whereas individual whether he or she wants to pursue or coming to terms with them is associated with feel- not a spiritual/religious path in life. ings of integrity, i.e., the sense that one’s life has had a meaning and that one has contributed not only to one’s own life but also to the life of signif- Conceptualization icant others such as a partner, children, and society more generally. Such integrity also involves the Nature/World acceptance of death as an inevitable part of life. Nature and world are not only or merely concep- tualized as preexisting, biological realities but Reality also partly as sociocultural and psychological Within clinical psychology, various conceptions constructions. of reality coexist. They range from a correspon- dence view of reality (i.e., that science discovers Human Being reality and truth and thus assumes that scientific The major theoretical approaches have had very knowledge corresponds to reality) to views that different concepts of what it is to be a human see reality as a construction based on meaning- being. From a traditional psychoanalytic point making processes. There are different positions of view, human beings are seen as intrinsically between these two extreme poles. Within this characterized by conflicts between desires, context, the various theoretical approaches wishes, and impulses on the one hand and the within clinical psychology have been influenced exigencies of external reality, initially by different philosophical schools of thought. represented by attachment figures which are However, they have rarely made explicit their increasingly internalized, on the other. Learning own assumptions with regard to the nature of and cognitive-behavioral approaches see human reality and its relationship to the science of clin- beings primarily in terms of experience- ical psychology, despite the obvious importance expectant information processing systems. of such issues (e.g., with regard to the nature of Humanistic/experiential approaches primarily intelligence, the distinction between “normality” conceptualize human beings in terms of and psychopathology, or “abnormal” sexuality). self-actualizing potentialities. Family/systems Although several movements, including anti- approaches, finally, consider human being’s role psychiatry and feminism, have questioned many and position within broader systems, such as the assumptions of clinical psychology about reality, couple, family, and society, emphasizing less the currently these issues seem to have disappeared individuality of the person, but seeing persons as into the background even though they occasion- influenced by and playing a role in complex ally reemerge. dynamics and laws involved in systems. Knowledge Life and Death Clinical psychology sees knowledge as the result Life and death are considered to be fundamental of a complex learning process in which both trial coordinates that human beings have to confront. and error and insight play a considerable role. C 398 Clinical Psychology Although some approaches have tended to con- example, appears to spontaneously disappear sider knowledge and its application in isolation, with the passing of time in many depressed indi- developmental clinical psychology has clearly viduals. Similarly, the process of mourning takes shown that knowledge first and foremost time. Related to this, clinical psychology has also develops in an interpersonal matrix and thus is pointed to a distinction between objective and intimately tied to the development of social cog- subjective time, i.e., time as it is experienced by nition and interpersonal relationships (Fonagy individuals. Subjective time can be influenced by et al. 2007). many factors, such as mood and fatigue. For example, depressed individuals often experience Truth a slowing of time to the extent that some feel As in any science, clinical psychology has been “frozen in time.” Likewise, psychotic disorders dominated by a search for truth based on may seriously disturb the experience of time. As a correspondence versus consensus view of the most psychological capacities, the capacity to relationship between scientific knowledge and experience time and to envision oneself in the reality/truth. Also, the major therapeutic past, present, and future develops across the life approaches derived within clinical psychology span, and several psychological disturbances may all include to a considerable degree a search for perturb this capacity. truth. In this respect, searching for truth is either conceived as a search for truth in the sense of Consciousness reconstructing one’s past and factors that have The role of consciousness has been a matter of influenced one’s life course as they have really great debate within clinical psychology. Whereas happened (“historical truth”) or what is true for some, such as the early behaviorists, considered the individual regardless of historical truth consciousness as a mere epiphenomenon with (“narrative truth”) (Spence 1982) or a combina- little or no influence on behavior, other traditions, tion of these two positions. such as the phenomenological and humanistic, considered consciousness to be a central causa- Perception tive factor in explaining human behavior. Still Clinical psychology has contributed in important other traditions, such as the psychoanalytic ways to our understanding of perception as approach, saw consciousness as only a small, influenced by expectations which in turn are the though not negligible, aspect of human psycho- result of experiences and interactions that have logical functioning, putting the priority on uncon- been internalized over time as internal working scious psychological processes. Currently, there models or cognitive-affective schemas. Although is an emerging consensus not only that many on the positive side, these schemas bring order to psychological processes that determine behavior our perception of reality, make reality more pre- are unconscious (i.e., happen outside the individ- dictable, and thus prevent the individual from ual’s awareness) but also that consciousness and being overwhelmed by information, they also particularly the ability to reflect on one’s own have the potential to bias or distort our perception internal mental states (mentalization) are equally in important ways. important determinants of behavior. Also, emerg- ing is consensus that the capacity for reflective Time functioning may play a key role in distinguishing Time is an important concept within clinical psy- human beings from nonhuman primates and other chology. Almost every psychological process or animals (Fonagy et al. 2007). capacity develops over time and is constantly subject to change across time (e.g., memory, per- Rationality/Reason sonality, intelligence). Moreover, several psy- Congruent with the different emphasis on science chological processes seem to be intimately in the major theoretical approaches, the different related to time. An episode of depression, for traditions in clinical psychology show clear Clock Gene 399 C differences in their attitudes toward and valuing References of rationality and reason. Within the learning/ cognitive-behavioral tradition, rationality and Ellis, A. (1960). There is no place for the concept of sin in psychotherapy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 7, reason are most strongly emphasized, whereas 188–192. in the other theoretical approaches, the limits of Fonagy, P., Gergely, G., & Target, M. (2007). The rationality and reason are more clearly acknowl- parent–infant dyad and the construction of the edged and embraced. subjective self. Journal of Child Psychology and Psy- C chiatry, 48(3/4), 288–328. Freud, S. (1927). Die Zukunft einer Illusion. In A. Freud Mystery (Ed.), Gesammelte Werke (Vol. XIV, pp. 325–380). Because clinical psychology partly emerged as Germany: Frankfurt am Main. a reaction against religious/spiritual explana- Freud, S. (1930). Das Unbehagen in der Kultur. In A. Freud (Ed.), Gesammelte Werke (Vol. XIV, tions, striving to develop into a strong science, pp. 419–506). Germany: Frankfurt am Main. there has been a clear tendency toward demysti- Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (2003). fication in clinical psychology. Because of this, Acceptance and commitment therapy: An experiential with some important exceptions, the implicit approach to behavior change. New York: The Guilford Press. assumption that all of human behavior could be Hersen, M. (Ed.). (2008). Handbook of psychological explained in terms of psychological (e.g., wishes) assessment, case conceptualization, and treatment and/or biological (e.g., activation of neural cir- (2 volumes). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. cuits) processes has dominated clinical psycho- Hersen, M., & Gross, A. M. (Eds.). (2008). Handbook of clinical psychology: Adults and children (2 volumes). logical research and practice. Thus, for instance, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. belief in ghosts and, in a similar vein, religion and Kazdin, A. E. (2003). Research design in clinical mystical/spiritual experiences is explained in psychology (4th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn terms of anxious expectations, wish fulfillments, & Bacon. Lambert, M. J. (2004). Bergin and Garfield’s handbook of and/or antedated modes of thinking and psychotherapy and behavior change (5th ed.). New experiencing reality, for example, omnipotence York: Wiley. of thought or projection. Although there always Messer, S. (1986). Behavioral and psychoanalytic has been a countermovement arguing for the lim- perspectives at therapeutic choice points. American Psychologist, 41, 1261–1272. itations of psychological explanations in Spence, D. P. (1982). Narrative truth and historical truth. explaining the mysterious (e.g., the meaning of Meaning and interpretation in psychoanalysis. New life, “religious” or “spiritual” experiences, beliefs York/London: Norton. about life after death), congruent with its scien- Winnicott, D. (1953). Transitional objects and transitional phenomena. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, tific stance, the assumption that all experiences 34, 89–97. can be explained by laws governing psychologi- cal processes dominates clinical psychology. Cross-References Clock Gene ▶ Cognitive Psychology Jo¨rg-Peter Ewert ▶ Conditioning and Learning Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of ▶ Consciousness Kassel, Schauenburg, Germany ▶ Developmental Psychology ▶ Medical Psychology ▶ Personality Psychology ▶ Psychiatry in America It is suggested that clock genes are involved in ▶ Psychiatry in Europe autoregulatory transcription/translation-based ▶ Psychology of Religion feedback loops which turn these genes on and ▶ Religious Coping off in a circadian cycle of about 24 h. C 400 Cognition The mammalian per genes are rhythmically expressed and their proteins PER are found Cognitive Ethology within “clock cells” of the suprachiasmatic nucleus, SCN, the central circadian pacemaker ▶ Animal Theology and Ethics in mammals. The SCN, located in the ventral anterior hypothalamus, obtains retinal input and drives the rhythmic secretion of the hormone melatonin in the pineal gland. This hormone Cognitive Neuroscience communicates the circadian timekeeper’s infor- mation to various parts of the body. Mammalian ▶ Biological Psychology photoreceptors, too, contain the circadian pace- maker. However, findings suggest that PER1 pro- teins play roles in the retina different from those established in the SCN. Cognitive Niche ▶ Externalism and Internalism Cognition Cognitive Processes ▶ Cognitive Psychology ▶ Cognitive Science Psychology ▶ Cognitive Psychology ▶ Theoretical Psychology Cognitive Processing Cognition and Culture ▶ Intelligence ▶ Cognitive Science of Religion Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Jason S. Nomi, Anthony J. Ryals and Anne M. ▶ Neuropsychology Cleary Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA Cognitive Anthropology Related Terms ▶ Cognitive Science Psychology Cognition; Cognitive processes Cognitive Developmental Description Psychology Cognitive psychology is concerned with the sci- ▶ Cognitive Science Psychology entific study of the mind. As a branch of Cognitive Psychology 401 C experimental psychology, cognitive psychology developed, tested, and modified or discarded utilizes experimentation to study such topics as accordingly. attention, memory, perception, language, and A classic issue in cognitive psychology con- reasoning. The term “cognitive psychology” cerns visual imagery: Do people form images in was first introduced by Ulric Neisser in his 1967 their minds that are pictorial analogs to their real- book, Cognitive Psychology. At the time, cogni- world counterparts? Shepherd and Metzler’s tive psychology partly arose as an alternative to (1971) now-classic study of mental rotation C behaviorism, which had denied that internal men- examined this by presenting participants with tal states can be studied scientifically. Because three-dimensional shapes on a screen. Sometimes mental processes are not themselves directly the shape on the right was different from the observable, behaviorism focused strictly on shape on the left. Other times, the shape on the stimulus–response associations, without theoret- right was identical to the shape on the left and ical consideration of the mental processes that merely rotated somewhat from the position on the occur in between. Unlike the behaviorists, cogni- left. Participants’ task was to determine if a given tive psychologists assume that mental processes pair of shapes was identical (and just rotated can (and should) be studied scientifically. differently in space) or different. The hypothesis Several factors contributed to the emergence was that participants perform the task by forming of cognitive psychology as a discipline. Among a mental image of the two shapes, then mentally them was World War II’s contribution to the rotating one of the shapes until it reaches the military need for understanding cognitive pro- same position as the other to determine if they cesses. Another contributing factor was the are the same. In support of this idea, when the two advent of the computer, which provided a useful items were identical, participants’ reaction times metaphor for theorizing about mental processes to press a button indicating so increased linearly at several levels, including the notion of repre- with the degrees of rotation from the left figure to sentation, information processing, and the dis- the right. In short, the more a shape needed rotat- tinction between hardware and software. ing to match its neighbor’s position, the longer it Cognitive psychologists often use a factory took people to recognize that the two were iden- example to illustrate what cognitive psycholo- tical. This is a good example of manipulating gists do. The example is as follows: One is what goes into the system, examining what observing a factory, trying to determine what comes out of the system, and making inferences goes on inside. Trucks deliver supplies at one about what must be going in within the system. end, while different trucks pick up finished prod- Recent developments in cognitive psychology ucts at the other. The only method available for are many. It is a rapidly growing field with many determining what goes on in the factory is to domains of research (e.g., attention, memory, manipulate the shipment of supplies then care- language) and many real-life applications for fully observe what comes out at the other end. The the research within each domain, many of which mind can be viewed in a similar fashion. Cogni- can affect public policy. For example, research tive psychologists want to know what goes on on divided attention using driving simulators has inside of it, but cannot actually see its inner suggested that talking on cell phones significantly activities. They can, however, examine what reduces driver’s braking time, leading to greater goes in and what comes out and can experimen- risk on the road. Research on memory has tally manipulate what goes in, examining what suggested that, in educational settings, what stu- comes out, to test hypotheses about what occurs dents “feel” is the best and worst way for them to inside. Cognitive psychologists, therefore, are learn is often the opposite of what actually leads very concerned with experimentation and theory. to the best learning. Research on language has Experiments are conducted to examine cognitive suggested that phonics may indeed be the best processes, and theories of those processes are method of teaching schoolchildren to read. C 402 Cognitive Psychology Self-identification religion insofar as many religions have notions about “mind,” cognitive psychology has largely Science left debates about the source of the mind to Because it relies on the scientific method, cogni- philosophers of mind. Whereas philosophers tive psychology has always self-identified as debate about such issues as whether reductive a science. One common misconception regarding physicalism, non-reductive physicalism, or other psychology is that it is either not a science at all or approaches are better conceptualizations of the a “soft science” when compared to more tradi- mind cognitive psychologists instead focus on tional disciplines like chemistry or physics. Cog- testable hypotheses about specific cognitive pro- nitive psychologists argue that it is in fact a “hard cesses, theories that are falsifiable, and empirical science,” as it not only involves experimentation data generated through experimentation. The and hypothesis testing, but it also involves math- interest is more in discovering how specific men- ematical modeling of cognitive processes as well. tal processes work than in determining their source. While most cognitive psychologists tend to assume that mental processes are the result of Characteristics neurological processes, it is entirely possible for a cognitive psychologist to be agnostic regarding Cognitive psychology can be distinguished from the source of mental processes. Take the factory other fields of psychology (such as industrial/ example or the mental rotation study described in organization psychology, social psychology, clin- response to section “Description”: In both cases, ical psychology, or counseling psychology) by its one can theorize about how a process works and subject matter (i.e., the internal workings of the can design experiments to test hypotheses about mind) and its methodology (i.e., the scientific how that process works, all without speculating method) together. Specifically, cognitive psychol- on the origin of the process or where exactly it is ogy is the only area of psychology that focuses on taking place (i.e., who is working in the factory, the scientific study of the mind. It can also be whether it is people or robots on the assembly differentiated from some areas of psychology by lines, or in which particular room a given process its emphasis on experimental methodology (as takes place). opposed to survey research, for instance). Outside of mainstream cognitive psychology, A closely related field is ▶ cognitive neurosci- there is a growing domain of research examining ence. Cognitive psychology differs from cogni- the nature of religious beliefs and subjective tive neuroscience in that it focuses more on how reports of religious experiences. This relatively cognitive processes work than on their neural new area has its roots in social psychology and underpinnings. Take, for example, the mental greatly overlaps with evolutionary psychology. rotation study described above. There, the As with evolutionary psychology, cognitive psy- researchers examined a question regarding how chology does not focus on the religious validity of a process worked without concern for the neural an individual’s belief or experience (as in the source of the process. Still, many cognitive psy- philosophy of religion) but, rather, is interested chologists are also cognitive neuroscientists, and in exploring the nature of the beliefs and experi- most cognitive psychology textbooks include at ences themselves as well as in individual differ- least some cognitive neuroscience and reference ences in such beliefs and experiences. to neural underpinnings. Sources of Authority Relevance to Science and Religion As a science, cognitive psychology has its roots Though cognitive psychology’s subject matter – in the dialectic process described by George the mind – might seem somewhat relevant to Hegel (Sternberg 1999), whereby the route to Cognitive Psychology 403 C discovering truth is assumed to start with a thesis, Psychological Bulletin, and Psychological followed by an antithesis to that idea. Eventually, Review. What all of these sources (textbooks a synthesis that maintains only the best elements and peer-reviewed journals) have in common is of both emerges. The idea is that, through the that they contain contributions written by experts constant challenge of existing ideas, ideas are in the field. continually modified or replaced in ways that take a field one step closer to the truth. The C logic is not unlike that behind US court systems Ethical Principles or US governmental processes; in all of these cases, from the pitting of opposing forces against The ethical principles that guide this discipline one another comes a better approximation of the are the same as in other areas of science (i.e., truth than from one side alone. This is the logic honesty and integrity in conducting research and used in cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychol- reporting results), with the addition of ethical ogy as a field does not make appeals to authority guidelines aimed at protecting the human partic- alone for obtaining information. Within cognitive ipants on which research in cognitive psychology psychology, ideas must stand the test of scrutiny depends. The American Psychological Associa- over time. In principle, all ideas are subject to tion currently lists five general principles that all scrutiny, even those of established researchers psychologists, including cognitive psychologists, who are considered experts. Therefore, while are expected to follow in their research. The first there are top-tier journals and widely respected principle concerns beneficence and non- researchers and widely respected institutional maleficence, which is an obligation to strive for programs, appeals are not to authority alone. providing benefits from research and minimizing One must make a case for any claim using logic harm as a result of it. The second principle in conjunction with empirical data, and once involves fidelity and responsibility. This is an a case is made, it is subject to critical evaluation obligation to uphold professional and ethical by peers within the field. This scrutiny happens behavior at all times, which includes taking both in the peer-review process and in the fact responsibility for one’s actions and minimizing that published material is immediately scruti- conflicts of interest. The third principle involves nized by other scientists. integrity, which is an obligation to conduct For accurate information on the current state research in an open, careful, and honest manner of the field for novices, introductory and in search of scientific truth. The fourth principle advanced (Sternberg 1999) cognitive psychology involves justice. One aspect of justice in psychol- textbooks are usually good sources. These ogy involves seeking to distribute research bene- sources usually provide some historical context fits fairly to all. The second aspect of justice as well as a lot of the now-classic studies in the involves the responsibility of knowing the limits field. For those with more experience in the field, of one’s own knowledge in the hopes of minimiz- journals such as Trends in Cognitive Sciences, ing abuses of power that may result from Current Directions in Psychological Science, overstating such knowledge. The final ethical Psychological Science, Psychonomic Bulletin & principle involved in psychology involves Review, Cognitive Psychology, Journal of Exper- respect for people’s rights and dignity. This imental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cog- includes being sensitive of the needs of special nition, Journal of Experimental Psychology: populations. Human Perception & Performance, Journal of Cognitive psychologists working within Memory and Language, and Memory & Cogni- academic institutions are generally required to tion are great sources of the latest research in follow guidelines set by an institutional review cognitive psychology. Other top journals that fre- board (IRB) and to have all research proposals quently include cognitive psychology articles are approved by this board before collecting data. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, Cognitive researchers who use animal models C 404 Cognitive Psychology are bound by additional ethical guidelines for the is between objective and subjective reality, as humane treatment of animals. cognitive psychology relies on objective methods of investigation, yet often studies aspects of peo- ple’s subjective realities using these objective Key Values methods. For example, whether people can form visual images in their minds when thinking is The key values of cognitive psychology include a question about a person’s subjective reality critical thinking and critical evaluation of that is examined using objective means (such as ideas, honesty, integrity, logical coherence of by measuring reaction time in different experi- ideas, tightly controlled and well-designed mental conditions, as in the mental rotation study experiments, and replication of experimental described in response to section “Description” findings. above). What has research in cognitive psychology suggested about subjective reality? One over- Conceptualization arching finding is that past experiences affect the way that reality is experienced by a person. Nature/World Existing knowledge affects the way that incom- In line with other areas of science, nature and the ing information is perceived, as shown by the world can be viewed as operating according to effects of context on perception, such as in the the laws of physics, with humans and other bio- tendency to think that one hears a sound that is logical organisms having come to be through actually missing but would be predicted by the evolution. surrounding context (as when a phoneme is spliced from a word and replaced with a cough). Human Being Existing knowledge also influences what external Cognitive psychology’s view of the concept of information a person will attend to, as shown by “human being” is generally the same as that taken findings indicating a bias to detect items in in evolutionary psychology: A human being is the a scene that are personally or contextually rele- subspecies of Homo sapiens known as Homo vant. Existing knowledge also affects how expe- sapiens sapiens. riences are remembered, as shown by findings suggesting that people remember passages about Life and Death famous people differently than identical passages Cognitive psychology as a field does not really about non-famous people (existing knowledge concern itself with issues of the origins of life or about the famous people gets incorporated into of the matter of death. Perhaps only to the extent the memories for what the passages about them that evolutionary psychology is relevant to cog- said). Finally, existing knowledge also affects nitive psychology (as in the proposed adaptive- decision-making and reasoning as shown by the ness of certain cognitive processes) is the notion many documented ▶ biases and heuristics that of death relevant. people use, such as the “confirmation bias” and the “availability heuristic.” Reality There are two ways in which the notion of reality Knowledge is relevant to cognitive psychology. First, George There are two ways of viewing knowledge that Hegel’s dialectic approach is relevant here, as the are relevant to cognitive psychology: First, idea that reality can come to be understood human knowledge is itself subject matter for through a process of continually pitting of oppos- study in cognitive psychology; second, as in any ing ideas against each other is prevalent in cog- field, knowledge is relevant to becoming an nitive psychology. Second, a relevant distinction expert at cognitive psychology. Cognitive Psychology 405 C Knowledge as a Subject of Investigation. With is necessary in order to make progress toward regard to the investigation of knowledge itself, discovering the truth. a review of theories of knowledge representation and acquisition would go beyond the scope of this Perception chapter. There are many theories of knowledge Like knowledge, cognitive psychology considers representation and knowledge acquisition in cog- perception itself a domain of research. Perception nitive psychology. These are continually going is not the external stimulus itself but, rather, the C through the dialectic process, without any clear experience of the observer in response to that sole winners as far as how knowledge is stimulus. Perception is understood to be complex, represented and acquired. Many good candidate involving both bottom-up processes (i.e., sensory theories exist, and scientists continue to investi- information coming into the system) and top- gate these. That said, a person’s knowledge is down processes (i.e., existing knowledge and thought to reflect the external world that he or memories exerting a role). Top-down effects are she has experienced. As such, knowledge can shown by the fact that the context in which be correct or incorrect in terms of truthfulness; a stimulus is presented affects how it is perceived. stereotype representations are a good example. For example, when the first phoneme is spliced Particular word representations in the from a recording of a person speaking a word that knowledge base reflect exposure to that language ends in the sound *eel, participants will tend to over time, as do other representations relevant perceive the sound “meal” if it is placed within to language (such as the syntactic aspects of the context “The *eel was on the table.” They will language). Also, particular associations in tend to perceive the sound “heel” if it is placed memory (such as between bread and butter or within the context “The *eel was on the shoe,” between thunder and lightning) reflect exposure and they will tend to perceive “peel” if it is placed to the repeated cooccurrence of these things within the context of “The *eel was on the over time. orange.” Knowledge as Expertise in a Field. With Because knowledge itself (as well as the par- regard to the second conception of knowledge – ticular subset of knowledge that is most active at knowledge as it applies to becoming an expert in any given moment) will vary from person to the field of cognitive psychology – a cognitive person, it follows that perception in any given psychologist must have a good grasp of the prin- situation could vary from person to person as ciples of experimental design and data analysis well. For example, if people are played the song and of current theory and theoretical issues. “Another One Bites the Dust” in reverse, they are Much research in cognitive psychology is more likely to claim to hear the words “I like to domain-specific; therefore, researchers generally smoke marijuana” when told beforehand that the become experts in a particular domain of cogni- reverse piece might contain references to mari- tive psychology (such as memory or language or juana than when told nothing beforehand. What attention). Becoming an expert requires knowl- is perceived from the reversed music is related edge of the literature and the history within the to the knowledge that has been activated domain as well as knowledge of the current issues beforehand. and controversies within the domain. Time Truth Time is relevant to cognitive psychology in two As mentioned in response to section “Sources of ways: (1) Time is an important measurement tool Authority”, George Hegel’s notion of the dialec- in cognitive psychology, and (2) the subjective tic process is perhaps most relevant to cognitive perception of time and the seemingly uniquely psychology’s quest for truth about the nature of human ability to escape from the present moment cognitive processes. A culture of open skepticism are topics of interest to cognitive psychologists. C 406 Cognitive Psychology A basic tenet of cognitive psychology is that necessarily follow objective indices of time. For mental events take time. Therefore, one of the example, one recent study showed that wearing ways in which mental processes are studied prism glasses that distorted visual spatial percep- objectively is by examining their time course, or tion appeared to distort time perception as well, how quickly they can be carried out. Measuring suggesting that space and time representations reaction time across different experimental con- are intimately tied in the mind. As another exam- ditions is therefore a common method in cogni- ple, a different study showed that perceptions of tive psychology. This was the method used in the time varied as a function of expertise in a relevant mental rotation study described in response to domain, with domain experts perceiving slower section “Description”, where it was shown that durations of domain-relevant stimuli than domain reaction time to indicate that two shapes were novices. This suggests that existing knowledge identical increased linearly as the degree to not only affects perception of visual and auditory which the second shape was rotated from the stimuli (as described in response above under position of the first increased. Another common “perception” and “reality”), but it also affects method in cognitive psychology that involves perceptions of time (or perceptions of the dura- time is the response-signal (or signal-lag) proce- tion of an occurrence). dure. In this method, the researcher varies the amount of time that a participant has to make Consciousness a response to a stimulus. On some trials, there is At the broadest level, though many cognitive more time allowed; on others, there is less. The psychologists might argue that consciousness is goal is usually to determine when in time an emergent property of activity occurring in the a process begins to emerge. For example, if brain, many leave the specifics of debating about some of the trials in question were items that the source of consciousness to philosophers of were seen earlier in the experiment (“old” mind. Still, many cognitive psychologists discuss items) while others were new items, above- the nature of consciousness, and a review of chance old-new discrimination might not begin these discussions would go beyond the scope of to emerge until 300 ms or so. That is, on trials this chapter. where fewer than 300 ms are given to make In cognitive psychology, consciousness typi- a response, old-new discrimination is at chance- cally refers to the extent to which an individual is performance levels. At time lags beyond aware of a stimulus or mental process and the approximately 300 ms, significant old-new dis- extent to which a mental process is under an crimination can be seen, suggesting that the pro- individual’s self-control. For instance, cognitive cess requires approximately 300 ms to occur. psychologists often make the distinction between Some processes require less time poststimulus conscious, controlled processes, and automatic to occur; others require more time. processes. An automatic process is one that hap- Also related to time in cognitive psychology is pens very quickly in response to a stimulus. Its people’s subjective experience of time. Relevant mechanisms tend to circumvent one’s own here are the notions of mental time travel and the awareness and intentional control, perhaps subjective perception of time. Some argue that because it happens too quickly. One is generally one unique feature of humans is their ability to aware of the outcome of an automatic process but mentally travel through time, a term that Endel not the process itself that produced that outcome. Tulving termed chronesthesia. Humans can both An example is letter perception. Once a letter think about the past and anticipate the future; appears on a screen, it is automatically perceived memory plays a major role in this ability. Some- by a person fluent in that written language. It what related to the notion of mental time travel is happens rapidly and seemingly “just happens,” the notion of subjective time perception. as the person cannot explain how it happens. The Research suggests that human subjective percep- process itself is not open to introspection in that tions of time can be relative; that is, they do not way. The process is also not under the person’s Cognitive Psychology 407 C willful control, as the person cannot stop the The issue of subliminal perception, however, is process for letter perception once the stimulus controversial. has initiated it: It comes to completion automat- ically; the person perceives the letter. In contrast, Rationality/Reason a conscious, controlled process is slower (e.g., Rationality and reason are also themselves a topic requires more time to be carried to completion) of study within cognitive psychology. Two and tends to occur within a person’s span of domains in particular are relevant to rationality C awareness. It also tends to be under the person’s and reason: (1) executive function and intentional control, meaning that the process is (2) decision-making. not automatically carried to completion once ini- Executive Function. Related to the notion of tiated by a stimulus, but can be stopped willfully. rationality and reason, executive function is the An example is attempting to recall an episode term used to describe the set of processes from earlier in the week in response to involved in controlling other cognitive processes. a question. This takes more time than perceiving For example, in order to perform many high-level a letter on the screen, and a person can generally tasks, one must selectively attend to certain introspect on what he or she is doing during the pieces of information while preventing irrelevant attempt at recalling; furthermore, the person can pieces of information from coming to mind. To stop the act of attempting to recall at any point in do so, one may need to activate certain processes the process. while suppressing others. Much evidence points Consciousness in cognitive psychology can toward a correlation between executive function also refer to the idea that one’s thought and and general fluid intelligence, which is the ability behavior can be influenced by stimuli or memo- to problem solve or think creatively. In addition, ries that occur outside of his or her own aware- evidence from cognitive neuroscience suggests ness. For example, the phenomenon known as a role of the prefrontal cortex in executive implicit memory is the finding that people can function. exhibit memory for information when tested Decision-Making. While many studies in the indirectly, even when they appear to show no area of decision-making have focused on irratio- explicit memory when memory is tested nal behavior (i.e., findings suggesting that directly. For example, even when a person fails humans often ignore basic statistical rules, to recall the word “POLICE” from an earlier instead relying on heuristics or biases), there has study list, he or she will show an increased been a recent interest in examining cases where probability of responding to the word stem people behave rationally. For example, people POL____ with the word “POLICE” relative to can sometimes override their emotions in favor if the word “POLICE” had not appeared in the of a rational response. For instance, susceptibility earlier list. This suggests that a memory for to framing effects has been shown to involve the a prior episode can be present in one’s mind amygdala (responsible for emotion), while the and able to exert an influence on his or her ability to resist framing effects has been shown thought and behavior, even though the person to involve the frontal lobes. Interestingly, just as cannot consciously bring to mind the memory research in cognitive neuroscience has shown itself, or in this case, the reason why the word a relationship between frontal lobe function and popped into mind. executive function, this research suggests a role A related issue is the controversial issue of of the frontal lobes in making rational decisions. subliminal perception, which is the idea that stim- uli that are presented below the threshold of con- Mystery scious awareness (such as stimuli that are masked Mystery is not a term that is generally used in and presented too rapidly to be identified) can cognitive psychology. There are topics that are still affect people’s behavior even though they not yet well understood, but because the field were unaware of the occurrence of these stimuli. concerns itself with ideas that can be empirically C 408 Cognitive Science tested, the focus tends to be on testable hypothe- from religion itself, even though the topic ses. Thus, rather than calling something a mys- of researching subjective religious experience tery and leaving it at that, a cognitive may seem tangentially related to religion itself. psychologist will develop a hypothesis and aim to test it in the lab. If an idea is not something that can be investigated scientifically, it is generally Cross-References not considered relevant to cognitive psychology. ▶ Clinical Psychology ▶ Counseling Psychology USA/Europe Relevant Themes ▶ Evolutionary Psychology ▶ Philosophy of Religion Though the investigation of religious experience ▶ Social Psychology has largely remained outside the realm of main- ▶ Theory of Mind stream cognitive psychology, its related field of cognitive neuroscience has begun to see some exploration of the neural substrates of subjective References religious experiences. For example, some have induced subjective religious experiences in the Shepard, R. N. & Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science, 171, 701–703. laboratory by applying strong magnetic fields to Sternberg, R. J. (1999). The nature of cognition. certain parts of the brain using ▶ transcranial Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. magnetic stimulation (TMS). Others have noted a link between specific brain activity (in the tem- poral lobe) and subjective religious experience based on data from individuals with a specific Cognitive Science type of epilepsy. Importantly, however, such studies do not actually cross over from being Gregory Peterson science to being religion, as they merely examine Department of Philosophy and Religion, South subjective states of awareness without addressing Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, USA the religious validity of the experiences. In other words, regardless of any particular research find- ing regarding religious experiences, it will A term used to refer to those disciplines involved remain possible for one to remain completely in the study of mind and thought, usually under- agnostic regarding whether that religious experi- stood to include the fields of cognitive psychol- ence involves divine inspiration or is simply the ogy, cognitive neuroscience, psycholinguistics, result of a particular neural state that produces branches of artificial intelligence, cognitive a feeling that is labeled a religious experience (in ethology (also referred to as animal psychology), the same way that a particular neural state might and philosophy of mind. Related fields include produce a feeling that is labeled a tip-of-the- anthropology, evolutionary biology, primatol- tongue state). No research finding on religious ogy, and behavioral economics. The roots of cog- states will ever prove or disprove those religious nitive science are generally understood to tenets that require faith. Thus, it will remain coincide with the maturing of theories of compu- possible for one who is faithful to remain faithful tation and the development of digital computers in the face of research findings on the neural in the 1940s and 1950s. substrates of religious experience. It will also remain possible for the nonbeliever to continue to assume no need for a belief in the supernatural. Cross-References In this way, scientific research on subjective reli- gious experience will always remain separable ▶ Cognitive Science of Religion Cognitive Science of Religion 409 C generally. These conceptual and empirical devel- Cognitive Science of Religion opments led to several important books published in the early 1990s using a cognitive approach to Justin L. Barrett the study of religion, specifically by Lawson and Thrive Center for Human Development, McCauley (1990), Guthrie (1993), Pascal Boyer Graduate School of Psychology, Fuller (1994), and Harvey Whitehouse (1995). Experi- Theological Seminary, Pasadena, CA, USA mental and other empirical testing of theories in C the area and attempts to connect isolated projects began in the 1990s, birthing the subfield. These Related Terms cognitive approaches came to be known as Cog- nitive Science of Religion in 2000 (Barrett 2000) Cognition and Culture; Cognitive Science; because of a review article in Trends in Cognitive Evolutionary Psychology; Psychology Sciences by Justin Barrett. Description Self-identification Cognitive Science of Religion (CSR) is a field CSR self-identifies as a science but still relies that attempts to explain causally the recurrence of heavily upon insights from humanities disci- religious beliefs and practices, and the role they plines such as philosophy and religious studies. play in social and political arrangements by CSR justifies its identification as a science by the appealing to the underlying mental structures fact that it employs standard scientific assump- and dynamics that make people generally recep- tions and methodological frameworks. Cognitive tive to certain ideas and actions. CSR lies at the scientists of religion attempt to generate empiri- intersection of the cognitive sciences (especially cally falsifiable hypotheses that may be tested cognitive, developmental, and evolutionary psy- through experimentation or other controlled chology), religious studies, and anthropology. forms of investigation including survey, inter- Though the field is very young, cognitive sci- view, and semantic analyses of texts. Sources of entific approaches to the study of religion find data must be objectively observable, e.g., partic- their roots in the 1970s. Dissatisfied with ipation in religious rites, individual reaction a perceived paucity of crossculturally useful times to computer-presented displays, answers causal theories of religious phenomena, and on questionnaires, and verbal responses. Cogni- drawing inspiration from Chomskian linguistics, tive scientists of religion adopt a methodological early researchers in the area such as E. Thomas naturalism perspective, seeking strictly natural Lawson and Robert McCauley began considering mechanisms for the phenomena under consider- whether ordinary human cognition provides ations, foregoing alleged supernatural causes. As something analogous to a “universal grammar” with other areas of cognitive science, not all of religious ritual. In parallel, advances in schema cognitive scientists of religion are scientists or theory from cognitive psychology and the role conduct scientific research. schemata play in shaping perception informed Stewart Guthrie’s decidedly cognitive resuscita- tion of the “anthropomorphism” theory of reli- Characteristics gion. In the 1980s, breakthroughs from developmental psychology concerning the CSR is related to and overlaps with Psychology early-developing (and apparently pre-cultural) of Religion, but the two fields have different mental structures in babies were appropriated by emphases. Psychology of Religion, like other Dan Sperber in continuing to develop a cognitive areas in psychology, tends to take individual scientific approach to cultural phenomena thought and behavior as the primary unit of C 410 Cognitive Science of Religion analysis. In contrast, CSR attempts to explain theoretical analysis. Consequently, as in the nat- general patterns across individuals. For instance, ural sciences, the most valued authoritative a psychologist of religion may be interested in sources in this discipline are recent refereed jour- why a given individual is an enthusiastic theist, nal articles rather than classic texts or pronounce- whereas cognitive scientists of religion are more ments of prestigious individuals. The most concerned with why theism is generally prevalent important journal in the field is the Journal of across cultures. Compared with Psychology of Cognition and Culture. Nevertheless, as com- Religion, CSR places a greater emphasis on pared with neighboring sciences (such as cogni- explaining why people (generally) are religious tive psychology), books by field leaders carry and why types of religious belief and practice are greater weight, and well-developed theoretical crossculturally recurrent, and shows little con- constructs have been widely appropriated before cern for the psychological consequences of refereed articles offering empirical evidence in religion. their support have appeared. CSR is sometimes conflated with another neighboring area, evolutionary studies of reli- gion. While CSR draws heavily upon insights Ethical Principles from evolutionary psychology and behavioral ecology, studies in CSR need not be evolutionary In general, CSR scholarship is governed by stan- (and evolutionary studies are frequently not cog- dard scholarly ethical principles requiring hon- nitive). Cognitive explanations of religious phe- esty in reporting and not claiming credit for nomena, which characterize CSR, appeal to another’s work. Observational data from human mental structures and processes as informing or subjects are to be collected either through public constraining the range of ideas or actions likely to observation or, if not in public, with the consent be recurrent in a population. Evolutionary of those being observed. The gathering of data accounts may complement these cognitive ones through interviewing or other forms of nonobser- by providing explanations for why the particular vational interaction with participants is regulated mental structures have arisen as they have. in the same way as all psychological research. For a recent discussion of CSR’s distinctive features, see Barrett (2007). Key Values Relevance to Science and Religion As a field scientifically studying religion, CSR values even-handed neutrality when treating var- CSR is directly and decidedly a science and reli- ious worldviews. While this ideal is difficult to gion area. It uses scientific methods to study the live up to, CSR scholars are quick to call each causes for religious belief and practice. An area other out for practicing stealth theology, anti- of dispute is what bearing naturalistic explana- theology, or favoring certain religions over tions of religion from CSR have upon justifica- others. Cognitive scientists of religion have tion and warrant of religious beliefs. inherited a skeptical stance toward commonsense assumptions from their psychologist colleagues. Sources of Authority Conceptualization Cognitive scientists of religion generally view their scholarship as gradually and collectively Nature/World accumulating knowledge through controlled In CSR, nature (as in “human nature”) typically empirical investigation supplemented by refers to those features of human thought and Cognitive Science of Religion 411 C behavior that are cross-culturally recurrent and Life and Death do not tend to depend heavily upon any specific Cognitive scientists of religion are not concerned environmental conditions – be they physical, eco- with the origins of life generally, but do logical, or social. Language use, walking, and consider folk conceptions of life, death, and the regarding other humans as having minds are all afterlife. seen as paradigmatically natural human prac- tices, part of human nature. This broad sense of Reality, Knowledge, Truth, Perception C “nature” accepts environmental conditions as These four concepts are interrelated in CSR. CSR inextricable factors contributing to human generally adopts the view that there is a real thought and behavior and includes environmental world that human cognitive systems normally regularities as part of the natural condition for perceive and understand reliably. For the sake humans. of processing efficiency or utility, human concep- Another sense of “nature” or “natural” used tual systems may, however, lead to errors in in CSR concerns the fluency or automaticity of accurately discerning reality. Scientific methods thought or behavior. Those capacities that and reason are seen as methods for overcoming require little conscious effort or deliberation this inaccuracy and discerning truth about the are said to be more natural than those that world. Perception is the principal process through require more effort. With much practice, which humans come to know reality through the other processing fluency may occur as in many senses. Knowledge amounts to accurate beliefs forms of expertise. For experts, a specific kind about the world. of information processing may become “natural.” Time Both senses of what is part of human nature The concept of historical time is not important in and what is natural can be used in a relative CSR. Cognitive faculties are assumed not to have manner. That is, different attributes, ideas, or changed meaningfully through history. When practices may be said to be more or less natural. considering origins of religious thought, how- Language use is more natural (in both senses) ever, considerations of prehistory and evolution- than algebra. Religious thought, according to ary pressures in ancestral conditions lead to CSR, is more natural in the first sense (and for a longer-scale view of time. most people in the second sense as well) than scientific reasoning. That something is judged to Consciousness be part of human nature or not or relatively nat- CSR has not been concerned with philosophical ural does not constitute a value judgment. questions concerning consciousness. Cognitive The concept world does not feature promi- scientists of religion tend to use fairly common- nently in CSR, but could indicate the external sense understanding of consciousness, often environment of humans (as in “the world in labeling “conscious” only those processes of which Tibetan monks live”) or the general which one has either awareness or which one entirety of humanity (as in “religion is practiced can verbalize. Nonconscious cognitive processes around the world”). are seen as a major source of information and constraint on the emergence of recurrent ideas Human Being or cultural practices. In CSR, human beings are to be studied as mem- bers of a particular species, Homo sapiens. How Rationality/Reason human beings compare with other animals in As in psychology, CSR focuses on how people terms of cognitive capacities and ability to think and reason rather than whether they are develop cumulative culture (as in religious tradi- rational or the nature of rationality. Reason is tions) is an area of contention. viewed as a consciously accessible, reflective C 412 Cognitive Science Psychology cognitive activity that is less tightly constrained that nonconscious thought. Cognitive Science Psychology Mystery Justin L. Barrett Cognitive science of religion resists classifying Thrive Center for Human Development, phenomena as mystery. Instead, it attempts to Graduate School of Psychology, Fuller dissect mysteries into empirically tractable Theological Seminary, Pasadena, CA, USA problems. Related Terms Relevant Themes Cognition; Cognitive anthropology; Cognitive Recurrence developmental psychology; Cognitive science Cognitive scientists of religion often write about of religion; Evolutionary psychology; Experi- the recurrence of cognitive capacities and of mental psychology; Psychology ideas, behaviors, and forms of cultural expres- sion. Recurrence refers to appearance across indi- viduals. A recurrent cognitive capacity is fluency Description in processing human faces. Religion is said to be a recurrent form of cultural expression in that it Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary science of appears across individuals and cultural groups the mind – particularly, but not exclusively, the but is not, strictly speaking, universal. CSR human mind. One major disciplinary contributor is aims to account for recurrence of religious phe- psychology. The subfields of psychology that nomena by appeal to recurrent cognitive contribute most to cognitive science are cognitive capacities. psychology, cognitive developmental psychology, evolutionary psychology, social cognition, and psycholinguistics. Cognitive psychology, Cross-References a designation attributable to Ulric Neisser’s 1967 book of that title, is concerned with the structures ▶ Cognitive Science Psychology and dynamics of (human) information-processing ▶ Psychology of Religion systems including attention, concepts and catego- rization, language structure and use, memory, thinking and reasoning, and sensation and percep- tion (Neisser 1967). (Cognitive psychology should References be distinguished from therapeutic forms of psychological study and practice that include the Barrett, J. L. (2000). Exploring the natural foundations of label “cognitive,” particularly cognitive therapy religion. