101 665
HISTORY OF GER.lVtA.lSrY.
-to
CHmEMAffME'S
EMP1EE,
VTII & IX Centuries.
HISTORY OF GERMANY
BY
MRS. H. C. HAWTREY
WITH ADDITIONAL CHAPTERS
BY
AMANDA M. FLATTERY
PUBLISHED FOR
THE BAY VIEW 'READING CLUB
CENTRAL OFFICE, 165 BOSTON BOULEVARD
DETROIT, MICH.
, 1905,
by
LONGMANS, GREKN, AND CO.
First Edition, June, TQOJ ; Reprinted September,
ROBERT 3>RUM3WONI>, PRINTER, NJB'W' YORK.
PREFACE.
IT would be absurd to suppose that a HISTORY OF
GERMAISTY could be -written within the compass of 300
pages. The merest outline is all that could be given in
this little book, and very much of vast interest and im-
portance has necessarily been omitted.
But some knowledge of the political events of former
days is necessary for all persons more especially trav-
ellers who desire to understand and appreciate the
customs, buildings, paintings, etc., of any country, and it
is hoped that short continental histories may be useful to
many who have not time or opportunity for closer study.
My aim in the present volume has been simply to give
one marked characteristic of each King or Emperor's
reign, so as to fix it in the memory; and to show how
Prussia came to hold its present position of importance
amongst the continental powers of Europe.
EMILY HAWTREY.
iii
BOOK I.
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER I.
THE mighty Teutonic or German race in Europe did
not begin to play its part in history until the decline of
the Roman Empire; but we must all of us feel the warm-
est interest in it when it does begin, for it represents not
only the central history of Europe in the Middle Ages,
but also the rise of our own forefathers in their home and
birthplace of Germany.
To understand something of these ancestors, we must
go back to the Origin of Races in the earliest known
history of the World.
The Caucasian Race was divided into three branches : Caucasian
L, The Aryan, or Indo-European; II., The Semitic; III., Kace "
The Hamitic.
The Aryan branch. The races of progress and civil- Aryans,
ization, to which we ourselves belong, include nearly all
the nations of Europe: Greeks, Latins, Kelts, Teutons,
Sclavonians, beside the Asiatic races of Persia and the
Hindoos. Our several languages show an affinity with
Sanscrit and Zend, the old Hindoo and Persian lan-
guages, as if springing from a common stock.
But we know nothing of the Kelts and Teutons until K and
we find them migrating from their Asiatic homes and Teutons,
settling themselves in new habitations in the West. (?V
2 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
The Kelts were the first to arrive and take possession
of Central Europe, probably as far back as 1500 B.C. (?).
After a time the fiercer Teutons poured into Europe,
carrying all before them, and pushing the Kelts into the
extremities of the Western lands, where we find the
Tribes Keltic element still existing in Ireland, Wales, the High-
lands of Scotland, Belgium, Brittany and Spain leav-
ing Central Europe to the Teutons; and the plains of
Eastern Europe to the Sclavonians, who soon followed
(Bulgarians, Avars, and Lithuanians).
The Rhine was the Keltic Border.
Tr?be S n There were over fifty Germanic or Teutonic Tribes,
of whom the chief were:
Goths, of Scandinavia (where Gothland, Godoland,
etc., still mark their dwelling-places).
In 200 A.D. they moved southwards, and are found
as a powerful nation North of the Danube, subdi-
vided into
Visigoths (West Goths), of Spain.
Ostrogoths (East Goths), of Moldavia, Wallachia
and North Italy. The Goths were the first
tribe to receive Christianity.
Vandals and Burgundii, kinsmen of the Goths.
Vandals, of Spain (Vandalusia) and North Africa in
439 A - D -
The Dukes of Mecklenburg claim descent from
them, and still call themselves " Princes of the Van-
dals."
Burgundii, settled between the Rhone and the Alps.
Switzerland was part of the Burgundian Kingdom.
Suevij or Swabians, of Spain, Gaul and the country
known as Swabia.
Alemanni, on the upper course of the Rhine, giving their
name to Germany amongst the Franks.
Thuringians, East of the Franks.
INTRODUCTION. 3
Franks (so-called from an ancient word meaning " battle-
axe "), of the Lower Rhine, Belgium, and later of
Gaul.
Saxons, of Holstein, Denmark, and afterwards of Britain.
Angles, of Schleswig.
Jutes, of Denmark (Jutland).
Marcomanni (Marchmen), first of the Rhine and later
of Bohemia.
Lombardii ("Longobardi"), of North Italy since the
sixth century, said to have come from Brandenburg.
Scandinavians, or Norsemen, of Norway and Sweden.
Frisians, by the North Sea.
Gepidce, settled in Hungary, 453 A.D.
Chatti (Catti), from whom the Grand Dukes of Hesse
claim lineal descent; said to be absorbed into the
Franks in third century.
Cherttsci, to the South of Hanover. Hermann, "the
Deliverer," was of this tribe.
CHAPTER II.
B.C. 200. THE inhabitants of Germany were ignorant of the art
of writing, and we have no records of their own from
which to form a correct history. It is to the Romans
their nearest neighbors, inhabiting Italy on the south
and Gaul on the west that we must turn for some ac-
count of the "Barbarian Teutons."
The Romans were a cultivated, clever race, the con-
querors of the world, and the centre of historical interest
and civilization.
From their writings we learn that the land to the north
of the Danube lying between the Rhine on the one hand
and the Vistula and Carpathian Mountains on the other,
and bounded on the north by the Baltic Sea was inhab-
ited by a fair-haired race of men of gigantic stature,
broad shoulders, blue eyes, and keen, fierce looks. The
Romans regarded these giant forms with fear, and called
Germans, them Wehr-mdnner (or warriors), Germans. From
childhood upwards the Germans used every possible
means to render themselves strong and hardy; even the
new-born baby was plunged into cold water. The dress
of the men was simply a short linen garment, confined
at the waist by a girdle, or a coat made from the skins
of wild beasts sewn together; the children ran about
unclothed, secure against wind and weather, healthy,
active and bold.
Country. The land was rich in vegetation; on all sides stretched
vast morasses and pathless forests, in which roamed wild
beasts bison, boars, stags, wolves and bears, etc.; the
4
INTRODUCTION. 5
air was damp and cold, for the sun's rays could not pen-
etrate the thick foliage of the forests, of which one alone
is known to have been sixty days' journey long, and
nine days' journey wide.
Agriculture and farming were indeed carried on, but
after a very rude and imperfect fashion. The meadows
were rich with long grass for pasture, the earth teemed
with salt and iron, which the people soon learnt to make
use of.
The rivers ran as they do now, but uncrossed by
bridges; he who desired to cross must either make a raft
or swim! The life was rude and simple. The inhabitants
lived in the open air, building no cities or villages,
for the confined life of the Roman towns appeared to
them only fit for prisoners. Each man had his own Houses,
little house, the rude walls made of boughs and branches
of trees filled up with mud, the roofs thatched with straw,
the grander ones made of rough-hewn stones and some
painted in streaks of various colors. The favorite oc-
cupations for the men were hunting and war; children
were trained to the use of weapons from infancy.
Women also went to war, not so much to fight as to en-
courage the men ; at other times the women were busied
with the care of cattle and fields ; their food consisted of
milk, bread, meat, roots, washed down with clear water, Food,
though very soon they learnt to brew a good glass of
strong beer!
Certain virtues were conspicuous in their characters, virtues.
Truth' and honor were held in high esteem; a promise
or a handclasp could be relied upon with certainty, and
to break faith with one another invariably incurred the
deepest disgrace. Hospitality also was insisted upon,
and the best that could be procured was always set be-
fore the stranger. Love of home and "the Fatherland"
was a strong point even in those early days.
6 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Faults. At the same time they cared for nothing except hunt-
ing and war, and when not occupied with either they lay
on mats or played at dice; and to this day it is said of an
idler that he is "lying on the bearskin," They carried
gambling to such an extent that a man would stake not
only his house and property, but also his wife and child,
and even himself to be sold as a slave.
Worship. They worshipped the heathen gods of Nature:
Wodin: the All-Father, who had made the world
and from whom twelve other gods emanated.
Donar, or Thor: the god of thundery weather, bring-
ing rain upon the earth.
Hertha: goddess of the earth (earth-mother).
Freya: goddess of love.
The Sun: bringing all the fruits of the earth to
maturity.
Hulda: the moon and stars, giving light at night, and
with a crowd of little children's souls around her.
HelHa: 'goddess of the nether world, dwelling in deep
darkness.
Etc.
After-life. They believed in eternal life, in heaven and hell, call-
ing them Walhalla and Hela. In heaven they believed
they should enjoy perpetual tournaments and feasting,
drinking mead out of the skulls of their enemies; what-
ever wounds they received would be healed at night;
whatever food they consumed during the day, a fresh
supply would be found next morning. The timid or
lazy would be sent to hell, where they would always be
hungry and yet could never die.
They also believed in elves, who appeared at night;
dwarfs, who guarded the treasures of the mountains;
nymphs of the woods and waters, household sprites or
kobolds, who teased the inhabitants with their tricks,
and giants of superhuman size and power.
INTRODUCTION. 7
Their religious ceremonies consisting of prayers
and sacrifices were held in the open air, on high hills,
or under groves of trees and on banks of sacred
streams.
CHAPTER III.
Unity of ALTHOUGH there were many tribes amongst the Teutons,
ancestry. differed widely in their tastes and habits from
others, it is to be remembered that they all sprang from
one common stock, and that all owned one national lan-
guage and religion, which caused the strong and lasting
desire for oneness of nationality so striking amongst the
Germans of the present day.
Division of The division of classes was as follows.
classes.
The people were all divided into three orders:
I. Free-born: land-owners, who could carry arms, and
were allowed to take part in the Councils of the
Kingdom, and were bound to defend their country
in time of war.
II. Freed-men: farmers on the estates of the land-owners,
following their lords to battle, but taking no part in
Councils.
III. Bondmen: or serfs, who had no rights of their own,
did all the menial work for their masters, and were
bought or sold as slaves.
A number of households constituted a Community.
Several Communities constituted a District.
Several Districts constituted a Hundred, or Cent.
Several Hundreds constituted a Province.
The Communities were ruled by Priests.
The Hundreds were ruled by Lords.
The Provinces were ruled by Judges, who were chosen
from the most experienced of the Lords, and rep-
resented what would now be called "Lord Lieu-
tenants of the County."
INTRODUCTION. 9
A "National Assembly" took place when important "Wa
affairs had to be discussed.
In times of war all the Freed-men were called to battle,
and marched out, led by their Priests, carrying banners,
and followed by their retainers, armed with swords,
spears, wooden shields, long lances, clubs, and stone-
axeSj which are still to be found buried in the earth on
the scene of some of their conflicts. The warriors
formed themselves into the shape of a wedge, the more
readily to break the ranks of their enemies. Before go-
ing into battle, songs were sung in praise of their fore-
fathers, giving an account of their heroic deeds; then
the shields were struck ringing together, horns of metal
or of bison were blown, and shouting and yelling they
rushed to the onslaught. If any man left his shield be-
hind him in the melee he was disgraced for life, and might
never again take part in any religious observance, or in
the National Assembly or Councils of the Kingdom.
. Leaving the shield on the field, a mark of disgrace:
Horace's Poem to his friend Pompeius Varus, liber ii., carmen 7.
*' Tecum Philippos et celerem fugam
Sensi relicta non bene parmula,
Cum fracta virtus et minaces
Turpe solum tetigere mento ".
"With thee did I experience the battle at Philippi and swift Trans i a _
flight, having shamefully left my shield behind me; when tion.
valor itself was broken, and the most threatening touched the
disgraceful soil with their chin."
There is also an allusion, to the same fact in 2 Sam. i. 21:
" The shield of the mighty vilely cast away ".
DECLINE OF ROME, AND RISE OF
GERMANY.
B.C. 1x3.
Marius,
B.C. 102.
CHAPTER IV.
NORTH GERMANY was the home of two tribes, the Cim-
bri and the Teutons.
In the year 113 B.C. these two tribes left their dwellings
in the North, and travelling South in quest of fresh habi-
tations, appeared before the astonished eyes of the Ro-
mans of North Italy, startling them with their uncouth
dress, wild manners, and enormous stature.
The Romans sent an army of 80,000 men to drive
them back, but they were overcome by the fierce stran-
gers; and very few of the brilliant army returned to
Rome to describe the extraordinary courage and daring
of their new enemies.
The tribes, however, did not pursue their advantage,
but turned aside and marched off through Switzerland
towards Gaul. Here they scattered many of the Roman
hosts sent out to meet them, and gaining confidence
from their successes, they turned back to make another
attempt against Italy. Unfortunately for them, differ-
ences sprang up between the two tribes, and they sepa-
rated. The Roman army was under the command of
Marius, one of the bravest of brave generals. He lured
the Teutons on to the further side of the Rhone, and
then 17 engaged them in a terrible conflict. A hundred
thousand Teuton corpses lay on the field of battle, and
those who escaped death were taken prisoners: amongst
RISE OF GERMANY. II
them their king, Teutobod, a man so strong and active Teutobod.
that he could spring over four horses standing abreast.
Having defeated the Teutons, Marius turned against
the Cimbri, and overtook them in the plains near Ve-
rona, on the banks of the River Po. Seeing that their B.C. 101.
case was desperate, the Cimbri tied themselves together
with ropes to withstand the charge of the Roman sol-
diers, but they were cut down, and those who remained
standing were dragged down by their companions. The
slaughter was complete; and the women, finding all hope
was lost, threw themselves on their husbands' swords, or
hung themselves on the trees, to avoid falling into the
hands of the conquerors.
From this time the Romans tried continually to sub-
jugate Germany.
Julius Caesar penetrated as far as the Rhine, but could Julius
not make good his footing. Later on, the Emperor
Augustus sent his stepson Drusus against the Germans.
In his fourth campaign he pushed on to the Elbe, crossed
it, and was advancing further when he was met by a Ger-
man wise- woman, who said to him: "Return, O insa-
tiable manl thy deeds and thy life are at an end!"
Drusus was terrified, and turned back. On the way
his horse stumbled and fell, throwing him heavily to the
ground, and he died from the fall.
On the death of Drusus, the Romans retreated, car- Herman^
rying several prisoners of war with them to Rome, li
Amongst those who had been taken captive to Rome
some years previously was a tall, handsome young chief
named Hermann, of the tribe of the Cherusci, dwelling
on the borderland of the Rhine. He was of a fine, noble
disposition, and during his long sojourn in Rome he
never forgot that he was a German, with all a German's
feelings and affections. After a time he was allowed so
return to his country, carrying with him a thorough
12 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
knowledge of the Latin language and of the art of war,
together with all that was wise and useful in the Roman
laws; but in his heart a deeply rooted desire to avenge
himself upon his captors, and to rid his cherished coun-
try of its oppressors.
His watchful readiness at once took advantage of the
first favorable opportunity; and his countrymen were
well prepared, having banded themselves together with a
vow to rise when called upon by Hermann.
The Romans had raised fortresses on the Rhine to
keep back the Germans, and had placed a governor over
Varti. them, named Quintellius Varus a stern, hard man,
who strove to force Roman manners and customs upon
the unfortunate Teutons, by taking possession of their
lands, and trying to crush out their independence and
love of liberty.
9 A.D. It was in the year 9 A.D. that Hermann decided that
his time was come. One of the tribes made a feint of
revolt, and Varus meaning to march across country to
quell the disturbance asked Hermann to be his guide.
Hermann readily accepted the invitation, and led Varus,
with his brilliant Roman troops, into the middle of the
trackless Teutoberger Forest, where the Romans could
only disentangle themselves by cutting down the trees
to make some sort of road; but were stopped again by
fresh difficulties, and by almost impenetrable marshes,
into which baggage, soldiers and followers sank contin-
ually. The rain poured down in torrents, and a terrible
storm broke over the unfortunate army. In the midst
of the confusion, the German Confederates burst upon
them, and though fighting desperately all day with the
utmost courage, when night came little was left of the
flower of the Roman legions; and Varus wounded and
in despair fell on his own sword and died. Very few
fugitives escaped to Rome to tell Augustus Caesar of the
RISE OF GERMANY. 13
calamity; when the news was at last brought to him, he
fell back against the wall, crying out, "Varus, Varus,
give me back my legions 1"
Hermann was able to see his long-desired wish for his
country carried out, in the establishment of the Teu-
tonic power, and the repulse of the dreaded Roman
enemies. His deadly hatred of his oppressors was not
diminished by the fact that the Romans had carried off
his beautiful wife, Thusnelda, and his son, to be led in
triumph to the Capitol. Five years after the death of
Varus, they again made an attempt to overcome Her-
mann, but were defeated. However, the heroic deliverer
of his country was not allowed to enjoy his triumph long.
His countrymen became jealous of his honors, miscon-
strued his motives, and finally put him to death at the
age of thirty-seven.
A costly monument was erected to his memory, on
the top of a mountain in the Teutoberger Forest. The
%vall called the " Heidenmauer," near the Rhine, was
built as a protection against the future assaults of Rome,
and traces can be seen of it to the present day.
CHAPTER V.
Decline of As the power and glory of Rome waned, the strength
Rome. ^ ^ Teuton race increased. They grew in numbers
and importance, and, finding their former habitations
insufficient for their use, they gradually won from the
failing hands of the Romans large territories, which
presently appear as the possessions of Alemanni, Franks,
Saxons, and Goths.
Continual struggles took place between the rival na-
tions. As one Teuton tribe alone would have been un-
able to force a way into Italy, the principal tribes banded
together in a "Volkerverein" or union, to wrest bit by
bit from the weakened Empire. Only one or two of
these struggles can be mentioned here.
The Emperor Trajan, called "the Just," from his
noble qualities, carried on wars against the Dacian Goths
in Moldavia, Wallachia, Transylvania (Siebenbiirgen),
and Asia Minor, which are pictured on " Trajan's Col-
umn" in Rome.
The Emperor Marcus Aurelius, "the Philosopher"
who preferred to live the life of a private gentleman
to that of a luxurious Emperor, and who personally cared
for the wants of the poor made war towards the close of
his life with the Marcomanni, and actually died at Vi-
enna (Vindobona).
The Emperor Constantine the Great removed the seat
. of government from Rome to Byzantium, changing its
name to Constantinople, and separating the Empire
into East and West.
Trajan,
1 06.
Marcus
Aurelius,
169.
Constan-
RISE OF GERMANY. 15
This separation was fatal to the Romans. Internal Separation
into
dissensions arose; attention was called away from the Eastern
Danube frontier, and the Goths took advantage of it to Western
pour down into Italy in great numbers. mpires.
By this time the powerful Gothic Empire extended Gothic
from the borders of the Danube and the Black Sea to
the Baltic, and was composed of the Visigoths or Goths
to the west of the Dnieper; the Ostrogoths to the east
of the same river, and the Gepidae to the north-west.
They had employed themselves in agricultural pursuits;
made rapid advances in arts and sciences; and had
accepted the preaching of the Gospel, when the inva-
sions of the Huns came to disturb their prosperity. Her-
manric, King of the Goths, a brave-spirited man, would
no doubt have successfully resisted them, but he was
assassinated by a traitor in his camp, and his Empire
seemed to totter at his death. His successor was con-
quered and put to death. The Ostrogoths for the most
part submitted to the enemy; but the Visigoths fled pre- 376.
cipitately to the shores of the Danube, and implored the
Emperor Valens to allow them to remain on the south
side of the river in the plains, which resembled a desert,
so much had they been ravaged by perpetual warfare.
Their bishop, Ulfilas who translated the Bible, and in-
vented an alphabet for the German language prom-
ised on their part that they would faithfully defend the
frontier of the Empire, and would embrace Arian Chris-
tianity; and Valens gave the desired permission to es-
tablish themselves in Maesia, on condition of their serv-
ing when wanted in the Roman armies.
In a similar way, when Alaric, King of the Visigoths, Akric, 379.
revolted against repeated acts of injustice on the part
of the Romans, and ravaged the provinces of the Black
Sea and the Adriatic, the Emperor Theodosius checked
their further inroads by giving them a home in Thrace
l6 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
under Roman jurisdiction; and during his reign, the
Visigoths to the south of the Danube remained tranquil.
395. The alliance between Goths and Romans did not last
long. On the death of the Emperor Theodosius, the
Empire was divided Honorius taking the West and
Arcadius the East. Rufinus, the minister of Arcadius
at Constantinople, took advantage of the confusion to
stLr up the Visigoths to invade Italy once more.
Honoris- The Western Empire was practically governed by
Stilicho, the uncle and minister of the weak boy-Em-
peror Honorius, who lived at Milan, and spent his time
in feeding and taming chickens. His favorite hen was
named "Rome," and when messengers came in haste to
tell him of the capture of the city by the Goths, all his
reply was: "That can't be, for I have just been feeding
her."
406-414. U^Alaric, King of the Goths, appeared with an immense
army before Asti, in Piedmont; but he was routed by
Stilicho, and forced to retire. The defeat did not save
the Empire. By calling into Italy the Roman legions on
the frontier to withstand the attack of Alaric, Stilicho left
Gaul unprotected; and hordes of Visigoths, Suevi, and
Burgundians, crossing the Rhine on the ice, poured into
Gaul, established a kingdom at Toulouse, and, pressing
on to the Pyrenees, took possession of Spain and Portugal.
4 io. Meantime Alaric full of vengeance for his defeat
before Asti returned to Italy, sacked and burnt Rome;
and would have proceeded to further violence, when, on
his advance into South Italy, he died suddenly of fever,
and was buried in the river Busento the bed of the
river being changed, in order that no enemy might ever
discover and desecrate his grave.
Gothic Ataulphus or Adolphus, brother of Alaric, succeeded
, hi m > and obtained from Honorius the cession of South-
ern Gaul, where the Gothic kingdom held sway from the
RISE OF GERMANY. I/
Loire to the Pyrenees. Later they were forced to give
way before the power of Clovis, King of the Franks; and
crossing the Pyrenees, they set up their transplanted
kingdom in Spain, with a capital at Toledo, and held
possession of it for 300 years.
CHAPTER VI.
Huns. ANOTHER terrible enemy was advancing against the un-
fortunate, sinking Empire of Rome.
Beyond the Ural mountains and the Volga, in the wide
tablelands of Asia, lived a nomad race of Scythians,
called Huns or Calmuck Turks as a protection against
whom the Chinese built their famous wall more than 200
years before, Chrisrf They were a hideous people.
Long black locks streamed over their shoulders. Their
yellow complexions, thick lips, small eyes, filthy habits,
and fierce barbarity seemed hardly human. They sel-
dom left the saddle eating, drinking, and even sleeping
on horseback. Cooking was unknown to them; they
ate all their food raw. They would place tough meat on
their saddles, and ride it tender. They were clothed in
wrappers of cotton cloth, or skins of wild beasts. The
dirty women and children were conveyed in carts, and
so they went forward on their marauding expeditions
from land to land. An old saying is that " no grass grew
where Attila's horse had passed ". Everything was laid
waste by fire, sword, and spear.
J 7s. In the fourth century they burst into Europe in search
of new dwelling-places, and, like a pack of vultures,
alighted in the country known to us as Hungary. But
Attiia. they were speedily off again towards the West, led on by
their great chief Etzel, or Attiia, calling himself the
" Scourge of God." Cities and villages were set on fire,
and the inhabitants murdered as they ruthlessly pur-
sued their way. They first conquered the Alani a Tar*
18
RISE OF GERMANY* 19
tax tribe between the Volga and the Don and pushed
on through South Germany into Gaul. The Romans
and Visigoths for once combined with the Franks
against the common enemy, and a terrific battle took
place at Chlons-sur-Marne, in which Attila was con-
quered, and obliged to flee to Hungary,
The next year he returned, entered Italy, and robbed jsa.
and spoiled the city of Aquileia, whose inhabitants fled of Venice,
to the shores of the Adriatic, and there laid the founda-
tions of the beautiful city of Venice "Queen of the
Adriatic."
Upper Italy was completely at the mercy of the Huns,
who marched on victoriously to the city of Rome. Here
Pope Leo I, and his priests in solemn array came out to
meet the conquerors, bringing rich presents to Attila,
and imploring him to spare the city. He consented and
returned to Hungary, promising his soldiers to give them
the spoils of Rome on some future occasion; but he died
in the following year. His corpse was laid in a coffin of Death of
i j j -i i i j A ^ Attila,
gold, encased in silver, and enclosed m an outer coflan 453.
of iron; the slaves who had prepared his grave by night
being immediately slain, that no man might reveal his
burial place.
The fall of the Roman Empire was hastened by the Gothic
attacks of Attila and Genseric. The latter was King
of the Vandals, and had been invited over from North
Africa by the Empress Eudoxla, who was wearied out
by the cruel conduct of Marimus, the usurper, with
whom she had been obliged to make a forced marriage.
The King of the Vandals hurried to Italy with a power-
ful fleet, and seized Rome, which was given up to all the 455.
horrors of pillage for fifteen days; and Genseric returned
to Carthage loaded with treasures, and carrying 60,000
prisoners, amongst whom were the Empress Eudoada
herself mth her children.
20 HISTORY OK GERMANY.
This was the death-blow to the Empire of the West.
Only Italy was left of all the former vast dominions of
Rome ; and even Rome itself was in the hands of federal
mercenaries, who raised up or deposed Emperors at will.
One of their chiefs, named Odoacer, King of the Heruli,
from Lombardy (a tribe so fierce that when no longer
fit for battle, the old men allowed themselves to be
burnt, and the widows were strangled), demanded that
the third part of the whole peninsula should be given up
to his use; and on being refused, he deposed the six-
year-old Emperor Romulus Augustulus (little Augustus),
shut him up in a castle in the Campagna, and was him-
476. self proclaimed King of Italy. He was countenanced
in that position by the Emperor of the East as a deputy
to govern Italy, and reigned till the Ostrogoths invaded
the country; when their King Theodoric strangled Odo-
acer with his own hands, and established the Gothic
Kingdom in Italy. This lasted for sixty years, and only
yielded to the Lombards, whose power ended in the
reign of Charlemagne.
MIGRATION OF THE NATIONS.
CHAPTER VII.
THE invasion of the Huns had disturbed all the tribes Migration
of tlie
of Europe, and a general "Migration of the Nations" Sf2 n ?'
(Volkerwanderung) took place, in which the Romans nearly 300
lost province after province.
Franks seized Gaul, gave their name to the country.
They were converted to Christianity, 496 A.D.
Visigoths settled in the north of Spain. They were
Arian Christians, 369, but abjured the heresy in 585.
Suevi settled in Portugal, became Christians, 369. Ab-
sorbed into Visigoths, 584.
Vandals settled in south of Spain (Andalusia) and North
Africa, with Carthage for the capital of the Vandal
kingdom, founded by Genseric, 449.
Burgundians settled on each side of the Jura. Converted
in 516.
Lombards settled in North Italy, succeeded to the king-
dom of the Ostrogoths in Italy.
All these kingdoms took the place of the Roman Em-
pire..
The Saxons and Angles took possession of Britain, and
changed the name to England. They were converted
by Augustine and his companions, 596. (Christianity
had been preached in Britain, and churches built at a
much earlier date, and Celtic England was already called
the Isle of Saints.)
22 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
The Magyars a tribe of Mongols conquered the
Avars, settled themselves in the basin of the Danube,
and gradually developed into the noble Hungarian na-
tion. Converted, 1000 A.IX
The Turks or Turcomans, another Mongol tribe,
overthrew the Byzantine Empire, and established the
Ottoman Empire in Turkey-
KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS.
CHAPTER VIH.
MIDDLE AGES.
THE Franks had taken possession of North Gaul and Franks.!
become a very powerful, independent people. They
were composed of several tribes, each possessing a chief
or king, who was proclaimed by raising him on a shield
and carrying him through the camp. Long flowing locks
falling over the shoulders was the distinctive sign of
royalty. ALL the other Franks fastened their hair on
, the top of their heads. The Franks of the Rhine were
called "Ripuarian" Franks, from Ripa, a bank; those
of Gaul, " Salique " Franks, from the Saale, a tributary
of the Main.
In the year 481 Clovis ( = Clodwig, ancient German; ciovis, 481,
Ludwig, modern German; Louis, French), king at fif-
teen years of age, ruled over Belgium and Upper France,
fixing his residence at Paris, and speedily gaining do-
minion over the whole of France (Frankreich) . His
wife, Clotilde of Burgundy, was a Christian, and did her
best to convert her husband to the faith, but apparently
in vain. At length, however, in the year 496 a terrible
battle took place at Ziilpich between the Franks and the 49 '
Alemanni of the Black Forest in Switzerland, in which it
seemed as if the latter must certainly win the day. Then
2 3
KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS. 25
head with one stroke of his sword, and his ambition was
unbounded.
Indignant at the weakness of the Merovingian sover-
eigns, he sent to ask Pope Zacharias: "Which ought to
be king the one who merely bears the title, or the one
who really governs?" The answer being given in his
favor, Pepin took upon himself to depose the last
Prankish king, Childeric III., and to found a new dy-
nasty called the "Carlovingian".
In a struggle with the Lombards of North Italy he Exarchate
. , , , . . , . , of Ravenna,
became possessed of their territories near Rome, which or states
in gratitude he presented to the Pope; and which were church,
afterwards known as the "Exarchate of Ravenna," or 7 2 '
the States of the Church. This gift laid the foundation
of the temporal power of the Popes.
Pepin was anointed king in 752 by St. Boniface, Death of
known as the " Apostle of the Germans", 7l?. mf
Pepin died in 768.
CHRISTIANITY.
Many efforts had been made to evangelize Germany Teaching
and Switzerland. The most noted of the teachers were S 6 ^ 856
St. Columba from Ireland, and his foUower, St. Gall, Teutons -
who settled at Bobbio in North Italy and in Switzerland
respectively; also Rupert, who labored on the banks
of the Danube, Fridolin of Seckingen, St. Beatus on the
shores of the lake of Thun, Kalian at Wartzburg, Wili-
brod in Frisia, etc. But there was no national Church
established until the days of holy St. Boniface. Wini-
fred or Boniface was born at Crediton about 680. He
left his home in the west of England to be educated as a
preacher at the Benedictine Missionary College of Nhut-
24 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Clovis in anguish of spirit uttered a solemn vow: "O
Jesus Christ, my wife Clotilde says that Thou art the
Son of the Living God, and givest victory to all them that
believe in Thee: help me in my extremity and I will for-
sake my gods, who have failed me, and will serve Thee
alone". And, behold! the Alemanni gave way, victory
remained with the Franks, and Clovis fulfilled his vow.
He sought instruction in the Christian doctrines, and to-
gether with 3000 of his followers was baptized. On
hearing of the death of our Blessed Lord he exclaimed :
"Had I but been there with my Franks I would have
avenged the evil that was done to Him". Clovis died
in 511, leaving his fine Frankish kingdom to be divided
between his four insignificant sons.
Then followed the reign of the "Rois Faineants," and
the gradual yielding up of their power into the hands of
the "Maires du Palais," of whom the boldest and most
successful were Pepin d'He'risthal and his heroic son
, Charles Martel (the hammerer).
7I4 * In Charles MartePs time the Saracens, the Moham-
medan conquerors of Arabia, poured into Spain, and
were even pushing their way into the south of France.
They had already established their kingdom and religion
at the point of the sword in North Africa, and now
wanted an entrance into Europe. The Visigoths of
Spain were overpowered, and the Saracens crossed the
Pyrenees to the peril of the Frankish kingdom. But
Charles Martel was too strong for them. In the cele-
TOUTS, brated battle of Tours one of the great decisive bat-
tles of the world he put the Arabians to flight, and ef-
fectually prevented the introduction of their dark Mo-
hammedan faith into Europe.
Pepmiei The son of Charles Martel, Pepin le Bref, received
Bref . 741 ^ her editary title of " Maire du Palais ". His personal
strength was so great that it is said he cut off a lion's
26 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
scelle (Nutshalling, or Nursling) in Hampshire. His
education being completed he was entrusted with the
conduct of the school of the monastery; and such was
his reputation for learning and his talent for imparting
knowledge to others, that students from far and near
flocked to Nhutscelle to enjoy the advantage of his in-
struction. In the year 717 Abbot Winbercht died, and
Winfred was unanimously elected to succeed him.
Filled with missionary zeal, he then solicited the bishop
to give him a letter of introduction to the Pope, in order
that he might obtain a commission to preach the Gos-
pel to th e heathens in North Germany. Having obtained
this, he proceeded in 718 to Rome, where he was gra-
ciously received by Pope Gregory II., and was granted
7CQ. the commission he desired. In 719 he proceeded to
Northern Germany, and prosecuted his missionary la-
bors in Friesland and Thuringia. In 722 he was re-
called to Rome, and created a bishop under the name of
Bonifacius. In 747 he was created first Archbishop of
Mainz, and then Primate of Germany. He preached
the Gospel, boldly asserting the worthlessness of the
Teutonic gods, openly defying their power and with his
own hand cutting down their Sacred Oak of Geismar.
His courageous preaching firmly implanted the fear of
the True God in the hearts of the German tribes. Be-
sides this, he founded schools, built the first little church
from the wood of the Oak of Geismar, taught the people
to drain their fields, plough the land, and improve then-
trades. In his final effort, at the age of seventy, to
christianize the Frisians, they turned upon him when in
the act of confirming some converts, and murdered him in
755. the year 755. The bodies of Boniface and the clergy
martyred with him were brought to Mainz, but that of
the former being claimed by the monks of Fulda in Hes-
sen-Cassel, about sixty miles distant a monastery
KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS. 27
which he had founded, and where he had wished to be
buried it was carried thither in great state, and his
shrine still exists in the Cathedral of that town; a slab
which covered the tomb now rests perpendicularly against
the third pier of the nave of the Cathedral of Mainz
(Mayence) .
CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY.
CHAPTER IX.
Charie- ON the death of Pepin le Bref, his two sons, Karlomann
and Charles (known as Charlemagne) divided the
crown. In a few years Karlomann died, and Charles
reigned alone over a kingdom which, by his conquests
over the Teutons and Kelts, he increased till it included
Germany, France, Belgium, Switzerland, North Italy
and Spain. He suppressed the Saxons under their King
Witekind, and subdued the Sclavs, Bavarians, and Danes
of Jutland; conquered the Lombards of Italy, the Avars
of Hungary, a pastoral tribe from Tartary; the Span-
iards, Sardinians, Corsicans, Greeks and Arabians. The
stories connected with these conquests of Charlemagne,
such as " Roncesvalles and Roland," "Haroun al
Raschid," "the Empress Irene," etc., read like the
highest romance.
Desiderius, the last King of Lombardy, had received
at his Court the sons of Karlomann, and he now desired
to place them on the throne of France; but Charle-
774- magne hurried into Lombardy, dethroned and impris-
oned Desiderius, and crowned himself with the iron
crown of the Lombard kings (said to have been made out
of the nails of the Saviour's Cross), thus becoming King
of all Italy except Magna Gretia, the independent Greek
Colonies of South Italy.
On the eastern boundary of his kingdom, Charie-
28
CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY. 29
magne, having put an end to the Avar Kingdom in Pan- Foundation
nonia, established a Province or Markgraf 1 an " Oes- ^
terreich," from which the name "Austria" is taken
and the duty of the Landgraf was to keep his border
country against the marauding enemies.
Charlemagne's fixed idea was to form one vast con-
solidated Kingdom of the whole of Central Europe.
He divided the Empire into Kingdoms,, Duchies, 2 and
Counties, all subject to the one Imperial head. The
border counties were called Marches, and the Counts
Palatine (of the Palace) superintended the Imperial
estates.
Every now and then at some special epoch in history,
one grand central figure seems to spring into life, and
draw all eyes towards it alone as it stands supreme above
the surrounding nations. So it was with Charlemagne.
His calm, lofty magnificence, imposing stature and beau-
tiful countenance are superb in the midst of the surging,
tumultuous world about him.
Not only did he know how to wield the sword, but he
also cared for the welfare of his people with a fatherly
interest.
He erected schools, 8 encouraged learning, and fostered
knowledge in every possible way. At the age of thirty-
two he himself began to learn the letters of the alphabet
from Pietro of Pisa, who gave him lessons in grammar
and Latin, and prepared the way for the further teaching
of the celebrated Alcuin, director of the Monastic School
1 Graf, from Rufen, to call= a Judge who called criminals to
account: "Comes," in Latin, the companion of the Duke:
" Mark-Graf "= Governor of the March or Border. The title
" Marchese " comes from Markgraf.
2 Duke or Herzog, leader of the host, from >uco, I lead
(Latin).
8 Such as Fulda, Saint Gall, Osnabruck, Lyons, Tours,
Bologna, Pavia, etc.
3O HISTORY OF GERMANY.
at York. Rhetoric, astronomy, and mathematics were
amongst the King's favorite studies. He tried to
learn writing, but succeeded very imperfectly; and, in
truth, it was not of great consequence in those days of
few books and much oral instruction. He took great
pains to improve sacred music, and sent for organists
and singers from Italy; and so eager was he to carry out
his reforms that it is said he did not scruple so use vio-
lence to compel the clergy to substitute Gregorian
chants for the earlier Ambrosian liturgy.
Charlemagne took pleasure in surrounding himself
with the clever men of the day. Paul the deacon, secre-
tary to the King of Lombardy, and author of a history
of Lombardy, was condemned to have his hands cut off
on the defeat of his master, Desiderius; but Charle-
magne excused him, saying: "If we cut off his hands,
who will write any more delightful histories for us?"
Clement of Ireland; Theodulph, the Gothic Bishop
of Orleans; Leidrad, the Bavarian Archbishop of Ly-
ons; the German writers, Angilbert and Eginhard
the latter being Chancellor to the King formed a sort
of academy directed by Alcuin. The king presided
under the name of David and each member was nick-
named according to his special tastes Homer, Horace,
etc.
With his whole soul Charlemagne devoted himself
to his kingdom, and especially to the spread of the
Church, founding bishoprics, giving large powers to
the clergy, convoking Councils (of which the principal
was that of Frankfort in 794, where 300 bishops con-
demned the adoration of images), building cloisters, mon-
asteries, and churches, his favorite being the circular
Church of Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle).
He improved the army, and took a keen interest in
architecture, agriculture, and fanning, making J good
CARXOVINGIAN DYNASTY. 31
roads, and showing that he understood the commercial
value of water by cutting a canal to connect the Rhine
and the Danube.
In appearance, Charlemagne was very remarkable
standing seven feet in height with long neck, large, bril-
liant blue eyes, fair curling hair, and a nobly expressive
face. His movements were firm, manly, and dignified,
and his manners courteous towards every one. For
ordinary wear his dress was simple, but on state oc-
casions truly regal in its magnificence.
Unfortunately, his moral character was not pure.
He is stated to have had nine wives; and consequent
disorders spoilt the domestic life of his Court, and
showed a bad example to the nation.
As warrior, Charlemagne was constantly employed Saxons,
in subjecting the many turbulent tribes on all sides.
The Saxons were among the most difficult to restrain.
Always brave and warlike, determined to maintain their
freedom, and with a deeply rooted aversion to Latin
civilization, they were formidable adversaries to the new
Frankish kingdom. They were also little inclined to
listen to the preachings of missionaries supported by
Frankish princes; whilst Charlemagne considered it a
merit to enforce Christianity at any cost by force of
arms or punishment, if milder means were of no avail.
In one of his first expeditions against the Saxons, 772.
Charlemagne took and burnt the fortress of Ehresburg,
and destroyed the famous Hermannsaule the national
and religious monument of the Saxons, commemorat-
ing the victory of Hermann over the legions of Varus.
The deep and almost superstitious fear of the people
when they saw their beloved memorial destroyed, caused
them to submit; and they consented to be baptized,
which was, in Charlemagne's estimation, the one sign of
obedience and civilization.
32 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Shortly afterwards, however, on a fresh rising of the
Saxons, they marched into Austracia (eastern border
country of France, known also as Metz) ; and upon this,
Charlemagne, having subdued them once more, fixed
his residence at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), where he
could enjoy the thermal baths, and control his frontier
with greater ease.
On another occasion, when the king himself was in
Italy putting down a revolution raised by the Lombards
in favor of a son of their dethroned King Desiderius
Witekind, the Saxons took up arms under their hero, Witekind.
He was defeated several times by the troops of Charle-
magne, and took refuge with the Danes. His compa-
triots meanwhile made a show of submission, by way
of propitiating their conqueror, and allowed themselves
to be baptized, although many of them had submitted
to that sacred rite two or three times previously!
The ceremony of baptism was carried out by plung-
ing them into the river by hundreds, and they were then
considered Christians, and supposed to be incapable of
ever relapsing into their ancient heathenism.
773. The following year Charlemagne, taking advantage
of the apparent peace with the Saxons, marched into the
North of Spain to help the Christian kings and some of
the Arab emirs against Abderrahman I., the Caliph of
Cordova, who threatened to rob them of their posses-
sions. All the country between the Pyrenees and the
Ebro submitted to Charlemagne, and was enrolled in
the Frankish Kingdom under the name of the "Marches
of Spain ". But having been defeated at the siege of
Saragossa and not supported by the Christian Kings of
Portugal and Navarre, Charlemagne did not push his
conquests further. On his return, when his army, "like
a long steel serpent," was defiling amongst the sharp
rocks of the Pyrenees, in the midst of narrow paths and
CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY. 33
thick forest growth, the rear- guard separated from the
main body and fell into an ambush of Gascon soldiers.
Their leader had betrayed the Franks and led them on
into the gorges of Roncesvalles. Heavily laden with ar- es
mor, they could not defend themselves, and were all 778.
massacred, together with their chief, Rutland (Roland),
Comte de la Marche, nephew of Charlemagne, the hero
of many chivalrous songs and romances.
Meantime, Witekind the Saxon had returned to his sax ? ns as
7 Christians.
country, and, in Charlemagne's absence, set fire to all
the imperial towns and villages as far as the Rhine, but
he was beaten back and conquered by the German troops,
and the country was then placed under a regular military
system of enforced conversion to Christianity, and regu-
lar payment of taxes. These taxes were shared between
eight abbots and bishops, who held tribunals to find out
and punish any persons relapsing into paganism or an-
cient superstitions. In spite of these precautions, how-
ever, the Saxons once more attempted to throw off the
yoke of the Franks; they confronted the armies of
Charlemagne, only to be massacred to the number of
4500, and their country devastated far and wide. One
more desperate struggle ensued, when finally Witekind
submitted, offered terms of peace to his conqueror, and
was baptized at Attigny-sur-PAisne in 785.
Charlemagne was not yet free from cares and dangers. ?8s
The Duke of Bavaria, with the Greeks and Lombards
of Benevento, formed an alliance against the Frankish
king, and strengthened their forces by taking into their
pay barbarian and heathen Sclavs. Putting down the
insurrection with a high hand, Charlemagne captured
the Duke of Bavaria, but spared his life by putting him
into the Abbey of Jumiges as a prisoner for life.
Again beyond Bavaria lay the Marches of Hungary,
in which lived the Scythian tribe of Avars, indomitable Avars.
34 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Norsemen who were making constant inroads into Ger-
many or the Greek Empire. Their camp or "Ring"
was like that of the Huns composed of a vast number
of wooden huts, and covered an immense space, within
which crimes and lawlessness of all descriptions were
carried on without check or hindrance, and hoards
of treasure amassed during centuries of pillage.
Charlemagne defeated them several times, and con-
quered the country as far as the Raab; and his son.
796. Pepin completed their subjection in 796, when he took
the chief of the Avars prisoner, forced him to be bap-
tized, and carried off the rich spoils of the famous " Ring".
Coronation. j,^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^ m appealed ^ Charle _
magne for assistance against an insurrection which had
broken out in Italy. Charlemagne quelled the revolt
and punished the offenders. On Christmas Day, as he
was taking part in the festival in the Church of St.
Peter's in Rome, the Pope suddenly placed on his head the
Imperial crown and saluted him as " Caesar Augustus ".
Charlemagne was thenceforth recognized as King of
Italy and Emperor of the West, reviving the imperial
power in the Holy Roman Empire, and ruling over the
whole of Christianity (except the Visigoths in the Astu-
rias and the inhabitants of the British Isles),
standard. His banner, with the double-headed eagle to represent
the two Empires of Germany and Rome, is still the stand-
ard of Germany.
When he found his end approaching, he retired to his
town of Aachan (Aix-la-Chapelle), where he died in
814, and was buried under the dome of the Circular
Church. On his tomb are only the words "Carolo
Magno ".
His last work was a comparison of the Latin and
Syriac versions of the Scriptures.
SUCCESSORS OF CHARLEMAGNE.
CHAPTER X.
AFTER his death, Charlemagne's great empire passed to
his son Louis le Dbonnaire a good man, but too weak Jj^jj^lf
and gentle a prince to hold the vast empire together. So naire, 814.
during his lifetime he divided it amongst his three sons
Lothaire, Pepin, and Ludwig, sons by his first wife the
Empress Irmgarde (Ermengarde) ; but by another mar-
riage with Jutta, daughter of Welf, Count of Bavaria, he
had a fourth son, Charles the Bald (le Chauve) ; and on
expressing a desire to make a rearrangement to benefit
this son, the other three rose up in rebellion against their
father.
At Colmar, in Alsace, the Imperial troops forsook the coimar.
Emperor, and went over to his sons; and for this act of
treachery the place where it happened is still called the
"Field of Falsehood".
Louis le D6bonnaire died of grief and distress of mind 840.
in 840.
A treaty made at Verdun between the degenerate sons Treaty of
decided the share each was to take of their father's pos- 843. un '
sessions.
Pepin was already dead, and Lothaire received Mid-
die Germany, from the North Sea to the Mediterranean,
including the Netherlands, Burgundy, and that part of
France known as Lotharingia (Lorraine). This was
always a borderland, sometimes attached to the Eastern
and sometimes to the Western Empire of Germany.
35
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Louis the
German,
843.
Charles le
Chauve,
875-
Ludwig the German took the district on the east bank
of the Rhine which represents modern Germany, and
which is known as the kingdom of the East Franks
(Franconia).
Charles the Bald held the western country, called
France, also known as the kingdom of the West Franks.
The treaty of Verdun is important, as it finally sepa-
rated France from Germany. It is the first occasion on
which we hear of a document written in the new French
language.
But no blessing rested on the brothers. Lothaire,
pursued by remorse, laid aside his crown, and retired to
a monastery at Trier (Troves) . His successors died out,
and his possessions fell partly to France, partly to Ger-
many.
CARLOVINGIAN LINE.
800. Charlemagne, Emperor of Germany and Italy and
King of France.
814. Ludwig I. or Louis le D6bonnaire.
840. Lothaire L, son; abdicated; died in a monastery
at Trvees, 855-
855. Ludwig or Louis II., the German, son of Louis le
D^bbnnaire. (Ludwig or Louis, son of Lothaire,
called Emperor, but merely an empty title.)
875. Charles II. (le Chauve) the Bald, son of Louis
le Dbonnaire.
877. Ludwig or Louis III. (le B&gue), the Stammerer,
son of Charles the Bald.
881. Charles III. (le Gros) the Fat, son of Louis the
' *! German.
887. Arnulf or Arnoul, nephew of Charles III.
899. Ludwig or Louis (PAveugle) the Blind, a nominal
SUaj ^ reign, captured and blinded by Branger of Italy.
SUCCESSORS OF CHARLEMAGNE. 37
899. Ludwig or Louis IV. (PEnfant) the Child, son of
Arnulf, died 911. Last of the Carlovingian race.
SEPARATION OF GERMANY PROM PRANCE.
EXTINCTION OF CHARLEMAGNE'S HOUSE.
The Carlovingian family expired with Ludwig the Elective
Child, and from this time the crown of Germany be- Monarchy -
came elective. But it should be remembered that every
King of Germany did not become an Emperor; only
those who were crowned by the Pope could claim the
title "Imperator".
On the one hand, the Pope assumed supreme spiritual Holy
power over the whole empire; whilst on the other, the Empire.
Emperor claimed distinct authority in temporal matters,
both in Italy and Germany. This is the real meaning
of the "Holy Roman Empire ".
Since the days of the Roman Emperors Italy had Italian
never been under the sole government of one ruler. The melt
great cities had their own rights and liberties, and owned
no liege lord but the noble at the head of each leading
family. Exile meant, to an Italian, expulsion from his
own city ; and the idea of an Italian nation ruled by one
head was only realized in this tentury when the King-
dom of Italy was established.
Meantime, in France the Carlovingian race also died End of
out. The weakness of the kings had allowed the North- magnet
men, or Normans, to devastate their dominions. These F^.
bold, hardy people came from the coasts of Norway,
Sweden, and Denmark; and they seized and have ever
since retained the beautiful province of France called
by their name.
SAXON DYNASTY.
CHAPTER XI.
Conrad of
Franconia,
QIX.
Heinrich
I. "the
Fowler,"
or "the
Cil
gi8.
Hungari-
ans and
Wends.
IN this year the last of Charlemagne's family died in
Germany.
The Franks elected Conrad, Duke of Franconia, to
succeed to the throne, but his character was unfitted for
command; and, although he continued to reign through-
out his life- time, when he lay on his death-bed he called
for his brother Eberhard, and made him solemnly swear
that he would not allow the Germans to place the crown
on his head, but would pass it on to his former enemy
Heinrich, Duke of Saxony, because he recognized him
as the only prince mighty and powerful enough to hold
the sceptre worthily. Conrad died, and Eberhard
faithfully kept his vow.
Heinrich of Saxony was snaring birds when the mes-
senger arrived bringing him the news of his election to
the kingdom of Germany, and from the circumstance
he is known as Heinrich the Fowler. He was a wise
and able prince. Through his prudent intervention the
rival Dukes of Bavaria and Swabia were reconciled to
the Franks, and they were all brought into subjection to
Heinrich I., whilst a new spirit of friendliness united the
different States.
Heinrich's fiercest foes were the Hungarians and
Wends, the ancient Sclavonic inhabitants of Poland.
Year by year bands of these wild tribes burst into Ger-
38
SAXON DYNASTY. 39
many, robbing and murdering the peasants, setting fire
to their homes, and carrying off their cattle; yet, by the
time the Germans had collected their forces against
them, the thieves were off with their booty and safely
across the border. What to do was a serious question,
and Heinrich at last decided to gain time. He made a
nine years' truce with the Hungarians, paying them in
return a yearly tribute. During these peaceful years he
raised a standing army, built several strong cities and cities.
fortresses, surrounding them with thick walls and moats
to resist the enemy. In these the inhabitants would be
safe in time of war. But who was to live in them? The
Germans preferred their quiet country homesteads, and
exclaimed: " Shall we allow ourselves to be buried alive?
cities and fortresses are no better than prisons!"
Heinrich I. ordered the people to draw lots, and out
of every ten families one had to go and live in the city.
In this way the towns were filled, and the king tried to
make city life pleasant by organizing festivals, arrang-
ing markets and fairs, and giving the inhabitants special
rights of their own.
He also instituted the order of knighthood, by which
a man, bearing a good character under the king, pledged "
himself to follow his lord to battle, protect the weak, re-
dress grievances, and be faithful to his religion and his
country. It is related that when Heinrich was consulting
with his barons on the subject, each put forward his
view of what was required; and these suggestions be-
came the rules of the new order.
"The knight must tell the truth," said the Duke of
Bavaria.
" He must be the protector of women," said the Duke
of Swabia.
"He must fight for the Holy Roman Empire," said
Conrad, Count Palatine,
40 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
"He 'must do no wrong to the Church," concluded
Heinrich I.
Brannybor Then, being prepared for war, Heinrich turned his
Branden- attention to the Wends, took possession of their principal
foundation city of Brannybor or Brandenburg, and placed a mark-
of Prussia. ^^ ^ orc j er coun t) over {^ to hold the Wends in check.
The little strip of land bordering the Elbe which he gave
to the markgraf is called the Nordmark (north bound-
ary), and out of this little Nordmark sprang the Duchy
of Brandenburg, and eventually the great Kingdom of
Prussia I
Merseburg, The truce with the Hungarians being at an end they
g33 ' once more rushed into Germany, plundering and mur-
dering as usual; but this time Heinrich met them with
well-disciplined troops, and so utterly routed them at
Merseburg that they abandoned their perpetual incur-
sions for some years.
Death of Heinrich died in 036.
Heinrich, y ?
936.
CHAPTER XII.
HEINRICH the Fowler having reigned so nobly, the otto i, the
least his countrymen could do to show their gratitude 936?
was to elect his son Otto to succeed him.
The coronation took place at Aachen (Aix-la-
Chapelle), and the nobles and princes of the various
tribes assembled in such numbers that the Palace could
scarcely accommodate them. Otto was a fine hand-
some man, with a kingly manner; and all Germany
looked upon him with friendly eyes. As he stepped to
the throne a great shout arose, "Long live King Otto!"
"Hail to the son of our great Heinrich! "
At the coronation banquet the princes themselves
waited upon him.
Duke Eberhard of Franconia held the office of steward
or carver.
Duke Hermann of Swabia was cup-bearer.
Duke Giselbert of Lorraine was chamberlain.
Duke Arnulf of Bavaria took charge of the horses and
stable, as marshal, etc.
This is the origin of these offices held at the Court by
the great princes ever since.
Otto's wife, Queen Edith, sister of Athelstan and
Edmund (Eadmund) of England, was crowned at the
same time.
Otto I. held the sceptre with a firm grasp, and fought
successfully against his foes both in and out of his do-
minions, and did much for the spread of Christianity.
The Danes, and, later on, the Poles, were forced to Sciavonia
acknowledge his sovereignty. The Magyars of Hun- axs
gary, however, caused him much annoyance by entering
41
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Lectrfelde,
955-
Walvode
Geisa,
Steffan the
Pious, ist
King of
Bohemia,
970.
Holy- !
Roman
Empire.
Otto n.,
27 3>
House of
Babenberg,
Otto HI.,
983.
Heinrich
IL, 1002.
Germany in greater numbers than ever. With over-
whelming pride they boasted, "Our horses shall drink
of our enemies' lakes and rivers; and if the sky were to
fall, or the earth cease to exist, still no harm could hap-
pen to us J"
They advanced upon Augsburg, where Otto met them
and gave them such a lesson upon the battlefield of Lech-
felde that it was long before the Hungarians dared to
show their faces again in Germany. Obliged to remain
quiet, they began to take steps towards agriculture and
the general improvement of their lands: their Duke
(Waivode) Geisa embraced Christianity; and the spread
of the true faith under his son Steffan the Pious, did
much towards rendering the Hungarians a steady, peace-
ful people.
Poland also became Christian about this time. Otto
the Great undertook several wars against Italy, where
the abdication of Lothaire II., King of Italy, had left great
confusion. He married Lothaire' s widow, Adelheid,
and was crowned at Milan with the iron crown of Lom-
bardy as King of Italy, and in Rome by the Pope as the
Emperor of Rome. His marriage with Adelheid gave
Otto a claim to the crown of Italy, and bound the two
countries more closely together in the union known as
the Holy Roman Empire, which lasted all through the
middle ages.
Otto died in 973, aged seventy-three.
Successors of Otto I.
Otto II. (the Bloody), in whose reign Austria (the Oester-
reich) came into the Frankish House of Babenberg.
Otto III. (the Red), poisoned at the age of twenty- two
in Rome.
Heinrich II. (the Saint, or the Lame), died 1106.
With the death of Heinrich IL, the Saxon Dynasty
closes,
HOUSE OF FRANCONIA.
CHAPTER XIII.
ON the extinction of the Saxon House, the electors Fr
chose Conrad II. (the Salic), Duke of Franconia, as Em-
peror. He governed well, and firmly suppressed " Fist- 1024 -
right" (the law of might), but was much harassed by the
roving bands of robber knights who disturbed the coun-
try. His territories were increased by the death of Ro-
dolf III., the last King of Burgundy, who bequeathed
his possessions, comprising the beautiful lands of Bur- union of
gundy, Switzerland, and Southern France,to his nephew,
Conrad II., so that we find Burgundy figuring as part
of the German Empire, and Conrad conceiving the de-
sire of securing the throne to his own family, and form-
ing an hereditary Empire independent of the great lords.
This idea was upheld firmly by his son and successor,
Heinrich III. (the Black), a powerful, and ambitious Heinrich
prince like his father. He was a zealous supporter of m *' * 3S> *
the Church, and instituted the "Truce of God," by
which no army was to serve from Saturday to Monday,
nor at any times of the Church festivals. But he found
all his activity and strength were needed to pacify Italy,
and reduce the affairs of the Papacy to some sort of
order.
There were no less than three Popes reigning at Rome Degeil er-
at the same time, all recognized by the Church Bene-
diet IX., Gregory VI., and Sylvester HI. The first-
elected at the age of ten years had become an unbri-
43
44 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
died tyrant, given up to crime, murder, and excess; and
only appeasing the wrath of the people by sharing his
palace and revenues with the two other claimants to the
Pontificate. To put an end to these scandals, Heinrich
III., in right of his authority over the Holy Roman
Empire, convoked a Council, , deposed the three unwor-
1048. thy priests, and placed in their room a German bishop,
Leo IX., whose first act was to crown Heinrich Emperor
of Germanv. Heinrich elected in the same manner
three Popes in succession, all of his own nation, and
applied the most vigorous efforts to restore order
amongst the clergy.
Ecclesiastical life had degenerated sadly during the
centuries of anarchy following the noble Charlemagne's
death. The highest positions in the Church (e.g., Abba-
cies, Bishoprics) were purchased for children of six and
eight years old; and whilst waiting for their majority,
the parents received the revenues accruing from the
benefices. In the monasteries the coarsest and most
depraved manners were prevalent.
Heinrich III. and Leo IX. combined to put down " sim-
ony," or the traffic of benefices, which had grown to
such proportions as to be considered one of the most
abundant sources of wealth for the kings of various
countries; but in no place were there such crying scan-
dals to be met with as in Rome itself. The Emperor
also helped the Pope against the Normans the power-
ful and ambitious descendants of Tancred de Haute-
ville who finally made a compact with Leo IX., and
established themselves in Southern Italy and Sicily;
they proved themselves firm supporters of the Papal See,
giving the Pope in return a sovereign right over vast
territories to which he had in fact no claim.
Under Leo IX. a definite rupture took place between
the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Church of
HOUSE OF FRANCONIA. 45
Rome; and from this time the supremacy of the Pope separation
became an incontestable fact in the eyes of the Western thePatri-
nations.
No one, however, had yet comprehended the possible
powers of the Papal See so clearly as did a simple monk bnmd '
named Hildebrand, the son of a carpenter at Savona. in
Tuscany. Implicated in the disgrace of Gregory VI.,
his protector, he retired to the Convent of Cluny, in
France, where he became remarkable for the severity
of his manners and principles. Leo IX. made his ac-
quaintance when passing through Cluny, on his way to
receive the Papal dignity, and persuaded Hildebrand to
accompany him to Rome. On the way the monk per-
suaded Leo that his election, having been made by a
temporal prince and not by the clergy, was invalid, and
even criminal. So Leo, putting aside his Papal robes,
entered Rome with his travelling staff in his hand and
bare feet, presenting himself in this guise before the
people, for his election to be ratified by them.
From this time Hildebrand, as the confidant of Leo
IX., really became the soul of the Papacy; and in order
to raise its power above that of the imperial princes, he
had recourse to two principal means:
ist The introduction of celibacy in order to reform the celibacy.
clergy; and,
2nd The establishment of the independence of the investiture.
clergy, by forbidding them to receive investiture
for their benefices from the hands of the laity,
As all lands had been subject to the great feudal sys-
tem, ecclesiastical dignitaries, like other vassals, were
bound to receive "investiture" for their domains from
the hand of the sovereign or liege lord upon whom their
estates depended; and, if necessary, to supply him in
return with military aid in time of need.
No one at that period thought it possible to separate
46 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
an ecclesiastical function from the rich territorial pos-
sessions which were joined to it; and as these could be
held only by the ceremony of investiture, the nomina-
tion of bishop or abbot became practically dependent on
the sovereign or liege lord, and gradually "simony" was
openly practised to obtain the envied positions. To
overthrow this system was to strike at the root of the
entire feudal system, and to seize upon a third or more
of the territories of the whole of Europe.
College of Under Nicholas II., one of the successors of Leo IX.,
cardinals. Hildebrand succeeded in obtaining a decree by which
the election of the Pope was given into the hands of an
electoral body of the clergy called Cardinals, who, on
the death of a Pope, were to assemble a conclave, and
from amongst their number to elect another Pope to nil
the vacancy, quite independent of the Empire and the
temporal princes.
104.2. Notwithstanding the busy life led by Heinrich III.
whose conquests, among other military achievements,
included that of Bohemia in 1042 he still found time to
support with hearty zeal the efforts made by Hildebrand
to reform the Papacy*
CHAPTER XIV.
WHEN Heinrich III. died in the prime of manhood, too
soon for the welfare of his kingdom, the grief of his sub-
jects was great. His son and successor, Heinrich IV.,
was only a child of six years old. The Empress Agnes,
widow of Heinrich III., acted as regent for her son Hein-
rich IV. She appointed the Bishop of Augsburg as his
tutor; but this angered Archbishop Hanno of Koln
(Cologne), who would willingly have been tutor him-
self; and, aided by his Saxon adherents, he carried off
the boy bodily in a crafty manner. His people decoyed
Heinrich to the Rhine, where the bishop's barge lay.
The prince begged to be " shown over the pretty ship ".
This was exactly what the Archbishop wanted. As
soon as they were on board, he sailed off with him to-
wards Koln; the prince sprang actually into the water
in his endeavor to escape, but was again captured and
brought to Koln, The mother, full of grief, took refuge
in a nunnery in Rome. Hanno treated the prince so
severely that he ran away to Archbishop Adalbert of
Bremen. If Hanno was too strict, Adalbert was too
easy, and between them the boy grew up thoroughly
spoilt. Adalbert excited in his heart the deepest hatred
against the Saxons, who had taken Hanno J s part against
him, and this hatred was destined to produce bitter fruits
afterwards.
The lords were so much dissatisfied with the state of
things that they decided to raise Heinrich to the throne
as soon as possible; and the spoilt, petted boy was de-
clared of age and crowned at sixteen.
47
48 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Heinrich began his reign with, capricious and despotic
actions, treating his Saxon subjects with special severity.
They took up arms in return, destroyed the beautiful
castles Heinrich the Fowler had built, and scattered the
bones of the kings who had been buried in the "Harz-
burg". Heinrich came with a large army against them,
overthrew them, and brought the Saxon lords before a
powerful tribunal, which condemned them as contuma-
cious. The Saxons thereupon complained to the Pope.
The Pope was the same powerful and ambitious Hilde-
brand who with the consent of Heinrich IV. had
been raised to the Papal throne in 1073, under the title
Gggoi7 of Gregory VII. But already differences had sprung
up between himself and the Emperor. At a Synod as-
X075. sembled in 1075, Gregory VII. called upon all the
princes of Europe to give up the right of investiture and
simony, under pain of excommunication.
Heinrich IV. having refused his consent to this deci-
sion of the Pope, and now being brought forward by the
Saxons as having treated them cruelly and tyrannically,
Gregory VII. summoned him to Rome, to reply to the
charges made against him. Not only did Heinrich. refuse
to comply, but he asserted his right to depose the Pope.
Gregory promptly excommunicated him. At this the
German lords began to look askance at their sovereign.
It did not please them that their Emperor should be in
such a humiliating position, and they declared that Hein-
rich must resign the throne unless the ban was removed
within a year.
Heinrich, seeing the Pope strengthened by the
assistance of Robert Guiscard and his brave Nor-
mans, lost courage at the hopeless idea of attacking
him personally, and thought it advisable to seek rec-
onciliation.
Accompanied by his faithful wife, Bertha of Susa, his
HOUSE OF FRANCONIA, 49
friend Frederic von. Biiren, and only a few of his knights,
he started off in mid-winter to make the toilsome journey
across the snow-covered Alps into Italy. After a week
of painful and difficult travelling, they reached the Castle
of Canossa in the Apennines, near Reggio in North Italy,
belonging to Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, Heinrich's
own cousin, with whom Gregory was staying. At the w?
entrance of the castle Heinrich's sword and knightly
arms were taken from him, and he was clad in the white
linen dress of a penitent. For three days the Emperor
was kept waiting in the snowy courtyard, in his thin linen
dress, with bare head and feet. On the fourth day the
Pope allowed the half-starved and frozen Emperor to be
summoned, and after exacting some hard stipulations,
he readmitted him to the Church. 1
On Heinrich's return home, he found his brother-in-
law, Rodolf of Swabia, nominated to fill his place: but
certain of the lords, feeling that he had been too hardly
used, returned to their allegiance, and with a hastily ral-
lied army Heinrich IV. began a war with Rodolf which
lasted three years.
At the battle of Gera in Thuringia, when Rodolf at Gera.
last lay on the field of battle, wounded to death by God-
frey de Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, a descendant of
Charlemagne, he was shown his own right hand, which
had been cut off. "I am well punished," he exclaimed,
"for raising it against my liege lord".
Heinrich IV. save the Duchy of Swabia and the hand Fred
^ ^ von
of his daughter Agnes to his devoted friend, Frederic,
Count von Biiren, from whom sprang the illustrious
1 An obelisk is erected at Harzburg, close to Heinrich IV. 's
old castle, on which is inscribed Bismarck's saying, May I4th,
1872; u We do not mean to go to Canossa," referring to the way
in which the Emperor Heinricli IV. had been humbled.
50 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
house of Hohenstaufen, and whose descendants have
been amongst the finest of the German princes,
siege of The Emperor never forgave the Pope for the treat-
1084.' ment he had received at his hands; and in 1084 he
marched into Italy, besieged Rome, and set up an anti-
Pope, to the joy of the Italians, who were heartily tired
of Gregory's haughty tyranny. Gregory fled to Salerno
the home of the Norman Guiscards and died the
next year in exile, saying with his last breath: "I have
loved righteousness and hated iniquity, and therefore I
die in exile ".
The end of Heinrich's reign was deeply embittered
by quarrels with his sons.
1089, The Countess Matilda of Tuscany had married, as
Gueiphn. her second husbandj Welf ILj Duke of B avaria; but
she separated from him after six years, and turned her
interests entirely against the German Empire, encour-
aging the revolt of the Princes Conrad and Heinrich
against their father, and finally granting a deed of gift of
all her estates to the Papal See.
1093. The princes were further instigated to take up arms
against the Emperor by Pope Clement III., who again
placed Heinrich IV. under the ban of excommunication.
The youngest son, Heinrich, went so far as to take his
father prisoner, and shut him up at Bingen on the
Rhine. The Diet of Mainz (Mayence) required him to
abdicate. In vain he threw himself on his knees before
his unnatural sons, and besought pity on his grey hairs.
He was stripped of his crown and imperial robes, and
forced to sign a deed of abdication.
He escaped from his captors and fled to Liittich
(Lifege), where he became lay reader in a church;
no6. but to such poverty was he reduced that he was even
obliged to sell his boots for bread. He died of a broken
heart, and was buried in the cathedral; but so keen was
HOUSE OF FRANCONIA. $1
the Pope's hatred that he caused the body to be disin-
terred, and for five years until the expiration of the in-
terdict it remained in an unconsecrated chapel on a
little island in the Maas. It was finally laid with great
pomp in the Cathedral of Speier (Spires).
CHAPTER XV.
h J N arming the son against the father, the Pope, no
the doubt, thought he had succeeded in securing the sub-
Par^icide, . . . T _ . . n _ T , , . , , , ..
1106. jection of Hemnch V.; but his despicable policy turned
against himself.
investiture. As soon as Heinrich found himself securely estab-
lished on the throne, he firmly refused to give up the
rights for which his father had fought. He claimed
the right of investing by the ring and the cross, founding
it upon the fact that his ancestors for 300 years, since
the days of Charlemagne, had all exercised the same
rights.
1% Then he marched into Italy, and demanded that Pope
Pascal II. should crown him Emperor. But the Pope
would not yield up the question of investiture; and he
even went so far as to offer to renounce the claims of his
bishops to their lands and feudal rights, on condition
that Heinrich would, in his turn, consent to abandon
investiture. Heinrich consented; but the bishops were
furious, and vehemently opposed the whole arrange-
ment, which would entirely deprive them of the luxu-
ries and importance which they had so long enjoyed. At
length the Emperor cut short the business by carrying
off the Pope in person, in spite of the resistance of the
Roman people; he insisted on retaining the rights of
1x14. investiture, and forced the Pope to crown him in n 14.
The matter did not, however, end there. At the
next Synod the Pope declared that only force had com-
52 <
HOUSE OF FRANCONIA. 53
pelled him to accede to the Emperor's demands, which
were against his conscience, and that he annulled all
promises extorted from him by Heinrich V.
At the same time the Saxons and other German no-
bles rose in revolt against the Emperor, and civil war
once more desolated the country.
In 1115 the Countess Matilda of Tuscany died, leav-
ing her estates to the Pope, to the prejudice of her natu-
ral heirs; but Heinrich V., considering her as a vassal
of the Empire, was most indignant, and in revenge and
to assert his superiority he took possession of Rome and
drove out Pascal II., who took refuge with the Normans
in South Italy.
After some years of fighting and quarrelling, the con- Concordat
tending parties at last agreed to settle their differences ?i22. orms '
at a Concordat at Worms, when Heinrich V, ended the
vexed question of investiture by abandoning to the then
reigning Pope, Calixtus II., the right to bestow the ring First
and the staff and to nominate to benefices, whilst he re- Coi^cU,
tained his control as Emperor over all landed territories. II23 "
By this agreement he conceded to the Church the right
of election and consecration, with only one condition
viz., that some of his emissaries should be present at the
ceremony: but as the latter were allowed no power of
preventing such an election, the Emperor had virtually
exchanged his ancient right of nomination for a simple
form of affirmation.
The Church, in making the exchange, practically
gained everything; the temporal power was vanquished,
and the great scheme of Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) was
achieved.
Heinrich V.'s example did not, however, induce the
other sovereigns of Europe to concede their rights in the
same way.
One of those who refused was his father-in-law,
54 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Empress Henry I. of England, whose daughter Maud married
M^tifda! first Heinrich V., and after his death Geoffroi, Count
of Anjou.
1125. It is said that Heinrich V. left his palace late one night
and was never heard of again; but at any rate he left no
children to succeed him, and his estates passed away to
his two nephews, Frederic and Conrad of Hohenstaufen.
CHAPTER XVI.
THE Concordat of Worms had put an end to the quar-
rel about investiture; but the will of the celebrated
Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, became the cause of in-
terminable disputes between the Papal See and the
Empire.
On the death of Heinrich V., his nephew, Frederic
von Hohenstaufen, Duke of Swabia, presented himself
as a candidate for the throne-, but, at the instigation of
the clerical party, Lothaire, Duke of Saxony, was
elected as Lothaire II.
In order to secure his own position on the throne,
the new Emperor commanded the Dukes Frederic and
Conrad to give up the lands lately bequeathed to them
by their uncle, Heinrich V. This they refused to do,
and desolating wars ensued for many years.
Lothaire II. had recourse to a device for humbling his
rival which turned out to be the cause of a hundred years
of strife and bloodshed. By giving his daughter in mar-
riage to Heinrich the Proud, the Guelphic Duke of Ba-
varia, Saxony and Brunswick, he withdrew the support
of this powerful prince from Frederic of Hohenstaufen.
Besides this, he added the vast dominions of his son-in-
law and the rich territories of the Countess Matilda,
already received from Pope Innocent II., to the imperial
domains, so that his rule now extended from the Tiber
to the Elbe.
Then began the cruel wars between the Welfs
55
56 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
(Guelphs), friends of the Pope, and the Waiblingers
(Ghibellines) of Hohenstaufen, the imperial partisans.
The name of Waiblinger is taken from an estate.
"37. After two years of warfare and two expeditions into
Italy, Lothaire died suddenly in Tyrol, in the year
"37-
HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE.
CHAPTER XVII.
FREDERIC VON BUREN the knight who accompanied g 8
Heinrich IV. to Canossa, and afterwards married his
daughter Agnes had built himself a castle on a conica]
hill over the Neckar, and styled himself "von Hohen-
staufen". His son, Conrad III., was elected first Em-
peror of the Hohenstaufens. (It is to be observed that
the first Emperors of three lines Saxon, Franconian,
and Swabian were each named "Conrad".)
On the death of Lothaire, his father-in-law Heinrich
the Proud of Bavaria believed himself so certain of the
Empire that he seized the crown jewels. But the Ger- Hohen-
r IT- - i - 11 j statifen, or
mans feared his overweening ambition, and elected Gueipha-
Conrad III., von Hohenstaufen of Swabia, nephew of e
Heinrich V. (but he was never crowned Emperor). One
of Conrad's first acts was to summon his rival to give up
one of his two duchies, Bavaria or Saxony. On his re-
fusing to comply, Conrad declared Henry the Proud an
outlaw, and confiscated his estates giving Bavaria to
Leopold, Markgraf of Austria, and Saxony to Albert
the Bear, leaving only Brunswick to Heinrich the Proud.
However, on the death of Heinrich, the Saxons rose in
favor of his young son, Heinrich the Lion, and the
Emperor conceded to him the Duchy of Saxony for his
lifetime. 1
1 The dominions of Heinrich the Lion in Saxony and Bavaria
were curtailed by the cession of the Duchies of Brandenburg and
Austria to the Emperor, who made them fiefs of the Empire, and
thus laid the foundation of the afterwards independent mon-
archies of Prussia and Austria.
57
5 3 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
In Bavaria, Welf, brother of Heinrich the Proud, try-
ing to defend the duchy from falling into the hands of
his enemy, successfully repulsed the attacks of Leopold,
Markgraf of Austria, but was himself totally defeated
by the Emperor Conrad at the battle of Weinsberg. It
was in this battle that the names of "Guelph" and
"Ghibelline" served for the first time as rallying cries
for either party. The story goes that upon the surren-
der of the city, Conrad gave permission to all the women
to leave the place, taking with them as much property as
each could carry. The gates opened, and a strange
procession came out each woman carrying her hus-
band on her back. The Ghibellines wished to prevent
their prisoners from escaping thus; but Conrad would
not allow any molestation, and called the castle hill
" Weiber-treue" (woman's faithfulness).
1147. Conrad III. took part in the second crusade, preached
by the holy Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux. The Cru-
saders were defeated, and Conrad returned home; but
died very shortly afterwards, nominating as his successor
his nephew, Frederic of Swabia (Hohenstaufen), who
1152. was unanimously elected at Frankfort.
CHAPTER XVIIL
FREDERIC I. surnamed by the Italians Barbarossa, Frederic
on account of his red beard was a brave, proud man, ossa, 1152
It was long since Germany had had so powerful and
determined a man on the throne. Thoughtful in draw-
ing up his plans, impetuous in carrying them out, with
an iron will that would brook no opposition, and cruel
and violent when his passions were roused, he set him-
self to raise Germany from the low position into which
it had sunk under his predecessors, and to render it once
more one of the dominant continental powers. He con-
sidered himself superior to any other European sover-
eign; and one of the first acts of his reign was to compel
the Kings of Denmark and Poland to do homage to him.
He conferred the title of king on Ladislas of Bohemia,
and restored the former supremacy of the Empire over
the kingdom of Burgundy. He desired, of course, to
establish a footing on the south of the Alps, and for this
purpose he undertook six campaigns in Italy. But in
order to assure the tranquillity of Germany in his ab-
sence, he re-established his cousin and friend, Henry the
Lion, in possession of Bavaria as well as Saxony; and
promised to give Tuscany to the old blind Welf, brother
of Heinrich the Proud. The latter had been living most
extravagantly on his estates in Swabia, his debts being
paid by the Emperor his nephew, Heinrich the Lion,
refusing to have anything to do with his spendthrift
uncle. This laid the foundation of the quarrel between
Heinrich and the Emperor at a later period; as Heinrich
59
60 HISTORYTOF GERMANY.
never forgave his uncle Welf for leaving his possessions
on his deathbed to Barbarossa, out of gratitude for what
had been done for him.
Cam aign Frederic's first campaign in Italy began in 1154. The
First' c ^ ^ Milan was at the head of a league to oppose Ger-
M?ian 0f man y? so Frederic marched against it, ravaged the
country, and besieged Tortona, which only succumbed
after sixty-two days of desperate fighting. After crown-
ing himself at Pavia with the iron crown of Lombardy,
Frederic pursued his way to Rome, where he was well
received by Pope Adrian IV. But his cruel disposition
Arnold of showed itself in his delivering up the reformer, Arnold
Brescia, o Brescia, to be murdered by the Pope, who caused him
to be burnt to death, and scattered his bones in the Tiber.
Frederic consented, after some reluctance, to kiss the
Pope's foot, and in return was crowned Emperor in St.
Peter's. Fever broke out, however, amongst his fol-
lowers, and Frederic returned almost alone to Germany.
During the three years that he was detained in Ger-
many, his party in Italy turned against him. Adrian IV.
betrayed his interests, giving out that he only considered
the imperial crown as a benefice to be conferred by the
generosity of the Papal See. At the same time, the
Milanese, braving the anger of Barbarossa, set about
rebuilding Tortona even the nobles and the merchants
taking their turns as masons and soldiers, so that in a
Second few weeks fresh houses and walls were constructed as a
Campaign, g^g^^ defence against future attacks. Frederic re-
lfege n< of entered Italy, and a second siege was laid to Milan in
Milan. 1158, when the Milanese were forced by famine and
pestilence to yield to the Emperor the regal rights of
coining money, levying contributions, and exacting
custom-house duties, etc. Frederic then, with the con-
sent of the Diet, introduced into each town a "podesta"
or magistrate, charged to administer justice in his name.
HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 6 1
It was this arrangement of Frederic's, to replace then-
own consuls by officers in the pay of the crown, which
roused the Milanese to take up arms against him once
more. In revenge the imperial troops ravaged their
country and burned their crops, but were not sufficiently
strong in numbers to force an entrance into the city.
During this time, Adrian IV. (the English Nicholas
Breakspear) died, and was succeeded by Pope Alexander
III., a pronounced enemy of Barbarossa, who excom-
municated Frederic, and released the Italians from their
oath of fidelity.
With a new army from Germany, Barbarossa laid Third
Campaign,
siege to Milan in 1162, declaring that his crown was TK.
worthless to him as long as this contumacious city re- Sie-e of
sisted him. The inhabitants surrendering by force of
want of supplies begged for pardon from the Emperor
in the dress of penitents, with bare feet, ropes round
their necks, and a crucifix in their hands; they even gave
up their celebrated " Caroccio," a crimson chariot drawn
by oxen, and surmounted by the image of their patron
saint, St. Ambrose, and the banner of the city. They
were ordered to quit the town, when the largest and
most beautiful part of the city was entirely destroyed,
strewn with salt, and ploughed over as waste land.
Exasperated by the cruelty and violence of the im- League of
perial rule, the cities of Verona, Vicenza, Padua and
Treviso, joined by Venice, Pisa and Genoa, and pro-
tected by the former Ghibelline partisans of Barbarossa,
entered into an alliance of defence called the "League
of Lombardy". The confederated cities rebuilt Milan,
and soon increased their number to fifteen important
towns.
Alexander III. held with the rebellious cities, calling Fourth,
himself the "Propagator of Italian Liberty," and Fred-
eric in wrath marched against Rome, deposed him, and
62 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
set up an anti-Pope; but disease spread amongst his
troops, and he was forced to leave Rome without bring-
ing matters to a conclusion. The following year, rinding
it impossible to resist the Lombard cities, he escaped
from Italy by Susa and the ravines of Savoy, disguised
as a valet and accompanied only by thirty men-at-arms.
From this moment everything prospered with the
League of Lombardy; and during the six years that
ensued, had Italy been able to organize a federal repub-
lic, or to form a constitutional government, she might
have remained free, with power to resist foreign con-
querors. But nothing of the sort was attempted, and
the League remained incomplete.
Fifth m At last, in the year 1174, the Emperor reappeared in
campaign, ^^ ^ ^ \&a& of another army, and accompanied by
Henry the Lion. He marched at once to the siege of
Alessandria, a town so named in honor of the Pope,
and erected by the Lombard cities as a protection against
the imperial allies, the Marquis of Monteferrato and the
inhabitants of Pavia. The walls, hastily constructed of
mud and straw, were derided by the German soldiers,
who called it "Alessandria of straw". But the intre-
pidity of the Italians rendered the city of huts impreg-
nable, and Frederic gave up the siege in the spring, be-
fore the advance of the troops of the League.
Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had all
this time been nourishing designs against his imperial
friend and benefactor; and now thinking that a good
opportunity had occurred to seize the throne during
Frederic's absence from Germany he excused himself
from going farther South into Italy with the army. In
vain the Emperor went so far in his entreaties as to throw
himself upon his knees before his cousin, making appeals
to his sense of honor, generosity and gratitude. The
Guelph remained inflexible, and re turned a to^ Germany.
HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 63
The Milanese with renewed energy assembled tostrth
encounter Frederic near Legnano. Transported wit
enthusiasm, the young nobles had raised two squadrons II76 '
of cavalry, naming them the "Cohort of Death" and
the " Cohort of the Caroccio," and pledging themselves
to certain death, rather than to let the standard fall into
the hands of the enemy.
The shock of the first charge was terrible, and at first
the Milanese wavered; but the "Cohort of Death" ral-
lied and returned to the charge, shouting aloud as a war
cry their vows for their country. The imperial eagle was
overturned, the Emperor himself fell from his horse and
disappeared, and his whole army was dispersed. For
two days Frederic was supposed to be dead; and when
he reappeared at Pavia he found the Empress Beatrice
of Burgundy already clad in widow's weeds. Such a
humiliating defeat, after twenty-two years of warfare
the loss of seven armies, and the death of half a million
of soldiers made it useless to continue the struggle.
Frederic made overtures of peace to the Pope, and a
truce was concluded between them at Venice, where the
Emperor prostrated himself, and kissed the feet of the
Pope, receiving in return the kiss of peace and the re-
moval of the ban of excommunication.
A definite treaty was signed at Constance in 1183. Treaty of
The Italian cities recognized the supremacy of the Em-
peror, and renewed their oaths of fidelity for ten years;
but they recovered their regal rights which had been
forfeited to Frederic years before at Milan. The Pope
also allowed Frederic to hold the estates of the Countess
Matilda for fifteen years.
On Frederic's arrival in Germany, Henry the Lion
was summoned before him to answer for his treachery,
but he refused to appear. Frederic then seized his pos-
sessions in Saxony and Bavaria, dedaredj|Henry an
64 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
outlaw, took away the ducal title, and bestowed all his
estates in Bavaria on Otto von Wittelsbach, the ancestor
of the present reigning House of Bavaria. Saxony was
given to Bernard Ascanius. Nothing was left to the
Guelphs but the territory of Brunswick; and it is through
this House of Brunswick that the King of England is
descended from the ancient (Guelphs) Welfs.
Meanwhile, Frederic did not lose sight of his wish to
strengthen himself in Italy, so he contrived a marriage
between his son Heinrich and Constanza the Nun
the heiress of the Two Sicilies, a Norman princess of the
Hauteville family. The Pope was furious at the break-
ing of her vows, and as a sort of expiation the Emperor
offered to take part in the coming crusade.
Third In 1186 news came to Europe that Jerusalem had
n86. ' fallen into the hands of the Saracen Saladin, owing to
the incompetency of the Christian kings; and Europe
was once more roused to undertake a crusade to deliver
the Holy City from the hands of the unbelievers. Fred-
eric rejoiced to be in the position of champion of the
Church, gave up his disputes over Sicily, was reconciled
to the Pope, and started for the East on the same un-
fortunate track that had been taken by his uncle, Conrad
III. Arrived in Asia Minor, he defeated a large Turk-
ish force sent out against him, and with his victorious
army found himself on the banks of the river Caleph l
(Cydnus). Impatient to cross, he plunged in, but the
current proved too strong for his horse to resist. Animal
and rider both sank within sight of his own troops, whose
grief was indescribable. Some say that Frederic's body
was recovered, and that he was buried at Tyre.
His son, Heinrich VI., conducted the army to the siege
of Ptolemais, and joined the Christian forces there under
Philippe Auguste of France, Richard Coeur de Lion of
1 Or "Saleph".
HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 65
England, and Leopold V., Duke of Austria; but again
the Turks gained the day, and once more strengthened
their footing in Palestine, and Heinrich VI. gave up the
attempt and returned home. It was in this reign that
Richard I. was captured by Leopold, Duke of Austria.
He was compelled to give him up to the Emperor; and
Richard was kept a prisoner for two years, and then
ransomed at a cost of 400,000.
The Germans would not believe that their mighty
Emperor was dead. Even now he is said to be seated
in the interior of the "Kyffhaiiser" mountains, with his
beard grown through the table; and the legend says:
"Whenever the raven ceases to fly to the mountain,
Frederic Barbarossa will come back to take up his
kingdom again". The people firmly believe that at
some crisis in the history of the Fatherland, the great
Emperor will reappear as their deliverer.
CHAPTER XIX.
Seinrich THE few years of Heinrich VI. 's reign were fully
occupied in recovering the possessions of his wife, Con-
stanza (the Nun), from the hands of her two relatives,
Count Tancred, grandson of King Roger, and William
III., his son, who had taken possession of the two
Sicilies, and were supported by all the leading families
of the kingdoms. In two expeditions the costs of
which were partly defrayed by the ransom extorted
from Richard Coeur de Lion, King of England Hein-
rich VI. made himself master of these countries. Such
an easy conquest might have appeased the wrath of the
Emperor against the Normans, but, on the contrary, he
treated them with the most barbarous cruelty, putting
out the eyes of his young prisoner, William, and exhum-
ing the body of Tancred to have his head cut off by the
executioner. He then carried off the treasures of the
old Norman kings, together with 160 mule-loads of gold,
silver, and precious stones; and when the Sicilians once
more revolted against his tyranny, he marched against
them, seized their leader, Count Jordano, and had him
put to death with horrible tortures before his own eyes,
that he might enjoy the sight of his sufferings.
Left master, by sheer terror, of a kingdom which had
before now proved fatal to his dynasty, Heinrich VI.
endeavored to strengthen his position in Italy by giv-
ing to his brother, Philip of Swabia, the inheritance of
Countess Matilda; whilst he himself prepared the Sicil-
66
HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 67
ian fleet to undertake the conquest of the East. But his
sudden death (some say by poison at the hand of his
wife, Constanza, to avenge the miseries of her com-
patriots) put an end to the attempt.
He left a little son of only three years old, who had 1197.
already been proclaimed King of the Romans.
CHAPTER XX.
THE Papal throne was occupied at this juncture by the
cleverest of all the priests who had worn the triple crown.
Young, handsome, and eloquent, full of confidence in the
sanctity of his office, Innocent III, realized more com-
pletely than any of his predecessors the accomplishment
of the vast schemes of Gregory VII., so that his pontifi-
cate marks the complete triumph of the Papal See. He
overthrew at once all idea of a republican government
in Rome, reasserted his authority over the lands of the
Countess Matilda, and organized a league amongst the
cities of Tuscany, of which he declared himself the
patron. He then accepted the guardianship of the
c h u d, Frederic II., from the hands of his dying mother,
Constanza, faithfully promising her to look after the
boy's interests, and secure to him the possession of the
Empire of the Two Sicilies as soon as he should be of
age to hold them.
Philip of Meantime, many of the German princes had elected
1198. ' Philip, Duke of Swabia, to fill his brother's place; others
had chosen Otto of Brunswick, second son of the fa-
mous Guelphic chief, Henry the Lion. After some hesi-
tation, the Pope took the part of Philip, forcing him at
the same time to make some concessions advantageous
to the Papacy.
Brunswick Suddenly, however, Philip was assassinated by the
(the Count Palatine of Bavaria, to whom he had refused to
Superb),
1208. give his daughter in marriage, and Otto of Brunswick
68
HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 69
was generally accepted as Emperor; the more willingly
as he had allied himself by marriage to the Hohenstauf ens,
by marrying the daughter of the murdered Philip of
Swabia.
The chief of the Guelphs, now without a rival, de-
sired to be crowned in Rome, and for this purpose he
entered Italy amidst the joyous acclamations of the
people, and was met by the Pope himself, and by deputa-
tions from the Lombard League, bearing the golden
keys and shields embossed with the coats of arms of
their cities, all seeming to imagine that complete unity
was at last to be established between the Empire and the
Papacy. But the Emperors considered themselves mas-
ters of Italy by virtue of their title, and thought that only
feudal investiture could be given up to the Pope, and
certainly not any gifts of lands which could effect a dis-
memberment of the Empire, whose rights were inalien-
able. Therefore, once safely crowned, Otto absolutely
refused to give up to the Pope the inheritance of the
Countess Matilda. He chased the pontifical troops out
of the marches of Ancona, and assigned a day for the
young Frederic to come and receive from his hands the
investiture of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
At this totally unexpected proceeding Innocent's wrath
burst forth. He launched a Papal Bull against Otto,
deposed him, and sent legates to Germany to proclaim
his pupil, Frederic then a boy of eighteen years of age,
nicknamed the "King of the priests" as Emperor.
Thus we find the Pope relying on the heir of the
Ghibelline Hohenstauf en; and the Guelphic Emperor
at strife with the Guelphic cities of Lombardy, and
supported in Italy by the Ghibellines, showing how com-
pletely the interests of the Empire and Papacy were irrev-
ocably and radically opposed to each other.
Frederic having been crowned King of the Romans
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Botivines,
1214.
Frederic
II., 1215.
at Aix-la-Chapelle, Otto had the folly to leave his do-
minions and go off to his uncle John, King of Eng-
land, to assist him in his war against Philippe Auguste
of France, leaving the field open to his rival John and
Otto sustained a defeat at the battle of Bouvines.
The German States pronounced in favor of Fred-
eric, and, almost in disgrace, Otto shut himself up in
his hereditary Duchy of Brunswick.
Frederic II., to show his gratitude to the Pope, agreed
to give up the dominions of the Countess Matilda, to
undertake a crusade to Palestine, and to yield up to his
son the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which was to be con-
sidered in future an appendage to the Papal See, and
never more to be united to the German Empire.
Frederic II., son of Heinrich VI. and Constance de
HauteviUe (the Nun), in spite of his German blood, was
quite an Italian prince, brought up amidst the luxury
and romantic passions of the South; and his Sicilian
education had given him a taste for Saracenic art, po-
etry, and music, which brought trouble into his future
life. He lived in his palace like an Eastern Sultan, sur-
rounded by tamed lions, going to war mounted on an
elephant, indifferent to political questions of the time,
and amusing himself with composing verses in the new
Italian language, only just beginning to be established
with anything like stability.
Frederic quickly forgot his promise to his protector,
Innocent III., to allow the separation of the Two Sicilies
from the Empire and to undertake a crusade ; and it was
only on condition of his immediately setting out for the
Holy Land that the succeeding Pope Honorius con-
sented to crown him Emperor of Germany. But, brav-
ing the pontiff's displeasure, Frederic kept on deferring
his crusade, and busied himself with persuading the
baions to elect his son, Heinrich, King of the Romans;
HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 71
intriguing with the Saracens, and even going so far as
to import an entire colony of Mohammedans, and place
them in Lucera, in the very face of the Pope himself.
The latter was at first enraged, but was appeased by
fresh promises from Frederic, and by his marriage with
Yolande of Jerusalem, daughter of Jean de Brienne,
titular King of Jerusalem, and grand- daughter of
Foulque of Anjou. By this marraige, Frederic II. be- I22
came titular King of Jerusalem.
Ten years had elapsed, and still the promised crusade
had never been attempted. But when Honorius died,
he was succeeded by a clever, obstinate man, Pope
Gregory IX., who at once claimed the fulfilment of
Frederic's promise. At last, Frederic set to work and
made grand preparations on a large scale, even getting
so far as to set sail from Brindisi; but an epidemic
broke out amongst his followers, and Frederic landed
again after three days 7 absence. The Pope was furious, Sixth
and so worked upon Frederic's feelings that the latter 1228.
once more most reluctantly embarked for Palestine,
and landed in Syria on his way to Jerusalem. There he
found that the Pope had sent word beforehand to warn
the generals of the army that the Emperor was excom-
municated, and was not to be honored as their liege
lord on account of his contumacy.
Whereupon Frederic made overtures to the Saracens
at Jerusalem, who immediately opened their gates, made
a favorable treaty with him, granted him privileges, and
promised to give up part of Palestine for his possession.
Frederic desired to be crowned King of Jerusalem, but
no priest could be found to perform the ceremony on an
excommunicated prince, so he took the crown and placed
it on his own head.
In 1231, fearing to lose his estates in Italy and Naples, 1231.
and not daring to linger further among his Saracen
72 HISTORY OF GERMANY,
friends, Frederic II. returned to Europe, only to find
that the Pope had stirred up what he called a crusade
against the "Crusading Emperor," headed by Jean
de Brienne, his father-in-law.
Although for a time Frederic's presence restored
some sort of peace, and a fleeting reconciliation was
made with the Pope, war soon broke out again. The
ferocious chief, Ezzilino (Eccelino) III., of the House
of Romano, chief of the Ghibelline party, and one of
the most redoubtable tyrants ever known in North
Italy, called to the Emperor for assistance, and together
1237. they seized Padua and other cities of Lombardy, cap-
tured Vicenza and Mantua, defeated the Milanese at
Corte Nuova, sent their beloved "Caroccio" to Rome
as a sign of triumph, and subdued all Lombardy except
Brescia and Milan.
But the Pope would not permit the total destruction
of the "Lombard League" now reduced to four towns
and he procured assistance from the Venetians and
Genoese. He was still further roused by the fact that
Frederic had proclaimed his favorite but illegitimate
son, "Enzio the Handsome," King of Sardinia, in de-
fiance of the Pope's asserted right to nominate to the
crown. Gregory IX., thoroughly exasperated, excom-
municated Frederic a second time, deposed him, and
convoked a general council at Rome to decide what
was to be done. But before the members could assem-
ble, Frederic laid siege to the old pontiff in his capital;
and his fleet, commanded by Enzio, captured and de-
stroyed the Genoese ships, which were conveying the
prelates of France to the council.
1241. Gregory IX. died of anger and grief. For the mo-
ment Frederic's power seemed fully established. Italy
trembled before him, Germany was submissive; and at
his bidding deposed his son, Heinrich, from being King
HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 73
of the Romans, and elected his younger son, Conrad,
to fill the place.
Then Frederic gave to his subjects a "code of laws"
after the example of Justinian.
Meantime a new and terrible danger threatened to
overthrow the Empire, and bring calamity on all Eu-
rope. The Huns always the fiercest and most cruel
foes of civilization poured into Russia under the lead-
ership of a new Attila a chief named Genghis Khan.
Poland and Hungary were invaded, and Germany ut-
tered cries of terror. Even the death of their barbarian
leader did not check the fierce onslaught of the Huns.
His sons pressed their conquests on all sides. Cracow
and Breslau were burnt, and the Duke of Silesia, Henry
the Pious, was defeated in the great battle of Liegnitz. 1241* etc.
Frederic II. wrote an eloquent letter inviting all the
European sovereigns to unite against the common ene-
mies of Christianity. The Pope, in his frantic rage
against Germany, turned a deaf ear to the anguished
. entreaties of Europe; and, fortunately for the latter, the
barbarians did not pursue their advantage, but of their
own accord gave up the conquest of the West, and
turned back to their own lands.
For nearly two years after Gregory IX/s death the
pontifical throne was vacant; but in 1243, the cardinals
(to whom he gave the red hat for the first time) elected
Fieschi of Germany, under the name of Innocent IV.
He was a former friend of the Emperor, but on his
accession to the Papal throne Frederic exclaimed:
"Fieschi was my friend, but the Pope will be my ene-
my 1" At first a semblance of peace was assumed, but
on the Emperor's refusal to give up certain prisoners
and Guelphic towns, a fresh quarrel broke out, and the
Pope took refuge with his compatriots, the Genoese;
and then, after appealing in vain to the Kings of France
74 HISTORY Or GERMANY.
and England for assistance, he settled at Lyons which
was an almost independent city, under the authority of
its own bishop.
I345 . From thence he convoked a general council to give
judgment on the conduct of Frederic II. In spite of
the intervention of the gentle King Louis IX. of France,
decision was given against Frederic, and for the third
time he was excommunicated. A Bull was published
in the churches, and Frederic saw his position threat-
ened on all sides. From that moment the two parties
seemed to lose all sense of fear of God or man, and their
wild hatred caused a universal scandal throughout
Christendom. The Pope wrote to the Sultan of Cairo,
begging him to break off his alliance with the Emperor
Seventy and to re-take Jerusalem. Frederic on his side warned
Crusade, t k e garacens of the preparations which Louis the Saint
was making for the next crusade. In order to procure
soldiers against the Emperor, the Pope gave a dispen-
sation to all crusaders, freeing them from their vow to
deliver the Holy Land; and he even sold pardons to
criminals condemned by the Inquisition, in order to
induce them to enter his service. Frederic then took
into his pay Saracens and heretics, and condemned the
begging friars, who had preached the Papal crusade
against him, to be burnt to death.
Weary with all these dissensions, Frederic at last
begged for peace, offering to spend the remainder of his
life in Syria. The implacable pontiff refused. He had
resolved to unite the kingdom of the Two Sicilies to the
patrimony of St. Peter; and it was only by the exter-
mination of the Hohenstaufen dynasty "that race of
vipers," as he called them that this could be accom-
plished. The abdication of one man was not sufficient.
It was a sad ending to a romantic reign. The
Emperor's most faithful subjects were the Sicilians,
HOHENSTATJFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. /g
In Italy the strife was complicated by all the horrors
of civil and religious warfare. Ezzilino Romano con-
tinued to perpetrate the most horrible atrocities in the
Emperor's name; and even Frederic himself, soured
by adversity, became cruel and vindictive. Terrible
stories are told of the reprisals taken by him on help-
less prisoners, or former dependants, against whom
his jealous suspicions were roused. Adversities
thronged upon the unhappy man on all sides. His son,
the handsome Enzio, fell into the hands of the inhabi-
tants of Bologna, and was thrown into a prison, where
he languished for twenty years. Neither threats nor
supplications sufficed to procure his liberty. One day
he escaped from prison, hidden in an old cask, but a
lock of his hair, seen through a rift in the wood, be-
trayed him. "Only Prince Enzio the Handsome can
have such beautiful fair curls!" cried a woman in the
street, and he was taken back and shut up in an iron
cage for the rest of his life. Another son, Frederic of
Austria, died at the same time. Overwhelmed by such
crushing sorrows, Frederic at last succumbed and died
in 1250, bequeathing his dominions to his son Conrad.
CHAPTER XXI.
oonrad THE death of Frederic H. filled the Pope with joy. He
Manfred, preached a crusade against King Conrad IV., and then
proceeded to take immediate possession of the imperial
dominions in Italy and Sicily. He made a triumphal
progress through Lombardy, and was received by
15,000 ecclesiastics at Milan, offering enthusiastic homage
to their deliverer, who came, as they declared, to "free
them from interdict and excommunication". The suc-
cess of the pontiff appeared to be certain, but he had
reckoned without young Manfred, an illegitimate son
of Frederic II., who had been nominated Regent in
Sicily, in the absence of his brother Conrad. "This
child," as the Pope called him, was only eighteen years
of age; but he already displayed the talent of a general
and the sangfroid and ability of a statesman. In char-
acter he was firm and courageous, although less noble
than his father, and not disdaining to use base means to
gain his purpose. By the intrepid rapidity of his
marches, Manfred suppressed the revolt of the towns,
and when his brother Conrad arrived from German},
only Capua and Naples remained to be subdued. Con-
rad entered the latter by a breach in the walls, delivered
the conspirators into the hand of the executioner, and
exasperated the inhabitants by putting a bit to the
bronze horse of liberty which stood in the public square.
But very suddenly Conrad IV. died, leaving as a suc-
cessor a child of only two years old, Conradino, who was
76
HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 77
living with his mother in the hereditary duchies of
Swabia and Franconia.
During Conradino's minority two Emperors we
named Alphonso of Castile, who never came to Ger- Richard, "
many at all; and Richard, Duke of Cornwall, brother Conmaii.
of Henry III., who visited Germany for a short time
and left it, saying it would not do for him to continue at
its head.
Innocent IV., delighted at the death of Conrad, ad-
vanced upon Naples at the head of a Guelphic army.
The Marquis of Hohenburg, Conradino's guardian, Manfred,
abdicated the regency in favor of Manfred. But
Manfred, recognizing the impossibility of resisting such
a force, with only the Saracens and Lombards as aux-
iliaries, decided to throw open the kingdom. He met
the Pope himself at the frontier, prostrated himself be-
fore him, and crossed the bridge of Garigliano on foot,
holding the bridle of the Pope's palfrey. This act of
submission, however, neither appeased the pride of
Innocent IV. nor the insolence of his Guelphic sup-
porters; and Manfred, despoiled of all his possessions,
found himself obliged to flee to save his life.
After an adventurous and romantic journey across
the Apennines, he arrived, with only three men for
escort, before the gates of Lucera the strong town
guarded by the Arabs (Saracens), who had been placed
there by Frederic II., and who were the faithful guard-
ians of his archives and treasures. Manfred made an
appeal to these devoted soldiers of his father, and they
saluted him with enthusiastic acclamations. But as the
keys of the town were held by the governor, who was
hostile to the young prince, Manfred tried to penetrate
into the town by an opening in the wall made to facilitate
the overflow of rain-water; when the Saracens, thinking
7 8 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
such a humiliation to the son of their Emperor insupport-
able, broke down the gates, and carried him in triumph
into the city.
In a few days he had assembled an army with which
1254. he marched upon Naples, where Innocent IV.- was
dying of fatigue and grief, distracted with terrible
visions, cursing his family, whom he had enriched at the
expense of justice, experiencing in his last moments the
horrors of anguish and despair to which his enemy, Fred-
eric IL, had been a prey in his last days.
Manfred governed the kingdom of the Two Sicilies
at first in the name of his nephew, but on hearing a false
report of the death of Conradino, which was designedly
spread by his partisans, he had himself proclaimed
king at Palermo. His birth and habits attracted the
sympathy of the mixed population, where Saracen in-
fluence was still strong; and to quiet the complaints of
his nephew, he promised him the succession to the
throne. For six years Manfred extended his influence
to the north of Italy, and excited even the Ghibellines
themselves to overthrow the power of Ezzilino di Romano,
who, together with his family, perished miserably. He
drove the Guelphs from Florence and Lucca, per-
suaded the nobles of Tuscany to join the Ghibelline
league once more, and fomented ill will amongst the
people towards the Pope.
The French Pope, Urban IV., seeing himself so
gravely threatened by Manfred, looked round for a
king who could be placed over the Two Sicilies to serve
his own interests. He offered the crown to Henry III.
of England, for his weak son, Edmund Crouchback
(who had already been chosen King of the Romans);
but Henry HI. said he was too poor to support his son
on the throne of Sicily.
126*. The Pope then had some thoughts of Pedro of Ara-
HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN LINE. 79
gon, whose wife was Manfred's sister, Constanza, but
finally he appealed to Louis IX., the Saint of France.
Louis had too much good feeling to take it for his son;
but his brother, the proud, fierce, determined Charles
of Anjou, who, as Villani says, "smiled seldom, spoke
and slept little, but did much," was not averse to the po-
sition. His wife, the beautiful Beatrice, daughter of
Raymond, Count of Provence ambitious to be called
a queen like her two sisters persuaded her husband to
accept the title, saying: "My sisters sit on thrones,
while I only sit on a footstool ".
Entrusting a part of his army to his wife and son-in-
law, Robert of Flanders, to be conducted across the
plains to North Italy, Charles himself embarked at
Marseilles with a thousand knights, passed his enemy's
fleet under cover of a storm, and entered Rome to
await the arrival of his soldiers. (He was crowned in
1266 with his wife at the Vatican, after promising to
restore to the Church the duchy of Benevento, and to
pay an annual tribute of 8000 ounces of gold and a white
palfrey to the Pope.)
Seeing his projects thus baffled, Manfred tried to
enter into negotiation with his rival, but Charles only
replied by the insulting message: " Go and tell the Sul-
tan of Lucera that between us there can be neither
treaty nor peace, and that very soon he will either send
me to Paradise or I will send him to hell ".
A decisive battle took place at Grandella near Bene- Battle of
vento. Manfred had the advantage at first, when
Charles gave the unmanly order to aim at the horses.
At the moment when Manfred was preparing to charge
with his reserve, the silver eagle ornamenting his helmet
suddenly fell to the ground. "It is a sign from heaven,"
he cried, and threw himself into the meUe* He was not
found till three days afterwards, pierced with wounds.
80 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Charles refused him honorable burial. The French
knights, each carrying a stone, raised a monument to
"Him; but the Pope's " nuncio " caused the body of the
unfortunate prince to be disinterred, and thrown across
the frontier, abandoned to winds and rains.
Charles of Anjou entered Naples in triumph, amidst
cries of enthusiasm from his new subjects. But very
soon the exactions of his officers, the confiscations and
acts of outrageous violence of the Provencal soldiers to-
wards the Italians provoked a terrible reaction. The
widow of Manfred had been conveyed to a dungeon in
Provence, where her children languished thirty-one
years. The Ghibellines and all discontented subjects
turned their eyes towards young Conradino.
CHAPTER XXII.
MEANTIME Conradino was growing up strong, beauti-
ful, and beloved at the court of his uncle, Ludwig,
Elector of Bavaria. He was sixteen years of age, tall staufen,
of stature, with singularly beautiful features, and re-
markable for his gracious manners and excessive gen-
erosity. Like all his race he was gifted with much in-
telligence and love of art. One of his poems is still pre-
served. A great friendship had sprung up between
himself and Frederic of Baden, his senior by three years,
who had been deprived of his hereditary estates in Aus-
tria by the Pope's favorite, Ottocar II., King of Bo-
hemia. Although exiled, and despoiled by his uncle
and other grasping relations, Conradino never ceased
to show them the greatest affection and most entire con-
fidence. He had successively sold or mortgaged all his
dominions, and he was leading a poor, wandering life
among the castles of Thurgau and Swabia, when the
deputies of the Ghibelline party came to bring him
money, and to beg him to come down into Italy to re-
cover the throne of his ancestors.
Conradino accepted the offer, in spite of Ms mother's
tears.
All seemed at first to go well. The nobles of Ger-
many followed him. Sicily rose in his favor. The
French fleet was destroyed by his own ships. He was
received in triumph at Pisa, Siena, and even in Rome,
from which the Senator, Henri of Castile, had just
expelled the Pope.
Passing by the fortress of Viterbo, where the Pope had
Si
82 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
taken refuge, Clement IV. after excommunicating
Conradino looked down on the two young princes as
they rode by. "Behold the victims for the sacrifice,"
he said ; " in eight days nothing will remain of that army."
I* was on ^y to true a P r P nec y- At the battle of Tag-
1268. Hacozzo (or Alba, near Aquila), fought in August, 1268,
Conradino was defeated. Fleeing with his friend,
Frederic, and some unfortunate companions, in, dis-
guise, he reached the shores of the Mediterranean, and
procured a bark to take them to Pisa; but a gentleman
who had recognized him pursued and captured him, and
in spite of all supplications, sold him to Charles of An-
jou, who obliged him to follow his army to Rome, on foot
and in chains.
The Pope desired that Conradino should be given
up into his hands, but Charles was determined on his
death; and after keeping him a prisoner at Naples for
a considerable time, a form of trial was gone through.
Only one of his judges could be induced to pronounce
the sentence of death. Conradino was quietly playing
at chess with his friend, Frederic of Austria who was
to share his fate when the terrible news was brought
to them. Without showing any sign of fear, the two
princes asked for three days in which to prepare for
death. They made their wills, obtained absolution
from the Pope, and received the last sacrament together.
In the public market place Charles had caused a throne
to be erected, that he might witness the execution.
1269. The scaffold was covered with red cloth, in honor
of the royal victims, and a concourse of people was
assembled. On mounting the platform, Conradino
exclaimed: "Alas! my mother! How deep will be thy
sorrow at the news of this day." He then addressed
the people, protesting against the injustice of the sen-
tence; and when the executioner raised the axe, even
HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIAN "LINE. 83
the French knights shed tears, and all the spectators fell
on their knees. A bitter cry escaped young Frederic of
Austria as Conradino's head fell; then, with eleven other
GhTbellme gentlemen, he in his turn underwent the
same fate.
Beside himself with indignation, Robert of Flanders,
the king's son-in-law, flung himself upon the worthless
judge who had pronounced the fatal sentence, and with
one stroke of the sword, flung him from the balcony
amidst the approving cheers of the multitude.
Even in death the implacable hatred of Charles of
Anjou followed the poor young men. He relentlessly
forbade their bodies to be buried in consecrated ground,
and they were secretly interred in the sand by the sea-
shore. Tradition says that the moment before receiving
the mortal blow, Conradino threw his glove into the
crowd, and it was picked up by a Swabian knight and
carried to his cousin, Pedro of Aragon, the husband of
Manfred's sister, Constanza. But the cruel death of the
last of the Hohenstaufen was not to go unavenged.
The Sicilians, passionately attached to their country,
proud, suspicious, jealous of strangers already deeply
hurt by the scornful and careless manner of the Pro-
ven^als were ready to take offence at the least provo-
cation. They were, besides, devoted to the Swabian
House of Hohenstaufen since the days of Frederic II.,
and were indignant at seeing their beautiful island de-
graded to the rank of a simple province. Palermo, in
particular, never forgot that in the time of the Norman
rule she had been the metropolis of the kingdom. A
profound hatred filled the hearts of the conquered race
and one spark produced a fearful conflagration.
On the 3oth of March, 1282 (Easter Monday), the Sicilian
inhabitants of Palermo, in holiday costume, were pour- 1282.
ing out of the town to attend the vesper service at the
84 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
church at the summit of Monreale. They had been
forbidden to carry arms, and under pretence of searching
for these, a French soldier insulted a young girl walking
with her lover. "Death to the French!" was the indig-
nant cry of the Sicilian as he stabbed the Frenchman to
the heart. He was instantly cut down himself. This
was a signal for a general rising of the people. The
alarm was sounded, and in a few hours thousands of
Provencals were killed men, women, and children all
alike struck down without pity. A few days later, Mes-
sina followed the example of Palermo; and during the
following month the insurrection spread over the whole
island.
The massacre of the Sicilian Vespers has gone down
from generation to generation as a by-word of horror
for the maddened wrath of an injured people.
When Charles of Anjou heard the news at Naples,
he remained silent for a time, glaring fiercely round him,
gnawing the top of his sceptre, and then burst forth into
terrific vows of vengeance. He crossed over to Sicily
with a formidable army of 75,000 men, and laid siege to
Messina.
After a long struggle, the inhabitants offered to lay
down their arms on condition of an amnesty; but
Charles absolutely refused, saying he required 800 heads
from Messina alone. Then in their distress the Sicil-
ians made overtures to Pedro of Aragon, who hurried
to their assistance with a fleet commanded by the cele-
brated Roger de Loria. A battle took place in the Bay
of Naples, when Charles the Lame, son of Charles of
Anjou, fell a prisoner into the hands of the Spaniards,
and was sent to Spain as a hostage.
Pedro of Aragon remained master of Sicily, though
the strife continued between the Anjouvins and the
Aragonese till the end of the century.
INTERREGNUM, 1250-1273.
CHAPTER XXIH.
THE death of Conradino brings the House of Hohen-
num.*
staufen to an end, and the terms " Guelph" and " Ghib- so
elline" cease to have any real meaning, although the
titles were still used for party strifes in the incessant
civil wars which followed this period. With the ruin of
the Hohenstaufen family, several of the great republican
cities of Italy declined, being unable to withstand the con-
tinued attacks of their enemies; as, for instance, Pisa,
which suffered so terribly at the hq,nds of their Genoese
adversaries as to give occasion for the proverb: "Do
you want to see Pisa? Go to Genoa."
All over North Italy the republican governments
were displaced to make room for powerful rising fam-
ilies, the heads of whom reigned as "podestas" or
tyrants.
Germany was in a state of the greatest disturbance.
On the death of Conradino, Swabia and Franconia,
which had belonged to his family, were dismembered.
Sovereignty was lost as the numerous duchies, counties,
bishoprics, and leading towns were thus dismembered,
and imperial authority became nil. The vassal princes,
the Kings of Denmark, Poland, Hungary, and Bin-gundy,
threw off the yoke of the Empire, and declared them-
selves independent. The reputation of the throne had
become so degraded that no candidates presented them-
selves for election, and the crown was even offered to
foreigners.
85
86 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
It would be difficult to imagine to what a condition of
disorder and confusion the country, after the death of
Frederic II., had been reduced. War and strife filled
every corner and district. The "robber knights" held
powerful castles on the banks of the Elbe and Rhine, and
compelled all vessels desirous of landing to pay heavy
tolls. On the highroads they lay in wait for trains of rich
merchants travelling from city to city, plundered them,
took them prisoners, and only released them on payment
of exorbitant ransoms. They robbed the peasantry, and
carried off their cattle. By sea, the Danes, and Swedes
seized the trading vessels, and having secured their
booty, sank the ships.
rp^e rich commercial towns of Hamburg and Liibeck
League, called Hanse towns since the days of Conrad III.
(1140) at last resolved on combining to defend them-
selves, and entered into a League (Handelverbindung).
They raised troops to protect their property on land,
and built warships to keep their trading vessels safe on
the Rhine and Elbe.
The robber knights were taken by surprise and over-
powered, their fortresses destroyed, their fleet scattered,
and they themselves put to death.
When the other towns saw how securely Hamburg and
Liibeck could carry on their commerce, they also joined
the League; and the number of towns was increased by
Rostock, Wismar, Braunschweig, Stralsund, Greifs- *
wald, Kolberg, Stettin, Berlin, Frankfort, Konigsberg,,
Danzig, Magdeburg, Koln, etc.; and at last eighty-five
cities, with a powerful army and a fleet of 200 ships,
found themselves in a position of absolute command.
Their strength was so great that they could attack any
place with certainty; and on one occasion even besieged
Waldemar, King of Denmark, in his capital of Copen-
hagen.
INTERREGNUM, 1250-1273. 87
For nearly 300 years the Hanse towns kept up their
position of power and importance. But in course of
time, as order was restored in Germany., one town after
another withdrew from the League; and at the present
moment only Hamburg, Lubeck, and Bremen retain the
name of " Hanse towns," and the rights which accrued
from the League.
THE TWELFTH AND THIRTEENTH CENTURIES.
The influence of the crusades on mediaeval Europe was influence
important from the mingling of various races, the draw- Ldes?"
ing together of all Christian nations in the pursuit of one
idea, and that idea a spiritual and disinterested one,
dominating material interests. The crusades, no doubt,
assisted in enlarging and developing men's minds, open-
ing up an almost unknown world in the East, and help-
ing the Teuton races to profit by contact with the su-
perior civilization of the Greeks and Saracens.
During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the art science,
of medicine, the establishment of universities, the study
of languages, natural science, philosophy, geography,
history, etc., all owe their importance to Saracenic asso-
ciation.
Commerce made great strides, as well as the knowl-
edge of navigation, with the use of the mariner's com-
pass learnt from the Arabs, but probably borrowed from
the Chinese.
When the rich stores of Asia such as precious stones, com-
ebony, cotton, silk, pepper, cinnamon, balm, dates, su- merce *
gar, myrrh, aloes, musk, etc. arrived in Italy, they were
transported across the Alps to the great merchant cities
of Augsburg, Nuremberg, Erfurt, Mayence, and Co-
logne, from whence a portion was again sent further to
the Balkan Provinces and the centre of Russia, , The
88 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
merchandise of the South, thus exchanged for that of
the North in wood, hemp, tallow, amber, bees' wax, and
furs, caused the growth and prosperity of the Hanse
towns.
Politically, the crusades checked the inroads of the
Turks, and preserved Europe from the yoke of Mo-
hammedanism. The feudal system was relaxed as
royalty grew into power and the commons became en-
franchised.
chivalry. The orders of chivalry, the use of tournaments,
armories, etc., are all significant of the new state of
Christan Europe.
Lower Liberty was given to the lower orders, and the condi-
tion of the serfs much improved.
Morals. But, on the other hand, the crusades had a fatal effect
upon religion and morals, although they would seem to
have been promoted by a deeply religious feeling. The
crusaders grew to think that being engaged in a "holy
war" left them free to commit excesses of all kinds, in
the persuasion that they were serving God. The
Popes openly offered remission of the most atrocious
crimes, in return for sanguinary warfare and bloody
deeds often carried out simply in the interests of the
Papacy.