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 29–34. and cognitive-behavioral therapy.) Rather than Barrett, J. L. (2007). Cognitive science of religion: What is it and why is it? Religion Compass, 1(6), 768–786. having a different content focus, cognitive devel- Boyer, P. (1994). The naturalness of religious ideas. opmental psychology concerns how these mental A cognitive theory of religion. Berkeley: University structures and dynamics are acquired and if and of California Press. Guthrie, S. E. (1993). Faces in the clouds: A new theory of how they change over the course of the life span. religion. New York: Oxford University Press. Particular attention has focused on early childhood Lawson, E. T., & McCauley, R. N. (1990). Rethinking and how children come to understand the world religion: Connecting cognition and culture. around them and learn to act upon it. Similarly, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. evolutionary psychology brings a particular Whitehouse, H. (1995). Inside the cult: Religious innova- tion and transmission in Papua New Guinea. Oxford: perspective to the study of cognition rather than Clarendon. primarily representing a content area. As applied Cognitive Science Psychology 413 C to the study of cognition, evolutionary psychology that human minds are naturally formless, blank attempts to explain why certain mental structures slates indiscriminately waiting for the environ- might have evolved to solve information- ment to write anything upon them. Early experi- processing problems as opposed to others and ments demonstrated that people and animals are how the cognitive architecture of Homo sapiens biased to create some associations over others sapiens might differ from that of ancestral homi- (such as fear of snakes as opposed to daisies) and nids and other animals and why (Buss 2007). that human working memory (what can be held in C Psychologists taking an evolutionary perspective conscious attention at once) is limited to approxi- will sometimes study the minds and behaviors of mately seven (plus or minus two) chunks of infor- nonhuman species. Social cognition is a focus of mation. These experiments demonstrate that it is social psychology on social thought, how humans possible to examine the architecture of the human form and use social categories (such as roles, races, mind and how it might be naturally biased or groups, and relations), and how different cognitive restricted in the way it processes information. capacities are activated by and, in turn, shape social The findings also suggest that in the background interaction. On the one hand, psycholinguistics is of interindividual and intergroup differences in the subfield of psychology concerned with how thought and behavior might be species-wide cognitive architecture enables the acquisition and psychological generalities. use of language and how the language faculty then The broadening of psychology by the cogni- helps explain the range of linguistic expression tive revolution has enabled psychology to explore observed around the world (Chomsky 1968). fruitfully many areas of human thought and On the other hand, psycholinguistics concerns behavior. Exciting topics beginning to receive how language use impacts other cognitive capaci- considerable attention over recent decades ties such as concept formation, reasoning, creativ- include creativity, moral and normative reason- ity, and perception. Because of its focus on one ing, social intelligence and related areas such as particular cognitive capacity that gives rise to perspective taking and empathy, and applications a particular form of cultural expression, psycholin- to nonlinguistic forms of cultural expression such guistics is often treated as a distinct discipline as art and aesthetics, music, and religion. Essen- rather than a subfield of psychology. tially, any area of thought is now considered The genesis of the contemporary cognitive amenable to psychological investigation. emphases in psychology may be traced to the so- called cognitive revolution that started in the late 1940s and gathered momentum in the 1950s and Self-identification 1960s. For approximately the first half of the twentieth century, scientific psychology was dom- Psychology self-identifies as a science and often inated by behaviorism, a school of thought self-consciously so. Because of the cultural championed by John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner, prominence of the therapeutic side of psychol- wherein the only legitimate psychological science ogy, psychologists active in the scientific side of was the study of human behavior as it was shaped the field sometimes refer to their work as by environmental contingencies. Mental states “psychological science” or, if appropriate, were considered irrelevant and thus entirely “cognitive science.” This scientific face of psy- ignored. This behaviorist focus assumed that chology justifies its identification as a science by within the range of normal biological develop- the fact that it employs standard scientific ment, the only factors that affected human behav- assumptions and methodological frameworks. ior and led to differences in dispositions, Psychologists attempt to generate empirically fal- expression, and so forth were environmental. The sifiable hypotheses that may be tested through cognitive revolution rejected both the idea that experimentation or other controlled forms of minds and mental states could not be studied investigation. Sources of data must be objectively scientifically and the radical empiricist assumption observable behaviors such as reaction times to C 414 Cognitive Science Psychology computer-presented displays, answers on ques- activities of individuals (usually humans). tionnaires, eye gaze direction, verbal reactions, Further, unlike conventional anthropology, lin- pulse rate, or blood flow to parts of the brain. guistics, philosophy, and much computer science, These data enable inferences to mental states, psychology places heavy emphasis on what can structures, and dynamics. Though psychologists be learned through experimental methods, as may use qualitative data to contextualize and described above. amplify their studies, studies based on quantita- Like other contributors to cognitive science, tive data are the gold standard. however, psychologists see the mind as Like all natural sciences, psychology relies a computer – that is, as a machine that is capable heavily upon experimental methods, but because of processing information. The principles of ethical and practical constraints limit the amount computation that go into creating computers are of experimental control that psychologists can therefore used to understand how the mind works. exercise over their subjects (particularly human subjects, also called “participants”), psycholo- gists use statistics to control for those factors Relevance to Science and Religion they cannot manipulate. For instance, when studying memory for lists of words, From its inception, modern psychology has con- a psychologist could experimentally manipulate tributed to the scientific study of religion. Psychol- whether the words are presented orally or visu- ogists have investigated religious experience, ally, but only statistically control for the age, sex/ origins of religious beliefs and practices, forma- gender, or nationality of the subjects. tion of individuals’ god images, religious develop- Behind all of these scientific methods, ment and conversion, and how religiosity impacts psychology presumes methodological naturalism. social attitudes, morality, and psychological That is, psychologists generally search out strictly adjustment – to name just a few representative natural mechanisms for the phenomena under con- areas. Questions such as whether religious partic- siderations, foregoing alleged supernatural causes, ipation is good or bad for individuals, whether even in the case of psychology of religion. religion is the result of psychopathology, and what emotional or relational functions religions serve are all decidedly psychological questions. Characteristics This subfield of psychology called psychology of religion can claim more than 100 years of history, Psychology is further distinctive among the though its decidedly cognitive expression, such as so-called social sciences in that it generally that manifested in the area called cognitive science takes a single individual as its unit of analysis. of religion, did not begin to emerge until the end of Ultimately, psychologists are interested in the twentieth century (Lawson and McCauley explaining individual thought, beliefs, and 1990; Barrett 2004). behavior; groups, such as those based on age, gender, nationality, etc., are only relevant insofar as placing individuals into them can help explain Sources of Authority variability. Consequently, psychologists often take the perspective known as methodological As with scientists generally, psychologists view individualism, which implies that the origin and their scholarship as gradually and collectively development of social institutions can – and accumulating knowledge through controlled should – be explained in terms of the summation empirical investigation supplemented by theoret- of the actions of individuals. ical analysis. Consequently, the most valued Psychology is generally distinguished from authoritative sources in this discipline are recent the other contributors to cognitive science by its refereed journal articles rather than classic texts reliance on data gathered from the behavioral or pronouncements of prestigious individuals. Cognitive Science Psychology 415 C Journal articles receive their authority by the that leads to questioning assumptions. This skep- assumption that they have been carefully scruti- ticism motivates the investigation of issues nized for methodological rigor and theoretical that would otherwise be taken for granted. importance by experts in the field who are often For example, most people believe that parental blind to the identity of the authors and their insti- influence is the strongest determinant of tutional affiliation. The ideal empirical journal children’s religious or political orientation, that article in the field is written in such a way that playing violent video games causes adolescents C critical readers could replicate the protocol and to become more violent, and that their preference analyses for themselves. The truth of psycholog- for one object or face over another is not ical claims is meant to be based upon broadly influenced by familiarity, but, in most cases, accepted principles of accurate scientific investi- these beliefs are not based on data. Psychologists gation and sound statistical reasoning and see it as their objective to provide such data, logic. Scientific psychologists are suspicious of whether it confirms or disconfirms the commonly arguments from authority, of the use of anecdotes held belief. as evidence, and of rhetorical flourish. Partly to In addition to this questioning approach, psy- reduce the influence of the latter on the way chologists aim to avoid injecting their prejudices arguments are perceived, most psychological into the scientific process. It is good psychologi- journals require that all submissions conform to cal practice to test an explanation that one the stylistic principles dictated by the American believes to be correct against other, alternative Psychological Association (i.e., APA style) explanations, even when the original explanation (American Psychological Association 2009). appears adequate to account for the phenomenon at hand. Ethical Principles Conceptualization Today, psychologists have to comply with ethical guidelines provided by professional associations Nature/World or university-wide boards (e.g., the Institutional In psychology, nature can have several mean- Review Board system in the USA) that restrict the ings. As psychologists explore human thought kinds of studies that are permitted on the basis of and behavior, they often consider whether mental whether participation is likely to involve any ill structures, behavioral patterns, or even neural consequences and ensure that participants’ architecture are best understood as a consequence responses are anonymous and confidential, unless of nurture – the contingent factors in a given the research question requires otherwise. Most human’s environment – or nature. Nature, in professional journals in psychology require that this context, typically refers to human biological any data presented be obtained in accordance to endowment including genetics. Contemporary ethical guidelines. Many psychological studies, psychologists know full well that the theoretical however, use deception or misinformation in constructs of nature and nurture are never order to obtain data that would otherwise be disentangled in the real world. Even solidly bio- impossible to gather. In all studies, but particu- logical drives, such as for food, that might appear larly in those that involve deceptions, participants paradigmatic cases of natural features of humans are thoroughly debriefed after participation. are impacted by environmental (nurture) factors from biochemical environments in which human bodies develop and function to the variable envi- Key Values ronmental conditions that channel these drives into specific behaviors. Among the fundamental values to which most Nature (as in “human nature”) may also refer psychologists subscribe is a healthy skepticism to those features of human thought and behavior C 416 Cognitive Science Psychology that are cross-culturally recurrent and do not tend In this context, “the world” can be synonymous to depend heavily upon any specific environmen- with nurture and antonymous of nature. tal conditions – physical, ecological, or social. For instance, upright, bipedal walking is Human Being a human universal (barring developmental disor- For the psychological scientist, human beings are ders or environmental insults) that is not depen- to be studied as natural objects, members of dent upon special environmental or social a particular species. Thus, the psychological conditions. As such, walking is part of human study of humans and that of animals (which nature and might be termed “natural.” Similarly, often falls under the scope of cognitive ethology though spoken languages vary across cultures, or behavioral ecology) are assumed to require the the ability to use spoken language is cross- same methodological tools. How human beings culturally recurrent, appearing to only require differ from other animals is an ongoing area of general human biological endowment plus ordi- contention with some psychologists emphasizing nary human environmental conditions. Thus, what appear to be radically different sets of spoken language, too, is part of human nature. capacities that humans possess as compared This broader sense of “nature” accepts environ- with other species (such generation of language mental conditions as inextricable factors contrib- and ability to abstractly and reflectively reason). uting to human thought and behavior and Others emphasize the continuity of humans includes environmental regularities as part of with other animals, suggesting that human beings the natural condition for humans. differ from other animals primarily in degree A third sense of “nature” or “natural” used in of cognitive capacity (such as intelligence, psychology concerns the fluency of information conscious reflection, self-awareness, ability to processing or automaticity of behavior. Those use symbols and tools, and so forth). capacities for thought and behavior that require little conscious effort or deliberation are said to Life and Death be more natural than those that require more Psychologists are not concerned with the origins of effort. To illustrate, from birth, people readily life generally. They typically consider individual and automatically discriminate human faces in life to begin with birth, but developmental psy- their environments and (barring developmental chologists sometimes use conception as the start- disorders or environmental insults) continue to point for life especially when studying neonates show fine-grained facial discrimination through- that might have been born at different lengths of out life. The ease with which humans process gestation. Psychologists generally see death as the information about human faces is evidence of endpoint of human development. Psychologists its relative naturalness. With much practice, may, however, study conceptions of life, living other processing fluency may occur as in many things, and death and what happens after it. forms of expertise. Chess masters, for instance, can automatically process relative positions Reality, Knowledge, Truth, Perception of chess pieces much faster and easier than nov- These four concepts are interrelated in modern ices. For these experts, this specific kind of psychology. Generally, psychological science information processing has become “natural.” rests on realist epistemological foundations. The concept world does not feature promi- Psychologists typically assume that human cog- nently in psychology. “The world” could refer nitive systems are such that they normally pro- to the entire human population as when saying duce accurate knowledge about reality. They see that a highly recurrent human trait is common perception as the principal process through which “everywhere in the world.” “The world” could humans come to know reality through the senses. also be used to indicate the external environment Though generally reliable, perception is not of humans as when psychologists talk about how thought by psychologists to be error-free; on the people try to understand the world they live in. contrary, much research in psychology describes Cognitive Science Psychology 417 C the biases that affect perception and the resulting are framed; and to follow others’ behavior rather disconnect between mistaken perception and than assessing its appropriateness and utility. reality or what is false and what is true. Similarly, conceptual biases and heuristics may lead to dis- Mystery tortions regarding what is true and real (Gilovich Scientific psychology attempts to eliminate 1991). Psychologists regard scientific methods mystery whenever possible, recasting mysterious and reason as tools for overcoming error and phenomena as psychological problems that might C discerning truth. be addressed empirically. Time The concept of historical time is not important to Relevant Themes psychologists. Psychological faculties are not assumed to have changed in significant ways Perception through history. If, however, time is taken to Cognitive psychology and related areas of cogni- mean duration, it becomes relevant to psychology. tive science in part concern how people process Reaction time, for example, is a commonly used information about their environment (or about indirect measure of the nature and complexity of their internal sensations) in order to understand cognitive processing. what it is they are experiencing – the process of perception. Inasmuch as religious experiences Consciousness require the representation and interpretation of Philosophers are more concerned than psycholo- either external or internal stimuli, the study gists with the task of tracing the borders of the of religious experience may be impacted by psy- conscious and unconscious. Psychologists tend to chological understandings of perception generally. use fairly commonsense understanding of these terms, often labeling “conscious” only those pro- Information Learning cesses of which one has either awareness or One subarea of psychological science is how which one can verbalize. For example, studies people acquire ideas and information – both from that involve priming, whereby a stimulus is perceptual data and from communication. shown to affect a response even when one has The dynamics of how ideas can be effectively no awareness of it doing so, are often taken to be shared bears upon religious education and com- showing unconscious influences on behavior. munication. Further, when considering religious thought or practice, generally we are considering Rationality/Reason culturally shared thoughts or practices. The Psychologists generally focus on how people do dynamics of how ideas are transmitted, and think and reason rather than whether they are whether our cognitive systems are more or less rational or the nature of rationality. Nevertheless, receptive to certain kinds of information learning psychologists do frequently contrast formal over others, may importantly shape which ideas models of rational thought with actual practice. spread widely and become adopted as religious For instance, the work of a number of cognitive (Boyer 2001). Applying such a cognitive perspec- psychologists, including Nobel Prize winner tive to the study of religion is a major emphasis of Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, has the area known as cognitive science of religion. shown that humans do not always make decisions in accordance to rational economic principles, such as that of utility maximization (Kahneman and Tversky 1979). For example, people have References often been shown to use heuristics, or rules of American Psychological Association. (2009). Publication thumb, rather than rational analysis; to be manual of the American Psychological Association influenced by irrelevant aspects of how problems (6th ed.). APA: Washington, DC. C 418 Cognitive Therapy (CT) Barrett, J. L. (2004). Why would anyone believe in God. of truth), coherentism is an account of what it is for Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira. a proposition to be true. In this sense, coherentism Boyer, P. (2001). Religion explained: The evolutionary origins of religious thought. New York: Basic Books. is the theory that a proposition is true when it Buss, D. (2007). Evolutionary psychology: The new science coheres with a system of beliefs. As an epistemic of the mind (3rd ed.). New York: Allyn & Bacon. position (the coherence theory of justification), Chomsky, N. (1968). Language and mind. New York: coherentism is a theory of what it is for Harcourt, Brace & World. Gilovich, T. (1991). How we know what isn’t so: The a proposition to be justified. Coherentism in this fallibility of human reason in everyday life. sense is the view that one is justified in believing New York: Free Press. a proposition when it coheres with a system of Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An beliefs. The two types of coherentism are often analysis of decisions under risk. Econometrica, 47, 313–327. closely related since epistemic coherentism can be Lawson, E. T., & McCauley, R. N. (1990). Rethinking used to argue for a coherence theory of truth. religion: Connecting cognition and culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology. New York: Appleton. Epistemic Coherentism Epistemic coherentism is the view that a proposition is justified by coherence with Cognitive Therapy (CT) a system of beliefs (i.e., propositions held to be true), each of which is also justified by coherence Jason Slone with other beliefs in a system. In some versions of Tiffin University, Tiffin, OH, USA epistemic coherentism, justified beliefs cohere with the beliefs of some individual. In other ver- sions, beliefs are justified by coherence with the Cognitive therapy seeks to help patients over- beliefs of some community. Notable defenses of come mental difficulties by identifying and epistemic coherentism include BonJour (1985), changing dysfunctional thinking, behavior, and Lehrer (1974) and Lehrer (2000). For a discus- emotional responses. sion see Kvanvig (2011). One can be an epistemic coherentist about all propositions or only propositions in certain clas- ses. A partial epistemic coherentist could hold, Coherentism for example, that religious beliefs are justified by coherence with other religious beliefs (of James O. Young some individual or community) without adopting Department of Philosophy, University of a global coherentist account of how beliefs in Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada general are justified. For a discussion of coherentism and religious belief see Plantigna (1986). Similarly, one can be an epistemic Related Terms coherentist about moral beliefs without being a coherentist about other sorts of beliefs. Epistemology; Truth Coherentism about moral beliefs is related to Rawls’s view that a moral belief is justified when it stands in “wide reflective equilibrium” Description with other moral beliefs (Rawls 1971). According to epistemic coherentism, justifica- Coherentism comes in alethic and epistemic ver- tion is the result of a relationship among beliefs. sions. As an alethic doctrine (the coherence theory This relationship may be described as mutual Coherentism 419 C inferential support. One belief in a system world). A similar position was adopted by Quine. receives deductive or inductive inferential See Quine (1960) and Quine and Ullian (1970). support from other beliefs and is consequently Some epistemologists have developed theo- justified. These other beliefs can be inferred ries that are designed to combine features of from still other beliefs and are justified. Eventu- foundationalism and coherentism. See, for exam- ally, all beliefs are supported by the others in ple, the foundherentism of Haack (1993). Haack a system. believes that a satisfactory epistemology must C Epistemic coherentism is motivated by have a place for the justification of empirical a rejection of both foundationalism and skepti- beliefs by experience (as does experiential cism. Epistemic coherentists believe that propo- foundationalism). She also holds that justification sitions can be justified, and consequently they often takes the form of beliefs mutually reject skepticism. At the same time they reject supporting each other. foundationalism. Foundationalism is the view that beliefs can be identified which do not require justification because they are self-evident. These Alethic Coherentism propositions are the foundation on which all other justified beliefs rest, that is, all other propositions The coherence theory of truth provides an are justified by reference to foundational alternative to the correspondence theory of propositions. In modern epistemology, the foun- truth, the pragmatic theory of truth, and the var- dational beliefs have usually been thought to be ious deflationary theories of truth. Coherentism beliefs about current experience. Coherentists in this sense is, like the correspondence and believe that all propositions are in need of justi- pragmatic theories of truth and unlike deflation- fication. In particular, they hold that beliefs about ary theories, a substantive theory of truth. As what is currently observed are in need of a substantive, non-deflationary theory of truth, justification. alethic coherentism states that truth is a property Contemporary epistemic coherentism emerged of propositions. In particular, it is the property of as a result of two failures of logical empiricism. being true when it stands in the relation of coher- The first was the failure of the logical empiricists ence to a system of beliefs. to identify a class of observation (or “protocol”) Several accounts can be given of system of sentences (propositions) that are not in need of beliefs with which true propositions cohere. On justification. Neurath (1983) held that any propo- one account, true propositions are those which sition, even an observation sentence, can be cohere with some actual system of beliefs. On rejected on the grounds that it is inconsistent another account, true propositions cohere with with other propositions that are held to be true. some ideal system of beliefs. This ideal system The second was the failure of logical empiricists to could be the system of beliefs adopted, at some show how all propositions, including universal ideal limit of inquiry, by being with the cognitive generalizations (which are common in science) capacities of humans. Alternatively, the ideal and propositions about the past and future, can be system could be that of a being or beings with justified by appeal to foundational beliefs about greater cognitive capacities than humans. In par- what is currently observed. Neurath used his ticular, the ideal system of beliefs could be that of image of rebuilding a ship while it is at sea to an omniscient being, that is, God. illustrate his view that the justification of any Two sorts of consideration have led philoso- belief is provided by other beliefs. Any belief can phers to adopt a coherence theory of truth. In the be part of the ship (i.e., the system of beliefs) or first instance, some philosophers have been excluded from it, so long as adjustments are made attracted to alethic coherentism by metaphysical elsewhere in the ship that enables it to remain considerations. A correspondence theory of truth afloat (i.e., it enables people to navigate the depends on a distinction between beliefs C 420 Coherentism (i.e., propositions held to be true) and what makes ensues. For this sort of argument see Young beliefs true. Certain forms of idealism suggest (1995). In that the coherence theory of truth that only beliefs exist. This leads to the view links the concept of truth to the concept of what that truth must be the result of a relationship can be justified (or warrantedly assertable), and among beliefs. Walker (1989) attributes alethic coherentism has an epistemic conception a coherence theory of truth to Spinoza, Kant, of truth. Fichte, and Hegel. Some British Idealists adopted The relation of coherence, as employed in the alethic coherentism in the last years of the nine- coherence theory of truth, is closely related to the teenth century and the first decades of the twen- relation of coherence employed by epistemic tieth. See, for example, F.H. Bradley (1914). coherentism. That is, according to the alethic Epistemological considerations have also coherentist, a proposition coheres with a system motivated philosophers to adopt a coherence the- of beliefs (and is true) when the proposition can ory of truth. Blanshard (1939) believed that be deductively or inductively inferred from a coherence theory of truth follows from beliefs in the system. a coherence theory of justification. He takes Once the coherence theory of truth is stated in epistemic coherentism to be correct and the these terms, it becomes vulnerable to two stan- coherence of a proposition with a system of dard objections. The first of these may be called beliefs to be a reliable test of its truth. However, the specification problem, which can be traced to Blanshard suggests, if truth consists in correspon- Russell (1907). The specification problem dence to reality, there is no reason for coherence challenges the alethic coherentist to specify the with a system of beliefs to be a reliable test of system of beliefs with which true propositions truth. He concludes that the truth of a proposition cohere without presupposing a non-coherentist consists in its coherence with a system of beliefs. conception of truth. Initially the problem is that Rescher (1973) holds that this argument only there is any number of equally consistent sets of succeeds if coherence with a system of beliefs is propositions. Many propositions will cohere with an infallible test of truth (which he denies). one of these systems without being true. For Otherwise, a belief could be justified but not true. example, the proposition that Alice slew the Jab- The alethic coherentist needs to provide an berwocky coheres with a possible set of proposi- argument for believing that a proposition is true tions, but is not true. The alethic coherentist can when it is justified by coherence with a system of respond that the system of propositions with beliefs. Anti-realism of the sort defended by which true propositions cohere is a set of Dummett (1978) can be used to defend the con- propositions which is believed. If coherentist clusion that truth is to be identified with what is adopts this position, the specification problem justified (or warrantedly assertable, as Dummett reemerges in another form. Walker (1989) argues says). This argument would start from the pre- that the proposition that some set of propositions mise that the meaning of a proposition consists its is the one that is believed can only be true truth conditions. Suppose then, for the sort of because, as a matter of fact, people believe it. reasons Dummett advances, that the meaning of But then there is a proposition (namely, the prop- any proposition consists in the conditions under osition that a specified set of propositions is which it is warrantedly assertable (or justified). It believed) which is true because of a relation to follows that the truth conditions of any proposi- matter of fact, not as a result of a relation among tion are the conditions under which it is justified. propositions. This is contrary to the coherence If the conditions under which a proposition is theory of truth. justified are the conditions under which it coheres The second standard objection to the coher- with a system of beliefs, and the conditions under ence theory of truth may be called the transcen- which a proposition is true are the conditions dence problem. According to this objection, truth under which it is justified, alethic coherentism transcends what coheres with any system of Collective Action 421 C beliefs. This position can be motivated by con- ▶ Philosophy of Language sidering examples of propositions which are ▶ Positivism/Neopositivism apparently true but which do not cohere with ▶ Truth any actual system of beliefs. Consider the propo- sition that there is an even number of stars in the universe. Either it or its negation, by the law of excluded middle, is true. Nevertheless, neither References C the proposition nor its negation coheres with Blanshard, B. (1939). The Nature of Thought. London: any system of beliefs. Proponents of the transcen- G. Allen and Unwin. dence problem conclude that a proposition can be BonJour, L. (1985). The structure of empirical knowledge. true even though it does not cohere with a system Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bradley, F. H. (1914). Essays on truth and reality. Oxford: of beliefs. Clarendon. Some versions of alethic coherentism are Dummett, M. (1978). Truth and other enigmas. London: immune to the transcendence problem. If truth Duckworth. is coherence with the beliefs of an omniscient Haack, S. (1993). Evidence and inquiry. Oxford: Blackwell. being, the objection fails since every truth Kvanvig, J. (2011). Coherentist theories of epistemic jus- coheres with the set of beliefs of an omniscient tification. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclo- being. However, some versions of alethic pedia of philosophy (summer 2011 Ed.). Stanford, CA: coherentism hold that the truth of a proposition Stanford University. http://plato.stanford.edu/ archives/sum2011/entries/justep-coherence consists in coherence with a system of beliefs Lehrer, K. (1974). Knowledge. Oxford: Clarendon. which finite knowers hold or could hold. These Lehrer, K. (2000). Theory of knowledge (2nd ed.). Boul- versions of the theory must cope with the tran- der: Westview. scendence problem. Alethic coherentists can Neurath, O. (1983). In R. S. Cohen & M. Neurath (Eds.), Philosophical papers 1913–46. Dordrecht/Boston: defend their position against the transcendence D. Reidel. objection by maintaining that the objection begs Plantigna, A. (1986). Coherentism and the evidentialist the question. Those who present the objection objection to theistic belief. In W. Wainwright & R. assume that it is possible that some proposition Audi (Eds.), Rationality, religious belief, and moral commitment (pp. 109–138). Ithaca: Cornell University be true even though it does not cohere with any Press. set of beliefs. This is precisely what advocates of Quine, W. V. O. (1960). Word and object. Cambridge, the coherence theory of truth deny. Coherence MA: MIT Press. theorists have arguments for believing that truth Quine, W. V. O., & Ullian, J. S. (1970). The Web of belief. New York: Random House. cannot transcend what coheres with some set of Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Cambridge, MA: beliefs. Their opponents need to take issue with Harvard University Press. these arguments rather than simply assert that Rescher, N. (1973). The coherence theory of truth. truth can transcend what coheres with Oxford: Oxford University Press. Russell, B. (1907). On the nature of truth. Proceedings of a specified system. the Aristotelian Society, 7, 228–249. Both epistemic and alethic coherentism con- Walker, R. C. S. (1989). The coherence theory of truth: tinue to find defenders among contemporary phi- Realism, anti-realism, idealism. London/New York: losophers. Epistemic coherentism is more widely Routledge. Young, J. O. (1995). Global-anti-realism. Aldershot: held, but the coherence theory of truth also has Avebury. advocates. Cross-References Collective Action ▶ Epistemology ▶ Metaphysics ▶ Collective Behavior C 422 Collective Behavior Collective Behavior is a fascinating social Collective Behavior phenomenon that cannot be restricted to a specific type of social, political, psychological, Emanuela C. Del Re economic process or behavior, because it is University “Niccolo` Cusano” of Rome, wider, multifaceted, and inclusive. Concisely, Rome, Italy the concept of Collective Behavior can be defined as a response to problematic situations and circumstances. Related Terms The studies on Collective Behavior focus on the motivations, the modalities, and the dynamics Collective action; Collective interests; Crowd; that characterize the evolution of this response, Social movements and refer to the spontaneous manifestation of behavioral patterns as well as to organized social movements. Among all these modalities, there Description are riots, lynching, responses to natural disasters, panic, rumors, revolutions, and rebellions, a very (1) A complex concept. (2) Theories. (3) Analyt- wide range of situations and responses, that ren- ical approaches. (4) Social Movements. der Collective Behavior a term that covers a field (5) Dynamics. (6) Future perspectives. without definite borders. While this constitutes its limits on the one hand, it is also a resource and an A Complex Concept ongoing challenge on the other, because it leads Collective Behavior, unlike other concepts in to continuous redefinition and update. social science, is very wide, complex, and diffi- The concept of Collective Behavior has cult to define. It includes different behaviors, changed and adjusted to the evolution of society, structures, processes, and contexts. Many because being related to social rules and expec- areas of sociology and psychology, as well as tations, when these change, it also changes. economics and political science, involve the Moreover, the concept has broadened, because study of Collective Behavior, often restricting the advancements in technology and its diffused the focus to particular types of it such as use, make Collective Behavior more incisive – it religious, political, deviant behavior, and can even acquire a global dimension through others. social networks, for instance- and varied in its The concept of Collective Behavior does not forms. Research on Collective Behavior has also define a group of social phenomena which can be changed and broadened, giving new impulse to objectively verifiable, but can be intended as its conceptualization – for instance on the crucial a reference to understand different sociological issue of what makes it different from other forms orientations, which sometimes converge, and of group behavior – because there are new meth- sometimes contrast. odologies which allow a wider gathering of data, Originally called “mob behavior” or “mass interdisciplinary approaches, equal application of hysteria,” Collective Behavior was believed to both qualitative and quantitative methods, recog- occur when people lose their ability to reason, nizing the fundamental contribution of both. and become temporarily insane. The perception Collective Behavior’s great interest lies in its of Collective Behavior has changed, and high cultural value, as it can explain important researchers today are aware of the fact that it social phenomena, and because of its high con- concerns many types of social events which crete and practical value; studies on the dynamics include fads and rumors, millennial movements, of Collective Behavior can help prevent unrest, social movements, miracles and religious and violence; it can also help to plan and suggest sightings, and other occurrences, not necessarily strategies as to prevent and to react to natural related to violence or brutality. disasters and human security consequences. Collective Behavior 423 C Theories During this time, in the United States, the Gustave Le Bon in The Crowd: A study of the behaviorist theories became very successful, Popular Mind (1895) can be considered the initi- with a consequent growing need to study social ator of the studies on Collective Behavior, as the phenomena with a more concrete and less theo- earliest formulations of this concept are to be retic approach. The first result of this new trend is found in crowd psychology. He affirms that the that the issues related to these fields of studies crowd is a reality sui generis, which “forms became fragmented into different fields, which C a single mind and is subjected to the law of the advance in parallel, among which emerged the mental unity of the crowds” sustaining that all new sociological field that will eventually be individual responses are lost in crowds. His the- recognized as Collective Behavior. ory is known as “Contagion Theory,” and is The Chicago School distances itself from the based on the idea that episodes of violence are rigid stimulus–response mechanism, stressing driven by animal-like instincts that spread instead the mutual influence and the continuous through a “maddening crowd” like an infection. exchange between individual and social environ- Le Bon has strongly influenced Sigmund ment. Robert Park, along with Ernest Burgess Freud, who in Mass Psychology and the analysis redefines the “Contagion Theory.” In Introduc- of the Ego (1921), integrates his theory with the tion to the Science of Sociology (1921), Park uses idea that suggestibility does not constitute an the expression “Collective Behavior” for the first explication in itself, but needs instead to be time. Collective Behavior is defined as the explained. He also affirms that the role of the behavior of individuals under the influence of leader within the crowd, and the relationship a common impulse, which is the result of social between the followers and the leader must not interaction. Social unrest, sects, social contagion, be underestimated, as he thinks Le Bon does. mass movements, propaganda, fashion, and Freud explains group participation by applying crowd mind are defined as Collective Behavior. psychoanalytic theories of the instinct-object This theory has constituted the main reference for relationships in the individual and of the decades, as the studies on this concept are few primal horde. and have been carried out by almost exclusively The post First World War period inspired those who studied under Park. Amongst them, many European theorists at that time, as the res- Herbert Blumer (1951) has studied social pro- toration of peace had not produced a climate of cesses and events saying that they do not reflect social and political serenity. The events occurred an existing social structure but emerge in in Russia, with the Bolshevik Revolution, for a spontaneous way. He has developed the theory instance, reinforced the workers’ movement, but of the “acting crowd,” that is an excited group at the same time increased the fear of a potential animated by a common goal. Blumer identifies affirmation of socialism in the rest of Europe. In five steps that turn a group of individuals into an the 1930s, many social movements of different acting crowd: social unrest, exciting event, mill- orientations emerged, eventually leading to the ing, common object of attention, and common advent of totalitarian regimes. The crowds impulses. became “organized masses”. The studies follow In the 1950s, a process starts that will lead in the evolution of these historical events, and focus the following decades to a progressive reinterpre- on the explanation of the instinct that guides the tation of these kinds of social phenomena, con- masses and influences the situation in Europe. sidering them less abnormal, not all motivated by Studies, such as The revolt of the Masses by irrational, violent, or hysterical behavior. The Jose´ Ortega y Gasset (1930), The Mass Psychol- process has contributed to individuate and under- ogy of Fascism by Wilhelm Reich (1933), and line the similarities between collective and insti- The rape of the Masses by Serghej Ciacotin tutionalized behaviors. The “Contagion Theory” (1938), express this profound need of understand- could not explain mild expressions of Collective ing the new social reality. Behavior and events, such as those related to C 424 Collective Behavior fashion, for instance. New theories and interpre- between social behaviors within the same con- tations were needed. ceptual and theoretical structure. Within the interactionist tradition – as in The categories defined by nineteenth century Collective Behavior, a study by R. H. Turner theorists, who identify different aspects of and L. M. Killian (1957) – great importance is Collective Behavior (crowd is a type of group; given to social typing and to the way in which panic is an individual psychological state; etc.) role models are created and diffused in society. have shown that the field of Collective Behavior Turner and Killian elaborate the concept of is difficult to define because it pertains to differ- “Emergent Norm Perspective,” which is ent fields and subjects that find convergences a process: When people find themselves in only by chance or tradition. According to Marx a new and unknown situation, they must create and McAdam (1994), the theorists of the twenti- new norms to adjust to the situation. The process eth century have perpetuated very similar is rational and logical, and explains that once approaches in a rather uncritical way, not distanc- everyone recognizes which behavior is appropri- ing themselves much from the original theories, ate to the situation, they adopt the behavior. Nev- with little innovation. In this way, the field can be ertheless, not all behaviors within a Collective seen as a residual category which is used to fill Behavior episode are the same. Turner and gaps in social analysis when an event cannot be Killian elaborate a classification schema in studied as social structure or other. Marx and which participants are placed according to the McAdam suggest that the “Social Movement” motivations at the basis of their decision to take theory has moved too far in the direction of the part in a collective event: They could be insecure, “Collective Action” theory and too far away from ego-involved, concerned, curious spectators, or the “Collective Behavior” theory. exploiters. Each of these motivations is neither It is interesting to note also that there are irrational nor insane. Whichever category the differences between the European and the participant belongs to, his/her behavior will be American approaches to Collective Behavior, rational as long as the individual will remain in although the following general definitions must that situation. not be intended as definite categories. Post sec- Neil Smelser has offered another sociological ond World War American sociology has been approach in Theory of Collective Behaviour dominated mainly by functionalism (the concept (1963). His “value-added schema” suggests that of “institution,” “integration,” “socialization”) the determinants of Collective Behavior are and therefore, the concept of Collective given by a sequence of events and elements: Behavior – linked to that of “social movements” – structural conduciveness; structural strain; has been introduced and acquired only with growth and the spread of a generalized belief; the emergence of the protests and organized precipitating factors; mobilization of the partici- movements which developed in the 1960s in the pants for action; operation of social control. The United States: the student movement, the Civil latter, Smelser sustains, is particularly important Rights movement, the protests against the because it determines the duration and the sever- Vietnam war, and others. The fact that these ity of the episode of Collective Behavior. Smelser movements were characterized by the refusal of defines Collective Behavior as “a mobilization on dominant values, and often recurred to violence, the basis of a belief which redefines social action” indicated, somehow unpredictably, that the (Smelser 1963: 8) and views it as episodes of mechanisms of social and cultural integration group behavior that relieve some social strain. were weak and not responding to the new Since the end of the 1970s, sociologists have demands and needs. tried to overcome the distinction between con- Europe, on the contrary, has been influenced ventional behavior and Collective Behavior, strongly by a Marxist interpretation of society aiming to identify convergences and divergences according to which the social organization is Collective Behavior 425 C based on a conflict or on a relationship of Analytical Approaches subordination. There are various analytical approaches to Col- In the United States, Collective Behavior is lective Behavior, which derive from the concep- interpreted as marginal and as the result of tual frameworks of the protection of interests, malfunctioning social integration mechanisms; reform movements, and social movements. in Europe, the Marxist interpretation tends to The first approach is related to the individual focus the analysis on opposite Collective Behav- self-interest. A traditional assumption in eco- C iors, which end up by depicting a dramatic image nomic models of human behavior is that people of history. behave exclusively in accord with their own self- The different interpretations of the concept of interest. However, there is a growing apprecia- Collective Behavior all share the idea that they tion that people are inherently social creatures, are the expression of general dissatisfaction and that people often intrinsically care about the regarding a purely liberal vision of social life, welfare not only of each other as individuals but which reduces society merely to market interac- also of the groups to which they belong. tions. In fact, the specific feature of a market, The main analytical question regards how the above all when its mechanisms are not altered protection of individual interests can lead to by coalitions, is that it favors a rational quest for Collective Behavior. The answer can be found individual interest. An “open” society would then in the famous free-rider paradox by Olson be made entirely by individual stories, which (1965: 2): “(. . .) the individual in any large could only be linked in statistical groupings. group with a common interest will reap only Stratification in these open societies can be rele- a minute share of the gains from whatever sacri- vant; nevertheless, it does not necessarily mean fices the individual makes to achieve this com- that individuals who belong to the same stratum mon interest. Since any gain goes to everyone in would be able to organize Collective Behaviors. the group, those who contribute nothing to the It is more probable, however, that they will share effort will get just as much as those who made similar or common behaviors with regard to opin- a contribution (. . .) large groups, at least if they ions, consumerism trends, and social mobility. are composed of rational individuals, will not act This is the principle at the basis of opinion in their group interest.” Olson has observed, being polls, which explains why they are largely dif- a prominent representative of methodological fused in western societies: They are considered individualism, that if individual interest is well able to propose a reliable