^ e tw 6 ^^ 1 century was an epoch of political and in-
tellectual progress. Science rapidly advanced, though
curiously mixed up with all kinds of superstition and
supernatural fancies. The great men of the day put
their faith in astrology, alchemy, the "philosopher's
stone," and magic, even whilst searching for and in
some cases succeeding in making grand discoveries
when in pursuit of these very things.
Roger Bacon invented telescopes, discovered the
etc, ' laws of refraction, and introduced gunpowder (prob-
ably also from the Chinese through the medium of the
INTERREGNUM, 1250-1273. 89
Arabs). In searching for the "philosopher's stone/' 1
Arnaud de Villeneuve discovered the use of the three
acids nitric, sulphuric, and muriatic and learnt the
way to distil brandy; but, like Roger Bacon, he was
suspected of heresy, and placed under the ban of the
Church, so that his discoveries were not generally ac-
cepted till long after the time they were made.
The literature of the twelfth century was greatly en-
riched by the use of the Romance languagesItalian,
French, Spanish, and Portuguese which were spread
by jongleurs and troubadours throughout Europe.
Their songs and ballads laid the foundation of modern
poetry, and gave us the heroic deeds of Charlemagne,
Roland, and the British King Arthur in verse; whilst
Germany furnished the " Minnesingers," amongst whom
nobles and even kings were not ashamed to take a place.
The celebrated "Nibelungenlied" dates from this
period. It is filled with legends of Scandinavian and !*
German heroes, mixed up with stories of Attila and the
Huns, and is compared by admiring Germans to the
"Iliad" of Homer. The fine pictures illustrating the
poems are to be seen in the king's palace at Munich.
Great changes took place in architecture. The cor-
porations of "Freemasons" built beautiful cathedrals,
caring nothing for money or renown, but giving their
time and work for the glory of God, and leaving to the
public but few names of these self-sacrificing workmen.
Religious feeling in the middle ages left its stamp on Art.
all art; and not only in church building but in sculpture,
painting* stained glass windows, tapestry, jewelry, and
music can its influence be clearly marked.
Even as early as the fourth century there were signs of
protest against such abuses in the Church as the worship
i By means of which baser metals might be turned into pure
gold.
90 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
of images and of the Virgin and saints, the celibacy of
the clergy, and the supremacy of the Pope. But in the
ninth century a strong effort was made by the venerable
Archbishop Claude of Turin, founder of the Vaudois
Church in Piedmont, to reform the Church. He was
Spanish by birth, and chaplain to the Emperor Louis le
DSbonnaire, under whose protection he was allowed to
retain his see for seventeen years.
Gottesckalk, also in the ninth century, and Btrenger,
Chr Archbishop of Tours, in the eleventh century, protested
against the new doctrine of "Transubstantiation" in-
troduced by Paschase Ratbert.
The careful teaching of Claude of Turin preserved
the pure Gospel doctrines during his lifetime; and it
was not until the twelfth century that the Vaudois
quitted the Church of Rome and began to be persecuted
for their religion.
Peter Valdo, the great promoter of religious movement
at Lyons, made the first translation of the Scriptures
into the Romance language, and distributed copies
amongst the poor; but persecution obliged him to flee
for refuge to Germany, and he died in Bohemia, 1179.
The Vaudois were scattered throughout Central Eu-
rope, leaving traces of their teaching in Alsace, Trfcves,
Cologne, Passau, Bohemia, Poland, Hungary, and Dal-
matia, as well as in Italy and Spain, and paving the
way for the future upheaving of Protestantism under
John Huss, Wicliff, and Martin Luther.
The need for reform was general at the beginning of
the thirteenth century; but all attempts as yet were pre-
mature and ineffectual against the formidable power of
the Roman hierarchy, especially when wielded by the
arm of such a man as Innocent III., 1198-1204.
HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, LUXEMBURG,
BAVARIA, ETC.
CHAPTER XXIV.
IN the year 1273 the Germans began to realize that ^j
they could not carry on the Empire without a head; and ^J|
in the difficulty of choice, when so few were ambitious
of the position, the Archbishop of Mainz proposed that
they should elect Rodolf, Count of Hapsburg a pru-
dent, courageous man, renowned for his piety, loyalty,
and justice.
The count had large possessions in Swabia, Alsace,
and Switzerland, but his home was the Castle of "Ha-
bichtsburg," or Hapsburg, whose ruins can be seep to
this day on a steep, forest-crowned height overlooking
the Aar, in the Swiss Canton of Aargau. He was a man
of singularly straightforward honesty of purpose, de-
termination, and deeply religious feeling. Many an-
ecdotes are told to exemplify these traits.
At his coronation at Aachen a sceptre was not forth-
coming, when he reverently lifted a crucifix, saying:
" This holy symbol which has saved the world may well
replace a sceptre. "
His election was eagerly confirmed by Pope Gregory
X., who met him in a friendly spirit at Lausanne, and
promised him his full support on condition of his ceding
the dominions of the Countess Matilda and all authority
over the Church of Rome. This Rodolf consented to
91
$2 HISTORY or GERMANY.
do at the period of the Sicilian Vespers, when he re-
nounced all the pretensions of the Hohenstaufen in
Italy, and contented himself with drawing large sums of
money from the principal Italian cities, in return for
the confirmation of^their privileges. "Italy," he said,
"appears to me like the lair of a lion I see many traces
of Emperors going into it, but none of any coming out."
Rodolf suppressed the robber knights, and in one
year destroyed as many as seventy of their strongholds.
He condemned all the knights to death, saying: "I do
not consider any man worthy to be called a knight who
lives by robbery and dishonesty ".
Although he was stern with wrong-doers, Rodolf was
most gentle and forbearing with others, and he was
truly beloved by his subjects.
One day when he was encamped with his army before
Mainz, he walked into the city in the early morning alone.
He was lightly clad, the weather was bitter, and very
soon he was nearly frozen with the cold. Passing a
baker's shop, with its glowing oven standing invitingly
open, he turned in to get warm. But the baker's wife
did not approve of stragglers from the camp, and tried
to turn him out, exclaiming: "Get along to your own
business; go back to your beggar-king, who is troubling
the whole country with his soldiers I" As the king did
not move at once, she seized a jug of cold water and
poured it over him. The king returned smiling to the
camp. That evening as he sat at dinner with his no-
bles, he ordered a flask of the best wine and a dish of the
finest meats to be sent to the baker's wife, with the mes-
sage " that it was sent from the camp by the soldier who
had had the pleasure of enjoying her cold water that day".
The poor woman, horrified at what she had done, flew
to the camp, and fell at the king's feet, as he still sat
at the dining-table, imploring paxdon. He laughed
HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, ETC. 93
lightly, and said that the only punishment he should
impose upon her was that she should relate the story her-
self to the assembled guests, and that if she blundered
he would correct her!
On another occasion a beggar, asking alms of the Em-
peror, used the expression, "Brother Rodolf, give me
some help". "Since when I have been your brother?"
inquired Rodolf. "Are we not all brothers through
Adam?" retorted the beggar. "Ah, true," said Ro-
dolf; and gave him a penny. "But," remonstrated
the beggar, " a penny is very little for a great monarch
to bestow." "Yes," answered Rodolf; "but, then, if
all your brothers through Adam were to give the same,
you would be a rich man."
Rodolf 's chief anxiety was to restore peace and order ottocar
in Germany. Most of the refractory princes submitted Bohemia
to him; except Ottocar, the powerful King of Bohemia,
who on the extinction of the Austrian House of Baben-
be'rg (Bamberg) had seized all the hereditary countries
of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and refused three times
to recognize Rodolf as Emperor, calling him ironically
" the poor count".
Rodolf marched against him with a large army, and on Marrfeid
the plains around Vienna, Ottocar lost both kingdom and I278 '
life on the field of battle. The Austrian dukedom, re-
covered from Ottocar, was given by Rodolf to his son,
Albrecht; and the House of Hapsburg is still the reign- Aibrecht
T-T A A f Haps-
ing House in Austna. burg.
The kingdom of Bohemia was given to young Wen-
ceslas IV., 1 who soon married one of Rodolfs numer-
ous daughters. Four of the electors of Germany became
in the same way sons-in-law of the Emperor.
The dismembered fiefs of Savoy "Pays de Vaud"
1 Second King of Bohemia.
94 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
and the towns of Payerne and Morat were once more
drawn back into the Empire. Rodolf nearly lost his
life in a battle near the town of Morat. When thrown
from his horse and surrounded by enemies, he flung him-
self into the lake, and grasping the branch of a tree with
one hand, he defended himself with the other until his
followers could reach him.
After a vain attempt to capture Berne, he died at the
age of seventy-four, and was buried in the Cathedral of .
Speier, universally mourned by his subjects, who called
him the " Founder of the German Kingdom ".
CHAPTER XXV.
SOME troubled years followed. Adolf of Nassau wasAdoHof
placed on the throne, but was deposed by the German 5S? 11 *
princes, who elected Albrecht I., Rodolf s second son,
as their Emperor.
Albrecht I. was a powerful but stern and cruel prince. Albrecht
His reign was chiefly remarkable for the struggle forHaps-
freedom made by the Swiss Cantons of Schweitz, Uri, i^ll
and Unterwalden against the oppressive rule of the
Austrian House, in which the well-known figures of
Gessler, Wilhelm Tell, Stauffacher, Von Winkelried,
Walther Fiirst, and Ulrich der Schmidt, amongst others,
are so conspicuous in the formation of the Swiss Con-
federation.
Before the conclusion of this strife, however, Al- 1308.
brecht I. was murdered in front of his castle of Haps-
burg by his nephew, Johann (called the Parricide), in
revenge for his uncle having supplanted him on the
German throne Johann being the son of Rodolf s eldest
son, whilst Albrecht was Rodolf s second son.
On the death of Albrecht I., Heinrich of Luxemburg HeLorich
(a descendant of Frederic Barbarossa, of the Swabian Luiem-
House of Hohenstauflen) was elected Emperor as Hein- i^>|;
rich VII.; but he only reigned five years, and was de-
posed in 1313. Some say he was poisoned whilst be-
sieging Brescia.
The choice of a successor involved the country in a ^gj 1 ^
devastating war, which lasted eight years. of Haps-
One party in the State wished to have Frederic HI. 1314.
95
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
I/udwiff
IV. of
Bavaria,
1314-
Horgar-
ten, 1315.
MiihJdort.
1328.
Schwep-
permanji
(the Handsome), son of Albrecht I. of Austria; the other
voted for Ludwig of Bavaria, descendant of the House
of Wittelsbach.
The Swiss held with Ludwig of Bavaria. Frederic's
brother, Leopold I. of Austria, led an army against them,
and a terrible battle was fought at Morgarten. hut in
between a steep hill on one hand, and the lake of Aigri 1
on the other, the heavily encumbered Austrian cavalry
had no room to make a charge. The confederates,
armed with clubs, halberts, and pikes, dashed down on
the unfortunate army hemmed in on all sides and
an hour and a half was sufficient to give victory to the
Swiss. Leopold of Austria barely escaped with his life.
Meanwhile, the war between the rival emperors was
carried on with great bitterness. At Miihldorf, Fred-
eric fought with unheard-of valor, and victory seemed
to be certain, when Ludwig's gallant general, Siegfried
von Schweppermann, ordered an evolution by which the
Austrian forces would have sun, wind, and dust full in
their faces. At the same time, he sent a number of his
horsemen under the command of Count Frederic of
Nuremberg to ride round to the back of the enemy,
flying the captured flags of the Austrians. The latter
thought they were friendly reinforcements coming to
their assistance. This stratagem completed the victory.
The day was lost to the Austrians, and the Emperor
Frederic III. was taken prisoner. Ludwig learnt to
whom he owed his victory; and in the evening when the
battle was over, and he and his tired officers were re-
freshing themselves as well as they could in a peasant's
hut, sharing the few eggs that could be collected, he ex-
claimed: "One egg apiece all round, but two eggs for
the gallant Schweppermann".
Frederic of Austria was imprisoned in the Castle of
1 Egeii
HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, ETC. 97
Trausnitz in Tyrol, and kept there three years. He was
then released, on condition that he should never make
any other further effort to regain his throne; and that,
should he ever attempt to do so, he should be impris-
oned.
Frederic hurried to Vienna to rejoin his faithful wife,
Elizabeth, who had wept herself blind with grief at his
absence.
But his brother, Leopold, did not consider himself
bound by the same treaty, and took up arms against Lud-
wig. Then Frederic, considering his "parole" broken
by his brother's action, returned to Bavaria, and, in
conformity with his oath, gave himself up once more as
a prisoner. Touched by his high sense of honor, Lud-
wig made real friends with Frederic. He treated him
like his own brother, and, according to the custom of
the day, shared the same food and bed; and even pro-
posed an arrangement by which they should divide the
empire between them. This however, the nobles de-
clared to be inadmissible.
In the following year Frederic with his blind wife re-
tired to his lovely castle of Gutenstein in Austria, where
he soon after died. 1330.
Ludwig reigned seventeen years after his death,
his reign was clouded with sorrows and difficulties.
To curb the pretensions of the Papal See, he issued ***-
a Pragmatic Sanction at Frankfort, declaring that any Sanction
prince regularly elected by the German States should be tion".
recognized as Emperor without requiring the ratifica-
tion of the Pope. Clement VI. already irritated
against Ludwig persuaded a certain number of the
electors to choose a new Emperor Charles of Luxem-
burg, son of the blind King Johann of Bohemia, and
grandson of Heinrich VII. but Ludwig easily held his
own position till his death in 1347 ->
CHAPTER XXVI.
CHARLES IV. of Luxemburg succeeded Ludwig IV. His
Lukem- mother, Elizabeth, was daughter and heiress of the Bo-
1347' hemian king, Wenceslas l V., and his blind father, Jo-
hann, had, by the choice of the people, obtained the
crown of Bohemia. He was killed at the battle of Crecy
in 1346.
Charles, therefore, possessed Bohemia, Moravia, and
Silesia; and he further acquired Brandenburg and
Lusatia, a marquisate in North Germany.
He was untiring in his warlike efforts to strengthen
his kingdom, and his endeavors to benefit his subjects.
He would wander through the streets disguised in some
homely dress, in order to see with his own eyes where
real need was most pressing.
St ni of r " ^ e en ^ ar S ec ^ an< ^ beautified the city, and built the
Prague. first German University of Prague in 1348.
Seeing the difficulties in which Germany was iri-
volved whenever a new Emperor was to be elected,
Charles IV. issued a "Golden Bull" (so called because
the seals were enclosed in a golden box), by whi^h the n
forms of election were decided, and the choice of future
Emperors limited to seven Electors, namely:
Seven Four Princes King of Bohemia, Count Palatine of
p ors * the Rhine, Duke of Saxony, Markgraf of Brandenburg.
Three Archbishops Mainz (Mayence), Trier (Troves),
pln (Cologne).
^ Wenceslas, third King of Bohemia.
98
HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, ETC. 99
The beginning of his reign was marked throughout
Europe by the desolating plague called the "Black
Death," when all medicinal aids failed, and more than
half the people succumbed to the disease.
Charles IV.'s reign lasted for thirty-two years, and on
his death he was mourned by the Bohemians as the i 37 8.
" Father of his people ".
CHAPTER XXVII.
Wences- jjj s son anc j successor, Wenceslas, was quite incompe-
b^Ohe tent to kld t ^ ie re ^ ns ^ government, and not only in his
Drunk- O wn hereditary kingdom of Bohemia, but throughout
1376. Germany, there prevailed such lawlessness and confu-
sion, that the only means by which merchandise could
be safely carried on was by such Leagues as the " Hanse-
bund," " Schwabischen," and "Rheinischen Stadte-
biinde" (Hanseatic, Swabian, and Rhenish Leagues).
Sempach, i n his reign the celebrated battle of Sempach was
fought between Duke Leopold III. (grandson of that
Duke Leopold I. of Austria who was defeated at Mor-
garten) and the Swiss, when Arnold von Winkelried
rushed forward to the hitherto invincible six line deep of
Austrian spears, and shouting: "I will make a path for
freedom! Take care of my wife, and child, comrades!"
grasped an armful of spears and turned them against his
own breast; and so dying, opened the enemy's ranks for
his brave Swiss followers to win the day. Duke Leo-
pold was slain, and the flower of the Austrian cavalry
perished. This victory was decisive for the liberty of
Switzerland, which, however, was not fully recognized
till the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.
Meantime, Wenceslas lived in Prague, almost always
in a state of intoxication, and given up to deeds of un-
restrained cruelty and self-indulgence. He would
march through the streets accompanied by an execu-
tioner, to kill any one who offended him. At one time
zoo
HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, TC. 101
he massacred 3000 Jews, and cut off the heads of all to
whom he owed money.
He cared nothing for the affairs of the State, and at
last matters came to such a pass that he was twice im-
prisoned by the opposing party, and finally forced to
resign the imperial crown, and retire to his hereditary 1400.
kingdom of Bohemia, whilst three other Emperors were
successively elected to replace him by various parties of
the electors.
Frederic, Duke of Brunswick, was one of those elected, S"f?n|-
but was assassinated immediately after his election, and ^|ck,
is, therefore, seldom placed on a list of Emperors.
Rupert, Count Palatine of the Rhine, was elected g^f*-
after Frederic of Brunswick. He was crowned at Koln, Palatine,
. ,. , . *400.
and died in 1410. 1410.
Jossus, Marquis of Moravia, was next elected by one
party of electors; but the others declared for Sigis-
mund of Luxemburg, brother of Wenceslas. Jossus'
death in the following year decided the question.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
Sigis-
mund,
1410.
Hohen- .
zollern
Family
in
Prussia.
Branden-
burg and
Jfciseqf
Prussia,
1416,
Hungary^*
united to
Germany.
Hussite^
Wars.
SIGISMUND of Luxemburg was already King of Hun-
gary by his marriage with Mary, daughter of Ludwig
I., the Great, of Hungary, in 1387; and in 1410, having
been already put forward by one party of electors, he
was recognized as Emperor by all Germany. On the
death of his brother Wenceslas (the Drunkard), in 1419,
he also became King of Bohemia. His character was,
no doubt, better than that of his brother; but he was a
vain, weak man, and not sufficiently noble-minded to
inspire respect or admiration.
At the time that there was a doubt as to Sigismund's
election, his cousin, Frederic of Bavaria (called Frederic
of Nuremberg), of the House of Hohenzollern, employed
himself actively in gaining for Sigismund the goodwill
of the electors; and when Sigismund was safely estab-
lished on the throne, he gave as recompense to his cousin
the Margravate and Electorate of Brandenburg, in re-
turn, for a sum of 100,000 ducats. This transaction laid
the foundation of the new kingdom of Prussia, which
was destined to become the great central power of
United Germany 400 years later, still preserving at its
head the reigning family of Hohenzollern.
Sigismund's reign is memorable from this fact, and
also that from this time is dated the connection between
Hungary and the Empire.
The whole of Sigismund's dominions were wasted by
the wars of the Hussites, which lasted fourteen years.
Church matters were in great confusion; and during
102
HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, ETC. 1 03
the reign of his brother, Wenceslas, three Popes
claimed dominion at the same time. One of these,
John XXIII., had been a pirate in his youth, and was a
man of notoriously bad life; Benedict XIII. was sup-
ported by Wenceslas and the King of Spain; Gregory
XII., by Rupert, Count Palatine and Emperor, and by
Ladislas, King of Naples.
Cloister life had degenerated into ignorance and cor- Comip-
ruption, gross abuses had crept into the Church, and the
holy offices were made objects of traffic. The Popes ^
introduced the system of indulgences, and begging
friars were sent round the country to sell them.
Against these abuses John Huss and his friend Jerome John HUSS
of Prague raised their passionate protests, boldly de- of Prague,
nouncing the errors of the Papacy, and calling on all who
valued the Church to rise up in defence of its purity.
Bohemia had sheltered for many years the scattered
Vaudois; and during the frequent intercourse with Eng-
land, brought about by the marriage of Anne, sister of
Wenceslas and Sigismund, with Richard II., the Sclav
and Czech population had had frequent opportunities
of hearing the doctrines of WiclifT introduced by his
works into the country; and a great number of students
withdrew from the University of Prague to follow Huss.
Although, cited to appear before the Papal court at
Rome, Huss did not even take the trouble to reply to the
Pope's message; but openly counselled the people to
read the writings of Widiff, which the Archbishop of
Prague had condemned to be burnt.
The archbishop excommunicated Huss, and laid the
country under an interdict; when Huss, relying on the
favor of the people for safety, retired to his native vil-
lage of Hussinetz, and continued to preach to large mul-
titudes, and to publish tracts showing up the vices and
corruptions of the clergy.
1O4 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
The German nobles entreated the Emperor Sigismuhd
1414. e ' to call a general Council at Constance, on the Boden-See,
that the Church might be purified. 1
Huss was summoned, and, furnished with an im-
perial safe-conduct, he appeared before the Council, but
the accusations of his enemies were so forcible that the
members of the Council refused to listen to his defence;
and in spite of the royal guarantee of his life and liberty,
Deaths of he was first thrown into prison, and a year afterwards
Huss and
Jerome, condemned to be burnt alive. He suffered his fate on
4th July, 1415, followed the next year by his friend
(Hieronimus) Jerome of Prague. The news of their
deaths, and of the treachery used towards them, roused
violent popular sympathy.
The followers of Huss, headed by his patron, Nicolas
von Hussinec (Hussinetz), in spite of their fierce oppo-
sition, were declared heretics, like their master.
On one occasion in Prague a Hussite priest was
thrown from a window of the Council Chamber with a
stone round his neck, upon which the raging mob
stormed the town hall, and, out of revenge for the insult
to their friend, they flung thirteen councillors out of the
window in the same manner.
War instantly burst forth.
Ziskathe A knight named Johann de Trocznow (Ziska), one of
the chamberlains of the Emperor Wenceslas, placed
himself at the head of the Hussites, and raised the
standard of a religious war. He was a man of extraor-
dinary power and courage; and though he had lost one
eye by an accident, he commanded his troops with un-
1 At the Council of Constance, which Sigismund opened in im-
itation of Constantine the Great at Nicea, he exposed his vanity
and ignorance by making a mistake in his Latin, and excusing
himself for it by saying: " I am King of the Romans, and above
all rules of grammar ".
HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, ETC.
ceasing vigor. The Hussites were called " Calixtins," J
from the holy chalice which Ziska had chosen as his ar-
morial sign; and the followers of WidlfFs doctrines, or
the ancient Vaudois, were known as "Taborites," from "
the hill of Tabor, where their first camp was stationed. * **"
In vain the Emperor Sigisrmmd entered Bohemia to
stem the revolt. His army was cut to pieces. In spite
of the loss of his second eye in the battle, the terrible
Ziska the Blind was so thoroughly acquainted with all
the roads and forest paths, mountains and valleys of his
country, that he still continued to lead his victorious
army. It was only his death from the plague in 1424 , 424 ,
which gave a check to the fearful campaign- Even then
he ordered that his skin should be made into a drum, in
order that after death he might continue to strike terror
into the hearts of the Germans.
The command of the Hussite troops was taken by
Prakob the Great and Prakob the Little. The imperial
troops were powerless to withstand them, and fled as
soon as the Hussites presented themselves.
With a desire to put an end to this miserable blood- Counca of
shed, the Council of Basel was summoned; when such iSJ.'
of the Hussites as would accept the conditions of the
"Pragerartikel" were readmitted to communion with
the Church; and after fourteen years of strife, the war
at last came to an end.
In 1438, the Emperor Sigismund was driven from the 143 s.
throne, and was succeeded by his son-in-law, Albrecht
of Austria.
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (EXCLUSIVELY). 107
Frederic's character is marked by indolence and in-
difference, in curious contrast to his impetuous, eager
son who succeeded him. He cared nothing for his king-
dom's troubles, but spent his time in his garden picking
up snails and catching slugs, whilst his kingdom was
assailed by enemies on all sides. His wife said of him
that "Frederic would not take the trouble to turn the
handles of the doors, but would keep his hands in his
pockets, and kick at them till some one came to open
them ". By doing this so frequently, he injured his feet;
and to avoid mortification, the surgeon was obliged to
amputate them.
In 1477, his son, Maximilian, married Mary, daugh- 1477.
ter of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy.
Frederic III. died in 1493. J 493.
SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
The sixteenth century continues the Modern\Era begun sixteenth
at the end of the fifteenth, and which is reckoned, from
the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus.
The century is remarkable for great discoveries used
for the first time (discovered earlier, but not employed
at once), such as the mariner's compass, gunpowder,
printing, great maritime discoveries of America, the way
to India and the Cape of Good Hope, etc., the study of
dead languages and antiquities leading to the Renais-
sance of Art and the Reformation of Christianity.
The political characteristics of the century are the
great predominance of Spain in the West, and of the Otto-
man Empire in the east of Europe.
Germany was composed of a great number of states,
each independent of each other, but forming together a
sort of confederation with a Diet and an Emperor at
their head. The authority of the Emperor was almost
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (EXCLUSIVELY).
CHAPTER XXIX.
ALBRECHT II., the Great (fifth Duke of Austria), King
Austria, of Hungary and Bohemia, promised to be an able ruler.
1438. He was son.in.law o f Sigismund, whom he drove from the
throne; but he only reigned one year, and died in 1439.
inten-eg- An interregnum occurred, when the Pragmatic Sanc-
num, 1439. ^.^ ^ Ludwig IV. was issued, confining the Empire to
the House of Austria.
Frederic Frederic HI., the Pacific (or the "Nightcap," from his
Pacific, falling asleep during important council meetings), was
sometimes elected Emperor. He gave up privileges by a new con-
Frederic cordat. He received the imperial crown and the iron
IV * crown from Pope Nicholas V., and was the last German
Emperor crowned in Rome and Bohemia/ marking the
close of the Middle Ages. He lost Hungary by the
John Hun- valiant resistance of John Hunniades 2 in 1445, and Bo-
1445. ' hernia through George Podiebrad, 1458.
Podiebrad, The Turks ravaged the borderland. The Swiss rose
145 " and formed the Confederation of Gray-cloaks (Grisons),
against whom Frederic hired the Armagnacs 8 (French
mercenaries), as he refused to go to battle himself.
1 Frederic HI. invented the proud.motto of Austria, A.E.I.O.U.,
" Austriae est imperare orbi universe".
a Matthias Corvinus, son of Hunniades, became King of Hun-
gary at sixteen. He took Silesia, Moravia, Lusatia and a large
part of Austria from Frederic III. and held all his conquests till
his death.
8 IV. B. Louis d' Orleans, brother of Charles VI. of France,
married a daughter of the Comte d'Armagnac, and became the
head of the Orleanist party, under the name of Armagnacs.
106
108 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
nil; and even that of the Diet, though always recognized,
was often defied by the princes in this century. The
leading Houses were:
I. The House of Hapsburg, or Austria, which possessed
large hereditary estates the Archduchy of Austria,
Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, part of Swabia,
and a large portion of Alsace. Maximilian, by
his marriage with Mary of Burgundy, increased
these by the Netherlands, Artois, and Franche
Cerate*; and his son, Philip, acquired Spain also
by his marriage with Juana of Castile.
II. The House of Wittelsbach, or Bavaria, which was
divided into two branches:
The elder or Palatine branch possessed the
Upper Palatinate in Southern Bavaria, with
Munich for its capital; and the younger the
Lower Palatinate, or Palatinate of the Rhine,
with its capital of Heidelberg.
III. The House of Saxony, also divided into two
branches:
The Ernestine or Electoral branch, elder; Wit-
temberg capital. The Albertine or Ducal
branch, younger; Dresden and Leipsic.
IV. The House of Hohenzollern, also divided into two
branches:
Swabia and Franconia. Frederic, Burggraf of
Nuremberg became Markgraf of Branden-
burg, and founded the kingdom of Prussia.
France. . In France the Huguenot wars were devastating the
country, under the ambitious instigation of Catherine de
Medici, and the inefficient carelessness of her sons
Charles IX. and Henri III. These miserable differ-
of St.
Barthoi- ences culminated in the awful massacre of St. Bartholo-
omew.
mew, August 24, 1572; soon to be followed by the revolt
of Paris, the death of Henri ILL, and the installation of
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (EXCLUSIVELY). 109
the House of Bourbon in the person of Henri IV. of Na- Henri iv.
varre. With the aid of his able Minister Rosny, Baron
de Sully, Henri IV. made a noble effort to recover France
from her misfortunes, and to replace her in a position of
peace and commercial prosperity; but Ravaillac's mur-
derous knife too soon ended his brilliant career (1602).
In England the House of Tudor was represented by England.
Henry VHL, Mary and Elizabeth. The great struggle
for reformation which marks all the central countries of
Europe was also carried on in England.
CHAPTER XXX.
MODERN HISTORY.
WHEN Frederic III. died in 1493, his weak, careless rule
of fifty-three years had left the country in a state of dis-
sension and feud, out of which it was an herculean task
to construct such a monarchy as Maximilian I. dreamt
of,Qreviving the ambition of Charlemagne,fby which the
whole of Central Europe was to form one vast united
kingdom, and the imperial eagle of Rome and Germany
was to be at the head of an equal sovereignty. \
Maximilian, "the last of the knights," or '4he Penni-
less," is the name bestowed on this tall, handsome
young scion of the Hapsburg House, from his courage,
daring love of adventure, and chivalrous high-minded-
ness, personal beauty, and majestic form. The Em-
peror Max was beloved by all Germany, and remem-
bered as the last star of a falling House. At nineteen he
married the lovely, golden-haired Princess l^ary^of Bur-
gundy, daughter of Charles the BoTcl7"who had lostTus
HfeTn the unfortunafe^ar against the Swiss. Through
her Maximilian became possessed of the Netherlands
and Burgundy. Four years after the marriage, Mary
1482. died of injuries caused by a fall from her horse whilst out
hunting, leaving a little son, afterwards Philip I. of Spain.
1493- In 1493, Maximilian was called to the monarchy of
Austria, and elected Emperor of Germany in the same
year; but even after his accession his love of adven-
ture was constantly placing him in personal danger.
Throughout Tyrol he was renowned as a cjiamois
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (EXCLUSIVELY). Ill
hunter, and it was on one of these expeditions that he
found himself separated from his followers, and arrived at
a spot from which there was no possibility of moving either
forwards or backwards. Below him yawned a fearful
abyss, above him the inaccessible precipice known as the
"Martinswand". Far down beneath him were people
gazing in horror, with tears rolling down their cheeks, at
the peril of their beloved Emperor; but none daring
enough to attempt a rescue. Not until fifty-two hours
had elapsed was Maximilian released from his formi-
dable position by the boldness of an experienced chamois
hunter, who let down a rope to him from above. Many
stories are related of the romantic rashness and dar-
ing of this notable man.
For twelve years after Mary of Burgundy's death,
Maximilian remained a widower; and then he married
for a second time Maria Bianca, daughter of the Duke
of Sforza of Milan a cold, proud woman, who never
won the real love of Maximilian; but the marriage drew
him into Italian politics.
In Germany he did his utmost to promote peace and
safety. "Fist-right" was finally abolished, and courts
of justice were everywhere established to supersede the
old rule of self-defence by might.
The country was subdivided into circles for the better circles,
preservation of law and order.
He introduced the system of the letterpost, and the Letter-
first postal communication took place between Vienna ?si2.
and Brussels in the year 1516, under the conduct of
Count Thurn and Taxis (by birth an Italian), whose
successors later on received the title of "Imperial Post-
master," and held it till 1866.
Maximilian also bettered the condition of the army
by establishing standing infantry troops under the name
of "Landsknechte"
112 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
The rooted desire of the Emperor's heart was the en-
largement of his Empire; and accordingly he was glad
to give his only son, Philip I. (the Handsome) in mar-
riage to Juana of Castile, daughter of Ferdinand and
Isabella of Spain; so that Philip became the heir not only
of the Archdukedom of Austria, with its elective claim to
the Empire of Germany, but also of Spain, the Nether-
lands, and the Two Sicilies, Sardinia, and the newly dis-
covered countries of Peru, Brazil, and Mexico. On
Philip's early death, his elder son, Charles, inherited the
Hapsburg kingdoms of Germany and Spain; and the
younger son, Ferdinand, was given in marriage by his
grandfather Maximilian to Anna, sister of King Ludwig
n. of Hungary (I. of Bohemia), thus giving Ferdinand
a claim to those two kingdoms also.
The visionary plan of Maximilian of driving the Turks
out of Europe never came to a fulfilment, for he failed to
secure sufficient finances from the surrounding nations,
or to stir them up to enough enthusiasm to carry out his
project. The end of his life is marked by the work of
the Reformation, bringing into notice Martin Luther's
spirited denunciation of Romish errors, and vehement
protests against Papal dominion.
Diet of The Diet of Augsburg, convoked by Maximilian,
*** ur *" when Luther was confronted by the Papal Nuncio, Car-
dinal Cajetano, and forced to escape for his life, was the
kst public act of Maximilian's life.
He caught a fever on his return journey, which was
1519. increased by an imprudent meal on melons, and he died
at Wels, from which place his body was brought to
Weiner-Neustadt, and interred in front of the altar, so
that the priest should stand over his breast whilst con-
secrating the Host. In the Castle of Innsbruck can be
seen the magnificent monument designed by Maximilian
himself, but left unfinished; with bas-reliefs represent-
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (EXCLUSIVELY). 113
ing scenes from his own life, beginning with his marriage
with Mary of Burgundy, to the marriage of his son,
Philip, with Juana of Spain.
On the death of the Emperor Maximilian in 1519? the 1519.
Kings of France, Spain, and England (Francois I.,
Charles (I. or) V., and Henry VIII.) presented them-
selves as candidates for the German throne; the first two
using ah 1 manner of intrigues, and sacrificing enormous
sums of money to gain the good- will of the Diet.
But the electors, fearing too great a balance of power,
put them all aside, and elected Frederic the Wise,
Elector of Saxony. Feeling, however, that Germany
required a powerful prince supported by the frontier
countries of Austria, Bohemia and Hungary at its head,
in order successfully to check the invasions of the Turks
Frederic persuaded the electors to nominate Charles
I. of Spain, grandson of Maximilian, as Charles V. of
Germany.
CHAPTER XXXI.
CHARLES V.
Charles CHAFES V., grandson of Maximilian, and son of Philip
"* I5I9- the Handsome and Juana of Castile, was born in 1500, at
Ghent, in the Netherlands, where he was brought up and
educated till the age of sixteen, when he was proclaimed
King of Castile and Aragon on the death of Ferdinand
the Catholic. He had none of the artistic tastes or tal-
ents of display which seemed to be the very life itself of
his great contemporary, Francois I. of France. He was
active and industrious, working hard at whatever he un-
dertook, and taking a part in all deliberations of his
council SL quiet, grave, long-faced, under-jawed, studious
man. He inherited such vast dominions as to give rise
to the well-known boast that "the sun never set on his
Empire". Besides Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Styria,
Carinthia, and Tyrol, inherited from his father, he had
also Spain, the Two Sicilies, Sardinia, and the rich
newly discovered lands in America from his Spanish
mother and grandfather, and the Netherlands and Bur-
gundy in right of his grandmother. To these were added
the imperial crown of Germany and Italy by election.
Maximilian m. Mary of Ferdinand m. Isabella of
of Austria Burgundy. of Aragon Castile.
i I
Philip I. married Juana (Insane?),
of Austria. |
1 i
Charles V., 1519, Ferdinand, 1522,
* Head of the Spanish Head of the German
Branch of the Hapsburgs. Branch of the Hapsburgs.
114
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (EXCLUSIVELY). 115
In 1522 Charles resigned the eastern kingdom of Aus- 1522.
tria, Styria, Carinthia, and Tyrol to his brother, Fer-
dinand.
At the news of the election of Charles V., Francois I.
of France disappointed in his hopes of becoming the
first man in Europe resolved to revenge himself on the
successful competitor. This was the origin of the in-
cessant rivalry between the two brilliant men t and other
motives were not wanting to make a serious quarrel.
Francois I. desired to have Naples and Navarre given up
to him, whilst Charles V. laid claim to Milan as a fief of
the Empire, and to Burgundy in right of his grand-
mother; moreover, each declared he was defending the
peace of Europe against the other. The result of the
dispute greatly depended upon which side the various
countries would range themselves as allies. Henry
VIII. proudly exclaimed: "The one whom I defend will
win the day!" Francois and Charles both eagerly ap-
pealed to him for aid. The former unwisely, however,
roused Henry VTIL's jealousy by the pomp displayed at
the "Field of the Cloth of Gold*"; whilst Charles, with
greater acumen, crossed to England, and paid a visit to j
the proud king in person. He won over the powerful
Cardinal Wolsey to his side by promising him the Papal
tiara. Wolsey, in return, insisted that his master should
be reinstated in his former possessions in France.
Pope Leo X. (Medici), who played an important part
in the struggle, negotiated with both rivals in turns; but
ended by siding with Charles V., for fear the Emperor
should support the Lutherans in Germany against him.
Francois I. abandoned by England and the Papacy
held out his hand to the Protestants and the Turks, as
the two declared enemies of the Emperor, although he
had no real sympathy with either the one or the other.
A dose coalition between France, Protestants^ and
n6
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Campaign
in Italy.
1522.
Bicocca.
1523-
1524.
Turks would have presented almost insurmountable
obstacles to Charles V.; but such diverse elements
could never hope to be united for any length of time, and
Charles comforted himself by feeling sure that he would
find it easy to separate the allies, and so deal with his
enemies singly one after the other in turn.
Fran9ois I. had for allies Venice, the Swiss, and the
Turks.
Charles V. counted on the Pope and Henry VIII.
Italy was the principal seat of war.
The French began unfortunately. The Swiss mer-
cenaries not having received any of the payment prom-
ised by the French king for their services mutinied,
and demanded their "money, freedom, or battle".
The French general, Laurrec, led them on hurriedly to
attack the enemy, who were stationed in a formidable
position at Bicocca, near Milan. Crushed by the Ger-
man artillery, the Swiss were defeated, and obliged to
give up Milan to the Emperor.
The following year Francois received another check
by the treachery of the Constable de Bourbon, who be-
trayed the interests of France, and went over to the side
of Charles V , combining with him and Henry VIII. to
dismember the kingdom of France.
In the spring of 1524 the Imperialists were reinforced
by 6000 Germans, and Bourbon then took the offensive.
A desperate struggle took place on the banks of the Sesia
in Piedmont, which cost the life of the illustrious French
knight, Bayard " le chevalier sans peur et sans reproche "
The Emperor then gave orders for the invasion of
France. Bourbon besieged Marseilles, but was forced to
make a disorderly retreat over the Alps, closely followed
by the French army under the personal command of
Francois I. This time the French entered Milan without
opposition; but instead of vigorously pursuing his advan-
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (EXCLUSIVELY). 1 1/
tage, Francois detached 12,000 men from his army to go
and take possession of the kingdom of Naples, whilst he
himself undertook the siege of Pavia, not reflecting that
he was thus giving time for the three clever imperial
generals Bourbon, Lannoy, and Pescara to assemble
fresh troops far superior to his in numbers behind him.
With these they dashed upon his lines at Pavia, 24th Pavia
February, 1525. A terrible battle ensued; and Fran- ^525.
ois, obliged to defend himself on foot, was wounded in
several places. At last, relinquishing his sword to Lan-
noy, he wrote in brief words to his mother: "All is lost,
madarne, save honor".
Carried to Madrid as a prisoner, Francois hoped for
at least fair treatment at the hands of his conqueror.
But Charles kept him in prison, and treated him so se-
verely that he became quite ill, and even at one time
thought of abdicating his throne.
Charles at last consented- to conclude a Treaty at Treaty of
Madrid, by which his rival gave up all his rights to 1526.
Naples and Milan, ceded Burgundy to the Emperor,
promised to replace the Constable de Bourbon in his
command, and gave up his two sons as hostages.
Before concluding the Treaty of Madrid, Francois I.
had protested secretly against the ill treatment he had
received from his enemies. Scarcely had he entered his
kingdom when he refused to give up Burgundy, excus-
ing himself by saying that a king had no right to alienate
the country without the consent of the States- General.
Pope Clement VII. (Medici) who would have liked to
see the overthrow of Spain released Francois from his
parole, and a " holy league " was entered into between
France, 1 England, and most of the Italian States. But
1 Henry VIII. had become alarmed at the increasing power of
Germany, and drew back from Charles. Italy, fearing Spain,
turned once more to France and offered assistance to Francois.
Il8 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Siege of the coalition lacked energy. Francois was not suffi-
iszrf * ciently prompt In action. Rome was besieged by a band
of German mercenaries in the pay of Charles V., led by
the Constable de Bourbon and the former condottiere,
Georges von Freundsberg, carrying, as it is said, a chain
of gold round his neck with which to strangle the Pope!
Bourbon gave the order of assault, but was killed himself;
and his soldiers, left to their own devices, gave them-
selves up to the most horrible pillage. All Europe pro-
tested indignantly against the Emperor, when the news
of the sack of Rome reached them; but Charles denied
the accusation, saying he knew nothing of it. At the
same time, he neither punished any one concerned, nor
put a stop to the violent outrages following the siege.
Treaty of At last, tired with the struggle, the King of France
Caznbrai, concluded the Treaty of Cambrai, which leaves an in-
delible stain on his reputation. The Emperor did not
exact the cession of Burgundy, but Francois renounced
all claim to Milan and Naples, and completely aban-
doned his allies in Italy, leaving a fatal renown for per-
fidy, and losing forever the confidence of the Italians.
Nothing then remained to the Pope but reluctantly to
reconcile himself with Charles V., and crown him Em-
peror and King of Italy at Bologna, which he agreed to
do, on condition that the Medici should be re-est abb" shed
in Florence under the title of dukes.
CHAPTER XXXn.
DURING this time Solyman the Turk invaded Hungary,
and his fleets devastated the coasts of Italy^ A cry of
indignation was raised against the King of France, who
had called the Turks into Europe, and a general war
broke out.
Whilst Charles V. and Henry VIII invaded France, General
the allies of Francois James V. of Scotland and Soly-
man the Magnificent invaded England and Hungary
respectively.
But the Emperor became uneasy at the progress of
the Lutherans in Germany during his absence in other
countries; and fearing that his Empire would be disin-
tegrated with all the confusion and strife, he signed the
Peace of Crespy, in the north of France, near Lon, by Peace of
which Francois I. kept Savoy, and Charles V. Milan. isS? 7 '
Henry VIII. also jnade peace, and died shortly after-
wards, Francois I. only surviving him one year. 1547.
The reign of Solyman the Magnificent, 1520-1566, is isgo to
a striking epoch in Turkish history. He inaugurated
his reign by taking Belgrade and Rhodes; when Charles
V. gave to the brave Knights of Rhodes the Island of
Malta, from which stronghold they continued to keep the
Turks at bay in the Mediterranean, and where they
were afterwards known as the Knights of Malta.
^JThe Sultan next attacked Hungary, and won a great Mohatz.
victory at Mohatz, in which the distinguished King Lud-
wig n. perished. As he left no child, the crown passed
to his brother-in-law, Ferdinand of Austria, brother of
119
120 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Charles V,; and this is the origin of the rights of the
House of Austria over Bohemia and Hungary. Ferdi-
nand took immediate possession of Bohemia; but before
he could do the same in Hungary, he had to encounter
strong opposition from the Turks, who once more in-
vaded the country, and even advanced to besiege Vienna,
siege of Twenty times the terrible Janissaries l led the attack.
Vienna, . .
1530. and strove to gain an entrance into the town; twenty
times they were repulsed by the gallant garrison, and the
enraged Sultan was forced at last to give up the siege.
Soiyman Two years afterwards, Solyman the Magnificent again
Charles took the field against Austria, at the head of 200,000
iwtesh ' men. Charles V. met him with 100,000, and for the first
nroads. ^ me ^ ^ Q renownec | wa mors met in person. Never
since the Crusades had the Christians assembled in such
forces. Lutherans and Roman Catholics alike joined
hands against the Mussulmans. Nevertheless, little
result followed. At the approach of winter, Solyman
retired to his capital, Constantinople, carrying with him
a large number of unfortunate prisoners as slaves; and
the greater part of Southern Hungary remained in the
power of the Turks. The Austrians only kept Northern
Hungary, Presberg, and its environs.
Scarcely had the Mussulman invasion been arrested
in Hungary when new depredations by the Turks on the
shores of the Mediterranean gave cause for a fresh ex-
pedition to the relief of the Christians.
Two brothers, named Horuc and Chereddin Barba-
rossa, had made themselves masters of Algiers and Tu-
nis; and, encouraged by their success, they continued
to ravage the shores of Italy and Spain.
Charles V. undertook the personal command of two
1 Janissaries (Jitni tchfri, new soldiers) an order of infantry
in the Turkish army; originally young Christian prisoners trained
to arms by Orcan, father of Amurath I.
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA (EXCLUSIVELY). 121
expeditions against them. In the first he captured
Galetta. Tunis surrendered* and 20,000 Christian isss-
galley-slaves were delivered from slavery and taken back
to their country at the expense of the Emperor, making
all Europe ring with the praises of Charles V.
Six years later the Emperor made a similar attempt Attempt
on Algiers; but such a tempest arose that many of the Algiers,
ships were engulfed with all on board men, arms, and IS41 *
provisions and Charles had some difficulty in getting
back to his own kingdom in safety.
During the last years of Solyman's life he was wholly
absorbed by gloomy domestic tragedies, which owed
their origin to his favorite wife, Roxelana, and her fa-
vorites; and Charles V. had no more to fear from his
invasions, but was able to turn his entire attention to-
wards the great question of religious reform then agi-
tating all Europe.
THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY.
CHAPTER XXXHI.
ALL attempts at a general religious reformation during
the Middle Ages by the Vaudois, Wi cliff, John Huss, and
the great Councils of Constance and Basel, had miser-
ably failed, and the abuses and disorders of the Church
were constantly on the increase. The evil had become
so crying, and the discontent so universal, that any
slight accident was sufficient to cause an explosion.
Savon- The seed of reformed doctrines was sown by such men
as Lorenzo Valla and Savonarola at Florence, Reuchlin
at Tubingen, Ulrich von Htitten, and the famous Eras-
mus of Rotterdam, professor at Basel (of whom it is said,
"Erasmus laid the egg of Reformation, and Luther
hatched it"), and it only needed the dogmatic force and
indomitable courage of Luther to awaken it to active life.
MARTIN LUTHER.
Martin in the village of Mora in Thuringia there lived in a
poor miner's hut a man named Luther, with his wife
Margaret Lindeman. Both were earnest, quiet people;
but finding it difficult to earn a living in the country,
they moved to Eisleben in Saxony, and settled them-
Birth, selves there; and on November loth, 1483, a little son
was born, whom they named Martin. Shortly after his
birth the family moved once more to Mansfeld, where at
last things prospered better with them, and the father
made himself so much respected that he was chosen to
THE REFORMATION Itf GERMANY. 123
the office of town-councillor. Little Martin proved to
be a clever, diligent child, and Ms father sent him early
to school, in bad weather carrying him there himself on
his shoulders. The boy made such rapid progress that
at the age of fourteen he was promoted to the higher
school of Magdeburg, and later on to that of Eisenach.
Being very poor, Martin was obliged to earn his bread
by singing in the streets before the houses of rich fami-
lies in Eisenach; and on one occasion he attracted the
attention of Frau Cotta, who took him into her house,
and cared for him for some years as if he had been her
own son.
At eighteen years of age he went to study in the Uni-
versity of Erfurt; and from thence he paid occasional
visits to his parents. One day he was returning to the
city accompanied by his great friend Alexius, when they
were overtaken by a terrible storm of thunder and light-
ning, and Alexius was struck dead by his side. Martin
was greatly overcome by the shock, and exclaimed,
"Had I been in his place, I should now be before the
Judgment Seat of God! How would it then have been
with me? I must lead a better life in future." On ar-
riving at Erfurt, he went straight to the Augustinian
cloister and took the vows, thinking that, once a monk,
all his sins would be forgiven him. The cloister-life was
very rough; he was put to the hardest work, and was
obliged to carry the begging-sack for the community
round the town. On one of these expeditions he dis-
covered a copy of the Bible chained to a desk, and read
it with the deepest interest and reverence. He was filled
with delight and joy, and after two years of thought-
ful study and meditation, he determined to be or-
dained priest. Frederic the Wise, Elector of Saxony, tiniveiw
had just founded the University of Wittemberg, and, wfttem-
hearing of the learning of Luther, he promoted him 15
124 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
to be Professor of Philosophy, and pastor of the Castle
Church, Luther being at the time twenty-six years of
age. He found a friend and fellow-worker in a young
student named Schwarzerde, who, according to the habit
of the time, translated his name "black-earth" into
Greek, and is known to us as Melancthon. He had been
educated by his uncle Reuchlin, the famous master of
classical languages and philosophy. At sixteen Me-
lancthon had published a Greek Grammar; at seven-
teen he was giving lectures in the University of Tubin-
gen, and at twenty-one jcvas called to be a Professor at
Wittemberg. The characters of the two young men
were admirably adapted to make them friends. Each
formed the complement of the other; Martin Luther was
a man of action, Melancthon, a man of letters, full of
thought and meditation; Luther was the Apostle, Me-
lancthon, the Theologian of the Reformation,
indui- At this time Pope Leo X. proclaimed the sale of in-
1517. ' diligences, and sent the monk Tetsel round the country
to sell them; he carried two satchels strapped round his
neck, one containing the indulgences, and the other
money. When Luther preached confession and repent-
ance for sins to the people, their reply was, "We have
already got our absolution from Tetsel, and our sins are
all forgiven" Luther could not endure this, and he
ninety- wrote out ninety-five Theses against the errors of the
xifeses, Papacy, and fastened them to the church door at Wit-
I517 - temberg, October 3151, 1517. Like wild-fire the news
spread througliout Germany and Europe. The Pope
summoned Luther before him; but his powerful friends,
the Emperor Maximilian I. and Frederic the Wise,
Elector of Saxony, would not allow him to take the jour-
cl^eteSi ne y to R me ; ^y arranged instead that Cardinal Caje-
1518. ' tano, the Papal legate, should meet Luther at Augsburg.
No good result, however, attended the conference, ai-
THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY. 125
though some say that M'ltitz, the Pope's chamberlain,
exacted a conditional promise from Luther that he
would keep silence on the disputed points.
The following year saw the death of the Emperor Max-
imilian, and the accession of his grandson, Charles V.
At Leipsic, Luther and his colleague, Carlstadt, were g^?*
confronted with a formidable opponent in Dr. Eck, who 1519
accused them of sharing the errors of the Hussites, and
warned them that the Hussites had been condemned as
heretics at the Council of Constance. After repeated
discussions and stormy accusations from Luther against
the Papacy, which he called a "devil's nest," Luther
was formally excommunicated. He burnt the Bull con- gjjf^f J
taining the sentence openly before the students of Wit- 1520.
temberg, and defied the Pope.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
THE reigning Emperor Charles V. grieved at the con-
test, and desirous to make peace summoned a conclave
Councilor of princes and bishops to meet at Worms. On receiving
the invitation to confront his opponents at that place,
Luther's rep]y was, "He could not unsay what he had
already stated and written; but that he would attend the
Diet if a safe-conduct were granted to him ". This was
promised; but his friends were uneasy on his account,
and begged him to remember the burning of John Huss,
and to desist from the journey. Luther's bold reply was,
"If they were to light a fire which should reach as far as
from Wittemberg to Worms and as high as the heavens,
still I would go!" Alone with one friend, he started in
a carriage, the imperial herald riding in front. Half way
he was once more implored to give up the dangerous ex-
pedition; but he only reiterated, "If there were as many
devils in Worms as there are tiles on the house-top, still
I would go!" He occupied part of the journey by com-
posing the well-known German hymn, " Eine feste Burg
ist unser Gott". Arrived at Worms, Luther was con-
ducted to the Council Chamber, where the Emperor and
his advisers with twelve hundred learned men were col-
lected. On a table lay copies of Luther's works. After
a long and complicated discussion, he was called upon
to recant, and he asked for twenty-four hours for con-
sideration. This being granted, the next day he was
returning to the Council when General Georges von
Freundsberg tapped him on the shoulder, exclaiming,
126
THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY. I2/
"Little monk! little monk 1 you are going in for a
harder conflict than either I myself or any of my officers
have ever engaged in; but if you have made up your
mind that your doctrines are true, go on in God's name,
and be assured that He will never forsake you!" In a
speech lasting two hours, Luther set forth his views; and
when his judges again insisted on his recantation, he
made his celebrated reply, "If this work is man's work
it will fall by itself; but if it is from God nothing can
destroy it. I neither can nor dare retract what I believe
to be the truth as revealed in Holy Scripture; on this
I take my stand; I can do no otherwise, so help me God.
Amen." The Council was ended, and Luther was al-
lowed to depart; but the "ban of the Empire" was read
over him (i.e., he was outlawed, and after the space of
twenty-one days, any one would be free to put the dan-
gerous monk to death). On his way home Luther was
seized by a band of armed men, said to have been com-
missioned by his friend, the Elector of Saxony, to place
him in a position of safety. He was carried off to the
Castle of Wartburg in the mountains near Eisenach, wartburg.
where he lived for nine months, concealed in the dress
of a common knight, and called "Junker Georg". He
occupied a great portion of his time in making a trans-
lation of the New Testament into German.
The outrageous conduct of his friend Carlstadt, and
other extreme reformers in Wittemberg, did no good to
Luther's cause; and when Luther heard that they were
breaking images, burning books, etc., he left his retreat
at Wartburg, and once more appeared at Wittemberg
to restore order.
More alarming, however, than the outbreak at Wittem- Peasants'
berg was the rebellion of the German peasants, who, to 1527.
mistaking the freedom of religion promised to them by
Luther for the freedom of their vested rights, armed them-
128 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
selves and declared war. In vain Ljither attempted to
bring them to reason. All was useless; they went from
place to place, breaking into convents, monasteries,
castles, and perpetrating horrible cruelties. The princes
assembled an army against them, and they were sub-
dued at last, but not without a war lasting two years, and
the destruction of 30,000 peasants.
Meanwhile Luther continued to live as pastor and pro-
fessor at Wittemberg. In 1524 he had thrown off his
of Luther rack's robe and married Catherine von Bora, a nun.
I 524- Six children were born to them. He worked steadily for
the Reformation, compiled two catechisms, a Church
service, and a collection of hymns, to which he added
many beautiful ones of his own; he also made a trans-
lation of the Old Testament.
Protestant) Several of the German princes, amongst whom were
Frederic the Wise, Elector of Saxony; Philip, Landgraf
of Hesse; the Duke of Mecklenburg, and Albert, Grand-
master of the Teutonic Knights and Duke of Branden-
burg, became Lutheran. But his enemies were power-
ful, and continually wearied the Emperor with com-
plaints and accusations.
CHAPTER XXXV.
CHARLES V., finding the cares of his gigantic domin- Division
ions too much for one person to superintend, had dele- Kingdom
gated the Eastern Kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia
with Austria to his brother Ferdinand in 1522, and him-
self chiefly resided in Spain.
Troubled, however, by the ceaseless conflicts on re- Diet of
ligious matters, which kept Europe in a ferment, and J&**
hearing that the Turks made constant inroads on Hun-
gary, Charles summoned a Diet at Speier (Spires), to
discuss measures for keeping them in check; with the
idea of smoothing down every difference, and uniting
all parties in one common cause, a Crusade against Name
the Turks. Against this measure the Lutheran princes tant".
and fourteen imperial free cities entered such a stern
protest that they earned the name, so frequently mis-
used in later times, of "Protestants".
Another Council of Augsburg was convoked for the Council of
next year, at which Charles V. presided in person. He
strove in every possible way to bring about an under-
standing. The Lutherans were allowed to speak freely
in favor of their religious creed. They desired to show
that their doctrines were those of no new religion, but
only the casting out of the errors of their former creed;
and for this purpose Melancthon, the gentle friend of
Luther, drew up the celebrated " Confession of Augs-
burg ". It is said that his opponents insisted that the
reading of this confession should take place in a little
chapel, which only held 120 persons. The weather, how-
129
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
ever, being warm and the windows open, the voice of the
reader was clearly audible to the vast concourse of peo-
ple outside, who were astonished at the enunciation of
the new doctrines thus heard for the first time. The'
Confession was condemned by the Diet and the Em-
peror; but the determined attitude of the Protestants
caused Charles to waver in his verdict, not liking to es-
f tran S e so many of his powerful subjects. The Protes-
1531. tant princes on their side, dismayed at the threats of the
rg Emperor, and seeing that nothing would now serve their
purpose but war, entered into a League at Schmalkalde
(in Thuringia) for mutual protection. In opposition
to this League the Roman Catholic princes formed the
Nuremberg League. Francois I., King of France, of-
fered to join the Protestant League of Schmalkalde out
of hatred to Charles V. ; but Luther indignantly refused,
declaring that "the Empire would be distracted, and it
and the Gospel would go to wreck together ".
At this time Charles V. wanted to crown his brother
Ferdinand "King of the Romans," but he encountered
quite an unexpected opposition from the Roman Catho-
lic States, on which he had always reckoned as his firm
supporters. This circumstance, combined with the fear
of fresh inroads by the Turks, decided the Emperor
to put off for the moment any definite decision on the
Religious religious question. A treaty was signed at Nuremberg,
; called the Religious Peace, when the Emperor offered
toleration to the Protestants on condition that they
would help him in his war with the Turks, and give their
votes for the election of his brother Ferdinand as King
of the Romans. The Protestants promised their help,
and Charles undertook the expedition, which ended in
the repulse of Solyman the Magnificent in Austria.
Thus momentarily delivered from the Turks, Charles
thought he ought break faith with the Lutherans; but
THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY. 13!
the attacks of the Kings of France on his western fron-
tier obliged him to renew the promise of peace with the
Lutheran party. During the ten years which followed,
the Emperor, absorbed by war, set aside altogether the
religious question, and the Reformation left to itself
made great progress.
Not only in Germany, but throughout Europe, the g^
doctrines were spread by such able men as Ulrich Zwin-
gli of Zurich in Switzerland, Jean Chauvin (Calvin) in
France and Geneva, Lefevre and Farel in France and
Neuchatel, Cranmer and Edward VI. in England, John
Knox (a disciple of Calvin) in Scotland, Gustavus Vasa
in Sweden, etc.
The Lutheran doctrines spread throughout the he- Lutherans,
reditary States^ of Hapsburg, Austria, Styria, Carinthia,
and Bohemia, and in the German portion of Hungary
and Transylvania, where they became mingled with the
former doctrines of the Hussites.
Calvinism was generally adopted by the Swiss, Caivinists.
French, and Magyars. The Caivinists and Lutherans
separated in 1561, when the former rejected some of the
Articles of the Confession of Augsburg. In France they
were known as Huguenots. Huguenots.
Poland furnished an asylum fur both Lutherans and
Caivinists; whilst Prussia, the land of the Teutonic
knights, Livonia and Courland, accepted the Lutheran
Reformation in 1 5 2 5, following the example of the Grand-
master of the Teutonic Order, Albert of Brandenburg.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
Peace of IN 1545, Charles V. concluded a treaty of five yeais
is?!? 7 ' with tne Turk?, and terminated the war with Francois
I. of France at the Peate cf Crespy, so that nothing pre-
vented him from turning his attention vigorously to the
Council of Reformation. He persuaded Pope Paul III. to call the
toVsV. 345 Council of Trent, which he hoped would put an end to
all religious difficulties and stop the general abuses in
the Church. But the Protestants refused to appear.
It was not such a Council as they desired. They wished
for an assembly which should be compose*d of equal num-
bers of theologians on both sides, and an impartial tri-
bunal not presided over by the Pope. The Council of
Trent was entirely composed of Roman Catholic prel-
ates, acting under the direction of the Papal See, and
expecting the Protestants to appear before them not
to deliberate but to be judged by them. Their doc-
trines being "then condemned by the Council of Trent,
the Lutherans refused to submit to the sentence, and the
Great Schism of the sixteenth century took place.
Luther did not live to see the war. which he had
sadly foretold must take place. He died after a short
illness at his native town of Eisleben. As he himself
said, "The world is weary of me, and I of the world".
He was a warm-hearted, affectionate man, blunt in man-
ner, and speaking out too freely at times, but always to
the point; and his noble courage, singleness of heart, and
generous fervor for religion made him rank as the great-
est of all reformers 1 TTis follower?, taking their names
1 Great as Luther was as a reformer, we should recollect that
he made two great mistakes which cut at the root of Church
132
Great
1346.
Death of
Luther,
Feb 18,
THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY. 133
from their leaders, divided into three principal branches, Lutherans.
Lutherans, Zwmglians, and Calvinisis. The Luther- tants.
ans still pieserved the name of Protestants; the Calvin-
ists called themselves the Reformed; the followers of
Melancthon are known as Philippists.
As the Protestant princes refused to submit to the
Council of Trent, or to dissolve the League of Schmal-
kalde, war was proclaimed in 1546. The leaders of the i 54 6.
Schmalkaldic League, John Frederic, Elector of Saxony,
and Philip, Landgraf of Hesse, took the field; but
an unexpected defection in their camp weakened the
League. Maurice, Duke of Saxony, one of the Schmal- Treachery
J of Maurice
kaldic princes, having obtained from the Emperor the of saxony.
promise of the Electorate of Saxony (which belonged to
his cousin the Protestant prince John Frederic), aban-
doned hi? co-religionists and entered into an alliance
with Charles V, The Protestants, thus betrayed by one
of their strongest allies, were unable to resist the im-
perial forces. The Elector of Saxony was defeated at
Miihlberg on the Elbe, made prisoner, judged, and con-
demned to death by Charles V. He only saved his life
by abdicating in favor of Maurice, and the electoral dig-
nity thus passed from the elder branch (Ernestine) to Ernestine
the younger branch (Albertine). The Ernestine branch Se Lanes?
only kept the ducal title, with a small portion of its an-
cient possessions. As for the unfortunate John Frederic,
he had to endure a long and tedious captivity. The
Landgraf of Hesse, encouraged by the promises of his
son-in-law, Duke Maurice, decided to send in his sub-
mission to the Emperor; but the promises made to him
principles: I. He adopted the doctrine of justification by faith
alone. II. He set aside the succession of consecrated bishops
and clergy of fifteen hundred years, and chose to assert his
personal consecration as valid, setting aside all ecclesiastical
form and order in favor of his own views and desires.
134 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
were never kept, he was treated even worse than the
Elector, and dragged about from place to place in the
suite of Charles V.
In spite of his severity towards the leaders of the re-
formed party, Charles did not prevent the Protestants
from celebrating their sacred rites; nor would he allow
the inhuman Duke of Alva to exhume the body of Lu-
ther, saying, "Let him sleep in peace; he has already
met with his judge; I do not make war with the dead ".
The Emperor earnestly desired for his own interests to
put an end to the schism, and re-establish unity in Ger-
many. To this end he pressed the Protestants to recog-
nize the Council of Trent. But even Pope Benedict
XIV., who began to fear the growing power of Charles
V., turned against him and kept on proroguing the Coun-
cil on futile pretexts.
interim or Angered with the Pope for his defection, Charles re-
Augsburg, solved to put an end to the question. He called a Diet
154 " at Augsburg in 1548, made a provisional convention, by
which he allowed to the Protestants the Communion in
both kinds, and the marriage of priests, but insisted on
their otherwise submitting to the power of the Pope.
Both parties demurred at this decision. The Pope was
indignant that the Emperor should meddle with his spir-
itual affairs; the Protestants declared that the most es-
sential parts of their creed were denied to them. All
these events caused the greatest sensation throughout
Germany. Even the Roman Catholic princes them-
selves saw with anxiety that the Emperor was really
abusing his authority; and the general feeling of irrita-
tion was even shared by Charles's brother, Ferdinand,
Austria* ^ n & * Hun g ai 7 an( * Bohemia, whose rights Charles was
proposing to set aside in favor of his own son, Philip.
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA
CHAPTER XXXVn.
LAST YEARS OF CHARLES V.
No prince, however, was so impatient of the imperial Revolt of
despotism as Maurice of Saxony, although he owed his Saxcmyt
powerful position to the favoritism of Charles V. ISS2 '
Seeing the necessity of reinstating himself in the eyes of
his co-religionists, who attributed all their misfortunes
to his defection, he resolved to side again with the Refor-
mation and liberty in Germany. He therefore made a
secret alliance with Henri H. of France (son and suc-
cessor of Francois I.), by which it was arranged that
Henri should receive the three frontier bishoprics of
Lorraine Toul, Metz, and Verdun and make him-
self master of them, whilst Maurice should march into
Tyrol. The latter possessed the entire confidence of
Charles V,, who had confided to him the management
of the siege of Magdeburg, and thus placed a large por-
tion of the army completely under his control. The
Emperor was at Innsbruck, unsuspicious of any evil.
Suddenly Maurice threw off the mask, and published a
manifesto, declaring that he took up arms against the
Emperor for three reasons .
1. To secure the Protestant religion.
2. To maintain the German constitution.
3. To deliver the Landgraf of Hesse, his father-in-
law, from prison.
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
At the head of a large body of troops, Maurice hurried
by forced marches to surprise the Emperor at Inns-
bruck. A mutiny amongst the soldiers, who demanded
their pay, delayed Maurice a few hours, and just
allowed time fur Charles V., ill and suffering as he
was with gout, to escape. In the middle of the night,
and in pouring rain, he was carried in a litter over the
steep and intricate mountain paihs which led into Ca-
rinthia, and thus saved from actually falling into the
hands of his rebellious subjects. But this determined
Treaty of coup de main on Maurice's part forced the Emperor to
1552. * come to terms, and a peace was concluded at Passau.
The captive princes were set at liberty, the Landgraf of
Hesse received back his estates, and the sons of John
Frederic were allowed to retain his domains in Thurin-
gia. One essential feature of the treaty was that the
States which had subscribed to the Confession of Augs-
burg (not other Protestants) were granted complete
liberty of life and creed.
Three years later, the peace was confirmed at another
Diet at Augsburg, when the same States received not only
liberty of religion but also the same political rights as
the Roman Catholics, and were once more put in pos-
session of the ecclesiastical revenues of which they had
been deprived.
For some time, an adverse statute called the "Eccle-
siastical Reserve" was retained against these Protes-
tant rights, but a few years afterwards it was cancelled at
the Treaty of Westphalia (1648).
After the Treaties of Passau and Augsburg, the Em-
peror tried to win back the three bishoprics from the
grasp of Henri II., but he met with such a determined
resistance at Metz from the Duke of Guise, who was
defending the place, that 'he was obliged to retire, ex-
claiming, "I see clearly that fortune does not favor old
Religious
Peace of
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 137
people!" and Metz remained in the hands of the French
till 1871. So many reverses completely overwhelmed
Charles V, He saw his vast projects making shipwreck Abdication
one after the other. On the one hand, he had neither v.fi^f 8
crushed France nor subjugated the Turks; and on the
other, he had neither annihilated the "Reformation nor
raised the imperial power. With advancing years, en-
feebled by sorrows and disease, the old Emperor longed
for a little repose. He abdicated in favor of his son
Philip II., who entered into possession of Spain, the Two
Sicilies, Milan, the Low Countries, Franche-Comte', as
well as the newly discovered American colonies; whilst
his brother Ferdinand kept the Austrian estates, and
received the imperial crown of Germany.
From this time the House of Hapsburg is divided into
two lines: the elder branch, representing the Hapsburgs
in Spain; and the younger, the Hapsburgs in Germany.
Charles V. retired to the Monastery of San Just, amongst
the chestnut groves of Estramadura, where he spent the
two last years of his life in devotional exercises, and
amusing himself with gardening and watchmaking. On
one occasion, having taken untold pains to make two
watches work exactly alike, and failing, he exclaimed
sadly, " If I cannot succeed in this, how foolish was I to
think I could make the minds of a million men think
alike! " It is said that he caused his own funeral service 1558.
to be celebrated, and caught a chill from lying in his cof-
fin. Fever came on, and he died in 1558, at the age of
fifty-nine.
CHAPTER XXXVIII
CHARLES V. was followed by his brother, the Emperor
Ferdinand I., whose mild and gentle rule made him
much beloved by his subjects, in spite of their various
aa-tionalities; as was also his son and successor, Maxi-
milian IL, called the Peaceful, because he could not
bear to engage in warfare.
Quite at the beginning of his reign the old Turkish
Sultan, Solyman, the great enemy of all Christendom,
Hoagary, once again conceived the idea of seizing Vienna, and
took the field with 200,000 men, opening the campaign
by a decided march into Hungary. But his advance was
checked by the heroic resistance of the Hungarian for-
tress Szigeth, which held out against him under its bold
governor, Count Niklas Zrinyi. Zrinyi's handful of
warriors had sworn to support their leader, and share
whatever fate might betide him. The town was stormed
twenty times, and the little band had shrunk to 100 men;
all around lay ruins; the upper castle their last strong-
holdwas already in flames. Then Zrinyi, like a sec-
ond Leonidas, dashed forth at the head of the remnant
of his army, flung himself into the midst of the astounded
enemy, and with his men died a hero's death " for Em-
peror and Fatherland ". When at last the enemy took
possession of the smoking remains of the forsaken castle,
the powder magazine caught fire, blew up, and sent
2000 Turks into the air. The damage done to the
Turkish forces before Szigeth was irreparable, and Soly-
man had not even the gratification of living to take pos-
session of the place, for he died two days before the event,
in his camp. Solyman's followers were not warlike,
and a peace was established which lasted many years.
138
CHAPTER XXXIX.
ON Maximilian II.'s death, Rodolf II., his son, as- ^
cended the throne; a man full of love for art and sci-
ence, but too weak in character to control the stormy
elements of his kingdom. He had already been pro-
claimed King of Hungary in 1572, and King of Bohemia
in 1575. The struggles between Roman Catholics and
Protestants were still disturbing the whole Empire; and
Rodolf, perplexed and worried with the various ques-
tions which he did not care to enter into, at last surren-
dered to his brother Matthias the kingdoms of Hungary
and Austria. In order not to lose his hold over Bohe- Charter of
rnia, he took the side of the Protestant cause, and in 1609 i6og r .
proclaimed religious liberty, and gave the inhabitants a
charter, called the Charter of Liberty, by which they
received permission to build churches and schools, and
carry out their religious observances. Bohemia and
Silesia were, however, yielded up to his brother in 1611; 1611.
and just when the Electors had determined to depose
Rodolf, he died, and his brother Matthias replaced him
as Emperor.
During the reign of Matthias the Protestants of Bo- Mg
hernia went further even than their charter of liberty
allowed; and the Protestant dependants of the Arch-
bishop of Prague and of the Abbot of Braunaw, having
built some new churches, drew upon themselves the in-
dignation of the Roman Catholics, who pulled down two
of them and placed the others under lock and key,
139
140 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Thirty An army was quickly called together to quell the dis-
War,i6i8. turbance, and placed under the command of Count
Thurm. At this crisis, the Emperor Matthias died, and
Ferdfcmnd his cousin, Ferdinand II., King of Hungary and Bo-
* * I?> " hernia, a grandson of Ferdinand I., succeeded him, prov-
ing himself at once a powerful and active jregent, but a
stern Roman Catholic.
GEEMAK EMPIEE
XVII Centiny.
CHAPTER XL.
THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
had been the first cradle of the Reformation
and the principal seat of religious warfare. The divi-
sion of Charles V.'s dominions weakened the Catholic
party, the German States tolerated the Reformation, and
Austria gradually accepted it.
There was a violent reaction on the part of the Roman-
ists in Spain, under Philip II., but it was kept somewhat
in check by the attitude of the Reformed Church in the
Netherlands.
The division of the Empire would have seemed fa-
vorable to the balance of power, but Philip TL.'s pos-
sessions were almost as colossal as his father's, and his
ambitious and dominating character caused more anx-
iety in Europe.
The double nature of political and religious warfare
so noticeable in the sixteenth century changed somewhat
in the seventeenth, when, although religion was often
made the pretext^ political interest was really the pre-
dominating motive.
The system of absolute monarchy which had begun
in the Middle Ages reached its height in the downfall of
the feudal system, and the absolutism in France of Louis
XIV. 's reign. The same absolutism was attempted in
England, but was overthrown by the Revolution.
The idea of European equilibrium was more clearly
form aliped, and the two powers of Spain and Turkey
141
142 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
which had threatened it in the sixteenth century were
distinctly on the decline.
The Scandinavian States (Norway, Sweden and Den-
mark) began to take a prominent place in history. The
Thirty Years' War and the English Revolution are the
two great events of the first half of the seventeenth cen-
tury. To these we may add later the struggle in the
North between Sweden, Poland and Russia; but
amongst all these the Thirty Years' War holds the most
important position. Germany became the centre of
diplomatic and military warfare. The war itself was
both political and religious. Its origin was, appar-
ently, only the insurrection of one people (Bohemia)
against its sovereign, roused by a matter of religious and
cruel discord in the centre of the Austrian States; but
very soon the question assumed such proportions that
all the countries of Europe were drawn into the quarrel,
and it became simply a tremendous political struggle for
supremacy.
In Spain and the Netherlands Philip II., the stern,
crafty, cold-hearted husband of the English Mary
Tudor, ruled with gloomy severity, upholding the In-
quisition and carrying on the bloody wars in the Low
Countries under Alva's generalship, which resulted in
the revolt of the provinces and the later formation of the
Dutch Republic. (1713.)
The seventeenth century in England is marked by
the stormy reigns of the Stuarts and the Civil Wars re-
sulting in the Revolution and Restoration, and the es-
tablishment of the English Protestant Church. \
*n Germany the position was much what it had been
in the last century: the Albertine branch of the House
of Saxony had acquired the Electorate, and the German
House of Hapsburg was in possession of Bohemia ajid
Northern Hungary,
CHAPTER XLI.
THIRTY YEARS' WAR.
DURING THE REIGNS OF THE EMPERORS MATTHIAS,
FERDINAND EL, AND FERDINAND JH.
Four Periods. Thirty
Years'
1618-1623. (i) Palatine or Bohemian Period. S
Frederic, Elector Palatine, thel
"Winter King" - -^Protestant.
Count Mansfeld - - - -J
Duke Maximilian of Bavaria - - ) ^
_ > Romanist.
Baxon Tilly - - - - - }
1625-1629. (2) Danish Period.
Christian IV. of Denmark - Protestant.
Wallenstein - Romanist,
Treaty of Liibeck, 1629.
1630-1635. (3) Swedish Period.
Gustavus Adolphus, the "Snow"!
King" - - f Protestant.
Oxenstiern, Swedish Minister - -J
Wallenstein and Tilly - Romanist.
Treaty of Prague, 1635.
1635-1648. (4) French-Swedish Period.
Torstenson, Swedish General - - Protestant.
Max Piccolomini, Imperial General - )
Marshal Turenne, French General - )
Romanist.
Treaty of Westphalia, 164$.
143
t44 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
The Peace of Augsburg concluded in 1555 was
an outward one. Deep down in their hearts was nour-
I6l8 ished the most implacable animosity between the Ro-
manists and the Lutherans; and at last it burst forth
in the year 1618, in the terrible Thirty Years' War which
laid waste the whole Empire of Germany.
It began in Bohemia, where the Roman Catholics had
pulled down a new church built by the Protestants, and
placed others under lock and key.
The Lutherans appealed to Ferdinand II. as Emperor
of Germany and King of Bohemia; but being a Roman-
ist himself, he returned them only a stern reprimand. It
was given out that this answer emanated not from the
king, but from two of his ministers; upon which the
enraged Lutherans sent messengers to the castle who
threw the two councillors out of a window eighty feet
from the ground. Falling, as it happened, upon a heap
of rubbish, the unfortunate men escaped with their
lives, though terribly injured; but this occurrence gave
rise to the war.
1619. Ferdinand II. was furious, and resolved to punish
his refractory subjects. The Bohemians declared they
would no longer tolerate Ferdinand as their king, and
elected in his place the Protestant, Frederic, Prince Pala-
tine, son-in-law of James I. of England, and he was
Frederic v. actually crowned at Prague as Frederic V. His triumph
did not last long. The Emperor sent an army against
him under Duke Maximilian of Bavaria, the leader of
the " Catholic League," and a battle was fought on the
White Mountain near Prague, where Frederic was de-
feated, and forced to fly to Brandenburg; his enemies
derisively calling him the "Winter King," because he
had only succeeded in reigning one winter.
The Bohemian general, Count Mansfeld, however,
still dared to lift up his sword against the Emperor, and
HOUSE OF AUSTklA. 145
on hearing that his army numbered 20,000 men, Fred-
eric ventured back once more with hopes revived; but
the great general of the Roman Catholic League, Baron
Tilly, was too strong for him, and he once more retired,
this time to Holland.
Baron Tilly was a man dreaded alike by friends and
foes. His name was used by nurses to frighten children,
and by priests to terrify their enemies. The appear-
ance of his thin, long face, terrible eyes, and large whis-
kers, his costume of green satin with pointed hat and red
drooping feather, were alone enough to "send simple
men to their prayers ". Tilly invaded Bohemia, achieved
an easy victory over Prague, and in a few months Bo-
hemia, Moravia, and Silesia submitted to Austria.
These rapid successes created a profound impression.
The Emperor Ferdinand H. resolved to crush out of gharte r of
Bohemia all idea of civil or religious liberty, and with his Destroyed,
own hands he tore up their beloved " Charter of Liberty"
From this moment the three countries lost their re-
ligious reform, their ancient liberties, their national life,
and their political importance. The Palatinate suf-
fered much in the same way. The Upper Palatinate
and a portion of the Lower Palatinate were handed over
to Maximilian, the Romanist Duke of Bavaria, to-
gether with the electoral dignity.
The "League" triumphed, and nothing seemed to
oppose the will of Ferdinand. It is true that for a time
two bold generals, Christian of Brunswick and Ernest
of Mansfeld, defied the imperial power. But Tilly
seemed everywhere victorious. He had dashed into
Westphalia, and already began to dispense to the Ro-
manists the lands which had been granted to the re-
formed party, when suddenly all the Protestant princes
rose up boldly and called for help to the King of Den-
mark, Christian IV.
CHAPTER XLIL
KING CHRISTIAN undertook the campaign as the
"leader and champion of the Protestant Union". The
Emperor Ferdinand was in great difficulty to know how
to raise sufficient men and money to meet this new
enemy, when Albert, Count Wallenstein (Waldstein),
Duke of Friedland, a Bohemian officer of large property,
came forward and proposed to raise an army at his own
expense, and in a few weeks 30,000 men were collected
and marched towards the Elbe.
1616. At Lutter in Brunswick King Christian was defeated
by Tilly, and in the following year Wallenstein drove
him out of Germany and seized the whole of Denmark
with the exception of one port.
In order to repay these services, the Emperor deposed
the Duke of Mecklenburg, and gave all his estates to
Wallenstein, together with the title of "generalissimo of
the forces both by land and sea". Not content, how-
ever, with Mecklenburg, Wallenstein set his heart on
gaining Pomerania also; and for this purpose he laid
1628. siege to the strong fortress of Stralsund; but the citizens
made such an heroic defence that he was obliged to
abandon it The Emperor found himself constrained
Treaty of to treat with King Christian, and the Treaty of Lubeck
Lubeck, . . J '
1620. was signed in 1029.
Meanwhile Wallenstein behaved with such merciless
rigor to the Germans that he was detested by them; his
extortions and cruelty roused their greatest wrath; at
the Council of Ratisbon the Emperor was artfully per-
146
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 147
suaded by the representations of Pere Joseph, the con-
fidant of Richelieu, to dismiss Wallenstein. Contrary
to all expectations, the Duke of Friedland resigned his
position without a word of remonstrance, only remark-
ing, "Ferdinand has cut off his right hand". He re-
retired to Prague, where he lived on his own estates in
regal magnificence, and the Duke of Mecklenburg was
reinstated in his dominions.
Wallenstein is described by Schiller as a "tall, thin,
yellow-faced man, with short red hair, glittering eyes,
and a dark foreboding brow I"
From Prague he still sent out despatches all over Eu-
rope, and when he was known to be deeply engaged in
important business, even the traffic in the neighboring
streets was stopped, that he might not be disturbed.
He was deeply imbued with the superstition, of the
age, and spent much of his time in studying his fortune
by astrol ogy.
CHAPTER XLIIL
THE '-SNOW KING".
1630-1635. IN 1630 an unexpected helper appeared on the Protes-
Penod. tant side in the person of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden,
the "Snow King," as he was called from his far-away
northern home.
In appearance he was very striking, immensely tall and
strong, with fair complexion, blue eyes, in manner dig-
nified and calm. There is no finer character in all his-
tory than this heroic and deeply-religious man; sternly
opposed to all vice, he was severe yet gentle, and was
both loved and feared by all his subjects. He was as
able a statesman as he was general, and combined rare
qualities with the most remarkable talents.
With 15,000 men he landed on the coast of Pomer-
ania. His first act was to fall on his knees and pray for
the blessing of God on his undertaking. His army was
small in number, but absolutely united; and the piety
of their chief, the devotion of the soldiers, and the se-
verity of their discipline, were in strong contrast to the
ferocious hordes of Tilly.
The imperial troops were soon driven out of Pom-
erania and Mecklenburg ; but Gustavus Adolphus
Sack of was too late to save the great fortress of Magdeburg,
i6 3 i. e urg> which was sacked and burnt, amidst unspeakable
atrocities, by the inexorable General Tilly.
Everywhere the people saluted the Swedes as their
deliverers. But it was not so with the princes. Either
148
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 149
they were afraid of the wrath of Ferdinand II., or their
pride was humiliated at finding themselves dependent
on the intervention of strangers; in any case, they re-
ceived their new allies very coldly. Only by great pa-
tience and prudence could Gustavus Adolphus gain
some of them to his side.
The Electors of Saxony and Brandenburg absolutely
refused to enter into an alliance with him, declaring
they would "rather remain neutral than make common
cause with the Swede".
Gustavus Adolphus, not meeting with the support he
had had every right to expect, hesitated to advance
southwards, leaving enemies behind him who might
cut off his retreat to the Baltic. This hesitation for a
moment seemed to justify the contemptuous disdain
with which the Roman Catholic League heard of the
arrival of the king. "He is a schoolboy, to whom we
will give a thrashing/' said Wallenstein. " He is a King
of Snow, who will melt when he comes south," added
Ferdinand II.
Meantime all Europe was in horror at the sack of
Magdeburg. The Emperor ordered Tilly to turn his
attack upon Saxony (the neutrality of the Elector had
irritated him), and the Elector in dismay appealed to the
King of Sweden for succor. Gustavus Adolphus, put-
ting aside all rancor against the Elector for his previous
coldness, marched on Leipsic in pursuit of Tilly. Never
had that warrior been beaten. In all the thirty-six bat-
tles he had fought, he had always come off victorious.
But it is said that the crimes he had committed at Magde-
burg haunted him, and unstrung his nerves. At Breit- Breitenfeid
enfeld, not far from Leipsic, for the first time, he was 1631.
overcome by Gustavus Adolphus and fled to Bavaria.
Here on the Lech, a tributary of the Danube, he was
once more confronted with the Swedes, and a second
ISO
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
1632.
Lutza.
Death of
G-ustavus
Adolphus.
Stone of
the Swede.
time defeated. Mortally wounded, he died three days
afterwards, and the Swedes, overrunning Saxon Bavaria,
entered Munich in triumph.
In dismay at the brilliant victories of Gustavus Adol-
phus, the Emperor turned for help again to Wallenstein,
and entreated him again to raise an army in his defence.
Wallenstein agreed, but only on condition that he should
have unlimited powers over the armies of Austria and
Spain, and that at the close of the war Mecklenburg
should be restored to him. In his difficulty the Em-
peror could not refuse. In a wonderfully short space
of time Wallenstein was in the field, and the war recom-
menced. On a plain near Ltitzen, twelve miles to the
south of Leipsic, the imperial general waited his foe.
A fog delayed the battle till eleven o'clock in the morn-
ing, and then Gustavus Adolphus swung himself into his
saddle with a prayer on his lips, and to the music of Lu-
ther's noble hymn of praise. The strife raged furiously.
Gustavus received a shot in the arm, but still led on his
troops. A second bullet (possibly aimed by some traitor)
pierced his spine, and he fell lifeless from his horse.
Though Wallenstein's courage never failed, the imperial
troops wavered and fled, and the victory remained with
the Protestants*, but there was no rejoicing, for their be-
loved king was dead.
His body was found after the battle, much disfigured
and riddled with balls, under a heap of slain, near a
large stone, still called the " Stone of the Swede ".
In wild haste Wallenstein rushed off to Bohemia;
probably with the idea of gaining the crown. For this
purpose he entered into secret negotiations with his ene-
mies, but his intrigues were discovered and reported to
the Emperor; he was deposed from his high position,
but confident in his power over his soldiers, he still be-
lieved himself invincible, and shutting himself up in the
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.
town of Eger, he made offers to the princes of the Lu-
theran cause to join them against the Emperor. They,
however, refused to accept his overtures.
One week later, at midnight, a Scotchman named
Gordon, a trusted servant of Wallenstein, and an Irish s^" 1 * l6 34-
Captain Devereux, with thirty soldiers, burst into his
bedroom. He had just gone to bed, but springing up,
was standing by the table in his shirt, when the assas-
sins rushed in. "Are you the traitor who will deliver
the imperial troops to the enemy, and tear the crown
from the head of the Emperor?" cried Devereux. Wal-
lenstein made no reply, but stretching out his arms, he
was pierced by a halbert, run right through his body,
and fell dead.
There is no actual proof that Ferdinand H. instigated
the deed, but he richly rewarded the murderers; and
although Wallenstein's treachery is undoubted, his mur-
der will always remain as a blot on the history of Ferdi-
nand's reign.
CHAPTER XLIV.
deatl1 of Gusteivus Adolphus, foUowed by that of
Wallenstein, left the burden of Swedish affairs on the
Swedish, late king's chancellor and friend Oxenstiern, who con-
tinued the same policy as his master, and in 1635 allied
himself with the French under Richelieu, and carried on
the wax.
The Swedes were commanded by Bernard, Duke of
Saxe- Weimar (who died of the plague in 1639); General
Torstenson, the former page of Gustavus Adolphus; and
Wrangel, the admiral.
The French, by the Prince de Conde' and Marshal
Turenne.
The Germans, by Max Piccolomini. Johann von
Werth, and Mercy.
The victory of Leipsic gained by Torstenson over
Piccolomini incited Christian IV. of Denmark to rejoin
the fray. The coalition of Sweden, Denmark, and
France proved so strong that Maximilian of Bavaria
lost courage; the Emperor Ferdinand II., also weary
of the contest, agreed to make peace; and in 1648 the
Peace of Westphalia brought the long, desolating Thirty
* Years' War to an end. By this Peace of Westphalia
France received Alsace (with the exception of Stras-
burg), and the two important fortresses of Breis-
sach and Philipsburg, as well as Metz, Toul, and
Verdun.
Sweden received part of Pomerania, Stralsund, Stettin,
Wismar, the Island of Rugen, and the bishoprics of
Bremen and Verden, with five minions of dollars.
152
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA* 153
Brandenburg received part of Pomerania and several
bishoprics, including Magdeburg.
Holland was declared independent.
S*wiss Cantons was also declared independent.
Bavaria kept the Upper Palatinate and second Electorate,
whilst the Lower Palatinate and Electorate were
given back to the Elector Palatine of the Rhine,
thus increasing the number of electors to eight in-
stead of seven.
The Treaty of Westphalia is the first really European
treaty, and the first attempt to give a " Code of Nations"
which should form a basis for future diplomatic nego-
tiations.
It also marks the close of the ascendency of Spain
and Austria in Europe, and the rise of French power.
Germany was left in a miserable condition: worn out
by wax, and decimated by pestilence, her population di-
minished so that it is estimated that in Berlin and Koln,
out of 20,000 inhabitants, only 6000 remained alive; the
surrounding land, covered with heaps of ashes, marked
the sites of former busy towns, whilst deserts stretched
for leagues instead of fields of corn. The Protestants,
however, had reason to rejoice in the Peace of West-
phalia, for they were allowed complete religious freedom,
and the same right of holding lands and revenues as the
Roman Catholics.
LATER EMPERORS OF GERMANY.
CHAPTER XLV.
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.
L! y d AFTER Wallenstein's death the Emperor's son Ferdi-
nand took the command of the troops 7 and carried on
the war for thirteen years longer. He followed his
father to the throne of Germany in 1637, and found him-
self burdened with heavily complicated affairs of state,
besides the anxieties of the Thirty Years' War, in which
he had not only to contend with the Swedes and their
party in Germany, but he had also to withstand the en-
croachments of France. All Germany sighed for peace,
aa The Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 was joyfully received
1648. ' by all parties. It was signed in two cities, at Munster
with the French and at Osnabrxick with the Swedes.
The most important feature of this period is the re-
markable reign of Louis XIV. in France. His un-
bounded ambition drew him into the most unwarrant-
able wars, with the idea of annexing the various coun-
tries and making himself supreme ruler in Europe.
One of the arbitrary actions by which he exasperated
Germany was his taking back (1681) Strasburg without
regard to the treaty by which it had been secured to the
Germans. Four years later he fell upon the Palatinate,
which he ravaged completely, in order, as he said, to
secure to his own kingdom an eastern boundary which
should be a desert land, and give himself some reason
154
LATER EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 155
for his arrogant boast, " L'Etat c'est moi **.* Heidel-
berg, Speier, Worms, and many other cities were given
over to the names; and the beautiful country, which
had been enriched during the Middle Ages by valuable
monuments, was reduced to a mass of ruins; the remains
of the castle of Heidelberg are a living testimony to the
spoliation carried on. Ten thousand unfortunate be-
ings were turned out without house or home. The fury
and indignation of Germany cannot be described, and
the war with France now assumed a national character.
In 1658 Ferdinand died, and was succeeded by his
son Leopold I.
1 "I am the State." In spite of his greed for conquest, Louis
XIV- did. much for arts and sciences. Paris became the centre
of culture, and the French language became common to all cul-
tivated people throughout Europe.
CHAPTER XLVI.
Turkish
Invasion.
1683.
Siege of
Vienna.
Eugene of
Savoy.
LEOPOLD'S reign is specially distinguished by his con-
stant wars with the Turks. The latter, secretly en-
couraged by Louis XIV., took advantage of the dissen-
sions in Hungary to invade the plains of the Danube and
march on Vienna, when the Emperor, terrified at their
encroachments, hastily signed a treaty with them for
twenty years. Peace, however, only lasted five yean,
owing to Leopold's ill-judged conduct towards his sub-
jects. At the Treaty of Westphalia the Hungarian Pro1-
estants had obtained liberty of worship ; but Leopold I .
(educated by the Jesuits) reopened persecutions of the
people, and withdrew their rights and privileges-
The Hungarians rose in revolt, and called in the Turts
to their aid. They very soon arrived under the walls
of Vienna, commanded by the grand vizier, Kara Mus-
tafa. The court fled to Lintz, leaving the defence of the
city to Count von Staremberg; the latter made his name
famous whilst gallantly holding out the city for sixty
days; thus giving time for the imperial and Polish troops
to unite under Charles Duke of Lorraine, and John
Sobieski, the heroic King of Poland, and come to the
rescue of Vienna. It was in this engagement that the
young Prince Eugene of Savoy first distinguished him-
self. His gallant and adventurous life afterwards made
him one of the heroes of the century. After a terrific
struggle the Turks fled, and from this time suffered noth-
ing but reverses, losing place after place; Hungary fell
back into the power of the Austrians, and the war be-
156
LATER EMPERORS OF GERMANY. IS/
came general. Poland, Venice, and Russia seized the
opportunity of attacking Turkey on all her frontiers*
The Peace of Ryswick and the glorious victories of Louis Peace of
of Baden and Prince Eugene obliged the Sultan to con- 1697-*
elude the Peace of Carlowitz. Turkey ceded to Austria Peace of
all Lower Hungary except Temeswar and Belgrade; to
Venice, the Morea; and to Russia, Azof. Hungary was
from this time incorporated into Austria. The Treaty
of Carlowitz showed the Turkish question in its true
light, and announced the gradual decline of the Ottoman
Empire. &.$'< H
Meantime the arbitrary acts of Louis XTV. of France
were exasperating all Europe. Friends and enemies,
Catholics and Protestants, even the Papal See itself, all
had injuries to avenge, and only waited for a favorable
opportunity to set about it. The Revocation of the
Edict of N antes j 1685, put this into their hands. Wil- 1685.
Ham of Orange, the intrepid defender of the independ-
ence of Europe, offered to form a coalition; and Spain, League of
Holland, Sweden, Austria, Brandenburg, and nearly all f
the princes of Germany and Italy, formed at Augs-
burg the defensive League of Augsburg, which England
eventually joined.
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
CHAPTER XLVTI.
eighteenth century marks a transition from mod-
ern to contemporaneous history; and shows the struggle
of monarchism against revolutionary principles.
Three wars of succession are noticeable: those of
Spain, Poland, and Austria; the Seven Years' War end-
ing in the rise of Prussia; and the struggle which closed
with the partition of Poland, The exaggeration of the
monarchical system: had brought a reaction in favor of
national and popular rights. The need for political and
social reform had become general; the Order of Jesuits
was repressed, and finally at the end of the century the
revolutions in America and France introduced the era
of great contemporary revolutions. Louis XTV., Peter
the Great, and Charles XII. are the leading characters
in the first third of the century; in the latter part the most
remarkable are Louis XV., Frederic II., and Maria
Theresa, Washington, Catherine H., Louis XVL, Buona-
parte, and the heroes of the French revolution, etc.
Spain, Sweden, and Turkey suffered a species of
dismemberment by the loss of provinces and colonies.
Poland was completely broken up. The old duchy of
LorrairLe was annexed by Louis XTV- and that of Cour-
land by Catherine H. Savoy, Geneva, and the coun-
tries of the Lower Rhine, with the ecclesiastical Elec-
torates of the Rhine border, were violently annexed by
the French Republic. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
158
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 159
recovered its ancient prerogatives after having for a
time passed through the hands of Austria. Austria
acquired Galicia; and Prussia (Brandenburg) gained
the greater part of Pomerania and Poland, besides the
whole of ducal and royal Prussia and Silesia.
But at the end of the eighteenth century political
relations were completely upset by the French Revo-
lution.
AUSTRIAN HOUSE,
CHAPTER XLVIII.
WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. (I.)
THE elder branch of the Hapsburg family died out in
Spain in the person of Charles (Carlos) II., 1 who, in his
will, confided the succession to Philippe of Anjou, grand-
son of Lrouis XIV. The Emperor Leopold I. claimed
the throne for his second son Charles (afterwards
Charles VI.). Europe was afraid of either prince, not
wishing to see Spain so closely allied to either France or
Austria. William III. of England proposed a division
of the kingdom; but the Spaniards would not hear of
their country being dismembered, and declared them-
selves in favor of Philippe of Anjou, under the belief
that France was the only power strong enough to de-
fend their rights. The "grand monarque" accepted
the offer for his grandson, and took leave of him with
the words, "Go, my son; there are no longer any
Pyrenees!"
The news at first produced a feeling of stupefaction
throughout Europe. Wearied by the last war, they
were indisposed to commence another. But the en-
croachments of Louis XTV. were not to be tolerated.
Hapsburg Charles (Carlos) n. of Spain had two sisters;
one (Maria Theresa of Spain) married Louis XTV. of France, and
the other married Leopold L, Emperor of Germany, thus giving
both these countries a certain claim to the throne of Spain when
Carlos n. died rfrrcMjpgg.
160
AUSTRIAN HOUSE. l6l
As soon as he had taken possession of the Spanish
provinces in the name of his grandson, he turned out the
Dutch garrisons placed in the Netherlands for the pro-
tection of the United Provinces; and, moreover, on the
death of James II. of England, he proposed to place his
own son on the throne, as James HI., in prejudice to the
established King William III. There was an outburst
of anger from Great Britain at the idea of the "insolent
King of France daring to impose a sovereign upon
them".
Europe divided into two camps: on'one side, Austria
supported by England, Holland, most of the princes of
the German Empire, Portugal, Savoy and Prussia (now
growing into one of the formidable powers of Europe) ;
on the other side, France was only befriended by the
Electors of Bavaria and Cologne.
In Spain itself the Aragonese accepted Philippe V.
with enthusiasm, whilst the Castilians preferred the
Archduke Charles of Austria; but on the whole the
general feeling was in favor of the French prince.
War was declared in 1701. 1701
Louis XIV. was less fortunate than his grandson.
The allies achieved brilliant victories at Hochstadt in
Bavaria, Blenheim (1704), and Ramillies in the Nether-
lands (1706), Turin, Oudenarde on the Scheldt (1708),
Malplaquet (1709), and elsewhere both by sea and land.
Marlborough and Eugene * on the one side were more
than a match for the finest generalship of their enemies
on the other; but, in spite of all their successes, Spain
held its own, and the French prince Philippe V. was
finally established on the throne^
In the year 1705 the Emperor Leopold I. died*, and
his elder son, Joseph I., succeeded to the imperial throne.
1 Prince of Savov-Carignan, general in the service of Emp.
Leopold.
162
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Joseph L,
Utrecht,
Treaty of
Joseph L maintained the war with France till 1707;
he reigned eight years, and was followed by his brother
the Archduke Charles.
The accession of Charles VI. changed the position of
affairs, and led to the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 and that
of Rastadt in 1714, when Philippe V. kept Spain and its
colonies; Austria obtained the Spanish Netherlands,
the Kingdom of Naples, Milan and Sardinia; England
received Gibraltar and Minorca from Spain, Hudson's
Bay and Nova Scotia from France; to Holland was
granted the liberty of placing garrisons in most of the
fortresses of the Austrian Netherlands. The Duke of
Savoy 1 obtained Sicily with the title of king; the kingly
title was granted to Frederic I., who thus became the
first King of Prussia. Louis XIV. only survived the
Treaty of Utrecht a very short time; he died in 1715, leav-
ing his throne to his great-grandson Louis XV., a child
of only five years old.
1 Victor, Duke of Savoy, was obliged to give up the Kingdom
of Sicily, exchanging it with the Emperor Charles VI. for that
of Sardinia in 1720.
CHAPTER XLIX.
WAR OF THE POLISH SUCCESSION. (II.)
POLAND had begun to decline since the death of Sigis- War of
mund the Great, the last of the Jagellon dynasty, when Succes-
the crown of Poland was offered to foreign princes, and Slon "
in 1587 was taken by the grandson of Gustavus Vasa,
King of Sweden. When the gallant John Sobieski, the
last independent king, died in 1697, Poland quickly sank
down, and fell a prey to the ambition of surrounding
nations.
The war of the Polish succession in 1733 may not seem 1733-
to be of much importance in itself, but it affected some
of, the articles of the Treaty of Utrecht.
Louis XV. of France on coming of age married Marie
Leczinski, daughter of the ex-King of Poland, Stanislas
Leczinski, who had been deposed 1709. For some time
the aged French minister Fleury and the English Wai-
pole succeeded in maintaining peace in Europe; but
the death of the reigning king, Augustus H. of Poland,
rekindled a war. Poland divided into two parties: one
party, supported by France, re-elected Stanislas Leczin-
ski; whilst the other party, helped by Russia and Aus-
tria, declared for Augustus III., son of the preceding
king.
The Russians entered Poland, and turned out Stanislas,
who fled to Danzig. Cardinal Fleury could not see the
father-in-law of his king besieged in his own town with-
out offering help; but he sent only the barest necessa-
163
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
ries in the way of supplies; and all Stanislas could do
was to escape from Danzig, and take refuge in France.
Fleury, in revenge for this reverse, joined with Spain and
Sardinia in attacking Austria. The French dashed into
Lorraine. 1 At the same time the Sardinians attacked
Milan; 2 Don Carlos, the young Duke of Parma, in-
vaded Naples, and annexed it, together with the King-
dom of Sicily, thus once more bringing the Kingdom of
the Two Sicilies under Spanish dominion; and Charles
VI., finding himself vanquished on all points, signed the
Vienna f Treaty of Vienna. By this treaty Stanislas received
1738. ' Lorraine in place of Poland (but on his death in 1766
Lorraine was once more united to France); Tuscany
was given to Duke Francis, as compensation for the
loss of Lorraine. Don Carlos kept the conquered king-
doms of Naples and Sicily, but gave up the Duchy of
Parma 'in exchange to the Emperor. The King of Sar-
dinia obtained some estates near Milan. Augustus III.
remained in possession of Poland.
J Duke Francis of Lorraine had married Maria Theresa,
daughter of the Emperor Charles VI.
3 Don Carlos (afterwards Carlos III. of Spain) was the son of
Philip V. of Spain.
CHAPTER L.
WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. (III.)
As the Emperor Charles VI. had no sons, and he fore- Pragmatic
saw that the House of Hapsburg in Germany would charievi.
become extinct upon his death, he earnestly desired that
his favorite daughter, Maria Theresa, Archduchess of
Austria, might be acknowledged Empress, and succeed
to the throne, in preference to the children of his
brother Joseph. He therefore issued a Pragmatic 1723. -
Sanction to this effect, and appealed to all the European
powers to agree to it. To obtain the consent of the
King of Poland, he supported the claim of Augustus IH.
against Stanislas Leczinski; and for the same purpose
he allowed many concessions to France and Spain
through the Treaty of Vienna. Prince Eugene at last
told the Emperor plainly that he had "much better
seek for help by supporting a strong army of his own,
than by making vague diplomatic premises to other
countries ".
The death of Charles VI. in 1740 opened a new Euro- iS^
pean question. According to the Pragmatic Sanction,
Maria Theresa was proclaimed Empress, 1 but a for-
midable league was drawn together to oppose her
election.
The Electors of Bavaria and Saxony 2 each claimed
the succession to the Empire.
1 And Queen of Hungary and Bohemia.
a AiTgiretrw TTT- of Poland.
165
i66
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Allies
against
Maria
Theresa.
Allies of
Maria
Theresa.
First
Period,
1740-42-
Second
Period,
1743-44.
Third
Period,
1744-45.
Fourth
Period,
1746-48,
Holwitz,
174*-
France declared in favor of the Elector of Bavaria.
Prussia, in its new character as a kingdom under
Frederic II., wanted to get hold of Silesia.
Philip V. of Spain, or rather his ambitious wife,
Elizabeth of Parma, wanted the German crown for one
of her own sons.
Charles Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, desired to
secure Milan and the surrounding estates.
England only, under George II., who was jealous of
the rising power of Prussia and Bavaria, and feared
anything which would endanger his own Hanover
electorate, declared for Austria and Maria Theresa.
The war of the Austrian succession presents many
turns of fortune. The political "wheels within wheels"
became more and more involved as the time went on.
At the outset, Austria was fighting alone with Hun-
gary against a strong league, and was beaten.
The alliance of England and the neutrality of Prussia
encouraged Austria, and gave her partial success.
The rejection of neutrality by Frederic II., and the
momentary defection of England, brought fresh re-
verses upon Austria.
At last a peace With Prussia and the renewed sup-
port of England established equilibrium for a second
time. From this it will be seen that England and
Prussia exercised a decisive influence on the march of
events.
Frederic IE. of Prussia was the first to enter on a cam-
paign. He took possession of Silesia, and remained
master of the province after having beaten the Austrians
at Molwitz. Shortly afterwards a Franco-Bavarian
army entered the archduchy, descended the valley of the
Danube, and was soon within a few leagues of Vienna.
The Saxons in their turn entered Bohemia, whilst tne
Spaniards and Sardinians advanced on Milan*
AUSTRIAN HOUSE. 167
old Hapsburg monarchy seemed to be on the eve of
complete destruction.
The allies, however, had entered into the league
against Austria from such various motives that the
coalition was bound to be speedily dissolved. Neither
the Elector of Saxony nor the King of Prussia cared to
work for the aggrandizement of Bavaria. Frederic II.
himself was even ready to ally himself with Maria
Theresa, if she would only give up Silesia. As for the
King of Sardinia, his mind was entirely engrossed with
the dread of seeing the Bourbons who were already
masters of Naples established in Upper Italy; for his
own "young kingdom" would then have been infallibly
crushed between the Bourbons of France and the Bour-
bons of Spain.
Three circumstances saved Austria: the mistakes of
her enemies; the heroic devotion of the Hungarians;
and the intervention of England.
The Elector of Bavaria, who was a man as vain as
he was incapable, committed blunder after blunder.
Instead of marching on Vienna he turned to Prague, in
order to be crowned King of Bohemia; and then went
to Frankfort, where he was crowned Emperor under the Charles
vn , 1742.
name of Charles VII.
Meantime Maria Theresa never lost her courage;
even from a child she had shown herself gifted not only
with rare talents, but with powers of command and or-
ganization such as would have done credit to any man'jjC
'frmgT In her nineteenth year she had married Franz
Steffan of Lorraine, the Duke of Tuscany, and she was
hardly twenty-fouB when she succeeded her father as
Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, and laid claim to the
title of Empress under the authority of the Pragmatic
Sanction. But now enemies assailed her on all sides;
and well might Prince Eugene say "that the best de-
1 68 HISTORY OF GERMANY,
fence for the Pragmatic Sanction would be richly filled
coffers and a well-disciplined army ".
Whilst the new Emperor was wasting his time with
coronation ceremonials, Maria Theresa called a " Reichs-
tag" (Hungarian Diet) at Presburg, presented herself
before her subjects, dressed in mourning, with the
crown of St. Steffan on her head and the sword of
Hungary at her side; holding her baby in her arms she
addressed the assembly in a pathetic speech in Latin, 1
declaring that her only hope lay in the known courage
of her faithful Hungarian subjects. The Magyar
chiefs forgetting all the tyrannies of their Hapsburg
masters drew their swords and shouted enthusiastic-
ally, "Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa"
(We will die for our King Maria Theresa) .
The country rose en masse ; thousands of Hungarians,
Croats, and Pandours (Hungarian infantry) poured
into Bohemia and Bavaria; the Franco-Bavarian ar-
mies were scattered; and whilst the conceited Charles
VII. was parading at Frankfort, ids capital Munich fell
into the hands of the Austrians and Hungarians, whose
hordes of soldiery ravaged the country on all sides.
The French troops, engaged to defend Bavaria, were
left by the absurd parsimony of Fleury without money
or supplies, and would certainly have fallen victims to
the Austrians, had it not been for the brilliant conduct
of the young Maurice, Duke of Saxony, illegitimate son
of Augustus H v who had for many years been attached
to the service of France.
1 Languages of the Ausfro -Hungarian Empire:
German in Upper and Lower Austria, Tyrol, etc.
Magyar, a kind of Finnish, spoken by the Magyars of Hungary.
Csechf a kind of Sclavonic, in Bohemia,
Polish, Ruthenian, Romanic, and many others.
Tffl 1849 Latin was the language of the Hungarian law-courts
AUSTRIAN HOUSE. 169
In England, Walpole had been superseded by the
young and gifted minister William Pitt, and he gave it
as his opinion that the country ought to send abundant
assistance, both in money and troops, and openly take
the part of Maria Theresa. Through his mediation, Treaty of
Breslan,
the young queen at last consented to come to terms 1742.
with Prussia, Saxony, and Sardinia; but it was not
without heartburning that she agreed to cede Silesia to
Frederic II. at the Treaty of Breslau, 1742.
Two years had hardly elapsed, however, when Fred- 1744-
eric II., fearing that Maria Theresa would succeed in
retaking his beloved Silesia, joined the French and
Bavarian alliance against her, invaded Bohemia, and
captured Prague after a ten days' siege. On the other
hand, England being threatened with an invasion in
Scotland by Charles Edward, the Young Pretender
was obliged to recall her troops from the continent; and
Austria, abandoned to herself, and confronted once
more with her formidable Prussian adversary, was de-
feated on all sides. Louis XV. also invaded the Aus-
trian Netherlands, and gained the victory of Fontenoy
(near Tournay), whilst Frederic of Prussia three times
defeated the Austrian forces.
In dismay the Austrian troops were recalled, Ba-
varia was evacuated, and Charles VII. re-entered his
capital Munich.
Scarcely, however, had he established himself there
when he died, and his son Maximilian Joseph hastened
to conclude a peace with Maria Theresa, promising to
give his vote for her husband Franz Steffan of Lorraine
(whom she desired to have elected Emperor), on con-
dition that the cession of Silesia was granted to him.
This was done at the Treaty of Dresden, and the Duke Treaty of
of Lorraine was crowned Emperor as Francis I.
Francis I.
CHAPTER LI.
MARIA THERESA AND FRANCIS I.
EUROPE had need of repose, and the various States
and _ set to work to recover from their fatigue. France and
England, Frederic II. and Maria Theresa, turned their
attention to industries and national works, to raise their
kingdoms once more to social prosperity. Unfortu-
nately, there were too many causes of discord for a
long - continued peace. The various maritime powers
were dismayed at the increasing power of the English
fleet; the surrounding nations were jealous of the rapid
development of Prussia; and Frederic II. the Great,
far from seeking to gain their sympathies, amused him-
self by wounding the feelings of the kings and queens
by pungent epigrams. It was only too easy to find good
reasons for the Seven Years' War which followed:
I. The old maritime rivalry between France and
England.
II. The new antagonism between Austria and
Prussia.
THE SEVEN YEAJRS* WAR.
1756-63* " Europe," says Voltaire in his " Siede de Louis XV.,"
"had never seen brighter days than those of the seven
years 1748-1755, when commerce flourished from Pe-
tersburg to Cadiz, the flue arts were everywhere encour-
aged, a mutual sympathy seemed to pervade all nations;
.170
AUSTRIAN HOUSE. I/ 1
Europe appeared to be one large family, re-united after
many quarrels."
Maria Theresa of Austria, however, could never for-
give Frederic II. of Prussia for gaining Silesia, and
it is said that she never saw a Silesian without bursting
into tears. In the hope of recovering the province, she
entered into a treaty with the Swedish King Adolphus
Frederic (of Holstein Gottorp, a descendant of Vasa),
with the Russian Empress Elizabeth, and the Polish
King Augustus III. (Elector of Saxony), for the par-
tition between them of the Prussian kingdom. Knowing
by experience that she could have no hope of success
against Frederic II., if she should have to guard against
France at the same time, and so to divide her army by
keeping one portion engaged on the Rhine, she therefore
employed her clever diplomatist, Prince Kaunitz, in
winning favor for her at Versailles.
It would have seemed impossible for France to set
aside all her traditional politics, and enter into any inti-
mate alliance with her old foe. But the unworthy mon-
arch of France, Louis XV., was entirely in the hands of
his favorites; and Madame de Pompadour reigned
supreme at court. She had been deeply hurt at some
witty but cutting sarcasms levelled at her by the King
of Prussia, and she received with delight the advances
of Maria Theresa. She was still further charmed when
the latter wrote to her in the most flattering manner,
calling her " my good friend and cousin ". This was Treaty of
sufficient to secure a so-called "treaty of defence" be- 1756.
tween France and Austria, having for its ultimate end
the annihilation of Prussia.
Frederic II. and George II., finding themselves neg-
lected by their former allies, drew together: England
offered to furnish subsidies to Prussia, if Frederic would
defend Hanoverian interests in return*
172 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
The opening of the Seven Years' War shows an as-
tonishing position of affairs:
Sweden going hand in hand with Russia ;
Poland with Austria, united in the one desire to dis-
member Prussia; but even this was less wonderful than
the Franco-Austrian coalition.
The Northern powers hoped to gain some territorial
advantage out of the business; but the treaty con-
cluded by France was doubly impolitic, as it turned
away the maritime power of France from its resistance to
England, absorbing it in a struggle with Prussia her
natural ally to the advantage of Austria, her old enemy.
1756. Thus France, Austria, Russia, Poland, and Sweden
were united in an act of spoliation, desiring to wipe out
from the map of Europe a country hitherto only hold-
ing a secondary rank amongst the sovereignties.
England and Prussia alone combined to defend na-
tional interests and the balance of power, against petty
boudoir jealousies and dynastic ambitions.
On the one side Elizabeth of Russia and Madame de
Pompadour upholding the hereditary pretensions of the
Hapsburgs; on the other, Frederic II. and William
Pitt a great monarch and a great statesman very
different in personality, but each great enough to admire
the other, and both thoroughly in earnest in working for
the grandeur and glory of their respective nations.
Frederic n. of Prussia, seeing warlike preparations
made on all sides, determined to be beforehand in the
field. He placed himself at the head of 60,000 men,
attacked Dresden, 1 and forced the army of the Elector
of Saxony to retreat to Pirna. Leaving half his troops
before Pirna, Frederic turned to Bohemia, marched
against the Austrians, gained the battle of Losowitz,
1 In Dresden Frederic found the papers showing the treacher-
ous designs of his enemies against Prussia.
AUSTRIAN HOUSE. 173
then back again to Pirna, forcing the Saxons to capitulate.
He obliged Augustus III. (Elector of Saxony) to retire
to his Kingdom of Poland, took possession of his elec-
torate, and forced 15,000 men to surrender and enter his
own regiments.
This unforeseen aggression excited a universal clamor.
France declared the invasion of Saxony was a violation
of the Treaty of Westphalia, and sent three armies, one
under the command of Richelieu, to the rescue.
At first, the French had some success, and Prussia 1757.
was menaced at all points. Frederic hurried a second
time into Bohemia, gained a desperate victory at
Prague, but in his turn suffered a complete defeat at
Kolin. It was in commemoration of the Austrian vie-
tory at Kolin that Maria Theresa instituted the military
" Order of Maria Theresa".
Meantime, the Russians and the Swedes were ad- Convention
of Kloster-
vancing victoriously; the French beat the English and Seven,
Hanoverians, and obliged them to sign a treaty, called
the Kloster-Seven Convention.
The imperial armies invaded Silesia, and penetrated
into Berlin; and a French army, under the Marshal
de Soubise, advanced through Thuringia, threatening
Frederic on the west. Frederic seemed lost, judging
from his desperate position, and he even thought of com-
mitting suicide. It is said that he was only restrained
from this by the fear that Voltaire would hold up his
name to public contempt after his death.
He therefore once more marched against the French.
At Rosbach, on the 5th of November, 1757, the Prus-
sians had stationed their camp, and the soldiers were
supposed to be reposing in their tents, when all at once,
at a given signal, the tents sank to the ground, and
there stood the whole Prussian army, in full battle array.
There was a complete panic; the German contin-
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
gents threw down their arms at the first cannon shot,
and the French soldiers followed their example; only
two brave Swiss regiments, "like impenetrable for-
tresses of red brick," as Frederic himself called them,
covered their retreat, and prevented its being turned
into a complete rout.
Another brilliant victory was won by Frederic at
Leuthen (considered by Napoleon as one of the chefs
$&wore of military art) ; and Frederic made a glorious
end to the campaign, by which he had thought he should
perish miserably.
It was the happiest moment of his life. Fortune
seemed to favor him once more. William Pitt refused
to ratify the Convention of Kloster-Seven ; and his
German allies (Hanover, Brunswick, and Hesse)
again took the field.
Equilibrium once again established, the struggle
became a more equal one. For three years the war
was pursued with varied success on either side; but un-
questionably Prussia could not long have resisted so
many powerful enemies. The greater part of Fred-
erick estates were occupied by the armies of his ene-
mies, and even his capital was taken and pillaged by the
Austro-Russians. Moreover, George IT. died; and his
successor George HE., desiring peace, ceased to give
any active support to the Prussians. The situation was
hopelessly critical; the two Empresses, Maria Theresa
and Elizabeth, felt assured of a triumphant ending to
the war. Frederic was at Breslau with the remains of
his army; saddened and dispirited, he refused all con-
solation, though he was no less resolute to end his days
"in glory in some way or another," whilst defending
Silesia, the one object of his ambition.
No less dispirited were his troops, who even spoke of
laying down their arms, should they be called out to
AUSTRIAN HOUSE. 1/5
battle again. Europe was in daily expectation of see-
ing Frederic the Great succumb to his misfortunes,
when the death of the Empress Elizabeth of Russia put
an end to all their surmises. Her successor Peter III.,
an ardent admirer of Frederic the Great, not only
abandoned the Austrian alliance, but sent troops to the
aid of Prussia.
The news came as a thunderclap upon Austria.