model of individualized understood, it must lead individuals to nonparti- behaviors, which are then statistically catego- cipation, rather than to participation in collective rized according to preferences. action. It would be more rational to let others take All this suggests that there can be Collective the responsibility and the costs of collective action Behavior only in societies which are not entirely (for instance, a demonstration, a strike) and then open, or, as most theorists affirm, societies which profit from the result without any involvement. are dominated by power, therefore operating Olson affirms that particularly in labor unions, according to the logic of domination. this leads to the creation of very small negotiation Two opposite positions emerge from the stud- units because this allows each individual to better ies: On the one hand, the most liberal interpreta- understand which interest there would be in taking tion, and the theory called “Methodological part in a collective action. Individualism,” underlines the limits of all the How do interest groups and collective actions attempts to analyze Collective Behavior; on the develop? Olson finds the roots of this social phe- other hand, all those who refer to Collective nomenon in the moment in history in which the Behavior agree that a merely utilitarian and indi- unions and the mass political parties were formed vidualistic analysis of social behavior is not in Europe at the end of the nineteenth century. sufficient. Robert Michels, in his writings, explains this C 426 Collective Behavior clearly when he affirms that mass actions develop individual behavior based on the conformity to because they favor their leaders. Any political dominant norms which have been interiorized. In system evolves into an oligarchy that regulates this sense, the most important Collective Behav- all big organizations, even when they are defined iors are conformist, for instance, movements that as democratic, because they function in the inter- are inspired by the dominant values in a given est of what is often defined as their techno- society. structure. Nevertheless, the leaders do not act as Protest movements are present in all demo- individuals on a market. They are positioned cratic states. They denounce injustice, the within a more circumscribed and organized nonrecognition of the right of expression and world, the world of political leaders, in which action of specific groups. It is in fact the concept they develop a power strategy which must assure of “minority” that in the United States has given the leader him/herself, that his strategy will con- the most help to groups which were able to mobi- vince his/her own supporters to believe it is spe- lize in the name of universal principles, of human cifically intended to favor their needs. This is why rights. Modernization movements, for instance, they recur to symbolic discourse and actions are inspired by the idea of a natural evolution of aimed at reassuring their supporters, although history that requires that societies constantly this might not be coherent with their actual reconsider the principles and the institutions on behaviors. which they are based. These movements imply This introduces the “Resource Mobilization” that reforms are believed to be possible and even theory, which opposes the utilitarian approach by probable. Otherwise, the mobilization loses its underlining the limits of interpreting Collective sense and violence can spread. Peace movements, Behavior as only aimed at the protection of inter- civil rights movements, and many others have ests. This theory focuses on the ability of any achieved important goals in fostering reforms. social movement organization to successfully Reforms and the diffusion of democracy have manage and acquire resources that could be con- been the central theme of the social-democratic stituted by anything that could favor or hinder the regimes in Europe and of the British Laborism. success of the movement (votes, media coverage The British are the first to have elaborated the and other). Leaders’ actions show that between concept of industrial democracy and of social the demands of individuals and the responses, pact, allowing for great collective agreements there are power relations, which means that it is on social issues, in line with the shared principles not possible to oppose individual interests to the in the political society. collective character of action: The goods the It must be underlined that power relations, individual is aiming at are not on the market but however, cannot explain all social collective depend upon the power centers, whether govern- reactions systematically, as the affirmation of ments or enterprises. Very few social actors are the dictatorships in the twentieth century and its able to fulfill their goals without forming alli- ruinous consequences demonstrate. Collective ances or coalitions and orient their victory toward Behavior can be in fact strongly influenced by more symbolic than material gains. This kind of leaders who are gifted by an undefinable cha- analysis is very relevant, in particular when risma, as Weber defines it, which legitimates applied to specific issues such as labor unions their power. These leaders are able to persuade activities. vast masses of people with a political discourse Another approach is inspired by the hypothe- whose content – either in favor or against the sis developed by functionalist sociologists mass – is disguised in a highly symbolic narrative based on the fact that they see the formation of that renders individuals acritical and inclined to Collective Behavior as the expression of be convinced. malfunctioning institutional mechanisms. Col- Some of questions that these phenomena raise lective Behavior would then be the opposite of are still to be answered. Collective Behavior 427 C Social Movements analytical tool – as those Collective Behaviors Another analytical approach to Collective Behav- that question, through a social conflict, the way ior is constituted by social movements. They are in which a given society makes use of its defined as an organized effort by a significant resources and its cultural model. In this way, number of people to change (or resist change in) social movements in connection with Collective some major aspects of society. Behavior seem to privilege the conflict aspect, in While social movements are considered a direct connection with the concepts of protection C form of Collective Behavior by many researchers, of interests and interaction between individuals. others affirm that they must be distinguished from This analytical approach to Collective Behav- it, because social movements are organized and ior is quite demanding as it implies that there structured, while Collective Behavior is random exists an underlying central conflict in a given and chaotic. Nevertheless, they have become an society. Many studies have in fact stressed the important field of study on itself. existence of a fundamental conflict behind the The Collective Behavior theories above men- apparent variety of social behaviors, proposing tioned can be applied to the analysis of social new forms of class division and class conflict. movements. Social movements are organized, The approaches to Collective Behavior above are able to produce changes in society and to mentioned are not equally relevant. According to last for a long period of time. In The Politics of Alain Touraine, as he writes in Le retour de Mass Society (1959), Kornhauser sustains that l’acteur (1984), the concept of social movements social movements attract individuals who are is to be put at the highest level. This level, that he socially isolated and perceive themselves as calls historicite´, is also the most difficult to reach, socially insignificant. Social movements give as it constitutes the social realization of the great a sense of meaning to individuals, which cultural patterns through which a society builds renders them more social than political. The up its relations with its environment. On the con- “Mass Society” theory of Kornhauser suggests trary, interest conflicts must be positioned at the that social movements mobilize more easily peo- level of the social organization and also at the ple with weak social ties, and are led by individ- level of what sociologists call “organizations.” uals who pursue their own social interest. Reform movements must be positioned between The analysis of social movements has also the two levels, together with institutions and inspired the “Relative Deprivation” theory political mechanisms, which produce a range of which is based on the assumption that social mediations able to lead social power relations to movements form when a group of people feels forms of professional or technical organizations. deprived of what they think is their right to have. Social movements, the highest level of Denton Morrison in Some Notes Toward Theory Collective Behavior, can be formed only when of Relative Deprivation, Social Movements and the two other types of Collective Behavior – Social Change (1978) has applied this concept, protection of interests and reform movements – originally elaborated by Stouffer in Studies in which are positioned at social organization or at social psychology in World War II (1949). political level have been overcome. It is very Morrison argues that when people are dissatis- important to take into account in the analysis fied, believe to have a right to their goals, and that social behaviors must be identified and posi- believe that they will not be able to do so through tioned at the right level of the social reality conventional means, they will form a social in which they act. The analysis of Collective movement to achieve those goals. The sense of Behavior through the social movements approach unjust deprivation is a strong motivation. offers the advantage, by which it allows to stress Although the term “social movements” is this diversity, while often utilitarian analysis tends widely used in sociology, it would be better to refuse the existence of other types of Collective defined in this context – to be used as an Behavior and thus refuses other kinds of analysis. C 428 Collective Behavior Dynamics among individuals determines the pattern of All social behaviors are based on common mean- emergent groups. Forms of dialectical interaction ings and shared imagery, which allow for include competition and cooperation, as well as a collective definition of a situation. Individuals a number of behaviors that are contingent upon or groups decide to support new and disjunctive the behavior of their peers. They imitate those behavior in situations that are inherently unsta- behaviors or differentiate from them. Imitation is ble, where there is an element of choice, some very important in diffusing innovation within novelty, a crisis, attrition, conflict, competitive- a community, which is then assimilated. The ness which create a problem. These situations choice between imitation and differentiation is allow the development of Collective Behavior, often dynamic and depends upon the situation, which is dependent upon the feelings and experi- and as with cooperation and competition, it ences of the participants. implies elements of both, imitation and differen- Choice implies the existence of alternatives tiation. The base motivations in the choice of the and the opportunity to select them freely, but individual to take part in Collective Behavior or does not provide generally accepted criteria on not are also related to the fact that the individual which the selection can be based. does not need to predict group level outcomes, as Novelty is created by situations that have not successful groups can emerge from individuals been experienced before by the participants. who are strongly motivated by self-interest. Crisis emerges in extraordinary situations, and Current research focusing on modeling Col- in emergencies, which create new demands that lective Behavior aims at systematizing the devel- constitute a test for organized groups or favors the opment of more effective ways not only to predict creation of new ones. Attrition develops in the but to control collective outcomes. Even without presence of a difficulty that weakens the collec- instituting physical or abstract barriers, it may be tive effort. Competitiveness emerges when possible to indirectly control Collective Behavior a rewarding structure – that could favor individ- with substantial efficacy. According to this view, ual rather than collective solutions – influences Collective Behavior is more controllable than the a cooperative solution. Regarding conflict, it behavior of isolated individuals because of the implies a power relation of dominion, with strong influences among the individuals’ behav- a party trying to impose a claim, while its legiti- ior. This concept is at the basis of a new approach macy is challenged by another party. that intends to support effective collective orga- In all these situations, imagery and meaning nization, with the aim of allowing the formation lose their collective dimension and can be of self-organized patterns rather than dictating questioned. In many problematic situations, dif- high level structures in a system of top-down ferent elements are present at the same time, each control. As Goldstone and Gureckis sustain with its own dynamic which produces an episode (2009: 418): “this conceptualization of design definable as Collective Behavior. planning as facilitating self-organization rather One hypothesis is that groups of people create than dictating final form may have an important emergent patterns that have integrity of their moral for social systems in general.” own, and as a consequence that there are strong individual differences across different groups. Future Perspectives Although it is possible to draw many conver- There has been in recent years a renewed interest gences in the general patterns formed by people, in Collective Behavior, the reasons being many. it is important to stress the critical dimensions of First of all, the fact that there have been interest- variations. ing developments in the formal modeling of The first element to analyze is the primary Collective Behavior, which are playing an impor- motivation of individuals. Given that individuals tant role in sociology – as Macy and Willer are not only moved by self-interest, but can care (2002) and Cipriani (2005) stress – as well as in for the more general welfare, the interaction economics, psychology, and anthropology, has Collective Behavior 429 C increased interest in Collective Behavior. Second powerfully imposed themselves, through the of all, research can now count on new empirical new media and other forms of participation, in tools that have changed the way scientists the social arena. The changes in society put approach the issue of Collective Behavior, as Collective Behavior at the center of the analysis, regards dynamics and patterns. They can now even replacing institutions, which are relegated to be measured and analyzed in new ways. For a specific position. instance, the internet, mobile phones, specific Never before have Collective Behaviors been C software, and others allow the observation of as fascinating, dynamic social phenomena as they large groups of people, and the formation of are today. collective dynamics within them. Technology is playing a significant role in research as it allows the recording of the evolution of collective deci- Cross-References sion-making moments away, as in the Arab ▶ Empathy Spring where the web played a crucial role. ▶ Emotion Data can be gathered online from blogs, social networks, and others. Third of all, globalization ▶ Popular Culture and the Mass Media, Sociology of has played a significant role, as it implies more ▶ Ritual and more connectedness, with consequent phe- nomena such as de-territorialization and others, ▶ Social Psychology ▶ Violence among which, for example, the World Wide Web, that has been the object of many studies on nonlinear group dynamics. References These innovations seem to promise that Collective Behavior, in a world of collective Blumer, H. (1951). Collective behavior. In A. M. Lee ambitions, will be studied and observed more (Ed.), New outline of the principles of sociology (pp. 167–222). New York: Barnes & Noble. and more. Cipriani, R. (2005). La formazione delle rappresentazioni How Collective Behaviors will develop is dif- collettive. In Macioti (a cura di), Introduzione alla ficult to predict, although some elements of the sociologia (pp. 315–337). Milano: McGraw-Hill. recent changes can be identified. First of all, Goldstone, R. L., & Gureckis, T. M. (2009). Collective behavior. Topics in Cognitive Science, 1, 412–438. Collective Behaviors are less directed to the doi:10.1111/j.1756-8765.2009.01038.x. political and cultural centers of power and are Kornhauser, W. (1959). The politics of mass society. more focused on the defense of the autonomous New York: Free Press. actions of the actors, either in relation with the Macy, M. W., & Willer, R. (2002). From factors to actors: Computational sociology and agent-based modeling. others, in relation to central powers, or in relation Annual Review of Sociology, 28, 143–166. to external challenges and risks. Collective Marx, G. T., & McAdam, D. (1994). Collective behavior Actions in this sense require that the participation and social movements: Process and structure. Engle- of their members is more responsible and indi- wood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Morrison, D. E. (1978). Some notes toward theory on vidualized. Second of all, Collective Behaviors relative deprivation, social movements, and social mobilize their actors completely, at all levels, change. In L. E. Genevie (Ed.), Collective behavior with the consequence that there is a passage and social movements (pp. 202–209). Itasca: Peacock. from actions increasingly instrumental to actions Olson, M. (1965). The logic of collective action: Public goods and the theory of groups. Cambridge: Harvard which are also increasingly demonstrative. University Press. Collective Behaviors are now so pervasive Park, R. E. (1921). Introduction to the science of sociol- that they appeal to private life, to aspects such ogy. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. as personality and culture, and not only to insti- Smelser, N. J. (1963). Theory of collective behavior. Glencoe: Free Press. tutionalized forms of political life. Touraine, A. (1984). Le retour de l’acteur. Paris: Fayard. The actors and their relations have become the Turner, R. H., & Killian, L. M. (1957). Collective behav- most important elements of analysis, having ior. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. C 430 Collective Interests A permutation of a collection of items is a Collective Interests listing of the items in one possible order. For example, consider a team of three students ▶ Collective Behavior named Cindy, Allen, and Betty. The number of permutations of this collection is 3! = 3  2  1 = 6. In other words, there are three ways to select the first name; two ways to select the second Colonization name, and then only one name remains. The general formula is n! = n  (n–1)  (n–2)  . . . ▶ Latino Studies  3  2  1. A combination is a collection of items where order does not matter. For example, suppose a student team consists of the same three people Combinatorial Explosion named above. The number of meetings that a team can hold, where a meeting must have at Linda Sherrell least two members attending, is 3C 3 + 3C 2 or 1 + Department of Computer Science, 3 = 4 meetings. In other words, there are two kinds The University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA of meetings: 1) everyone attends and 2) two people attend, that is, one person is not present. The general formula for a combination A combinatorial explosion is a condition where follows: the numbers involved in a problem rapidly increase until they are either unmanageable or n Ck ¼ n!=½k!ðn  kÞ!: cannot be computed within our lifetimes. For example, suppose that we have a team of n members, and we want to find the total number of possible meetings that can be held, assuming that we need two or more members to hold a Commodification of Religion meeting. For example, if there are 3 members in the team, only 4 types of meetings can Alexander Darius Ornella occur; however, for 5 members, the number Department of Humanities/Religion, University increases rapidly to 1013, and it is actually of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom about 11 million billion or 11 quadrillion pos- sible types of meetings among a team with 50 members. Commodification of religion refers to religious symbols becoming commodities, objects of consumption readily available in the “supermar- ket of religion,” in economic life, and the media Combinatorics landscape. It is a process of recontextualization of religious symbols, language, and ideas from their Linda Sherrell original religious context to the media and Department of Computer Science, The consumer culture. In this process, religious University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA symbols become commodities, objects of consumption readily available in the “supermar- ket of religion” and the media landscape. The Combinatorics is a subdiscipline of mathematics. commodification of religion works on several Basic topics in combinatorics are permutations levels. The two most obvious are the (often and combinations. commercial) offers of blessings, prayers, etc., Comparative Neuroscience 431 C through the purchase of religious artifacts, books, zoology. Most basic mechanisms and structures figures, etc. The second important – and at work in nervous systems have been first obvious – level is the attachment of religious described in invertebrate and lower vertebrate values through a religious aesthetic to consumer animals like earthworms, squids, snails, horse- products. Often, the commodification of religion shoe crabs, crayfish, and rays. Considering the is related to a loss of power to shape religious limitations of experimental work on humans, the practices. medical neurosciences (neurology) have always C had an interest in animal work as well (FENS). Modern Comparative Neuroscience has amply shown that there is a wealth of fascinating Communication adaptations of animal nervous and sensory sys- tems to their specific needs. These often are very ▶ Speech different from our human needs. On the other hand, it also has been learned that the same basic principles have been at work since early evolutionary times and that brain functions, pre- Communities viously associated with the human brain only, do have parallels and precursors even in the so- ▶ Ecological Psychology called lower animals (Prete 2004). A particular feature of Comparative Neurosci- ence like that of the Neurosciences in general is its openness for other disciplines such as genet- Comparative Neuroscience ics, informatics, physics, mathematics, chemis- try, engineering, psychology, and others which Friedrich G. Barth has been a major source of its success and is also Department of Neurobiology, Faculty of Life evident from its diversification into numerous Sciences, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria subdisciplines. Description Self-Identification Comparative Neuroscience studies the nervous Comparative Neuroscience is part of the natural and sensory systems of animals widely differing sciences, applying a rigorous experimental in regard to their position in the phylogenetic approach to test the validity of hypotheses and system and ranging from those at the basis of their likelihood of being correct or wrong. Its metazoan evolution (coelenterates) to those subdisciplines differ in regard to the methods/ most highly developed (vertebrates) (Bullock technologies they apply. These include neuro- and Horridge 1965). Taking evolution for anatomy, neuroethology, neurogenetics, cyto- granted, Comparative Neuroscience is inter- chemistry, electrophysiology, mathematical ested in the structures and general principles modeling, and others. Clearly, Comparative underlying nervous processes and functions Neuroscience is not a religion. throughout the animal kingdom (Kandel et al. 2012). It is likewise interested in the particular- ities and diversity of animal species and taxa Characteristics adapted to vastly differing life styles and habitats. Comparative Neuroscience has a basic interest in Comparative Neuroscience is devoted to basic the diversity and in the adaptations of nervous research and has always been a domain of and sensory systems of particular animals and C 432 Comparative Neuroscience animal groups living in different habitats and Ethical Principles showing different behavior and lifestyle. Obvi- ously, then, it is closely related and associated The ethical principles are those of any natural with zoology. Apart from its interest in the science. There are guidelines published by vari- diversity per se, Comparative Neuroscience ous agencies for proper scientific conduct mainly uses its knowledge of this diversity in search aiming toward the prevention of scientific fraud. of overarching principles (Journal of Compara- Importantly, in Comparative Neuroscience, ani- tive Neurology; Journal of Comparative Physi- mal care is a serious issue and in many countries ology A). there are strict regulations regarding the use of animals for experiments. Relevance to Science and Religion Key Values The discourse between “Science” and “Religion” has been dominated on the religion/humanities The key value is the gain of knowledge and side by the belief in an explicitly unique position understanding of structures and functions in ner- of man in nature. Along these lines of thought the vous and sensory systems, their evolution, adapt- insistence on the uniqueness of the properties of ability, and role in behavior. In view of the the human brain has been prevailing. While the evolution of life and the many commonalities in human brain indeed is likely to be the most com- all nervous systems, Comparative Neuroscience plex of all brains, modern Comparative Neuro- also contributes substantially to the understand- science has amply demonstrated that so-called ing of the human nervous system and senses, simple central nervous systems are capable of to cognitive processes, and their pathologic amazingly complex operations and there are jus- conditions. tified doubts as to whether there are really any unique features of the human brain not found (not even in a more simple form) in animals. A huge Conceptualization amount of evidence has accumulated demonstrat- ing how far even small-brained animals like flies Nature/World and bees or a cephalopod mollusk are from being These terms have been defined in many different simple reflex machines and showing that their ways. From the point of view of a natural science, sensory and nervous systems represent their the shortest definition is, the material world and worlds in a surprisingly complex and rich way. its phenomena, or the natural physical world, As a consequence Comparative Neuroscience including abiotic and biotic nature and of strongly suggests the importance of a less anthro- course man. pocentric attitude than hitherto often seen on the side of the humanities. Human Being Human beings are biological beings and the prod- uct of evolution like all other animals. Speech Sources of Authority and abstract thinking are particularly well devel- oped but not basically unique capacities of the The most important sources of authority are inter- human brain. nationally recognized, peer-reviewed scientific journals, books, and review articles summarizing Life and Death previously published original results, which have Life evolved from simple abiotic origins about gone through a process of rigorous evaluation three billions of years ago and now manifests by experts in the corresponding fields of itself in organisms as diverse as bacteria, plants, specialization. fungi, and animals (which include the Comparative Neuroscience 433 C vertebrates, mammalians, and man). Life follows evidence for access to knowledge without aware- the laws of physics and chemistry and depends on ness. This finding asks for a revision of the physical and chemical processes. It always has an assumption that perception and consciousness of important historical aspect to be considered perception are always inseparable. From the (ontogenetic and phylogenetic development/ viewpoint of Comparative Neuroscience, infor- evolution). The question what life is must be mation on the inside and outside world is considered a metaphysical question and not a necessary condition for the existence of all C within the scope of Comparative Neuroscience. living beings. Not surprisingly then we find sen- Like other biological disciplines Comparative sory mechanisms of high refinement already in Neuroscience studies the structure of living bacteria and unicellular protozoans, that is, in organisms and what they do, how they do it, and organisms without any neurons and nervous what the prerequisites and conditions for their systems. existence are. Death is the cessation of the func- There is a rich diversity of sense organs and of tions typical of living organisms (acquisition and sensory capabilities in the animal kingdom assimilation of energy, metabolism, locomotion, including many which are superior and alien to etc.) and the recycling of the elements they are our own human experiences. Sense organs are made of into a global ecological system. Death is often called the windows of the brain to the out- a condition for the process of evolution. side world. Likewise, they are the interfaces between an organism’s environment and its Reality behavior. However, these windows (and the Reality is the physical world around us including processing/integration of the data provided by the rules governing it. Comparative Neurosci- them) are all highly specialized, selective, and ence as a subdiscipline of biology acknowledges far from being fully transparent. Sensory systems the existence of a real world independent of our rather provide the individual with information on experience in which all life evolved and to which small fractions of the physical world only, which living organisms had to adapt in a way favoring are the biologically relevant ones (serving fitness, which is their survival and reproduction. fitness). Man is no exception to this. Our brain is actively involved in constructing perceptions Knowledge not only on the basis of actual sensory data but Like in all other natural sciences, knowledge in also on the basis of inherited concepts like time Comparative Neuroscience is supposed to have and space (constructed during developmental an objective quality and be valid by virtue of the stages), individual experience, memory, atten- repeatability of experimental research results. tion, intentions, etc., to which consciousness Assuming that hypotheses can be disproved and and introspection have no access. In other falsified but never and entirely proved, much of words, what is perceived is not raw sensory data the knowledge accumulated by science has to be but abstractions from these. considered preliminary and subject to change. The sensory worlds of animals and man are highly filtered and species-specific “biological” Truth worlds. Clearly, a particular feature of humans is Truth is not a concept or subject in Comparative their ability to enormously expand their sensory Neuroscience where facts and rules of reality are range by the development and application of the main interest. Saying that something is true in sophisticated instruments and scientific inquiry. Comparative Neuroscience would point to the agreement with fact and reality. Time The concept of time is most important in biology Perception and thus also in Comparative Neuroscience. Liv- Perception and consciousness unfortunately have ing organisms are never static but characterized often been conflated. Modern research provided by their dynamics – by a permanent change C 434 Comparative Neuroscience through time from individual development logically valid way forever. Like all science, (ontogeny), adolescence, adulthood, aging, and Comparative Neuroscience has turned lots of death. Likewise, evolution cannot be thought “mysteries” into marvels. The question of how without the time axis. minds with deep insights into the nature of matter From a more neuroscientific point of view, and life and abstract mathematics could evolve time is of prime importance in the way informa- from lifeless and mindless beginnings will still tion is handled by neurons and nervous systems. keep Comparative Neuroscience busy for a long One example is the modulation of nervous signal time to come. (action potential) frequency serving as an ubiq- uitous code in all nervous systems. Another example is the temporal synchronization of the Relevant Themes oscillatory activity of spatially separated assem- blies of neurons in the mammalian brain and its Comparative Neuroscience has revealed many assumed involvement in the coordination needed achievements of animal brains hitherto attributed for higher cognitive functions. Memory as a road to humans exclusively. For the Science-Religion into the past (both conscious and unconscious), debate it seems appropriate to look upon imprinting and action plans as a prospect of the mankind as one among many parts forming future are central issues in the neurosciences as a complexly ordered world where a less anthro- well and intrinsically a function of time. pocentric, more rational, systems-oriented atti- tude in regard to what we are and are entitled to Consciousness do is more appropriate than naı¨ve and devastative See also under “Perception.” Consciousness is arrogance. a concept not well/fully understood in terms of Comparative Neuroscience and not even in terms of research on the human brain and of psychol- Cross-References ogy. Its function is not clear yet. We are not aware of most operations of the brain and central ner- ▶ Anthropomorphism vous system. This not only refers to the simple ▶ Bioinformatics, Computational and automatic operations but also to complex ▶ Cognitive Neuroscience cognitive operations. Unconscious perception is ▶ Consciousness a topic receiving increasing attention. ▶ Evolution ▶ Neuroethology Rationality/Reason ▶ Neuroscience Rationality and reason are foundations of the ▶ Perception natural sciences and thus of Comparative Neuro- science as well. The most important tool on which rationality and the increase and under- References standing are based in the natural sciences is the experiment. Bullock, T. H., Horridge, G. A. (1965) Structure and function in the nervous systems of invertebrates Mystery (Vols. I & II). San Francisco/London: W. H. Freeman. FENS, Federation of European Neuroscience Societies. Mystery refers to something secret or http://www.fens.org. unexplainable and beyond the reach of human Journal of Comparative Neurology. J Wiley, ISSN 0021- comprehension. In Comparative Neuroscience, 9967. there is a lot still to be explained. However, this Journal of Comparative Physiology A: Neuroethology, sensory, neural and behavioral physiology. Springer- is not equivalent to saying that there are mysteries Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg ISSN print edition 0340- which are unsolvable in principle and will not 7594; Journal’s website www.springer.com/journal/ be explainable in a rational, reasonable, and 00359. Competitive Coherence 435 C Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., & Jessell, T. M. (2012). work together efficiently and harmoniously, and Principles of neural science (5th ed.). New York: the generation of a coherent sequence of cell McGraw-Hill. Prete, F. R. (Ed.). (2004). Complex worlds from simpler states. Contradiction and incoherence are nervous systems. Cambridge, MA/London: The punished since a cell that simultaneously induces MIT Press. the expression of genes for growth at high tem- perature and at low temperature is likely to be out-competed by rival cells that induce each set C of genes only when needed. A cell that proceeded Comparisons from one cell state to another very different one (without good environmental reason) would be ▶ Cross-Cultural Psychology wasting precious resources. A strong selective pressure, therefore, exists to generate active sets of constituents to provide both coherent cell states and a coherent sequence of such states. Compatibilism and Incompatibilism We have proposed that competitive coherence is responsible for generating these active sets ▶ Determinism and Indeterminism (Norris and Norris 1998). This concept is based on the way a system must maintain both the continuity of the composition of its active set via a Next process and the coherence of this active Competitive Coherence set (with respect to the inside and outside world) via a Now process. In one in silico implementa- Victor Norris tion of this concept, the state of a system at time Department of Biology, University of Rouen, n + 1 is determined by a competition between the Mont Saint Aignan, France Next process, which is based on its state at time n, and the Now process, which is based on the developing n + 1 state itself (Norris et al. 2012). Biological systems on all scales are confronted In the case of amateur football, consider the with the challenge of obtaining a future state that problem of selecting the team (the active set) is coherent with environmental conditions and each week from a larger group of potential with previous states. These states are created by players. A Next process might be the tendency the active functioning of a set of constituents of for someone who plays this week to be someone the system. This active set is selected from the who plays next week (it is, for example, easier to larger set available to the system. Many social arrange shared travel with those already present). organizations are constrained by the need to rec- A Now process might be the coherence of the oncile coherence with their present environment team with respect to itself (the team must have and coherence with their past environments. To a goalkeeper, defenders, and attackers) and with grow and survive, research laboratories, for respect to its opponents (who might be particu- example, have to select an active set of workers larly brutal). As the new team is being chosen, in response to new discoveries and to new the Next process gives way in importance to funding initiatives but must reconcile this selec- the Now process. Competitive coherence also tion with the research history of the laboratory operates at the higher level of the football and, in particular, with its skills, experience, and league itself: a Next process results in teams interests. To grow and survive, bacteria must also that are in the league in one season being likely select an active set of macromolecules in to be in it the next season, while a Now process response to external and internal conditions. results in a coherent league with teams of the Such responses entail both the generation of same level dispersed over a certain geographical a coherent cell state, in which the cell’s contents region. C 436 Competitive Coherence In the case of bacterial organization, The result is the selection of this site (plus the competitive coherence selects a particular molecule that binds to it) as a determinant of the hyperstructure (Norris et al. 1999) within cell’s response to a particular environment. More a bacterium (such hyperstructures include multi- specifically, consider, for example, that (1) this macromolecule assemblies responsible for ribo- binding site is for a particular phospholipid with some synthesis, chemotaxis, sugar metabolism, long, saturated acyl chains and (2) the proteins etc.); a Next process allows those genes that are with this site bind to the phospholipid to form already expressed as part of a hyperstructure to a domain in which they are juxtaposed and in help determine which genes are expressed next in which their activities complement one another. a hyperstructure; a Now process then allows There might then be a selection for this binding those genes that are starting to be expressed site in other complementary proteins. In the lan- together in a hyperstructure to recruit related guage of competitive coherence, binding to this genes to the hyperstructure. Competitive coher- phospholipid would become a type of connectiv- ence also operates at the higher level of the bac- ity to determine membership of an active set, and terial cell itself such that the state of a cell at any this active set would take on the physical form of one time corresponds to the set of hyperstructures a proteolipid domain responsible for a particular present within it. A new cell state is the result of function. Hence, emergence in the context of (1) a Next process whereby the current active set competitive coherence can be understood in of hyperstructures in the cell determines the next terms of a new criterion for membership of the active set and (2) a Now process whereby the active set. developing set of hyperstructures progressively Competitive coherence is a scale-free concept recruits, maintains, or dismisses hyperstructures. that is thought to operate at levels ranging from Competition between these two processes macromolecular assemblies to social groups. The ensures a sequence of sets of hyperstructures nature of the Next and Now processes varies with (cell states) that optimize growth and/or survival. the level. At the level of bacteria, these processes Emergent properties resist attempts to predict take the form of site-binding, DNA supercoiling, or deduce them (Van Regenmortel 2004). In the transcription factors, ion condensation, etc. At framework of competitive coherence, emergence the level of human groups, these processes is related to the selection of the subset of constit- include the mafia and status quo pressures that uents that are active together (Norris et al. 2005). are familiar to us all. Could competitive coher- Suppose each constituent has a large number of ence operate at higher levels still? And if it were characteristics (as in the case of macromolecules, to operate, what form would the Now and Next such as mRNA and proteins, which contain processes take and what would be the conse- a large number of sites that can bind water, ions, quences? One exotic candidate is subjective molecules, and other macromolecules). As pro- experience, the role of which remains controver- teins are being chosen via competitive coherence sial. A role for subjective experience in Now and to work together, suppose that the first ones to be Next processes at the level of ecosystems might chosen just happen to contain a binding site to the be of general interest. Indeed, such a role would same molecule. Suppose that, in some environ- underpin speculations that our world itself is ments, this combination of proteins proves use- “conscious” (Norris 1998). ful. Suppose too that this molecule becomes available, perhaps for the first time. The presence of this binding site could then become an impor- Cross-References tant factor in the coherence process which dom- inates the choice of the rest of the proteins to ▶ Artificial Intelligence, General work together in the active set. In other words, ▶ Biological Hierarchies the environment acts via the coherence process ▶ Biology, Theoretical to lend importance to one out of many sites. ▶ Brains, Artificial and Computational Complex Systems 437 C ▶ Cognitive Psychology grants the existence of a (countable) mathemati- ▶ Competitive Coherence cal structure realizing whatever the theory ▶ Complex Systems describes. Actual completeness and other key ▶ Computational Memories model theoretical properties of first-order logic ▶ Computer Science in Human Learning like compactness, and the Lo¨wenheim-Skolem ▶ Conditioning and Learning theorem (shown originally by Lo¨wenheim 1915) ▶ Emergence, Theories of follow immediately. Uncountable versions of C ▶ Hyperstructures these results were obtained independently by A. Malcev (1941), A. Robinson (1948), and L. Henkin (1949). Their fruitfulness and the fact References that these results failed for higher-order logics determined the primacy of first-order logic in Norris, V. (1998). Bacteria as tools for studies of con- further development of the model theory. sciousness. In S. Hameroff, A. Kaszniak, & A. Scott (Eds.), Toward a science of consciousness II: The second tucson discussions and debates (pp. 397–405). Cambridge, USA: MIT Press. Norris, V., & Norris, V. (1998). Modelling E. coli: The Complex Systems concept of competitive coherence. Comptes Rendus de l’Academie des Sciences, 321, 777–787. Norris, V., et al. (1999). Hypothesis: Hyperstructures reg- Klaus Mainzer ulate bacterial structure and the cell cycle. Biochimie, Department of Philosophy of Science, Technical 81, 915–920. University of Munich, Munich, Germany Norris, V., Cabin, A., & Zemirline, A. (2005). Hypercomplexity. Acta Biotheoretica, 53, 313–330. Norris, V., Engel, M., & Demarty, M. (2012). Modelling biological systems with competitive coherence. Related Terms Advances in artificial neural systems, 2012, 1–20. Van Regenmortel, M. H. V. (2004). Emergence in biol- Computer science; Dynamical system ogy. In P. Amar, J.-P. Comet, F. Kepes, & V. Norris (Eds.), Modelling and simulation of biological pro- cesses in the context of genomics (pp. 123–132). A dynamical system is characterized by its ele- Evry, France: Genopole. ments and the time-depending development of their states. A dynamical system is called complex if many (more than two) elements interact in causal feedback loops generating Completeness unstable states, chaos, or other kinds of attractors. The states can refer to moving planets, molecules Xavier Caicedo in a gas, gene expressions of proteins in cells, Department of Mathematics, Universidad de los excitation of neurons in a neural net, nutrition of Andes, Bogota´, Colombia populations in an ecological system, or products in a market system (Mainzer 2007). The dynamics of a system, that is, the change of system states Go¨del completeness theorem claims that formal depending on time, is mathematically described, deduction in first-order logic coincides with for example, by differential equations. A conser- semantic consequence. It may be taken as prov- vative (Hamiltonian) system, for example, an ideal ing the purely analytical character of (first-order) pendulum, is determined by the reversibility of universal truths and the possibility of reaching time direction and conservation of energy. Dissi- them in a purely mechanical way. It bears also pative systems, for example, a real pendulum with on the existence of non-self contradictory friction, are irreversible. objects. Its original form says that the formal In classical physics, the dynamics of consistency of a (countable) first-order theory a system is considered a continuous process. C 438 Complex Systems But, continuity is only a mathematical idealiza- assumption to be right for linear and conserva- tion. Actually, a scientist has single observations tive systems. or measurements at discrete-time points, which In systems theory, the complete information are chosen equidistant or defined by other mea- about a dynamical system at a certain time is surement devices. In discrete processes, there are determined by its state at that time. The state of finite differences between the measured states a complex system is usually determined by and no infinitely small differences (differentials) more than two quantities. Then, a higher which are assumed in a continuous process. dimensional phase space is needed to study the Thus, discrete processes are mathematically dynamics of a system. The phase space of described by difference equations or data given a system contains the complete information of in time series. its past, present, and future behavior from all Random events (e.g., Brownian motion initial conditions. From a methodological point in a fluid, mutation in evolution, innovations of view, time series and phase spaces are impor- in economy) are represented by additional fluctu- tant instruments to study systems dynamics. At ation terms. Classical stochastic processes, for the end of the nineteenth century, H. Poincare´ example, the billions of unknown molecular (1892) discovered that celestial mechanics is states in a fluid, are defined by time-depending not a completely computable clockwork, even if differential equations with distribution functions it is considered as a deterministic and conserva- of probabilistic states (Scott 2005). In quantum tive system. The mutual gravitational interactions systems of elementary particles, the dynamics of of more than two celestial bodies (“Many-bodies- quantum states is defined by Schro¨dinger’s equa- problem”) can be represented by causal feedback tion with observables (e.g., position and momen- loops corresponding to nonlinear and non- tum of a particle) depending on Heisenberg’s integrable equations with instabilities and irreg- principle of uncertainty, which allows only prob- ularities. In a strict dynamical sense, the degree abilistic forecasts of future states. of complexity depends on the degree of Historically, during the centuries of classical nonlinearity of a dynamical system (Mainzer physics, the universe was considered a determin- 2005). According to the Laplacean view, similar istic and conservative system. The astronomer causes effectively determine similar effects. and mathematician P.S. Laplace (1814), for Thus, in the phase space, trajectories that start example, assumed the total computability and close to each other also remain close to each predictability of nature if all natural laws and other during time evolution. By contrast, dynam- initial states of celestial bodies are well known. ical systems with deterministic chaos exhibit an The Laplacean spirit expressed the belief of exponential dependence on initial conditions for philosophers in determinism and computability bounded orbits: the separation of trajectories with of the world during the eighteenth and nineteenth close initial states may increase exponentially. centuries. Thus, tiny deviations of initial data may lead Laplace was right about linear and conserva- to exponentially increasing computational efforts tive dynamical systems. In general, a linear for future data limiting long-term predictions, relation means that the rate of change in although the dynamics is in principle uniquely a system is proportional to its cause: Small determined. This is known as the “butterfly changes cause small effects while large changes effect”: initial, small, and local causes may soon cause large effects. Changes of a dynamical lead to unpredictable, large, and global effects. system can be modeled in one dimension by According to the famous KAM-Theorem of changing values of a time-depending quantity A.N. Kolmogorov (1954), V.I. Arnold (1963), along the time axis (time series). Mathematically, and J. K. Moser (1967), trajectories in the phase linear equations are completely computable. This space of classical mechanics are neither is the deeper reason for Laplace’s philosophical completely regular, nor completely irregular, Complex Systems 439 C but depend sensitively on the chosen initial orbits. A famous example is the chaotic attractor conditions. of a Lorenz system simulating the chaotic Dynamical systems can be classified on the development of weather caused by local basis of the effects of the dynamics on a region events, which cannot be forecast in the long run of the phase space (Haken 1993). A conservative (butterfly effect). system is defined by the fact that, during time Measurements are often contaminated by evolution, the volume of a region remains con- unwanted noise that must be separated from the C stant, although its shape may be transformed. In signals of specific interest. Further on, in order a dissipative system, dynamics causes a volume to forecast the behavior of a system, the develop- contraction. ment of its future states must be reconstructed in An attractor is a region of a phase space into a corresponding phase space from a finite which all trajectories departing from a certain sequence of measurements. Thus, time series set of initial conditions, the so-called basin of analysis is an immense challenge in different attraction, will converge. There are different fields of research from, for example, climatic kinds of attractors. The simplest class of data in meteorology, ECG-signals in cardiology, attractors contains the fixed points. In this case, and EEG-data in brain research to economic data all trajectories of adjacent regions converge to of economics and finance. Beyond the patterns of a point unchanged by the dynamics of the system. dynamical attractors, randomness of data must be An example is a dissipative harmonic oscillator classified by statistical distribution functions with friction: the oscillating system is gradually (Nakamura 1997). slowed down by frictional forces and finally Typical phenomena of our world, such as come to a rest at an equilibrium point. weather, climate, the economy, and daily life, Conservative harmonic oscillators without are much too complex for a simple deterministic friction belong to the second class of attractors description to exist. Even if there is no doubt with limit cycles, which can be classified as being about the deterministic evolution of, for example, periodic or quasiperiodic. A periodic orbit is the atmosphere, the current state whose a closed trajectory into which all trajectories knowledge would be needed for a deterministic departing from an adjacent region converge. For prediction, contains too many variables in order some simple dynamical system with only two to be measurable with sufficient accuracy. Hence, degrees of freedom and continuous time, our knowledge does not usually suffice for the only possible attractors are fixed points or a deterministic model. Instead, very often periodic limit cycles. An example is a Van der a stochastic approach is more situated. Ignoring Pol oscillator modeling a simple vacuum tube the unobservable details of a complex system, we oscillator circuit. accept a lack of knowledge. Depending on the In continuous systems with a phase space of unobserved details, the observable part may dimension n > 2, more complex attractors are evolve in different ways. However, if we assume possible. Dynamical systems with quasiperiodic a given probability distribution for the limit cycles show a time evolution, which can be unobserved details, then the different evolutions decomposed into different periodic parts without of the observables also appear with specific a unique periodic regime. The corresponding probabilities. Thus, the lack of knowledge about time series consist of periodic parts of oscillation the system prevents us from deterministic without a common