Frederic, with renewed energy, took the field, and
chased the Austrians out of Silesia. The new Czar, it
is true, was shortly after dethroned; and his wife,
Catherine II., his successor, retired from the war.
But Prussia was none the less saved. Maria Theresa Peace of
Paris* iota
and her allies were at the end of their resources; Feb., 1763.
France and Spain had seen the ruin of their fleets.
"Peace!" became the universal cry. It was pro-
claimed in the Treaty of Paris, between the maritime
powers, England, France, and Spain; and at Huberts- Peace of
burg, not far from Leipsic, between Austria and Prussia; burg, 15th
when Frederic kept Silesia, on giving his promise to e " I7 ^
vote for the election of Joseph, eldest son of Maria
Theresa, as "King of the Romans ".
The Elector of Saxony (and King of Poland) re-
ceived back his estates; Sweden evacuated the Prussian
share of Pomerania; and France gave up Minorca and
Canada to the English.
The Seven Years' War had cost Europe a million
men, and materially changed, not the territories, but the
political influence of several nations. France, deprived
of her fleet by the victories of Hawke, Anson, Boscawen,
and Pocock, and of her colonies by the Peace of Hu-
bertsburg, ceased to be regarded as the first military
power on the continent. Austria was considerably
weakened, whilst Prussia emerged covered with glory,
and became one of the first-class European powers.
176 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
England, by the destruction of her enemies' fleets, and
by the increase of her colonies, obtained important
annexations, laid the foundation of the vast Indian
Empire, became possessor of half North America, and
remained supreme on the ocean.
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA.
CHAPTER LII.
JOSEPH II. (THE REFORMER), LEOPOLD II.,
AND FRANCIS II.
WHEN the Emperor Francis I. (of Lorraine) died,
son, Joseph H., was declared Emperor; but until
time of her death, his energetic mother, Maria Theresa,
really acted as regent; and history has seldom shown
us a finer or more spirited ruler than she proved herself
to be throughout her long stormy reign. As a mother,
she had been careful in the education of her children;
and Joseph especially had from a boy steadily studied
the history and welfare of his future people. At the age Joseph EL
of thirty-nine, when he was left sole ruler by his mother's former
decease (1780), he possessed a thorough knowledge of
the position and daily lives of the various classes of his
subjects. He had travelled in Italy, France, and
Spain, and even gone as far as Russia. Filled with a
great desire to improve his country, he carried out
many civil and religious changes. One of the principal
of these was the "Edict of Toleration," giving to the
Protestants and Jews equal rights with the Roman
Catholics. He did away altogether with vassalage, and
thus finished his mother's work in putting a final end to
the feudal system. Unfortunately, the Emperor's good
178
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Disputed
Succession
to Palati-
nate of the
Rhine.
Duchy of
Bavaria,
Peace of
Teschen,
works were not allowed to be carried on without inter-
ruption. The Hungarians and the inhabitants of the
Austrian Netherlands revolted and embittered the last
years of his life, and the Turks made continual inroads
on the borderlands.
One of the gravest questions of his reign was the par-
tition of Poland. After the "first partition" fifteen
years of peace followed for Eastern Europe, but the
ambition of the Emperor, who, to carry out his ideas of
conquest, was ready to ally himself with any one likely
to assist him, brought on a general war. The house of
Wittelsbach (Bavaria) was divided into two branches;
the elder or Palatinate branch had Heidelberg for its
capital, and is known as the "Palatinate of the Rhine";
the younger, or Ducal branch, had the Duchy of Ba-
varia, with Munich for its capital, and at this time owned
a second electorate. The younger or Bavarian branch
became extinct on the death of the Emperor Maximilian
Joseph, son of Charles VII.; and the Elector Palatine,
Charles Theodore (chief of the elder branch), inherited
the succession, and thus re-united the two sides of the
Palatine House, and combined the two electorates.
Charles Theodore had no children; and Joseph II.
made an agreement with him, by which Bavaria and the
Upper Palatinate should, on his death, be united with
Austria. The German States, Prussia above all, and
all the old adversaries of the Hapsburgs, refused, at any
price, to consent to an act which would put central
Germany at the mercy of Austria. Frederic II. of
Prussia even invaded the Austrian dominion of Bo-
hemia, and a new War of Succession seemed on the
point of bursting out. But, through the mediation of
France and Russia, the Peace of Teschen was arranged,
and a universal war was averted. The succession of
Charles Theodore was secured to his next heir, the Duke
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 179
of Deux Fonts (or Bipont, Zweibriicken). 1 In this dip-
lomatic struggle, Austria was threatening the peace of
Europe, whilst Frederic II. was defending the Emperor.
Catherine II. had only acted with a view of extending
her influence in Germany, and she did not hesitate to
abandon her old ally, Frederic II., and make overtures
to the Emperor Joseph, when she thought him more dis-
posed to concur in her plans of conquest. The political
questions of the day were full of annoyance and weari-
ness to Joseph. His whole passion was for reform.
This carried him into excesses, which roused the indig-
nation of his subjects ; for, unfortunately, he disregarded
the inequality of culture, and the various prejudices of
the mixed population tinder his dominion; and the
changes wrought so suddenly appeared to the mass of
his ignorant subjects merely so much tyranny. He
accorded complete liberty to all the people, whether of
the Protestant faith or the Greek Church; destroyed
2024 monasteries, only leaving 700; the number of
monks was reduced from 37,000 to 17,000; the revenues
arising from these confiscations were expended in the
erection of new parishes and useful institutions, such as
schools, hospitals, poor-houses, and refuges for waifs
and strays. The Bible was translated into the national
tongue.
As a civil reformer, his great aim was to assure to all
his subjects personal liberty, by the suppression of serf-
dom and taxes, and the equality of all ranks and classes
in the eyes of the law. These measures, however ex-
cellent in themselves, introduced without regard for
1 The Duchy of Zweibrttcken (Bipont) was in possession of
Charles Gustavus, Count Palatine of the Rhine, nephew of Gus-
tavus Adolphus. He afterwards became Charles X. of Sweden,
by the resignation of his cousin, Queen Christina, daughter of
Gustavus Adolphus.
l8o HISTORY OF GERMANY.
ancient laws and rights, caused the greatest trouble and
perplexity to the people; and the unfortunate Emperor
was so chagrined by the overthrow of his projects, and
the misunderstanding of his subjects that his death was
accelerated by grief; and the epitaph he composed for
himself gives the keynote to the sadness of his later years:
"Here lies Joseph II., unfortunate in all his under-
takings ".
, Joseph II. was succeeded by his brother, Leopold II.
The latter comprehended that the acquisition of some
provinces of the Ottoman Empire would not compen-
sate to Austria for the fatal results of the establishment
of the Russians on the Danube, and he therefore made
peace with the Sultan, and gave him back his conquests
Francis IL, (see Danubian Principalities). He only lived two years,
however, and was followed by his son Francis II. in 1792.
1793. The Rhenish Provinces revolted against Francis H.
in 1793; and in the ruinous wars that followed between
Germany and France, the Emperor lost the Netherlands,
all his territories west of the Rhine, and his states in
Italy. Francis II. joined in the second partition of
Poland in 1795. But the end of the eighteenth century
witnessed the complete overthrow of all European poli-
Treaty of tics by the French revolution. At the Treaty of Lun-
ville, Germany was obliged to make large cessions of ter-
ritory to France (1801); and Francis II., hopeless of
holding the reins of government longer over his large
discordant dominions, resigned the crown of Germany,
and from henceforth is known as Francis L, Emperor of
Austria, Hungary and Bohemia (Austro-Hungarian
Empire), 1806.
CHAPTER LIU.
THE PARTITION OF POLAND.
POLAND had remained far behind the other countries
in civilization, and in the eighteenth century was no
further advanced than in the middle ages. Amongst
the other Western nations, social development had
emancipated and raised the lower orders, whilst the
mass of the population in country places in Poland re-
mained plunged in a serfdom as hard as it was lowering.
The middle class had no power whatever; the nobles
alone enjoyed any political rights, and Poland was prac-
tically an aristocratic republic, with a nominal chief.
The kingdom had fast declined since the days of the
noble John Sobieski, the last independent king, who
even himself had failed to bring his turbulent people to
order. The dissolution was only further hurried on in
the reigns of the two princes of the House of Saxony,
Augustus H. and Augustus III., who introduced into
Warsaw (Varsovie) the luxury and self-indulgence of
the great capitals of Europe.
The country was given up to the intrigues of Russia.
During the Seven Years' War (17561763), the troops
of the Czarina Elizabeth not only traversed the land at
will, but established cantonments, as if Poland were
already a Russian province,
On the death of Augustus HI., 1764, the electors 1764*
divided into two parties, one calling themselves the
"patriotic parry," and desiring to hold to the old con-
stitution; the other trusting to the protection of Russia,
and proclaiming Stanislas Poniatowski, an unworthy
favorite of Catherine LL, as their king.
1 82 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
For a time the attention of Russia was diverted
from Polish affairs by a fresh outbreak against the
Turks. Some unfortunate Poles had taken refuge on
Ottoman land; the Russians pursued them, burnt a
village, and massacred the Turks.
At the news of this violation of territory, the people
of Constantinople rose, and demanded that the Sultan
should declare war against Russia. The struggle was a
terrible one; on both sides, acts of atrocious barbarity
were committed: the Russians took Moldavia and Wal-
lachia; and the Turks, weakened by a Greek insurrec-
tion in the Morea, were also compelled to give up the
Crimea to the Czarina.
Then^Catherine II. turned her attention to Poland.
Partition, -*
Feb., 1773. The first arrangment for the partition of the unhappy
country was made in a secret convention between Russia
and Prussia, in the spring of 1772 ; but later in the same
year the question came to an open issue.
Prussia and Austria, fearing the increase of Russian
g., m*. domination, and in dismay at seeing Wallachia and
Moldavia Muscovite provinces, decided on the definite
dismemberment of Poland. It was at this time that
Maria Theresa, acting as co-regent of Austria, with her
son, Joseph II., put aside her detestation of the con-
queror of Silesia, and made overtures to Frederic II. of
Prussia. A meeting took place between the two sov-
ereigns. This unforeseen alliance disconcerted Russia:
Catherine was afraid that Austria would take up the
cause of Turkey and prepared to make concessions.
As a sufficient inducement to the Empress to abndon
Moldavia and Wallachia, the other powers agreed to
conclude a treaty of partition, by which each was to take
possession of a certain portion of Poland. It is said,
however, that it was not without compunction thai
Maria Theresa dosed with her share of the prey; and
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 183
that she suffered pangs of conscience on account of the
injustice done to the unfortunate country.
Meantime, the war between Russia and Turkey con-
tinued, and was only concluded in 1774 by the Treaty
of Kainardji in Bulgaria, by which the independence of
the Crimea was established, and certain rights granted
to Russia over all countries in which the Greek Church
was established.
The relations between Russia and Poland were grow- 1793*
ing terribly strained. In 1793, the Poles thought that
the moment had come to recover their independence.
The nobles had at last comprehended the necessity of a
reform. They had suppressed old abuses, changed the
constitution, and all Europe hailed with approbation
what appeared to be the commencement of a new era for
Poland. Frederic William II. 1 of Prussia promised
his support to the reforming party, but a certain num-
ber of the aristocratic party declared that they would
defend the old state of things, and preserve so they
said the ancient liberty of the people. They even in-
voked succor from Russia; and the Czarina, Catherine
IE., sent troops to crush the partisans of the new con-
stitution.
The reforming party at last succumbed. The old ws.
order of things was re-established, and Catherine was
proclaimed by the opposition as " the restorer of liberty
to Poland". They soon, however, saw that they had
simply been made the tools of Russian ambition.
In a very short time Catherine n. and Frederic Wil- Second
J . . Partition,
Ham n. agreed to make a second partition of the coun- 1793.
try, declaring that Poland was infected by a revolution-
ary spirit, and must be suppressed "for the sake of the
neighboring states". Again the Diet made a strong re-
sistance. All opposition was useless. The new paxti-
1 The successor of Frederic IL
1 84 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
tion was executed by violence, and only a third of its an-
cient territory was left to Poland.
1794. In 1794 one last expiring effort was made by the
Poles, under the heroic Kosciusko, who had already
valiantly fought for the cause of liberty under Washing-
ton in America. All in vain. Discord, treason, and,
above all, the indifference of the mass of the nation, who
were still sunk in serfdom, paralyzed the efforts of the
patriots. The king, Stanislas, who for a moment had
appeared to be stirred into enthusiasm, yielded to the
threats of Catherine II. and the King of Prussia, and
withdrew his support from the reforming party, under
pretext of the all-pervading fear with which the French
Revolutionists had inspired the hearts of the sover-
eigns. It had seemed possible that the cause of liberty-
should triumph; but the three powers that had already
made the second partition renewed their alliance.
Catherine sent the terrible Souvaroff to crush the
Poles. Kosciusko was wounded and taken prisoner,
and ended his life in Switzerland. Praga, the beautiful
suburb of Warsaw, was carried by assault, and given up
to fire and sword. Thousands of the inhabitants were
massacred. Warsaw, horrified at so much bloodshed,
surrendered. Stanislas Poniatowski was ordered to
abdicate, and "in the name of peace and order" the
three powers divided the kingdom between them, and
Poland was wiped out of the European map of nations.
Prussia (Frederic William IL) received Polish Prussia
and nearly all of Poland proper, from Posen and
Waxsaw to Grodno on the Niemen.
Austria (Emperor Francis I.) received Galicia.
Russia (Catherine II.) took Eastern Poland, Podolia,
Volhynia, and Lithuania.
In 1832 the old kingdom of Poland was formally in-
corporated into Russia by a ukase of Nicholas I., Czar.
BOOK II.
NOTE.
IT -would be impossible to understand how Prussia, came to hold
such, a prominent position in European affairs without reviewing
its individual history; so we must retrace our steps to show the
growth of the little electorate of Brandenburg, and the rise of
the Hohenzollern family to their present zenith of power and im-
portance at the head of the German Empire*
THE RISE OF PRUSSIA.
CHAPTER LIV.
THE MARGRAVATE OF BRANDENBURG OR
BRANNYBOR.
IN the old days of the great Migration of Nations, a
wild and warlike Sclavonic tribe of Wends 1 (Venedi),
conquered after a time by the Borussi, came from their
eastern dwellings in Central Asia, and settled themselves
on the right bank of the Elbe.
Between them and the Germans there always ex-
isted the bitterest hatred; and in order to keep the
savage Wends and Borussi in check, the Emperor AJX 908.
Heinrich I., the Fowler, established a "Count of the
Marches" on the left bank of the river to prevent en-
croachments. This region was known as the "Nord-
mark". When one Count died, another knight was
sent by the Emperor to take his place.
In 1133, Count Albert of Ballenstadt was appointed Albert toe
to the post. His courage was so great that he was nick-
named " the Bear," and his rule was wise and prosperous.
He increased his territories, making them hereditary in
his family; introduced clever workmen from Germany
to teach the Borussi how to carry on industries and hus-
bandry; taught them the German language and cus-
toms, and caused Christianity to be preached. He en-
1 Some descendants of the original Wends are still to be seen in
parts of Prussia, distinct in dialect, dress, manners, and customs
from the present inhabitants.
187
i88
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Mftrien-
burg.
Decline of
the
Teutonic
Order.
coura g e( ^ agriculture, founded several cities of which
Berlin and Spandau were the principal and called his
dominion the "Margravate of Brandenburg".
Out of this Margravate sprang the mighty kingdom
of Prussia.
The successors of Albert the Bear were prudent gov-
ernors, and his family held the title of "Markgraf"
until 1320, when the last Markgraf died without leaving
a son.
THE TEUTONIC KNIGHTS.
The Teutonic knights were a military and religious
order, founded about 1191 by Frederic of Swabia,
through the humanity of the Germans (Teutons) to the
sick and wounded in the Holy Land under Guy de
Lusignan, before Acre. After the sixth crusade these
knights were obliged to resign their hold over Jerusa-
lem, and yield up the holy places to the Turks. On
their way back to Europe they were invited by the Po-
lish Duke, Boleslas V., to come and help the Poles
against their fierce, barbarous enemies, the Borussi.
The knights accepted the offer, and made themselves
renowned by their conquest of Prussia and the provinces
on the Baltic Sea. At first they fixed their headquarters
on the Vistula at Kulm, then they founded the fortress of
Thorn, and later they made Marienburg lately built
their capital from 1309 to 1457, when they established
themselves at Konigsberg.
But the kinghts soon became corrupted by the im-
mense riches with which they had been endowed by the
fervent piety of the Christians, and instead of keeping
up their character for undaunted courage and devoted
consistency of life, they gave way to self-indulgence and
a love of display which gradually ruined the order, and
contributed to the weakening of the very kingdom
THE RISE OF PRUSSIA. 189
which they had undertaken to support. It is told of
one of the Grand Masters that he gave an entertain-
ment to his knights, when the guests were served with
thirty courses, and then allowed to carry away with them
the gold plates and cups on which they had been served.
Luxury produced vices of all descriptions, and the more
the knights degenerated, the harder became their con-
duct towards the unfortunate serfs and other classes
in their power, till at last the Prussians rose in revolt
against the knights.
In the battle of Tannenberg, 1410, they called in the Tannin-
Poles to their assistance, and placed themselves under 14'.
their protection. A large portion of the Teutonic pos-
sessions was incorporated into Poland in 1456, and into
Brandenburg in 1521.
At this day when Poland has ceased to appear on the Poland,
map of Europe, it is difficult to realize what a position it
held in the fifteenth century, when at the height of its
power its possessions reached from the Baltic to the Car-
pathians, and comprehended Poland, Lithuania, West-
ern Prussia (taken from the Teutonic knights), Podolia
(Volhynia), and the Ukraine or Little Russia within
its limits.
Prussia was then only known as a -fief of Poland.
When the successors of Albert the Bear died out, I320 .
a long strife ensued as to who should inherit the Mar-
gravate of Brandenburg; and at last the German Em-
peror, Ludwig of Bavaria, decided to give it to his own
son Ludwig.
Three Margraves of the Bavarian House ruled sue- Bavarian
T House.
cessively:
1323. Ludwig I.
1352. Ludwig EL. (First Elector).
1365. Otto the Sluggard.
The Emperor Charles IV. made Ludwig II. "Elector
190 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
of Germany," and from thenceforth Brandenburg ranks
as an Electorate. The three Bavarian princes ruled
badly, and Otto the Sluggard gave his lands back to the
Emperor. Charles IV. took the management of affairs
into his own hands, restored peace and order, and on his
^378. death his son Sigismund of Luxemburg became Elector
of Brandenburg. The other son of Charles IV-., Wen-
ceslas the Drunkard, was on the throne of Germany
leading such a scandalous life that Sigismund himself
was proposed by one party of electors as far more
suitable to take his brother's place ; for as King of Hun-
gary and Regent of Prussia, he was showing himself a
despotic ruler. But there was considerable difference
Frederic of opinion amongst the electors, till Frederic of Hohen-
brg, i^fs. zollern, Count of Nuremberg, undertook to obtain the
general suffrage on behalf of his cousin Sigismund. He
succeeded; and in 1410, on the death of Rupert of the
Rhine, Sigismund was unanimously elected to take his
1417. place. In reward for his good offices, the Emperor
Sigismund sold the Electorate of Brandenburg to
Frederic of Hohenzollern for 100,000 ducats, and thus
placed at the head of Prussia the present reigning
family.
CHAPTER LV.
THE Hohenzollern House was divided in the fifteenth
century into two branches, the Swabian and Fran- Family,
cordan. Frederic of Nuremberg belonged to the Fran-
conian branch.
The Hohenzollerns have been distinguished, ever
since the days of this first Burggraf of Nuremberg, for
certain excellent traits of character, which have been
handed down to their descendants, and firmly stamped
upon the members of the family. These characteristics
have certainly helped to place the family in its present
position, at the head of the greatest central European
power of the day. Conspicuous amongst these qualities
are thrift, strong common sense, a keen love of justice,
indomitable courage, and a clear-sighted perception
of what is most for the good of the country, and
what is due from the sovereign, as the "Father of his
people". This clear-sightedness, and single-hearted
devotion to duty, activity of mind, and fixedness of pur-
pose, give a power which is irresistible; the idea which
they hold of their own position is that the sovereign is
the " first servant of the State," and this begets the most
absolute trust from all classes, and explains the attach-
ment of the people for their king. The Hohenzollerns
expect and desire to be looked upon as the " sovereign
of the poor," they are men of incorruptible rectitude,
and are enthusiastic educators.
191
192 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Twelve electors of the same family followed Frederic
of Nuremberg.
ELECTORS OF BRANDENBURG (HOHENZOLLERNS).
Hohen-
Twelvc [" 1415, Frederic I. of Nuremberg.
zoQem
Electors.
Electors
1440, Frederic IL (Ironside).
1470, Albert III. (AchiUes).
1476, Johann III. (Cicero).
. , 1499, Joachim I. (Nestor).
I 53S> Joachim II. (Hector).
1571, Johann George.
1598, Joachim Frederic, m. Eleanor of
Prussia.
f 1608, Johann Sigismund, of Poland. First
\ Duke of Prussia, m. Anne of Prussia.
an I 1619, George William.
Electors L i64Qj Frederic William? the u Great E i ector <
Khig. 1688, Frederic III. First King of Prussia.
1446. In the reign of Frederic II. (Ironside), Caslmir of
Poland assisted the Prussians against the oppression of
the Teutonic knights.
1525- In 1525, Albert of Brandenburg, Grand Master of the
Teutonic Order, renounced the Roman Catholic religion,
embraced Lutheranism, and was acknowledged Duke of
1544- East Prussia, to be held as a fief of Poland. In 1544, he
founded the University of Konigsberg, and died in 1568,
leaving two grand-daughters as heiresses of his dukedum.
1569. Prussia became a Fief of Poland.
1608. Johann Sigismund of Poland became Elector of
Brandenburg, and Duke of Prussia, by his marriage
with Anne, eldest grand-daughter of Duke Albert.
The second grand-daughter Eleanor had married
Frederic, elector in 1598.
CHAPTER LVI.
THE "GREAT ELECTOR".
WHEN Frederic William came to the throne at the Frederc
age of twenty, his lands were lying waste, and his country Great
was devastated by the Thirty Years' War, which had i64o. r
been raging for the last twentj^-two years. In the cities
more houses stood empty than inhabited, thousands
were dying of hunger and pestilence; all commerce had
ceased, the schools and churches stood empty, and only
misery was to be seen on every hand.
Frederic William, with his tall, imposing figure, bril-
liant blue eyes, shining with the light of a dauntless
courage, determined not for a moment to lose heart, but
to see and judge for himself.
He travelled through all his dominions, and, being
then thoroughly convinced of the distress of his people,
he set himself to improve their condition.
He sent to Holland, Friesland, and Switzerland for
workmen, to till the ground; gave farms to the old sol-
diers, and wood to build houses; for many years, spend-
ing his own revenue to enrich the country. Each peas-
ant was compelled to plant an orchard; no country-
man might marry, unless he had grafted six fruit-trees
and planted six oaks. New roads were constructed,
churches rebuilt; every village had its new school, fresh
trades were started, and manufactures established.
The rivers Oder and Spree were connected by the
194 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
"Frederic William Canal," in order to facilitate com-
merce. The elector's wife, the pious and warm-hearted
Duchess Luisa, strove in every way to assist her hus-
band in his good works; and, amongst other things, she
Potatoes, introduced the cultivation of the potato , which soon
became a boon to the poor.
Thirty] Unfortunately, these peaceful occupations were fre-
War. quently interrupted by war. For eight years after his
accession, Frederic William was forced to take part in
the still raging Thirty Years' War. He embraced the
reformed religion, separated himself from Austria, and
joined with the Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus.
1643. By the treaty of Westphalia he obtained possession
of Halberstadt, Minden, Magdeburg, and other terri-
tories, with the Duchy of Prussia, and the Duchy of
^57- Cleves; and in 1657, he threw off the yoke of Poland.
His character for "Hohenzollern" rectitude of pur-
pose was displayed even in his political movements.
When Louis XV. of France desiring to annex Hol-
land, as he had already annexed Spain employed the
most clever stratagems to dissolve the Triple Alliance of
Holland, Sweden, and England, he set to work to win
over the European powers to assist him. He gained the
King of Sweden by the offer of subsidies, and the King
of England (Charles II.) by promises of active assistance.
The Emperor of Germany, Leopold II., was also in-
duced to listen.
The Great Elector of Brandenburg was the only
sovereign deaf to the persuasions of Louis XV. to
overthrow a republic whose ruin would have been fatal
to the interests of Protestant reform, to Germany
itself, and indeed to all Europe.
At the battle of FehrUllen in 167 q the Elector de-
1673.
feated the Swedes, and won back the greater part of
Pomerania.
THE RISE OF PRUSSIA. 19$
Thus is considered the starting point of the rise of
Prussia.
Frederic William died in 1688. A splendid statue, 1688.
showing him seated on horseback, was erected on the
long bridge at Berlin, with armed figures in stone lying
at his feet, in remembrance of the Great Elector as
prince, warrior, and Christian.
THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA.
CHAPTER LVII.
THE last Eiector of Brandenburg was Frederic III.,
son of the Great Elector. As his territories increased,
he desired fervently to raise Prussia to a kingdom; but
this could not be done without the consent of the Em-
peror, and for a long time it was not attainable. At
length,* after Frederic had assisted Charles VI. in the
of war with Spain, known as the " War of the Spanish Suc-
cession," the Emperor conceded his wish in the Treaty of
Coronation. Utrecht; and the Elector crowned himself and his wife,
Sophia Elizabeth, with great state at Konigsberg, as
Frederic I. King and Queen of Prussia. He is therefore called
Frederic III. Elector, and Frederic I. King.
Frederic William /. succeeded his father. He was a
strict, prudent man, rigidly economical, and very severe
with his children; devotedly fond of his soldiers, whom
he called his "blue children," and no expense was
spared hi providing for his favorite " Potsdam regiment,"
as long as men could be found over six feet to fill it. It
is stated that men of the required height were taken out
of any profession for the purpose, and that a regular
system of kidnapping was carried on by hired ruffians.
One instance given is that of a priest, snatched from the
altar, whilst celebrating divine service, because he was
tall enough to fill a vacant place in the regiment
Whether these accounts are exaggerated or not, much
has been said against the king for the severity of his
THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA, 1 97
actions. At the same time, he undoubtedly contributed
much to the after prosperity of Prussia,. He estab-
lished compulsory education, the official system, and
universal military service, filled the State coffers, and
re-organized every department of his kingdom. He
improved and raised the position of the peasants, a
work which was afterwards completed by his son, who
abolished serfdom altogether. On his death, Frederic
William I. left a prosperous State, a standing army, and
a well-filled exchequer, for the use of his son and suc-
cessor, Frederic II., the Great.
CHAPTER LVin.
A 3 a child, Frederic II. was of course destined by his
father to be a soldier-king. At eight years of age he
was dressed in uniform, and at eleven commanded on
horseback a detachment of cadets; but his father's
excessive strictness and often brutal severity with the
boy, disgusted him, and rendered his life most unliappy.
The young prince preferred to spend his time in reading
and writing French poetry/ literature and music, rather
than occupying himself with public affairs; and he was
chiefly known at that time as a lover of letters, and the
friend of Voltaire. Has "effeminate tastes," as they
were considered, frequently brought down upon him
the fierce wrath of his stern father, and he was treated
with such cruelty that at last, weary of the king's unnat-
ural behavior, the prince left his home, accompanied by
his friend and confidant, Lieutenant Katte, meaning to
take refuge in England; he was captured and brought
back to the palace; Frederic William was so furious
that he gave orders to have his son shot as a deserter,
and his life was only with the greatest difficulty spared
by the entreaties of two of the king's officers. Katte
was hanged before his eyes, and the prince himself put
into prison. Even when released, he was kept more or
less as a prisoner during the remainder of his father's lif e-
1 The French, writer Voltaire was the object of Frederic's great
aximiratioD, and lie used to send his compositions to Mm for cor-
rection. Voltaire would contemptuously remark, "He is send-
ing me ome more of his duty linen to wash ''.
198
THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 199
time, though, after a while, their relations became of a
friendly nature; and certainly the prince must have
admired his father's devotion to the welfare of his king-
dom, for he afterwards carried out his designs with
appreciative zeal.
The death of his father raised Frederic II. to the
throne of Prussia,, and the new king soon showed that
he surpassed all his predecessors in genius, military
talents, and political ability, and was prepared to take
his place amongst the sovereigns and captains of mod
ern days. The great Elector had raised Prussia to the
first rank amongst German States; Frederic II. raised
it to the first rank of European power. One of the first
acts of his reign was to proclaim war against Maria
Theresa of Austria, for the purpose of winning back
Silesia, which he had determined to annex permanently
to the kingdom of Prussia.
ZCRST SILESIAN WAR.
Nearly thirty years before this time the German 1740-2. m
Emperor Charles VI. had made the law called the Sanction of
"Pragmatic Sanction" by which he left his dominions
to his daughter Maria Theresa. The other nations of
Europe had been induced to countenance the arrange-
ment, and on her accession in 1740 to the hereditary
kingdom of Austria, she desired also to be recognized,
in accordance with her father's wish, as Empress of Ger-
many in place of the other candidate, Charles VII. (see
German Emperors). This claim gave rise to much dis-
sension throughout Europe.
Frederic II. meanwhile claimed Silesia as an old fief
of Brandenburg, and was determined to regain posses-
sion of it With 30,000 men he crossed the frontier, and
met the army of Maria Theresa at Mollvitz, The queen MoHvit*.
ZOO HISTORY OF GERMANY.
had said disdainfully, "A few hussar regiments will be
sufficient to dislodge the Markgraf of Brandenburg!"
She did not know Frederic. His two able generals,
Schwerin and Dessauer, completely routed the Aus-
trian troops; and Maria Theresa occupied as she was
with asserting her rights to Germany against the Euro-
Peace of pean powers was compelled to make peace at Bres-
laUj and bestow the longed-for Silesia on the King of
Prussia.
SECOND SILESIAN WAR.
1744-5. Frederic the Great felt assured that Maria Theresa
would wrest Silesia once more out of his hands directly
she should be free to enter into a new campaign. For
this he was too crafty to wait; and accordingly, in
1744, he entered Bohemia and attacked the beautiful
city of Prague. The Austrian armies went to the rescue,
but Frederic overthrew one at Hohenfriedburg, and
and * the other was dispersed by Dessauer at Kesseldorf.
Mo " Again the baffled queen made peace, and again Silesia
Treaty of was confirmed to Frederic by th Treaty of Dresden,
1745. ' where he in return acknowledged Francis I. of Lorraine,
the husband of Maria Theresa, as Emperor of Germany,
Charles VII. having died in the early part of the year.
THIRD SILESIAN WAR, OR SEVEN YEARS' WAR. 1
175^-63 The peace made at Dresden lasted for eleven years,
but Maria Theresa could not forget Silesia. In 1756
war was once more declared, and the European powers
took sides in the quarrel.
Prussia's only ally was England. Against these two
were ranged Austria, France, Russia, Saxony, Sweden,
and Poland.
1 See also cfcap. 1L, "Seven Years' War".
THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 2OI
The brilliancy of Frederic's generalship in the nu-
merous campaigns which followed compelled the admi-
ration even of his enemies. He achieved victories over
the Austrians at Prague and Leuthen, 1756; over the
French at Rosbach, 1757; over the Russians at Zorn- 1759.
dorf, 1758. But he met with heavy reverses at Kolin,
Hochkirch, and Kunersdorf; and he would certainly
have been forced to succumb to the superior number of
his enemies, had not the death of Elizabeth, Empress of
Russia, brought Peter III., a warm friend of Frederic, 1762.
to the throne, when Sweden, following the example of
Russia, withdrew from the contest, leaving Austria and
Prussia to continue the war alone.
The Peace of Huberlsburg in 1763 at last brought it Peace
to a conclusion, and Frederic remained in possession ?urg? 1765.
of Silesia.
It is said that the design of the partition of Poland * Partition
emanated from the brain of Frederic the Great; but it 1772-
probably dates back to the days of Frederic L, son of the
Great Elector, in 1710. In 1772 the unfortunate coun-
try was torn to pieces by the three gigantic powers of
Prussia, Austria, and Russia; Prussia gaining all Po-
lish Prussia as far as the Netz (except Danzig and
Thorn); Austria and Russia each taking a share, and
so completely annihilating the power of the Poles.
The last public act of Frederic the Great was the con- 178..
elusion of a commercial treaty with the United States
of America. Gout and asthma, which ended in dropsy, Last days,
brought his life to a close at the age of seventy-five. He
was a grand soldier, rapid and ingenious in seeing a way
out of difficulties, cheerful in spirit; and from the kind-
ness of his heart he was beloved by all classes, and com-
monly called by the people " Alte Fritz" (Father Fritz).
At the conclusion of the Seven Years' War, 1763, he
1 See also chap. liii.
202 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
did much to improve and restore the country; and fol-
lowing the example of the Great Elector, he denied him-
self personal expenditure In order to increase agricul-
ture, commerce, and the raising of beautiful buildings.
One specimen of these is to be seen in his palace of
*' Sans Souci " at Potsdam, which is adorned with lovely
terraces, gardens and fountains, and filled with the books
and treasures dear to the king's heart. The rooms
built in one wing for Voltaire, the long corridor, up and
down which Frederic would pace playing his flute and
absorbed in the thought of State affairs, are still shown.
Here the great king died in the arms of Ms attendants,
leaving no son to succeed him; and the crown passed to
his nephew, Frederic William IT.
CHAPTER LJX.
FREDERIC WILLIAM II.
ON the death of Frederic the Great, his nephew, Fred-
eric William II., came to the throne in 1786, One of
the first acts of his reign was to join England in restor-
ing Holland to the Stadtholder William IV. in 1787.
(The latter was unable to hold his position, however,
for more than seven years, when, on the conquest of his
country, 1795, by the French, he retired and died in
England.)
The outbreak in France, the subsequent horrors x?
of the Republic with its guillotine and assassination,
roused Europe to arms in deepest indignation.
Frederic William n. could not look on unmoved.
He entered into an alliance with England, Holland,
Spain, Sardinia^ and Austria, in order to stem the tide
of anarchy and bloodshed which, beginning in France,
threatened to overwhelm the whole of Europe, Fred-
eric William joined the Emperor Lreopold L in assisting
Louis XVT., and sent an army, under the command of
the I>uke of Brunswick, to the seat of war in Flanders,
But this seemed to rouse the French to fresh fury. The
allies were driven out of Flanders. The French Repub-
lican armies, under Pichegru and Jourdan, crossed the
frozen Rhine, and conquered Holland, annexed Bel-
gium, and took back all the German territory lying to
the west of the Rhine.
In 1794 Spain and Prussia retired from the alliance, 1794.
303
204 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
leaving Austria to contend alone with the advancing
conquerors.
Frederic William united with Catherine II, of Russia
in arranging for the partition of Poland in 1793, and in
1795 he received his share of the spoliation of the
unhappy country. (See Partition of Poland.) He
died in 1797, leaving the throne to his son Frederic
William
CHAPTER L3L
FREDERIC WILLIAM HL
WHEN Frederic William in. ascended the throne in
November, 1797, Europe was in the -wildest confusion,
and the king found himself surrounded by distress and
difficulties on all sides. In his troubles he had one con-
stant helper and comforter in his faithful wife Louise,
Princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the most beautiful
and charming, as well as the most deeply religious, prin-
cess ever seen in Prussia, At first Frederic William dis-
played a vacillating policy. He joined the Armed Neu-
trality, formed by Russia, Sweden and Denmark against
England, and seized Hanover and Bremen in iSoi.
Then he recognized the claims of Napoleon Buonaparte,
and supported him against Russia; but on the abdication
of the Emperor Francis n. when Germany seemed
to be under the feet of Napoleon, and all Europe
trembling at the mercy of the inexorable conqueror
Prussia turned against his encroachments, and dashed
into the strife with splendid intrepidity. Saxony was
invaded, but at Jena the Prussian army suffered a com-
plete defeat.
The military power with which Frederic the Great had
wrought such marvels half a century before was over-
thrown. Napoleon entered Berlin triumphantly, and
announced the "Berlin Decree". The royal family
Prussia fled to Konigsberg, and later to Memel on the
frontier. Napoleon established himself in the beautiful
205
206 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
palace of Sans Soucd, and the French seized innumerable
valuable works of art and sent them to Paris. 1 Then
Russia came forward to aid Prussia, and two bloody
battles were fought at Eylau and Friedland. Still Na-
poleon remained conqueror. With a bleeding heart
Frederic William HE. was forced to make peace at Tilsit,
in 1807, giving up half his kingdom and 160,000,000
marks, and promising in future only to retain 42,000
soldiers. Prussia was reduced to the greatest straits.
The bitter trouble into which her country was plunged
went to the heart of the gentle Queen Louise, and she
determined to try and move Napoleon to compassion
by a personal interview. Her grace and beauty would
have roused the pity of any one less inexorable, but he
even forgot himself so far as to use language which no
gentleman would have allowed. On one occasion Na-
poleon offered her a rose. She hesitated a moment, and
then held out her hand with a lovely smile, "Yes, if you
will give Magdeburg with it". "You will please to
remember that it is not for you to ask. You have only
to take what I choose to give," was the harsh reply of
the Emperor; and he afterwards boasted that he had
withstood her like *' oildoth against rain ". The Queen
sold all her jewels to help the poor, only keeping back
one necklace of pearls, saying: "Pearls are emblems of
tears, and I have shed so many! " The sorrows of her
X 8io. country broke her heart, and she died in 1810, charging
her two sons Frederic William and William, boys of
fifteen and thirteen years of age on her deathbed to
win bad: their kingdom from France when once they
should be grown to man's estate. She was buried at
Gmrlottmbrarg, where, in 1840, her husband was laid
by her side.
1 They were afterwards returned through the intervention of
the Duke of Wellington.
THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA, 2O/
Frederic William set himself after the death of his
beloved wife to restore some sort of order to his country,,
but he was met by countless difficulties. In 1812, he
was compelled to furnish a contingent against Russia, in
Napoleon's great campaign. From this time, the for-
tunes of Prussia are so mixed up with, the affairs of Na-
poleon, and the universal European struggle against the
usurper, that we must look to the era of Napoleon for
the further rise of Prussian power, and its final suprem-
acy in Central Europe. Frederic William IH. called on
his people to resist Buonaparte; in 1813, concluded
Treaty of Kalisch with the Russian Czar; shared in the
victories of 1813 and 1814; visited London, 1814; joined
the Holy Alliance, September, 1815; recovered all his
territories at the first Congress of Vienna; made a con-
cordat with the Pope, 1821; joined the second Congress
of Vienna, in 1822; obtained the free navigation of the
Rhine, 1826, and died in 1840, 1840
BOOK III
ERA OF NAPOLEON.
CHAPTER LXI.
LOOKING back a few years we find that Buonaparte's First
, ., , . f ,, ,. Coafiticn,
power daily grew more despotic, in spite of the coah- 1793.
tion made between Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain
against France in 1793.
In 1796, one French army under Moreau entered 1796.
Germany, crossed the Rhine, and marched through the
Black Forest to the Danube; another army under
Jourdan entered Germany by the Main, but was beaten
back by the gallant Archduke Charles of Austria, com-
manding the forces for his brother, the Emperor Francis
II. ; and this disaster caused Moreau also to retreat.
The most decisive engagements were those in Italy. It
seemed as if Buonaparte had the power of imparting
electric force to his soldiers. By dint of genius and
audacity he conveyed 35,000 of his troops, actually des-
titute of provisions of any kind, across the Alps, routed
60,000 Austro-Piedmontese troops, traversed the Po,
entered Milan in triumph, and was received as a deliv-
erer raised up to free the Milanese from the hated yoke
of the Austrians. Advancing still further the French
reached the Adige; twice over fresh Austrian armies
were collected, but only to suffer defeat again at Cas-
tiglione, Arcola, and Rivoli. The famous stronghold Rivoii,*
of Mantua succumbed. The Italian States, seized with 1796-7.'
fear, offered terms of peace to the victorious Corsican,
211
212
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Capitula-
tion of
Vienna.
'Peace of
Campo
Formio,
1797.-
Campaign
in Egypt,
1798.
Second
Coalition.
Marengo,
Hohen-
linden,
1800.
Treaty of
Luncville,
i So i.
and Pius VI. gave up to France a considerable portion
of the States of the Church. Venice rose in revolt, but
in vain; the ancient Republic was suppressed. Thus
master of Italy, Buonaparte turned his march towards
Vienna. In vain the Austrians, under their bravest
General, Archduke Charles, tried to stem the torrent of
invasion. They were obliged to capitulate, and a peace
was signed at Campo Formio, in 1797. The Emperor
of Germany ceded to France his rights to Belgium and
the Ionian Islands, receiving in return Venice, Istria,
and Dalmatia, on condition that he would recognize
the Cisalpine Republic (Lombardy, Modena, Ferrara,
and the Romagna), and the Ligurian or Genoese Repub-
lic, both created by Buonaparte.
In 1798, Buonaparte undertook his celebrated cam-
paign in Egypt, in order to weaken the power of Eng-
land in India, by stopping her commerce, and con-
quering the East. Unforeseen circumstances recalled
him to France, and the campaign was abandoned as
quickly as it had been begun. Whilst Nelson was de-
stroying the French fleet in the Mediterranean, Buona-
parte was making himself First Consul in Paris. His
attention was next drawn to North Italy, which had
been seized by the allied powers of Austria and Russia;
and in the great battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden
he reconquered Italy, and made a treaty with Austria
at Lun^ville (the terms of which were similar to those
of Campo Formio), once more recognizing the Cis-
alpine and Ligurian Republics.
Fighting his way step by step to the giddy eminence
that his soul longed for, Buonaparte engaged first one
country and then another in conflict, and believing him-
self and his armies to be invincible, he made his course
OBC continual triumph. Unfortunate persons who
crossed his path or interfered with his designs were
ERA OF NAPOLEON. 213
remorselessly swept away. Pichegru, Moreau, and the
Due d'Enghien, last of the Conds, were the principal
victims of 1804. Two months after the murder of the 1804-
Corona-
latter, Buonaparte was declared by the French Senate tion of
and Tribunal, " Emperor of the French ". Pope Pius ap
VII. came from Rome to bless the coronation; and the
son of a Corsican advocate was at the head of one of the
mightiest powers in Europe. Not content with having
secured France, he next desired to annex the whole of
Europe; one country after another yielded to him,
and he placed his own 'kinsmen on the various thrones.
England, Russia, and Austria struggled in vain to Third
stem the tide of victory; they could not withstand Na- *
poleon I. At the terrible battle of Austerlitz called
the battle of the three Emperors (Alexander I. of Russia,
Francis II. of Germany, on the one side, and Napoleon
on the other, watching the battle from the heights)
the combined forces of Russia and Austria were com-
pletely defeated, and Austria compelled by the Peace oj peace of
Preslmrg to give up much of her most beautiful tern- i8os btirg *
tory, Istria, Dalmatia, Venice, Tyrol, etc.
CHAPTER LXH.
THE struggle with Russia was only suspended; with
England it continued, and England's "Austerlitz"
was fought at sea by the English fleet under Nelson,
Trafalgar, w ho won the brilliant victory of Trafalgar, 2oth Octo-
ber, 1805.
The Peace of Presburg was followed by fresh usurpa-
tions and distributions of crowns to Napoleon's brothers,
sisters, and generals, who were, however, only to be con-
sidered as Buonaparte's lieutenants in the various coun-
tries.
1806. Naples was given to Joseph Buonaparte.
Holland to Louis Buonaparte.
Eugene Beauharnais (Napoleon's stepson) was
named Viceroy of Italy.
Murat, husband of Caroline Buonaparte, was made
Duke of Berg.
General Berthier, Prince of Neuchatel.
Germany was divided into portions.
Baden was made a grand duchy.
Wurtemberg, Saxony, and Bavaria, kingdoms.
The Emperor Francis II. abdicated the throne of
Germany, and became Francis I. of Austria,
alone.
The German Empire, which had lasted nearly a
thousand years, ceased to exist..^*
The German Princes were united in the "Confed-
eration of the Rhine," of which Napoleon himself was
declared Protector.
The independence of Europe had never been in such
214
ERA OF NAFOLEON.
danger. In England the intrepid champion of liberty,
William Pitt, died with the anguished 07 on his lips,
"O my country!" Still England was determined to
make a desperate struggle for the rights of Europe, as
well as for herself. Nothing could be expected of Aus-
tria after the crushing defeat of Austerlitz; but Prussia
which had been holding aloof from the contest, biding
her time for a favorable moment to move now indig-
nant at seeing the partition of Germany, came forward
to form a new coalition with England and Russia. Fourth
With admirable courage, Prussia took the offensive and
marched into Saxony, which was upheld by Napoleon,
only to be met by the invincible armies of Buonaparte;
and notwithstanding the utmost exertions of the brave
Prussian Generals Bliicher, Colberg, and Grandenz,
they were defeated in the battles of Auerstadt and Jena, Auerstadt
fought on the same day; and the French made their
triumphal entry into Berlin, declaring the Prussian
monarchy to be overthrown, and launching the " Berlin Berlin
Decree," which was to put a stop to all English com- **
merce, and practically to place Great Britain in a state
of blockade. This blockade was Napoleon's great Continenta
stroke of policy. He desired to dominate Europe, but 1<>c
could not do so until he had subjugated England. On
the other hand, he could not lower England without the
previous subjection of Europe. This circular policy
was fatal to him. In vain he tried to excite the other
maritime powers to support hi|| against the " tyranny of
England on the sea ". A neoroof of England's su-
premacy was given in the attJbn Constantinople in
1807 (September). The Conti^^fc powers were not
ready to come to an open ruptui^Rtn England; and,
in fact, every effort made by the French Emperor to
rouse them to resistance only made them the more
anxious to keep him in check.
2l6 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Advancing from Berlin onwards as far as Warsaw
Napoleon attempted, in spite of the lateness of the
season, to attack Russia; but his troops were every-
where beaten back, and he was constrained to retire
* w ^ n ^ :er quarters. Some weeks later the bold Russian
General Beningsen thought to surprise the French by
an unexpected attack, and an engagement one of the
most desperate on record took place at Eylau. Sixty
thousand dead and wounded men were left stretched
on the snow fields; both sides declared themselves
victors. Beningsen, in fact, retired, but Napoleon did
not venture to follow him. The war re-opened in tibe
summer of 1807, but this time it was short and decisive.
The Russians were beaten at Friedland on iAth June.
June, 1807. , . . ,, XT i r it i
the anniversary of Marengo. Napoleon followed up
his victory and reached Meinen. Here Alexander
demanded a peace, which was signed at Tilsit, July,
rSSt jui l8 7 * Tlie "K^Z * 1>russia ce <l e(i to Napoleon his
1807.' Polish provinces and the territories he possessed be-
tween the Rhine and the Elbe. The former formed
the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and were now united with
Saxony, which was erected into a kingdom. Out of the
latter together with Hesse, Brunswick, and part of
Hanover Napoleon constructed the new kingdom of
Westphalia, and gave it to his brother Jerome Buona-
parte. Prussia alone was called upon to pay in the
Treaty of Tilsit. Not only did the Czar not lose any-
thing; but, on the contrary, Napoleon gave up to him
Sweden and Turkey, Mid acknowledged the partition
Continental of Poland. The (^ifconcession Alexander was called
Blockade, ^^^ ^ ma ^ e w^^H promise to adhere to the conti-
nental blockade afRst England.
Portugal having refused to adopt Napoleon's con-
tinental system, General Junot was sent to occupy the
country, and the royal house of Braganza retired to Brazil
ERA OF NAPOLEON. 2 1/
The throne of Spain was wrested from the Bourbons i8oS.
and given to Joseph Buonaparte, whilst the place formerly
occupied by him In Naples was filled by Murat, Napo-
leon's brother-in-law.
This gave rise to the Peninsular War between France Peninsular
and Spain (with the assistance of England), lasting five
years.
The Batavian Republic was turned into the King-
dom of Holland, and conferred on Louis Buonaparte.
Sweden was given to Bernadotte, Buonaparte's general,
who governed wisely and well, and whose successors are
still in possession of the throne.
The Helvetic Confederation was formed into the
Cantons of Switzerland.
In 1809 Napoleon seized the remaining possessions 1809.
of the Teutonic knights in Prussia, and abolished the
order.
Pope Pius VII. was the first of Napoleon's allies who
refused to carry out the Berlin Decree to shut out Eng-
land from all commerce in Italy. Napoleon, annoyed
by this want of support, seized the Papal States. The
Pope in return excommunicated him. Absolutely re-
gardless of this sentence, Napoleon sent troops to
carry off the Pope, who was actually put in prison at
Savona from 1809 to 1812, and only restored to his see
upon the Emperor's downfall in 1814.
CHAPTER LXIII.
l8<W>.
Fifth
Coalition.
Austria
and
England.
Taking of
Vienna.
Wagram.
Treaty of
Vienna,
1809.
, 1809.
Second
Marriage,
i8ro.
Birth o*
THE Peninsular War occupied Napoleon's attention for
only four months of 1809, when, hearing that Austria
with a revived army of 500,000 men had taken the field
against him, he dashed over the Rhine, defeated the
Archduke in Bavaria, bombarded Vienna, and carried
his standard through the streets, having accomplished
the whole affair in nine days. He then crossed the Dan-
ube to the left bank, fought an indecisive battle there,
and pressed forward to the great battle of Wagram. It
was a terrible day of slaughter and defeat for the Aus-
trians; and Francis I. was compelled to sign the Treaty
of Vienna, and yield up to Napoleon large territories
containing 2,000,000 of his subjects. His favorite Tyrol
was given up to Bavaria by Napoleon's orders, in spite
of the heroic defence of the beautiful country made by
Hofer, Speckbacher, and the brave friar, Haspinger, in
which miracles of valor were performed by the patriotic
Tyrolese. Yet, in spite of his hatred of the country,
Napoleon set his heart on allying himself with Austria,
thinking that with the ancient House of Hapsburg to
support him, his position would be secured. So Jo-
sephine was divorced, and his marriage with the
Archduchess Maria Luisa, daughter of the Emperor
Francis I. of Austria, gave him the rank he coveted
amongst the sovereigns of Europe. The birth of a son,
on the 2oth August, 1811, seemed to secure to him the
foundation of a dynasty. The baby was Immediately
218
ERA OF NAPOLEON. 219
created "King of Rome," and afterwards "Duke of
Reichstadt," by his delighted father.
In the same year as Napoleon's second marriage, his
brother Louis Buonaparte, King of Holland, resigned
his uneasy throne, rather than carry out his brother's
harsh edicts with regard to the continental blockade
against England. Thereupon, Holland, together with
Hanover, Oldenburg, and the free cities of Bremen,
Hamburg, and Liibeck, were incorporated into the
French empire.
The other European powers being now under his feet, Russia*
Napoleon turned against Russia, making his pretext for
war that the Czar had violated the Berlin Decree by
reopening commerce with England. In 1812 Napoleon
marched into Russia with 500,000 l men and 1200 can-
nons, the conquered countries behind him each con-
tributing a contingent. The Russians could not stand
the first onset of such an army, and retreated, burning
their villages behind them. Napoleon pressed on, and
arrived at Moscow. Apparently deserted by the inhabi-
tants, the ancient capital showed only empty houses
and silent streets. A severe winter had set in, which
taxed the French troops heavily, and they thankfully
took up their quarters in the city, Napoleon installing
himself in the Kremlin, the imperial palace. All seemed
quiet and secure. But the night after their arrival fires
broke out in all directions, lighted by the Russians them-
selves, who preferred to burn their beloved city to ashes
rather than allow it to be a shelter for their enemies.
The French troops fled from the flames, and found
themselves out in the open country, exposed to such cold
as has seldom been surpassed even in Russia, and to
which they were totally unaccustomed. Napoleon, in Retreat
despair, sent an entreaty to the Czar to make peace, but MOSCOW.
1 Of this niimber Prussia was forced to furnish 20,000.
220 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
a stern refusal was the only reply; and the French army
had nothing to do but to retreat to the frontier. But
what a retreat! Far and wide no village or town was
standing; no food or shelter was to be found. Storms
of snow and ice burst over the heads of the unhappy
soldiers. Each morning numbers of starving, half-
frozen men were left lying helpless at the camp, only to
be piked by the ferocious Cossacks who scoured the
country on all sides, whilst the Russian cannon thun-
dered perpetually around them. When the weakened
army reached the Beresina, the most awful scene took
place thousands perished in the ice-blocked river.
Napoleon himself fled in a sleigh, leaving his miserable
troops, and made the best of his way to Paris. Out of
the brilliant host of 500,000 with which Napoleon
started, such vast numbers were killed in battle or per-
ished with exposure to cold and hunger, or were taken
captive by the Russians, that only 30,000 ever reached
their own country. At the news of the retreat from
Moscow, and the successes of Wellington in Spain, all
Europe was excited, and all nations began to hope for
deliverance.
CHAPTER LXIV.
MEANTIME, in Prussia Frederic William 3U. had been y *
Freedom*
quietly preparing his people for a general war of free- 1813-15-1
dom, and training every boy and man in Prussia to bear
arms. On Napoleon's crushing defeat in Russia, he
seized his opportunity, and, quickly forming an alliance
with Russia, he called on the Prussians to be ready.
The enthusiasm was so overpowering that men and
boys, youths and old men offered themselves as volun-
teers. Women put on men's clothes and marched into
camp. Ladies sold their jewels, ornaments, and even
their wedding rings, and cut off their hair to raise money
" for the Fatherland ". Frederic William shed tears of
joy at such a response to his call. On the i3th March
war with France was declared.
It is amazing to think that after the ignominious
arrival of the defeated Emperor in Paris on i8th Decem-
ber, 1812, Napoleon should have been able, at the end
of four months, to take the field at the head of 350,000
men. But with the exception of Frederic Augustus of Sixth or
Saxony, all Europe was this time arrayed against their corftion.
formidable adversary; even Bernadotte took part with
the allies, and brought a Swedish army to their assist-
ance. The first battle was fought at Liitzen, dose
the " Stone of the Swede," the allied army taking the
field under the fiery old cavalry officer, Bliicher who
was so much beloved that he was known amongst his
men as "Father Bliicher/' and so impetuous that he
221
222 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
was called "Marshal Vorwarts"; and Napoleon said of
him: " He is like a bull rushing on danger with his eyes
Bautzen,3 shut ". This battle and that of Bautzen which followed
were lost by the allies, but were of no avail to Napoleon's
cause. The Prussians fought with such courage that
Buonaparte himself exclaimed: "These are not the
Prussians of Jena! "
^gic,the After a truce of ten weeks the campaign reopened.
of^ Battle after battle was fought, till Napoleon gathered
his exhausted forces together at Leipsic, and made his
final desperate stand against his enemies. Every na-
tionality, except the Turks, was represented on the
field, so that it has been aptly called the "Battle of the
Nations". It opened on the i6th October, and lasted
for three days. At first, Napoleon beat back the allies;
but his troops, composed of young men unaccustomed
to the rigors of war, were worn out; and they were fur-
ther weakened during the engagement by the defection
of 10,000 Saxons, who went over to the allies. Napo-
leon resolved to retreat. He set his men in motion, and,
leaving them in charge of the King of Saxony and the
courageous generals, Marshal Macdonald and Prince
Poniatowski, nephew of the last King of Poland, he
. left them. The retreat was most disastrous. Frederic
Napoleon.jl
Augustus of Saxony was taken prisoner. In spite of the
most heroic efforts of the generals to protect the fugitives^
numbers perished; and when they reached the Elster,
they found that after Napoleon had crossed it in safety,
the single bridge which spanned the river had been
destroyed. Hundreds were drowned, and Prince Ponia-
jtowski, trying to swim his horse across, was dragged
down and perished.
Campaign jj At the beginning of the following year the allied
' armies entered France, and Napoleon once more sum-
moned^all his energies to meet them and keep them in
ERA OF NAPOLEON. 223
check. Engagement after engagement took place with
varying success, and hairbreadth escapes on either side.
Suddenly, Napoleon made a feint of retreat towards the
Rhine, thinking that the allies would follow him, and
that he would be able to cut off their retreat. Instead of
this, they only sent a general with 10,000 men in pur-
suit, whilst they themselves marched straight on to Paris,
and the gates were opened to them on the 3ist March
by General Marmont. Napoleon was in absolute dis-
may at finding the allies in possession of the capital.
When he reached Fontainebleau too late to retrieve Abdication,
his fortunes he was formally deposed by decree of the poieon.
Senate, and on the 4th April he signed the deed of abdi-
cation. The little island of Elba in the Mediterranean Elba,
was given to him as his territory. He took leave of his
imperial guard, embracing their standard with fervent
kisses, and on 2oth April a British man-of-war conveyed
him to his exile. His Austrian consort, Maria Luisa,
made a few faint offers to join him; but eventually re-
turned to her country with her father, the Emperor
Francis I. of Austria. A few days after Napoleon's -P^S,^
arrival at Elba, his faithful wife Josephine pined away,
and died of a' broken heart on the 2qth May, murmur-
ing the words: "Elba! Napoleon 1"
CHAPTER LXV.
1814. Louis XVIII., brother of the murdered King Louis
XVI., was restored to the French crown, and peace was
proclaimed. The allied princes conducted their armies
The 8 " back across the Rhine, and assembled at Vienna, to
SP^ieSiLu discuss the state of Europe. But a whisper had been
circulated amongst the friends of Napoleon, "Corporal
Violet will return in the spring"; and their token was
his favorite flower. The spring came, and with it
actually came Buonaparte, taking advantage of a ball
given in his honor, to make his escape, and landing at
Frejus, March ist, whilst the Congress were pursuing
their consultations by day and their festivities by night
1815. at Vienna. At the first sight of him, his old soldiers
rushed to embrace him, and to escort him to the capital.
Napoteon's Louis XVIII. in Paris, seeing no friends at hand likely
2oth ' to support him, fled to Ghent, on the 2oth March. On
the same evening the Emperor's carriage dashed through
the streets; and by midnight, Napoleon was once more
quietly at work in his study in the Tuileries, as if his
past reverses had been nothing but a dream. In three
months' time 125,000 men were ready to follow him to
the world's end.
Ligny, The Prussians under Bliicher and the English under
BnJTi6th Wellington met the brilliant army of Napoleon at Ligny
and Quatre Bras. Bliicher was wounded at Ligny;
his horse was shot under him, and himself left on the
ground, with his dying horse on top of him. The
French stormed over frim, without recognizing hi, and
224
ERA OF NAPOLEON. 225
he was only extricated from his perilous position later
in the day by some of his faithful Prussian followers.
The next day Napoleon standing under a tree, near
the farm of Belle-Alliance at Waterloo gave the order
for attack on Wellington. The latter sent a message to l8is
Bliicher, asking him to assist him with two regiments.
"Not with two regiments, but with my whole army,"
was Blucher's reply. His physician warned him it would
be dangerous for him to ride on account of his wounds.
"It is all one to me, I must keep my word," replied the
old veteran. "Forwards, my children!" But it was
easier said than done. The rain fell in torrents, and
rendered the roads almost impassable, and the troops
hesitated. "We must advance, possible or impossible.
I have promised my friend Wellington; you would not
wish me to break my word." And they did advance.
Arrived on the field of battle, they found the English
wearied by the long day's struggle against superior
numbers placed in the most critical position, but still
gallantly holding out. Bliicher dashed in on the right,
and helped to bring to a conclusion one of the decisive
battles of the world. Wellington and Bliicher shook
hands; each congratulating the other on the honor of
the victory. Nothing could be more complete than the
discomfiture of the routed army; but so many valuable
lives were lost on the field of Waterloo, that Wellington
had good reason for saying that "a victory was the most
dreadful thing in the world, except a defeat". When
Napoleon saw his favorite Old Guard driven back by
the continuous fire of the English, he turned pale and
exclaimed, "They are mixed together, it is all over!"
and he rode away from the field in the dusk of the even-
ing with all possible speed, whilst his carriage and
equipments fell into the hands of the Prussians. Trav-
elling to Paris, he sought his brother Lucien always his
226 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
comforter in trouble. Lucien suggested some further
active measures, but met with such discouragement
that he declared that "the smoke of the battle had
turned his brain". Finally, Lucien drew up a second
resignation in favor of the little Duke of Reichstadt,
which Napoleon signed; and then he quitted Paris, and
hurried to Rochefort, hoping to escape to America; but
he was captured by the watchful English and obliged to
surrender into their hands, one hundred days after his
Death of landing in France. He was banished to St. Helena,
Napoleon, *
1821. where his health rapidly gave way, and he died on the
5th May, 1821. His body was interred in the island;
but in 1840 it was brought to Paris, and buried with
magnificent funeral honors, in the Church of the In-
valides, attended by royalty, and his only surviving
brother, Jerome Buonaparte. The young Duke of
Reichstadt died in 1832, at the court of his grandfather
the Emperor of Austria.
Napoleon's divorce of Josephine was useless. Maria
Luisa's only son, the Duke of Reichstadt, died; whilst
Josephine's grandson, by her daughter, Hortense de
Beauharnais, became the Emperor Louis Napoleon III.
Benefits With all his faults, and the bewildering confusion in
t>yNapo- which he placed the nations of Europe by his over-
weening ambition, Napoleon conferred some great bene-
fits^ which are still in use in France. He not only re-
stored religion to the country, which had long been suf-
fering from the want of all Church services, compelled
by the atheism of the Revolution, but he instituted the
civil code of laws called the " Code Napoleon," estab-
lished the military schools, and constructed magnificent
roads, wherever he desired passageway for his armies.
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
CHAPTER LXVL
THE nineteenth century has run its course and has
brought important changes in the state of continental
affairs. | Monarchical governments the survival of the
middle ages have been transformed into constitutional
monarchies.) ("Public opinion" is the new power, which
has taken the^place of the " Divine right of Kings, " to
which naturally follows the desire to take a certain per-
sonal part in the administration of public affairs, and to
secure such constitutions as should guarantee the rights
and liberties of the people. I
The last century opened with the conquests of Napo- 1800-30.
leon, and the strange sight of the whole of Europe con-
vulsed and dominated by the audacity and vaulting am-
bition of a single man. International struggles occupied
a large place in the nineteenth century, especially during
the earlier years. Germany, at its opening, stood with-
out a representative head (Francis H. having resigned
_the German crown in 1806).
After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the various
sovereigns were engaged in taking possession once more
of their dominions, and encountering more or less diffi-
culties in doing so. During those years several of the
princes conferred new constitutions on their subjects;
but the rights thus granted were merely nominal, and in
the fear of socialist ideas spreading, as they had done in
France, the liberty of the press was curtailed, and many
227
228 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
narrowing measures were taken. For instance, the
Elector of Hesse who had been deprived of his States,
and then restored pushed the idea of restoration to the
verge of fanaticism, and issued an order that all soldiers
should again wear their old head-dress, which had been
discarded from its inconvenience, and that the officers
promoted din-ing his absence should be retrograded to
then* former rank. In defiance of this movement, pa-
triotic societies were formed in Germany, in imitation
of the Carbonari in Italy and France; and the students
of the Universities all declared in favor of liberal ideas.
But the generally-accepted voice of the nation was in
favor of a grand political union, which should raise
Germany out of its degraded position. Russian in-
fluence was especially dreaded. The poet Kotzebue,
an agent of Russia, was known to transmit false reports
of the state of the country to the Czar ; and his assassina-
tion by a student of Jena named Sand, followed by that
of the Due de Berri in France, only roused a still stronger
spirit of repression. The German Diet took the sever-
est measures for stamping out the growing excitement;
radical associations were broken up, newspapers sup-
pressed, and professors deposed from office. This
work of destroying political liberty, suppressing liberal
tendencies, and restoring the despotism of the "ancien
regime" was the especial object of the Holy Alliance,
which assumed the right of interfering in public affairs
as the "police of Europe". England alone protested
against such interference by one State in the internal
affairs of another, and proclaimed the new principle of
"non-intervention/* which has gradually become the
basis of contemporary politics. ^
f The great events which mark the latter half of the
mneteenth century are: the proclamation of the third
French Republic; the wars between Prussia and Den-
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 22Q
mark, and Prussia and Austria, making way for the re-
establishment of the Empire of Germany; the formation
of the Italian monarchy; the constitution of new States
in the Balkan Peninsula, which practically meant the
dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire; the triumph
of constitutional government in nearly all the European
countries; and the development of Colonial power in
Asia and Africa,
AFTER WATERLOO.
CHAPTER LXVH.
AFTER THE DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON
Second AFTER the Battle of Waterloo, the allies entered Paris
jLreaty of
rRT^r ^ tri 11111 ?^ for the second time; a second Treaty of Paris
was entered into, and King Louis XVIII. firmly replaced
upon the throne. The Emperors of Russia and Austria
Sept., 1815. and the King of Prussia bound themselves in a " Holy
Alliance," promising to carry on political transactions
Congress of in the spirit of Christianity. Later in the autumn they
Wov., 1815. met again at the Congress of Vienna, where a treaty was
entered into, securing the division of the various king-
doms. A new German Alliance was formed, called the
" Germanic Confederation/' by which thirty-nine States *
* tkm - agreed that each should remain independent in all mat-
ters which concerned itself alone; a permanent Diet or
Parliament, consisting of plenipotentiaries of the States,
should hold its sittings at Frankfort-am-Rhein, the rep-
resentative of Austria presiding. The members of the
Confederation promised never to declare war against one
another j there was to be a confederate army, to which
each State should contribute according to its popula-
tion; and all disputes were to be referred to the Diet.
1 The principal were: (i) Austria, (2) Prussia, (3) Bavaria,
(4) Saxony, (5) Hanover, (6) Wurtemherg, (7) Baden, (8) Hesse,
(9) Dannstacit, (10) Brunswick, (n) MeekJenburg-Sdrwerin,
and Nassau, etc.
230
AFTER WATERLOO. 23!
The first Diet was held November, 1816, the last Au-
gust, 1866. This Confederation replaced the "Confed-
eration of the Rhine," formed by Napoleon.l
The Congress of Vienna tried to niake distinct Terms ot
political boundaries in Europe. The King of Sardinia SSt
recovered Piedmont and Genoa.
Belgium and Holland were united to form one king-
dom. (This only lasted fifteen years; for in 1830 Bel-
gium rose against the oppressions of Holland, and was
declared by a National Congress an independent King-
dom, under Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, with a
liberal constitution.) Bavaria received back the Palati-
nate of the Rhine. 1 Austria recovered Lombardy and
Venetia. Prussia received part of the Kingdom of Sax-
ony, all Swedish Pomerania, and the Duchy of Posen.
Russia kept Warsaw (Varsovie), Finland, and the larger
portion of Poland. Sweden received Norway, which
had hitherto belonged to Denmark/
** 'After the downfall of the" great "disturber of Eu-
rope," Germany enjoyed a long time of peace, and was
able to recover somewhat from its hardships and suffer-
ings ; but the Empire was not re-established. Since Rmdry of
the foundation of the House of Hapsburg, Austria had r m
been the ruling State of Germany, and had held its su-
premacy up to the time of Maria Theresa and the war
of the Pragmatic Sanction; but Prussia had been for
many years steadily rising in power; and the Napoleonic
wars brought matters to an issue.
The Treaty of Presburg, December 6th, 1805, greatly
reduced the Austrian territories; and the resignation of
the Crown of Germany by the Emperor Francis in 1806,
when so many of the princes withdrew their allegiance
from Austria and formed the "Confederation of the
Rhine," put an end to all semblance of the "Holy Ro-
1 Formerly known as the "Lower Palatinate",
232 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
man Empire ". As the power of Austria declined, that
of Prussia increased. The enterprising Prussian Kings
had raised the kingdom to such power and importance
that it was becoming the leading power among the Ger-
Attstna or man States. The question which forcibly presented
itself in 1828 was, "which of the two leading kingdoms
should be paramount?" There was a strongly marked
feeling growing up that Germany should cease to be a
mere " bundle of States," but should become one united
power/ In 1828 Prussia became the centre of a com-
merdaF union called the "Zollverein," or "Customs
1838 Union," by which the States pledged themselves not to
levy taxes on each other for merchandise passing from
one to the other, but only on the merchandise of out-
side countries.
CHAPTER LXVITI,
FROM 1832 to 1848 there reigned a comparative peace
almost all over Europe. After these sixteen years, iv., of
although frequent wars broke out, they did not last so 1840. '
long, and were more localized than before. In 1840
Frederic William IV. came to the throne of Prussia with
his romantic idealism, modesty, and earnest good-will
in striving to better the condition of his country. He
showed the devotion to duty so characteristic of his fam-
ily, endeavoring to raise the culture of his subjects, and
increase the happiness of his people.
The French Revolution ojLiSgo had but slight effect
on Germany; but in JTSjjTthe third French Revolution 1848
broke out, upsetting Louis Philippe, and re-establishing
the Republic in France. By that time Europe also was
in a blaze. New and powerful influences were at work,
and the revolutions in Poland, Italy, Spain, Sicily,
Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Schleswig, and Holstein
against their established Governments were stirred up
by a rapidly spreading spirit of t communism ". Ger-
many was no less convulsed, and required complete re-
construction. |An insurrection took place in (^Berlin
(March, 184^),! when the city was declared in a state of
siege; the Prussian soldiers were obliged to retreat be-
fore the mob, and numbers fell victim to the struggle.
With uncovered head the King himself stood watching
the sad procession of bearers carrying away the corpses.
Then he came forward as a leader of the agitation, and
showed himself prepared to do his best to re-organize
233
234 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
the political affairs of Germany. iThe German Na-
tional Assembly met at Frankfort wrth a view of giving
Germany a federal constitution. Archduke John of
Austria 1 was elected "Vicar of the Empire," and the
Assembly offered the Imperial crown to the King of
Prussia, but he declined it. The Assembly thereupon
broke up into parties. The Republicans, indignant at
the want of success in re-organizing Germany, revolted,
1849. and fresh insurrections broke out. That of Dresden
lasted six days, and Prussian troops were called in to
subdue it. The Assembly transferred its sittings to
Stuttgart; and after vain attempts to establish a new
government on a better footing, they resorted again to
the old former Diet. The movement of 1848, however,
was not without result for Germany. It countenanced
patriotic aims, which later on became the basis of the
great political transformation of 1871.
1850. Reaction was bound to follow the excesses of the
revolutionary excitement; but the "liberty of the
people" became gradually established as a necessary
fact, and various useful concessions were made by the
sovereigns.
1854-56. Then came the grand international struggles of the
Crimean and Italian wars, during which time the
French Emperor Louis Napoleon III. was prominent
in European affairs. Illness compelled Frederic Wil-
liam IV. of Prussia to resign the reins of government
: iv. /
1 In 1848, Ferdinand, Emperor of Austria, died, and was suc-
ceeded by his nephew, Francis Joseph. The Hungarians were
.struggling gallantly for independence, but with Russian help
the young Emperor put down the insurrection. In 1867, a new
constitution for Hungary was instituted, with separate Parlia-
ments, but one sovereign, and the Emperor and Empress were
crowned King and Queen of Hungary. The Dual Empire is,
however, a mass of heterogeneous communities with different
habits, customs, an<J languages.
AFTER WATERLOO. 235
into the hands of his brother William, the chivalrous,
high-souled soldier who had served in the campaigns of
1813 and 1815, and had proved his devotion to his
brother and country by taking upon himself the odium
which must otherwise have attacked the king, when
opposition to a requisite change in the constitution, re-
fused by the king, brought down the hatred of the radical
party. Prince William had actually taken all the blame
of this refusal on himself, and had suffered exile
rather than allow unpopularity to touch his brother.
In 1857 he was made regent, and crowned King i86i r
to the unbounded joy of the army, who had always be-
lieved in him, and who now hailed his rise to power with
enthusiasm. (Frederic William IV. died in March,
1888.)
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE.
CHAPTER LXIX.
THE RE-ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GERMAN-
EMPIRE.
L, THE accession of King William L, the younger son of
Prussia, the beautiful Queen Louise, marks an important epoch
in the history of Prussia. Since 1848 Germany had
been longing for greater political unity. But the antag-
onism of Austria and Prussia, and the general panic
created by the revolution in France, had wrecked all
attempts at re-organizing the country on a national
footing. The coming to the throne of the soldier-king
William changed the position of Prussia; for the new
sovereign faithful, brave, and high-souled was from
the first resolved to place Prussia at the head of the
German Confederation, and to establish the govern-.
rnent on a military basis. In the accomplishment of
this work, his able minister Bismarck was his right
hand, displaying the same constant activity and keen-
sighted ability as his master. The king was an enthu-
siastic soldier, and he felt that the first imperative ne-
cessity was to re-organize the army. With Bismarck
behind him, he set to work, and carried through his
reforms with a high hand, in the face of very consid-
erable opposition. Meantime the relations between
Austria and Prussia were so strained and unsatisfactory
that Bismarck declared in Parliament that "the German
problem could only be solved by blood and iron ".
236
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 237
The all-absorbing difficulty called the " Schleswig-
Holstein question" was made the pretext for war. The War, 1863.
two duchies revolted against Denmark. They * were
encouraged by Prussia and opposed by Austria. For a
considerable period they had been considered part of
the Danish kingdom, but they preserved their national
feeling for Germany, and their laws of administration
and succession to the duchies differed from those of Den-
mark. In 1863 King Frederic VII. of Denmark died,
and the royal house was extinct in the male line. A
convention made in London some time previously, and
to which the Grand Powers gave their adhesion, had
arranged that the crown should pass to Christian IX.,
a member of the collateral branch of the reigning house.
But Schleswig and Holstein refused to recognize King
Christian, and declared they would have Frederic of
Augustenburg^son of another collateral branch, instead.
The German Confederation intervened in favor of the
duchies, and for once Austria and Prussia allied them-
selves together against Denmark. A brief war ensued;
the Danes were conquered, in spite of a vigorous re-
sistance, and gave up all claim to the two duchies, upon
which Austria took possession of Holstein, and Prussia
of Schleswig. The other German States were none of
them, however, contented with this arrangement, and
before long war broke out between them.
CHAPTER LXX.
SEVEN WEEKS' WAR BETWEEN AUSTRIA AND
PRUSSIA.
Seven ^ ITALY united with Prussia and the small Northern States
War, 1866. to declare war against Austria; whilst Austria had for
allies Hanover, Saxony, the two Hesses, Bavaria, and
Wiirtemberg. For a time Austria was successful, and
the Italians were defeated at Custozza by the Archduke
Albert; but the Prussians, armed with needle-guns
breech-loading rifles of new construction invaded Bo-
hemia, under the command of King William I.; and a
decisive battle took place at Sadbwa, near Koniggratz.
The Austrian army, under Marshal Benedek, was
strongly posted, having the fortress of Koniggratz in
its rear.
The Prussians were separated into three divisions,
the first under the Crown Prince Frederic William, the
second under Prince Frederic Charles (the nephew of
King William), and the third under General von
Bittenfeld. From three different positions they ad-
vanced upon the enemy King William, Bismarck, and
Roon, the Minister of War, watching their movements
in person. When the signal was given to open attack,
only two of the Prussian divisions were on the spot. The
first division, c ommanded by the Crown Prince, was still
at seven hours' distance. The battle raged on all sides;
and so close to the place where the Prussian king was
standing that the bullets fell within a few paces, and
Bismarck drew his attention to them, and begged him
238
Custozza.
Sadowa
Konig-
gratz.
The Red
Prince.
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 239
to move back to a safer position. "I can't ride away,"
cried the king impatiently, "when I see my soldiers
standing in the file."
The Austrians fought like lions. If the Crown Prince
should not arrive in time all would be lost!
At last, at ten o'clock, the prince rode up, and, im-
mediately without a halt, rode straight to the attack,
followed by 50,000 men. With renewed courage the
Prussians pushed forward, and the enemy sustained a
complete defeat. The Austrians lost 170 cannons, n
standards, and 40,000 men. King William embraced
his brave son on the field of battle, and fastened to his
co^t the military " Order of Merit".
The Emperor Francis Joseph sued for peace, and Treaty of
the terms were arranged at the Treaty of Prague, by isS*!" 5 '
which
I. Austria gave up to Prussia all her rights
in Schleswig-Holstein, and abandoned her
claim to take part in the re-organization of
Germany.
II. A new "North German Confederation" wasnortii-
formed, with Prussia at the head, and Count cSSter-
Bismarck as the Chancellor. It was agreed ation ' I&66 '
that all the lands north of the Main should
form this North German Confederation.
in. Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, the Hesse
States, Nassau, and Frankfort - am - Main
should belong to Prussia.
IV. The South German States should remain
neutral, but ally themselves with Prussia in
case of war.
This Confederation replaced the " Germanic Con-
federation" of 1815.
CHAPTER LXXI.
FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR.
1870-71- THE prominent position to which Prussia had risen was
the War. a source of bitter jealousy to the French, who lodged for
a war which should humble their old enemies. A pre-
text was not long wanting. In the year 1868 the Span-
iards, wearied with the bad government of their country
under Queen Isabella II. and her favorites, Narvaez
and Godoy, deposed her, and after many disputes at
length offered the crown to Leopold, Prince of Hohenzol-
lern. The French immediately interfered, declaring
that a German king on the throne of Spain would upset
the balance of power in Europe. England also con-
sidered the move undesirable for the same reason.
Neither King William of Prussia nor his relative Prince
Leopold was anxious that he should retain the post, and
the prince withdrew. There the matter might have
1870. ended; but in the summer of 1870, when King William
was drinking the water at Ems, the Emperor Louis
Napoleon HI. sent his envoy Benedetti to interview the
king, and to insist on the following terms being brought
forward:
ist, That Germany should apologize for ever
having put forward Prince Leopold; and,
2nd, That the King of Prussia should promise
that no German prince should ever sit upon
the throne of Spain.
This outrageous proposal was of course refused, and
Benedetti returned to his master.
240
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE, 241
King William, seeing that war was inevitable, started
at once for Berlin, and called a Council, giving orders
to have all preparations made immediately. War was
declared by the French on the igth July. All Germany J
rose as one man. Every one of the States declared for
the King of Prussia, and heartily joined in the defence
of their beloved " Vaterland ".
France was not prepared for this; she had counted
on, at least, having the southern States of Bavaria,
Wiirtemberg, and Baden, on her side, and was greatly
disconcerted at finding the whole of the great German
Confederation arrayed against her. Moreover, the
Emperor Louis Napoleon had declared war to please
the . people, and without sufficient assurance that the
country was in a fit state to undertake it. He himself,
though a man of personal courage, was no soldier, no
tactician. He had occupied himself with the affairs of
State, and had done much in giving employment to the
working classes by beautifying Paris, little thinking how
soon it was to be destroyed by its frenzied inhabitants;
but the army, on which the defence of his country
was to depend, was undisciplined, unprovisioned, and
above all, ungeneraled. 1 Tired of the quiet want of
interest of the last few years, the French nation always
ready to fight their national enemies clamored for war.
The war in Italy had been a mere bagatelle; they in-
sisted that "they would inarch straight through Ger-
many and enter Berlin en f$te ". Regardless of prepa-
rations, they only asked for leave to start; and war was
accordingly declared before the army was mobilized.
The French troops hurried to the frontier, but without
supplies, and without the requisite munitions of war.
1 The Plebiscite or popular vote on the altered Constitution in
Fiance showed grave discontent in the army and drove the Em-
peror to proclaim war to distract the soldiers and win popularity.
242 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
On the other hand, only a few days after the declaration
of war, the vast German army was in readiness, trained,
disciplined, provisioned, with such tried generals at
its head as the Commander-in-chief von Moltke,
and Steinmetz of the army on the Moselle, the Red
Prince Frederic Charles in the Rhine Palatinate, and the
Crown Prince ("Fritz") on the northern frontier of
Alsace. Besides the army in the field, they had three
separate reserves of 188,000, 160,000, and 226,000 men
placed in position, one behind the other. Moreover,
the whole plan of the forthcoming campaign had been
mapped out beforehand by the prudent forethought of
the king, Bismarck, and von Moltke. The latter war-
rior was a veteran of seventy years, yet with the un-
daunted courage of a youth, who had stored up all his
experience of military tactics for such an emergency as
the present, and was ready with everything down to the
minutest detail. His principle was to attack on three
sides at once, and then concentrate in the middle.
What chance could there be for unfortunate France in
such an unequal contest ?
1870. The French Emperor, accompanied by his son, the
Prince Imperial, a handsome boy of fourteen, came to
Metz to direct the campaign. At the opening engage-
ment at Saarbriicken the Prussians could not withstand
the fiery onslaught of 40,000 French, and retired, but in
good order. The French were delighted, thinking the
business was as good as ended. But the Crown Prince
g, drove the French out of the fortress of Weissenburg, and
Worth. " too k Gaisberg; h e routed the enemy again at Worth and
opened up the passes of the Vosges Mountains. This
was their first important victory. Then after various
smaller engagements, the Prussians, always steadily
siege of J advancing, concentrated round Metz, the centre of the
A-ttg*' * French army. Bazaine held the city in the absence of
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 243
the Emperor, who had hurried to Paris to quell an agi-
tation there. Determined to defeat the enemy at all
hazards, Bazaine made three sorties: one at Courcelles;
he was met by Steinmetz and forced to retire into Metz; Tour
the other at Mars-la-Tour, where the Red Prince with- arth Oct. *
stood him for twelve hours, and forced him back to the
city; and once more at Gravelotte he was defeated by
King William himself. At length he found himself
shut up in Metz, with Germans surrounding him on all
sides; this lasted for ten weeks, when hunger and mis-
ery compelled him to open the gates, and 173,000 men
and 50 officers fell into the hands of the Prussians as
prisoners.
Meantime the march of the German army to Paris March to
Paris.
began in earnest; but on the way hearing that a large
force under Marshal MacMahon and the Emperor of
the French was coming to the relief of Bazaine the
Germans turned towards Beaumont, and were success- Beaumont,
3Otli Aug.
ful in the battle of the 3oth August. Another battle
was fought at Sdan, on the ist September, where the Sedan,
French were hemmed in on all sides, with 500 cannons IS p
surrounding them, and found it impossible to defend
themselves against the enemy. From four o'clock in the
morning till five in the evening the battle raged; and
then the Emperor wrote to King William of Prussia:
" As I have not had the satisfaction of dying at the head
of my troops, I hand over my sword to your Majesty ".
Next day Napoleon left Sdan to meet the German 2nd Sept.
Chancellor at the house of a poor woman at Donche"ry,
and afterwards King William at the little chiteau of
Bellevue near Frenois. The whole French army of
83,000 men were delivered up as prisoners. Louis
Napoleon III. was sent to the castle of Wilhelmshohe;
but when the war was over, he was allowed to retire to
England, where he died in 1873. The astonishing
244 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
rapidity of this campaign will be realized when we re-
member that the first movement of the German army
was made on 4th August, and that on 2nd September
the French Emperor was a prisoner, and his army in
the hands of his enemies.
A revolution broke out in Paris on the news of Louis
Napoleon's surrender, and a Republic was proclaimed,
with a "Government of National Defence" at its head/
Pans cf On ^e S^ September the German army entered
Rheims, and on the i$th they reached Paris. They
surrounded the city in a complete circle, so that no pro-
visions could be got into it. The King of Prussia took
up his position at Versailles. Armies were formed in
different parts of France to try to stem the current which
threatened to overwhelm France; but all was in vain.
One division of the army of the Loire, under General
Aurelle de Palladines, was defeated by the Red Prince
at Orleans; the other, under Chanzy, also failed against
the Red Prince. The army of the North, under Faid-
herbe, was repulsed in confusion by General Manteuffel
at Amiens, and finally scattered at St. Quentin; and
at Belfort, General von Werder drove the army of
Bourbaki completely out of France, and they took refuge
in Switzerland.
Meantime the siege of Paris continued from ipth
1871. September, 1870, to 28th January, 1871. Then the
great city capitulated, and on ist March the Prussians
entered Paris as victors. Strasburg, Toul, Verdun,
Breifach, Pfalzburg, and Belfort opened their gates,
and the war was at an end.
Peace of Peace was signed at Frankfort-am-Main. France
'FranKfortj
loth May, had to give up Alsace and Lorraine, and to pay five
milliards of francs as indemnity (^200,000,000). Out
of forty-nine battles, not one was gained by the French.
Twenty fortresses were taken from them; 400,000
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 245
French soldiers were taken prisoners to Germany;
7000 cannon and 80,000 muskets fell into the hands of
the Prussians. It was truly a war without parallel.
The sad cry of the unfortunate French soldiers
"Trahis! Trahis!" ("Betrayed! Betrayed!") gives
the due to their utter failure. They had been led to the
war like sheep without any efficient guides, or any head
to suggest a plan of strategy. Germany was the gainer
in every sense by her victories. At last the many states
were united in a firm alliance, and after sizty years
without an Emperor, they determined to re-establish
the German Empire on a new and consolidated basis;
and even whilst guarding the gates of Paris, they called
on the King of Prussia to accept the imperial crown.
On i8th January, 1871, "Kaiser Wilhelm" was crowned
at Versailles amidst the rejoicings of his army. On Ms
return to Berlin, he was received with indescribable 1871.
enthusiasm. They were not the fitful acclamations of
an easily led crowd, but the true rejoicings of a people
that had learnt to truly love and trust in their ruler,
whose wise, firm rule gave Germany a term of peace for
the rest of his reign. The deepest grief filled all hearts
when he was called to his rest on pth March, 1888. His 1888. ,
earnest goodness, kindliness, firmness, modesty, and,
above all, his humble reverence for holy things, were
very striking. The energy of his character was shown
even on his deathbed, when, after frequent repetitions
of the touching cry for his beloved son "Fritz! lieber
Fritz!" his last words to his daughter, the Arch-
duchess of Baden, were: "I have no time to be tired,"
and he fell asleep in death.
CHAPTER LXXII.
UNIFIED GERMANY.
THE declaration of the great Chancellor that German
unity could be accomplished only by "blood and iron"
had its fulfilment, for it was through the Franco-
Prussian War that national unity was achieved. Men
of different races and states forgot their rivalry and
their animosities when they marched shoulder to shoulder
for the defence of Germany, In warring against a
common foe, all sectional prejudices were forgotten
and hearts were knit together in a common loyalty to the
Fatherland. France forced war upon Germany and
ignorantly helped her to achieve unity.
Knig * After the Battle of Sedan, King William of Prussia
took up his quarters at Versailles, and ambassadors
become 5 came to him from the Southern States and Duchies to
Emperor. Q^^Q U po n some form of union. On November 30,
1870, King Ludwig of Bavaria addressed an open letter
to the heads of the different governments asking them
to make the King of Prussia the head of united Ger-
many, with the title of German Emperor. When
favorable replies were received from all the states,
Prince Luitpold of Bavaria, as representative of the
most important of the Southern States, tendered the
imperial crown to King William, onjjpecember 3, 1871!
In an open letter to the German princes and potentates^
King William announced that he was willing to accept
the crown, not with a desire for military conquest but
246
PRUSSIAN
GERMAN EMPIRE.
XIX Centurv.
^-L^-i-t-:-^ [DE.taj
g -5^ - 1 - rL^* V^rj JL ,dfcJ JJBM'r'-- '" '
Wfi^F&L^
roatia
*'^ BosnlJ
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 247
"to constitute an empire of peace and prosperity in
which the people of Germany might find and enjoy
that for which they had sought and struggled".
After prolonged and heated discussions, treaties of? 11 ? 1
. ft i ota.is.
union were finally signed, by which the Southern States
of Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darm-
stadt were united with the North German Confederation
and all were welded together under the name of the
German Empire. The fusion of the Northern and
Southern States into one imperial government gave
Germany a place among the leading powers of Europe
and made possible her later material progress and
development as a nation. By a proclamation of the
Reichsrath, or general Council of the nation, the new
Empire began its existence on January i, 1871, but the
papal party of Bavaria still opposed the union, and
the coronation of the Emperor did not occur till Jan-
uary 1 8.
Fate, with cruel ironv, decreed that the new German Coronation
of Emperor
Empire should be proclaimed in the throne room, or
"Hall of Mirrors," of the favorite palace of Louis XIV.
at Versailles, where so many plans had been made by
Louis XIV. and by Napoleon to humble Germany and
to crush out her national life. Here occurred one of
the most imposing and most momentous ceremonials
of the century, the coronation of Emperor William I.
of Germany, on January 18, 1871, the one hundred
and seventieth birthday of the Prussian Kingdom.
An altar had been erected in the great mirrored hall,
and religious services were conducted by Court-preacher
Rogge. King William sat in front of the congregation
with the Crown Prince, Bismarck, Von Moltke, Roon,
and other officers near him, and a company of fiag-
bearers with the ensigns tattered and blackened in war,
mute witnesses of the victory over the French. The
248 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
service began with an anthem by a military choir,
followed by a prayer, a sermon, and the oft-sung choral
"Nun danket Alle Gott". At the close of the service,
King William ascended the dais and, in a brief address,
accepted the crown for himself and his successors.
The proclamation of the Emperor to the German
people was read by Bismarck, and the Grand Duke
of Baden, William's son-in-law, going quietly to the
front of the assembly, called out, " Long live his Imperial
Majesty, the Emperor William!" Then the palace of
the Kings of France rang with huzzas to the Emperor
of the new Germany.
The first The new Diet met at Berlin on March 21, in the
D?Jt rial historic White Hall of the old palace, and was opened
by the Emperor with a speech from the throne, in which
he promised his subjects a reign of peace, with no
interference in the affairs of other nations.
Constitu- The constitution adopted at the close of the war with
adopted. Austria was modified to meet the needs of the new
Empire and went into effect April 16, 1871. The legis-
lative power was vested in the Bundesrath (Federal
Council), composed of representative princes, appointed
by the state governments; and a Reichstag (Imperial
Diet), consisting of deputies elected by the people.
The King of Prussia was to be Emperor, the title and
Empire being hereditary. There was to be one army,
one navy, one system of weights and measures, one
custom-house frontier, uniform coinage and postal laws,
and one diplomatic system. The constitution of 1871
was similar in many respects to that of the Confedera-
tion, but it provided that imperial laws should take
precedence of the laws of the separate states. The
Confederation had been a league of independent states,
each maintaining its right of sovereignty in its own
affairs. The new constitution diminished the power
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 249
of the states by vesting the executive authority In the
Emperor and his Ministry.
As one historian remarks, the history of Germany
for the following twenty years is practically the biogra-
phy of Bismarck, since his name is indissoluhly linked
with all state affairs of this period. During the years
after the Franco-Prussian War, there was no busier
man^ in all Europe than Bismarck. He held three
distinct offices, and as chancellor of the German Em-
pire, premier of Prussia's cabinet, and Prussian sec-
retary of foreign affairs, he was the hardest worker of
the age. About a thousand telegrams and letters
were received by him every day. The first thing that
he and Emperor William did for the Empire was to in-
crease the army, not for the sake of conquest but for
protection. Then they proceeded to decide upon a
uniform system of weights and measures, uniform mone-
tarj" values and postal^ regulations. During the dis-
cussion of these measures in the Reichstag, the four great
political parties took their stand: the Conservatives,
the National-Liberals, the Clericals or Ultramontanes,
forming the Centre, and the Social-Democrats.
The great event in continental affairs of 1872 was
the meeting at Berlin of the three Emperors of Russia,
Austria, and Germany, and their chancellors, an
event brought about by Bismarck's diplomacy. Alex-
ander II., Francis Joseph, and William I. entered into
an informal alliance or league of peace. There were
no written obligations, but only a friendly understand-
ing. This alliance convinced the other European
nations that the three powerful military governments
intended to maintain peace with each other. This
informal league was replaced, several years later, by
the ^Trigle^AJlia^ce.
The French iESSEory of Alsace-Lorraine, which had
250 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
been annexed to Germany, was inhabited by people
who were German by birth but French in feeling, and
rather than submit to German rule, more than forty
thousand of them emigrated to France. Germany
granted them their choice in the matter, but all who
remained in the territory became German subjects on
September 30, 1872. How to govern the territory
and preserve amicable relations with its people has been
a problem for Germany up to the present time.
The The event of the reign of Emperor William I. which
Ku^tur- _ . , . _
kajipf. was of .^greatest importance to humanity, at large was
the Kulturkampf (civilization-battle), a conflict be-
tween Church and State, Bismarck being pitted
against the Ultramontane or papal party. Frederic
William IV., through the influence of his wife, Eliza-
beth, a bigoted Romanist, had made such concessions
to the Roman Catholics of Prussia that they were
ready to ride rough-shod over the laws of the land.
Bismarck felt himself called upon to put down their
arrogant pretensions. The struggle began in 1871,
when the doctrine of papal infallibility was forced upon
German ecclesiastics. The Archbishop of Cologne
threatened to dismiss some of the theological professors
at Bonn if they did not recognize the dogma, and a
teacher at Braunsberg was excommunicated because
he refused to teach the doctrine. This brought matters
to a crisis^ and Bismarck demanded that 'tEF^'Caj^ngr
section of the Prussian Ministry of Public Worship
be 'abolished. In January, 1872, Dr, Alfred Falk was
appointed Minister of Education and Worship, and a
new school law, called the Falk Law, was passed,
placing the educational system under state control.
This roused the ire of Pius IX. and he refused to recog-
nize Germany's ambassador, Prince Hohenlohe. In a
debate in the Reichstag upon the relations with the
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE.
Vatican, Bismarck uttered the memorable words: "To
Canossa we shall not go 7 '. 1 The bishops united in a
declaration against the Chancellor and he retaliated
by expelling the Jesuits from the realm. In May,
1872, the celebrated May Laws were passed, which
restricted in every possible way the power of the Romish
Church, authorizing the State to control theological
seminaries, to examine candidates for the priesthood,
to approve or reject ecclesiastical appointments, and
to regulate all ecclesiastical discipline. These laws
were enforced by fine, imprisonment, and exile. A
Civil Marriage Law soon followed, and a Cloister Law.
expelling from Prussia all religious orders. It was
while this struggle was at its height that an attempt
upon Bismarck's life was made by a fanatical youth,
Kullmann, Some critics feel that Bismarck appears
in his worst light during this struggle and he is called
"intolerant as the Inquisition". But the great Chan-
cellor looked upon the State as a political institution,
It was not a question with him whether Protestants
or Catholics should rule, but whether the authority
of the Emperor should be superior to that of the Pope.
To yield to the supremacy of the Pope meant destruc-
tion of the national life, Bismarck's mistake was
in method rather than in principle. He wisely saw,
as the conflict waxed hotter, that he must adopt less
rigorous measures. Moreover, the revenues of the
Empire had proved insufficient, and in order to pass
his protective tariff bill, the Chancellor had to have
the support of the papal party. With the accession
of Leo XTTT.j in 1878, concessions were made on both
sides. A compromise was effected, and in 1882 the
1 Tnese words are inscribed upon a monument to Bismarck in
the yard of the old castle at Harzburg, the favorite residence of
Emperor Henry IV.
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
May Laws were revised and restrictions upon the clergy
removed. In May, 1887, all laws against the Roman
Catholic Church which had been passed since 1871
were repealed. In the long conflict with the papal
party, Bismarck's health began to give way, and several
times he expressed a wish to resign the chancellorship,
but the Emperor would not consent.
In 1878 two attempts were made to assassinate
Emperor William. On May 17, as he was driving on
Unter den Linden, a socialist fanatic, Hodel, fired
several shots at him, inflicting only slight injuries.
About two weeks later, another socialist, Dr. Karl
Nobiling, fired upon the Emperor, wounding him
severely. Hodel was tried and executed; Nobiling
committed suicide. Crown Prince Frederic became
regent during his father's convalescence, and, by his
gracious bearing, bound the hearts of the people to
him. These attempted assassinations turned the at-
tention of the government to the growing evil of social-
ism. There were at that time sixty thousand socialists
in Berlin and nearly half a minion in "the Empire. "Af
the demand of Bismarck, stringent laws against social-
ism were passed, aiming to suppress their meetings
and their newspapers. Such rigorous measures only
provoked greater antagonism, and an attempt was
afterwards made to remove the causes of discontent.
In 1881, the message of the Emperor to Parliament
advocated measures for bettering the condition of the
poor, which resulted later in compulsory state insur-
ance. Emperor William's great popularity began with
tfa'g message, which showed his paternal feeling for
his subjects, and his earnest desire to contribute to
their welfare.
After the Turko-Russian War, Russia, Turkey,
ogress. p rance ^ g^ England were involved in complications^
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 253
and Bismarck offered his services as an " honest broker,"
inviting the five great powers and Turkey to a con-
ference at Berlin, which was held in Bismarck's palace,
from June 13 to July 13, 1878. This Congress was
of universal interest and of great importance in world
history, because it showed the position and character of
the new Empire of Germany, and marked the dismem-
berment of the Ottoman Empire.
In this conference. Bismarck favored Austria more Th* Triple
Alliance.
than Russia and this led to a breach of the informal
alliance of 1872. Russia, indignant at what she deemed
unfair treatment, withdrew her friendship from Ger-
many, although Emperor William wanted to maintain
friendly relations with her. Fearing a coalition of
Russia with France, the two Emperors of Germany
and Austria-Hungary formed, in 1879, an "alliance of
peace andjnutual defence/ 7 which was joined by Italy
several years later, forming what is known as the Triple
Alliance or Dreibund. This alliance was regarded
as a master stroke of Bismarck's diplomacy, for the
preservation of Germany's national life has been largely
due to its existence. The Alliance has been renewed
three times, but now threatens dissolution.
Germany now began to imitate other European German
> _ CoKmiza
powers in acquiring possessions beyond the sea. In-
ternational rivalry, the desire to add to her material
prosperity, and the great tide of emigration to other
countries prompted her to claim her share of ownerless
territory. Bismajrck was at first opposed to colonial
expansion, and the colonial policy advocated by him
in 1884 was that "the Imperial flag would not precede
colonization but follow it ". Togoland and Cameroons
in West Africa were acquired in 1884. The first laws
relating to the administration of colonies were passed
in 1886.
254
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Bismarck's
Famous
Speeches.
Emperor
William's
Ninetieth
Birthday.
Emperor
Frederic
HI.,
One of Bismarck's most powerful speeches In the
Reichstag was in the debate over the Seftennat in 1885,
a bill asking for an appropriation to maintain for seven
years an additional force of forty-five thousand men
on the western border, and to strengthen the fortresses.
The whole world looked on and listened to the de-
bate, because the passing of the bill seemed to imply
war. Perhaps the greatest speech of Bismarck's life
was that on the Landsturm Law on February 6, 1888.
It "thrilled the heart of Europe," and was a powerful
plea for an additional tax to add half a million of
men to the regular army. This speech is interesting
as being virtually a summary of Bismarck's political
career.
On March 22, 1887, Emperor William's ninetieth
birthday was celebrated with the greatest enthusiasm.
The German princes offered congratulations in person
or through representatives, and all the powers of Eu-
rope, even France, sent birthday greetings. No sover-
eign was ever more highly honored and Berlin had
never witnessed such an ovation. His career was
great and glorious and he went down to his grave
"full of honors/' and feeling that the mission of his
life had been fulfilled, the unifying of the German
nation.
The death of Emperor William I, March 9, 1888,
plunged the nation into deepest mourning, and the
shadow was heavier because of the double sorrow that
had darkened the national life. An incurable disease
had fastened itself upon Crown Prince Frederic before
the Emperor's death, and the people knew that he
upon whom they had centred their hopes and their
affections would soon be taken from them. Frederic
III. assumed .the imperial office on March 10, 1888,
but there was no coronation. As Crown Prince he had
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 25$
been idolized by the people and had been saluted by
North and South alike as "Unser Fritz". His mag-
netic manner, his unselfish devotion to his people, his
tender sympathy for old and young, his spotless purity
of soul, and his aspirations after everything great and
noble, together with his military triumphs as soldier-
prince, made him an ideal hero. His sublime resig-
nation under the awful tragedy of his life and his cairn
and patient endurance of suffering endeared him still
more to the people. When the news of his father's
death reached San Remo, where Frederic had been
taken for the winter, he started at once upon the home-
ward journey to assume his new duties. His devoted
wife was his support and shared all his sorrows and
responsibilities. "Empress Frederic/' as she was
called in Berlin, was the oldest daughter of Queen
Victoria and a woman of rare intellect and strength of
character. Frederic's brief reign of ninety-nine days
is not remembered for public acts. The time was too
short for the accomplishment of his carefully elabo-
rated plans for promoting the public weal, but his proc-
lamation to the people and the rescript addressed to
the Imperial Chancellor show what his work as Ger-
many's sovereign might have been. Bismarck said:
"Had he lived longer as German Emperor, he would
have astonished the world with his energy and per-
sonal action in the government ". He was an en-
thusiastic lover of literature and art, and though some
critics say that he was too much of an idealist to have
made a successful ruler, there is no doubt that under
his sway Germany would have reached her golden age
of culture.
It is remarkable that those who figured so largely
in the formation of the Empire were men of advanced
years. Emperor William was seventy-four years of
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
age when the imperial crown was placed upon his
brow. Bismarck held the reins of power from his
fifty-ninth till his seventy-ninth year, while Von Moltke
had seen seventy summers when he was made Field
Marshal of the German Empire. It was a day when
age and experience were revered by the younger gen-
eration.
Various opinions are held by historians and biog-
raphers as to who should be called the maker of the
German Empire of to-day. Dr. John Lord calls Bis-
marck the "builder of the German Empire," and the
Chancellor's biographers are united in ascribing honor
to him as the one who accomplished the union. One
authority says: "Without Bismarck there would have
been no united Germany and no Emperor ". On the
other hand, Professor von Treitschke of the University
of Berlin calls William I. "the man who united Ger-
many," and Sidney Whitman says: "Although without
a Bismarck the Germany of to-day might have been,
without the late Emperor (William I.) it could not
have been." Admirers of Frederic III., including
his own son, the present Emperor, claim for him the
honor of unifying Germany. Still others tell us that
German unity could not have been accomplished
without the Franco-Prussian War, and that the war
could not have been victorious without Von Moltke
and Roon. Probably the truth of the matter is that
there was no leading role in the drama, but the
plaudits of the multitude should be distributed, giving
a fair share of praise to William I. the wise ruler, Bis-
marck the sagacious statesman, Von Moltke "the
greatest general and strategist since Napoleon," and
to Frederic, who won the crowning victory at Sedan
and whose liberal policy in affairs of state Bismarck
is supposed to have followed. Germany may point
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE.
with, pride to all of them. They were men of intellect
and of indomitable will, and God-fearing men whose
faith in the God of nations helped them to lay deep
and broad the foundations of the Empire.
CHAPTER LXXIIL
REIGN OF WILLIAM II.
Accession THE German people had never reposed confideilQeJn
William 11. Crown Prince William and he was not a favorite .with,
them. His accession to the throne on June i< t 1888,
at the age oT twenty-nine, was not hailed with joyous
acclamMion*.^ HTs youth," impetuosity, and arrogant
egotism, led the people to view him with many mis-
givings. He began his reign with a pompous display
of military power and his proclamation was addressed
to the army and not to the people. He believes most
implicitly in his "divine right" to rule, and his belief
in the old idea of the " Lord's anointed 77 naturally has
led to ostentatious display and a revival of the pag-
eantry of past ages. The opening of the first Imperial
Diet of his reign was a scene of almost unparalleled
splendor. Frederic the Great is his ideal rjionarch,
and in his martial spirit, his versatility, and his love
of arbitrary power, he resembles his illustrious ancestor.
His military training was unusually thorough, and it
is said that his knowledge of military history is mar-
vellous. He sat at the feet of Moltke and always had
the highest veneration for the grand old general. In
affairs of state he received valuable schooling from his
grandfather and from Bismarck. Seldom does a pro-
spective ruler have such teachers to fit him for his career.
The first year of his reign was largely spent in a
round of visits to European courts. The sovereigns of
258
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE.
Russia, Denmark y Austria, and Italy were visited, and
while in Rome he had an interview with Pope Leo
at the Vatican.
The first important public event of the reign of Wil-
Ham II. was the ceremony marking the end of the
Hanseatic League. Liibeck had yielded her rights
twenty-two years before, and Hamburg and Bremen
were at last forced to realize that the welfare of the
many demanded a sacrifice of individual ambition.
They entered the Customs Union on October 18, 188$,
thereby surrendering their historical rights as free
ports. A great celebration attended the event, and
Emperor William himself honored the ceremony with
his presence. The Hanseatic League, which for cen-
turies had carried its head so proudly, became a thing
of the past. The only trace of the historical prestige
of the three free cities is in their being ranked with
the hereditary princes in the Bundesrath.
In his Crown Prince days, William II. had pro-
fessed warmest friendship for Bismarck, and in a mes- Bismarck,
sage to him, on New Year's Day, 1889, he had ex-
pressed the hope that they might long be permitted
to work together for the welfare and greatness of the
Fatherland. But the arbitrary Chancellor who had
guided state affairs for so many years, at his own will,
could not be dominated by the young Emperor, who
possessed most decidedly a will of his own and who felt
competent to be his own Chancellor. Disagreement
arose upon the method of dealing with socialism. Bis-
marck wished to have rigorous anti-socialist laws passed,
while the Emperor favored a milder policy. Minis-
terial responsibility was also a bone of contention.
By the Prussian constitution, the Ministers were made
responsible to the Crown and not to the Chancellor, as
Bismarck desired. Though it yog, known that dif-
260 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
ferences existed between the Emperor and the Chan-
cellor, the world was electrified when the news was
divulged that Bismarck had been asked to resign his
three offices. The resignation was asked for on March
17, 1890, but as befitted a statesman in Bismarck's high
position, he prepared a suitable memorial which reached
the Emperor on March 20. An imperial message was
sent to the Chancellor, formally accepting his resigna-
tion and eulogizing his work for Germany. General
von Caprivi was appointed Chancellor. Bismarck's
retirement from office did not mean political death for
him. Delegations of reporters thronged his home at
Friedrichsruh; his criticisms of the administration
were given to the press, and he continued to influence
public opinion.
Reconcile- Several efforts were made to effect a reconciliation
uon. f '
with no response on Bismarck's part. In January,
1894, Bismarck had a severe illness, and the Emperor
sent his wishes for a safe recovery, accompanying his
message with a bottle of rare old Hock. The wishes
and the wine warmed the Chancellor's heart and he
accepted graciously the Emperor's kindness. He was
then invited to visit the Emperor, and his return to
Berlin was a genuine triumph, the court and the people
paying him homage. He did not, however, enter
public life again, but lived in retirement at Friedrichs-
ruh till his death, in 1898.
Many far-reaching events have occurred since 1890
which command the attention of the student of Ger-
many's history.
Anglo- The boundaries of the "spheres of influence" in
Agreement. Africa were sharply defined by the Anglo- German
Convention, which met at Berlin, on July i, 1890. An
agreement was signed by which Germany withdrew
some of her d&ims, and, in return for her territorial
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 26l
concessions, England ceded to her the Island of Helgo-
land, a rocky fortress in the North Sea, which would
be serviceable as an outpost in military operations,
protecting the northern coast of Germany.
Germany's model insurance system is the admiration
of tEFworldr No country has ever devised a plan for the
J care of "trie sick and the disabled that is more per-
fectly organized or more practical in its workings. The
Old Age and Infirmity Assurance Bill was passed in
1889 and went into effect January i, 1891. This was
the third of the bills which form the insurance system
foreshadowed in the address of William I. to the Reichs-
tag in 1 88 1. The Act of Insurance against sickness was
passed in 1883. Wage-earners pay one and a half to
two per cent, of their wages as a premium and are
guaranteed medical care and half wages during illness.
Employers pay one-third, the State pays another third,
and the workingman's payments constitute the other
third- Compulsory Insurance against Accident was
legalized in 1884. In case of complete disablement
by accident, the wage-earner draws two-thirds of his
wages, and in case of death by accident, provision is
made for his family. Wage-earners receiving less than
five hundred dollars a year in wages axe required to
provide for their old age. The Government acts as
the insurance company, and the premiums are fixed
in proportion to the salary, one-half of the premium
being paid by the employer except in special contracts.
At seventy years of age, or when so disabled that a
living cannot be earned, the insured draws four per
cent., indefinitely, on the amount to his credit on the
books. This insurance system has done more to coun-
teract the discontent of socialism than all the anti-
socialist laws ever passed by Germany.
William II. has always endorsed heartily all public
262 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
me Kaiser improvements and has favored the great canal system,
Canal the construction of waterways to connect the large rivers,
the Rhine, the Weser, and the Elbe. An immense
fleet of warships, representing the navy of nearly every
nation, assembled in the North Sea to witness the
opening of the North Sea and Baltic Canal on June
21, 1895. It is called the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal and
connects the ports of Kiel and Wilhelmshaven. The
Emperor on his yacht, the Hohenzollern, led the pro-
cession through the canal to Kiel, where he gave a
grand banquet on shipboard.
g"^ The desire for expansion has moulded Germany's
in China, policy in reference to the far East, and the seizure of
Kiao-chau marked the beginning of her Pacific pos-
sessions. In 1897, two German Catholic missionaries
were murdered by the Chinese, and as the Chinese
Government did not respond immediately to the Em-
peror's demand for reparation, a naval force was sent
in January, 1898, to seize the port of Kiao-chau in
Shantung, one of the richest provinces in China. Prince
Henry led the squadron, and at its embarkation there
was an imposing ceremony with a dramatic address
Ijy the Emperor, counselling Prince Henry to use the
"mailed fist". After the seizure of the port, the Chinese
granted to Germany a ninety-nine years' lease of the
Bay of Kiao-chau with a strip of adjoining territory.
A dock and a coaling-station were speedily constructed,
and the common opinion is that the German Govern-
ment, feeling the need of a coaling-station in Eastern
waters, and wishing to establish a "sphere of influence,"
made the murder of the missionaries a pretext for
seizing Kiao-chau. Further complications with China
arose in 1900, when the Boxer movement was at its
height The German Minister, Baron von Ketteler,
was murdered by native troops in the streets of Pekin.
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 263
A military expedition of twenty-three thousand men
was sent to China, and Count Waldersee was put in
command of the allied forces at Pekin. Before the
German troops departed, the Emperor delivered one
of his most impassioned speeches, urging his soldiers
to give no quarter, but to make the name of German
a terror in China, as that of Attila had been to men of
old. Prince Chun, brother of the Chinese Emperor, was
sent to Berlin in September, 1901, to convey a letter
expressing Emperor Kwang Su's deepest regret for the
assassination of Baron von Ketteler. An imperial
edict had announced that a monument would be erected
on the site of the murder, with an inscription in Latin,
German, and Chinese, expressing the Chinese Em-
peror's regret for the deed.
Germany's position in the Far East was strengthened
in 1899 by acquiring from Spain the remnant of
colonies in the Pacific, the Carolines, the Ladrones,
and the Pelew Islands. During the same year, the
Anglo-German Convention divided the Samoan Islands
among the United States, Great Britain, and Germany,
giving to Germany the largest portion.
During the Fall of 1902, Germany's attention was
absorbed by the Venezuelan imbroglio. German at- Relations
izens in Venezuela, and those who have investments powers,
there, have suffered loss of property in the civil wars
that have distracted that South American republic in
the past three years. Germany has claims against
Venezuela for these losses, for sums due to German
merchants, and for unpaid interest on the loan of 1896.
Great Britain, which also had unsettled claims, joined
Germany in coercive measures, and arranged a joint
blockade in the harbor of La Guayra. On December
9, 1902, they seized four Venezuelan vessels and sunk
three of them. The Powers called on President Roose-
264 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
velt to arbitrate in the matter, but by his advice the
dispute was referred to The Hague Tribunal, which
was established for the arbitration of just such troubles.
The blockade was raised on February 15, 1903.
Pan-Germanic ideas have been freely discussed by
the European press. Some writers think that, under
cover of protecting her subjects in South America,
Germany is planning to carve a state out of Brazilian
territory, but she firmly disavows any such intention.
Her dream, however, is to be "dictator of the world's
civilization," and her ambition is larger than her territory.
Some of her shrewdest and most far-sighted statesmen
predict that she will in time absorb Denmark, Holland,
and Belgium.
While socialism is a growing evil and menaces
Germany's Germany's peace, other causes of discontent are being
ogress. remove( }. Germany has recognized the fact that if
she is to be in the vanguard of civilization, she must
emancipate her women. Under the leadership of such
able women as Helene Lange, Anita Augspurg, and
Lily Braun, the "feminist movement" has made signal
progress. Women have been admitted as hearers in
the great universities and woman's sphere has been
widened so that she is no longer a mere "'Hausfrau".
Germany believes in and provides for a universal
education. She is a progressive nation and her prog-
ress means not the aggrandizement of the few but the
elevation of the entire nation. She emphasizes human
brotherhood and, more than any other monarchy of
to-day, believes in equality. Her industries and com-
merce have developed rapidly and steadily. Every na-
tion recognizes her military supremacy, and the Naval
Bill of 1900 will give her second rank among the navies
of the world. In natural resources and financial power
he is inferior to the Vnited States and Great Britain,
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 265
and her geographical position is a disadvantage, but
by that wonderful persistence and perseverance which
is so characteristic of her people, she has overcome
all obstacles and ranks to-day among the great world-
powers.
Germany is a progressive nation and has a pro- Summary
gressive Emperor. The world looked on askance
when young William II. took the reins of power; but
no longer do people feel that European peace is im-
perilled. Although the army has always been the
chief object of the Emperor's solicitude, he is not bel-
ligerent; his desire is only to make Germany a for-
midable foe. He has introduced many army re-
forms, adopting smokeless powder and all improved
weapons. The navy, too, has gained much in strength
and efficiency during his reign. He has encouraged
science and art, has built churches, and sought by
every means to develop and strengthen the nation.
We may criticise his vanity and egotism, but we cannot
deny the fact that he is a gifted man and is using his
gifts for the good of Germany. Some excuse is to be
made for the constant glorification of himself and
the emphasis of his "divine right," if we consider that
his aim is to strengthen the national feeling and maMe
his people realize that the Empire is ever superior
to the State. He feels that he is the man who is needed
to lead Germany to great and glorious things. The
fondest hopes of the founders of the German Empire
are being realized, and the work so grandly begun by
William I., Bismarck, Moltke, and Frederic HI. is
being carried forward by the present Emperor. Un-
der his regime, the nation has had peace and prosperity,
growth and development, and the German Empire
of to-day commands the respect and admiration of all
enlightened nations
266 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Grosvenor's Contemporary History of the World.
Sears' Governments of the World To-day.
Mueller's Politische Geschichte der Gegewwart.
Taylor's History of Germany.
Fay's Three Germany s.
Lord's TIVO German Giants.-
Lowe's Life of Prince Bismarck.
Whitman's Imperial Germany.
Freytag's Crown Prince Frederick.
Diaries of Frederick.
Lowe's German Emperor William II.
The International Year "Book.
Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia.
HazelVs Annual*
IMPORTANT EVENTS (1880-1903).
1880 March n. Unveiling of statue of Queen Louise in
Berlin.
October 15. Completion of the Cologne Cathedral cel-
ebrated with great ceremony.
1883 September 28. Dedication of the National Monument
on the "Niederwald".
November 10. Festival at Wittenberg in honor of the
birth of Martin Luther.
1886 January 3. Silver Jubilee of Emperor William's ac-
cession to the throne of Prussia.
August 17. Centenary celebration of the death of
Frederic the Great.
1890 Moltke Fte, in honor of his ninetieth birthday.
1891 May i. International Art Exhibition at Berlin.
1894 Oct. 26. Chancellor Caprivi retired.
1895 April i. Celebration of Bismarck's eightieth birthday.
1896 January 17. Prof. Roentgen of Wtirzburg announces
the discovery of the X-ray.
May i. Berlin Industrial Exposition with colonial exhibit.
September 19. International Woman's Congress at
Berlin,
1897 March 22. Magnificent bronze statue of Emperor
William I. unveiled in Berlin.
1899 August 25. Celebration throughout Germany of the
one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of Goethe's birth.
1900 January i. New Civil Code went into effect.
June 1 6. Colossal bronze statue of Bismarck unveiled
in Berlin.
October 17. Resignation of Chancellor Hohenlohe ac-
cepted and Count von Bulow appointed his successor.
NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. 267
1901 January 17 and 18. Bicentenary celebration of the
Prussian Kingdom.
Marcli 23. Attempt by an epileptic youth to assassinate
the Emperor.
1902 February 25. Prince Henry of Prussia comes to the
United States to represent Emperor William II. at the
launching of the Meteor.