structure. Nevertheless, predictions, but allows us to assign probabilities closely starting trajectories remain close to each to the different possible future states. It is the task other during time evolution. The third class con- of a time series analysis to extract the necessary tains dynamical systems with chaotic attractors information from past data. which are non-periodic, with an exponential Complex models contain nonlinear feedback, dependence on initial conditions for bounded and the solutions to these are usually obtained by C 440 Computational Biology numerical methods. Statistical complex models References are data driven and try to fit a given set of data using various distribution functions. There are Haken, H., & Mikhailov, A. (Eds.). (1993). Interdisciplin- ary approaches to nonlinear complex systems. also hybrids, coupling dynamic and statistical New York: Springer. aspects, including deterministic and stochastic Mainzer, K. (2005). Symmetry and complexity. The spirit elements. Simulations are often based on and beauty of nonlinear science. Singapore: World computer programs, connecting input and output Scientific. Mainzer, K. (2007). Thinking in complexity. The compu- in nonlinear ways. In this case, models are tational dynamics of matter, mind, and mankind calibrated by training the programs, in order (5th ed.). Springer: New York. to minimize the error between output and given Mandelbrot, B. B. (1997). Fractals and scaling in finance. test data. Discontinuity, concentration, risk. New York: Springer. In the simplest case of statistical distribution Nakamura, E. R. (Ed.). (1997). Complexity and diversity. functions, a Gaussian distribution has exponen- Tokyo: Springer. tial tails situated symmetrically to the far left and Scott, A. (Ed.). (2005). Encyclopedia of nonlinear right of the peak value. Extreme events (e.g., science. New York: Routledge. disasters, pandemics, floods) occur in the tails of the probability distributions. Contrary to the Gaussian distribution, probabilistic functions p(x) of heavy tails with extreme fluctuations are Computational Biology mathematically characterized by power laws, for example, p(x)  xa with a > 0. Power laws ▶ Bioinformatics, Computational possess scale invariance corresponding to the (at least statistical) self-similarity of their time series of data (Mandelbrot 1997). Mathemati- cally, this property can be expressed as p- Computational Chemistry (bx) ¼ bap(x) meaning that the change of variable x to bx results in a scaling factor inde- ▶ Molecular Modeling pendent of x while the shape of distribution p is ▶ Quantum Chemistry conserved. So, power laws represent scale-free complex systems. The Gutenberg-Richter size distribution of earthquakes is a typical example of natural sciences. Historically, Pareto’s distri- Computational Complexity bution law of wealth was the first power law in the social sciences with a fraction of people pre- Go´mez Gonza´lez Daniel sumably several times wealthier than the mass of Universidad Complutense De Madrid, Madrid, a nation. Spain Related Terms Cross-References Algorithmic complexity; Program complexity ▶ Algorithms, Computer ▶ Applied Mathematics (Mathematical Physics, Computational complexity theory is a Discrete Mathematics, Operations Research) subdiscipline of computer science and mathemat- ▶ Emergence, Theories of ics that tries to classify computational problems ▶ Mathematics, Modern and mathematical problems according to their ▶ Quantum Theory difficulty. In this context, a computational Computational Memories 441 C problem or mathematical problem is understood to cores (1940s), to tape drives (1950s–1970s), to be a task that could be amenable to being solved by magnetic disks (1980s), to optical disks (1990s), a computer (which means that the problem can be to ▶ artificial neural networks (1990s–2000s). stated by a set of mathematical instructions). The most recent developments have been the exploration of information retrieval from memo- ries conceived and implemented in entirely dif- Cross-References ferent ways. Hopfield memories, which are C specialized artificial neural networks focused on ▶ Algorithms, Computer pattern recognition and memory (Hopfield 1982) exhibit retrieval and error-correcting capabilities resembling characteristics of human memory and suggesting a plausible explanation of how these Computational Memories characteristics might be working inside the human brain. Associative memories and Baum Andrew J. Neel and Max H. Garzon memories further model human memory recall Department of Computer Science, by using synthetic Deoxyribonucleic Acid The University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA (DNA) to implement associative recall akin to recall in human memory. The motivation for DNA is the real feasibility of creating a compu- Related Terms tational memory which simultaneously stores and processes data. Such computational memories Biologically based computers; Computer memo- are believed capable of solving problems consid- ries; Electronic memories; Magnetic storage ered extraordinarily difficult using conventional solutions which separate data storage and data processing. Computational memories were dem- Description onstrated by Adleman (1994) when he used DNA to solve the Hamiltonian path problem using A computational memory is any device that allows DNA as both processors and storage. As a result for storage of data for later retrieval. Flash disks of his work, it was believed that computational are common examples today. Like its counterparts memories could be used to solve even routine in biology, the quality of a memory is measured by tasks easily. The application of DNA as a com- its capacity (how much data it holds), speed (how putational memory for routine tasks has since quickly data is recalled), reliability (how long data shifted toward the use of DNA for special- is retrieved with a consistent result), and meaning- purpose nanodevices for specific applications. fulness (the correctness or relevance of retrieved Both the original and new visions still require information.) memory systems for DNA computers capable Memory is frequently assumed to be equiva- of either sophisticated processing capabilities, lent with random access memory (RAM) in mod- such as self-assembly of DNA into useful molec- ern computers. However, memories definition ular structures (Seeman 1999; Winfree et al. more properly includes RAM as well as 1998), or capable of storing, in principle, CDROMs, DVDs, floppy disks, USB drives, large amounts of data (order of terabytes) for ZIP Drives, hard disks, and other types of con- information retrieval (Baum 1995). Neel ventional storage. That said, the definition of (2007) explored the issues and ultimately dem- memory is also broad enough to include storage onstrated a process for semantic retrieval from devices as simple as an abacus which uses beads memories with speeds, reliability, and scalability to store information. In the past 50 years, com- exceeding the best conventional counterparts of puter systems have moved from ferromagnetic the time. C 442 Computational Memories Self-identification to determine how to get the most useful informa- tion from massive data stores. Beyond the Science conventional computer, medical doctors, neurol- The science of computational memories is the ogists, psychologists, and chemists may get study of how to build devices that store data for involved in understanding how the human brain later retrieval, how to store data, and how to later works to recall data and transform it into infor- retrieve that data in some useful and effective mation. Chemists and biologists must participate way. This discipline uses scientific methods to to help understand how the DNA stores and study every aspect and example of storage and retrieves information to form a human body. retrieval available to us. For example, artificial Computer scientist must take ideas and models neural networks have shown how the brain from each discipline to glue them together in encodes information in the networks of relatively ways that improve computer memories. There- simply but massively parallel neuron-like units fore, computer scientists very uniquely support for later recognition and retrieval in a content- other fields in producing new results while simul- addressable way. Likewise, DNA is a natural taneously consuming much of the product of memory that can be used to build a human body that work. by decoding instructions stored in base chemical chains into complex mechanical, computational, and chemical systems. In the same way, memory Relevance to Science and Religion technologies developed for stand-alone com- puters have been studied to help understand how Scholarly areas of science and religion study their large distributed computer systems could be particular discipline in order to produce new data built. These studies have led to new ways of and new information. Many of these disciplines thinking about text searches, image matching, have centuries of work behind them. Conse- automated question-answering, and other prob- quently, each discipline is in urgent need of mem- lems. They have also enabled us to amass an ories capable of storing the full suite of data for immeasurable amount of data in a highly distrib- that discipline and enabling quality retrieval and uted system called the Internet for recall from analyses of that data when properly queried. The anywhere in the world. use of computer memory in just the past 50 years alone have enabled incredible advancements in many existing fields and have even enabled new Characteristics fields (such as bioinformatics, social computing, eCommerce) by allowing data to be stored for The study of memories is unique because it fre- later and widespread use. quently interfaces with a broad range of other disciplines before tying the result of that study into advancements in memory systems. For Sources of Authority example, today’s computer systems require elec- trical engineers to build the computer circuits for The primary authorities in computational memo- a random access memory or hard drive. These ries are archives of scientific reports (proceedings same memories require specialists to determine and journal articles, technical conferences) the best materials to use in each part. Again, these describing and analyzing them in the scientific same systems require advanced mathematics to literature. Such papers are rigorously studied, help detect errors, to identify the fastest method challenged, and cross-validated by peer experts, of memory recall, and to catalog massive and ultimately replicated if they do hold advance- amounts of data. Library scientists study methods ments over existing solutions, before they are of keeping records of the data stored in memories. accepted as valid, implemented, and/or taught in Linguists and language specialists are necessary a scholarly setting. Computational Memories 443 C Ethical Principles content, music, pictures, etc., and stored in vast quantity for later intelligent retrieval with the The general ethical principles are those stan- expectation of reliable and human-relevant dards in science. They include giving credit recall from the memory. Data is increasingly where it is due, respect for others’ intellectual consume by a wider variety of actors such as property, while advancing the well-being of robots, household appliances, and special pur- individuals and society at large. Because pose. These machines are endowed with some C advances by the discipline usually make possi- degree of intelligence and are capable of ble actions by humans that were previously assisting humans in performing tasks or impossible (e.g., the accumulation of informa- substituting for humans for some tasks while tion about millions of people under the control maintaining similar results (e.g., IBM’s Watson of a few individuals in social website reposito- and DeepBlue). Deep Blue is a supercomputer ries or genomic databanks), it has been neces- constructed by IBM to play the game of chess by sary to develop what some consider a unique comparing the moves of the opponent, the cur- type of ethics studies, so-called cyber-ethics rent state of the game, and a very large memory, (see ▶ Cyberethics). Many important ethical sufficiently well to compete with the best human notions (such as privacy, intellectual property, chess players. digital identity, and legal regulations) are being transformed as a result. Life and Death In the world of “memory”, the life of data begins when the data is created or introduced into the Key Values memory and death occurs when it is removed from the memory. Although the concepts of life The key values are speed, reliability, capacity, and death of data do not appear to be related to the data density, and meaningful results in memory ordinary meaning of the terms, data within a systems. memory can represent a living person. Therefore, a tight interconnection may be assumed to exist between the referent of the data (e.g., a person) Conceptualization and its data. Therefore, the data may indicate that a person is not legal deceased until well after the Nature/World person has physically expired. Further, the The world is the sum of data and the devices that data about a deceased person can live well store the data (sometimes called cyberspace, the beyond the person. Internet, the web, etc.). Reality Human Being The reality of a memory system amounts to the In the world of memories, human beings are set of data stored and the information that can be actors that bring life and death to the world by retrieved from the memory. Reality, thus, creating data, consuming or interacting with excludes data that is actually stored but cannot data through using it applications, tools, appli- be retrieved and data that is stored with errors. ances, instruments, etc., and destroying data by Consequently, “reality” is defined strictly by the removing it from the world. In addition to flesh- accessible data whether true or complete. For and-blood homo sapiens, robots, household example, cyberspace is an online memory in appliances, and software should also be consid- which an individual can assume a number of ered “actors”. The semantic web is a good personalities, or can present himself to be a very example of a memory (world) where informa- different person than he or she is in the physical tion is frequently created or destroyed by the world by simply creating or altering data in the flesh-and-blood actors in the form of news, web memory. C 444 Computational Memories Knowledge measure of quality in order to better understand Knowledge is the new information that can be the capabilities of some computational memories learned by studying or mining the data stored by comparison of the memories to human in a computer’s memory. It may also refer to capabilities. the technical knowledge necessary to build computational memory systems, including com- Rationality/Reason putational models, analyses, manufacturing pro- Rationality is the “why” behind the retrieval tocols, and quality control. choices of memory systems. Thus, rationality in a machine ordinarily reflects the rationality Truth placed in the computer memories by its designers Truth is the data actually stored inside the mem- and programmers. However, new generations of ory. Therefore, it may or may not be complete or computer memories might be regarded as becom- correspond to any facts in the real world. ing increasingly “rational” because of their advanced capabilities to combine data from dis- Perception parate sources, mine the resulting memory to Data is often represented differently in memories extract correlations and feasible conclusions, than how humans consume it. Perception is, and present results which are frequently far therefore, the conversion of information from from evident, or even credible, to rational how it is stored in memory to a consumable for- humans confronted with the result. mat. This perception (of a famous person, for example) may thus be quite different from that obtained by actual interaction with the reference Relevant Themes (the actual person) in the data. The key issues for memories today are data Time encoding, semantic (human-like) retrieval of Time is generally limited to the moment of crea- information from memory, memory structures tion, the last modification, or the time of deletion that make processing easier, and density of stor- of the data within the memory. The measure of age. As mentioned before, it is conceivable that time is usually taken from a computer system’s computational memories may be produced in the internal clock. This clock is digital (i.e., only near future that exhibit features that closely records discrete time events) and may or may resemble human memories, and even exceed not be accurate enough to the human notion of their capability. IBM’s Watson is a pioneering time. example. Consciousness Computational memories do not usually appear Cross-References to be capable of consciousness in the way humans do. However, some may argue that some compu- ▶ Biology, Theoretical tational memories may exhibit some characteris- ▶ Computer Science in Human Learning tics of consciousness (e.g., when purchasing an ▶ Intelligence airline ticket, the system may inquire about a car ▶ Memory or a hotel reservation in the semantic web). Thus, ▶ Semantics the “consciousness” of a computational memory is probably best thought of as the means (programs and software) by which the memory References decides what data is best to retrieve and in what order it should be retrieved. Alternatively, some Adleman, L. M. (1994). Molecular computation of solu- in the field use the term “consciousness” as a tions to combinatorial problems. Science, 266, 1021. Computer Science 445 C Baum, E. (1995). Building an associative memory vastly programmers to decide which language to choose larger than the brain. Science, 268, 583–585. based on the type of program they are developing. Hopfield, J. J. (1982). Neural networks and physical sys- tems with emergent collective computational abilities. Even though most programs are written in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of abstract human-readable languages, the code is the USA, 79(8), 2554–2558. still converted via a compiler or interpreter to a Neel, A. J. (2007). Memory systems for DNA computers. binary format that a computer can execute. (Doctoral dissertation). The University of Memphis. Seeman, N. C. (1999). DNA engineering and its applica- C tion to nanotechnology. Trends in Biotechnology, 17, 437–443. Winfree, E., Liu, F., Wenzler, L. A., & Seeman, N. C. Computer Memories (1998). Design and self-assembly of two dimensional DNA crystals. Nature, 394, 539–544. ▶ Computational Memories Computer Algorithms Computer Programs ▶ Algorithms, Computer ▶ Algorithms, Computer Computer Ethics Computer Quantum ▶ Cyberethics ▶ Quantum Computing Computer Language Computer Science Nathan Koenig ▶ Affective/emotional Computing Interaction Lab, Computer Science Department, ▶ Algorithms, computer University of Southern California, Los Angeles, ▶ Artificial Intelligence, General CA, USA ▶ Automation, Electronic ▶ Brains, Artificial and Computational ▶ Complex Systems Every modern computer is a binary system, and ▶ Computational Memories the very first computers were programmed ▶ Computer Science in Human Learning directly in binary. However, binary is not intui- ▶ Cyberethics tive for humans, and it can be very difficult and ▶ Cyborgs time consuming to write and debug. As a result, ▶ Games, Computer more abstract and human friendly computer ▶ Information Security languages were developed. The first of these ▶ Intelligence, Swarm languages was assembly, and it allowed a ▶ Quantum Computing programmer to use character-based commands ▶ Robot Emotions to program a computer. More languages were ▶ Robot Programming developed, and today a programmer has a wide ▶ Robot Societies array of languages to choose from. Each language ▶ Robotics and Religion has good and bad points, and it is up to the ▶ Software Engineering C 446 Computer Science Education courses, college enrollments in computer science Computer Science Education saw drastic declines nationwide from 2002 through 2007. Even though this trend seems to ▶ Computer Science in Human Learning be ending due to student interest in technology such as cell phones and iPods, the last year for the AB exam was in 2009. Some of the recent changes in computer Computer Science in Human science education directly reflect declining Learning enrollments. For example, because many middle- and high school students spend much of their Linda Sherrell leisure time playing computer games, several Department of Computer Science, The researchers developed curriculum materials University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA targeting this interest. One of the most successful projects was the development of the software Alice (http://www.alice.org), which is offered Related Terms freely by Carnegie Mellon University. Alice, which has been used in both high school and Computer science; Computer science education college settings, allows students to create 3D environments while learning ▶ basic program- ming concepts. A more recent version called Description Storytelling Alice was designed especially for middle-school girls. Another notable tool for Computer science (CS) education encompasses young students has been AgentSheets (http:// the teaching of computation from kindergarten www.agentsheets.com), which is best described through graduate school. To help prepare high as 2D game-authoring and simulation software. school students who want to study computer sci- An interesting note about AgentSheets is that it ence in college, many schools offer advanced has been used by middle-school students as well placement (AP) courses in computer science. as NASA astronauts to build simulations. One Students enrolled in these courses are then eligi- of the most successful projects involving ble to take corresponding exams offered by the AgentSheets was Tri-P-LETS (Three P Learning Educational Testing Service (ETS). If their Environment for Teachers and Students). In this scores are high enough, universities may grant project, funded by the National Science Founda- the students college credit for one or more tion (NSF), the investigators and graduate stu- courses. For example, the Computer Science dents created curriculum modules to enhance A exam currently corresponds to a first-semester the first- and second-year programming classes college course in object-oriented programming, in public high schools in the Memphis area. where students learn problem-solving skills such A variety of simulations were assigned to stu- as abstraction and ▶ algorithm development and dents in order for the students to appreciate the are introduced to basic abstract data types. An breadth of the field and the types of courses that abstract data type (ADT) is a built-in or they would encounter if they selected CS as userdefined type (kind of information) where a major. For example, simulations were used to the data has an associated collection of opera- teach ▶ combinatorics (Sherrell et al. 2005), cel- tions. Meanwhile, the Computer Science AB lular automata (a theoretical computer where the exam requires a knowledge of all the topics on world is represented as an infinite grid of cells. A the A exam plus a more advanced coverage of cell has an associated state (alive or dead) and a data structures (e.g., binary search trees, which set of rules associated with it), (Thomas et al. require ▶ recursion). Although the AP College 2006), the hydrology life cycle, and DNA Board provides materials for computer science sequences. In addition, students followed an Computer Science in Human Learning 447 C adapted ▶ waterfall model with incremental cod- (Communications of the ACM) celebrated its ing and testing. Students were provided templates 50th anniversary in 2008, whereas computer sci- especially designed for AgentSheets projects in ence education journals and associations are order to storyboard their simulation, record its much younger. requirements, document the logic, and track bugs (faults). Students were especially apprecia- tive of the need for process when they designed Relevance to Science and Religion C large games and competed in the annual Univer- sity of Memphis Programming Challenge, For the majority of computer science educators, a competition where high school students work there is little interest in “science and religion.” in teams for 6–7 weeks to develop an educational However, for those teaching artificial intelli- or adventure game. gence, questions such as the following are of There is an interesting, ongoing debate in interest: How do mammals, insects, birds, and computer science education concerning how one other members of the animal kingdom learn? should teach the first programming course. In Are there things about how animals learn that other words, should the instructor emphasize we can use to help us construct robots? basic control structures and algorithm develop- ment or should he/she immediately introduce the concepts of a class and an object, which are Sources of Authority required in object-oriented programming lan- guages? The controversy reflects the two major Conference and journal articles are the major pedagogical viewpoints known as objects-late sources of authority for this discipline/ versus objects-first. A popular objects-first subdiscipline. The two most respected approach appears in the textbooks authored by conferences for computer science education are the creators of the interactive development envi- sponsored by the Special Interest Group on Com- ronment BlueJ (http://www.bluej.org). However, puter Science Education (SIGCSE) of the ACM. some instructors prefer a declarative language These conferences are SIGCSE: Technical (e.g., a functional programming language such Symposium on Computer Science Education and as Scheme) or a scripting language as the first ITiCSE: Innovations and Technology in language. Computer Science Education. Furthermore, the Computing Sciences Accreditation Board (CSAB) determines if Self-Identification existing undergraduate programs meet a set of standards. Even if CS departments do not seek Science accreditation, they may still refer to the CSAB This discipline/subdiscipline self-identifies itself standards to assess their programs. Another as a science. Computer science educators make source of authority is Computing Curricula. The observations and collect data to better understand individuals who compose these guidelines for how students learn. undergraduate programs are prominent individ- uals from industry and academia. Characteristics Ethical Principles Computer science education differs from the other disciplines/subdisciplines in that it is There are ten directives in the IEEE Code of relatively new. For example, the Association for Ethics (2006), whereas the ACM Code (1992) Computing Machinery celebrated its 60th lists eight general imperatives. Those principles anniversary in 2007, and its associated journal that are most similar are the following: Members C 448 Computer Science in Human Learning of these organizations should think of society and of a project through requirements, design, imple- the public when making their decisions; be mentation, coding, postdelivery maintenance, honest; not discriminate against people of other and finally retirement (death). Testing and races, gender, disability, income, or age; and give documentation are a part of each phase. credit to other individuals for their contributions. Reality Reality refers to living or nonliving items that Key Values actually exist. Computer scientists are interested in “virtual reality” systems. These systems are In both codes, specific professional responsibili- simulations of imaginary worlds. ties appear. By following these responsibilities, a member has accepted the values of the profes- Knowledge sion. An example value from the ACM Code is Knowledge is information gained through study that members should strive to achieve the highest and reasoning. This term appears in the names of quality in their work. Note that the ACM Code two important subdisciplines of computer science lists eight professional values, six leadership education, namely, knowledge management and values, and, finally, two imperatives that have to knowledge engineering. do with compliance to the code. Similar to the ACM imperatives, the last imperative of the Truth IEEE Code states that members should support Truth is a fact that has been proven or, in other each other in following its established code words, the opposite of a falsehood. Computer of ethics. science educators teach “truth” tables in the intro- ductory computer science class to help students to reason logically. Conceptualization Perception Nature/World Perception is an individual’s interpretation of The nature of computer science education is to a situation or a concept by the use of his/her teach computational thinking (Wing 2006) to all senses. This term is also associated with the dis- human beings in the world. cipline of neural networks. Human Being Time The discipline of computer science education Computer science educators define time in considers a human being to be a member of the relation to the period measured in seconds, human race or, in other words, a person (living minutes, days, and so forth that an activity or dead). However, the discipline of artificial requires to be completed. They are especially intelligence is interested in what determines interested in the “run-time” of various a human being (see the answer to Question 4 algorithms. above). Consciousness Life and Death Consciousness is an awareness of a problem Life is the beginning of existence for members of or concept. Artificial consciousness is a the plant or animal kingdoms, whereas death is subdiscipline of artificial intelligence. the ending of this existence. However, the disci- pline of software engineering considers the con- Rationality/Reason cept of life as the time that a software application Rationality is the ability to make a decision, is viable. In other words, the traditional software whereas reason is the action of considering alter- development “life” cycle begins with the vision natives. Rationality is related to logic. Concept of God in Contemporary Philosophy of Religion 449 C Mystery Mystery is an occurrence or phenomenon with no Computer Security logical explanation. ▶ Information Security Relevant Themes C The IEEE Computer Society and the Association Computer Software for Computing Machinery sponsored an interim ▶ Algorithms, Computer report in December 2008 to the Computing Cur- ricula Report of 2001. The 14 knowledge areas are still Discrete Structures, Human-Computer Interaction, Programming Fundamentals, Computerization Graphics and Visual Computing, Algorithms and Complexity, Intelligent Systems, Architec- ▶ Automation, Electronic ture and Organization, Information Management, Operating Systems, Social and Professional Issues, Net-Centric Computing, Software Engi- neering, Programming Languages, and Compu- Computing Machinery tational Science. Feedback from industry ▶ Algorithms, Computer included the need for an increased emphasis in ▶ Automation, Electronic security, quality issues, software engineering ▶ Electronic circuits in Computers principles and techniques, and the reengineering of large, undocumented code (ACM 2008). References Computing Quantum ACM Code of Ethics (1992). See http://www.acm.org/ ▶ Quantum Computing about/code-of-ethics. Accessed 29 May 2012. AgentSheets. http://www.agentsheets.com. Accessed 29 May 2012. Alice. See http://www.alice.org. Accessed 29 May 2012. Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) & IEEE Concentration Computer Society (IEEE-CS). (2008) Computer Sci- ence Curriculum: An Interim Revision of 2001. See http://www.acm.org/education/education/curricula- ▶ Attention recommendations?searchterm=Computing+Curricula+ 2008. Accessed 29 May 2012. BlueJ – The interactive Java environment. See http:// www.bluej.org. Accessed 29 May 2012. IEEE Code of Ethics (2006). See http://www.ieee.org/ Concept of God in Contemporary about/corporate/governance/p7-8.html. Accessed 29 Philosophy of Religion May 2012. Sherrell, L. B., Robertson, J. J., & Sellers, T. W. (2005). Karin Johannesson Using software simulations as an aide in teaching combinatorics to high school students. Journal of Department of Theology, Uppsala University, Computing Sciences in Colleges, 20(6), 108–117. Uppsala, Sweden Thomas, A. P., Sherrell, L. B., & Greer, J. B. (2006). Using software simulations to teach automata. The Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges, 21(5), 170–176. Wing, J. M. (2006). Computational thinking. Communi- According to some definitions, the phenomenon cations of the ACM, 49(3), 33–35. of ▶ religion is characterized by the belief that C 450 Concept of God in Contemporary Philosophy of Religion there is a God or several gods. Belief in the approach since this approach takes advantage of existence of God or gods is, according to such insights reached within the other three traditions definitions, the distinctive feature of religion. as well as recent developments within the philos- Such definitions underline the importance of the ophy of science. However, many philosophers of concept of God within the phenomena that we religion still prefer to work within the tradition of call religions. The concept of God plays a central metaphysical philosophy of religion. role – perhaps the central role – within a religious tradition. Therefore, philosophers of religion take an interest in analyzing the concept of God and its Metaphysical Philosophy of Religion use in different religious traditions. What one understands to be a philosophical According to Filosofilexikonet, an often-used problem in relation to the concept of God partly Swedish dictionary of philosophical terminology, depends on what philosophical tradition one the term “metaphysical philosophy of religion” belongs to. Philosophical reflection on the con- can denote the traditional form of philosophy of cept of God, engaged in by contemporary philos- religion that devotes itself to a philosophical ophers of religion, can be described in relation to investigation into questions touching upon the the various philosophical traditions that influence existence and properties of God. Metaphysical this work since those traditions impact on the philosophy of religion can relate to religion in formulation of philosophical problems relating a positive way or it can facilitate a critical eval- to the concept of God as well as on the philosoph- uation of religion and religious belief in general ical analysis of them. Philosophers of religion (Filosofilexikonet 1988, p. 468). working within different philosophical traditions When Philip Quinn defines philosophy of reli- discern different philosophical problems when gion in The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, reflecting on the concept of God and our different he defines it as metaphysical philosophy of reli- ways of using that concept. They do not always gion. Quinn writes that philosophy of religion is agree on what problems are genuine philosophi- the subfield of philosophy devoted to the study of cal problems worth working on, nor do they religious truth claims, primarily the most impor- always agree on what a fruitful approach to tant of these claims, namely, the truth claims of those problems might mean. the theistic traditions that concern the existence, In this chapter, I will highlight the concept of nature, and activities of God. Quinn states that the God in contemporary philosophy of religion by focal point in philosophy of religion is what has focusing on how philosophers of religion within been described by philosophers as the theistic four different philosophical traditions use and concept of God. It is the coherence of this concept analyze the concept of God in their philosophical and the possible existence of an entity denoted by work. The four philosophical traditions that I will this concept that interests the philosopher of reli- focus on are discussed under the following head- gion, he argues (Quinn 1995, p. 607). ings: Metaphysical Philosophy of Religion, Witt- Metaphysical philosophers of religion develop gensteinian Philosophy of Religion, Feminist and analyze different arguments for or against Philosophy of Religion, and A Non-metaphysical God’s existence. These arguments almost exclu- Realist Approach to the Philosophy of Religion. sively concern the theistic traditions. It is mainly These four philosophical traditions are part of God as God is understood within Christianity, contemporary philosophy of religion relating to Judaism, and Islam that is of interest to the meta- the analytical philosophical tradition. I choose to physical philosopher of religion. Within these focus on the analytical tradition since it is nor- theistic traditions, God is, according to the meta- mally in relation to this tradition that philosoph- physical philosopher of religion, understood in ical questions concerning religions and the a similar way. Within the theistic traditions, sciences are posed and treated. Personally, God is understood to possess certain great- I recommend the non-metaphysical realist making properties such as omnipotence, Concept of God in Contemporary Philosophy of Religion 451 C omniscience, perfect goodness, and necessary related to her interest in questions concerning existence. It is the task of the metaphysical phi- God’s existence and nature. The metaphysical losopher of religion to investigate whether or not philosopher of religion maintains that if the the- such a being may be believed to exist by analyz- istic concept of God is not coherent, we know at ing arguments for or against God’s existence. least that a being such as the God described by the Some metaphysical philosophers of religion theist cannot exist. Either such a God does not are atheists. They maintain that there is no God exist or if God exists, God does not have all the C and argue for this position. Other metaphysical properties ascribed to God by the theist. philosophers of religion are believers belonging This understanding of God’s existence to some religious tradition, in most cases the characterizes the interest that the metaphysical Christian tradition. They argue for the existence philosopher of religion takes in the coherence of of the God they believe in. Metaphysical philos- the concept of God and in the possibility of ophers of religion often relate to scientific arguing for or against God’s existence by using research results when they argue for or against present-day scientific research results. It also God’s existence. For example, they may reflect characterizes the approach that the metaphysical on whether Darwinian evolutionary theory is philosopher of religion takes to religious plural- incompatible with the belief in a creator God or ism. If two different truth claims concerning God, if quantum mechanics can be used in order to made within two different religious traditions, show that it is likely that there is a creator God disagree with each other, the metaphysical phi- behind the Big Bang. losopher of religion concludes that both truth Metaphysical philosophers of religion under- claims cannot be true. At least one of them has stand the concept of God as referring to an object to be false. or entity that, if God exists, exists independently This approach to religious pluralism suggests of us human beings in our common reality. Both that questions concerning what religious tradition sciences and religions make truth claims about contains the correct truth claims will be in the the same reality, our common reality, according foreground. The Christian God is described as the to the metaphysical philosopher of religion. This only God and as Trinitarian. This means, means that religious truth claims cannot be true according to the metaphysical philosopher of reli- unless they cohere with scientific truth claims gion, that if the Christian God exists, the Hindu known to be true. Therefore, one important task goddess Kali cannot exist and the Muslim under- for the metaphysical philosopher of religion is to standing of God as non-Trinitarian must be investigate whether religious truth claims made wrong. within a certain religious tradition can be said to The way in which the metaphysical philoso- be in accordance with present-day scientific pher of religion understands God’s existence research results. characterizes her understanding of and her work One influential metaphysical philosopher of on the concept of God. Her understanding of religion is Richard Swinburne (born in 1934). God’s existence can be described in relation to He explains the interest that the metaphysical the ongoing debates on ▶ realism in the field. philosopher of religion takes in the concept of Metaphysical philosophy of religion often pre- God by stating that by “God” a theist understands supposes the philosophical position that Hilary something like a bodiless person who is eternal, Putnam names metaphysical realism, a position free, all-powerful, all-knowing, perfectly good, that I will return to when describing the non- the proper object of human worship and obedi- metaphysical realist approach to the philosophy ence, and the creator and sustainer of the universe of religion. (Swinburne 1993, p. 1). The metaphysical philos- Putnam describes metaphysical realism as opher of religion investigates whether or not this comprising three central theses (Putnam 1981, understanding of God is coherent. Her interest in p. 49). Firstly, the metaphysical realist presup- the coherence of the theistic concept of God is poses that reality consists of some fixed totality of C 452 Concept of God in Contemporary Philosophy of Religion mind-independent objects that constitutes reality- work in the ways that the metaphysical philoso- in-itself. She believes that there may be objects or pher of religion assumes that they work. states of affairs in reality-in-itself which we can- Wittgensteinian philosophers of religion want to not experience or describe. Secondly, the meta- set us free from the misunderstandings on which physical realist presupposes that we might they believe metaphysical philosophy of religion imagine there to be only one true and complete to be built. In doing so, they set a different phil- description of reality. This is so because the osophical agenda. metaphysical realist believes in a God’s-eye When John Hyman describes Wittgen- point of view, an externalist perspective in rela- steinianism in A Companion to Philosophy of tion to us humans and to our possibilities of Religion, he emphasizes that the philosophy of experiencing, knowing, or stating what things the later Wittgenstein is centered on the insight are really like in reality-in-itself. Thirdly, the that the meaning of a word is its use in the lan- metaphysical realist thinks that we speak the guage. Words can be used for an indefinitely truth insofar as our utterances correspond in broad and heterogeneous range of purposes. The some way to the states of affairs in reality-in- task of philosophy is not, according to the later itself. Different metaphysical realists describe Wittgenstein, logical analysis but the description this correspondence in different ways, but what of what Wittgenstein names different language they all agree on is that it is entirely possible that games. Since speech and writing are part and we do not know, and cannot know, that a true parcel of human activities which take place and utterance is in fact true. “The most important have significance only in the context of what consequence of metaphysical realism,” Putnam Wittgenstein names different forms of life, the summarizes, “is that truth is supposed to be rad- question of what an expression in a language ically non-epistemic” (Putnam 1978, p. 125). The means can only be answered by considering it in metaphysical realist presupposes that what is true its context and by asking how it is used. The is independent of our abilities to find out whether philosopher’s task is to describe our network of it is true. What is true is not, according to the concepts, what Wittgenstein calls grammar, in metaphysical realist, determined by us, from order to free us from the misunderstandings an internal linguistic perspective, but rather by concerning the use of our words that give rise to reality-in-itself, from an external perspective. confusion and philosophical problems. The phi- This metaphysical realist position is losopher should remind us of what we already questioned by philosophers of religion working know by knowing the use of our language: the within philosophical traditions other than meta- proper use of our words according to the grammar physical philosophy of religion. I will, in turn, which rules the language game in question in describe three such alternative traditions. Two of a certain form of life (Hyman 1997, pp.153–156). them are influential within contemporary philos- Wittgensteinian philosophers of religion ophy of religion, and the third one is my own describe the grammar ruling different language preferred approach. games in contexts that we understand as religious contexts, as religious forms of life. What this means is not obvious; therefore, Wittgensteinian Wittgensteinian Philosophy of Religion philosophers of religion also have to explain and defend their Wittgensteinian approach. How do Wittgensteinian philosophy of religion is inspired we draw the line between one form of life or one by Ludwig Wittgenstein’s later philosophy. language game and another? Is Hindu faith Wittgensteinian philosophers of religion believe one form of life or several forms of life? Can that metaphysical philosophy of religion is an Christian prayer be understood as a language expression of a huge misunderstanding. Reli- game or should we understand Christian thanks- gious language and religious truth claims do not giving as one language game and Christian Concept of God in Contemporary Philosophy of Religion 453 C prayers for forgiveness as another language these confusions concern our use of the concept game? The answer that Wittgensteinian philoso- of God. We tend, as the metaphysical philosopher phers of religion tend to give to this kind of of religion, to understand the concept of God as question is that how we draw the line depends a concept referring to an object or an entity that on what confusion the philosopher tries to free us we may or may not believe exists in a reality from. Sometimes we can do away with our con- independent of us. To avoid this confusion, we fusion by understanding Christian prayer as must look to the forms of life in which talk of C a language game, and sometimes we understand God has a role to see what application the notion Christian thanksgiving as one language game and of the independently real has there. This means that Christian prayers for forgiveness as another instead of asking how or if we can speak of God, language game. we must begin by noting that we do speak of God One prominent Wittgensteinian philosopher (Phillips 1988, p. 264). There are many religious of religion is D.Z. Phillips (1934–2006). He forms of life and religious language games within argues that metaphysical philosophy of religion which people do speak of God. It is the philoso- is built on conceptual confusions. These misun- pher’s task to describe the grammar ruling the use derstandings give rise to metaphysics. They make of the concept of God within these contexts. us draw the mistaken conclusion that religious Philosophers criticizing the Wittgensteinian faith is a theory involving the thesis that there philosophers of religion present them with the exists an entity that we name “God” or several following choice: either the word “God” refers entities that we name “gods” and that it is the to an object or it is a metaphorical use of lan- philosopher’s task to argue for or against this guage. The Wittgensteinian philosophers of reli- theory or this thesis. Religious faith is not gion deny that the word “God” refers to an object. a theory, according to Phillips, and it is not the They also deny that the word “God” is a meta- philosopher’s task to argue for or against the phorical use of language. They reject this simple metaphysical claims that the metaphysical choice. This is because they believe that no one philosopher of religion circles around. Instead, account of what “agreement with reality” amounts Phillips argues, it is the philosopher’s task to to can be given since the meaning of what agree- free us from the conceptual confusions that give ment with reality comes to is itself determined by rise to metaphysical philosophy of religion the language games we play and the forms of life (Cf. Phillips 1988, pp. 195, 201, 209, 308). they enter into (Phillips 1988, pp. 55, 206, 317). Phillips underlines that the philosopher’s Phillips argues that by studying the grammar aim is not to persuade people to believe but to ruling the use of the concept of God, we will understand the character of their beliefs. The come to understand that the God in whom reli- philosopher, it might be said, is the guardian of gious believers believe is one of whom it makes grammar. The theologian, by contrast, is the no sense to say that he may or may not exist. The guardian of faith, the one interested in defending dispute between belief and unbelief is, according his or her faith in order to gain new followers. The to Phillips, not one in which evidence and prob- difficulty that Wittgenstein’s work presents to the abilities are weighed within a common system. metaphysical philosopher of religion is that it Instead, the gap between what the believer wants stands outside the apologetic context. This might to say and what the unbeliever denies is be difficult to appreciate if philosophy itself is a grammatical gap. To reject religion, or to conceived of as a way to assess religious belief come to God, is not to reject or embrace pro and contra (Phillips 1988, pp. xvi–xvii, a hypothesis within a common way of looking 113, 238). at things but, rather, to reject or embrace a whole In philosophy, we are not testing theories, way of looking at things. Within the religious according to the Wittgensteinian philosopher of way of looking at things, it is not meaningful, religion, but struggling with confusions. Some of according to Philips, to say either that God may C 454 Concept of God in Contemporary Philosophy of Religion exist or that God may not exist. Within the reli- Feminist Philosophy of Religion gious way of looking at things, God is not an object or entity that may or may not exist. If, When Grace Jantzen describes ▶ feminist philos- per impossible, any object were said to corre- ophy of religion in Companion Encyclopedia of spond to the word “God,” one thing would be Theology, she stresses that feminist philosophers certain: that object would not be God (Phillips of religion pay attention to the fact that God, as 1988, pp. 11–12, 80, 321). God is described within the theistic traditions, is Wittgensteinian philosophy of religion very often understood to be a male person since stresses the difference between religious belief the properties ascribed to God often is understood and science. Religious faith and scientific as “masculinist” (Coakley 1997, pp. 601–606). hypotheses belong to different forms of life, and Also, believers tend to refer to God by using male it is important not to confuse or blend language personal pronouns. When philosophers of reli- games from these different contexts with each gion summarize the most important properties other. If, for example, the religious believer or that, according to them, are incorporated within scientist tries to argue for or against God’s exis- the theistic concept of God, their lists very sel- tence by using scientific results, a conceptual dom include the property of being male even confusion is at hand. It is the philosopher’s task though philosophers of religion also tend to to deliver us from this conceptual confusion by refer to God by using male personal pronouns. reminding us that the grammar ruling our use of Is the use of male pronouns just an innocent the concept of God states that belief in God is not linguistic practice with no severe consequences a scientific hypothesis that we may argue for or or is it the tip of an iceberg that ought to attract against. To understand religious faith in such our attention not only to the male personal pro- a way is to misunderstand it, according to the nouns used when referring to God but to the Wittgensteinian philosopher of religion. whole cluster of properties incorporated in the When it comes to religious pluralism, the theistic concept of God? Wittgensteinian philosopher of religion empha- Feminist philosophers of religion maintain sizes that in asking whether or not believers that not only the use of male personal pronouns within different religious contexts mean the when referring to God but the whole theistic same when using the concept of God, we can concept of God ought to be analyzed from get confused by thinking that speaking about a feminist philosophical perspective. The great- God has anything in common with referring to making properties that philosophers of religion the same object. The philosopher should not treat summarize in their lists describing the theistic religious pluralism as a question concerning concept of God often include properties that we which religious theory, if any, might be the cor- associate with male gender. Being powerful and rect one. Instead, the philosopher of religion all-knowing are properties that dominating males should describe the grammar ruling different lan- who suppress women find valuable and therefore guage games within different religious contexts ascribe to God. Likewise, being without a body without judging those language games and with- and being detached from the world are usually out suggesting how they may be adjusted in order understood to be properties of the male gender, to accord with some other language game within while women are traditionally thought to be cor- another religious context. This means, among poreal and to have feelings of attachment. Femi- other things, that it is not the philosopher’s task nist philosophers of religion therefore argue that to help religious people belonging to different the whole theistic concept of God that dominates religious contexts to come to an agreement influential religious traditions as well as main- concerning what core beliefs they ought to accept stream philosophy of religion must be investi- but to help them understand the character of their gated from a feminist philosophical perspective. own beliefs as well as that of others. The detached interest in the logical coherence of Concept of God in Contemporary Philosophy of Religion 455 C the theistic concept of God, characteristic