November 7. Andrew White is succeeded by Charle-
magne Tower as German Ambassador.
1903 May 2. Emperor William confers with Pope Leo at the
Vatican.
THE GERMAN" EMPIRE.
The German Empire as now constituted consists of
FotJR KINGDOMS: Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Wurtemberg,
Six GRAND DUCHXES: Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Saxe-
Weimar, Oldenburg, Mecklenburg - Strelitz, Mecklenburg-
Schwerin.
FIVE DUCHIES: Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Cx>-
burg-Gotha, Brunswick, Anhalt.
SEVEN PRINCIPALITIES: Schwartzburg - Sondershausen,
Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, WaKleck, Reuss (Older Line), Reuss
(Younger Line), Lippe, Schaumburg-Lippe.
THREE FREE To WNS: Hamburg, Lubeck, Bremen.
ONE IMPERIAL PROVINCE: Alsace-Lorraine-
KINGS AND EMPERORS OF GERMANY.
HEREDITARY MONARCHY.
CARJLOVINGIAN RACE. "Kings of Prance and Germany.
King of France and Germany. Crowned
Emperor of Germany and Italy. Begin-
ning of connection between Germany and
Italy. Married Ermengarde, daughter of
Didier, King of Lombardy. Sent her back
in a year. Had nine wives altogether.
CHARLES I.,
Charlemagne, 772
Louis I.,
Le De*bonnaire, 814
LOTHAIRE I., 840
Son. Married Judith, daughter of Guelph,
Duke of Bavaria.
Son. King of Italy as well as titular Emperor
of Germany. Died in a monastery at
Troves (Trier), 855. (Kingdom of Lor-
raine.) Treaty of Verdun, 843.
Son of Louis le D6bonnaire. Took the north
of Germany from his brother Lothaire.
Died, 876, at Frankfort.
Son of Lothaire I. Only shared his father's
kingdom with two brothers.
f Louis II.,
the German, 843
Louis II. (Em-
peror: an empty
title), 855
CHARLES II., the Son of Louis le De"bonnaire and Judith.
Poisoned in a hut on Mont Cenis, 877.
Bald (le Chauve),
875
Louis HI., the Stam-
merer (le Bfegue), 877
CHARLES III., the Fat
(le Gros), 881
ABNUXF or AJELNOTTL,
nephew, 887
(Louis the Blind
(PAveugle) (nom-
inal reign), 899
Louis TV., PEnfant
(the Child), 899
Son of Charles the Bald. Died 879.
Crowned King of Italy. Deposed.
Crowned Emperor at Rome, 896. Germans
take Rome.
Grandson of Louis II. Crowned by Pope
Benedict IV., 901. Captured and blinded
by B Granger, King of Italy.
Son of Arnulf. Died 911. Last of the Car-
lovingian Race in Germany.
268
EMPERORS OF GERMANY.
269
SEPARATION OF GERMANY FROM FRANCE.
ELECTIVE MONARCHY.
SAXON DYNASTY
(Oxro, Duke of Sax-
ony)* 911
CONRAD L, Duke of
Franconia (Electo-
rate), 911
HEINRICH I.,
the Fowler, 918
OTTO I., the Great, 936
OTTO II.,
the Bloody, 973
OTTO III., the Red, 983
HEINRICH II., Duke of
Bavaria, 1002
, Kings of Germany and Italy (not France).
Married Luitgarde, daughter of Amulf (Emp.) .
He refused the title of King on account
of old age.
Married Placidia, daughter of Louis IV.
Dukes and Counts independent of the
Emperor. Named his successor.
Son of Otto, Duke of Saxony. Crowned king.
Is called the "City builder". Conquered
Huns, Vandals, Danes, and Bohemians.
Beginning of "Holy Roman Empire". Son
of Heinrich the Fowler. Crowned by Pope
John XII., 962. I. Married Eadgath, sis-
ter of Athelstane, "King of England, and
daughter of Edmund. II. Married Ade-
laide, widow of Lothaire, King of Lom-
bardy, 951. Subdued Italy.
Son. Married Theophania, a Greek princess.
Said to have murdered his chief nobility at
a feast. Wounded by a poisoned arrow.
Son. Poisoned.
Cousin of Otto III., great-grandson of Hein-
rich the Fowler. Called the Lame and the
Saint.
FRANCONIAN DYNASTY. Descendants of the House of Saxony.
CONRAD II.,
the Salique, 1024
HEINRICH III.,
the Black, 1039
HEINRICH IV., 1056
HEINRICH V., 1106
LOTHATRE II., D. Of
Saxony, 1125
Great-great-grandson of Otto I.
Son.
Son. His mother, Empress Agnes, regent.
Married Bertha von Susa. Sent for by the
Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) to Ca-
nossa. Deposed and exiled by his bad sons,
Rodolf, Hermann, Conrad, and Heinrich.
Son. Married Matilda (MAUD), daughter of
Henry I. of England. Heinrich disputed
about investitures. Disappeared from his
palace. No children.
Called the Saxon.
2/0
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIA
(GHIBELLESTE, WAJCBLINGEN).
CONJULD III.
Swabia,
Duke of
1138
FREDERIC L, Barba-
rossa, Duke of Swa-
bia, 1152
HEINRICH VI.
of Swabia, 1190
PHILIP of Swabia,
brother, 1198
OTTO IV., the Proud
(of Brunswick), 1208
FREDERIC II- of Sicily
and Swabia, 1215
WHXIAM, Earl of
Holland, 1247
CONRAD IV. of Sicily
and Swabia, 1250
Son of Frederic von Biiren and Agnes, daugh-
ter of Heinrich IV. Founder of the Ho-
henstaufen or Ghibelline Dynasty. Wars
of Guelphs and Ghibellines. Weinsberg.
Second Crusade Conrad defeated; re-
turned home, 1149.
Nephew of Conrad III. Married Beatrice of
Burgundy. Wars in Italy; Milan destroyed.
Ruined Heinrich the Lion. Third Cru-
sade against Saladin. Drowned in Asia
Minor.
Son. Married Constance the Nun. Took
part in third Crusade. Kept King Rich-
ard (Cceur de Lion) prisoner. Fourth
Crusade. Teutonic knights established.
Assassinated by Otto von Wittelsbach of
Bavaria.
Son of Heinrich the Lion, the Guelphic Duke
of Bavaria, and Matilda, daughter of
Henry II. of England. Elected by
Guelphs, etc. Excommunicated and de-
posed, 1215. Married daughter of the
murdered Philip of Swabia. Died 1218.
Son of Heinrich VI. and Constance the Nun.
Friend of the Saracens. Sixth Crusade
crowned himself King of Jerusalem.
Married Yolande of Jerusalem, daughter
of Jean de Brienne.' Deposed.
Nominated by the Pope; not crowned till
1248. Married Elizabeth of Brunswick.
Defeated Conrad TV. f 1251. Killed in
Friesland, 1256.
Son of Frederic II. Despoiled of his posses-
sions by the Pope. Died 1254. His half-
brother, Manfred, seized his estates in
Italy. His son, Conradinoj murdered by
Charles of Anjou, 1268.
Interregnum, 1256 to
1273
RICHARD, Earl of Corn-]
wall, 1257
ALPHONSO of Castile,
1257
Only nominated.
EMPERORS OF GERMANY.
271
HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, LUXEMBURG, 1 BAVARIA.
RODOLF I., Count of
Hapsburg, 1273
Interregnum, 1291
ADOLPHTJS, Count of
Nassau, 1292
ALBRECHT I., Duke of
Austria, 1298
HEINRICH VII. of Lux-
emburg, 1308
Interregnum, 1313
LTJDWIG IV. of Ba-
varia, 1314
FREDERIC III. of
Austria, 1314
LTJDWIG IV.,
alone, 1330
CHARLES IV. of Lux-
emburg, 1347
EMPERORS.
Founder of the reigning dynasty of Austria.
Defeated Ottocar, King of Bohemia, 1278.
Died 1219.
Defeated and slain by Albrecht of Austria.
Son of Rodolf of Hapsburg. Swiss struggle
for freedom. Assassinated 1308.
Descendant of Frederic Barbarossa of the
Swabian House of Hohenstaufen. De-
posed.
Ludwig IV. of Wittelsbach, House of Ba-
varia. Rival to Frederic III,, son of Al-
brecht I. of Austria, grandson of Rodolf.
War with Swiss. Morgarten. Rival
Emperors became friends.
After Frederic III.'s death.
Grandson of Heinrich VII. of Luxemburg.
His .father, Blind Johann. His mother was
descended from Ottocar, King of Bohemia.
Edict called "Golden Bull". Tyrol ac-
quired.
The Drunkard. Son of Charles IV. Sem-
pach. Wild confusion.
A Guelph. Assassinated immediately after
election.
Of Hapsburg and Wittelsbach, by the mar-
riage of Matilda, daughter of Rodolf of
Hapsburg, with Louis, Duke of Bavaria.
Brother of Wenceslas the Drunkard; son of
Charles IV. Became King of Bohemia
in 1419. Driven from the throne, 1438,
by Albrecht II.
1 Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, held by Holland, ceded to Charles VI.,
Emperor of Germany, at the Peace of Utrecht, 1713. Annexed to Hol-
land, 1815. A portion given to the new kingdom of Belgium, 1830.
Neutral province in present day under kingdom of Holland.
WENCESLAS, King of
Bohemia, 1378
FREDERIC III. of Bruns-
i wick, 1400
RUPERT, Count Pala-
tine of the Rhine, 1400
SIGISLTUND, King of
Hungary, 1410
2/2
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
QOSSTTS of Moravia, Chosen by one party of electors. Died nex*
nominated)
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. HAPSBURG.
ALBRECHT!!., 1438
Interregnum, 1439
FREDERIC IV. (or
III.), 1440
MAXIMILIAN I., 1493
CHARLES V. (I. of
Spain), 1519
FERDINAND I., son of
Philip of Austria,
1556
MAXIMILIAN II., 1564
RODOLF II.,
" The Great." Duke of Austria, son-in-
law of Sigismund, King of Hungary
Bohemia, and great-great-grandson
Albrecht I.
"The Pacific" (or "the Sleepy")-
Son of Frederic IV. (or III.) . Married Mary
of Burgundy and Bianca Sforza. Wars/
with Low Countries, Swiss, Venice, French $
and Turks (Battle of Spurs). Reforma-^
tion begun. Diet of Worms. On Maxi-
milian's death, both Francis I. of France
and Charles I. of Spain became competi-
tors for the throne.
Son of Philip, Archduke of Austria, and
Juana of Castile, Grandson of Maximil-
ian I. Reformation. Enormous king-
dom. Resigned.
Brother of Charles V.
brother's resignation,
arid Bohemia.
Succeeded on his*
King of Hungary
Son of Ferdinand I. Married Maria, daugh-
ter of Charles V. Established religious
toleration.
Son of Maximilian II. Surrendered Austria,
Hungary, and Moravia to his brother
Matthias in 1608; and Bohemia, Silesia,
and Lusatia in 1612.
MATTHIAS,
1612
Son of Maximilian II. Forced his brother
Rodolf to resign his crown. Adopted his
cousin Ferdinand of Hungary, son of Arch-
duke Charles and grandson of Ferdinand
I., as his heir, and gave him Bohemia.
Thirty Years' War began 1618.
FERDINAND II., 1619 King of Hungary and Bohemia. Son of
Archduke Charles and grandson of Ferdi-
nand I. Carried on Thirty Years' War
against the Protestants.
EMPERORS OF GERMANY.
273
FERDINAND III.,
LEOPOLD I.,
JOSEPH I.,
CHARLES VI.,
1637
1658
1705
1711
MARIA THERESAS
Rivals.
CHARLES VII. -^1742
1740
Son of Ferdinand II. Peace of Westphalia.
Son of Ferdinand III. War with Turks;
they are defeated at St. Gothard, 1664.
Lost Alsace to France, 1680-1. Peace of
Ryswick. Carlo witz. Began the War of
Spanish Succession, 1701. Empire saved
at Blenheim, 1704.
Son of Leopold I., King of Hungary. War
with France.
Son of Leopold I. and brother of Joseph I.
Last of the Hapsburgs. Peace of Utrecht.
Increased his territories. Pragmatic Sanc-
tion. (The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg,
etc.)
Daughter of Charles VI. Married Francis,
Duke of Lorraine, 1736. He exchanged
Lorraine for Tuscany, 1737. Disputed
succession with Charles VII. Seven Years'
War between Maria Theresa and Frederic
II. the Great of Prussia. Combined with
Russia for partition of Poland, 1772.
England supported Maria Theresa. Died
1780.
Charles Albert, Elector of Bavaria, a de-
scendant of Rodolf of Hapshurg. Elected
Emperor against Maria Theresa. France
supported Charles VII. Died 1745.
HOUSE OF LORRAINE.
FRANCIS I., of Lorraine, Husband of Maria Theresa. Descended
1745 from Gerard, Duke of Lorraine, the first
hereditary Duke of Lotharingia, 1048.
War with the Turks, 1738. Crowned 1745.
JOSEPH II., Son of Francis I. and Maria Theresa. Trav-
the Reformer, 1765 elled in France as Cc*mt Falkenstein, 1777.
His sister was Marie Antoinette of France.
Jesuits suppressed. Made great changes
and reforms; visited in consequence by
Pope Pius VI.
LEOPOLD II., 1790 Son of Francis I. Grand Duke of Tuscany.
Succeeded his brother Joseph II. Signed
Convention of Pilnitz against French Re-
public, 1791.
274
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
FRANCIS II., of Ger- Son of Leopold II. Joined Prussia against
many, _ 1792 Napoleon Buonaparte, 1794. Peace of
FRANCIS I., of Aus-
tria.
Resigned Germany,
1806
Campo Fonnio. League with England.
Defeated at Marengo and Hohenlinden.
Peace of Lune'ville. Resigned German
crown, 1806. Became Francis I. of Aus-
tria. War with France, 1809. Peace of
Vienna. His daughter Maria Luisa mar-
ried Napoleon, 1810. Supported Napo-
leon in Russian Campaign, 1812. Joined
Russia and Prussia against him, 1813.
CONFEDERATION OF THE
RHINE, 1806
GERMANIC CONFEDER-
ATION, with Austria
at the head, 1815
NORTH GERMAN CON-
FEDERATION, with
Prussia at the head,
1866
Formed by Napoleon Buonaparte when he
abolished the Holy Roman Empire, and
the Emperor of Germany became Emperor
of Austria. It consisted of France, Ba-
varia, Wiirtemberg, Saxony, and West-
phalia; seven grand duchies, six duchies,
and twenty principalities. Diet to be held
at Frankfort- This Confederation ended in
1814 with the career of Napoleon.
Superseded the Confederation of the Rhine,
1815. First Diet at Frankfort, Novem-
ber, 1816. Last Diet, August, 1866. It
comprised Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Sax-
ony, Hanover, Wurtemberg (the last four
kingdoms had been formed by Napoleon),
grand duchies of Baden and Hesse, Den-
mark, the Netherlands, S axe-Weimar,
Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Alten-
burg, Brunswick, Nassau, Mecklenburg,
Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelite, Olden-
burg, three Anhalts and two Schwartz-
burgs, two Hehenzollerns, Lichtenstein,
two Reusses, Schaumburg-Lippe, Lippe and
Waldeck, Free Cities, Llibeck, Frankfort,
Bremen, and Hamburg.
Prussia in alliance with the above States (with
the exception of Austria, Bavaria, Han-
over, Wurtemberg, Baden, Denmark,
Netherlands, Nassau, Hohenzollern,
Lichtenstein) .
EMPERORS OF GERMANY.
2/S
HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN OF PRUSSIA.
(EMPERORS OF GERMANY.)
WILLIAM I., 1871 Son of Frederic William III., King of Prussia;
succeeded his brother Frederic William TV.,
1861. War with Austria. Sadowa. Chief
command of German army against France.
Received surrender of Napoleon III., 1870,
and was crowned at Versailles, 1871, as
Emperor of Germany (Bismarck Chancel-
lor). Died 1888.
FREDERIC!., 1888 Married Victoria, Princess Royal of Great
Britain, 1858. Proclaimed Emperor, 1888.
Was never crowned. Reigned thirteen
weeks. Died of cancer, June, 1888.
WILLIAM II., 1888 Married Augusta Victoria, Princess of
Schleswig-Holstein. Came to the throne,
June, 1888.
PRUSSIA CONSISTS OF
Eastern Prussia.
Western Prussia.
Brandenburg, ancient Electorate.
Silesia, conquered by Frederic the Great, 1763.
Pomerania.
Posen, part of the ancient "Kingdom of Poland.
Prussian Saxony, ceded 1815, at Congress of Vienna.
Schleswig-Holstein, ceded by Denmark 1866.
Hanover, once a Kingdom, ceded 1866, and became Prussian
Province.
Westphalia, part of Kingdom formed by Napoleon.
Hesse-Nassau, is formed by Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, Frankfort and
Homburg, ceded to Prussia in 1866.
Rhenish Prussia, or three Archbishoprics-Electorates.
Hohenzollem, royal Principality. \_
276 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
' PRUSSIA. (BRANDENBURG.) KINGDOM.
MARGRAVES AND ELECTORS or BRANDENBURG.
1134 Albert, the Bear, ist Elector of Brannybor or Brandenburg.
1170 Otto I.
1184 Otto II.
1206 Albert II.
12 21 Johann I. and Otto III.
1266 Johann II.
1282 Otto IV.
1309 WaldemaV.
1319 Heinrich I.
1320 Interregnum.
1323 Ludwig I., of Bavaria.
1352 Ludwig II., the Roman.
1365 Otto V., the Sluggard.
X 373 Wenceslas of Luxemburg, the Drunkard. (Wenzel.) (Emp.)
1378 Sigismund, brother of Wenceslas: Emperor.
1388 Jossus the Bearded: Rival Emperor.
ELECTORS. (HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN.)
1415 Frederic I., of Nuremberg, bought the Electorate from Sigismund.
1440 Frederic II,, Ironside.
1470 Albert in., Achilles.
1476 Johann III., Cicero.
1499 Joachim I., Nestor.
1535 Joachim n., Hector.
1571 Johann George.
DUKEDOM OP PRUSSIA.
In 1525 Albert of Branden-
burg, last Grand Master of the
Teutonic Knights, became
Lutheran, and was made Duke
of Prussia. He left two grand-
t daughters and heiresses.
1598 Joachim Frederic, married younger grand-daughter of Duke
Albert.
ELECTORS AND DUKES (HOHENZOLLERN).
1608 John Sigismund becomes duke by his marriage with Anne, elder
grand-daughter of Duke Albert.
1619 George William.
1640 Frederic William, the " Great Elector".
1688 f Frederic in., crowned king as Frederic I. (as follows) '
I KINGS OF PRUSSIA.
1701 I Frederic I.
1713 Frederic William I. Founded the Order of Black Eagle.
1740 Frederic II., the "Great". Married Elizabeth Christina of
.- Brunswick Bevem. Made Prussia a military power.
1786 Frederic William U
EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 2/7
1797 Frederic William HE. Contended with Napoleon.
1840 Frederic William IV.
1861 f William I. Married Princess Augusta of Saxe-Weimar.
Crowned Emperor at Versailles.
EMPERORS OF GERMANY AND KINGS OF
PRUSSIA.
1871 L William I. Died March, 1888.
1888 Frederic (Fritz). Married Princess Royal of England. Died
June, 1888.
1888 William II. Married Princess Augusta Victoria of Holstein
Augustenburg.
WURTEMBERG. KINGDOM.
ORIGINALLY PART OP SWABIA. DTTKES.
1494 Eberhard I.
1496 Eberhard II.
1498 Ulric. Deprived of his estates by the Emperor Charles V. Re-
covered them 1534.
1550 Christopher the Pacific.
1568 Louis the Pious.
1593 Frederic.
1608 John Frederic. Joined the Protestants in Thirty Years' War.
1628 Eberhard III.
1674 William Louis.
1677 Eberhard Louis. Served under William III. in Ireland and with
the English armies on the Continent.
1733 Charles Alexander.
1737 Charles Eugene.
1793 Louis Eugene. Joins the war against France.
1795 Frederic I. Makes peace with France 1796.
1797
1805
"Fre<Jeric II. Son. Married Princess Royal of England.
Elector of Germany 1803. King 1805.
IWTJRTEMBERG MADE A KINGDOM, 1805, BY
NAPOLEON BUONAPARTE.
KINGS.
Frederic I. (snd Duke). Ally of Napoleon in Russia. One
I of the allies against hi'rn in 1813.
1816 William I. Son. Abolished serfdom.
1864 Charles I. Son. Married Princess Olga of Russia.
278 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
SAXONY. KINGDOM.
785 Witekind, said to be descended from Wodln (Odin).
880 Saxony was made a Duchy,
1 1 80 Saxony was made an Electorate.
1806 Saxony was made a Kingdom.
ELECTORS.
1423 Frederic I. (of the House of Misnia).
1428 Frederic II.
ERNESTINE LINE. ALBERTJNE LINE.
1464 Ernest, son of Frederic II. 1464 Albert, son of Frederic II.
1486 Frederic III. 1500 George.
1525 John, 1539 Henry.
1541 Maurice.
1532 John Frederic. Deprived by the Emperor Charles V., who gave
his estates to
1548 Maurice (Albertine Line).
1553 Augustus.
1586 Christian I.
1591 Christian II.
1611 John George I.
1656 John George II.
1680 John George III.
1691 John George IV.
1694 Frederic Augustus I., King of Poland, 169} .
1733 Frederic Augustus II., King of Poland.
1763 Frederic Augustus III., King of Saxony, 1806.
KINGS.
1806 Frederic Augustus I.
1827 Anthony Clement.
1836 Frederic Augustus II
1854 John, brother.
1873 Albert, son.
EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 2/9
BAVARIA. KINGDOM.
630 and 660 Conquered from the Kelts by the Franks.
788 Tasillon deposed by Charlemagne, who established Margraves.
DUKES.
1071 Guelph I.
noi Guelph II. Married Cotmtess Matilda.
1 1 20 Heinrich the Black, brother.
1126 Heinrich the Proud, son: deposed 1138.
1154 Heinrich the Lion. Ancestor of the Brunswick family Quar-
relled with Frederic Barbarossa.
1 1 So Otto, Count of Wittelsbach.
1183 Ludwig, son.
1231 Otto IL, the Illustrious, son.
1253 Ludwig II., the Severe, son.
1294 Ludwig III. (Emperor).
1347 Stephan I.
Z 375 Johann I., brother.
1397 Ernest, brother.
1438 Albrecht I., son.
1460 Johann II., son.
1465 Albrecht II., brother.
1508 Wilhelm I., son. Opposed Reformation
1550 Albrecht III,, son.
1579 Wilhelm II., son: abdicated.
1596 Maximilian the Great, son. First Elector.
DUKES AND ELECTORS.
1651 Ferdinand Maria.
1679 Maximilian Emmanuel, son. Defeated at Blenheim.
1726 Charles Albrecht, son. (Elected Emperor.)
1 745 Maximilian Joseph I., son. (End of younger Hne of Wittelsbach.)
1778 Charles Theodore, Elector Palatine of the Rhine.
1799 Maximilian Joseph II. Elector. Made King by Napoleon,
1805.
KINGS.
1805 Maximilian Joseph L Deserted Napoleon.
1825 Ludwig (Louis) I. Abdicated.
1848 Maximilian Joseph II., son.
1864 Ludwig (Louis) II. Drowned.
1886 Otto, brother. (Prince Luitpold, Uncle, Regent, and Heir.)
28 o
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
BADEN. GRAND DUCHY.
Landulus, Count of Hapsburg.
Landulus, Count of Breisgau.
Berthold, Duke of Zahringen.
1074 Hermann I., Count of Zahringen and Hochberg.
MARGRAVES OF BADEN.
1130 Hermann I. Married Judith,
1 1 60 Hermann II. Son.
1190 Hermann III. Son.
1243 Hermann IV. Son.
1250 Hermann V. Son.
1288 Rodolfl. Brother.
1291 Hermann VI. Soi
T 333 Frederic II. Son.
1353 Hermann VII. Son.
1372 Rodolf II. Cousin.
1391 Rodolf III. Son.
1431 Bernhard I. Brother.
1453 James I. Son.
1475 Charles II. Son.
1527 Christopher I. Son.
MARGRAVES OF BADEN-
BADEN.
1547 Bernhard IV. Son of
Christopher I.
1557 Philibert. Son.
1569 Philip. Son.
1588 Edward. Cousin.
1600 William. Son.
1677 Louis William. Grand-
son.
1707 Louis George. Son.
1750 Augustus William George.
Brother. Died 1771.
No issue.
heiress of Baden.
MARGRAVES OF BADEN-
DURLACH.
1547 Ernst. Son of Christo-
pher I.
1553 Charles. Son.
1577 Ernest Frederic. Son.
1634 George Frederic. Brother.
1638 Frederic I. Son.
1659 Frederic II. Son.
1677 Frederic III. Son.
1709 Charles William. Son.
1738 Charles Frederic Grand-
1806
1811
1818
1830
1852
1856
GRAND DTJKES OF BADEN.
Charles Frederic, Markgraf of Bade*n-Durlach, inherited the
territories of the Margraves of Baden-Baden on the death of
Augustus William George without issue in 1771. Elector of
the Empire, 1803. Grand Duke by Congress of Vienna?, 1806.
Charles Louis Frederic. Grandson.
Louis William Augustus. Uncle.
Charles Leopold Frederic. Half-brother.
Louis- Son. Incompetent. Frederic William Louis acted as
Regent.
Frederic William Louis. Brother. Married .Princess Louise of
Prussia.
EMPi^ROkS OF GERMANY. 281
HESSE. GRAND DUCHY.
The rulers were direct descendants of the Teuton tribe of Chatti. It
formed part of the dominions of Charlemagne, and was joined to Thur-
ingia till 1263, when Heinrich (son of a Duke of Brabant and Sophia,
daughter of the Landgraf of Thuringia) became Landgraf of Hesse.
In 1509, Philip the Magnanimous, one of the successors of Heinrich,
was an energetic supporter of the Reformation. At his death in 1567,
Hesse was divided into Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, under his
sons, William and George, and their descendants took part in the wars
of Germany during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
In 1803 Hesse-Cassel became an electorate.
In 1806 Hesse-Darmstadt was made a grand duchy.
(In 1807 Hesse-Cassel was incorporated with the kingdom of West-
phalia; but in 1813 the electorate was re-established.)
ELECTORS OF HESSE- GRAND DUKES or HESSE-
CASSEL. DARMSTADT.
1803 William I. 1806 Louis I. Landgraf. Made
1821 William II. grand duke by Napoleon
1847 Frederic William. Died Buonaparte. Joined
1875. Confederation of the
Rhine.
Hesse-Cassel annexed to 1815 Joined Germanic Confed-
Prussia, 1866. eration.
1830 Louis H. Son.
1848 Louis III. Son.
1866 Joined North German Con-
federation.
1870 Louis IV. Nephew. Mar-
ried Princess Alice of
Great Britain.
1871 Joined Prussia.
Ernest Louis. SOIL.
MECKLENBURG. GRAND DUCHIES.
Descendants of Genseric the Vandal* who died 477.
Mecklenburg given to Wallenstein, 1628; restored in 1630 to its own
duke.
1701 Divided into two duchies.
1815 Two duchies made grand duchies.
1866 Joined the North German Confederation.
GRAND DTJKES.
MECKLENBTJRG-SCHWERTN. MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ.
1815 Frederic Francis I. 1815 Charles.
1842 Frederic Francis II. 1816 George.
1883 Frederic Francis HI. 1860 Frederic William.
282 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
OLDENBURG. GRAND DUCHY.
1448 Annexed to Denmark. In 1773 Christian VII. of Denmark
ceded it to Russia in exchange for Holstein Gottorp. Duke-
dom established shortly afterwards.
1866 Joined the North German Confederation.
DUKES.
1773 Frederic Augustus.
1785 Peter Frederic,
i Si i Napoleon Buonaparte seized the duchy, but it was restored in 1 814.
GRAND DUKES.
1829 Augustus.
1853 Peter.
1896 Frederic August.
S AXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH. GRAND DUCHY.
(Ernestine Branch.)
Grand duchy in 1815.
The grand dukes are descended from John Frederic, Elector of
Saxony, 1554.
GRAND DUKES.
1815 Charles Augustus.
1828 Charles Frederic.
1853 Charles Alexander.
SAXE-MEININGEN. DUCHY,
The dukes are descended from Ernest the Pious, Duke of Saxony,
1605.
DUKES.
1680 Bernard.
1706 Bernard abdicated.
1866 George.
SAXE-ALTENBURG. DUCHY.
Dukes descended from Ernest the Pious of Saxony, 1605.
DUKES.
Ernest, the first duke, died in 1715.
George.
1853 Ernest, son of George.
EMPERORS OF GERMANY. % 283
SAXE-COBURG AND GOTHA. DUCHY.
1826 Ernest I., Duke of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, married the heiress of
Saxe-Gotha. His brother Leopold married Princess Charlotte
of England, and became King of the Belgians, 1831. TTi
nephew Ferdinand married Maria da Gloria, Queen of
Portugal.
1844 Ernest II., son. Brother of Albert, Prince Consort of Great
Britain.
1893 Ernest II. died 1893 without issue. His title and estates passed
to his nephew, H.R.H. Duke of Edinburgh, son of Albert,
Prince Consort.
BRUNSWICK. DUCHY. -
, M CONQUERED BY CHAEJLEMAGNE,
1047 Albert Azzo II. Descendant of Charlemagne. Married Cune-
gonde, heiress of Guelph. Duke of Carinthia in Bavaria.
1097 Guelph, son. Duke of Bavaria. Married Judith of Flanders,
a descendant of Alfred of England.
1125 Heinrich the Proud. Descended from Guelph and Judith.
Acquired Brunswick and Saxony.
DUKES OF BRUNSWICK.
1139 Heinrich the Lion, son. Married Maud (Matilda), daughter of
Henry II. of England. Founder of the Brunswick family.
Quarrelled with Frederick Barbarossa, In 1180 the Duchy of
Bavaria was given to Otto of Wittelsbach; the Duchy of Sax-
ony to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the House of Anhalt:
Brunswick and Luneburg restored to Heinrich the Lion at the
intercession of Henry II. of England.
1 195 Heinrich the Long and Wilhelm, sons.
1213 Otto I., son of Wilhelm. First to bear the title of Duke of
Brunswick.
1252 Albrecht I., son.
1278 Albrecht II., son.
1318 Otto, Magnus I., and Ernest, sons.
1368 Magnus II., son of Magnus.
DUKES or BRUNSWICK WOUFENBUTEL
FIRST BILANCH.
1409 Heinrich I., son of Magnus II.
1416 Wilhelm I., and Heinrich II.
1482 Frederic and Wilhelm II., ) ertrte f ,.,, , T
1495 Heinrich III. and Eric, f so^ of Wilhelm I.
1514 Heinrich IV., son of Heinrich II.
1568 Julius, son.
1589 Heinrich Julius, son-
1613 Frederic Ulrich, son. Died without issue.
284 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
SECOND BRANCH.
1634 Augustus, son of Heinrich of Luneburg.
1666 Rodolf Augustus and Anthony Ulric.
1704 Anthony Ulric alone. ^
1714 Augustus Wilhelm, son.
1731 Ludwig Rodolf, brother.
I 735 Ferdinand Albrecht* Duke ol J3runswick-Bevern
J 73S Charles, son.
1780 Charles Wilhelm Ferdinand, son. Great general. Married
Princess Augusta of England.
1806 Wilhelm Frederic, fourth son (the 'three elder t brothers being
blind). During Napoleon's reign Brunswick was incorporated
with the kingdom of Westphalia. After the battle of Leipsic,
Wilhelm Frederic recovered possession of Brunswick, 1813.
1815 Charles Frederic Wilhelm, son. Retired to England.
1830. Wilhelm, brother. Provisionally. 1831, definitely.
18845 Placed under the Regency of Prince Albrecht of Prussia.
ANHALT DUCHY.
Claims descent from Berenthobaldus, in the sixth century.
In 1606 the principality divided between four sons of Joachim
Ernest.
Anhalt-Dessau.
Zerbst. Extinct 1793.
Potsgau or Coethen. Extinct 1847.
Bernburg. Extinct 1863.
1809 The Princes of Anhalt became dukes.
1817 Leopold, Duke of Anhalt-Dessau and Anhalt-Bernburg.
1871 Frederic, Duke of Anhalt.
PRINCIPALITIES,
SCHWAETZBTXRG.
This house dates back to the twelfth century.
1349 Count Gunther. Elected as Emperor by one party in Germany.
From the sons of Gunther are descended the present rulers.
SCHWABTZBtmO-RUDOLSTADT. SCHWASTZBURG-SONDERS-
(Made a principality, 1697.) HATJSEN.
1807 Albert. (Made a principality, 1710.)
1869 George. 1835 Gunther.
Gunther. 18 Charles.
WALDECK AND YKMON*
The late reigning family claim descent from the Saxon hero Wite-
Q -n * ^7*- The united principalities were established in 1682.
1845 Pnnce George Victor. Abdicated, 1867.
1867-8 Administration transferred to Prussia under Prince George.
EMPEROkS OF GERMANY. 285
REUSS.
Two united principalities. Kaiseo. oy Emperor Sigismund, 1426.
The reigning family sprang from Ekbert, Count of Osterode,
tenth, century.
REUSS-GREITZ. REUSS-SCHLEITZ.
1859 Heinrich XXII. 1867 Heinrich XIV.
S CHAUMBURG-LlPPE.
1033 Made a county by Adolphus of Sondersleben.
1640 Otho IV. (Count). Died, and his mother, Elizabeth, gave the
domains to Philip of Lippe, the ancestor of the reigning princes.
(Titles assumed, 1807.)
1860 Adolphus.
LDPPE-DETMOLD. (Constitutional principality.)
1851 Leopold.
Waldemar.
SCHLESWIG AND HOLSTEIN.
COUNTS AND DUZES.
Duchies once belonging to Denmark.
Inhabitants were Saxons. Subdued by Charlemagne.
1106 or 1 1 10 Adolphus of Schauenberg became count. His de-
scendants ruled till 1459, when Adolphus VH. died without
: issue.
1459 Christian, King of Denmark (nephew of Adolphus VII.), elected
as duke by Holstein and Schleswig.
1544 Christian II. Grandson. Divided his estates amongst his
brothers on condition that they remained subject to Denmark.
THE ELDER BRANCH. THE YOUNGER BRANCH.
Reigned in Denmark until the "Holstein-Gottorp."
death of Frederic VII., From whom descended through
1863. marriage the
1751-1818 Kings of Sweden.
1762-1896 Czars of Russia. Peter III. (Son
of Duke Charles Frederic and Anne of
Russia.) His wife was the great
Catherine II.
1773 Catherine II. of Russia ceded Holstein-
Gottorp to Denmark in exchange
for Oldenburg.
1866 Schleswig and Holstein ceded to Prussia.
236 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
LITHUANIA.
Formerly a grand duchy in N.E. Prussia. The natives (Sclavonians)
long maintained their independence against the Russians and Poles.
In 1386 their grand duke Jagellon became King of Poland, and was
baptized.
1501 Lithuania incorporated with Poland, when Duke Casimir
became king.
1569 Lithuania united to Prussia.
The larger part of Lithuania now belongs to Russia, the re-
mainder to Prussia.
AUSTRIA.
Fifth and sixth centuries overrun by Huns and Avars.
791796 Charlemagne conquered Austria and established Margraves.
817 Louis the German, son of Louis le De"bonnaire, subdued Radbod,
Margrave of Austria.
883 The descendants of Radbod made war against Charles le Gros,
but after that time the Margraves were princes of the Empire.
MARGRAVES.
928 Leopold I 1096 Leopold III.
1018 Albert I. 1136 Albert II.
1056 Ernest. 1136 Leopold IV.
1075 Leopold IL 1142 Heinrichll. Made a duke
in 1156.
DUKES (House of Babenberg).
1156 Heinrichll.
1177 Leopold V. (I. duke). Made Richard Coeur de Lion prisoner,
but gave him up to Emperor Heinrich VI. Died 1194.
1194 Frederic I. the Catholic.
1198 Leopold VI. (II. duke) the Glorious.
1230 Frederic II. the Warlike. Killed in battle with the Hungarians,
1246.
INTERREGNUM, 1246-1276 (House of Hapsburg).
1276 Rodolf I. of Hapsburg. (Emp.) He recovered the Austrian
dukedom from Ottocar II. of Bohemia on the field of Marzfeld
and gave it to his son Albrecht. '
1282 Albrecht I. and his brother Rodolf II. Albrecht became Em-
peror of Germany 1298.
1308 Frederic IH. (I. Duke of Hapsburg House) and Leopold I.
(first Leopold of Hapsburg), the so-called Emperor of Germany,
rival of Frederic III. of Morgarten.
1326 Frederic III. alone.
1330 Albrecht II. and Otto his brother.
1339 Albrecht II. alone.
1358 Rodolf IV.
EMPERORS OF GERMANY.
287
1365 Albrecht III. and Leopold II. or III. Killed at Sempach.
Z 395 Wilhelm I. and brothers, and cousin Albrecht IV.
The provinces divided into Duchies of Austria and Carin,$iia and
County of Tyrol.
Albrecht V. Obtains Bohemia and Moravia; King of Hungary
and Emperor, 1437.
1439 Ladislas. Dies childless.
1457 Emperor Frederic III. and Albrecht VI.
1493 Emperor Maximilian I. Son of Frederic III.
EMPERORS OF ATTSTRO-HUNGASLY.
1804 Francis I. (late Francis II. of Germany). Resigned Germany,
1806.
1835 Ferdinand. Son. Abdicated in favor of his nephew
brother Francis Charles having renounced his rights) .
1848 Francis Joseph I. Son of Francis Charles.
(his
BOHEMIA.
CZECHS. SCLAVONIANS.
( Bohemia was governed by
-j dukes, of whom the first
( was Borzivoi in 891.
KINGS,
1157 Ladislas, made king by
Fred. Barbarossa. Mar-
ried Margaret, daugh-
ter of Duke Frederic of
Austria.
HUNGARY (KINGS).
ARPAD DYNASTY OF FINNISH
ORIGIN.
A.D.
997 St. Stephen, Duke of Hun-
gary, son of Geisa, estab-
lished Christianity, sub-
dued the Sclavs, and re-
ceived the title of Apostolic
T^i-ng from the Pope.
1038 f Peter the German. De-
I posed.
1041 -j Aba, or Owen.
1044 | Peter again deposedj and
[_ his eyes put out.
1047 Andrew I. Deposed.
1061 Bela I. Killed by fall of a
tower.
1064 Salamon. Son of Andrew
I.
1075 Geisa I. Son of Bela.
1077 Ladislas I. the Pious.
1095 Coloman. Son of Geisa.
1114 Stephen II. (Thunder.)
1131 Bela II. Had his eyes
put out.
1141 Geisa II.
1161 Stephen III. and Stephen
IV. Anarchy. Ladislas,
son of Bela, crowned but
not counted.
1173 Bela III.
288
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
BOHEMIA.
1198 Premislas Ottocar I.
1230 Wenceslas III. (I. king).
1253 Premislas Ottocar II.,
rules over Austria and
Styria, Refuses imperial
crown. Vanquished by
Rodolf, Emperor, and
deprived of Bohemia,
Styria, and Carinthia. 1
Slain at Marzfeld.
1278 Wenceslas IV. (II. king).
1305 Wenceslas V. (III. king).
1306 Rodolf of Austria.
1307 Heinrich of Carinthia.
1310 John of Luxemburg: blind.
Son of Heinrich VII.
Emperor. Married Eliz-
abeth, daughter and
heiress of Wenceslas V.
(or III.). Killed at
Crecy.
1346 Charles. Son. Emperror
Charles IV., 1347.
1378 Wenceslas VI. (IV. king).
The Drunkard. Em-
peror.
1419 Sigismund. Brother. Em-
peror, 1410. Married
Mary of Hungary.
1438 Albrecht of Austria. Son-
in-law. Emperor.
1440 Ladislas (V. of Poland, IV.
of Hungary).
HUNGARY.
1196 Eneric (Heinrich). Son.
1204 Ladislas II. Reigned six
months.
1205 Andrew II. Son of Bela
III.
1235 Bela IV.
1270 Stephen IV. (or V.). Son.
1272 Ladislas III. Killed.
1290 Andrew III. the Venetian.
Son-in-law of Rodolf of
Hapsburg, Emperor of
Germany. Defeated
Charles Martel, 1292.
END or ARPAD DYNASTY.
1301 Wenceslas of Bohemia.
1305 Otto of Bavaria.
1309 Charibert (Charles of An-
jou).
1342 Ludwig I. (Louis) the
Great. King of Poland,
1370. His brother An-
drea married Juana of
Naples and was mur-
dered, 1345-
1382 Mary, king (daughter).
Married Sigismund,
King of Bohemia, 1419,
and Emperor, 1410.
Charles Durazzo, cousin of
Juana of Naples, claimed
the crown. He was as-
sassinated, 1386.
1437 Albrecht, Duke of Austria.
Married Elizabeth,
daughter of Sigismund.
Obtains the thrones of
Hungary and Bohemia,
and Germany, and died
suddenly.
1439 Elizabeth, widow. She 1
marries 1
1440 Ladislas IV. (V. of Po- \
land). Slain at Varna. J
1444 Interregnum.
1445 John Hunniades. Re-
gent.
1 NJ3. Carinthia, a Bavarian duchy, annexed to Austria, 1336.
EMPERORS OF GERMANY.
289
BOHEMIA.
1458 George von Podiebrad,
Father-in-law of Mat-
thias Corvimis.
1471 Ladislas (VI. of Poland
and V. of Hungary, 1490).
1516 Ludwig I. King of Hun-
gary. Slain at Mohatz.
1526
HUNGARY.
f Ladislas V. Poisoned.
I Matthias Corvinus, son
1458 -{ of John Hunniades.
1 Married daughter of
I G- Podiebrad.
1490 Ladislas VI. King of Bo-
hemia. The Emperor
Maximilian claims both
kingdoms.
1516 Ludwig II. (I. of Bohe-
mia). Slain at Mohatz.
BOHEMIA AND HUNGARY UNITED.
The Emperor Ferdinand I. Brother of Charles V. Married
Anne, sister of Ludwig II.
John Zapolski, Waivode of Transylvania, elected by the Hun-
garians, and supported by the Sultan, Solyman the Magnifi-
cent. By treaty with Ferdinand I. he founds the principality
of Transylvania.
Ferdinand elected Emperor in 1558.
2V- .B. From the time of Ferdinand I. Bohemia and Hungary were
united to Germany till the separation under Francis II. in 1806. (See
Austria.)
AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE.
(CONTINUATION' or BOHEMIA AND HUNGARY.)
1806 Francis I. Emperor of Austria. (Francis II. of Germany."*
z ^35 Ferdinand. Son. Abdicated in favor of his nephew, his brother
Francis Charles having given up his rights.
1848 Francis Joseph. Son of Francis Charles.
NOTES.
ELECTORS OF GERMANY.
912918 In the reign of Conrad I., King of Germany, the dukes
and counts, from being merely officers, became gradu-
ally independent of the sovereign, and subsequently
elected him.
919 They confirmed the nomination of Henry I., Duke of Sax-
ony, by Conrad as his successor.
In the thirteenth century seven princes assumed the exclu-
sive privilege of nominating the emperor.
The Archbishop of Mainz (Mayence) .
The Archbishop of Trier (Treves).
The Archbishop of Koln (Cologne).
The King of Bohemia.
The Elector of Brandenburg.
The Elector of Saxony.
The Elector Palatine.
1648 The Elector of Bavaria was added to the number.
1692 The Elector of Hanover was added to the number.
1777 The Elector Palatine acquired Bavaria, so the number
was reduced to eight ; but at the peace of X/ungville it
1801 was increased to ten. KLoln and Trier were set aside,
and Baden, Wtirtemberg, Hesse-Cassel, and Salzburg
declared electorates.
THE RHINE.
A Central Committee for the navigation of the Rhine exists,
formed by members for Alsace, Lorraine, Baden, Bavaria,
Hesse, Holland, and Prussia.
290
NOTES. 291
SWABIA.
A province of South Germany.
496 Conquered by Clovis, and incorporated into the kingdom
of the Franks.
912 Made a duchy by Conrad I.
1080 Hereditary in the House of Hohenstaufen.
1152 Duke Frederic III. became Emperor Frederic I. Barba-
rossa.
1268 Conradino, the last of his descendants, beheaded after
Tagliacozzo.
(The Swabian League in 1254 was the beginning of the
great Swabian League under the Emperor Frederic III.,
1488.)
1512-1806 Swabia counted as a circle of the Empire.
CIRCLES OF GERMANY.
Formed by Maximilian I. about 1500 to distinguish the
members of the Diet of the Empire.
1500 Franconia, Bavaria, Upper Rhine, Swabia, Westphalia,
Lower Saxony.
1512 Austria, Burgundy, Lower Rhine, the Palatinate, Upper
Saxony, and Brandenburg were added
1806 Annulled when Napoleon Buonaparte formed the " Confed-
eration of the Rhine ".
CONDITION OF GERMANY.
The present area of Germany extends from beyond the Rhine ^
to beyond the Vistula; or from Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) and
Metz in Alsace-Lorraine to near Cracow and to Memel on the
Russian frontier. It is bordered on the south by Switzerland
and Austria, from which its rivers, the Elbe, Rhine, Oder, etc.,
run through Middle Germany, and the great sandy plain of
North Germany to the North and Baltic Seas.
Germany is governed under the Emperor by a Reichsrath of Gover -
fifty-eight delegates from the respective states (seventeen for ment.
Prussia); and a Reichstag or Imperial Parliament of 382 mem-
bers elected by ballot.
The revenues are chiefly derived from salt, tobacco, spirits, Revenues
customs, post, and telegraphs.
Seventy-eight gun-ships, thirty-three being ironclad, of which
fourteen are first class, and further immediate additions are con-
templated. These do not include cruisers, torpedoes, etc.
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Army. 511,885 in peace, and probably 3,000,000 in war. Both navy
and army are under the Emperor as General-in-chief: but the
kings of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg retain the separate command
of their own armies in peace.
Universi- Prussia has ten universities and ninety-two state academies,
ties - Bavaria has three universities, Wiirtemberg has one, at Tubingen.
Leading Prussia, 30 millions; Bavaria 5j millions; Saxony, 3 millions;
Population Wiirtemberg, 2 millions; Baden, ij millions; or a total of 41 mil-
pu * ' lions; leaving about 8^- millions for the other twenty-one small
states, dispersed chiefly in central and north-west Germany.
The total figures include i J millions for Alsace-Lorraine.
GERMAN LITERATURE.
The German language has two great branches, "hoch" and
"platt " Deutsch, high and low German.
The former became the literary language principally through
its use by Luther in his translation of the Bible, 1522-34.
The latter is spoken by the lower classes. There are many
dialects.
Formation of legendary Sagas (prose epics) of Burgundians,
Franks, Goths, and Huns. Earliest
Period till
Influence of Christianity in literature. Legendary Bible his- m fl ^n
tory by monks. Metrical translations of Evangelists. AJso gth and
"Ludwigslied," "Hildebrandlied," "Merseburger Gedichte,"
songs of heroism and enchantment.
First great period of literature of chivalry and knighthood.
"Minnesinger," Parzival, Lohengrun, and lays of Charlemagne ut
by Von Eschenbach, Gottfried, Von Strasburg, Von Aue, etc. i2th
From these are taken Wagner's celebrated operas. Two great Centuries.
national epics, the "Nibelungenlied" and "Saga of Gudrun/'
composed from old German legends.
Poetry in the hands of the " Meistersinger "
"Reineke Fuchs" (or Vos), Reynard the Fox, a low satirical
epic in low German in which beasts are actors. Caxton trans- Centuries.
lated it into English, 1481; Goethe into high German, 1794; J|^ An
T. J. Arnold into English, 1855. Great writers of the Reforma- Centuries.
tion. Luther's translation of the Bible. Works by Ulrich von
Hiitten, Murner, Hans Sachs, etc. Hymns and religious lyrics.
The autobiography of Gotz von Berlichingen.
Period of imitation of French and English literature. Paul
Gerhard's hymns.
The remodelling of German poetry. Classical period usually JTth
reckoned from 1748. Spiritual revival under Klopstock. Criti- ilSf" 7 '
cal school under Herder and Lessing. Works on sculpture and Century.
art.
"Sturm-und-Drang" (storm and stress) period, 1770-1785.
Goethe and Schiller brought literature to classical perfection. Early igth
Great advance in theological and historical works. Romantic Century.
school, and love of mystic and transcendental thought and phi-
losophy. Fine translators, such as Schlegel, Tieck, etc.
293
294 HISTORY OF GERMANY.
A FEW OF THE GREAT MEN OF GERMANY.
Writers of Desiderius (Gerhard) Erasmus, Martin Luther, Melancthon,
Reforma- ULrich von Hutten Murner.
tion.
poetry. Hans Sachs, Gellert, Lessing, Burger, Herder, Klopstock,
Wieland, Korner, Voss, Goethe, Schiller, Heine, Amdt, Uhland,
Bodenstedt, Von Wildenbruck, Fitger, Blumenthal, L'Arronge,
Von Schonthan, Lubliner, Von Moser, Anzengruber, Von Scheffel,
Hartmann, Geibel, Rtickert
Philosophy. Leibnitz, Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Kuno Fischer.
Philology. Baehr, W. von Humboldt, Muller, Grimms (2).
Transla- Schlegels (2), Tieck.
Natural Gesner, A, von Humboldt, Cotta, Liebig, Hehnholtz.
History and
Science.
Meta- Von SchelliDg, Von Hartmann, Carriere.
physics.
History. Niebuhr, Bunsen, Schlosser, Gervinus, Mommsen, Von
Ranke, Dahhnann,
Geology- Zirkel of Leipsic, Rosenbusch of Heidelberg.
Geography. Von Richtofen of Berlin.
Biography. Varnhagen, Von Euse, Pertz, Strauss.
Aft ' Kugler, Burckhardt, Lubke.
Stktirta* En S el > Laspeyres, Grotefend.
Jurispru- Windscheit of Leipsic, Gneist of Berlin, Von Haltzendorf of
tie nee. Munich.
gery. Laugenbech of Berlin, Billroth of Vienna, Nussbaum of
Munich, Scanzoni of Wiirzburg, Esmarch of Kiel.
Scientific Haeckel of Jena, scientific speculation; Bunsen and Kirch-
discovery, hof^ the spectroscope; Czermak, the laryngoscope; Hehnholtz,
the ophthalmoscope, and valuable laws of acoustics; Koch,
scientific discoveries in medicine; Virchow, anthropologist and
physiologist.
Statesmen, Scharnhorst, Von Stein, Blucher, Gneisenau, Emperor William
Soldiers. ^ Von Bismarck, Von Roon, Von Moltke.
Li ht Paul Lindau, Gustav Freytag, Spielhagen, Paul Heyse, Ebers,
Narrative Ossip Schubin, Dahn, Auerbach, Fritz Reuter, Wolff, Hack-
and Fiction, lander, Keller, Gotthelf, Marlitt, Lewald, Wemer, Wildemuth,
Von Francois, Carmen Sylva.
Music. Beethoven, Schubert, Weber, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Herz,
Wagner, Von Bulowj Raff Abt, Kticken, Rubenstein, Moscheles,
Liszt, Czerny, Heller, Hummel, Spindler, HiLLer, Schulhoff,
Franz, Jadassohn, Reinecke, Brahms, Barziel, Bruch, Becker,
Kichner, Kiel, Herzogenberg, Drasecke, Nicod6, Vierling, Ge-
rusheim, Hofmann, Strauss, Bungert, Moszkowski.
Archi Von Steinbach (built dome of Strasburg), Von Riel (built
dome of Koln), Schinkel, Stiiler, Strack, Ellenze, Von Gartner,
Neureuther, Semper, Hansen, Ferstel, Schmidt.
SOME INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. 295
KrafTt, Jorg Syrlin, Veit Stosz, Peter Fischer, Schluter, Donner, Sculpture.
Dannecker, Thorwaldsen, Schadow, Rauch, Rietschel, Drake,
Schwanthaler.
Schongauer, Wolgemut, Griinewald, Albrecht Diirer, Burck- Painting,
mair, Behams (2), Cranachs (2), Holbeins (2), Hals, Angelica
Kauffmann, Dietrich, Overbeck, Kneller, Cornelius, Schnorr,
Kaulbach, Lessing, Schadow, Stilke, Steinbruck, Schroter, Hiibne,
Jordan, Magnus, Menzel, Angely, Funk, Maka.it, Piloty, De-
fregger, Werner.
NECROLOGY (1873-1903).
1873 April 18. Baron von Liebig, founder of organic chemistry.
1878 December 14. Princess Alice of Hesse-Darmstadt,
daughter of Queen Victoria.
1883 February 13. Richard Wagner, the most original com-
poser of opera of the nineteenth century.
1886 May 23. Leopold von Ranke, one of Germany's greatest
historians.
July 21. Karl von Piloty, the famous artist.
July 31. Franz Liszt, greatest of pianists.
1890 January n. Dowager Empress Augusta.
December 27. Heinrich Schliemann, the archaeologist.
1891 April 24. Field Marshal Hellmuth von Moltke.
September 8. Hermann Helmholz, the distinguished
scientist, inventor of the ophthalmoscope.
1898 July 30.- Baron Otto von Bismarck-Schonhausen.
1900 August 25. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, the most
brilliant German philosopher since Schopenhauer.
1901 July 5. Prince von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst.
August 5. Dowager Empress Friedrich.
November 22. Friedrich Krupp, head of the great iron
works at Essen.
1902 September 6. Professor Rudolph Virchow, of the Uni-
versity of Berlin.
December 2. Field Marshal Count von Blumenthal.
SOME INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES.
Water-marks are produced by a wire bent into the shape of
the required letter or device, and sewed to the surface of the
mould; it has the effect of making the paper thinner in those
places. Earliest water-mark is a wide circle with a cross on it,
1301. !P and Y are the initials of Philip the Good, Duke of Bur-
gundy, and Isabella his wife. Other symbols are the unicorn,
anchor, fleur-de-lys, which, are seen on foolscap paper; the post-
man's horn means the post paper, 1370.
296
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Stables.
Singing.
Wigs.
Patches.
Mous-
taches.
Rococo.
Theatrical
statues.
Post-office.
Printing,
Latin Bible,
Glass
windows.
Paving-
stones.
Chimneys.
Wooden
buildings.
Fountains.
Fire
brigades.
Stables under houses were universal in the middle ages, and
to enter the house people had to ascend steps.
School singing was introduced by Luther.
Powdered wigs and patches were fashionable in the eighteenth
century. Moustaches also came in at this time. When the
Duchess of Gonzaga (niece of Louis XIV.) was shown the picture
of her future husband, Ladislas, King of Poland, she cried, "But
he is deformed; he has two rats' tails on his upper lip ".
Rococo comes from "roche," and "coquille" from the archi-
tectural decorations of the time.
Theatrical statues were introduced in the fifteenth century.
They were covered over with tinfoil, and washed over with color
to represent life and prevent their being spoiled.
The post office was introduced into Germany in the reign of
Maximilian I., 1516. First post went from Vienna to Brussels,
under the conduct of the Count of Thurn and Taxis, whose
successors later on received the title of "imperial postmaster "
and held it till the year 1866. '
Printing is said to have been used by the Chinese many years
before the Christian era. Printing in Germany originated with
picture blocks used by ELoster of Haarlem, 1438. John Guten-
berg invented movable types, 1450, but being too poor to cast them
he had recourse to Peter Schoffer, a copyist, and Fust (or Faust)
of Mainz, a goldsmith. They treated Gutenberg badly, turned
him out of their partnership, and became wealthy on the produce
of Gutenberg's invention, which by its rapidity of producing
books appeared to be the work of the Evil One, and gave rise to
the well-known story of Faust.
The earliest edition of the Latin Bible was begun by Gutenberg
in 1450.
Glass -windows were introduced into Germany at the end of
the fourteenth century. In the town hall at Zurich in 1402 the
windows were still rilled with oiled linen.
Paving-stones came in for use on streets in the fifteenth
century.
Chimneys came in at the end of the fourteenth century.
Wooden buildings were almost universal until the end of the
fourteenth century. Stone before that time was only used for
castles and walls.
The first fountain was built at Zurich in 1450.
A fire brigade was established at Frankfort in 1439. The
first fire engine was at Augsburg in 1518.
Nuremberg is the most perfect specimen of a mediaeval town.
LIFE IN GERMANY DURING THE REFORMATION.
Jesuits and Capuchins. Directly after the Reformation Rome
strove with all her might to recover her lost power, and her chief
instruments in this work were the orders of Jesuits and Capu-
chins. Their idea was to educate the rising generations, and
GERMAN LIFE DURING REFORMATION. 297
imbue them with the old doctrines, but in Germany their influence
was comparatively slight.
The Reformed Clergy were split up into many divisions, the
interests of the Lutherans and Calvinists being greatly opposed
to each other. The mass of the people still clung to Luther's
translation of the Bible.
Courts of Laiv. Up to this time there existed a secret tribunal
called " Vehmgericht/' which was very powerful. It was founded
by Engelbert, Archbishop of Cologne, and in the fourteenth cen-
tury numbered 100,000 members. If it passed sentence of death,
the victim was found dead with a dagger marked S-S.G-G- (stick,
stone, grass, groan) sticking in his heart. This fell into disuse
in the sixteenth century, but secrecy was still necessary to protect
the judges from any attempt at revenge. Gradually the German
law was so despised that the old Roman law, which had never
quite died out, became general.
Torture or Punishment. This system prevailed to a terrible
extent, and every town had instruments for the practice of vari-
ous and ingenious tortures. Clergy used to be hung up in iron
cages, and left to starve, since it was illegal for a layman to bring
a priest to justice.
Soldiers and Arms. The invention of gunpowder had a great
effect upon the art of war in Germany, as in other countries.
Gustavus Adolphus replaced the heavy arquebus by the musket,
and was the first to use light artillery. He made great use of
dragoons without armor, and carrying carabines.