of relation to our values in order to avoid descrip- metaphysical philosophy of religion, must be tions of the world which are formulated by questioned in the light of the more pressing issues oppressors and which lead to further oppression. concerning the oppressive consequences of this This emphasis on the interrelation between concept. our descriptions of the world, our values, and In her work on feminist philosophy of religion, our standpoint in the world is something that the Pamela Sue Anderson takes an interest in episte- feminist philosopher of religion shares with the C mological questions (Anderson 1988). In doing philosopher of religion who chooses a non- so, she poses the question: Whose philosophy is metaphysical realist approach. the philosophy of religion? Within the philoso- phy of religion, what feminists call the “generic male” (i.e., the privileged male subject posing as A Non-metaphysical Realist Approach to a sexless individual of universal instantiation) has the Philosophy of Religion become the norm (Coakley 1997, p. 601). This, they argue, characterizes the problems that phi- The philosopher of religion who chooses a non- losophers of religion formulate and choose to metaphysical realist approach concurs with pre- work on, the strategies they understand to be sent-day philosophy of science in assuming that acceptable within a philosophical discipline and we can state things only if what we say is related the solutions that they recommend. The ideal to some idea about the circumstances under reflecting, arguing, and knowing subject that pro- which we would be able, as human beings, to duces sound philosophy of religion is a male justify that statement. It must be possible for subject. other people to discern this idea by studying the By taking an interest in epistemological ques- linguistic behavior in the speech community to tions, feminist philosophers of religion draw which we as speakers belong. This does not mean attention to interrelations between our descrip- that the individual speaker must be able to for- tions of the way the world is, our values, and mulate an opinion about the circumstances under our standpoint in the world. The fact that philos- which we would be able to justify her statement. ophy of religion is usually approached from It is the philosophical observer of the speech a male perspective, a perspective that highly behavior in the speech community that must be values what we humans understand to be male able to do that. Nor does it mean that, at present, properties, inevitably affects the description of we humans can actually, in practice, justify the the world that the philosopher of religion presup- statement in question. Perhaps only some future poses in posing his problems and arguing for his expert will be able to do that. However, it does solutions. There is no neutral description of the mean that sentences cannot be statements unless world, the feminist philosopher of religion they are connected to some idea about the cir- argues. There is no God’s-eye point of view that cumstances under which we would be able to we can strive for or imagine. We human beings justify the sentence in question. For example, are always situated in time and space. When we the metaphysical realist belief that there exists describe the world, we do so from some perspec- a reality-in-itself cannot be stated because we tive. As human beings, we live on earth by having cannot per definition justify the existence a certain body, located within a specific context, of such a reality. If the existence of a reality- with certain values and certain linguistic assets. in-itself could be confirmed by us humans, it Our standpoint characterizes the description of would not be a reality-in-itself. It would be the world that we formulate. Our description of a reality understood from a human perspective, the world, in turn, has consequences for how we a reality described by humans using live our lives and how we treat each other. We certain linguistic devices and shown to exist have to evaluate our descriptions of the world in by human beings presupposing certain C 456 Concept of God in Contemporary Philosophy of Religion epistemological values. This means that, This non-metaphysical realist reinterpretation according to the philosopher of religion who of the three theses does not regard reality as chooses a non-metaphysical realist approach, a reality-in-itself but rather as a reality that the metaphysical realism that is presupposed relates to what we humans can state, what we within metaphysical philosophy of religion can experience, and what we consider to be is a philosophically untenable position sufficiently good conditions for justification. In (Johhannesson 2007, p. 245). this sense, it is a reality described, not from By assuming that the only utterances that can a God’s-eye point of view but from a human- be statements are utterances related to some idea eyes point of view. Just as the feminist philoso- concerning sufficiently good conditions for justi- pher of religion, the philosopher of religion who fication, we can conclude that we humans are able chooses a non-metaphysical realist approach to interpret all speech behavior that can be con- stresses the interdependence between our linguis- sidered human language. This is so because it tic resources (that determine what statements we will always be possible to discern the ideas are able to formulate), our values (including the concerning justification that give our statements epistemological values that decide what we their content by studying the linguistic behavior understand to be sufficiently good conditions within a speech community. When we know for the justification of a certain statement), our under what circumstances a speaker would standpoint in the world, and our descriptions make a certain statement, we can interpret that of reality. statement by stating its content using our own It should be emphasized that it is hardly likely conceptual resources. The fact that different that we humans will ever be in such complete human speech communities using different con- agreement about what objects we can rightly state ceptual recourses will be inter-interpretable gives exist or what constitutes sufficiently good condi- rise to a non-metaphysical realist position. Non- tions for justification that we will be able to metaphysical realism is a philosophically tenable formulate the one and only true and complete point of departure for the philosophy of religion. description of reality. This description of reality, What this means can be explained by returning to and its consequent delimitation of the totality of Putnam and the three theses he ascribes to the mind-independent objects, is a hypothetical metaphysical realist. notion; however, unlike the metaphysical It is possible for us to understand all three realist conception of a reality-in-itself, it is theses attributed to the metaphysical realist in a hypothetical notion that it is possible for us to a non-metaphysical realist way. The world can understand since it refers to a reality with which be conceived of as consisting of that totality of we interact. mind-independent objects which we, with the The fact that the metaphysical realist and the help of our conceptual resources, can rightly non-metaphysical realist embrace the same three state exists. The fact that we can rightly state that theses should not lead us to ignore the differences a specific object exists could mean that we think between these two perspectives. One important that, given sufficiently good conditions for the difference is that the non-metaphysical realist, justification of such a statement, we would claim just like the Wittgensteinian philosopher of reli- that this statement is an expression of correct lin- gion, will have to maintain that all philosophical guistic behavior. This means that we conceive of reflection has to be done in connection to some this statement as true, as corresponding to reality. existing speech community whose linguistic The one and only true description of reality could behavior the philosopher studies. This is so consist of all the statements about what does or because if the philosopher of religion does not does not exist which we would conceive of as study the linguistic behavior of some existing corresponding to reality if sufficiently good condi- speech community, she will not be able to state tions for justifying each statement were realized under what circumstances the statements that she (Johhannesson 2007, pp. 232–233). focuses on could be considered justified, and Conceptions of Truth 457 C therefore, she will not be able to understand what ▶ Natural Theology they mean. ▶ Ontology It is important to note that the philosopher of ▶ Philosophy of Religion religion who chooses a non-metaphysical realist ▶ Realisms in Philosophy of Religion approach can work with the questions concerning ▶ Science and Religion Dialogue and the God’s existence that have become the trademark Interreligious Dialogue of metaphysical philosophy of religion even if ▶ Theism, Classical C this work will be done in a different way. Before starting to discuss whether or not God exists, the philosopher of religion who chooses a non- References metaphysical realist approach must clarify the meaning of the claim that God exists or the Anderson, P. S. (1998). A feminist philosophy of religion. The rationality and myths of religious belief. Oxford: claim that God does not exist by stating some Blackwell. idea about the circumstances under which we Coakley, S. (1997). Feminism. In P. L. Quinn & would be justified in making one of those state- C. Taliaferro (Eds.), A companion to philosophy of ments. This idea about conditions for justification religion. Oxford: Blackwell. Filosofilexikonet. (1988). “religionsfilosofi”, Filosofer och must be explained in relation to the linguistic ¨ . Stockholm: Forum. filosofiska begrepp fra˚n A till O behavior in some existing speech community. Hyman, J. (1997). Wittgensteinianism. In P. L. Quinn & The fact that the philosopher of religion will C. Taliaferro (Eds.), A companion to philosophy of have to treat questions concerning the concept religion (pp. 150–157). Oxford: Blackwell. Jantzen, G. (1995). Feminism in the philosophy of reli- of God or God’s existence in relation to some gion. In P. Byrne & L. Houlden (Eds.), Companion actually existing speech community will have encyclopedia of theology (pp. 490–508). London: consequences for the philosophical agenda. Routledge. Some of the questions traditionally treated in Johhannesson, K. (2007). God pro nobis. On non- metaphysical realism and the philosophy of religion philosophy of religion are rarely triggered by (pp. 232–233, 245). Leuven: Peeters. existing speech communities outside the philo- Phillips, D. Z. (1988). Faith after foundationalism sophical discourse. The philosopher of religion (pp. xvi–xvii, 11–12, 55, 80, 113,195, 201, 206, 209, who chooses a non-metaphysical realist approach 238, 264, 308, 317, 321). London: Routledge. Putnam, H. (1978). Meaning and the moral sciences. might therefore find that other questions than the London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ones traditionally treated in the philosophy of Putnam, H. (1981). Reason, truth and history (p. 49). religion are more interesting to study simply Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. because some existing and influential speech Quinn, P. L. (1995). Philosophy of religion. In Audi Robert (Ed.), The Cambridge dictionary of philosophy community gives rise to them. This might mean (pp. 607–611). Cambridge: Cambridge University that philosophers of religion become more inter- Press. ested in non-Christian religious traditions which Swinburne, R. (1993). The coherence of theism, (Rev. ed., gain influence in present-day society. It may also p. 1), Oxford: Clarendon Press. mean that the relation between religions and the sciences is seen from a different angle than the one given by metaphysical philosophy of religion. Concept of Truth ▶ Truth Cross-References ▶ Critical Realism in Theology and Science ▶ Faith and Belief Conceptions of Truth ▶ Feminist Philosophy of Religion ▶ Meaning, the Concept of ▶ Truth C 458 Condensed Matter Physics Ionic crystals are made of positive and nega- Condensed Matter Physics tive ions – i.e., atoms having some excess or lack of electrons which makes them behave as electri- Minko Balkanski cally charged objects. The ions are kept together Universite´ Pierre et Marie Curie – Paris VI, by the Coulomb attraction between ions of oppo- Paris, France site sign stronger than the Coulomb repulsion between ions of the same sign. The ionic bond is resulting from the electrostatic interaction Related Terms between ions of opposite sign. The NaCl struc- ture is an example of an ionic crystal structure. Condensed matter physics; Semiconductor Covalent crystals are made of neutral atoms physics held together by the so-called covalent bond, electron pair, or homopolar bond. For example, in the molecule H2, the hydrogen atoms share the Description two electrons via covalent bonding. The covalent bond is as strong as the ionic bond and has strong According to the temperature of the system, mat- directional properties – its strength depends on ter can be found in three different states: gas, the angular relation between the atoms in liquid, and solid. Gas is the state where the indi- a molecule. The covalent bond is usually formed vidual constituents are free to move. In liquid from two electrons – one from each atom partic- state, the constituents are bound and their motion ipating in the bond. The two atoms can be from is restricted. In the solid state of matter, the con- different chemical elements but should have stituents occupy fixed positions. Solids can exist comparable electronegativity – a chemical prop- in the crystalline or amorphous form. In the crys- erty describing the ability of an atom to attract talline form, the atoms or ions are arranged in electrons. The electronegativity of an atom a periodic array, i.e., there is a long-range order in depends on its atomic weight, and the distance the system. In the amorphous form, there is no forms its valence (most external) electrons that long-range order. reside in relation to the positively charged nucleus. The higher is the electronegativity, the Solid-State Crystals larger is the degree of attraction of the electrons Crystals are formed by the infinite regular repe- toward the atom. tition in space of identical building blocks. The Crystals of inert gases. The inert gases form elementary building blocks are atoms or groups the simplest crystals. The crystals are transparent of atoms. In the simplest crystals such as copper, insulators and are weakly bound with low melting gold, silver, and alkali metals, the structural unit temperature. The outermost electronic shells of consists of a single atom. More generally, the the atoms are completely filled. In the crystal, the structural units consist of several atoms or mole- inert gas atoms are packed together as closely as cules. The structure of all crystals is described in possible. The typical crystal structures are all terms of single periodic lattice, with a group of cubic close-packed. The inert gas crystals are atoms attached to each lattice point or situated in held together by van der Waals-London interac- each elementary parallelepiped. This group of tions. This interaction is due to the fact that the atoms is called the basis. The basis is repeated electrical charge distribution on the atom is not in space to form the crystal: crystal rigid. The electrons are in motion around the structure ¼ lattice + basis. A typical example of nucleus even in the lowest electronic state, and a simple crystal structures is the structure of at any instant of time, there is a nonvanishing sodium chloride – NaCl. The fundamental type electric dipole moment from the motion. An of its lattice is face-centered cubic; the basis instantaneous dipole moment of one atom pro- consists of one Na atom and one Cl atom. duces an electric field at the center of the second Condensed Matter Physics 459 C at some distance R of the first atom. The field will Electronic Energy Bands To understand the induce an instantaneous dipole moment on the basic properties of semiconductors, it is neces- second atom. These two dipole moments will sary to refer to the quantum concept of energy interact. This interaction is known as the van bands. For the free atoms, the energy levels are der Waals interaction, London interaction, or single quantum (or discrete) states. When the induced dipole-dipole interaction. It is the princi- atoms are brought together in a crystal, the quan- pal attractive interaction in crystals of inert gases. tum rules do not allow for the atomic energy C Metal crystals. The main characteristic of levels of the individual atoms to overlap and metal crystals is a high electrical conductivity. coincide. Thus, the individual atomic energy A large number of electrons in a metal are free to levels degenerate and form energy bands. In move around, usually one or two per atom. The a periodic lattice of a crystal, the electrons move electrons available to move about are called con- freely as if the ions are instantaneously at rest. duction electrons. In some metals, the interaction The eigenstates of an electron moving in the of the conduction electrons with the ion core periodic potential of a crystal are the so-called makes a large contribution to the binding energy. Bloch states. The energy of the Bloch states can- Alkali metal crystals may be considered as an not take all possible values but are restricted to array of positive charges embedded in a sea of certain allowed regions or bands separated from negative charges. In the transition metals, there one another by forbidden regions or band gaps. may be additional binding from inner electron In a pure semiconductor without defects and at shells. Transition metals have large d-electron the absolute temperature scale zero, 0 K, certain shells and are characterized by high binding ener- bands are completely full of electrons and the gies, caused in part by covalent binding and in remaining bands are completely empty. This part by van der Waals interaction of the cores. situation corresponds to an insulator. If the tem- Hydrogen-bonded crystals. A hydrogen bond perature of the crystal is raised, electrons will be is formed when two nonhydrogen atoms attract excited from filled bands to empty bands, leading a hydrogen atom. The hydrogen bond is rather to partial occupancy of these bands. Under these ionic in character; being formed only between conditions, the crystal becomes a semiconductor the most electronegative atoms F – fluorine, with a conductivity which increases rapidly with O – oxygen, and N – nitrogen. increasing temperature as more and more elec- trons are excited in the empty bands. Semiconductor Crystals There is a gap between the top edge of the A semiconductor is neither a good insulator nor highest filled band and the bottom edge of the a very good conductor of electrical current. lowest empty band. This gap is called fundamen- tal gap. The electrons in the highest filled bands Introduction are valence electrons, and the bands they occupy Composition of Semiconductors Some of the are the valence bands. The bands that are empty most important semiconductor elements are sili- at 0 K are conduction bands. When an electron is con and germanium which are part of group IV of promoted from the valence band to the conduc- the periodic table of elements. Various forms of tion band, it becomes a conduction electron. The carbon also can be semiconductors. Other ele- lack of the electron in the valence band is called ments with semiconductor properties are sele- hole. The holes which are left in the valence band nium and tellurium of group VI. The list of are positively charged. Therefore, electrons in the binary semiconductor compounds is very large. conduction band are negative electric charge car- It includes the compounds formed from group III riers and the holes in the valence band are posi- and group V elements, from group II and group tive charge carriers. IV elements, and from group IV and group VI elements. There are also many ternary and Amorphous Semiconductors In amorphous organic semiconductor compounds. semiconductors, the atoms do not form C 460 Condensed Matter Physics a periodic array, but are disordered. Nevertheless, Silicon doped with P is known as n-type Si a sufficient short-range order remains so that the because the electric current carriers provided by electronic energy properties retain their basic P are negatively charged electrons in the conduc- features. Band edges however are smeared out, tion band. and band gaps are no longer clearly defined. Let us now consider an impurity from group States which are moved into what had been the III of the periodic table such as boron (B), which forbidden gap may now have a distinctively can also enter Si substitutionally. Boron contains localized character. Amorphous semiconductor three electrons behind closed shells and therefore alloys are frequently used in applications. In par- lacks one electron needed to form electron-pair ticular, amorphous Si-Ge alloys are useful in bonds with the nearest neighboring Si atoms. The solar cells in view of the possibility to maximize missing electron on the B atom can be regarded as performance by varying the composition. a hole. At sufficient low temperature, the hole a-Si:H (hydrogenated amorphous silicon) is bounds to the B atom. At high temperature, one one of the most common amorphous semicon- electron from a far away electron-pair bond can ductors. A silicon lattice is tetrahedrally bonded transfer to the B atom and, together with the other (a tetrahedron is a geometrical figure composed three electrons, form four electron-pair bonds of four triangular faces, three of which meet at between the B atom and the four nearest neighbor each of its four vertices). Creating disorder in the Si atoms. The hole is thereby transferred from the silicon lattice causes relaxation of the require- B atom to the far away electron-pair bonds and is ment for fourfold coordination of the nearest no longer bound to the B atom. The B atom in this neighbors and produces the so-called dangling process has become negatively charged. Boron is bonds – a type of bond that occurs when an referred to as an acceptor impurity because it atom is missing a neighbor to which it would be accepts electrons from elsewhere in the crystal. able to bind. These bonds need to be saturated and Si doped with B is known as p-type Si because the combine easily with monovalent atoms such as electric current carriers provided by B are posi- H to yield a-Si:H. tively charged holes. Impurity Effects Introduction of impurities in Impurity Bands Impurity effects can be created a semiconductor may have drastic effects on its and controlled by doping semiconductor crystals properties and, in particular, on its electronic with appropriate foreign atoms in a way similar to properties. Impurities can provide additional car- the one that was described above. Such impurities riers such as conduction electrons or valence or dopants introduce newly allowed electronic holes, and scattering centers, which perturbs the energy levels within the band gap. These energy motion of the freely moving carriers. levels are close to the conduction band for n-type If a group V element such as P is added to and close to the valance band for the p-type semi- a group IV semiconductor like Si, it may enter conductors. At sufficiently high concentration, substitutionally into the crystal by replacing Si neighboring atoms are sufficiently close to pro- atoms in the silicon diamond structure. Phospho- duce sufficient perturbation of the impurity rus contains five electrons behind closed shells of levels. The energy levels broaden out into which four can be paired up with electrons on a band called impurity band. four neighboring Si atoms to form four electron- pair bonds. The fifth electron is bound to the Lattice Vibrations An important source of P+ ion at sufficiently low temperature, but is deviation from the periodicity in a crystal is the thermally exited to the conduction band at higher displacement of an atom from its equilibrium temperatures and contributes to the conductivity. position. These deviations arise naturally from Phosphorous is called donor impurity because the thermal energy of the atom. If the crystal is it donates electrons to the conduction band. in a stable configuration, the displacement of an Condensed Matter Physics 461 C atom leads to a force that tends to restore the atom piezoelectricity and can be explained by the com- to its equilibrium position. However, the kinetic positional asymmetry of the basic structural ele- energy of the atom causes it to overshoot the ments of the crystals (only crystals without center latter. As a result, the atom vibrates about its of inversion can exhibit it). The semiconductors equilibrium position. The forces of interaction of the zinc blende structure, such as GaAs, and of between atoms couple the atomic vibration the wurtzite structure, such as CdS, exhibit together, giving rise to lattice vibrations. When piezoelectricity. C an atom of the pure crystal is substitutionally replaced by an impurity atom, the mass of the Ferroelectricity A ferroelectric crystal exhibits atom and the force constants coupling it to its an electric dipole moment even in the absence of neighbors are changed and a localized vibrational an external electric field. In the ferroelectric state, mode arises in which the amplitude of vibration is the center of the positive charge of the crystal large at the impurity site and decreases exponen- does not coincide with the center of negative tially going away from the site. charge. The variation of polarization as a function of the electric field for the ferroelectric state Semiconductor Properties represents a typical loop called hysteresis loop. Electrical Properties The electrical resistivity The crystal in a normal dielectric state usually of semiconductors generally decreases strongly does not show a perceptible hysteresis when the with increasing temperature, whereas the resis- electric field is increased and reversed slowly. tivity of a metal generally increases weakly with Ferroelectricity usually disappears above a increasing temperature. In fact, solid materials certain temperature called transition temperature, are usually classified into three categories based and above the transition, the crystal is said to be on their electrical resistivity: insulators when the in a paraelectric state. resistivity is very high, metals when the resistiv- The ferroelectric crystals are said to be of ity is very low, and semiconductors for which the order-disorder type when the transition is asso- resistivity is intermediate and is highly dependent ciated with the ordering of ions, or of displacive on the temperature. The temperature depen- type when the transition is associated with the dences of the resistivities of metals and semicon- displacement of a whole sublattice of ions of ductors are quite different. For metals, the one type relative to another sublattice. All temperature dependence is rather weak and the crystals in a ferroelectric state are also resistivity increases with increasing temperature. piezoelectric. A stress applied to the crystal will For semiconductors, the opposite is typically the change the electric polarization, and similarly, an case. The temperature dependence is rather electric field applied to the crystal will cause the strong, and the resistivity decreases with increas- crystal to be strained. ing temperature. Transport Properties Transport properties such Dielectric Properties Certain crystals exhibit as electrical conductivity play a critical role in the a dipole moment in the presence of an electric application of semiconductors to electronic field E. The polarization P in such crystals is devices. A system of free carriers in an energy defined as the dipole moment per unit volume of band can be considered as a gas of noninteracting a crystal cell. The dielectric susceptibility of an charged particles. When an external force is isotropic or cubic medium is defined as w ¼ P/E. applied, the carriers are displaced under the influ- ence of the field and an electrical current results. Piezoelectric Effects Some crystals have the The external force may be due to an electric field property that if the crystal is strained, an electric producing electric conduction current, to a dipole moment and an associated electric concentration gradient giving rise to diffusion cur- field develop. This phenomenon is called rent, or to a thermal gradient leading to a heat C 462 Condensed Matter Physics current associated with thermal conductivity. In which separates domains magnetized in different the absence of an external force, the charge directions is called a Bloch well. carriers execute the random Brownian motion Compounds in which some ions have resulting from collisions due to the interaction of a moment antiparallel to other ions are consid- carriers with impurities, lattice vibrations, and ered as ferrimagnetic. Many ferrimagnets are other perturbations of the periodic potential. Dur- poor conductors of electricity, a quality which is ing collision, the carrier may undergo a sharp exploited in device applications. There exists also change in direction, but between collisions, its an antiferromagnet order in which the spins in motion is essentially rectilinear and characterized a single plane are parallel, but adjacent planes are by its mean free speed. antiparallel. In an antiferromagnet, the spins are ordered in antiparallel arrangement with zero net Magnetic Properties The magnetic moment of moment at temperatures below the so-called Ne´el a free atom has three principal sources: the spin temperature TN. An antiferromagnet is a special with which electrons are endowed, their orbital case of ferrimagnet for which both sublattices angular momentum, and the change in orbital have equal saturation magnetization. momentum induced by the applied magnetic field. The magnetization M of a semiconductor Superconductivity The electrical resistivity of material is defined as the magnetic moment per many solid materials, metals and alloys, and unit volume. The magnetic susceptibility per unit some particular compounds drops suddenly to volume is defined as w ¼ M/B, where B is the zero when the specimen is cooled to sufficiently macroscopic magnetic field intensity. Substances low temperature. At a critical temperature Tc, the with a negative magnetic susceptibility are called specimen undergoes a phase transition from diamagnetic. Substances with a positive suscep- a state of normal electrical resistivity to tibility are called paramagnetic. A positive con- a superconducting state. tribution to w can be found in lattice defects The magnetic properties exhibited by possessing an odd number of electrons, as the a superconductor are as dramatic as their electri- total spin of the system cannot be zero. Electronic cal properties. When a specimen is placed in paramagnetism is found also in metals and in free a magnetic field and cooled through the transition atoms and ions with partly filled inner shell. temperature for superconductivity, the magnetic A ferromagnet has a spontaneous magnetic flux usually present is ejected from the specimen. moment even at zero applied magnetic field. This is called the Meissner effect. A spontaneous moment means that electron spins and magnetic moments are arranged in Optical Properties of Semiconductors The a regular manner. The temperature above which optical properties of matter are associated with the spontaneous magnetization vanishes is called the absorption, dispersion, and scattering of elec- the Curie temperature Tc. The Curie temperature tromagnetic radiation. All these processes are separates the disordered paramagnetic phase relatively complex optical phenomena when con- (at T > Tc) from the ordered ferromagnetic sidered within the context of condensed matter phase (at T < Tc). At temperatures below the physics and in semiconductor physics in particu- Curie point, the electronic magnetic moments of lar. The nature of optical absorption and scatter- a ferromagnet are all lined up when regarded on ing could be somewhat intuitively understood. a microscopic scale. Yet, looking at a specimen However, this is not so with dispersion which as a whole, the magnetic moment may be much describes optical material effects associated less than the saturation moment. To explain this with the fact that in a semiconductor (the same behavior, Weiss assumed that actual specimens as in any other type of material), the different are composed by a number of small regions spectral components of an optical pulse propa- called domains, within each of which the local gate with different speeds. The absorption, dis- magnetization is saturated. The transition layer persion, and scattering of electromagnetic Condensed Matter Physics 463 C radiation arise as a result of the perturbation of by Cr3+ impurities. The blue color of sapphire is the material system by the electromagnetic field. due to Ti3+ ions present as impurity in Al2O3. The perturbation can involve the electronic state or the vibrational state or both and leads to tran- Semiconductor Structures and Lasers sitions between the states. The phenomena pro- P-N Junction in Semiconductors The p-n duced by this perturbation include infrared junction represents the interface between two intrinsic interband absorption, free carrier regions, one of which is p type and the other C absorption, lattice vibration absorption, Raman n type. On both sides of the interface, electrons scattering, and electron Raman scattering. Light and holes diffuse and recombine, leaving absorption leads to photoconductivity with appli- uncompensated charged ions that constitute cations as photodetectors and photovoltaic effect a space charge region or depletion layer. From as solar cells. the region of positive ions on the n-type side In the process of optical absorption, light is toward the region of negative ions on the p-type absorbed by crystals to create electron-hole side exists a built-in electric field. The charge pairs. When the energy of the absorbed photon density is positive on the n-type side and negative is close to the energy gap, but just below, the on the p-type side. The simplest semiconductor electron-hole pairs remain bound by Coulomb device is the p-n junction which is used as recti- interaction. This initial bound state is called exci- fier. It also serves as the basis of the transistor ton; it may move through the crystal transporting which has important applications as amplifier. excitation energy but not charge. Interacting with phonons or impurities, the exciton may be disso- Heterostructures A heterostructure consists ciated, giving free electrons and holes. For pho- of two different semiconductors in intimate tons with energies greater than the energy gap, contact. A heterojunction is a heterostructure electrons from the valence band are excited with semiconductors of different types. directly into the conduction band, giving A modulation-doped heterostructure involves free electrons and holes which may move two semiconductors, one highly doped on one independently. side and one intrinsic on the other side of the Photoconductivity is another phenomenon interface. A very thin layer of conduction elec- which is related to both the optical and the elec- trons can be created which constitutes a two- trical properties of semiconductors. In general, it dimensional electron gas (2DEG). The electron is associated with the increase of the electrical energies in a 2DEG form electronic subbands conductivity of an insulating crystal caused by which arise from the confinement of the electrons radiation incident on the crystal. The direct effect in the direction normal to the junction interface. of light illumination is to increase the number of A square-quantum well is formed by placing mobile charge carriers in the crystal, giving rise a thin layer of small-gap semiconductor between to the manifestation of electrical current two thick layers of large-gap semiconductor. phenomena. Coupling together larger and larger number of The color presented by a crystal is usually the quantum wells leads to the creation of color of light transmitted through the crystal. a superlattice with an allowed band of energy A perfect diamond is clear because there is no levels. light absorption in the crystal. Cadmium sulfide with an energy gap of 2.42 eV absorbs the blue Semiconductor Lasers Crystals can be used as region of the spectrum and is therefore yellow light amplifiers and as sources of coherent radia- orange. Silicon has a metallic luster because the tion – lasers. The laser action is explained by the band gap of 1.14 eV is below the visible region of intrinsic optical properties of the crystal. The energy. Ruby is a dark-red gem; sapphire is a blue interband optical absorption leads to the produc- gem. Both are impure crystals of Al2O3 which is tion of free carriers in the conduction and valence colorless when pure. The color of ruby is caused bands. These free carriers constituting excited C 464 Conditional Relations states have relatively short lifetime and tend to recombine with emission of photons. This pro- Conditioning Classical and cess is called radiative recombination or sponta- Instrumental neous light emission. The frequency of the emitted light corresponds to the band gap energy. Michael Domjan A system in an excited state is stimulated by the Department of Psychology, A8000, University of radiation field to emit a photon and drop to Texas, Austin, TX, USA a lower energy state. The rate of stimulated emis- sion is proportional to the energy density of the radiation, whereas the rate of spontaneous emis- A specific procedure that is intended to produce a sion is not. The term laser is an acronym for light learning effect. Conditioning procedures are amplification by the stimulated emission of radi- typically categorized as involving either instru- ation. Laser action is conditioned by population mental conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning inversion. (classical conditioning). Instrumental condition- A semiconductor p-n junction is a convenient ing then is a conditioning procedure in which the system for establishing population inversion of probability of a behavioral response is altered by energy levels. At a p-n semiconductor junction, the presentation of pleasant (reinforcing) or the stimulated emission of radiation occurs from unpleasant (punishing) event shortly after the the radiation emitted when electrons recombine response. If the response results in a pleasant with holes. The pumping action is provided by outcome, it becomes more likely in the future; if the DC voltage. The diode wafer provides its own the response results in an unpleasant outcome, it electromagnetic cavity, for the reflectivity at the becomes less likely in the future. crystal-air interface is high. Cross-References Cross-References ▶ Conditioning and Learning ▶ Condensed Matter Physics References Conditioning and Learning Balkanski, M., & Wallis, R. F. (2000). Semiconductor Michael Domjan physics and applications. Oxford: Oxford University Department of Psychology, A8000, University of Press. Kittel, C. (2004). Introduction to solid state physics Texas, Austin, TX, USA (8th ed.). New York: Willey. Related Terms Conditional Relations Animal learning; Associative learning ▶ Relations in Buddhism Description Conditioning and learning is devoted to the study Conditionality of the mechanisms of learning, primarily at the behavioral level of investigation. The focus is on ▶ Relations in Buddhism observable actions and responses of human and Conditioning and Learning 465 C other animal species in response to specific stim- and elicited by a stimulus (a tone) that was ini- uli and how these actions are altered by experi- tially ineffective by pairing that stimulus with an ence or learning (Bouton 2007). Learning is an effective triggering event (food). Pavlov devoted enduring change in the mechanisms of behavior the latter part of his life to the empirical study of that results from prior experience with specific conditioned behavior because he viewed such stimuli or training procedures. Behavioral investigations as informative about how the changes that are not long lasting, such as those brain and nervous system work. Thus, Pavlov C caused by fatigue or a change in motivation, are regarded his studies of conditioning to be an excluded from the domain of learning because investigation of the functions of the nervous they do not satisfy the criterion of being long system. lasting. Behavioral changes that are the result of Pavlov’s interest in using conditioning to physical maturation are excluded from the uncover how the nervous system works has its domain of learning because they do not require counterpart in contemporary investigations of the special training procedures. neurobiology of learning. Great advances in The field of conditioning and learning has the neurosciences now permit scientists to study deep roots in psychology. The field dates back the mechanisms of learning not only at the level to the late nineteenth and early twentieth centu- of behavior but also at the level of neural circuits ries and was stimulated by three separate lines of and neurotransmitter system, as well as at the inquiry. The first of these originated with Darwin cellular, molecular, and genetic levels (Rudy and concerned the evolution of intelligence 2008). (Boakes 1984). Before being able to comment The third major impetus for studies of condi- on the evolution of intelligence, Darwin and his tioning and learning originated with efforts in the colleagues had to define what constituted intelli- early part of the twentieth century to develop gent behavior in nonhuman animals. They pro- animal models that would facilitate investigation posed that the defining feature of intelligent of specific features of human behavior that could behavior was flexibility or the ability to alter not be studied with as great experimental control behavior as a consequence of experience. Thus, and precision with human participants. Early intelligence was defined in terms of the ability to efforts involved developing animal models of learn. This definition of intelligence provided anxiety and neurosis. Animal models continue great impetus for studies of learning in various to be used to study love and attachment, depres- animal species. sion and helplessness, impulsivity, stress and The evolution of intelligence remains an coping, and various aspects of drug tolerance active area of investigation in contemporary psy- and addiction (Carroll and Overmier 2001). chology and behavioral ecology. The topic is now referred to as “comparative cognition” because the focus is on comparing cognition and learning Self-identification in various animal species, including Homo sapi- ens. Topics considered include episodic memory, Science directed forgetting, spatial navigation, perceptual Conditioning and learning is an empirical, data- and abstract concept learning, serial pattern based discipline that employs the methods of learning, tool use, and language learning (Zentall experimental science. The use of experimental and Wasserman 2012). methods is required by the definition of learning. The second source of interest in conditioning Learning is said to result from prior experience and learning stemmed from an interest in under- with specific stimuli or training procedures. Prov- standing the functions of the nervous system. ing that a behavioral change is an instance of This line of inquiry dates back to the work of learning requires identifying specific prior expe- Ivan Pavlov, who discovered that a reflex riences that are responsible for or constitute the response (salivation) could become conditioned cause of the behavior change. Identifying such C 466 Conditioning and Learning causal mechanisms can only be accomplished The empirical foundations of conditioning and with experimental methods. learning are based on measurements and record- The typical learning experiment involves one ings of how often and how fast certain responses group of participants that is exposed to the spe- occur. Introspection and self-reported feelings, cific training procedure that is the focus of the insights, and thoughts are outside the domain of investigation. Changes in the behavior of this this field of inquiry. group are then compared to that of a control Another distinctive feature of the field is that it group that is treated in a similar fashion but employs experimental techniques that involve does not receive the relevant training procedure. manipulations of prior experience. This is often Because learning is inferred from a comparison done in highly controlled laboratory settings. of the experimental and control groups, infer- ences about learning often critically depend on the design of the control procedure. The reliance Relevance to Science and Religion on experimental methods has made the study of conditioning and learning primarily a laboratory Investigators of conditioning and learning do not enterprise (Domjan 2010). Other empirical meth- consider their area highly relevant to the topic of odologies (nonintrusive field observations or cor- “Science and Religion.” The experiential aspects relational techniques) often do not permit of religion, as documented by introspective self- concluding that a behavior change is specifically reports, are outside the scope of conditioning and due to learning rather than something else. Hence learning. Aspects of religiosity that require com- the study of conditioning and learning has devel- plex linguistic competence (beliefs and belief oped as an experimental discipline. Theories that systems) are also outside the usual domain are formulated to characterize conditioning are of conditioning, as conditioning is typically closely related to the experimental data, and often concerned with the rate and probability of occur- require testing conditioning procedures against rence of simple behavioral and visceral specially designed control procedures. responses. Conditioning and learning may pro- vide some insights into the acquisition and main- tenance of religious behavior, such as prayer Characteristics habits. However, few scientists in this area have addressed that topic. Conditioning and learning is distinctive in that it is concerned not only with human behavior but also the evolution of that behavior (Papini 2008). Sources of Authority Hence, the discipline deals with rules of learning and principles of behavior modification that exist The primary sources of authority in the field of across a range of species including mammals and conditioning and learning are the scientists who birds. The focus is on behavioral and emotional make the most important and extensive empirical responses and processes. and theoretical contributions to the field. Occa- The area deals with those aspects of human sionally, a small body of empirical work or behavior that are not mediated by language and a novel theory will propel someone into do not require high level linguistic competence. a position of authority, but typically a more These features of human behavior are readily extensive body of novel empirical and theoretical observable in children before they learn language work is required. The institutional authorities are but are not lost as people gain linguistic compe- editors of scholarly journals and officers in pro- tence. The domain of conditioning and learning fessional societies. However, they typically reach includes procedural and implicit learning that those positions of authority because of the operate in the absence of conscious awareness strength of their prior empirical and theoretical or control (Squire 2004). contributions. Conditioning and Learning 467 C The discipline is self-regulating through peer interact with other animal species. Studies of review and peer participation in governance. conditioning and learning have made major con- Journal editors are typically selected by tributions to the improvement of educational a committee of experts in the field. An editor’s technologies and approaches to helping individ- decision to accept an empirical or theoretical uals with developmental disabilities. Studies of report for publication is usually based on the conditioning and learning have also contributed outcome of reviews by other scientists in the to the development of cognitive behavioral ther- C discipline who are experts in the topic addressed apy, which is the dominant therapeutic approach by the manuscript. Officers in professional orga- in psychotherapy today. For example, this area of nizations are usually nominated and elected by research has led to the improvement of treatment members of the organization, who are generally procedures for fears, phobias, and drug abuse peers with shared scientific interests. (Craske et al. 2006). Ethical Principles Conceptualization The ethical principles in the discipline are those Nature/World of the ethical conduct of science and the ethical This discipline conceptualizes “nature” and the treatment of participants in experiments. These “world” in the same manner as the biological ethical principles are passed down through an sciences in general. The relevant domain of the apprenticeship process during graduate training field consists of measurable behavioral and phys- that leads to a Ph.D. degree in the field. The iological responses. The “world” in which these ethical principles are also codified by profes- responses reside includes all of the environmen- sional organizations such as the American tal, evolutionary, genetic, epigenetic, and neuro- Psychological Association and the Animal Behav- biological processes that mediate behavioral and ior Society. In addition, there are regulations pro- physiological responses. Thus, the “world” of mulgated by government agencies in the United conditioning and learning is that of modern States and other countries for the ethical treatment biology. of both human and nonhuman participants in experiments involving conditioning and learning. Human Being The discipline considers “human beings” as those individuals who are members of the species Key Values Homo sapiens and uses the term “human being” only in that sense. The key values of conditioning and learning are those of the scientific method. Investigators are Life and Death careful to focus on empirical, observable evi- The discipline accepts common biological defi- dence. They make sure that their reasoning nitions of “life” and “death.” The definition of proceeds in a clearly spelled-out logical fashion; “life” and “death” is not a topic of debate or their inferences are closely rooted in empirical consideration in the field. The assumption is that data; and their claims are empirically verified. life is necessary for organisms to learn and that The discipline is committed to better understand- learning does not occur once the organism has ing of the mechanisms of behavior, both of died. The field has not specifically considered human and nonhuman animals. Although the when life begins. However, it is widely accepted focus is on intellectual inquiry, there is an under- that the beginning of an individual life precedes lying assumption that an empirically based sci- birth. In addition, it is now well established that ence of behavior will also enable people to with mammalian species, conditioning and learn- improve how they treat each other and how they ing can take place before birth, in utero. C 468 Conditioning and Learning Reality Perception For scientists in conditioning and learning, reality Perception refers to the psychological impact of is that which can be observed and measured. an environmental stimulus. Perception depends “Reality” in conditioning and learning is similar on the physical characteristics of the stimulus, but to what is “reality” for the biological sciences. those physical parameters are not directly mapped onto “perception” and subsequent Knowledge action. Hence, the organism’s response typically For scientists in conditioning and learning, does not track changes in the physical stimulus in knowledge is the body of information that has any simple and direct fashion. (and can be) assembled based on careful empiri- How an organism perceives a stimulus mini- cal studies of behavior and its modification by mally depends on how effectively the physical past experience. Empirical studies are invariably energy of the stimulus activates relevant sense guided by formal or informal theory and con- organs. That transduction of physical energy into cepts. Therefore, those theoretical organizing neural impulses is outside the domain of condi- concepts and terms are included in the knowledge tioning and learning. However, conditioning and base of the field. learning is concerned with a number of other important determinants of perception. These Truth include the motivational state of the organism. In What is considered to be the “Truth” in the field a state of fear, for example, a number of species of conditioning and learning is obtained through are more likely to attend to auditory cues than empirical study and verification. Findings that are visual cues, whereas in a state of hunger they are reliably obtained across repetitions of an experi- more likely to attend to visual cues than auditory ment are considered to be “true.” Interpretations cues. Another important factor concerns the nature or theoretical concepts that are consistent with of the response the organism is required to make. those empirical facts are considered to be “well When making directional responses (going right supported” or “strongly verified.” Only in the vs. left), mammals and birds are more likely to pay face of overwhelming empirical data do such attention to where a sound originates rather than theoretical concepts or formulations cross the what it sounds like. In contrast, when deciding to threshold to be considered “true.” Furthermore, initiate action or not (a go/no-go discrimination), even if a theoretical concept has achieved such they are more likely to pay attention to the quali- strong and wide-spread acceptance, it is under- tative features of the sound. stood that the concept represents “truth” only as The perception and categorization of stimuli long as a more compelling explanation has not also depend a great deal on prior conditioning been formulated. Thus, there are no absolute and learning. For example, in the absence of truths in the area beyond empirical facts, and it specific training, someone may categorize all is understood and expected that our conceptual- shades of red as being simply “red.” However, izations of conditioning and learning will after extensive training in art or interior decora- evolve and change as additional and better tion, one is likely to be able to make very fine experiments and ideas are explored. One does distinctions among various shades of red that not expect the facts about conditioning and previously seemed pretty much the same. Condi- learning to change, but concepts and theories tioning and learning can substantially modify that serve to organize the facts are likely to how we perceive stimuli. This type of learning evolve. Furthermore, this progressive evolution allows us to detect the sounds of a of how conditioning and learning is conceptu- malfunctioning car engine and make finer dis- alized is expected to be an unending process. tinctions between the performance of one out- The goal is better characterization and under- standing figure skater and another. Expert standing of conditioning and learning, with no perception in reading, music, sports, radiology, a priori endpoint in mind. and numerous other arenas all depends on Conditioning and Learning 469 C learning. What an expert sees or hears is very temporal intervals determine what is learned, not different from the perceptions of a novice. whether learning occurs. More specifically, it appears that organisms learn not only whether Time two events go together but exactly when one Time is difficult to define because it is not an event occurs in relation to the other (Amundson observable entity but rather refers to what hap- and Miller 2008). pens between one event and a subsequent one. Many investigators in conditioning and learn- C Time is a widely used concept in the field of ing are also studying how organisms tell time and conditioning and learning. The definition of how behavior comes under temporal control. learning itself incorporates the concept of time, This line of research frequently employs labora- since learning is concerned with how experience tory rats and pigeons and is called “interval at one point in an organism’s life influences its timing.” Two types of behavioral tasks are behavior at a subsequent time point. Learning is employed in these experiments. One approach said to have taken place if a training experience involves studying how organisms produce time changes an organism’s behavior over a fairly intervals (e.g., learn to respond when 120 s is extended period (day, week, or year). In addition, over). Another approach involves studying how time plays a major role in many aspects of condi- organisms estimate time intervals (e.g., deciding tioning procedures. These include the interval which of two stimuli is the longer one). Research between training sessions (usually a day or more), on animal timing is highly quantitative and the interval between successive trials (usually sev- involves testing precise mathematical models. eral minutes), and the interval between events There are basically two categories of timing within a trial (usually on the order of seconds). models. One category of models employs Learning is typically more effective with longer pacemaker/accumulator mechanisms. The alter- intervals between trials and between sessions. native models employ oscillator systems to pro- Within-trial temporal intervals that are impor- vide temporal cues. tant depend on the nature of the conditioning pro- cedure. In instrumental conditioning a critical Consciousness temporal interval is the interval between the Consciousness is very difficult to study within the instrumental response and the subsequent rein- domain of conditioning and learning. Three forcer or “reward.” Instrumental learning is major components of consciousness have to be impeded by delaying the reinforcer after the considered. First, and most prominent in common response is made. Temporal intervals are also parlance, is the experiential component of con- important in schedules of reinforcement in instru- sciousness or feelings of awareness. The experi- mental conditioning. ential component of consciousness is outside the Pavlovian conditioning involves the associa- domain of conditioning and learning since it is tion of two events, conditioned and uncondi- dependent on introspection. The second compo- tioned stimuli (e.g., a light and food). The nent of consciousness is verbal reports of con- duration of the conditioned stimulus has a major scious experience. Since verbal reports are effect on what is learned, as does the interval behaviors that are shaped by conditioning and between the onset of the conditioned stimulus learning, they can be examined and analyzed by and the onset of the unconditioned stimulus. behavior theorists. The behavioral analysis of Another critical factor is whether there is verbal behavior has been prominently pursued a temporal gap between the conditioned and by B. F. Skinner and others working in the Skin- unconditioned stimuli. Traditional conceptions nerian tradition. This approach can tell us a great assumed that these temporal intervals determined deal about learning variables that control verbal the extent to which the conditioned and uncondi- reports of consciousness but it cannot inform us tioned stimuli could become associated. How- about the relationship of those verbal reports to ever, contemporary research indicates that these the experiential component of consciousness. C 470 Conditioning and Learning The third component of consciousness Mystery involves identifying the underlying neural mech- The field of conditioning and learning does not anisms and neural systems that mediate con- concern itself with mystery. sciousness. Since conscious experience is most unambiguously identified in human subjects, the neural systems that mediate consciousness are Relevant Themes best identified in studies with people using tech- niques such as functional magnetic resonance Given the emphasis of conditioning and learning imaging (fMRI). However, the success of such on the acquisition of behavioral and emotional an effort depends entirely on developing a valid responses, the field may contribute to discussion psychological measure of human consciousness. and investigation of how religious practices and In principle, given such a measure, one might be experiences are learned. Three forms of learning able to identify the brain areas and neural circuits seem especially relevant: instrumental condition- involved in consciousness using fMRI studies ing, Pavlovian conditioning, and habituation/ with people. More analytic studies of those sensitization. Instrumental conditioning refers to brain mechanisms can then be conducted with situations in which a specific response is laboratory animals. Scientists pursuing this strat- increased or decreased by the consequences of egy have focused on trace conditioning as an that response. Positive consequences (e.g., animal model of consciousness. Trace condi- praise) increase the future probability of the tioning experiments examine the strength of response and negative consequences (e.g., repri- association between two stimuli (a conditioned mands) decrease it. Pavlovian conditioning and an unconditioned stimulus) when these involves the association of two events, with the stimuli are presented with a brief gap (a second result that the first stimulus comes to elicit or so) between them. Studies of trace condition- responses relevant to the second. Pavlovian con- ing in laboratory animals cannot model either ditioning is especially relevant to the learning of the experiential or the verbal components of emotional responses. Habituation and sensitiza- consciousness. Furthermore, even if trace con- tion are produced by repetitions of an event or ditioning activates brain areas and neural cir- stimulus. Depending on the intensity of the stim- cuits that are similar to those identified by ulus and its rate of repetition, responses to the human fMRI studies of consciousness, one has stimulus may decrease (become habituated) or to make the added assumption that these brain increase (become sensitized). areas cannot mediate trace conditioning without One obvious area in which instrumental con- conscious awareness. That assumption is proba- ditioning is involved is in the early religions bly impossible to prove. Thus, modern neurosci- training of children. Responses involved in pre- ence approaches to the study of consciousness in paring for and attending religious services are animal preparations have severe conceptual shaped and encouraged by instrumental rein- limitations. forcement provided by teachers, parents, and members of the clergy. Other behavioral Rationality/Reason responses involved in religious activities (such The field of conditioning and learning accepts as standing, kneeling, reciting prayers at the conventional scientific approaches to what is con- appropriate times) are also learned and encour- sidered rational or reasonable. The field employs aged by instrumental reinforcement (praise), and, conventional practices of scientific reasoning and inappropriate behavior is discouraged by employs conventional rules of scientific infer- reprimands. ence in deriving conclusions from empirical evi- Whereas behavioral responses are established dence. The characterization of what constitutes by instrumental conditioning, Pavlovian condi- rationality and reason is outside the scope of tioning is involved in the learning or acquisition the field. of emotional aspects of religious experience. Conformons 471 C These emotions come to be elicited by cues ▶ Religiosity related to religious practices. Religious training ▶ Ritual and religious practice typically occurs in ▶ Social Psychology a distinctive context (place of worship), in the presence of specific individuals (religious leaders, teachers, or fellow worshipers), and References with distinctive auditory cues (sacred music or C chants), all of which can come to elicit distinctive Amundson, J. C., & Miller, R. R. (2008). CS-US temporal relations in blocking. Learning & Behavior, 36, 92–103. emotions through Pavlovian associations with Boakes, R. A. (1984). From Darwin to behaviourism. more emotion-arousing aspects of religious Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. activity. Bouton, M. E. (2007). Learning and behavior: The phenomena of habituation and sensitiza- A contemporary synthesis. Sunderland: Sinauer. Carroll, M. E., & Overmier, J. B. (Eds.). (2001). Animal tion are highly relevant because religious practice research and human health. Washington, DC: often involves repeated exposure to the same American Psychological Association. stimuli, such as prayers, chants, and the sights Craske, M. G., Hermans, D., & Vansteenwegen, D. (Eds.). and sounds of the place of worship. Emotional (2006). Fear and learning. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. and behavioral responses to these repeated stim- Domjan, M. (2010). Principles of learning and behavior uli can change with experience through the pro- (6th ed.). Belmont: Cengage. cesses of habituation and sensitization. Depending Papini, M. R. (2008). Comparative psychology (2nd ed.). on the intensity of the stimulus and the frequency London: Taylor Francis. Rudy, J. W. (2008). The neurobiology of learning and and timing of its repetitions, reactivity to these memory. Sunderland: Sinauer. cues can either decrease (showing habituation) or Squire, L. R. (2004). Memory systems of the brain: A brief increase (showing sensitization). Decreases in history and current perspective. Neurobiology of reactivity result in attenuated arousal and may be Learning and Memory, 82, 171–177. Zentall, T. R., & Wasserman, E. A. (2012). The Oxford interpreted as being “at peace,” whereas increases handbook of comparative cognition. New York: in reactivity result in increased arousal and may be Oxford University Press. interpreted as “fervor.” In the natural flow of human activities, instru- mental conditioning, Pavlovian conditioning, and habituation/sensitization do not operate in isola- Conformons tion of one another but occur at the same time, sometimes in an interactive fashion, to determine Sungchul Ji how human behavior is shaped by learning and Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, prior experience. It is important to note, however, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers that the details of how these learning principles University, Piscataway, NJ, USA contribute to religious practice and religious experience have yet to be carefully examined or empirically verified. The term “conformon” was coined by combining two stems, “conform-” indicating “conforma- tions” (i.e., deformable structures) of biopoly- Cross-References mers and “-on” meaning a mobile, discrete material entity. Conformons are defined as fol- ▶ Biological Psychology lows (Ji 2012, p. 235): ▶ Cognitive Psychology ▶ Comparative Neuroscience Conformons are sequence-specific conformational strains of biopolymers that carry mechanical ▶ Conditioning Classical and Instrumental energy and genetic information necessary and suf- ▶ Learning ficient to effectuate any goal-oriented movement of ▶ Memory biopolymers inside the cell. C 472 Conformons The first experimental evidence for the during a muscle contraction cycle, the free conformon was obtained in the form of ATP- energy of ATP hydrolysis is transiently stored induced supercoiling of circular DNA double in the myosin head as conformational strains or helix in bacteria observed under electron micro- conformons (Ji 2012, see Fig. 11.33d). The most scope in the mid-1960s (Stryer 1995). The idea recent and direct experimental evidence for the that biological properties of enzymes (also called conformon concept was provided by Uchihashi molecular machines) may depend on the mechan- et al. (2011) and Junge and Mu˝ller (2011). ical (i.e., conformational) energy stored in Using the high-speed atomic force microscopy, enzymes was first proposed by R. Lumry and these investigators were able to visualize the others in the 1950s and 1960s (Lumry and propagation of the conformational waves (i.e., Gregory 1986). conformons) of the b subunits of the isolated F1 Cells are examples of self-organizing chemi- ATPase stator ring. Therefore, it appears that cal reaction-diffusion systems that have evolved the conformon concept has now been experi- to perform (or have been selected because of their mentally verified four decades after it was ability to perform) myriads of goal-directed (i.e., proposed. purposive or teleonomic) motions in space and The living cell can be represented as a system time. The goal-directed molecular motions of molecular machines (e.g., myosin, kinesin, inside the living cell are carried out by biopoly- dynein, dynamin, RNA polymerase, DNA poly- mers acting as molecular machines (Alberts merase, topoisomerases, and ion pumps) that are 1998), and each molecular machine is postulated organized in space and time in various combina- to be driven by conformons. Conformons are tions in order to carry out cell functions to molecular machines what batteries and demanded by a given environmental condition. mechanisms are to toys. Conformons can be gen- The organization of molecular motions inside the erated from the binding energy of ligands as in cell is a form of work requiring the dissipation of the Circe effect of Jencks (Jencks 1975) or from free energy supplied by chemical reactions. It is the free energy of chemical reactions as in the proposed in Ji (2012, Chap. 8) that the mecha- case of stress-induced duplex destabilizations nism of coupling chemical reactions to the orga- (SIDDSs) in supercoiled DNA characterized by nized molecular motions in the living cell, i.e., Benham (1996) using statistical mechanical life, is catalyzed by molecular machines obeying language. the generalized Franck-Condon principle The molecular mechanism of muscle con- imported from quantum mechanics, leading to traction proposed in 1974, based on the the following scheme: conformon concept (Ji 1974), has been 1 supported by the experimental data obtained CHEMICAL REACTIONS ! from the single-molecule measurements of 2 myosin moving along the actin filament in the Conformons ! LIFE presence of ATP. Single-molecule experiments were made possible because of the development where Process 1 is governed by the generalized of the optical tweezers and the total internal Franck-Condon principle (Ji 2012, Sect. 2.2.3) reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy. and Process 2 by the principles of biological Employing these methods, biophysicists during evolution reviewed in Ji (2012, Chap. 14). the past decade have been able to measure Conformons are the molecular objects that simultaneously both the translational move- embody not only energy but also information ment of the myosin head (which has the ATPase necessary and sufficient for driving goal-directed activity) along actin filament and the hydrolysis molecular motions of the cell and, hence, can be of ATP that powers the myosin movement. The viewed as the fundamental particles of life. That single-molecule experimental data of Ishii and is, conformons can be viewed as the mediators of Yanagida (2007) clearly demonstrate that, a new force in nature called the cell force in Consciousness (Buddhist) 473 C analogy to the gluons mediating the strong force in atomic nuclei (Ji 2012, pp. 444–448). Consciousness ▶ Science and Kabbalah Cross-References ▶ Self ▶ Self, From a Psychological Perspective ▶ Biology, Theoretical C ▶ Biosemiotics ▶ Cardiology ▶ Chemical Thermodynamics Consciousness (Buddhist) ▶ Energy in Physics ▶ Molecular Modeling Bhikkhu Ana¯layo ▶ Quantum Theory Center for Buddhist Studies, University of ▶ Semiotics Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany References Related Terms Alberts, B. (1998). The cell as a collection of protein vijn˜a¯na (Sanskrit); vin˜n˜a¯na (Pa¯li) machines: Preparing the next generation of molecular ˙ biologists. Cell, 92, 291–294. Benham, C. J. (1996). Duplex destabilization in supercoiled DNA is predicted to occur at specific tran- Description scriptional regulatory regions. Journal of Molecular Biology, 255, 425–434. The nature of the mind and its functions are Ishii, Y., & Yanagida, T. (2007). How single molecule detection measures the dynamics of life. HFSP Jour- a central concern of Buddhist thought. In fact, in nal, 1(1), 15–29. a way, early Buddhism could perhaps be consid- Jencks, W. (1975). Binding energy, specificity, and enzy- ered as marking the beginning point of the study mic catalysis: The Circe effect. Advances in Enzymol- ogy, 43, 219–410. of the mind in the history of mankind. The ana- Ji, S. (1974). A general theory of ATP synthesis and lytical attitude adopted toward the mind places utilization. Annals of the New York Academy of Sci- Buddhism at an interim point between science ences, 227, 211–226. and religions, in as much as, although clearly Ji, S. (2012). Molecular theory of the living cell: Concepts, having a soteriological orientation, the Buddhist molecular mechanisms, and biomecdical applications. New York: Springer. http://www.conformon.net. concern with the mind and its functions Junge, W., & Mu˝ller, D. J. (2011). Seeing a molecular shows considerable affinity with scientific motor at work. Science, 333, 704–705. methodology. Lumry, R., & Gregory, R. B. (1986). Free-energy man- The primary role of the mind in Buddhist agement in protein reactions: Concepts, complica- tions, and compensation. In G. R. Welch (Ed.), The thought finds its expression in two stanzas that fluctuating enzymes (pp. 1–190). New York: Wiley. open a collection of canonical poetry, according Stryer, L. (1995). Biochemistry (3rd ed., p. 795). to which the mind is the forerunner of all things New York: W. H. Freeman. (von Hin€uber and Norman 1994, Stanza 1–2). Uchihashi, T., et al. (2011). High-speed atomic force microscopy reveals rotary catalysis of Rotorless According to a canonical discourse, the whole F1-ATPase. Science, 333, 755–758. world is led along by mind, which is the one thing that has everything else under its control (Feer 1884–1898, I 39). The early Buddhist perspective in regard to Connectivity any manifestations of the mind is that, while its existence as a process is never put in question, the ▶ Magnetoencephalography (MEG) notion that an unchanging substance or self C 474 Consciousness (Buddhist) can be found anywhere in the mind, or apart from or near (Trenckner and Chalmers 1888–1896, it, is dismissed as mistaken. What is commonly III 17). referred to as the “mind,” should according In a series of similes that illustrate the nature to Buddhist thought be understood as of each of these five aggregates, consciousness a conditioned and impermanent process of mental finds illustration in the example of a magic events. From a Buddhist perspective, this mental show (Feer 1884–1898, III 142). By thoroughly flux is all that is required to account for scrutinizing the tricks of a magician, a keen personal continuity during life and throughout observer would find no substance in them. In the the series of rebirths from one life to another, same way, on close inspection, consciousness for the margin of personal freedom to take turns out to be devoid of an enduring substance. decisions amidst a complex set of conditionings Besides its role in the context of the scheme of of the mind, and for the karmic retribution the five aggregates, consciousness stands in that arises in dependence on the ethical quality third position within the 12-link standard repre- of the decisions that have earlier been taken. sentation of the dependent arising of duhkha or ˙ The complexity of the Buddhist analysis dukkha – a term whose meaning ranges from of mental phenomena finds its reflection in the barely noticeable dissatisfaction to outright use of different terms to refer to the mind as suffering as inherent features of human existence a phenomenon. Besides “consciousness,” vijn˜a¯na (▶ Dukkha). (Sanskrit) or vin˜n˜a¯na (Pa¯li), other terms of According to the traditional interpretation of ˙ frequent occurrence are citta and manas. the 12 links of dependent arising (▶ Dependent Although at times these three terms occur Arising), consciousness represents what is together as synonyms (Carpenter and Rhys reborn. In other words, consciousness is what Davids 1890–1911, I 21), taken on their own, descends into the mother’s womb at conception each of them conveys a slightly different nuance. (Carpenter and Rhys Davids 1890–1911, II 63). Citta stands for the mind as the center of sub- From an early Buddhist perspective, however, jective experience, in particular in the sense of it would be wrong to believe that the same con- signifying the activity of the will and what could sciousness passes away and is then reborn perhaps best be gathered under the term emotion. (Trenckner and Chalmers 1888–1896, I 256). Manas represents mind as a mode of action Instead, rebirth takes place by way of the stream distinct from verbal and bodily action and as the of consciousness (Carpenter and Rhys Davids sixth of the senses, where – besides the five phys- 1890–1911, III 105), a changing process that ical senses of eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body – it is considered to be devoid of an abiding perma- covers the activity of thought and reflection. nent entity. Vijn˜a¯na or vin˜n˜a¯na refers to being conscious Being included in the series of links of depen- ˙ by way of the senses. The same term also stands dent arising, consciousness is evidently consid- for the stream of consciousness that continues ered a conditioned phenomenon, dependently during a single life and through subsequent arisen in a way that is comparable to fire that rebirths. depends on its fuel (Trenckner and Chalmers Consciousness is also part of an analysis of the 1888–1896, I 259). Although arising in depen- individual into five so-called aggregates. While dence on the senses and their objects, conscious- the first of these five aggregates corresponds to ness is not considered the automatic product of the physical body, the remaining four represent the existence of a sense and its correspondent different aspects of the mind. Besides conscious- object. Besides sense and object, there needs to ness, these are feeling, perception, and volitional be the factor of engagement between these for reactions. As an aggregate, consciousness consciousness to manifest (Trenckner and comprises past, present, and future instances of Chalmers 1888–1896, I 190). being conscious, be these internal or external, As a dependently arisen phenomenon, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, and far consciousness lacks the property of intrinsic Consciousness (Buddhist) 475 C independence that apparently was part of some retribution, without needing to introduce addi- ancient Indian conceptions of a self. From tional concepts for this purpose. a Buddhist perspective, consciousness is rather Concern with the mind in early Buddhism is impermanent, unsatisfactory, and not-self. above all pragmatic, in the sense of focusing on Contemplating the nature of consciousness in what is related to the task of liberating the mind this way will free the practitioner from appropri- from defilements. It is only with later develop- ating consciousness as “mine” or identifying with ments of Buddhist thought that attempts were C it as “I” or “myself.” made to develop a more exhaustive description With later phases of Buddhist thought, the of the mind in all its possible modes, functions, analysis of the mind becomes more detailed, and manifestations. and a range of mental states and mental factors are identified. As part of this development, the impermanent nature of the mind is given Cross-References increased emphasis, leading to the theory of momentariness. This somewhat radical concep- ▶ Consciousness, the Problem of tion of the impermanent nature of the mind ▶ Experience (▶ Impermanence (Buddhist)), according to ▶ Theory of Mind which each mind moment disappears as soon as it has appeared, appears to have stimulated fur- ther developments attempting to account for References mental continuity. In the southern Buddhist tradition, this was Primary Sources achieved through the concept of the subliminal Carpenter, J. E., & Rhys Davids, T. W. (Eds.). (1890–1911). The Dı¯gha Nika¯ya (3 vols). London/ consciousness, called bhavan˙ga. With some of Oxford: Pali Text Society. the northern Buddhist traditions, the concept of Feer, L. (Ed.). (1884–1898). The Samyutta Nika¯ya (5 vols). a store consciousness, a¯laya-vijn˜a¯na, appears to London/Oxford: Pali Text Society. fulfill a similar purpose. This store consciousness Trenckner, V., & Chalmers, R. (Eds.). (1888–1896). The Majjhima Nika¯ya (3 vols). London/Oxford: Pali Text functions as a repository for the seeds of former Society. deeds through the process of rebirth in samsa¯ra. von Hin€ uber, O., & Norman, K. R. (Eds.). (1994). ˙ Eventually, the store consciousness was consid- The Dhammapada. London/Oxford: Pali Text Society ered to be the very source of the world, which (references are by stanza). thus was seen as a projection of consciousness. In other words, reality in its ultimate sense was held Secondary Sources Gethin, R. (1994). Bhavan˙ga and rebirth according to the to be “mind only.” Abhidhamma. In T. Skorupski & U. Pagel (Eds.), The The early Buddhist position, however, main- Buddhist forum III (pp. 11–35). London: School of tains a middle position in this respect. According Oriental and African Studies. to this middle position, even though the mind is Hamilton, S. (1996). Identity and experience, the consti- tution of the human being according to early considered to be of prime importance, reality is Buddhism. London: Luzac Oriental. not grounded in the mind alone. Consciousness is Harvey, P. (1993). The mind-body relationship in Pa¯li thus merely that by which an actually existing Buddhism, a philosophical investigation. Asian world is experienced, any aspect of which is Philosophy, 3(1), 29–41. Johansson, R. E. A. (1965). Citta, Mano, Vin˜n˜a¯na – conditioned, impermanent, and without any abid- ˙ A psychosemantic investigation. University of Ceylon ing substance. While the mind is seen as nothing Review, 23(1/2), 165–215. apart from an ever-changing process of mental Minh, T. T. (2001). The mind in early Buddhism. Delhi: flux, the early Buddhist conception of the mind Munshiram Manoharlal. Schmithausen, L. (1987). A¯layavijn˜a¯na, on the origin does allow for personal continuity throughout the and the early development of a central concept of cycle of rebirths, for the effect of mental condi- Yoga¯ca¯ra philosophy. Tokyo: The International tioning on decision making and for karmic Institute for Buddhist Studies. C 476 Consciousness, the Problem of physics and will be explained in terms of scien- Consciousness, the Problem of tific theory. A minority of thinkers object and insist that the problem of consciousness is so Harald Walach radically different from all material phenomena Institute for Information Biology, School of that it will never submit to a physicalist solution. Social Sciences & Samueli, The University of And fewer still support a worldview that posits Northampton, Northampton, UK matter is ultimately derived from consciousness, Europa-universit€at Viadrina, Institut f€ ur so-called ▶ idealism or an idealist-monist view. transkulturelle Gesundheitswissenschaften, Trying to explain consciousness as some phe- Franfurt (Oder), Germany nomenon derived from matter means engaging in some form of reductionism. Consciousness is an obvious reality for us, and yet the most mysterious thing. It is primary given Reductionism to us. We know what it feels like to be conscious: we know that we know. We are aware of There are various types of reductionism. They a perception of pain or joy. We consciously can be classified into two main types: ontological enjoy a particular color, or a certain wine. We and methodological reductionism, depending on know how to distinguish between our dream whether we mean that phenomena, processes, or states and waking states. In states of lucid dream- events can be exhaustively explained by other ing, some people are consciously aware of the phenomena, processes, or events or not. Hence, fact that they are now dreaming. However, our a scientific or causal reductionist view may be culture will have us believe that all that matters, classified as ontological or methodological really, is matter, because we can measure, engi- reductionism. However, reductive materialism neer, and manipulate it, to our well-being and and eliminative reductionism are tokens of also to the detriment of ourselves and others. ontological reductionism. Ontological reduction- Yet, what is indeed the first presupposed and ism has the purpose of providing an exhaustive given reality is always consciousness, the con- explanation of some phenomenon, process, or scious I that reflects, perceives, thinks, negates, event (the explanandum) in terms of another suffers pain and joy, desires and can let go of phenomenon, process, or event (the explanans). desires, is angry and can forgive, loves and Accordingly, something x is explained in terms of hates, has goals and dreams out of which it con- nothing but y. In such a view, consciousness can structs new insights, invents new solutions for be exhaustively explained in terms of neural problems, or has new ideas about old questions. activity. Also, x explains the occurrence of y The problem is how to explain human conscious- and is the real nature of y (reductive materialism). ness in relation to the human brain. While this In other words, the brain explains the occurrence dualist stance – a conscious I vis-a`-vis a totally of consciousness, and hence, the brain is the real different material reality – is still defended, nature of consciousness. Finally, some unknown x because it is our natural starting point and emi- of the past has successfully been explained in nent thinkers like Plato, Plotinus, Saint terms of nothing but y. From this, it follows that Augustine, or Rene´ Descartes have built upon it, some unknown x will be explained in terms of contemporary scholars and scientists defend nothing but y in the future (Runehov 2007). some sort of materialism (Metzinger 1995, Methodological reductionism has various 2000). This is the doctrine that all mental phe- meanings: (1) every explanation ought to be nomena are somehow derived from material real- continually reduced to the simplest possible ity. Often, such materialist monist positions are explanation; (2) a research strategy for analyzing also called physicalist, because they insist on the objects of study, such as cells, in terms of their fact that ultimately all phenomena boil down to parts, like macromolecules, as well as for Consciousness, the Problem of 477 C applying successful theories in one area, such as cleft, which in turn will trigger a change in mem- Darwinian evolution, to other areas, such as soci- brane permeability at the other side and so trans- ology or religion; and (3) it may aim to reduce mit the stimulus. Over time, we will see the a whole to a specific set of parts for a scientific neuron depolarizing in spikes of electrical activ- purpose without claiming that this is a complete ity with a certain frequency. Nowhere in the brain explanation. Methodological reductionism implies do we see any of the richness of our subjective that something x is explained in terms of y but x is experience. All we see is confusing patterns C not reducible to y. Hence, there is no claim for of electrical activities and release of different exhaustiveness. classes of neurotransmitters, often even released by the very same neuron. Thus, the simple equation “brain activity is conscious activity” is Types of Materialism and Physicalism seriously challenged (Searle 1992). Advocates of eliminative materialism, for Materialism is the theory that everything that example, Patricia Churchland (1986), argue that exists is material. According to Michael even though consciousness is a complex issue, as Lockwood, materialism consists of everything an entity it is simply a misconception due to that occupies or takes place in space and whose ignorance. Similar to our ancestors’ assuming existence is ultimately constituted by the proper- the gods are angry when a flash of lightning ties and relations, actions, and interactions of struck and thus hypostasizing the “wrath of the particles and fields or whatever basic entities gods” into a real entity, we are ignorant about physics deals with (Lockwood 1989). what consciousness is and hence speak about it as if it were some extramaterial reality. Once we know this, our understanding, our language, and Materialist/Physicalist Theories of the our concepts will change. “The wrath of the Relationship Between the Brain and gods” used to be a metaphorical way of speaking Consciousness about a reality that was somewhat diffuse and not known, but it was not about a real entity since The first theory is known as identity theory (ID). “the wrath of the gods” does not exist. Similarly, Identity theorists maintain mental states and consciousness is a metaphorical way of speaking processes, both conscious and unconscious, are about something we do not understand yet, and identical to brain states and processes. The identity once we do, this way of speaking will gradually theory of mind holds that mental processes just are become obsolete and disappear. The problem with brain processes, not merely correlated with brain such a view is that there is no logical relation processes. A weaker variant of this theory is the between what happened in the past and what will token identity theory, which implies mind-brain happen in the future. Also, while “the wrath of identities can occur only on the level of individual the gods” is a concept quite far from subjective (token) events (Davidson and Davidson 1980). experience, the conscious I is the subject of expe- However, we know by now that the brain uses rience, and hence, the parallelism of the argument always the same physiological principle. Inputs, is ill founded. Also, promises of future achieve- whether from the senses or from brain activity ments are a bit like promises of the future paradise: itself, create an excitation in a neuron whose it has more to do with religion than with science. membrane, if adequately stimulated, will depo- Eliminative materialism has some similarity larize, allowing an exchange of ions with the with epiphenomenalism, the view that conscious- surrounding fluid, generating an electrical activ- ness is just some by-product of physiological ity along its own membrane. This leads to the activity of the brain, which is not really impor- rapid depolarization of the membrane at the axo- tant. The primary function of the heart, for nal end of the neuron which will result in the instance, is pumping blood. As it happens, this release of transmitter substances into the synaptic pumping also produces different other C 478 Consciousness, the Problem of phenomena, such as the heartbeat which can be Our conscious experience does seem to have heard or blood pressure which can be measured. causal and functional independence and hence But both of them are secondary to the real func- reacts back on its physical substrate, the brain. tion of the heart. They are indicator of the heart’s There seems to be a mutual causation going on. operation, but they do not have any substantive Advocates of the principle of supervenience reality in and of themselves, let alone without the argue that consciousness is dependent on brain heart’s activity. When the heart stops, the beat activity, similarly to blood pressure being depen- stops and blood pressure drops to zero. Similarly dent on the heartbeat; however, unlike blood pres- with the brain, consciousness is a by-product of sure, consciousness is a functional property of the neuronal, computational, and cognitive activity. brain that has causal relevance for the brain and at It is quite conceivable that the brain could do its least some causal independence. Consciousness is job also without them, but as it happens, conscious- supervenient on brain activity in the sense that it ness ensues out of the brain’s activity. But neither has its own causal laws and partial independence. has it a decisive role to play nor does it influence Theorists who favor nonreductionist material- the physiology of the brain (Dennett 1991). ism/physicalism and who want to give mental events causal capacities often adopt the principle of emergence. Nonreductionist Materialist/Physicalist They point to the fact that complex systems Theories of the Relationship Between generate new functional properties, or rather, the Brain and Consciousness such new functional properties arise out of the complexity of their structure and are not reduc- Supervenience and emergence are perhaps ible to neither of these structures. The traditional the two best-known nonreductive materialist/ example is that water emerges out of the combi- physicalist theories used today. nation of oxygen and hydrogen atoms. However, Supervenience states that there is a difference again there are a variety of tokens of the principle at the physical state level for every difference at of emergence: part-whole emergence implies that the mental state level and the changes at the the whole is always bigger than its parts. Strong physical level of the brain cause the changes at emergence or ontological emergence argues for the mental level. In its weaker form, the principle independent causal powers of the emergent prop- of supervenience holds that even though mental erty, and weak emergence holds that the emer- states depend on physical states, they are not gent property follows the fundamental causal reducible to them. Hence, nonreductive material- processes of physics (van Gulick 2001). ists/physicalists argue for some independence of Emergent properties have their own partial mental life over and above the material/physical independence and create their own new struc- once it has been brought about. For practical tures. Life is such an example. If amino acids purposes, it is important to establish whether and lipids, ions, and other proteins are self- consciousness, as a reality purportedly derived organized in structures like cells and cell organ- from brain activity, has an independent, causally elles, life emerges. Those cells replicate and relevant activity of its own. Immunity, for hence can create their own structures; they instance, also is the result of a complex interac- become sensitive in that they move toward areas tion of a dense network of cells and specific that contain food and shun away from places that molecules and produces a constant reinstantiation threaten them; they also start creating environ- of the integrity of the organism vis-a`-vis multiple ments favorable to their survival. Similarly, it is threats. Yet “immunity” does not have any func- argued, once a system becomes really complex, tional independence. Our everyday experience like the brain that can process and calculate enor- however tells us that consciousness has indepen- mous amounts of information and process huge dent causality. For example, if we are conscious numbers of interrelations of its elements, it is of a wish, we can execute it most of the times. bound to develop a new system property, Consciousness, the Problem of 479 C consciousness. Once emerged, it starts operating • For this to happen, it is necessary for the according to its own newly emerged laws. With system to represent not only the outside consciousness, several other phenomena arise world but also its own states toward itself. that have not been there previously: for instance, • This representation of the system’s internal some freedom of choice between alternatives, states is what we call self-consciousness or creative problem solving, and creativity in ego-consciousness. general; art and the appreciation of beauty; From this, it follows, it is argued, that con- C morals and ethics; and finally also religion. sciousness is not something independent with a subsistence of its own, but a virtual representa- tion of the system that shuts down together with Functionalism or Connectionism its system. Counterarguments come from different Many involved in the study of ▶ artificial intelli- sources, and there are plenty of them. Thomas gence (AI) believe that computers can be just as Nagel pointed out that by looking at any biolog- complex as physiological brains and will sooner ical system from the outside, we cannot under- or later produce consciousness as an emergent stand how it feels to be this system. We will never property. Although such a system can be know what it is like to be a bat (Nagel 1974) or realized by any structure and any material, such like our friend or colleague because we cannot an artificial neural network would probably be share their internal viewpoint. Our biological built out of silicon chips. Because of the binary system does not allow us to experience what it gating of information and the logical linkage of is like to be flying in darkness on an echolot such gating to multiple other binary elements, system, having the environment represented by the storage of previous information and making auditory clicks, beeps, and sounds of varying it available for comparison and other activities, ultrasound pitch and intensity. For the same rea- and finally learning and self-modification of son, we would not know what it is like for our the system, such artificial systems are already friend to see the very same picture in a gallery. in some sense similar to the human brain. Nagel’s argument concerns the philosophical Computerized neuronal networks simulate an problem of ▶ qualia, the specific subjective anatomically simplified abstracted version of inside view of the experiential reality germane physiological neuronal activity. However, so to consciousness. Another famous argument has far computers have not displayed signs of been advanced by Jackson. Suppose you have consciousness. a neuroscientist, Mary, who has learned all there Connectionists or functionalists argue that is to learn about the brain and its workings and • The brain is a system that has biologically mechanisms and even the concept of color but grown to represent reality within a window does not have the experience thereof because she of biological adaptation to the organism. has lived all her life in a colorless, gray-shaded • This representation can be conceptualized as environment. Suppose now, after all this learn- a series of computational operations which the ing, Mary is suddenly able to see color. She will neurons enact. then have learned something she did not know • Once this representational architecture of before, namely, the experience of color. This the brain becomes complex enough, it can would mean there is now something in her mind produce consciousness. that she could not have had through all the knowl- • At some point in evolution, consciousness was edge of the brain seen from the outside, namely, useful because it helps the organism to set up the experience of color. This obviously means a virtual reality in which actions and their that the conscious experience is something dif- consequences can be played through without ferent from the physical makeup that sustains it. any of the lethal consequences that such Yet, another challenge derives from Chalmers actions might have in reality. (1996). He puts forward the thought experiment C 480 Consciousness, the Problem of that it is possible to conceive of beings who have classical states. We do not know which state or the very same makeup as ours, the same physiol- states the system is in before measurement or ogy, do the same things, cannot be distinguished observation takes place. Not knowing which from the outside and by physiological tests from state or states the system is in before measure- us, but do not have conscious experience, ment is what Niels Bohr meant when he said that so-called zombies. The very fact that such nothing exists unless observed. zombies are conceivable who do not share our If we now imagine a more complex system, conscious experience, everything else being where different particles belong to one system equal, means, according to Chalmers, that the and thereby have to be described as one, we can conscious experience itself, our qualia or our see that the whole system has a certain joint “what it is like to feel and experience something,” probability of displaying a combination of cannot be equated to our physical makeup. values. This joint state is prescribed by physical To illustrate his objection to the suggestion conservation laws, for instance, the fact that all that a machine could possess cognitive capacity spins have to add up to zero. If now one of the similar to a person, John Searle put forward the elements of the system is measured, this means Chinese room thought experiment: suppose in that instantaneously the other element is also a room is some operator that has a set of instruc- collapsing into an according state. Entanglement tions how to respond to questions written down in means that such values of measurements of Chinese. All he does is hand out answer cards, a multielement quantum system are correlated. also written in Chinese, without having a clue If one element is measured, the other element about what he is doing. The person at the other exhibits an according value instantaneously, no side of the room will always receive correct and matter how distant in time or space it is. It is not understandable answers, because he or she speaks defined which value will be seen. But once Chinese. But the operator does not. It would a certain value is seen in one measurement, the be equally silly to say the operator understands other measurement is known. Such an entangled Chinese as it would be to say a computer has system which can take on two values has been consciousness. That it is possible to simulate called a quantum bit or qbit. It has properties the human neural system does not mean that similar to a classical bit and hence can be used a computer neural network is equal to the to encode information bitwise. But by virtue of human neural system. Roger Penrose has pointed the entangled state it is in and by the potential out that humans can solve mathematical puzzles entanglement with other qbits, the potential com- and problems that cannot necessarily be solved putational power is infinitely greater. It has been by computers, for instance, some geometrical shown theoretically that computers built out of problems (Penrose 1994). such elements, i.e., quantum computers, can solve mathematical problems that cannot be solved by serially operating, classical computers, Quantum Models of Consciousness such as factorization problems of large prime numbers. Thereby, quantum computers seem to Some suggest that the brain might be a computer resemble the working of the human mind much but a quantum computer, operating on quantum better than classical computers. Phenomenologi- entanglement. Quantum physics (mechanics) cally speaking, when we think about something, describes quantum systems in terms of probabil- solve problems, or are on the brink of having an ity, which means that we can only specify, e.g., idea, our mind “feels” like it would be soaring a probable location of the particle. The basic in a potential space to then “collapse” onto characteristic of quantum mechanics is that a concrete solution or idea. Thus, the metaphor whenever we measure and/or observe a physical of a quantum computer seems to be more ade- system, the system collapses to one of its possible quate for the operation of the human mind. Consciousness, the Problem of 481 C The technical problem to solve is how to contain completely new and qualitatively and categori- and preserve entanglement. This is a property of cally different, such as consciousness, emerges. isolated quantum systems that has to be shielded Furthermore, a counterargument is that the brain from the environment, thermally and magneti- is “too wet and too noisy” to be able to maintain cally. For every interaction of a system with the quantum processes. environment leads to a decay of entanglement, Some adopt the weak or generalized quantum the so-called decoherence. Hence, the technical theory in order to solve the problem. This axiom- C realization of a quantum computer will depend on atic framework assumes that systems other than engineering entanglement to a preservation state quantum systems proper can be described by that it can be used at will (Mahler et al. 2002). a similar theoretical structure. Consequently, Is it feasible to look at our brain as a potential entanglement would be a property of real quan- quantum computer? Those in favor of such a view tum systems as well as of other systems that obey refer to the uniqueness of the human nervous similar formal requirements. It has been shown system. Human neurons are built around fila- that at least some aspects of the visual system can ments of skeleton called microtubules. These be modeled along those lines (Atmanspacher are hollow structures, built of certain proteins et al. 2004). One can also conceptualize the pro- that come in helical orderings. Those proteins cess of conscious awareness as a quantum mea- can be seen as little qbit-like switches, as the surement process. If this is done, the quantum dimension of these molecules is such that they Zeno effect comes into play, i.e., if a quantum fall within the area where quantum mechanical system is measured, it displays one of its potential laws have to be applied. The whole structure of states in the measurement process. Which one is microtubules forms a dense network, covering measured is random. If the measurement process the whole brain, as they are the skeleton of all is repeated rapidly, then the probability of neurons. The size of those hollow resonators obtaining the very same measurement value as might be such that they could sustain quantum measured previously approaches. That means if states via so-called long-range coherence. The we measure a quantum system very often and basic idea is that even at very low energy, if the repeatedly, we raise the probability of obtaining structure and size of a system are correct, it can always the same value to certainty. Similarly, if couple to certain frequencies of electromagnetic we attend to a conscious content phenomenolog- radiation by virtue of a resonance effect. This can ically speaking, the probability of keeping it then lead to coherent states, similar to standing before our mind’s eye becomes certainty. waves that can be produced through coherent However, this does not imply that conscious- excitations of resonant media across a whole sys- ness operates like a quantum system. Rather, it tem. The theory then maintains that the brain implies that quantum theory might be applicable might be a system that can collapse quantum to other systems as well, among others, the mechanical potential states and, by virtue of human brain. coherent excitation and/or entanglement as In order to understand how the world, includ- a process, can bring the whole system into a ing the brain, works, we have to, ultimately, definite state. The moment of collapse of such apply quantum theory. Quantum mechanics a quantum potential into a definite state, exerted presupposes an implicit dualism between through some poorly understood mechanism a conscious measurement, the decision and act called quantum gravity, is then supposed to be of what to measure, and the measured physical a moment where consciousness arises or is being system itself. A reductionist physicalist approach produced by this collapse (for further details, see to explain consciousness is only possible as long the discussion in Atmanspacher 2006). as one remains on a classical Newtonian level Although intriguing from a speculative point of description, which, strictly speaking, is not of view, this model also supposes that something appropriate to explain consciousness. C 482 Consciousness, the Problem of Culture of Consciousness our brains through changes of consciousness related to changes in our culture and environ- There are a few other intriguing observations ment. It might still be unclear how cultural and which lead some to considering consciousness environmental influences on our consciousness in its own right. Let us subsume those observa- will affect our brains and ultimately human tions under the heading Culture of Conscious- capacities. But it is clear that how our brain ness. Meditation techniques have been handed functions cannot be seen separately from how down in all cultures. They differ widely in their our consciousness operates, and our conscious- concretizations. But they have some very simple ness seems to have a clear and definite reverber- basic strategies in common. They all teach tech- ation on the physical substrate, our brain. Jean niques of focusing attention, at least initially, in Gebser’s idea of an integral consciousness order to concentrate the mind. This then alters the suggests that ultimately, a new culture of con- current state of consciousness to a less scattered, sciousness that will extend the faculties of our more focused, and more mindful state. In such current state of consciousness might emerge. a state, one is intensely focused on one act or process such as when solving a problem. Being A Potential Way Forward and Some in such a state also enables one to keep a variety Open Questions of contents in the present awareness, and it can Thus, at least from a pragmatic point of view, be directed inward to understanding the present a dualist phenomenology seems to be necessary contents of our mind better. In any case, it alters to deal adequately with consciousness. However, it the quality of our consciousness. need not feed into ontological dualism. Rather, one Shamanic rituals have been documented in could opt for a transcendent monist type of ontol- cave paintings that can be dated back to at least ogy in which neither matter nor mind is primary the Middle Paleolithic period of the Stone Age, but is derived phenomenological realities that are i.e., 300,000 to 30,000 years ago. Rituals typi- both ultimately caused by a unitary, underlying cally involve intense concentration. The argu- reality. Mind and brain might be complementary ment goes that when our ancestors tamed the similarly to particle and wave representing light. It fire, campfire rituals were held, which allowed denotes two descriptions of one and the same thing youngsters to participate in an implicit training of that are maximally incompatible but both neces- attention. As a consequence, parts of our brain sary for a complete description. In that sense, that are involved in modulating emotions, in mental and physical descriptions are necessary memory formation, in empathy, and ultimately and irreducible to understanding the human also in language formation and reasoning become being. This would entail a monist ontology with more activated. Hence, the basic capacity and a dualist phenomenology. ensuing practice of focusing attention might Still, we are left with the problem that some have been at the cradle of human culture and of claim that consciousness can survive death or that the human mind as we know it (Rossano 2007). people who have been physically dead and resus- Thus, consciousness as a capacity can feed citated sometimes report veridical information back on the purported substrate, the brain, to received while their brain was physiologically change the very substrate and, as an effect, also inactive. It is these phenomena that have contrib- change its own makeup. Consciousness, then, is uted to the feeling that apart from individual ego- not only a result and product of the brain, but the consciousness, there is a spiritual side to the brain structure is also a product of a culture of person that has been termed soul and is supposed consciousness. Similarly, as our ancestors started to be different. Often such metaphysical notions to shape the architecture of the brain through have been merged with a dualist stance of the rituals, community processes, and other ways of mind-body problem. It might be more useful to altering consciousness, as in meditation or ritual- disentangle the problems at this point and note istic practices, we are changing, even assaulting that this question of a potential transindividual Constructive Theology 483 C consciousness or soul has not received adequate attention. Materialist and reductionist thinkers Consequentialism would of course state that these questions have become obsolete with our modern views and ▶ Utilitarianism a scientific approach. Those who focus on phe- nomena point to the fact that the modern theories ignore such phenomena. Perhaps, it is necessary C to document the purported phenomena well Conservation before they can be used for scientific argument and keep theorizing open ended for the ▶ Divine Action time being. References Console Games Atmanspacher, H. (2006). Quantum approaches to con- sciousness. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), Standford encyclope- ▶ Games, Computer dia of philosophy. Stanford: Metaphysics Research Lab. Atmanspacher, H., Filk, T., & Ro¨mer, H. (2004). Quantum Zeno features of bistable perception. Biological Cybernetics, 90, 33–40. Constructionism Chalmers, D. J. (1996). The conscious mind. In search of a fundamental theory. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press. ▶ Social Construction in Psychology Churchland, P. S. (1986). Neurophilosophy. Toward ▶ Theoretical Psychology a unified science of the mind-brain. Cambridge: MIT Press. Davidson, J. M., & Davidson, R. J. (1980). Psychobiology of consciousness. New York: Plenum. Dennett, D. C. (1991). Consciousness explained. Boston: Constructive Theology Little, Brown. Lockwood, M. (1989). Mind, brain, and the quantum. Joerg Rieger The compound I. Oxford: Blackwell. Mahler, G., Gemmer, J., & Stollsteimer, M. (2002). Perkins School of Theology, Southern Methodist Quantum computer as a thermodynamical machine. University, Dallas, TX, USA Superlattices and Microstructures, 31, 75–85. Metzinger, T. (Ed.). (1995). Conscious experience. Thorverton: Imprint Academic. Metzinger, T. (2000). Neural correlates of consciousness: Related Terms Empirical and conceptual questions. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Christian theology; Dogmatic theology; System- Nagel, T. (1974). What is it like to be a bat? Philosophical atic theology Review, 83, 435–450. Penrose, R. (1994). Shadows of the mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press. The term “constructive theology” is often used Rossano, M. J. (2007). Did meditating make us human? synonymously with the terms Christian theology, Cambridge Archeological Journal, 17, 47–58. systematic theology, or dogmatic theology and Runehov, A. L. C. (2007). Sacred or neural: The potential connotes an understanding of theology as of neuroscience to explain religious experience. Go¨ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. a discourse that is both constructed and engaged Searle, J. R. (1992). The rediscovery of the mind. in ongoing construction. Constructive theology Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. is, therefore, a discourse that is always in process van Gulick, R. (2001). Reduction, emergence and other recent options on the mind/body problem. and open to interaction with other forms of A philosophical overview. Journal of Consciousness knowledge, including knowledge produced in Studies, 8, 1–34. the social and natural sciences. C 484 Constructive Theology One of the differences between constructive theology better than any definitions that individ- and systematic theology is that the latter seeks to uals might give. The theological orientation of develop a system, based on philosophical the Workgroup on Constructive Theology has approaches or particular themes or insights, morphed from an initial commitment to theolog- which provides a comprehensive framework for ical liberalism and critical modernism in the theological topics. Constructive theology, on the 1970s and 1980s (Hodgson and King 1982) other hand, rejects closed systematic frameworks to engagements with liberation traditions and in favor of more open ended reflections. One postmodernism in the 1990s (Chopp and Taylor of the differences between constructive and 1994). Since that time, the workgroup, which is dogmatic theology is that the latter often currently made up of a diverse group of about focuses on doctrines and concepts with little 60 theologians working in the United States, attention to matters of everyday life and experi- has grown increasingly complex in its theologi- ence. Constructive theology, in contrast, links cal orientation. In one of its most recent text- doctrines and concepts with particular expres- books, it has developed a new concern for sions of life. traditional theological roots and developments, The term constructive theology is relatively as awareness of these roots is weakening in new. It has been in use since the 1980s. There the academy and with students (Jones and are several prominent professorships in theology Lakeland 2005). in the United States, which have adopted the The large variety of theological perspectives term, including professorships in constructive of the Workgroup on Constructive Theology theology at Drew University and the United today includes liberals, postliberals, and libera- Seminary of the Twin Cities, occupied by tionists; feminist, Latino/a, African American, Catherine Keller and Eleazar S. Fernandez, and neo-orthodox, and process theologians; histori- the Wendland-Cook Professorship in construc- cists, pragmatists, and cultural theorists; tive theology at Perkins School of Theology, postmodernists of Derridean and Marxist varie- Southern Methodist University, occupied by ties; and postcolonial theologians (Jones and Joerg Rieger. Lakeland 2005, 5). For an example of workgroup While the term constructive theology has members engaging postcolonial methods and become a constant in contemporary theological topics, see the volume Empire and the Christian discourse, it still rarely occurs in theological Tradition (Kwok, Compier, and Rieger 2007). dictionaries. One exception is the Evangelical The publisher of choice of many theologians Dictionary of Theology, which defines the term identifying with the methods of constructive in relation to the development of a particular theology has been Fortress Press. workgroup on the topic of constructive theology, In one of its most recent collaborative said to be concerned with “clarifying how the publications – the fourth in a series of textbooks church can meet and shape the actual world produced over 35 years – the members of the with a Christian message freed from bondage to Workgroup on Constructive Theology note “that arcane models of vertical transcendence.” religious beliefs have the power to tear down The Evangelical Dictionary accuses constructive cities as well as build up nations, that theology theology of unwittingly deconstructing and has the capacity to save lives as well as to demolishing biblical faith, implying that biblical take them.” In short, “theology really is faith is only supported by more conservative a life-and-death endeavor” (Jones and Lakeland theological models (Elwell 1984, 269, 271). 2005, 1). This is the most crucial concern of Although the agenda of the so-called contemporary constructive theology; any Workgroup on Constructive Theology has engagement with other forms of knowledge, changed over the years, the workgroup still including the knowledge produced by the sci- exists, and its theological production over ences, needs to be seen in terms of this life-and- the past four decades helps define constructive death endeavor. Constructive Theology 485 C Other constructive theologians have expressed constructed nature of all theology and a commit- the task of constructive theology in the following ment to the ongoing constructive task of theolog- ways: ical work. It takes seriously the insight that all Catherine Keller notes that “faith is not settled reflection and thought, theological and otherwise, belief but living process. It is the very edge and are related to life and that there is no escape. This opening of life in process. To live is to step is true also for beliefs and faith. As the theolo- with trust into the next moment: into the gians of the Workgroup on Constructive Theol- C unpredictable” (Keller 2008, xii). The alterna- ogy have put it: “Beliefs are. . .profoundly tive, rejected by constructive theology, is shaping not only how we perceive our world but a belief in God that assumes that it has it all also how we engage and respond to it” (Jones and figured out. The task of constructive theology in Lakeland 2005, 13). At the same time, our beliefs this account is to deal with faith as a dynamic are also shaped by our perceptions and engage- entity and to liberate it from the misunderstand- ments of the world. ing that it can ever be fixed and static. Critics of constructive theology worry According to David Jensen, another professor that emphasizing the constructed nature and of constructive theology at Austin Presbyterian the constructive task of theology will lead to Theological Seminary, uniformity of theological theological relativism. Yet relativism is not the details is not the goal of constructive theology. In necessary result of an appreciation for the rela- an edited volume on the doctrine of the Holy tivity of faith, belief, and theological reflection. Spirit, Jensen identifies the “bedrock of convic- On the contrary, overlooking the relativity of tion” of progressive theology in the following faith, belief, and theological reflection often way: “As the Spirit gives life, we are to seek life results in approaches that universalize relative amid the forces and spirits that threaten life in our positions. While it has often been taken for day” (Jensen 2008, xvii). Because constructive granted, for instance, that the theologies pro- theology engages life, it finds itself in opposition duced by white male Europeans or Americans to all that endangers life. are universal, we are beginning to understand Constructive theology is, therefore, never that these theologies are also relative, as they a merely descriptive endeavor. It is an effort to are produced in particular places and times by understand and construct theology in the present, particular individuals and groups. Similar imagining what life-giving faith might look like. insights apply to the work of scientists as well While the term constructive theology is often (Harding 2008). used in relation to progressive theology in the Understanding how faith, belief, and theolog- United States, since 1995 a Journal of Construc- ical reflections are always responses to particular tive Theology is being published in South Africa challenges of life and to particular experiences of by the Centre for Constructive Theology at the God is a first step toward the formation of com- School of Religion and Theology (SORAT) at the mon concerns and denominators that bring University of Kwazulu Natal. The contributions together different approaches (Rieger 2001). published in this journal bring together classical More specifically, examining faith, belief, and theological issues and the struggles of everyday theological reflection in the midst of the life, including social tensions affecting South struggles of life that affect us all, albeit in African society and other matters of public con- different ways, allows for the development of cern, like the AIDS crisis. The subtitle of the constructive theologies that acknowledge journal is “Gender, Religion and Theology in relativity but do not end up in relativism. Africa,” and the editors are Professors Isabel Postcolonial theologies, for instance, are con- Apawo Phiri and Sarojini Nadar of the University structive theologies that have developed particu- of Kwazulu Natal. lar ways of dealing with relativities imposed by Constructive theology in all this different con- the powers that be while bringing together the texts is characterized by a concern for the concerns and life experiences of the many who C 486 Constructivism have experienced the effects of these powers in their own bodies. Constructivism Taking seriously the constructed nature and the constructive task, at the core of the definition ▶ Social Construction in Psychology of constructive theology, can open up new possi- bilities not only for the work of theology but also for collaborative projects that combine insights from theology and the social and natural sciences. Constructivism (Philosophy of Mind) In the process, these disciplines can develop a new sense for the contingencies of everyday Dominikus Kraschl life, which does not neglect the big questions of Katholisch-Theologische Fakult€at W€urzburg, truth but locates truth in particular contexts. Universit€at W€urzburg, W€urzburg, Bayern, Germany Cross-References Related Terms ▶ Critical and Cultural Theory ▶ Liberal Theology (Epistemological) Antirealism; Idealism ▶ Postliberal Theology ▶ Pragmatism (Theological Interpretations) ▶ Process Theology Description ▶ Relativity ▶ Systematic Theology The collective term “constructivism” (from Lat. ▶ Theology of Liberation construere: to construct) covers all theories of cognition, which particularly emphasize the active contribution of the subject in the process References of cognicizing. Thus, “constructivism” is used to group together various epistemological views Chopp, R. S., & Taylor, M. L. (Eds.). (1994). in philosophy, psychology, sociology, theory of Reconstructing christian theology. Minneapolis: For- sciences, etc., which maintain that cognition or tress Press. Elwell, W. A. (Ed.). (1984). Evangelical dictionary of knowledge is not, or not so much, passively theology. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House. received, but actively built up and constructed. Harding, S. (2008). Sciences from below: Feminisms, Beyond this general characterization, several postcolonialities, and modernities. Durham: Duke basic types of constructivism can be distinguished, University Press. Hodgson, P. C., & King, R. H. (Eds.). (1982). Christian namely, Radical Constructivism, moderate theology: An introduction to its traditions and tasks. constructivism, global and regional constructiv- Philadelphia: Fortress Press. ism, and cultural and naturalistic constructivism. Jensen, D. H. (2008). The lord and giver of life: Perspec- tives in constructive pneumatology. Westminster: John Knox Press. Radical and Moderate Constructivism Jones, S., & Lakeland, P. (Eds.). (2005). Constructive Radical constructivist views reject cognition as theology: A contemporary approach to classical being sufficiently determined by the external themes. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. Keller, C. (2008). On the mystery: Discerning God in world, independent of the mind, so that warranted process. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. or justified beliefs about the world can be Kwok, P. L., Compier, D., & Rieger, J. (2007). Empire and achieved. However, radical constructivists the Christian tradition: New readings of classical usually do not deny the existence of an external theologians. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. world like ontological antirealists do. Rather they Rieger, J. (2001). God and the excluded: Visions and blindspots in contemporary theology. Minneapolis: deny that anything definitive can be known Fortress Press. about it, which is a view more in line with an Constructivism (Philosophy of Mind) 487 C epistemological antirealist view. Moderate do not lead beyond perceptions, but just to these constructivist views acknowledge the active role again, we cannot know whether there exists of construction in our belief-building processes, a world independent of our perceptions and what but also hold on to the possibility of it would be like. Kant argued that the schemes cognitive relevant feedback from reality, in of ordering which constitute human cognition terms of falsification or validation. According (i.e. “categories” such as substance, relation, to this view, the accurate recognition and causality, etc., and the “a priori forms of intui- C description of objective facts and contexts is, tion,” i.e., time and space) are located in the at least in principle, possible, even though cognicizing subject rather than in the external human knowledge remains conjectural and world. For that reason, empirical knowledge provisional. does not reflect the world as it is in itself, but only the way it appears to us, i.e., the “world of Global and Regional Constructivism appearances.” In addition, global and regional types of con- In the recent history of philosophy, attempts structivism can be discerned. Many philoso- made to give a new foundation to mathematics, phers or scientists are not generally in view of the foundational crisis of mathemat- constructivists, but hold constructivist views ics, have been labeled as “constructivism.” For with regard to particular regions of reality or intuitionists (L. E. Brouwer, A. Heyting) subject matters under discussion, such as, for and subsequent constructivists (P. Lorenzen, instance, moral or aesthetic properties, mathe- K. Lorenz), mathematical objects are only con- matical objects, natural kinds or species and, in sidered to exist if it is possible to specify an principle, anything. effective procedure for constructing them. In contrast, indirect proofs of existence are rejected Cultural and Naturalistic Constructivism as being inadequate. Finally, there are cultural and naturalistic versions In the second half of the twentieth century, of constructivism. While cultural variants of within epistemology and the theory of science, constructivism maintain that cognition is mainly two schools have emerged which are explicitly a sociocultural product (see the note to T. S. Kuhn referred to as “constructivism”: Erlanger con- below), naturalistic variants put emphasis on the structivism and Radical Constructivism. evolutionary, biological, or neurological condi- tions and foundations of human cognition. Erlanger Constructivism Brief History Constructivism has a long history, which can be The Erlanger school of constructivism pursues traced back to medieval nominalism and ancient a program of developing a “reasonable skepticism. However, constructivist views have language” – especially a language of science – in become more influential only since the seven- a methodical and noncircular way. This concept teenth and eighteenth centuries, when British was introduced by W. Kamlah and P. Lorenzen empiricism, and subsequently German idealism, with their formative work “Logische Prop€adeutik” emerged. Particularly D. Hume and I. Kant are to (1967) and later continued by K. Lorenz, be mentioned as influential precursors to and pio- J. Mittelstraß, and others. Some representatives neers of contemporary constructivism. According confine themselves to (re-)constructing the to Hume, all “ideas” held in the human mind, of language of science, while regarding our everyday any level of complexity, can be derived from language and lifeworld (“Lebenswelt”) as being simple “impressions,” i.e., mental reconstructions an inescapable starting point or “prescientific of sense perceptions, which we interconnect in a priori.” Others, however, hold our daily practice a habitual way. Moreover, since, according to of language to be both capable of and in need of Hume, all we have are perceptions and inferences justification. C 488 Constructivism (Philosophy of Mind) Radical Constructivism primarily motivated by an alleged lack of plausi- Radical Constructivism can be characterized as bility on the part of realistic alternatives. a global and naturalistic version of constructivism. This eventually leads to the question of whether Its most well-known representatives (H. Maturana, constructivist views of cognition can offer an F. Varela, H. v. Fo¨rster, E. v. Glasersfeld) reject overall more plausible explanation of our direct realistic as well as representational views of experience than alternative theories. This issue, cognition and support that stance with philosoph- however, may vary drastically across different ical arguments as well as with evolutionary, subject areas and remains an ongoing discussion. neuroscientific, and biological findings. The Constructivist considerations play an impor- resulting antirealistic attitude leads radical tant role in the philosophy of religion and in constructivists to a merely instrumentalist view religious studies. The formation and develop- of cognicizing, according to which our everyday ment of religious traditions owe themselves to as well as our scientific cognition does not reveal complex processes of sociocultural construction what the external world is like (so that we would (as well as criticism), which are explored and “know that”), but what is viable, i.e., “fitting” to reconstructed by the history, psychology, our experience, and benefits our survival in some and sociology of religion and other subdisciplines way (so that we have “know-how”). Representa- of religious studies. In principle, constructivist tives of Radical Constructivism within neurosci- considerations may serve to criticize as well as ences (G. Roth et al.) do not regard reality as to justify religious beliefs and practices. In a construction of the “I,” but rather the individual the context of functional explanations, for “I” as an evolutionary useful, even though illusion- instance, religious beliefs and practices were ary, construction of the brain. seen to be a product of socioeconomic conditions (K. Marx), infantile illusions or projections Discussion and Impact of Constructivism (S. Freud), or society-stabilizing mechanisms While Radical Constructivism has numerous (E. Durkheim). However, defenders of religion followers among biologists, psychologists, can also rely on constructivist considerations. sociologists, and educationalists it has few sup- When it comes to the problem of diverging or porters among philosophers and is regarded as competing truth claims among different religious controversial by them. Radical Constructivism traditions, to name only one example, religious requires a consequent departure from any kind pluralists (J. Hick, P. Knitter et al.) argue that of (e.g., critical or scientific) realism, which religious beliefs and concepts can be understood we usually take for granted in our everyday life in terms of an experience of a transcendent and and often also in the practice of science. This ultimate reality, in itself incomprehensible, departure, however, is not easy to maintain, which is perceived and conceptualized differ- since radical constructivists cannot easily do ently within various religious traditions. How- without statements about how things really are, ever, the above mentioned explanations, as for instance, when they argue for an antirealistic well as many other explanations of religious view of cognition against the realists. Hence, phenomena, often have very little support from they should not rely on findings of the empirical empirical data. sciences, for if these findings should give support to Radical Constructivism, they would require a realistic interpretation. Apart from that, it Cross-References is not easy to see which kind of philosophical arguments in fact support Radical Constructivism ▶ Constructive Theology successfully. Thus, constructivist views of ▶ Epistemology cognition, whether radical or moderate, global ▶ Pluralism (Religious) or regional, cultural or naturalistic, seem to be ▶ Social Constructivism Constructivism in Buddhism 489 C References self-organization. In this theory, cognition, mind, truth, and consciousness are no longer seen as Glasersfeld, E. (1995). Radical constructivism. A way of something absolute, but emerge out of the flow knowing and learning. London: The Falmer Press. of material and energy in a process of constant Goodman, S. (1978). Ways of worldmaking. Indianapolis: Hackett. becoming. The basic assumptions of this Kamlah, W., & Lorenzen, P. (1967). Logische Prop€ adeutik approach (Maturana and Varela 1987) are as oder Vorschule des vern€ unftigen Redens; engl. (1984): follows: C Logical propaedeutic. Pre-school of reasonable 1. Cognition is conceptualized as an embodied discourse. Lanham: University Press of America. Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions process that is based on the fact that organisms (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kuhn are intertwined with their environments argued that paradigm shifts within science often are through their actions and perceptions. Each not motivated by successful attempts at falsification or individual organism actively produces its other forms of scientific progress, but triggered by social revolutions within scientific communities. own reality in the act of perception. “Every Lorenzen, P. (1969). Einf€ uhrung in die operative Logik act of knowing brings forth a world.” und Mathematik (2nd ed.). Berlin: Springer. (Maturana and Varela 1987: 26) There are as Manturana, H., & Varela, F. (1992). The tree of knowledge: many realities as there are different organisms. The biological roots of human understanding. Boston: Shambhala Publications. 2. An organism’s actions determine what it Roth, G. (1997). Das Gehirn und sein Wirklichkeit. perceives. Perception shapes cognition and is Kognitive Neurobiologie und ihre philosophischen encoded into the neurological structures of Konsequenzen. Franktfurt a. M: Suhrkamp. living organisms. In turn, their cognitive struc- Schmidt, S. (1987). Der Diskurs des Radikalen Konstruk- tivismus. Frankfurt a. M: Suhrkamp. ture shapes their actions. This self-referential Schmidt, S. (1992). Kognition und Gesellschaft. Der circle of perception and action configures Diskurs des Radikalen Konstruktivismus (2nd ed.). reality as in a self-fulfilling prophecy. Frankfurt a. M: Suhrkamp. 3. Different organisms link their behavior, lead- ing to a qualitatively new form of behavior, i.e., the production of signs that coordinate behavior. The ability to use these signs in Constructivism in Buddhism isolation from their immediate contexts results in the development of a new domain of action- Werner Vogd language. Words elicit words. Communica- Department of Sociology, University tion elicits communication. Thus, along with Witten/Herdecke, Witten, Germany language, the mind also develops primarily from the process of forming social connec- tions between organisms. Related Terms In “languaging,” constructs such as the “I,” “self,” “meaning,” “sense,” and “nonsense” Enactivism and Buddhism; Neurobiological evolve. The associated human condition has an constructivism and insight meditation inherent risk of deep alienation and the suffering that goes with it. The alienation results from the fact that the praxes of perception and action Description become disconnected from the social and bodily origins on which they depend. This gives rise to Following recent developments in cybernetics an implicit ethical dimension. Love thus appears and general systems theory (Ashby 1956; to be neither an abstract concept nor simply Foerster 1981), in the 1980s an independent the- a form of sexual desire. Rather, it now appears ory of biological epistemology was developed as the basic emotion that makes humans human. in the cognitive sciences under the paradigm of In the words of Maturana and Varela: C 490 Constructivism in Buddhism What biology shows us is that the uniqueness of a scientific approach to the study of cognitive being human lies exclusively in a social structural processes. Using this approach it is possible to coupling that occurs through languaging, generat- ing (a) the regularities proper to the human social relate controlled self-observation of awareness dynamics, for example, individual identity and processes to the spatiotemporal patterns of self-consciousness, and (b) the recursive social neuronal dynamics in a productive way (Petitot human dynamics that entails a reflection enabling et al. 1999). us to see that as human beings we have only the world which we create with others – whether we Now, for the first time, a research program has like them or not. Biology shows us that we can been developed that, in contrast to the research on expand our cognitive domain. This arises through meditation carried out in the 1970s and 1980s, a novel experience brought forth through reason- adheres to the true goals of Buddhist insight ing, through the encounter with a stranger, or, more directly, through the expression of a biological practice – i.e., the transformation of the self interpersonal congruence that lets us see the other through self-knowledge. In almost all forms of person and open up for him room for existence Buddhist meditation, mental concentration beside us. This act is called love, or, if we prefer (samadhi) is not an end in itself, but simply a milder expression, the acceptance of the other person beside us in our daily living. This is the a means to gaining insight into the changeable biological foundation of social phenomena: with- and therefore essenceless nature of the self (Lutz out love, without acceptance of others living beside et al. 2007). us, there is no social process and, therefore, no humanness. (Maturana and Varela 1987: 246) At the end of the 1980s, an interdisciplinary Self-identification group of scientists working with Varela et al. (1991) began to investigate to what extent Science the epistemology and ethics of neurobiological Although some researchers of this school practice constructivism and the concept of embodied or have practiced Buddhist meditation them- cognition show parallels with Buddhism. selves, they see themselves mainly as scientists Buddhist teachings, and in particular the who are serious about complying with the high early Buddhist system of Theravada Buddhism, standards of scientific practice and reflection. is also a self-referential epistemological system. Theories and concepts must stand the test of In this view, it is also the perceiver himself critical discussion. Hypotheses derived from who creates the conditions of his perceiving them must be expressed in a way that allows and knowing, in his acts of perceiving and know- empirical falsification. ing. In contrast to most of the Western epistemo- logical systems, which have focused on the Religion search for something invariate or constant, be it All forms of communication are considered to be an immortal soul, a universal physical constant, biologically and socially constructed and must or an absolute truth, here reality becomes some- therefore be seen as relative to an observer. This thing dynamic that organizes itself in a process of kind of stance stands in fundamental contrast to constant arising and passing away, a mental and all religious dogma that claims to be able to make physical flow. Reality, perception, and mind statements about the Absolute. However, in develop in a creative process of continuous its epistemological reflections, neurobiological embodiment. constructivism is faced with problems of A highly fruitful new research domain that form that are related to those encountered in has become known as “neurophenomenology” mysticism. Like mystic reflection, it comes up has developed out of the meeting between against the problem that it must assume the neurobiological constructivism and Buddhist unity of a difference, but cannot observe this insight practices. This new domain is learning to unity with the senses or describe it through the take first-person methodologies seriously as medium of language. Constructivism in Buddhism 491 C Characteristics with Buddhism, the best authorities are teachers who follow a tradition that places the emphasis A new branch of research has emerged which is more on the practice of meditation than on theo- linked to the name Thomas Metzinger and based retical issues. on the perspective of analytical philosophy of mind, which also has a certain affinity with Buddhist insight practices. Here again we find Ethical Principles C the notion that the I or self is an illusion (“nobody ever had or was a self,” Metzinger 2004). The main principles and values are academic and However, in contrast to the view presented here, intellectual integrity and the attempt to embed the this model has shortcomings that prevent it from results of neuroscientific research and cognitive satisfactorily integrating the phenomenological science in an overarching ethical framework. perspective of conscious experiencing into research. There are also well-founded approaches Conceptualization that bring together Buddhist insight practice and Western cognitive science in psy- Nature/World chology (e.g., Shapiro 1980) and neurology The world and nature are seen as the horizon of (c.f. Austin’s (1999) excellent book). However, operationally closed cognitive systems. This in terms of first-person methodologies, these horizon must be presupposed but can never be approaches are not as well developed and theo- reached. Meaning can only refer to meaning. retically consistent as that presented in this entry. Epistemically there is no access to the world outside of the limits of meaning set by one’s own cognitions. These limits can be expanded Relevance to Science and Religion by training (e.g., by Buddhist meditation). Dialogue with leaders of Buddhist schools is Human Being actively sought. However, a strict logical differ- Human beings are conceived of as biological, entiation is made between scientific and religious physical, and social phenomena. These three descriptions (see, e.g., Varela and Engel 1998). spheres are seen as inextricably linked. Since social praxes are seen as being embodied in the body and brain, this inevitably results in Sources of Authority an implicit ethical dimension. The human mind – and therefore also happiness and unhap- The research network of the neurobiological piness – is created by a person’s own insight constructivists sees its foundations as being in practice. Love and compassion, understood as the first and second generations of cybernetics, the feeling of permitting others to be worthy which rendered it possible to give formal descrip- and accepted alongside oneself, thus appear tions of recursive systems (Norbert Wiener, as a biologically inherent human potential for William Ross Ashby, Gregory Bateson, Heinz self-transcendence. von Foerster, etc.). The main authority on the phenomenological perspective is Edmund Life and Death Husserl, who developed and carried out In both neurobiological constructivism and a program of scientifically based phenomenol- the early Buddhist scriptures, the process of ogy. Among the neuroscientists we must mention becoming and thus also the process of becoming all those who have continued to develop the conscious are described as a circular psychoso- paradigm of connectivism. For the dialogue matic process. The inescapable consequence for C 492 Constructivism in Buddhism the process of becoming is that the actions of an conditionings that enable systems to cope organism determine what it perceives. The mode with the world in their own specific ways in of perception shapes the potential of future cog- accordance with the action tendencies that arise. nition. Both are inscribed in the neurological structure of the perceiving organism and Truth influence its future being and experiencing. Truth is a sense operation of the social sphere The Buddhist teachings describe this produced by communication in which knowledge process as the law of dependent arising is labeled with the values “true” or “false.” The (paticca-samuppa¯da). The mind determines possibility of an absolute, final truth is thus the body; the body determines the mind. excluded for the domain of language. Sense-based consciousness (vin˜n˜ana) gives rise Neurobiological constructivists must also to the sensations (vedana¯) in the body. The confront the circularity of their reasoning, sensations produce a reaction (aversion or desire) which becomes a problem when the observer is that is in accordance with earlier conditioning integrated. Attempts by the traditional epistemol- of the mind (san˜n˜a¯), with meanings being ogies to clarify the role of the observer led to the attributed to the sensations. This reaction has paradox of the subject-object problem. All a corresponding effect (sankha¯ra). As a result of attempts of a subject to make itself an object are this effect, a new sense-based consciousness doomed to failure, since the object is now in fact arises. In sankha¯ra, the process of the mind the subject and the explanation thus collapses “forming” and “being formed” is embodied. into either a paradox or a tautology. What In a continuous process of becoming, mind mate- remains, in the final analysis, is only the subject’s rializes itself and is manifested as a physical attempt to substantiate itself. However, to do so it structure (na¯ma-ru¯pa). The physical body with would have to be able to step outside of itself – to its cognitive capacities and its environment thus assume an objective position – which is impossi- appears as the embodiment of past mind-body ble, since the world can only be observed within reaction patterns and at the same time creates the world. the conditions for the future process of the mind. Although those who support this position con- The Buddhist concept of rebirth assumes sider it to be science, scientific theory-building in that this process does not cease at death, but is the domain of constructivist epistemology can perpetuated via a never-ending chain of further no longer be justified using a general “Logic of subsequent life forms. At the current state of the Scientific Discovery” (Karl. R. Popper). Even art, neurobiological constructivism does not have if this had not already been clear before, the any evidence for reincarnation. Its descriptions foundational theories developed by the mathema- thus refer only to the cognitive nexus of the tician Go¨del show that if a logical system mind-body processes of a single biological, attempts to prove itself, this must inevitably human individual. result in contradictions. However, since science is obviously empirically successful even without Reality demonstrating its logical consistency, the ques- Reality is nothing other than the operation of tion of its justification must be turned round. How operationally closed systems in the space of the does science still manage to generate its subject present. However, reality cannot be accessed matter and truths – and answers to the question as directly by observation or communication, but to its own means of gaining insight – if they are can only be described or deduced in retrospect. no longer justifiable by transcendental reasoning (Kant) or logic? The answer to this question is Knowledge revealed by the instruction “observe the Knowledge is a sphere of sense operations observer” or, for science as a system, “how sys- produced by communication in which models of tems form due to the observation of observations” reality develop. These models or programs are (Luhmann 1998, my translation). Thus, circular Constructivism in Buddhism 493 C justifications are now admissible, which are an However, the secret of consciousness has there- important innovation in comparison to classical fore still not yet been revealed. The supporters of epistemology. As in “naturalized epistemology” this research tradition generally assume that (Willard V.O. Quine), it is now accepted that consciousness cannot be conceived of as an assumptions regarding the premises of knowing entity located within the brain. Rather, it is can themselves be influenced by empirical assumed that consciousness must be understood research. The principles and premises of the as a process and is not therefore to be found at C research itself can therefore be conditioned by a distinct location (cf. Cosmelli and Thompson the social praxis of research. We thus arrive at 2010). Here consciousness is seen neither as an eigen theory of the process of knowing that has a thing nor as a “something,” but as an emergent the task of explaining how insight develops out phenomenon which arises out of a relational of itself and finally renders self-understanding dynamic that generates itself. This position is possible. The result is an epistemology in which consistent with Buddhist teachings, according to the traditional subject-object distinction becomes which beyond the law of dependent arising secondary, the focus shifting instead to the pro- (paticca-samuppa¯da), there is no substrate of cess of the development of cognition and insight. a soul or essential personality. The question is now no longer “What is the observer?” but “How does the observer arise?” Rationality/Reason The experiencing subject and the objects of In both neurobiological constructivism and perception and knowledge are therefore now no Buddhism, human rationality is seen as longer considered to be something substantial or a precondition for being able to know oneself. absolute, but appear to create each other in Nonhuman animals do not have the capacity to a dynamic process of emerging observation. reflect upon their own process of self-knowledge. The task of a complete eigen theory of knowledge is to show, consistently with our Mystery empirical experience, how the process of gaining The epistemologies of the Buddhist teachings and insight into a reality creates a reality in which radical constructivism have two implications self-understanding is possible. which distinguish these two systems radically from most other philosophical or religious Perception systems: Perception is understood as a process in which an 1. In neither of these systems of thought, there is organism or system permits itself to be perturbed a fully explicated absolute truth or an explicit and provoked into action by the environment in meaning to our experience. All attempts accordance with its own cognitive structures and to determine a truth with absolute validity reaction patterns. are rejected by these two systems as an illusion. Maturana and Varela speak of the Time nonteleological nature of all biological forms, Cognitive systems are time-based systems which and the Buddhist teachings repeatedly empha- generate certain rhythms and therefore their own size the essenceless and lack of substance of all system times through their own operations. The our sensory and cognitive processes. present appears not as a point but as an extended 2. There is an unexpected depth dimension to structure within physical time (cf. Varela 1999). groundlessness, the nonrational basis of our being. An implicit order is revealed in human Consciousness existence that is beyond all external prescripts Neurophenomenological studies have demon- and rules. The biology of incarnation strated that there are structural parallels contains an ethical dimension, according to between the dynamics of neuronal processes which love is recognized as the implicit basis and the change in the contents of consciousness. of human praxis. In Buddhist teachings, C 494 Constructivism in Buddhism the spiritual dimension of human existence and discontent and also feelings such as guilt and is realized as loving kindness (metta¯) and alienation arise. When we are attached to these compassionate love. states, the gap between being and experiencing For neurobiological constructivism, the mys- increases. Openness toward others (the Mitwelt) tery of life is manifested implicitly in our know- is eclipsed by our aspirations to the confirmation ing how we know. One can transcend one’s own of our concepts. Our actions are simply guided by being by understanding on a deep level that mind the egocentric motives of the fantasy worlds of is not to be conceived of as different from the our “egos.” In the Buddhist view, the solution to relational matrix actualized through one’s own this dilemma lies in “destroying the ego,” the life praxis. interfering factor that prevents us from being In contrast, the goal of the Buddhist teachings in contact with reality. The separation between is to completely overcome human suffering as subject and object falls away, and action and expressed in the “four noble truths” (catva¯ri perception are once more in harmony. The ethics a¯ryasatya¯ni): the truth of suffering (dukkha), the are implicit in the living of this unity. They are truth of the cause of suffering, the truth of the end lived in the awareness that all phenomena exist of suffering, and the truth of the path that frees us only in relation to other phenomena. In Buddhist from suffering. On a superficial level, the truth terminology the three “sublime attitudes” of suffering appears to be the overcoming of (brahma-viha¯ra) are termed metta¯, mudita¯, and uncertain social conditions, illness, death, karuna¯, which can be roughly translated as loving etc. However, in the Buddhist doctrine, the truth kindness, empathetic joy, and compassion. of suffering has another, deeper dimension, Here the knower becomes aware of the relativity which only becomes evident in the deep experi- of his/her own reality and beliefs. The idea of an ence of anatta¯ (not self), the experience of the inherent and independent soul is replaced essencelessness of all phenomena. In anatta¯ we by insight into the relational dynamics of find that all attempts to introduce some kind of one’s own consciousness. At this level the meaning inevitably find their antithesis in the meditative practices of self-awareness are no reality of impermanence – i.e., finally in longer seen as a withdrawal from responsibility death. Only in the experience of anicca toward the world, but lead to a new openness to (impermanence), the inconstancy of all being, the Mitwelt. does the ethical dimension of the Buddhist With the attainment of nibba¯na (in Sanskrit teachings become comprehensible. Since our “nirvana”), the Buddhist teachings assume strivings cannot have a final goal – since any that there is experience that is beyond dependent goal would unavoidably dissolve in the absolute co-arising. In the Dhammapada we read, for certainty of death – the ethical gain of any action instance must lie in itself. All actions must be perfect, A monk with his mind at peace, without any vestige of a transcendental expecta- going into an empty dwelling, tion or a meaning beyond the lived reality. The clearly seeing the Dhamma [law of nature] aright: author of the action must become completely at his delight is more than human. one with his experience. Any vestiges of a desire However it is, however it is he touches for something that is not being lived can never be the arising-and-passing of aggregates: fulfilled, nor can lingering aversion to what he gains rapture and joy: has been lived be discharged. The past is that, for those who know it, gone forever. is deathless, the Deathless. Only in the conceptual vacuum of the (Dhammapada 373/374, Translation: Venerable “ego-self” (atta¯) does the claim to having had Thanissaro) a life other than the one that has been lived appear. It is out of this discrepancy that all the Since according to Buddhist doctrine, the neurotic constructs of bitterness, disappointment, experience of nibba¯na lies beyond both the Contemplation 495 C five senses and all conceptual ideas, it cannot References be captured in scientific terminology. Thus, the reality of nibba¯na cannot be scientifically proven, Ashby, W. R. (1956). An introduction to cybernetics. New York: Wiley. and thus, it cannot be confused with the states of Austin, J. H. (1999). Zen and the brain. Cambridge, MA/ deep contemplation experienced by meditators, London: MIT Press. which are now demonstrable using the imaging Cosmelli, D., & Thompson, E. (2010). Embodiment or procedures of modern neuroscience. envatment? Reflections on the bodily basis for con- C sciousness. In J. Steward, O. Gapenne, & E. di Paolo (Eds.), Enaction: Towards a new paradigm for cogni- tive science (pp. S. 361–S. 386). Cambridge, MA: MIT Relevant Themes Press. Foerster, H. V. (1981). Observing systems: Selected papers of Heinz von Foerster. Seaside: Intersystems Comparison of neurobiological constructivism Publications. and Buddhist doctrine has proved fruitful in Luhmann, N. (1998). Die Wissenschaft der Gesellschaft. many ways. Also for those who would wish to Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp. view Buddhism as a religion, the Buddhist teach- Lutz, A., Dunne, J. D., & Davidson, R. J. (2007). Medita- tion and the neuroscience of consciousness: An intro- ings can, to some extent, be seen as compatible duction. In P. D. Zelazo, M. Moscovitch, & E. with the neuroscientific worldview. The Thompson (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of con- doctrine of the nonexistence of the soul is highly sciousness (pp. S. 499–S. 551). New York: Cambridge consistent with several positions within the phi- University Press. Maturana, H. R., & Varela, F. J. (1987). The tree of losophy of mind and the cognitive sciences. Bud- knowledge: The biological roots of human understand- dhism would seem to be an interesting dialogue ing. Boston: Shambhala. partner precisely because it can help not only to Metzinger, T. (2004). Being no one. The self-model theory develop a new ethical position that is far from of subjectivity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Petitot, J., Varela, F. J., & Pachoud, B. (1999). Naturaliz- nihilistic but also to create hopeful basis in our ing phenomenology: Issues in contemporary phenom- lifeworlds that might help us to become recon- enology and cognitive science. Stanford: Stanford ciled to the idea that our egoic experience is University Press. merely an epistemic misconception. To quote Shapiro, D. H. (1980). Meditation. Self-regulating strategy and altered state of consciousness. New York: Aldine. Francisco Varela: Varela, F. J. (1999). The specious present: At very least, the journey of Buddhism to A neurophenomenology of time consciousness. In J. the West provides some of the resources we Petitot, F. J. Varela, & B. Pachoud (Eds.), Naturalizing need to pursue consistently our own cultural and phenomenology: Issues in contemporary phenomenol- ogy and cognitive science (pp. S. 266–S. 314). scientific premises to the point where we no Stanford: Stanford University Press. longer need and desire foundations and so can Varela, F. J., & Engel, J. (1998). Sleeping, dreaming, and take up the further tasks of building and dying: An exploration of consciousness with the Dalai dwelling in worlds without ground (Varela et al. Lama. Boston: Wisdom Publications. Varela, F. J., Thompson, E., & Rosch, E. (1991). The 1991: 254). embodied mind. Cognitive science and human experi- ence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Cross-References ▶ Buddhist Meditation Practices Consummation ▶ Consciousness ▶ Eschatology ▶ Cybernetics ▶ Emergence, Theories of ▶ Neuroscience ▶ Phenomenology Contemplation ▶ Psychology in Buddhism ▶ Science in Buddhism ▶ Buddhist Meditation Practices C 496 Contemplative Contemplative Control Theory (Cybernetics) Andrea Hollingsworth Matilde Santos Department of Religion and Philosophy, Berry Department of Computer Architecture and College, Mount Berry, GA, USA Automatic Control, Computer Science Faculty, Facultad de Informa´tica, Universidad Complutense De Madrid, Madrid, Spain Of or related to contemplation – that is, the act of focusing one’s attention upon something in a thoughtful, purposeful, and sustained manner. In Related Terms Christian traditions contemplation, often involves intentional reflection upon one’s own inner expe- Automation; Control theory; Cybernetics; riences for the purposes of gaining a more pro- Man-machine; Regulation found understanding of the self, the world, and God. Other rituals of devotion often accompany Christian contemplation; examples include prayer, Description chanting, the reading of scripture, and specific body positions such as bowing on one’s knees. Control theory is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and mathematics that deals with the behavior of dynamical systems. When one or more output variables of a system need to follow Contemplative Neuroscience a certain desired reference over time, a controller manipulates the inputs to a system to obtain the ▶ Meditation-Research desired effect on the output of the system (▶ Action Control). Cybernetics is closely related to control theory and systems theory. It is the interdisciplinary Contemporary Biology study of the structure of regulatory systems. The term “cybernetics” was coined in 1948 by ▶ Biology American mathematician Norbert Wiener (1894–1964) from Gk. kybernetes “steersman” perhaps based on 1830s French cyberne´tique “the art of governing” (Wiener 1948). Both of Context them became a discipline of their own right in the middle of the twentieth century. Today, control ▶ Ecological Psychology theory and cybernetics are developing automatic devices applicable to physical and social systems. Departments and subjects on those topics are Control nowadays in most of the universities. ▶ Automation, Electronic Self-Identification Science Control Theory Although control systems of various types date back to antiquity, a more formal analysis of the ▶ Control Theory (Cybernetics) field began with a dynamics analysis of the Control Theory (Cybernetics) 497 C centrifugal governor, conducted by the physicist as separate disciplines are artificial intelligence, James Clerk Maxwell in 1868. This generated neural networks, systems theory, and chaos a flurry of interest in the topic. But it could be theory, but the boundaries between those and said that the paradigm of control theory and cyber- cybernetics proper are not precise. netics are self-identified as scientific disciplines since the early middle of the twentieth century. Contemporary cybernetics began as an inter- Relevance to Science and Religion C disciplinary study connecting the fields of control systems, electrical network theory, mechanical Control theory sees itself as a scientific endeavor engineering, logic modeling, evolutionary with the aim to enhance the knowledge about biology, and neuroscience (▶ Neuroscience) in where action by the system causes some change the 1940s. Early work sought to define and in its environment and that change is fed to apply principles by which systems may be con- the system via information (feedback) that causes trolled. More recent work has attempted to under- the system to adapt to these new conditions: stand how systems describe themselves, control The system’s changes affect its behavior. In that themselves, and organize themselves. The ideas broad sense, there is some growing interest in were soon related to biology. This branch of explaining human behavior from a mechanistic science concerned not only with control systems point of view (Mechanism) but the possible reli- in electronic and mechanical devices but with its gious implications are weak. extension to useful comparisons and application Although there is a link between cybernetics, to man-made and biological systems. culture, and human behavior, very little work in cybernetics has centered on the application of this Religion theory to human behavior. Instead, it has focused Cybernetics explores theories of self-reference to on technological advances in electronic and understand such phenomena as autonomy, iden- mechanical engineering. tity, and purpose, and emphasizes with some human and social concerns. In fact, some cyber- neticians seek to create a more humane world, Sources of Authority while others seek merely to understand how peo- ple and their environment have coevolved. As a branch of the engineering closely related to other empirical sciences, control theory finds the sources of authority in empirical data, repeatable Characteristics experiments, and publication in peer-reviewed papers and textbooks. Their authority is Cybernetics is distinguished from other self-derived by the peer-review process and disciplines such as physics or chemistry because from the underlying assumption of engineering it treats not things but ways of behaving. It does that empirical data are the most reliable means not ask “what is this thing?” or “why does it of proving any statement about the behavior of behave like that?” but “what does it do?” and any system. “what can it do?” Because numerous systems in As a second source of authority, there have the living, social, and technological world may be been many good researchers who have influenced understood in this way, cybernetics cuts across the establishment of these theories. Besides, there many traditional disciplinary boundaries. are many national and international scientific The concepts which cyberneticians develop thus organizations such as The Cybernetics Society form a metadisciplinary language through which of the UK (2012) or The American Society for we may better understand and modify our world. Cybernetics (2012). In addition to those societies, Related recent developments (often referred to there are many scientific fora for addressing spe- as sciences of complexity) that are distinguished cific research topics such as the IEEE Systems, C 498 Control Theory (Cybernetics) Man and Cybernetics Society (2012), IFAC, Control theory can model and analyze some of etc. These organizations run their regular these processes. scientific meetings and in the majority have their own scientific journals. These organizations Life and Death show increasing numbers of members. Life is a dynamic process of a complex system, let us say human or any other kind of organic being. Death occurs when that process stops. Ethical Principles Reality On the one hand, control theory places emphasis Reality is considered the physical world around on how the behavior of complex system is us that humans can observe and measure. influenced by those very systems, trying to describe and explain it in a (mathematical) Knowledge analytical way (▶ Complex Systems). It brings The results of the scientific study of any process, together theories and studies on communication in accordance with the feedback information that and control not only in machines but in living takes place in any regulation system. organisms. From this point of view, there can be ethical implications that can be derived from the Truth consequences of human actions, taking human The rules that so far explain the dynamic behavior being as complex systems. of the processes. On the other hand, disciplines that involve scientific research demand experiments that Perception should be repeated and confirmed/refuted The observations and measurements of any prop- without making any harmful impact on humans erty or parameter that takes place in the universe. and environment. For a person to sense environmental changes there must be some reference point in his think- ing, sensing, or perception which is addressed Key Values and then compared with some newer sensory information. Control theory and cybernetics have developed a concern for how a wide range of processes, Time including those involving people and Time is the fundamental dimensions of reality work. Another key value of control is that of that makes a process change dynamically. regulation, using feedback information from the Control theory aims to explain the changes in system itself, in order to reach or acquire time of the behavior of a system. a desired behavior. Consciousness There is not any conceptualization of this term Conceptualization from the control theory point of view. Nature/World Rationality/Reason Nature entertains all dynamic processes in There is not any conceptualization of this term the observable environment, including the from the control theory point of view. interdependence relations between them. Mystery Human Being There is not any conceptualization of this term The human being is considered as a complex from the control theory point of view. Even if this system with many regulation processes. discipline could acknowledge in principle a place Conversation Analysis 499 C for mystery, it means something that could IEEE Systems, Man and Cybernetics Society. (2012). be potentially understood applying adequate http://isye.gatech.edu/ieee-smc/. Accessed 2012. Wiener, N. (1948). Cybernetics, or control and communi- scientific knowledge. cation in the animal and the machine. New York: Wiley. Wiener, N. (1954). The human use of human beings: Relevant Themes Cybernetics and society. New York: Da Capo Press. C With the development of new techniques, especially those that come from the artificial intelligence paradigm (▶ Artificial Intelligence, Conversation Analysis General), the control has evolved. From classical or conventional control to intelligent controllers, Angela Cora Garcia leaving behind the so-called modern control, this Department of Sociology, Department of Global new approach tries to emulate intelligent func- Studies, Bentley University, Waltham, MA, USA tionalities of living beings. Ethical questions about the limits to science and technology arise from those advances. Critical issues such as intel- Related Terms ligent machines, if machines will be able to repro- duce the crucial capacities of human being, or if Critical discourse analysis; Discourse analysis; these intelligent devices will be able to think are Discursive psychology posed. So far, it has been proved that automatic control means machines that learn, but how far While there are no exact synonyms for conversa- will this go? tion analysis, some scholars are working in Besides, another ethical implication is that closely related traditions such as discourse anal- theoretically, every living system has some influ- ysis or discursive psychology. The term conver- ence on every other system in large or small sation analysis originally was developed to apply ways. to the ethnomethodological study of talk in inter- Finally, Wiener popularized the social impli- action initially developed by Harvey Sacks cations of cybernetics drawing analogies between (1992) and others, and which grew out of the automatic systems and human institutions in ethnomethodological perspective developed by his book The Human Use of Human Beings: Harold Garfinkel (1967). The term conversation Cybernetics and Society (Wiener 1954). analysis has since come to be used by some others studying interaction from non- ethnomethodological frameworks as well. This Cross-References terminological ambiguity does cause some con- fusion when searching for research in the area of ▶ Action Control conversation analysis and determining which ▶ Artificial Intelligence, General research is ethnomethodological conversation ▶ Complex Systems analysis and which has its roots in other ▶ Neuroscience perspectives. Description References Conversation analysis is a qualitative approach to American Society for Cybernetics. (2012). http://asc- cybernetics.org/. Accessed 2012. the study of talk in interaction which developed Cybernetics Society of UK. (2012). http://cybsoc.org. out of the ethnomethodological perspective orig- Accessed 2012. inated by Harold Garfinkel (1967). The goal of C 500 Conversation Analysis conversation analysis is to discover how partici- interpretation of what that action means in the pants create social order and social organization context it occurs within. through talk in interaction. Harvey Sacks (1984, Sacks (1984) notes that ethnomethodology is 1992) decided to study talk because it was a form a “natural observational science.” By studying of social behavior that could be audio or video the methods and procedures people use to create recorded, thus allowing for repeated direct obser- interactions, we can develop a “grammar” of vation of how participants acted and responded to social action that explains the rules of the actions of others. While early research in constructing interactions in a wide range of set- conversation analysis primarily focused on infor- tings and contexts. Sacks (1992) argues that inter- mal conversations between acquainted persons action is orderly because people use shared (referred to as “ordinary” conversation), it has methods for constructing their actions (see also developed and expanded over recent decades to Heritage 1987). include studies of talk in a wide range of institu- The Sacks et al. (1974) analysis of turn taking tional and organizational settings, including talk in ordinary conversation described arguably the in legal, medical, educational, political, and busi- most important organizing principles of face-to- ness contexts. face interaction – how participants in an interac- While what people are talking about, the tion accomplish and coordinate the exchange of “subject matter” of talk, is typically of interest turns at talk. Many researchers consider the turn- both to the participants and to social scientists, for taking system of ordinary conversation a basic set conversation analysts the subject matter of an of organizing procedures which are then adjusted interaction cannot be separated from an under- to form all of the other types of interactions. standing of the procedures used to create the Adjacency pairs are two turn sequences (such as interaction. Participants display their understand- questions and answers or invitations and their ing of the interaction via their actions, and use acceptance or rejection) which enable partici- their knowledge of the shared procedures used to pants to influence actions beyond their own create and organize talk in interaction to interpret turn and which can be combined in a variety of the actions of others. The sequential context of ways to produce more complex actions. In addi- utterances (the words spoken in a turn at talk) is tion, routine mechanisms for “repair” of prob- critically important for this interpretive process. lems in talk are available to participants The context includes the immediately prior utter- (Jefferson 1974), enabling them to restore mutual ance as well as earlier parts of the interaction. understanding and coordination of talk when it According to Garfinkel (1967), human action has has broken down. the property of reflexivity; the interaction that is Conversation analytic studies are almost produced is also the mechanism through which always based on naturally occurring interactions participants create their social roles and the insti- because the goal is to study what people actually tutional context they are interacting within do rather than artificial reconstructions or simu- (Heritage 1984). lations of interaction. Conversation analysis Sacks (1992) advised conversation analysts to involves the detailed analysis of audio or video ask “why that now” when trying to understand recordings which are transcribed using a unique a particular segment of talk. Human action occurs system developed by Gail Jefferson (1984). This in real time, in specific instances and occasions. transcription system preserves the details of the In short, action is situated action, not decontex- talk and how it was produced (including timing, tualized action. Thus when we examine human simultaneous speech, repetitions, intonation, vol- action, we discover that it is impossible to speak ume, and idiosyncratic pronunciations, among about “cause and effect” relationships between other characteristics). Heritage (1987) notes that actions because the relationship between human social action works not in spite of but because of action is not deterministic, and people decide its details. Nonverbal behaviors, such as facial how to respond to actions based on an expressions and gaze direction, and the use of Conversation Analysis 501 C settings and artifacts (e.g., documents, tools, or approach to the analysis of collections of data. He technology), are also critical components of collected about 500 examples of telephone call human action. Conversation analysts take these openings. At first glance, the called party’s behaviors into account, either using a system for “hello” when they pick up the phone looks like transcribing such behaviors onto the transcript or the beginning of the conversation, and it also viewing the videotape and noting such behaviors looks like a greeting. But Schegloff noticed that as relevant for the analysis. the called person’s “hello” lets the caller know C Conversation analysts believe that discoveries that they have the phone at their ear and are now can be best made by direct observation of social available for interaction. This “hello” is therefore action rather than through a priori theory devel- the second turn in the interaction, not the first, and opment and hypothesis testing. Sacks’ (1984) is an answer to the summons (the ringing of the argument is that as scientists, we are limited in phone), rather than a greeting. Schegloff was able terms of what we can hypothesize by what we can to discover this phenomenon by observing imagine. However, social life is much more com- a “deviant case” in which the phone rang and plex than we could imagine, so a deductive someone picked it up but did not speak. After hypothesis-generation approach will not effec- a brief pause, the caller (instead of the person tively lead us toward knowledge about how par- called) said “hello” in an attempt to elicit ticipants construct their actions in everyday life. a response from the called party. Schegloff Instead, we use direct observation as a basis for (1979) concluded that if the called person does theorizing (Heritage 1987). By observing human not speak, the caller can speak first and use their behavior directly, we can develop accurate theo- turn at talk to repair the absence of the called ries about how people coordinate their actions party’s response. What is important here is that and create intersubjective understanding. Schegloff was not making a statistical argument Social scientific research that relies on (e.g., in 499 out of 500 calls, the called person a positivist approach uses theory building and speaks first), but an analytical argument which testing via a deductive process involving the incorporated all 500 excerpts, even the so-called creation of hypotheses about the social world. deviant case. The deviant case in which the caller Typically, statistical techniques are used to spoke first still displayed an orientation to the rule test hypotheses; these techniques rely on system- that the called party should speak first. Conver- atically derived samples from the population of sation analysts also sometimes use the single case interest. However, conversation analysts are not method. Single case analysis involves applying making statistical arguments about the relation- current conversation analytic knowledge to the ships between variables they are studying actual understanding and explication of a single behavior. Whether and how a given action is instance of interaction, often one which is prob- related to a subsequent action depends on its use lematic in nature. A single case analysis can be an in the local context and is visible through direct effective diagnostic technique to discover the observation of the interaction itself and of partic- source of communication problems in specific ipants’ responses to that action. Because of this, situations, to find ways of avoiding or repairing the data sets used in conversation analytic these types of problems. For example, Whalen research are described as “collections” rather et al. (1988) analyze an emergency call to the than samples. police in which the caller became embroiled in Conversation analysts collect examples of, an argument with the call taker which prevented observe closely, and attempt to categorize or them from successfully completing the business describe conversational events in a way that of the call (sending an ambulance). makes their social organization (the procedures In sum, while ethnomethodology and conver- used to create them) visible. For example, sation analysis are very different from traditional Schegloff’s (1979) paper on telephone call open- sociology, they are profoundly sociological in ings is generally held up as an example of an ideal their purpose and the subject matter of their C 502 Conversion research. The extensive use of conversation ana- ethnomethodology (pp. 23–78). New York: Irvington lytic methods to study talk in workplace interac- Press. Whalen, J., Zimmerman, D. H., & Whalen, M. (1988). tions and other organizational and professional When words fail: A single case analysis. Social Prob- settings has produced research with direct appli- lems, 35(4), 335–362. cability to the improvement of the work done in those settings (see Heritage and Clayman 2010 for examples). Conversion Cross-References Jakub Ciga´n ▶ Collective Behavior Department for the Study of Religions, Faculty of ▶ Constructivism (Philosophy of Mind) Arts, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic ▶ Knowledge, Sociology of ▶ Narrative Psychology ▶ Natural Language Processing Related Terms ▶ Organizational Behavior ▶ Phenomenology Religious affiliation; Religious commitment ▶ Philosophy of Language ▶ Psycholinguistics ▶ Social Psychology Description Conversion is surely one the most intriguing and controversial issues in social sciences and References humanities still resisting universal definition or theory. Already in 1908, George Jackson had Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies in ethnomethodology. Engle- wood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. clearly stated that conversion resists all “stan- Heritage, J. (1984). Garfinkel and ethnomethodology. dardization” (Snow-Machalek 1984). Eighty Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. years later, Thomas Robbins noted exactly the Heritage, J. (1987). Ethnomethodology. In A. Giddens & same by saying that conversion studies consist J. Turner (Eds.), Social theory today (pp. 224–272). Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. “of multiple confusions related to divergent pre- Heritage, J., & Clayman, S. E. (2010). Talk in action: mises, conceptual frameworks, nomenclature and Interactions, identities, and institutions. Chichester: behavioural referents have employed by Wiley-Blackwell. Jefferson, G. (1974). Error correction as an interactional researchers” (Robbins 1988). The current situa- resource. Language in Society, 13(2), 181–199. tion is not much different as there are no Jefferson, G. (1984). Transcript notation. In J. M. systematic programs of methodologically sophis- Atkinson & J. Heritage (Eds.), Structures of social ticated research on conversion (Hood et al. 2009). action: Studies in conversation analysis (pp. ix–xvi). One could say that conversion is simply Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Sacks, H. (1984). Notes on methodology. In J. M. a religious change, but in what sense religious, Atkinson & J. Heritage (Eds.), Structures of social and what is the subject of the change? Conversion action: Studies in conversation analysis (pp. 21–27). studies have no disciplinary autonomy. Conver- Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sacks, H. (1992). Lectures in conversation. Oxford: Basil sion studies are represented by a bundle of vari- Blackwell. ous methods and approaches grouped under Sacks, H., Schegloff, E. A., & Jefferson, G. (1974). ambivalent concept of conversion depending on A simplest systematics for the organization of turn- authors’ varied philosophical and theoretical taking for conversation. Language, 50, 696–735. Schegloff, E. A. (1979). Identification and recognition affiliations and concerns. We, scholars of reli- in telephone conversation openings. In gion, need to pay attention to what way we con- G. Psathas (Ed.), Everyday language: Studies in ceptualize conversion into assumptions we adopt Conversion 503 C and methods we use and in what ways our theo- was now held as a category of religion and reli- ries reflect our own intuition cultural pattern, and gious experience. This is most apparent in early sociopolitical intention. As the term conversion is psychological conversion studies, but also present not a universal concept, it is hard to expect in conversion studies in general. a theory free from the term’s own history, cultural origins, and usages in particular religious and sociocultural contexts. Also as an analytic tool, Early Psychological Conversion Studies C conversion is often hardly useful in empirical research. Scholars engage conversion solely in The first scientific psychology paper dealing a retrospective manner, and theories and models with conversion was published in 1896 by are often based on converts’ first-hand reports. James Henry Leuba, shortly followed by others (William James, Edwin Diller Starbuck, Granville Stanley Hall). There was a strong Changing the Conversion Concept connection between early psychological theoriz- ing about conversion and Protestant theology The Latin word “convertere” (to revolve, turn linked to (1) uncritical adoption of theological around) connected with Greek words “strepho” terms and concepts which were treated as sci- and “epistrepho” or “metanoia” from the New entific, (2) overemphasizing the essential nature Testament, refers to a positive state or process of of religious experience (conversion) as the heart committing oneself to new community, beliefs, of religion and its sole positive outcome, (3) sep- and rituals in Judeo-Christian context (Flinn arating conversion from other social 1999). In the European Middle Ages, conversion and cultural aspects of human life leading to a was predominantly related to the religious intensi- broadly criticized sui generis approach fication of one’s piety and religiousness in and phenomenology of religion, and a context of a monastic life, or to conversion of (4) overestimating the solely private character Jews and Muslims to Christianity. After the spread of religious experience and giving preference to of Protestantism and distortion of medieval Church introspection. The sui generis approach holds universality, conversion gained more individual that religion (and religious experience) has its character and became associated with a self- own inherent essence and cannot be reduced to authenticating, intense, “newborn” experience anything else. Since religion is a wholly differ- gauranteeing personal and collective religious ent and unique phenomenon neglected from the revival leading to a switch to a christian denomi- cultural and social reality, it deserves its own nation and distinguishing one as a “real Christian.” category, different research methods, and under- Classical conversion forms of Christian Protestant standing. James privileged religious experience life fully emerged after European Christian denom- over the other constituents of religion (group, inations flourished in American colonies, empha- doctrine, or practice) and considered conversion sizing a personal experience of God’s saving grace. as universal, one of the most genuine and In spite of many ways of using this term in various authentic religious experiences. In his view, Christian streams, conversion as a sudden and dra- conversion is a matter of adolescent psychol- matic religious change leading the individual to a ogy, an event of self-unification that was always Christian community of believers has been pre- highly positive for the subject. This focus on the served. Constructing conversion in religious stud- positive relationship between the conversion ies is primarily a Christian, or more precisely, and mental and physical health, self-esteem, Protestant heritage. It was only later that conver- and well-being is characteristic of psychological sion was discovered in religions under the disput- conversion study till present-day. Conversion is able label of “world religions,” like Buddhism or by definition a positive change, and there is Islam. What was previously held about Christianity little interest among scholars in the negative as unique and dramatically different from others religious change. C 504 Conversion Sociological Conversion Studies The Way We Talk About Conversion After a period of domination psychology in con- Despite significant theoretical shifts, conversion version studies followed by a short silence soci- as a radical transformation of identity or orien- ology came into play. This was caused by the tation has been preserved by a distinguishing emergence of a very popular but scientifically between profound, permanent change and less useless and fallacious brainwashing models serious, noncomplex, and reversible alternations (Robert Jay Lifton, Edgar Schein) and new reli- (Arthur Nock, David Gordon). These dichoto- gious movements (NRMs). Sociology with its mies enable a differentiation between many gradual-vanishing-of-religion paradigm was sur- types of religious changes, but they are not prised and fascinated by NRMs’ broad social able to tell us how much change one needs for impact. This brought new issues into conversion to take place. They define the spotlight. Sociological conversion research what conversion is not in more detail than was predominantly focused on religion and what it is. Some authors (David Snow, Richard ▶ socialization processes (Jeffrey Hadden, Machalek, James Beckford) stressed the need Theodore Long), deprivation (strain) theories for certain empirical indicators of conversion (Rodney Stark, William S. Bainbridge), and social and criticized scholars’ uncritical reliance on nonconformity issues (John Lofland). Broadly converts’ stories, thus ignoring the situational used drift models (John Lofland, Rodney Stark, context of these linguistic expressions, since James Downtown), which assumed a step-by-step converts’ verbal accounts are always retrospec- conversion process gradually fulfilled by active tive and there is no way to study conversion individual, showed that there is nothing special “live.” Resulting models and theories are “ideal about conversion. It definitely lost its solely indi- typical natural histories” of a particular reli- vidual psychological character based on a univer- gious group and its adherents, not causal models sal religious experience category, and it started to of the conversion process. A neophyte tries to be treated primarily as a social process related to establish herself as full-blown member; she group membership, commitment, ideological affil- learns how to express and talk about her own iations, or recruitment efforts of crucial impor- experiences in accordance with the movement’s tance to established social networks. The rationale (Snow-Machalek 1983). This reflects universal Jamesian “core experience” behind cul- the narrative approach to religious experience in turally conditioned expressions was being chal- sociology (David Yamane) and conversion lenged. Facing various non-Christian religious studies (Peter L. Stromberg). movements, conversion failed to maintain its homogenous nature based on the Pauline model and lost its “once and for all” character. These Current Approaches to Conversion facts quite seriously damaged the perennial assumptions about conversion, mainly its auton- In psychological conversion studies, psychoanalyt- omy and distinctive religious nature. On the other ical approaches were established (Chana Ulmann), hand, conversion seemed to be an issue too com- ▶ meaning-system analysis, which refers to the plicated to assign to an unstable category of mem- analysis of interactive set of person’s cognitive, bership (Arthur Greil, David Rudy), and “drift affective, behavioral, and motivational elements models” were valid only in the specific religious (self-perception and identity life purposes, attitudes historical contexts of particular religious and values, concepts, attributes, goals, sensitivities, movements. Later on, scholars’ concern shifted ultimate concerns, etc.) that are undergoing change from conversion-as-membership to conversion- in the process of conversion (or spiritual transfor- as-identity and discourse change (Richard mation) (Raymond Paloutzian), ▶ attachment Travisano, R. Kenneth Jones). theory (Lee Kirkpatrick, Phillip Shaver), and Conversion 505 C ▶ attributional theory of religion (Bernard Spilka, purpose of life. In method and theory debates, a Kenneth Pargament, Phillip Shaver, Ann Taves). theological-friendly approach is usually linked to Margit Warburg, inspired by the methods from refusing any kind of reductionism or naturalistic history, deals with the possibility of obtaining approach, preserving the phenomenological nature sociological data from converts’ narratives of conversion and preferring first-person methodol- (Warburg 2008). The way we look at conversion ogies. Conversion concepts narrow our focus on today is influenced mainly by sociological social “world religions” with a systematic doctrine to C psychology and the cognitive science of religion adopt and unified practices to follow in conversion (Illka Pysi€ainen, Fabrice Cle´ment). process, even though this is not the case of most religions. The dynamics of the conversion concept in “science and religion” can be also seen as a result Conversion in “Science and Religion” of the term’s transition between two distinctive meta-representational contexts. Conversion is undoubtedly a doctrinal construct of Protestant theology, and as such, it was introduced to social sciences. Before any scientific study of Cross-References religion was established, conversion was studied in the area of missionary studies and practical ▶ Christianity theology. Nowadays, scientific findings about ▶ Emotion conversion are being used in missiology, and ▶ Faith and Belief missionaries graduated in anthropology often ▶ Memory participate in conversion studies (Paul Hiebert) ▶ Phenomenology (Rambo 2003). Theology still occupies an impor- ▶ Psychology of Religion tant place not only in understanding and shaping of ▶ Religion, Sociology of conversion experience, but also in its explanation. ▶ Religious Experiences The development which went from conceptualizing ▶ Self, From a Psychological Perspective conversion as a sui generis religious experience to ▶ Social Psychology its subsequent challenging by cultural pluralism thanks to NRMs and non-Christian religions, ended in “the linguistic turn,” which gradually References disrupted the term’s autonomy. Since there is no religious organ or brain region (as neurotheology Flinn, F. K. (1999). “Conversion: up from evangelicalism or the pentecostal and charismatic experience.” In: holds), or special social or psychological process Lamb, C., & Bryant, M. D. (Eds.). Religious conver- equivalent to conversion, there are many ways of sion, contemporary practices and controversies. (pp. studying and defining it, and a general theory of 51–72). London/New york:Cassell. conversion is unlikely to emerge. The only Hood, R. W., Hill, P. C., & Spilka, B. (2009). The psychology of religion: An empirical approach. exception is the holistic model of Lewis Rambo (207–208). New York: Guilford Press. who attempts to include everything from later Rambo, L. (1993). Understanding religious conversion. psychological and drift models and creates New Haven: Yale University Press. a universal theory (Rambo 1993). Behind attempts Rambo, L. (2003). “Anthropology and the study of Conversion”. In: Buckser, A., & Glacier, S. D. to uniformly conceptualize conversion as (Eds.). The Anthropology of Religious Conversion. a homogenous phenomenon at its core, despite (pp. 211–222). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. heterogeneous features on the surface, there is still Robbins, T. (1988). Cults, converts and charisma: the a metaphysical presumption about its autonomous sociology of new religious movements. (p. 64). Lon- don: Sage Publications. nature. Conversion is studied non-theologically, Snow, D. A., & Machalek, R. (1983). “The Convert as a although there are often background theological Social Type”. In: Collins, R. (Ed.). Sociological assumptions about the human condition and Theory. (pp. 259–289). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. C 506 Cooperative Game Theory Snow, D. A., & Machalek, R. (1984). The sociology of strategies that are directed at resolving or manag- conversion. Annual Review of Sociology, 10, 167–190. ing the problem, emotion-focused strategies that Warburg, M. (2008). Theorizing conversion: Can we use conversion accounts as sources to actual past are directed toward regulating emotional processes? In E. Barker (Ed.), The centrality of reli- responses, and meaning-making strategies that gion in social life. Essays in honour of James A. Beck- focus on incorporating stressors within existing ford (pp. 131–143). Aldershot/Burlington: Ashgate. worldviews and/or altering worldviews to accommodate new perspectives. Strategies in all three types of coping may be behavioral or cog- nitive. Coping typically occurs within a social Cooperative Game Theory context. Individuals may directly access social support, either for tangible help in managing the Go´mez Gonza´lez Daniel problem, assistance in emotional regulation, or Universidad Complutense De Madrid, Madrid, for general advice, or engage in dyadic coping. Spain The outcome of individuals’ coping efforts affects not only their own well-being but also that of others, generally in the immediate Game theory is divided into two branches called social context, but sometimes in the larger socio- the noncooperative and cooperative. The cultural arena. main difference between these two issues is how it formalized the communication or interdependence among the players. In coopera- tive theory, it is usually assumed that there is no Coping, Psychology of communication among players and the mathe- matical model describes only the output that Carolyn M. Aldwin and Michael R. Levenson results when the players come together in differ- Program in Human Development & Family ent roles. Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, In the noncooperative theory, it is assumed OR, USA that there is communication between players, and one of the main aims is how to allocate the benefits or loss of the group among its members. Related Terms Defense mechanisms; Problem-solving; Self-regulation Coping Carolyn M. Aldwin and Michael R. Levenson Definition Program in Human Development & Family Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Religions coping is a multifaceted construct OR, USA reflecting a variety of ways of bringing one’s religious life to bear on stressful experience. It typically includes strategies such as prayer and/or Coping refers to the processes by which individ- meditation, relying on God, and reading religious uals attempt to manage stressful situations and texts for guidance. In general, religious coping is their attendant negative emotions. Currently, often adaptive and can lead to preservation of there is no consensus as to how many types of physical and emotional health, and a greater coping strategies exist, but in general there are sense of self-efficacy. However, it is possible to three overarching types: problem-focused distinguish helpful from harmful kinds of Coping, Psychology of 507 C religious coping. Pargament argues that the most reappraisal. The latter is sometimes referred to important difference between them may be that in as meaning making. But there are many other helpful religious coping, there is an experience of strategies currently under investigation, includ- collaboration with the transcendent or divine to ing religious coping and providing social support cope, whereas in harmful religious coping, to others, as well as other strategies that may be “anger at God” or a feeling that one is being addressed to specific problems. Other researchers punished predominates. distinguish between emotional expression and C emotional processing (i.e., what am I feeling and why?). Coping: A Brief History Two recent developments are noteworthy. The first is the recognition that coping does not occur Coping is a discipline that grew out of psycho- in a psychological vacuum – rather, most coping analysis and its study of defense mechanisms. takes place in a social context. Dyadic coping However, psychoanalysis focused solely on refers to joint efforts to manage problems that unconscious strategies that people use to ward pairs of individuals – generally couples – make, off anxiety and neglected conscious, purposive usually with chronic stressors such as serious strategies that individuals use to modify their illness. Again, there is currently no consensus as environments, their responses to the environ- to what dyadic coping entails. Some researchers ment, and their internal emotional states. Early identify four broad categories, ranging from non- studies of coping styles focused on trait-like per- involvement, to the provision of emotional or ceptual processes, such as attending to the prob- instrumental support, to collaborative efforts, lem (approach or monitoring) or avoiding the and to domination or control by one of the part- problem (avoidance or blunting). These were ners. Others refer to relationship-focused coping, assumed to be characteristic ways of dealing which consists of empathic coping – recognizing with all problems. However, researchers such as the other’s needs and adjusting one’s responses Richard Lazarus questioned how consistent indi- accordingly – and compromising. In other words, viduals were across situations and argued that chronic stressors impact both members of the coping consisted of conscious choices that indi- dyad, and partners make decisions as to what viduals made in the face of environmental extent and how they are involved with each demands. Thus, coping processes consist of other’s problems. Further, the relationship in the efforts that individuals make to manage context of the stressor must be managed as well. a specific problem and the attendant negative The second major trend is to broaden the range emotions. Not all coping researchers agree that of coping from dealing with an immediate, spe- all coping is voluntary and refer to involuntary cific situation to dealing with potential problems. actions such as crying or swearing. Yet others This includes proactive strategies to prevent or argue that these are immediate emotional mitigate the occurrence of a stressor in the rela- responses that should be distinguished from cop- tively near future, such as studying for an upcom- ing efforts. ing examination, and anticipatory coping, which There is currently no consensus as to exactly is the accumulation of resources to prevent how many coping strategies there are. Most future problems, such as going to college to get researchers acknowledge two broad overarching a better job. strategies – problem-focused and emotion- focused coping – but within these broad catego- ries, there are many finer-grained distinctions. Self-identification Most researchers acknowledge common strate- gies such as escape/avoidance, withdrawal, seek- The purpose of coping is to buffer the adverse ing support, substance use, and cognitive effects of stress. After several decades of C 508 Coping, Psychology of research, most scientists acknowledge that stress questionnaires about their personality, attitudes, can have adverse psychological and physiologi- values, and behaviors; they can be observed in cal consequences, including mental illness and various settings; or they can be interviewed. disruptions in homeostasis at the cellular and Studies of coping processes, however, ask indi- system levels, which can lead to chronic illnesses. viduals to do something rather different. They are However, there are clearly individual differences asked about their thoughts, behaviors, and inter- in the effects of stress, which can be attributed to nal emotional processes in very specific, stressful many factors, including physical or psychologi- episodes. In our experience, this task is difficult cal hardiness, social support, and coping strate- for many people. When asked, “How did you gies. Thus, coping has measurable impacts on cope with this situation?” respondents, especially health and well-being. The recognition that cop- men, typically say, “Well, I solved the problem.” ing strategies can be learned – and unlearned – Extensive interviewing experience led us to the provides ample opportunity for interventions to necessity of having to ask first what emotions teach individuals new strategies to cope with the they were experiencing and then to ask how challenges that they face. they coped with their emotions. Indeed, individ- Decades of research in coping have not led to uals often do somewhat better using coping simple answers. It is fairly easy to identify types checklists, which allow them to recognize cogni- of coping that have adverse effects, or which tions and behaviors that may not emerge sponta- worsen the problem, such as substance use, rumi- neously in coping interviews. Thus, asking nation, or wishful thinking. However, the positive individuals to introspect about specific stressful effects of coping are often highly contextual. In episodes is a unique and difficult methodological other words, the study of coping is complicated problem for coping. This has led some by the fact that there are no “silver bullets” – researchers to doubt whether individuals can ade- strategies that have positive outcomes regardless quately report on their internal processes, espe- of context. This is further complicated by indi- cially retrospectively. Instead, they propose that vidual differences in coping preferences. For experience sampling methods, in which individ- example, some individuals may prefer to cope uals are beeped at random intervals during the by ignoring the problem as much as possible (or day and asked to report on their immediate expe- feasible). Forcing them to engage in information rience, are a more valid way of tapping internal seeking or other problem-focused strategies may processes. However, others have suggested result in a worsening of their situation. Thus, that well-crafted questionnaires and interviews coping interventions may need to be tailored not can elicit valid coping responses, even only to individual situations but also to individ- retrospectively. uals’ preferences. Further, researchers are begin- Another source of distinction is the emphasis ning to understand that coping may have different on appraisal processes. In order for individuals to short- and long-term outcomes. For example, cope, they must first appraise the situation as fully engaging in a difficult problem, such as a harm or threat, loss, or a challenge, or simply bereavement, may create additional distress in as an annoyance. This approach emphasized that short-term outcomes but result in better long- adaptation is a function of both the person and the term outcomes. environment, as appraisal is influenced by both personal and contextual factors. This allows the scientific study and recognition of the importance Coping as a Distinct Discipline of subjectivity for adaptation. Stressfulness does not derive strictly from situational characteristics As a discipline, psychology typically uses four but rather is a balance between environmental methodologies: individuals participate in con- demands and individual resources. Rather than trolled experiments; they answer general dismissing subjectivity as a confounding factor Coping, Psychology of 509 C or “noise” in the system, coping research recog- Moos. Lazarus and Folkman also were the first to nizes the central importance of appraisal to adap- define coping as adaptive, or responsive to situa- tive processes. tional demands, and purposive, not simply reac- tive to those demands. Coping actively reflects the pursuit of individual goals within stressful Relevance of Coping to Religion situations. James Coyne, Anita DeLongis, Stephen Hobfoll, David Mechanic, and Leonard C Religious issues are increasingly incorporated in Pearlin extended the recognition of the influence coping research. While early researchers ignored of social situations on the coping process. Impor- the use of religion in coping, its widespread prev- tantly, Pearlin (1989) argued that coping was alence forced the field to consider the effects of often tied to specific social roles and suggested religious coping, such as prayer and reliance on that the most efficacious coping was that which God or a higher level of being. In general, reli- constrained the stressor to a specific role domain gious coping is associated with better mental and did not allow it to spread across domains. health, although its effects on physical health Carolyn Aldwin (2007), Nancy Eisenberg, Gisela are not as clear. However, there are different Labouvie-Vief, and Ellen Skinner examined cop- types of religious coping, and not all are benefi- ing as a reflecting and influencing developmental cial. If individuals become passive, or perceive process. Crystal Park (2010) and Howard Tennen their travails as an indication that God has have focused attention specifically on the impor- deserted them, then they may have increased tance of meaning making, while Kenneth distress and even poorer outcomes such as Pargament developed a measure of religious cop- increased mortality. However, the study of reli- ing. Alex Zautra (2003), Peter Vitaliano, and gious coping is still in its infancy. We do not as Tracey Revenson provided new insights on how yet understand the situations in which individuals people cope with illnesses, most notably chronic use religious coping, its effect in different situa- illnesses such as arthritis and cancer. Shelley tions, and the similarity and differences in reli- Taylor (Aspinwall and Taylor 1997) and Lisa gious coping across different religions. Aspinwall proposed proactive and anticipatory coping, which are ways of avoiding or mitigating the effects of stress before they occur. Methodo- Sources of Authority logically, Charles Carver and Michael Scheier (Carver et al. 1989) developed the most widely There are several key figures in coping research. used coping scale, Annette Stanton developed an Given the vast expanse of the field (over 70,000 improved measure of emotion-focused coping, published studies), not all important scholars can and Arthur Stone pioneered the use of experience be recognized here, and we apologize to those sampling in coping research. Manfred Diehl whom we may have inadvertently omitted. As (1998) and Cindy Berg have proposed a new mentioned earlier, the study of coping has its focus on everyday problem-solving as another roots in psychoanalysis, and Anna Freud (1966) way of examining adaptation in late life and was the most instrumental in identifying have developed measures to further this line of different types of defense mechanisms, while research. George Vaillant (1977) organized them into a developmental hierarchy. Richard Lazarus (Lazarus and Folkman 1984) promulgated the Ethical Principles importance of cognitive appraisal in the coping process, and he and his colleagues, notably Susan Two basic ethical principles guide coping Folkman, developed one of the first coping research. First, the types of stressors people scales, based partially on the work by Rudolph often experience are far more severe than can be C 510 Coping, Psychology of replicated in a laboratory setting. Thus, in order organisms have developed multiple and some- to understand how individuals cope with major what redundant systems to protect themselves. stressors, researchers must conduct their studies In many ways, humans are the most stress in a field setting. These include studies with resistant of the creatures on earth. As Rene patients with serious illnesses, with people who Dubos stated, humans’ greatest advantage – adapt- have experienced natural disasters, with soldiers ability – is also our greatest disadvantage. who have experienced combat, and with those Humans have devised means to tolerate stressful experiencing divorce, death of a loved one, or conditions which would result in the death of other serious family distress. most other creatures, but doing so can come at The second principle is an understanding that serious costs, such as creating major chronic ill- having individuals recount serious stressors can nesses and much unhappiness at the individual be extremely stressful in itself. For example, ask- level, strain at the sociocultural level, and, one ing veterans to recount trauma experiences or rape could argue, at times environmental degradation, victims to recall their attacks can evoke episodes as we strip the earth of resources to support mas- of posttraumatic stress. Thus, research conducting sive populations and to maintain the infrastruc- retrospective studies of major stressors should ture that permits humans to live all over the have clinicians for referrals in case their respon- planet, including in extreme environments. dents experience serious stress responses. A major focus of humans coping with stress is what some would call meaning making. From a spiritual point of view, which posits the inherent Key Values meaningfulness of life, a more appropriate term might be meaning finding, also known as The key value of stress research is ultimately to ▶ discernment in some religious communities. reduce distress and to promote mental and phys- If ▶ life is inherently meaningful, then ▶ death ical health. Stress is ubiquitous; all individuals is also inherently meaningful. Individuals’ under- will experience major stressors at some point (or standing of the meaning of death affects how they at many points) in the course of their lives. The cope. For those who believe in an afterlife, either major assumption is that the ability to cope with reincarnation or some higher level of existence, stress and to mobilize existing resources can pro- how one copes with stress (temptation, suffering) tect individuals’ mental and physical health or affects who or what they will become in the next enhance their well-being in the face of inevitable life. For those who believe that the present life is physical decline. unique, death can provide meaning to life. Under- standing that life is limited can encourage individ- uals to make the most of the life that they do have Major Conceptualizations and to focus more on the positive aspects of stress- ful situations than to dwell on the negative aspects. Stress is a ubiquitous part of the world, and In the process model of stress and coping, the ▶ nature has developed means of protecting key element is appraisal, or the meaning an indi- organisms against stress. Every living being, vidual derives from the experience. Appraisal from single-cell organisms to mammals, shares represents a transaction between what an individ- certain stress protection mechanisms, such as ual brings to the situation and the characteristics heat-shock proteins that protect and repair dam- of the situation. Thus, it would not be too great aged genes, as well as direct dismantling of cells a stretch to say that this approaches a nondual which are too damaged to repair. According to model of reality and ▶ consciousness. In other theories of hormesis, cells and organisms that words, experience and ▶ perception are central, have been stressed but which recover may display and there