The Burghers. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
the cities, which were united by the Hanseatic League, became
very powerful, but they began to decline during the Reformation,
and were nearly destroyed in the Thirty Years' "War, when the
spirit of government became more aristocratic. Bremen, Lii-
beck, and Hamburg were the only towns which remained free.
The German burghers had grown luxurious, and so had allowed
the more enterprising English and Dutch to draw away their
commerce.
Spouses. There still remain in the older quarters of German
cities specimens of the tall, narrow, gloomy houses, built in the
time of the Reformation (ex. Nuremberg). But many changes
for the better were made at this time. The rich citizens built
schools, libraries, and hospitals for the use of the poor, and in
every city there was a Jews' quarter, into which they were locked
at dusk.
The Peasantry in Eastern Germany were in a very different
position to those of the West. Though they had not so much
personal freedom, yet they were much less heavily taxed. In
the western states every change in a peasant's family, such as a
birth, marriage, or death, had its heavy tax which must be paid.
His labor also, and that of his dependents, had to be at his lord's
disposal at certain seasons. The rent from the earliest times was
paid in kind.
298
HISTORY OF GERMANY.
Infantry.
Heraldry
800.
Coats of
Armt -
Cavalry.
The Universities. Before the Reformation nearly all the
universities were under the rule of the Franciscans and Domin-
icans, and later on of the Jesuits. After that time, however,
those of the reformed religion were placed at first in the hands
of Protestant clergy, and afterwards of the lawyers and coun-
sellors. The professors were paid by the State. Classical
studies were encouraged as giving a key to the right interpreta-
tion of the Bible, and as a natural result many eminent critics and
grammarians arose.
Alchemy and Witchcraft. The knowledge of these arts was
spread by "The Society of Rosicrucians," founded in Swabia
by Valentin Andrea, and was believed in to an absurd degree.
Astrology and palmistry afforded a most profitable trade. The
"elixir of life" and the "philosopher's stone" or "road to
wealth" were eagerly sought for. A Dominican monk named
Sprenger obtained a papal bull against witchcraft, and dedared
with pride that he had burned 100 old women.
The Arts. The best poems after the Reformation are satires,
but towards the close of the sixteenth century these grew very
coarse. The drama of the day was greatly affected by religion
and politics, and one of the most noted writers was Luther's
friend Hans Sachs, the cobbler of Nuremberg. In 1628 the first
German opera, ''Daphne/' was composed by Schutz. In the
sixteenth century the German school of painting was formed, the
chief masters being Hans Holbein and Albrecht Durer. The art
of engraving was much improved at this time, but that of archi-
tecture declined. A great advance was made in music, especially
sacred music.
KNIGHTHOOD.
The German armies of old time were almost entirely com-
posed of infantry; the few riders were equipped in armor, and
carried lance and sword. As their faces were covered with a
vizor all looked alike. To distinguish them, each bore on shield
and helmet a device such as a bear, lion, or cock with col-
ored bands on the helmet or arm. Sons bore the device of their
fathers, and thus began "family coats of arms". To know and
remember all these different blazonings became a science pro-
fessed by men called heralds. Such marks of honor were used
in early ages. The Phrygians had a sow; the Thracians, Mars;
the Romans, an eagle; the Goths, a bear; the Flemings, a bull;
the Saxons, a horse; the ancient French, a lion, and afterwards
the fleur-de-lys, adopted by Clovis as a heaven-sent flower on his
vow to become a Christian at the battle of Koln, 496.
In the wild invasions of the Huns, the Germans had to en-
counter horsemen, and to do this successfully they increased the
number of riders, so that the principal part of the German army
became cavalry. The accoutrements were very costly, but all
who cou!4 by any means afford it endeavored to become riders
CRUSADES. 299
At the first all riders were knights (Ritter), but it is to Heinrich
the Fowler that we owe the institution of the Order of Knighthood,
whose arms were blessed with a solemn service of consecration
after a certain period of probation.
The knights called themselves by the name of the estate to Origin of
which they belonged e.g., if the estate were called "Biilow," titles *
the knight would be "von Billow". The sons of the knights
were generally brought up to their father's profession. As early
as seven years old, a boy would be placed with some knight of
renown to serve him as a squire; and during the years of service "Squire."
he was exercised in all manty sports, and learnt the various kinds
of work considered necessary to fit him for his future career,
which included amongst many things waiting on his lord at
table, and polishing his armor, etc.
Later on sacred orders of bnighthood were instituted.
CRUSADES.
I. 1095-9. Preached by Peter the Hermit. Ended by the
Christians taking Jerusalem and making Godfrey de Bouillon
king,
II. 1146. Preached by St. Bernard. Headed by Emperor
Conrad III. and Louis VII. of France. Crusaders defeated.
Jerusalem lost, 1187, to Saladin.
IIE. 1188. Emperor Frederic Barbarossa, etc., joined by
Philippe II. (Auguste) of France and Richard I. of England in
1190. Glorious but fruitless war against Saladin, "Salah-ed-
Din," Saracen Soldan of Egypt and Syria.
IV. 1195. Emperor Heinrich VI. successful till his death
in 1197.
V. 1198. Proclaimed by Innocent EEL Baldwin, Count of
Flanders, attacked the Greeks and took Constantinople in 1203.
VI. 1216. In 1229 Emperor Frederic II. obtained posses-
sion of Jerusalem on a truce for ten years. In 1240 Richard,
Earl of Cornwall, arrived in Palestine, but soon departed.
VII. 1248. Louis IX. (Saint) was defeated and taken
prisoner at Mansourah, 1250. Released by ransom. Truce of
ten years. T ^ <
VIII. 1270. St. Louis (IX.) died of a contagious illness at
Carthage in Africa. Prince Edward (Edward I.) of England
was at Acre, 1271. In 1291 the Saracen Soldan took Acre and
drove the Christians out of Syria.
INDEX,
A.
Aachen, 30, 34, 41, 70, 91
Aar, 91
Aargau, 91
Abbots, 33
Abderrahman, 32
Academy, 30
Acre, 1 88
Adalbert (Archbp.), 47
Adelheld, 42
Adige, 211
Adolf (Nassau), 95
Adolphus or Ataulphus, 16
Adolphus Frederic of Holstein
Gottorp, 171
Adrian IV., Pope. (Nicholas
Breakspear), 60, 6z
Adriatic, 15, 19
Africa, 2
Agnes (Empress), 47
Agnes of Swabia, 57
Aigri or Egeri, 96
Aix-la-Chapelle, 30, 70
Alani, 18
Alaric, 15, 16
Alba, 82
Albert, Archduke of Austria, 238
Albert "the Bear" of Branden-
burg, 57, 187, 189
Albert, Duke of Brandenburg, 128,
131, 192
Albert III. (Elector) of Prussia, 192
AlbertLne line, 108, 142
Albrecht I. HEapsburg, 93, 95
Albrecht H. Austria, 106
Alcuin, 29
Alemanni, a, 14, 23, 24
Alessandria, 62
Alexander ITT. (Pope), 6x
Alexander I. of Russia, 213, 216
Alexius, 123
Algiers, 120, 121
Alphonso of Castile, 77
Alps, 2, 49, 59, iz6, 2ii
Alsace, 35, 90, 91, 108, 152, 242
Alsace-Lorraine, 249
Alva, 134, 142
Amurath I., 120
Ambrose (St.), 61
Axnbrosian Liturgy, 30
America, 107, 114, 137, 158, 176,
184, 201, 226
Amiens, 244
Ancona, 69
Andalusia, 21
Angles, 3, 21
Angilbert, 30
Anglo-German Convention, 260
263
Anjou, 71, 79
Anjouvins, 84
Anne of Prussia, 192
Anne of Bohemia, 103
Anne. Hungary, 112
Antipopes, 50, 6 a
Anson, 175
Apennines, 49, 77
Apulia, 66
Aquila, 82
Aquileia, 19
Arabia, 24
Arabs, Arabians, 24, 28, 32, 77,
87, 89
Aragon, 78, 84, 114, 161
Arcadius (Emp.) 16
Architecture, 30, 89
Arcola, 211
Arian Christians, 15, 21
Armed Neutrality, 205
301
302
INDEX.
Annagnacs, 106
Arnaud de Villeneuve, 89
Arnold of Brescia, 60
Arnold von Wink dried, 100
Arnulf or Arnoul (Emp.), 3 6
Arnulf of Bavaria, 41
Art, 15, 89, 155
Arthur, King, 89
Artois, 1 08
Aryan race, i
Asia, 187
Asia Minor, 14, 64
Asti, 1 6
Asturias, 34
Ataulphus, 1 6. (See Adolphus)
Athelstan, 41
Attigny sur 1'Aisne, 33
Attila, 18, 19, 73> 8 9> 2<5 3
Auerstadt, 215
Augsburg, 47> 87, 112, 124, 129,
131, 134, 136* 144, 157
Augustus (Emp. of Rome), n, 12
Augustus II. Poland, 163, 168,
181
Augustus III. Poland, 165, 171,
173, 181
Augustulus, Romulus, 20
Augustine, 21
Aurelle de Paladines, 244
AusterHtz, 213, 214, 215
Austracia, 32
Austria, 29, 57, 58, 91 to 184, 199
to 239
Austro-Hungarian Empire, 180
Avars, 2, 22, 28, 29, 33, 34
Azof, 157
B.
Babenberg, 42, 93
Bacon, Roger, 88
Baden, 214, 241, 247
Baden (Archduchess of), 245
Balkan Provinces, 87, 229
Ballenstadt. (See Albert the
Bear)
Baltic Canal, 262
Baltic Sea, 4, 15, 188, 189
Ban (of the Church), 48, 50, 63,
39
Ban (of the Empire), 127
Baptism, 31, 32, 33
Barbarians, 4, 10
Barbarossa. (See Frederic)
Barbarossa, 120
Baron von Ketteler, 262
Bartholomew (St.), 108
Basel (Basle), 122
Batavian Republic, 217
Battle of Sedan, 246
Battle of the Nations, 222
Bautzen, 222
Bavaria, 28, 33, 57-59, 63, 64, 9*
108, 153, 178, 214, 218, 238, 241,
247
Bavarians, 28
Bayard, 116
Bazaine (Gen.), 242, 243
Beatrice of Burgundy, 63
Beatrice of Provence, 79
Beatus (Saint), 25
Beauharnais, Josephine, 218, 226
Beauharnais, Eugene, 214
Beauharnais, Hortense, 226
Beaumont, 243
Beer, 5
Begging friars, 74, 103
Belfort, 244
Belgium, 2, 3, 212, 231
Belgrade, 119, 157
Belle Alliance, 225
Bellevue, 243
Benedek (Marshal), 238
Benedetti, 240
Benedict IX. (Pope), 43
Benedict XIII. (Pope), 103
Benedict XIV. (Pope), 134
Benedictine Order, 25
Benevento, 33, 79
Beningsen, 216
Be"renger of Tours, 90
Beresina, 220
Berg (Duke of), 214
Berlin, 86, 153, 188, 195, 205, 215,
233, 241, 245, 248, 260
BerHn Congress, 252
Berlin Decree, 205, 215, 217
Bernard (St.) of Clairvaux, 58
Bernard Ascanius, 64
Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, 152
INDEX.
303
Bernadotte, 217, 221
Berne, 94
Berri (Be), 228
Bertha of Susa, 48
Berthier (Gen.), 214
Bicocca, 1 1 6
Bishoprics, 30, 152, 153
Bingen on the Rhine, 50
Bipont. (See Deux Fonts)
Bismarck, 49, 236 to end
Bison's horns, 9
Bittenfeld (Gen. von), 238
Black Sea, 15
Black Forest, 23, 211
Black Death, 99
Blenheim, 161
Blockade, 215, 216
Bliicher, 215, 221, 224, 225
Bobbio, 25
Boden-See, 104
Bohemia, 46, 59, 90, 93, 98, 99,
100, etc., 114, 120, 129, 131, 139,
142, 143 to 145, 169, 233, 238
Bohemians, 3
Boleslas V., 188
Bologna, 29, 75, 118
Bondmen, 8
Boniface (St.), 25
Borussi, 187, 1 88
Boscawen, 175
Bouillon (Godfrey de), 49
Bourbaki, 244
Bourbon, 116, 117, 167
Bouvines, 70
Boxer Movement, 262
Braganza, 216
Brandenburg, 3, 40, 57, 98, 102,
108, 144, 149, 153, 157, 159, 187
to 192.
Brandy, 89
Brannybor, 40
Braunaw, 139
Braunschweig. (See Brunswick.)
Brazil, 112
Brazilian Territory, 264
Breifach, 244
Breissach, 152
Breitenfeld, 149
Bremen, 47, 152, 205, 219, 259
Brescia (Arnold von), 60
Brescia, 72, 95
Breslau, 73, 169, 174, 200
Brindisi, 71
Britain, 3, 21
Brittany, 2
British Isles, 34
Brunswick, 55, 64, 70, 86, 174,
203, 216
Brussels, in
Bulgaria, 183
Bulgarians, 2
Bull, 74
Bull, Golden, 98
Bull, Papal, 69, 125
Bundesrath, 248, 259
Buonaparte, Napoleon, 158, 205 to
227
Buonaparte, Joseph, 214, 217
Buonaparte, Louis, 214, 217, 219
Buonaparte, Caroline, 214
Buonaparte, Jerome, 216, 226
Buonaparte, Lucien, 225, 226
Burgundii, 2
Burgundy, 2, 35, 43, 59, 85, no,
114, 118
Burgundians, 2, 16
Biiren, Frederic von, 49, 57
Busento, R., 16
Byzantine Empire, 2^
Byzantium, 14
Cadiz, 170
Caesar Augustus (Charlemagne),
34
Caesar, Julius, n
Cairo, 74
Cajetano, 112, 124
Caleph River. (See Cydnus), 64
Caliph. (See K.), 32
Calixtus II. (Pope), 53
Calixtins, 105
Calmuck Tartars, 18
Calvin, 131, 133
Cambrai, 118
Campo Formio, 212
Canada, 175
Canal, 31
304
INDEX.
Canal, Frederic William, 194
Canal, The Kaiser Wilhelm, 262
Canossa, 49, 57
Capua, 76
Cape of Good Hope, 107
Capitulation of Paris, 244
Carbonari, 228
Cardinals, 46, 73
Carinthia, 93, 108, 114, 131, 136
Carlovingians, 25, 26
Carloman. (See Karlomann)
Carlos (Don), 164
Carlstadt, 125, 127
Carniola, 108
Caroccio, 61, 63, 72
Carolo Magno. (See Charle-
magne)
Carpathians, 4, 189
Carthage, 19, 21
Casimir of Poland, 192
Castiglione, 211
Castile, 77, 108, 114, 161
Catherine von Bora, 128
Catherine de Medici, 108
Catherine II. Russia, 158, 175
to 184, 204
Catholic League, 144, 145, 149
Caucasian race, i
Celibacy of the clergy, 45, 90
Celts. (See Kelts)
Chalons, 19
Chanzy, 244
Emperors of Germany
Charlemagne (Charles I.), 20,
28 to 36, 89, no
Charles II. (the Bald), 35
Charles III. (le Gros), 36
Charles IV. (Luxemburg),
97> 98, 99; 189, 190
Charles V., 112 to 137
Charles VI., 162 to 165,
196
Charles VII. 168, 178, 199,
200
Charles (Archduke of Austria),
162, 211, 212, 218
Charles of Anjou, 79, 80, 82,
83,84
Charles the Lame, of Anjou, 84
Charles X. Sweden, 179
Charles XII. Sweden, 158
Charles VI. France, 106
Charles IX. France, 108
Charles the Bold. Burgundy, 107,
no
Charles II. England, 194
Charles Edward (Pretender), 169
Charles of Lorraine, 156
Charles II. Spain, 160
Charles Emmanuel. Sardinia,
166
Charles Theodore (Elector Pala-
tine), 178
Charles Gustavus (Count Pak>-
tine), 179
Charles Martel, 24
Charlottenburg, 206
Charter of Liberty, 139, 145
Chatti (or Catti), 3
Chereddin, 120
Cherusci, 3, n
Childeric III., 25
China, Germans in, 262
Chinese, 18, 87, 88
Chinese Wall, 18
Chivalry (Orders), 88
Christianity preached, 2, 25, 26,
31, 41, 42, 187
Christian IV. Denmark, 143,
145, 146, 152
Christian IX., 237
Christian of Brunswick (Gen.),
145
Christina. Sweden, 179
Christopher Columbus, 107
Cimbri, 10, n
Circles, in
Cisalpine Republic, 212
Civilization -battle, 250
Clairvaux, 58
Claude of Turin, 90
Clement of Ireland, 30
Clement III. (Pope), 50
Clement IV. (Pope), 82
Clement VI. (Pope), 97
Clement VII. (Pope), 117
Cleves (Duchy of), 194
Clotilde, 23
Clovis, 17, 23
Cluny, 45
INDEX.
305
ISt, 203, 211
2d, 212
CoaHtioa -( g^
5th, 218
6th, 221
Code of nations, 153
Code of laws, 73
Code Napoleon, 226
Coeur de Lion, Richard. (See
Richard)
Cohort of death, 63
Colberg (Gen.), 215
College of Cardinals, 46
Colmar, 35
Cologne. (See Koln)
Colonial Expansion, 263
Columba (St.), 25
Community, 8
Comte de la Marche, 33
Concordat of Worms, 53, 55
Concordat with Pope (1821), 207
Cond6 (Prince de), 152, 213
Confession of Augsburg, 129, 130,
Confederation (Swiss), 106
Confederation (Helvetic), 217
Confederation of the Riiine, 214,
231
Confederation (Germanic), 230,
236, 237, 239
Confederation (North German),
239, 241
Congress of Vienna, 207, 224, 227,
230
Conrad I. (Emperor), 38, 57
Conrad II. (Emperor), 43, 57
Conrad III. (Emperor), 57, 58, 64,
86
Conrad IV. (Emperor), 73 to 77
Conrad (Count Palatine), 39
Conrad of Hohenstaufen, 54, 55
Conrad, son of Heinrich IV., 50
Conradino, 76, 77, 80 to 83
Constable of Bourbon, 116
Constance (Treaty of), 63
Constanza the Nun, 64, 66, 67, 68,
70
Constanza, sister of Manfred, 79,
83
Constantine the Great, 14, 104
Constantinople, 14, 16, 44, 120,
182, 215
Constitution Adopted, 248
Continental Blockade, 215, 216
Convention of Kloster-Seven, 173,
174
Copenhagen, 86
Cordova, 32
Cornwall (Richard of), 77
Coronation of Emperor William
I., 247
Corporal Violet, 224
Corsica, 28
Corsican, 211, 213
Corte Nuova, 72
Cossacks, 220
Cotta, 123
Council (Frankfort, 794), 30
Council (Lateran, 1123), 53
Council (Rome, 1237), 72
Council (Constance, 1414), 104,
122, 125
Council (Basel, 1433), 105
Council (Augsburg, 1530), 129
Council (Trent, 1545), *3 2 *34
Council (Ratisbon, 1629), 146
Count Palatine, 29, 39, 68, 98
101, 103, 179
Count Jordano, 66
Count Raymond of Toulouse, 79
Count Adolf of Nassau, 95
Count Waldersee, 263
Count Zrinyi, 138
County, 29
Courcelles, 243
Courland, 131, 158
Cracow, 73
Cranmer, 131
Crecy, 98
Crediton, 25
Crespy, 119, 132
Crimea, 182, 183, 191
Croats, 1 68
Crusade, 2d, 58
Crusade, 3d, 64
Crusade, 6th, 71, 188
Crusade, 7th, 74
Crusades, influence of, 87
Crusading Emperor, 72
306
INDEX.
Customs Union, 232, 259
Custozza, 238
Cydnus, 64
Czechs, 103, 1 68
D.
Dacian Goths, 14
Dalmatia, 90, 212, 213
Danes, 28, 32, 86, 237
Danish period, 143, 146
Danube, 2, 4, 15, 21, 31, 149, 156,
166, 180, 211, 218
Danubian Principalities, 180
Danzig, 86, 163, 164, 201
David, 30
Dead languages, 107
Denmark, 3, 37, 59, 85, 142, 231,
237
Desiderius of Lombardy, 28, 30,
32
Dessauer, 200
Deux Fonts (Duke of), 178, 179
Devereux, 151
Diet of Mainz, 50
Diet (Hungarian), 168
Diet (German), 60, 107, 108, 113,
126, 130, 228, 230, 231, 234
Diet of Worms, 126
Diet of Spires, 129
Diet of Augsburg (1519), 112
Diet of Augsburg (1548), 134
Diet of Augsburg (1555), 136
Districts, 8
Dnieper, 15
Don, 19
Donchry, 243
Donar or Thor, 6
Double-headed Eagle, 34
Dresden, 108, 172, 200, 234
Drusus, ii
Duchies, 29, 237
Due d'Enghien, 213
Duke of Bavaria, 33, 39
Dutch Republic, 142
E.
East Prussia, 192
Eberhard, 38, 41
Ebro, 32
Eccelino ITT., 72, 75
Ecclesiastical reserve, 136
Eck (Doctor), 125
Edict of Nantes, 157
Edict of Toleration, 177
Edith (Empress), 41
Edmund I. (Crouchback), 78
Edmund, 41
Edward VI. of England, 131
Eger, 151
Egeri, 96
Eginhard, 30
Egypt, 212
Ehresburg, 31
Eisenach, 123, 127
Eleanor of Prussia, 192
Eisleben, 122, 132
Elba, 223
Elbe, n, 40, 55, 86, 133, 146, 187,
216
Elector of Brandenburg, 189, 190,
192
Elector of Koln, 161
Elector of Hesse, 228
Electors of Germany, 93, 97, 98,
139
Electors of Saxony, 113, 123, 124,
127, 133, 149, 165, 171, 172,
*73> 175
Elector of Bavaria, 161, 165, 166,
167
Elizabeth of Austria, 97
Elizabeth of Bohemia, 98
Elizabeth of England, 142
Elizabeth of Parma, 166 ,
Elizabeth of Russia, 171, 174, 175,
181, 201
Elster, 222
Emirs, 32
Empire (East), 14, 15, 16 et seq.
Empire (West), 14, 15, 16, 20 et
seq.
Empress Frederic, 255
Ems, 240
Enghien (Due de), 213
England, 64, 70, 78, 157, 162, 166,
194, 200, 215, 243
English Protestant Church, 142
English Revolution, 142
Enzio the Handsome, 72, 75
Erasmus, 122
INDEX.
307
rfurt, 87, 123
rmengarde (Irmgard), 35
,rnestine Line, 108, 142
istramadura, 137
itzel or Attila, 18
Cudoxia, 19
Eugene of Savoy (Prince), 156,
161, 165
Eugene Beauharnais, 214
Excommunication, 48, 50, 63, 71,
etc., 217
Exarchate of Ravenna, 25
Eylau, 206, 216
Ezzilino of Romano, 72, 75, 78
Exile, 37
F.
Falk Law, 250
Farming, 30
Faidherbe (Gen.), 244
Farel, 131
Federal Council, 248
Fehrbillen, 194
Feminist Movement, 264
Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain,
112, 114
Ferdinand I. (Emperor), 112, 114,
119, 129, 130, 134, 138
Ferdinand II. (Emperor), 140, 143,
144, 145, 146, 149, 151
Ferdinand III. (Emperor), 143,
Ferdinand, Emperor of Austria,
234
Ferrara, 212
Feudal System, 29, 52, 88, 141,
177
Field of Falsehood, 35
Field of the Cloth of Gold, 115
Fieschi (Pope), 73
Finland, 231
Fist-right, 43> IIJ
Flanders, 79, 203
Fleury, 163, 168
Florence, 78, 118, 122
Fontainebleau, 223
Fontenoy, 169
Foulke of Anjou, 71
"Fowler," Heinrich the. (See
Heinrich)
France, 23, 37, 131
Emperors
Francis I. of Lorraine, 164,
167, 169, 200
Francis II., 180, 205. (See
Francis I. of Austria), 211,
213, 214, 227, 231
Francis Joseph, Emperor of
Austria, 234, 239
Francis I. of Austria, 180,
184, 205, 214, 218, 223
Francis I. of France, 113 to 119,
Franz Steffan. (See Francis I. of
Lorraine)
Franche Comte", 108, 137
Franco-Prussian War, 240, 249,256
'Franconia, 38, 77, 85, 108, 191
Franconian Dynasty, 43 to 54
Franks, 2, 3, 14, 17, 19, 21 et seq.
Frankfort, 58, 86, 97, 167, 168,
230, 234, 239, 244
Freeborn, 8
Freedmen, 8, 9
Freemasons, 89
Emperors of Germany
Frederic I., Barbarossa, 63
to 65, 95, 188
Frederic II., 68 to 75, 83
Frederic III. (?), Handsome,
Rival Emperor, 95, 96, 97
Frederic III. or IV., Pacific,
106 to no
Frederic William (Crown
Prince), 238, 242
Frederic HI., New Empire,
254
William I., 246, 247, 254
William II, 258,
Electors of Prussia (Branden-
burg)
Frederic L of Nuremberg,
102, 108, 190, 192
Frederic II., 192
Frederic III., 192, 196
Frederic William (the Great
Elector), 192 to 195, 201
Kings of Prussia
Frederic!., 162, 192, 196, 201
Frederic William L, 196
308
INDEX.
Frederic II. (the Great), 158,
165 to 183, 197, 203
Frederic William II., 183,
202 to 204
Frederic William III., 204 to
207, 221
Frederic William IV., 207,
233. 234, 235
William, 246, 247, 248
Frederic von Buren, 49; 57
Frederic of Hohenstaufen, 54* 55>
5*
Frederic of Austria, 75
Frederic of Baden, 81, 82
Frederic of Brunswick, 101
Frederic, Count of Nuremberg, 96
Frederic of Saxony (the Wise),
113, 123, 124, 128
Frederic V., Elector Palatine, 143,
144
Frederic Augustus, Saxony, 221,
222
Frederic VII. of Denmark, 237
Frederic of Augustenburg, 237
Frederic Charles, Prince, 238, 242
Freya, 6
Frejus, 224
French Language, 36, 155
French Revolution, 158, 180, 203,
233
French Period, 143
French Republic, 158, 228, 244
Frenois, 243
Friedland (Battle), 206
Friedland, Duke of, 146, 147, 216
Friesland, 26, 193
Fridolin of Seckingen, 25
Frisia, 25
Frisians, 3, 26
"Fritz," 201, 242, 245
Fulda, 26, 29
Ftirst, 95
G.
Gaisberg, 242
Galetta, 121
Gaticia, 159, 184
Gall, St., 25, 29
Garigliano, 77
Gascons, 33
Gaul, 2, 3, 4
Geisa, 42
Geismar, Oak of, 26
Geneva, 131, 158
Genghis Khan, 73
Genoa, 61, 72, 73, 85, 231
Genoese Republic, 212
Genseric, 19, 21
Geoff roi of Anjou, 54
Georg, Junker, 127
George William, Elect, of Prussia
192
George Podiebrad, 106
George II., England, 166, 174
George III., England, 174
Georges von Freundsberg (Gen.)
118, 126
Gepidae, 3, 15
Gera, 49
General Council, 74
German Colonization, 253
German Diet, 60, 107, 113, 126,
130, 228, 234
German Empire, 247, 256, 265
Germany's Progress, 264
Gessler 95
Ghent, 114, 224
Ghibellines, 56 to 58, 61, 69, 72
78 to 85
Gibraltar, 162
Giselbert of Lorraine, 41
Godfrey of Bouillon, 49
Godoy, 240
Golden Bull, 98
Gordon, 151
Goths, 2, 14, i$, 1 6
Gothic Kingdom, 15, 16, 19, etc.
Gotteschalk, 90
Graf, 29
Grand Duke of Baden, 248
Grandenz, 215
Grandella, 79
Gravelotte, 243
Great Britain, 161, 215
Great Chancellor, 246
Great Schism, 132, 134
Greeks, i, 28, 33, 87, 182
Gregorian Chants, 30
Gregory II. (Pope), 26
Gregory VI. (Pope), 43
INDEX.
Gregory VII. (Pope, Hildebrand),
45 to 50, 68
Gregory IX. (Pope), 71, 72, 73
Gregory X. (Pope), 91
Gregory XII. (Pope), 103
Greifswald, 86 ^
Grisons, r 06
Grodno, 184
Guelph 35, 50 to 74, 78, 85
Guiscard (Robert), 48, 50 5
Guise (Duke of), 136
Gunpowder, 88, 107
Gustavus Vasa, 131, 163
Gustavus Adolphus, 143, 148 to
^ 152, 179* 194
Gutenstein, 97
Guy de Lusignan, 188
H.
Habichtsburg, or Hapsburg, 91
Hague Tribunal, 264
Halberstadt, 194
Hall of Mirrors, 247
Hamitic Race, i
Hamburg, 86, 219, 259
Handel-Verdindung. (See Han-
seatic League)
Hanno, Archbishop, 47
Hanover, 3, 174, 205, 216, 219,
238, 239
Hanse Towns, 86
Hanseatic League, 86, 87, 100, 259
Hapsburg, 91
Hapsburg, Germany, 91 to 184,
Hapsburg, Spain, 114 to 137, 141,
142, 160 to 162
Haroun Alraschid, 18
Harzburg, 48, 49
Haspinger, 218
Hauteville, De, 44, 64
Hawke, 175
Heidelberg, 108, 155, 178
Heidenmauer, 96
Emperors of Germany
Heinrich I., the "Fowler," 38,
H etc., 48, 187
Heinrich II., the "Saint" or
the "Lame," 42
309
Heinrich III., the Black, 43,
etc.
Heinrich IV., 47, etc.
Heinrich V., 50, 52, etc.
Heinrich VI,, 64 to 67, 70
Heinrich VH., 95, 97
Heinrich II., the Proud of Bavaria,
55f 57* 59
Heinrich III., the Lion, of Ba,
57, 59 to 63, 68
Heinrich, son of Frederic II, 70,
72
Hela,6
Helena, St., 226
avaria,
^
Helvetic Confederation, 217
Henri II., France, 135, 136
Henn of Castile, 81
Henri IH., France, 108
Henri IV., Navarre, 109
Henry L, England, 54
Henry III., England, 78
Henry VIII., England, 113, uc
119
Henry the Pious, Duke of Silesia,
73 ^^
Hen of Honorius, 16
Hermann "the Deliverer," 3 n
12, 31
Hermann of Swabia, 41
Hermannsaule, 31
Hermanric, 15
Hertha, 6
Heruli, 20
Hesse, 3 128, 133, 135, I3 6, 174,
2IO, 225
Hesse-Cassel, 26, 238
Hesse-Nassau, 238*
Hesse-Darmstadt, 247
Hildebrand. (See Gregory VIL)
Hindoos, i
Hochkirch, 201
Hochstadt, 161
Hofer, 218
Hohenburg, Marquis of, 77
Hohenfriedburg, 200
Hohenlinden, 212
Hohenstaufen Line, 57, etc., 83.
92, 95 to 184
Hohenzollern, 102, 108, 190 to end
INDEX
Holland, 145, 153, 157, 161, 193,
194, 203, 214, 217, 219, 231, 237
to 239
Holstein, 3, 171, 233
Holy Alliance (1815), 207, 228, 230
Holy Roman Empire, 34, 37, 42,
231
Homer, 30
Honorius, Emperor, 16
Honorius, Pope, 70, 71
Horace, 30
Hortense Beauharnais, 226
Home, 120
Hubertsburg, 175, 201
Hudson's Bay, 162
Huguenots, 108, 131
Hulda, 6 "
Hundred, 8
Hundred Days, 224
Hungarian Diet, 168
Hungarians, 38, 39, 42, 156
Hungary, 18, 19, 73, 85, 90, 102,
114, 119, 120, 129, 131, 233
Hunniades (John), 106
Huns, 2, 15, 18, 19, 34, 73, 89
Huss (John), 90, 103 to 105, 122,
126
Hussinetz, 103
Hussite Wars, 102 to 105, 125
I.
Iliad, 89
Images, 30
Imperial Diet, 248, 258
India, 107, 176, 212
Indo-European, i
Indulgences, 103, 124
Informal League, 249
Innocent II., Pope, 55
Innocent III., Pope, 68, 70, 90
Innocent IV., Pope 73, 77
Innsbruck, 112, 135
Inquisition, 74, 142
Insurance Legislation, 261
Interim, 134
Interregnum, 87-91, 106
Invalides Church, 226
Investiture, 45, 48, 52, etc
Ionian Islands, 212
Irene (Emp.), 28
Iron Crown, 28, 42, 106
Isabella I. of Spain, 112
Isabella II. of Spain, 240
Istria, 212, 213
Italy, 3, etc., 60, 71, 90, 157, 179,
211, 212, 233, 234
Italian language, 70
Jagellon, 163
James V. Scotland, 119
James VI. Scotland, I. England,
142
James II. England, 161
James III. England, 161
Janissaries, 120
Jean de Brienne, 71, 72
Jena, 205, 215, 222, 228
Jerome of Prague, 103
Jerusalem, 64, 71, 74 188
Jesuits, 156, 158
Jews, 177
Joachim I. of Brandenburg, 192
Joachim II. of Brandenburg, 192
Joachim Frederic of Branden-
burg, 192
Johann of Hapsburg, 95
Johann of Bohemia (blind) 97
Johann III., Elect. Prussia, 192
Johann George, Elect. Prussia 192
Johann Sigismund, 192
Johann Trocznow, 104
John of England, 70
John XXIII., Pope, 103
John, Archduke of Austria, 234
John Hunniades, 106
John Frederic of Saxony, 133, 136
John of Werth, 152
Jongleurs, 89
Jordano (Count), 66
Josephine, 218, 223, 226
Joseph (Pere), 147
Joseph I., Emperor, 161, 165
Joseph IL, Emperor, 175 to 180
Jossus, 10 1
Jourdan (Gen.), 203, 211
Juana of Castile, 108, 112, 113,
114
Judges, 8
Julius Csesar, n
INDEX.
Jumieges (Abbey of), 33
Junker Georg, 127
Junot, 216
Jura, 21
Justinian, 73
Just, San, 137
Jutes, 3
Jutland, 3, 28
Jutta, 35
K.
Kainardji, 183
Kaiser Wilhelm, 245
Kalisch, 207
Karlomann, 28
Kara Mustafa, 156
Katte, Lieutenant, 198
Kaunitz (Prince), 171
Keltic Race, i, 2
Kelts, i, 2
Kesseldorf, 200
Khalif, 32
Kilian of Warzburg, 25
King of Rome, 219
King of the Romans, 67, 69, 70,
72, 73> 78, 104, 118, 130, 175
Kloster-Seven, 173, 174
Knighthood, 39
Knights of Malta, 119
Knights. (See Teutonic)
Knox (John), 131
Kdln, 47, 86, 87, 90, 98, 101, 153
Kolberg, 86
Kolin, 173, 201
Konigsberg, 86, 188, 192, 196, 205
K5niggratz, 238
Kosciusko, 184
Kotzebue, 228
Kremlin, 219
Kulm, 188
Kulterkampf, The, 250
Kunersdorf, 201
Kyffhauser Mountains, 65
L.
Ladislas I., Bohemia, 59
Ladislas, Naples, 103
Landsknechte, in
Landgraf, 29, 128, 133, 135, 136
Language, i, 8, 29, 36, 70, 89, 90,
104, 155, 168, 187 j
Lannoy, 117
Laon, 119
Lateran Council, 53
Latin Race, i, 12
Latin Scriptures, 34
Lausanne, 91
Lautrec, 116
League of Augsburg (1686), 157
League of Lombardy (1167), 61,
62, 69, 72
League of Nuremberg (1531), 130
League of Schmalkalde (1531),
i3t J 33
League of Tuscany, 68
Lech, 149
Lechfelde, 42
Lefevre, 131
Leidrad of Lyons, 30
Leipsic, 108, 125, 149, 150, 152,
175, 222
Legnano, 63
Leo I., Pope, 19
Leo III., Pope, 34
Leo IX., Pope, 44 to 46
Leo X., Pope, 115, 124
Leopold I., Markgraf of Austria,
57
Leopold I. of Austria, 96, 97
Leopold II. or III. of Austria, 100
Leopold V. or I., Duke of Austria,
65
Leopold I., Emperor, 155 to 161,
203
Leopold II., Emperor, 180, 194
Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, 231
Leopold of Hohenzollern, 240
Letter post, in
Leuthen, 174, 201
Liege, 50
Liegnitz, 73
Lieutenant, Lord, 8
Ligurian Republic, 212
Ligny, 224
Lintz, 156
Lithuanians, 2
Lithuania, 184, 189
Little Russia, 189
Livonia, 131
INDEX.
Loire, 17, 244
Lombards, 3, 20, 25, 28, etc., 77
Lombardy, 6, 30, 60, 72, 76, 212,
231
London, 207, 237
Loria, De (Gen.), 84
Lorraine, 35, 49, 135, 158, 164
Lorraine, Charles, Duke of, 156
Lords, 8
Losowitz, 172
Lothaire I., Emp*ror, 35
Lothaire II., Emperor, 55
Lothaire, King of Italy, 35, 42
Louis d'Orleans, 106
Emperors
Ludwig or Louis I., le De*bon-
naire, or the Pious, 35, 90
Ludwig or Louis II., the
German, 36
Ludwig or Louis III., the
Stammerer, 36
Ludwig or Louis the Blind,
36
Ludwig or Louis (IV.?) the
Child, 37
Ludwig or Louis IV., von
Wittelsbach of Bavaria, g')
to 98, 106, 189
Ludwig, Elec. of Bavaria, 81
Ludwig I., Hungary, 102
Ludwig II., Hungary, 112, 119
Ludwig I., Brandenburg, 189
Ludwig II., Brandenburg, 189
Kings of France
Louis IX., the Saint, 74, 79
Louis XIV., 141, 154, 156,
*57> *5 8 > 160, 161, 165, 247
Louis XV., 158, 165, 171, 194
Louis XVI., 158, 203, 224
Louis XVIH., 224
Louis Philippe, 233
Louis Napoleon. (See Napo-
leon)
Lotharingia, 35
Louis of Baden, 157
Low Countries, 137
Liibeck, 86, 87, 143, 219, 259
Lucca, 78
Lucera, 71, 77, 79
Luisa, Duchess Brandenburg, 194
Luise, Queen of Prussia, 204, 206 ,
236
LuneVille, 180, 212
Lupus, 33
Lusatia, 98
Luther (Martin), 90, 112, 122 to
134
Luttich or Liege, 50
Liitzen, 150, 221
Luxemburg, 91
Lyons, 29, 74, 90
M.
Maas, 51
Macdonald, Marshal, 222
MacMahon, 243
Madrid, 117
Magdeburg, 86, 123, 135, 148, 149,
153, 194, 206
Magna Graecia, 28, 41
Magyars, 22, 41, 131, 168
Main, 23, 211, 239
Mainz, 26, 50, 87, 91, 92, 98
Maires du Palais, 24
Malta, 119
Malplaquet, 161
Manfred, 76 to 80, 83
Mansfeld, 122
Mansfeld, Ernest von, 143, 144
Manteuffel, 244
Mantua, 72, 211
Marches, 29, 33, 187
Marches, Spain, 32
Marches, Ancona, 69
Marchese, 29
Marcomanni, 3
Marcus Aurelius, Emp., 14
Marengo, 212, 216
Margaret Lindemann, 122
Maria Louisa, ArchducL., 7 IB,
223, 226
Maria Bianca, Sforza, in
Maria Theresa, Austria, 158, 164.
to 182, 199 to 202, 231
Maria Theresa, Spain, 160
Marie Leczinski, 163
Marienburg, 188
Mariner's Compass, 87, 107
Marius, 10, n
INDEX.
313
Markgraf, 29, 40, 98, 102, 108, 188,
189, 200
Marlborough, 161
Marmont, 223
Mars la Tour, 243
Marseilles, 79, 116
Martel, Charles, 24
Martin's Wall, in
Mary of Hungary, 102
Mary of Burgundy, 107, 108, no,
US, H4
Mary Tudor, 109, 142
Marzfeld, 93
Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 108
Matilda of Tuscany, 49, 50, 55,
63, 66, 68, 69, 70, 91
Matthias, Emperor, 139, 143
Matthias Corvinus, 106
Maude of England (Matilda), 54
LVTaurice of Saxony, 133, 135
Maurice of Saxony (of Poland),
1 68
Mayence. (See Mainz)
Max Piccolomini, 143, 152
Maximilian Joseph, 169, 178
Maximilian I., 107 to 113, 124, 125
Maximilian II., 138
Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria, 143,
144, i45> i5 2
Maximus, Emperor, Rome, 19
Mecklenburg, 148, 150
Mecklenburg, Duke of, 2, 128, 146
Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 205
Medici, 115, 118
Medicine, 87
Mediterranean, 35, 82, 119, 212,
223
Meinen, 216
Melaacthon, 124, etc., 129, 133
Memel, 205
Merchandise, 86, 100
Mercy, 152
Merovingians, 25
Merseburg, 40
Messina, 84
Metz, 32, 135, 136, 152, 242, 243
Mexico, 112
Migration of the Nations, 21, 187
Milan, 16, 42, 72, 76, in, 115,
119, 137, 166, 2ii
Milan (Sieges), 60 to 63
Miltitz, 125
Minden, 194
Minnesingers, 89
Minorca, 162, 175
Modena, 212
Mcesia, 15
Mohammedans, 24, 71, 88
Mohatz, 119
Moldavia, 2, 14, 182
Molvitz, 1 66, 199
Monasteries, 30, 137, 179
Mongols, 22
Monreale, 84
Monteferrato, 62
Morat, 94
Moravia, 98, 101, 145
Mora, 122
Morea, 157, 182
Moreau (Gen.), 211, 213
Morgarten, 96, 100
Moscow, 219, 220
Moselle, 242
Miihlberg, 133
Miihldorf, 96
Munich, 89, 108, i^o, i6S
Miinster, 154
Murat, 214, 217
Music, 30
N.
Naples, 71, 76, 77, 80, 82. 84 T IS>
214
Napoleon I., Bonaparte, 174, 20^
to 227
Napoleon II., Duke of Reichstadt,
219, 226
Napoleon III., Louis, 226 234,
240, 244
Nassau, 95, 239
National Assembly, Q, 234
National Congress, 231
National Defence, 244
Natural Science, 87
Naval Bill, 264
Navarre, 32, 115
Navigation, 87
Narvaez, 240
Nelson, 212, 214
314
INDEX.
Netherlands, 35, 108, no, 112,
114, 141, 161, 178, 180
Netz, 201
Neuchatel, 131
Nicholas I., Czar, 184
Nicholas Breakspear. (See Adrian
IV.)
Nicholas II., Pope, 46
Nicholas V., Pope, 106
Nicholas von Hussinec, 104
Nibelungenlied, 89
Niemen, 184
Nordmark, 40, 187
Normans, 37, 44, 4&, 53; 8 3
Northmen, 3, 34
North German Confederation, 247
North Germany, 10
North Sea, 262
Norway, 3, 37, 142, 231
Nova Scotia, 162
Nuremberg, 87, 130, 190
Nut cell e, 26
Nutshalling, 26
O.
Obelisk, 49
Oder, 193
Odoacer, 20
Oesterreich, 29, 42
Oldenburg, 219
Orcan, 120
Order of Merit, 239
Order of Maria Theresa, 173
Organists, 30
Orleans, 244
Osnabruck, 29, 154
Ostrogoths, 2, 15, 20, 21, etc.
Emperors
Otto I., the Great, 41, etc.
Otto II., the Bloody, 42
Otto III-, the Red, 42
Otto IV., "Superb," of Bruns-
wick, 68, 69, 70
Otto the Sluggard, 189
Otto von Wittelsbach, 64
OttocarlL of Bohemia, 81, 93
Ottoman Empire 22, 507, 157,
180, 229, 253
Oxenstiern, 143, 152
P.
Padua, 6 1, 72
Palatine, 29, 68, 98, 143 to 145, 153
Palatinate, Upper, 108, 145, 153,
154. 178
Palatinate, Lower, 108, 145, 153,
155, 178, 231, 242
Palermo, 78, 83
Palestine, 65, 70, 71, 188
Palladines, de (Aurelle, Gen.), 244
Pandours, 168
Pannonia, 29
Papal States, 217
Papal Crusade, 74
Paris, 23, 220, 223, 224, 225, 216,
230, 241, 244
Parma, 164
Partition of Poland, 180 lo 184,
201, 204, 216
Pascal II., 52
Paschase Ratbert, 90
Passau, 90, 136
Patriarchs, 44, 45
Paul the Deacon, 30
Paul III., Pope, 132
Pavia, 29, 60, 62, 117
Payerne, 94
Pays de Vaud, 93
Peace of Augsburg (1555), 144
Peace of Breslau (1742), 169, 200
Peace of Campo Formio (1797),
212
Peace of Carlo witz (1609) 15
Peace of Crespy (1544); **9> 132
Peace of Frankfort (1871), 244
Peace of Hubertsburg (1763),, 175,
201
Peace of Kainardji (1774), 183
Peace of Paris (1763), 175
Peace of Presburg (1805), 213, 214
Peace of Ryswick (1697), 157
Peace of Teschen (1779), 178
Peace of Tilsit (1806), 216
Peace of Westphalia (1648), 152
Peasants' War, 127
Pedro of Aragon, 78, 84
Peninsular War, 217, 218
Pepin d'Heristhal, 24
INDEX.
315
Pepin le"Bref," 24, 28
Pepin, son of Charlemagne, 34, 35
Persia, i
Peru, 112
Pescara, 117
Peter the Great, 158
Peter III., Russia, 175, 201
Peter's, St., Church, 34, 60
Petersburg, 170
Pfalzburg, 244
Philippe, Auguste, 64, 70
Philippe of Anjou. (See Philip V,
of Spain.)
Philip I., Spain, 108, no, 112, 113,
114
Philip II., Spain, 134, 137, 141,
142
Philip V., Spain, 160, 161, 166
Philip of Swabia, 66, 68
Philip of Hesse, 128, 133
Philippists, 133
Philipsburg, 152
Piccolomini, Max, 143, 1^2
Pichegru (Gen.), 203, 213
Piedmont, 16, 90, 116, 231
Pietro of Pisa, 29
Pirna, 172, 173
Pisa, 61, Si, 82, b s
Pitt (William), 169, 172, 174, 215
Pius VI., Pope, 212
Pius VII., Pope, 213, 217
Plebiscite, 241
Po, river, n, 211
Pocock, 175
Podesta, 60
Podiebrad, George, 106
Podolia, 184, 189
Poland, 38, 41, 59, 73, 85, QO, 131,
142, 157, 158, 163, 180 to 184,
187 to 192, 201, 216, 233
Poles, 1 68, 201
Pomerania, 146, 148, 152, 153, 159,
175, 194, 231
Pompadour, Madame de, 171
Portugal, 16, 21, 32, 161, 216
Posen, 184, 231
Potatoes, 194
Potsdam Regiment, 196
Potsdam, 202
Praga, 184
Pragmatic Sanction of Ludwig
IV., 97, 106
Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI.,
165, 167, 168, 199, 231
Prague, 98, 100, 103, 104, 139, 143,
144* 145? J 4^ 167, 169, 173, 200,
201
Prakob the Great, 105
Prakob the Little, 105]
Precious Stones, 87
Presburg, 120, 168, 213, 214
President Roosevelt, 264
Priests, 8
Prince Fritz, 242
Prince Henry, 262
Prince Hohenlohe, 250
Prince Imperial, 242
Prince Luitpold of Bavaria, 346
Prince Poniatowski, 222
Printing, 107
"Protestant," 90, 129, 133
Protestant Union, 130
Provence, 79
Provencals, 80, 8
Province, 8
Prussia, 40, 57, 102, loS, 131, 158,
184, 187 to end.
Prussian Kingdom, 247
Ptolemais, 64
Pyrenees, 17, 24, 32, 160
Q-
Quatre Bras, 224
Queen Victoria, 64
R.
Raab, 34
Ramillies, 161
Rastadt, 162
Ratisbon, 146
Ravaillac, 109
Ravenna, 25
Raymond of Toulouse, 79
Red Hat, 73
Red Prince, 238, 242, 243, 244
Reconciliation, 260
Reformation, 90, 107, 112, 122 to
137
Reggio, 49
Reichstadt ? Duke of, 218, 219, 236
INDEX.
Reichstag, 168, 248, 249 250, 254,
261
Reichsrath, 247
Reign of William II., 258 to 265
Relations with other Powers, 263
Religious Peace, Nuremberg
(I53 2 )) T 3
Religious Peace, Augsburg (1555),
136
Renaissance, 107
Reuchlin, 122, 124
Rheirns, 244
Rhenish League, 100
Rhine, 2, 3, 30, etc., 86, 153, 158,
180, 203, 207
Rhodes, 119
Rhone, 2
Richard I. of England, Cceur de
Lion, 64, 6^, 66
Richard II. of England, 103
Richard, Duke of Cornwall', 77
Richelieu, 147, 152, 173
Ripurian Franks, 23
Ring, 34
Rivoli, 211
Roads, 31, 226
Robber Knights, 43, 86, 92
Robert Guiscard, 48
Robert of Flanders, 79, 83
Rochefort, 226
Rodolf of Swabia, 49
Rodolf I., Hapsburg, Emp., 91 to
95
Rodolf II., Emperor, 139
Rodolf III. of Burgundy, 43
Roger of Sicily, 66
Roger de Loria, 84
Roger Bacon, 88
Rogge, 247
Rois Faineants, 24
Roland (Rutland), 28, 33, 89
Roman Catholics, 250
Romance Languages, 89, 90
Romanic Language, 168
Romagna, 212
Romances, 33
Rome (Hen), 16; Siege of Rome,
50. 53> 60, 118, 217
Rome, Decline, 10, 14 et seq.
Romulus AugustuhiSj 29
Roncesvalles, 28, 33
Roon, 238, 247, 256
Rosbach, 173, 201
Rosny, 109
Rostock, 86
Rotterdam, 122
Roxelana, 121
Ruffinus, 1 6
Rugen, 152
Rupert, St., 25
Rupert (Count Palatine), Emp.,
101, 103, 190
Russia, 73, 87, 142, 157, 163, 175
tO 184, 2OO tO 2O7, 219, 22O
Ruthenian Languages, 168
Ryswick, 157
S.
Saale, 23
Saarbrucken, 242
Sadowa, 238
Saint Quentin, 244
Saint Steffan, 168
Saint Just, 137
Saladin, 64
Salerno, 50
Saleph or Caleph, 64
Salique Franks, Salic, 23, 43
Sand, 228
San Remo, 255
Sanscrit, i
Sans Souci, 202, 206
Saracens, 24, 64, 70, 71, 74, 77, 87
Saragossa, 32
Sardinia, 28, 72, 112, 114, 162, 164,
167, 231
Savona, 45, 217
Savonarola, 122
Savoy, 62, 119, 156, 158, 161
Savoy, Victor, Duke of, 162
S axe-Weimar, 152
Saxons, 3, 14, 21, etc.
Saxon Dynasty, 38, etc.
Saxony, 57, 59, 63, 64, 98, 108, 142,
200, 205, 214, 216, 231, 238
Scandinavia, 2, 142
Scandinavians, 3, So
Scheldt, 161
Schiller, 144
Schleswig. 3, 233, 237 to 239 '
INDEX.
317
Schmalkalde. (See League)
Schwabischen Bund, TOO
Schwarzerde, 124
Schweitz, 95
Schweppermann, Siegfried von, 96
Schwerin (Gen.), 200
Science, 15, 87, 155
Sclavonians, i, 2, 187
Sclavs, 28, 33, 103, 1 68
Scythians, 18
SeMan, 243
Semitic Race, i
Sempach, 100
Serfs, 8, 88, 197
Sesia, 116
Seven Weeks' War, 238, 239
Seven Years 7 War, 158, 170 to 176,
181, 201
Sforza (Maria Bianca), in
Shields. 9, 69
Sicilies '(Two), 64, 66, 68, 6q, 70,
112, 114
Sicilian Vespers, 83, 92
Sicily, 44, 64, 74, 76, 78, 82, 162,
, 2 33
Siebenbtirgen, 14
Siena, 81
Sigismund of Luxemburg, 101 to
106, 190
Sigismund of Poland, 163
Silesia, 73, 98, 139, 145, 159, 166,
169, 171, 174, 199 to 201
Silesian War ( i ), 199
Silesian War (2), 200
Silesian War (3), 200 to 202
Simony, 44, 46, 48
Snow King, 143^ 148
Sobieski (John), 156, 163, 181
Socialism, 252
Solyman the Turk, 119 to 121, 130,
138
Sophia Elizabeth, 196
Soubise (Marshal), 173
Souvaroff, 184
Spain, 2, 1 6, 17, 32, 90, 107, 112,
129, 157 to 162, 217, 233, 240
Spaniards, 28, 166
Spandau, 188
Specbacher, 218
Speier or Spires, 51, 94, 129, 155
Spree, 193
Stadtholder, 203
Standard, 34
Stanislas Leczinski, 163, 165
Stanislas Poniatowski, '181, 184
Staremberg (Count von), 156
States of the Church, 25, 212
"Stauffacher, 95
Steffan the Pious, 42, 168
Steinmetz (Gen.), 42, 243
Stettin, 86, 152
Stilicho, 1 6
Stone of the Swede, 150, 221
Stralsund, 86, 146, 152
Strasburg, 152, 154, 244
Stuttgart, 234
Succession, Spanish, 160 to r*~
Succession, Polish, 163, 164
Succession, Austrian, 165 to 169
Succession, Palatinate, 178
Styria, 93, 108, 114, 131
Suevi, 2. (See Swabians), 16, 21
Sully, 109
Sultan, 70, 74, 79, 182
Sun Worship, 6
Supremacy of Pope, 45, 90
Susa, 48, 62
Swabia, 2, 16 39, 68, 77, 81, 85,
91, 108
Swabians, 2, 16, 21, etc., 191
Swabian League, 100
Swabian Line, 57
Sweden, 3, 37, 86, 131, 142, 152,
157, 158, 194, 2i7> 2 3i
Swedish Period, 143, 148
Swiss Cantons, 95, 153, 217
Swiss Confederation, 95
Switzerland, 2, 25, 43, 91, 131, 193,
244
Sylvester III., Pope, 43
Syriac Scriptures, 34
Syria, 71, 74
Szigeth, 138
T.
Tabor, 105
Taborites, 105
Tagliacozzo, 82
Tancred de Hauteville, 44, 66
INDEX.
Tannenberg, 189
Tartars, 18, 19, 28
Taxes, 33
Telescopes, 88
Temeswar, 157
Teschen, 178
Tetsel, 124
Teutoberger Forest, 12
Teutobod, n
Teutons, i, 2, 4, 10, n, 12, 25,
28, 87, 1 88
Teutonic Knights, 128, 131, 188
to 192, 217
Theodoric, 20
Theodosius, 15, 1 6
Theodulph the Goth, 30
Thermal Baths, 32
Thirty Years' War, 140 to 153,
*93> 194
Thor, 6
Thorn, 188, 201
Thrace, 15
Thun, 25
Thurgau, 81
Thuringia, 2, 26, 49, 122, 136, 173
Thurn and Taxis, in
Thusnelda, 13
Tiber, 55, 60
Tilly, 143, 145, 148, 149
Tilsit, 206, 216
Toledo, 17
Torstenson, 143, 152
Tortona, 60
Toul, 135, 152, 244
Toulouse, 1 6
Tournay, 169
Tours, 24, 29, 90
Trafalgar, 214
Trajan, Emp., 14
Translation of Scriptures, 15, 34,
90, 127, 128, 179
Transubstantiation, 90
Transylvania, 14, 131
Trausnitz, 97
Treaty of Augsburg (1555), 144
Treaty of Breslau (1742), 169, 200
Treaty of Cambrai (1529), 118
Treaty of Constance (1183), 63
Treaty of Dresden (1745), 169, 200
Treaty of Kalisch (1813), 207
Treaty of Liibeck (1629), 143, 146
Treaty of Lune"viUe (1801), 180
Treaty of Madrid (1526), 117
Treaty of Nuremberg (1531), 130
Treaty of Paris (1763), (1815), 175,
230
Treaty of Passau (1552), 136
Treaty of Prague (1635), 143
Treaty of Prague (1866), 239
Treaty of Rastadt (1714), 162
Treaty of Tilsit (1807), 216'
Treaty of Utrecht (1713), 162, 163,
196
Treaty of Verdun, 35
Treaty of Versailles, 171
Treaty of Vienna (1738), 164
Treaty of Vienna (1809), 218
Treaty of Vienna (1815), 227
Treaty of Westphalia (1648), 100,
136, 143, 152, 153, 156, 173,
Treves (Trier), 36, 90, 98
Treviso, 61
Triple Alliance, 194, 249, 253
Troubadours, 89
Truce of God, 43
Tiibingen, 122, 124
Tuileries, 224
Tunis, 120, 121
Turcomans or Turks, 22, 106, 112,
115, 119 to 121, 129, 130, 156,
178, 182, 188, 222
Turenne, 143, 152
Turin, 90, 161
Turkey, 22, 157, 158, 216
Tuscany, 45, 49, 50, 55, 59, 78,
164, 167
Two Sicilies, 64, 66, 68, 69, 70, 78,
112, 114, 137, 138, I5&
Tyre, 64
Tyrol, 56, 108, no, 114, 135, 168,
213, 218
U.
Ukase, 184
Ukraine, 189
Ulfilas, 15
Ulrich der Schmidt, 95
Ulrich von Hlitten, 122
Unified Germany, 246 to 257
Union of the States, a-fi
INDEX.
319
United States of America, 201
Universities, 87, 98, 103, 123, 192,
228
Unterwalden, 95
Urban IV., 78
Ural Mountains, 18
Uri, 95
Utrecht, 162, 163, 196
V.
Valla, Lorenzo, 122
Valdo, Peter, 90
Valens, 15
Vandals, 2, 19, 21, etc.
Vandalusia, 2
Vanis, 12, 13, 31
Varsovie. (See Warsaw)
Vasa, 131, 163, 170
Vaudois, 90, 103, 105, 122
Venedi, 187
Venetians, 72
Venetian Republic, 231
Venezuela, 263
Venice, 19, 61, 157, 212, 213
Verdun, 35, 135, 152, 244
Verden, 152
Verona, n, 61
Versailles, 171, 244, 246, 247
Vicar of the Empire, 234
Vicenza, 61, 72
Victor, Duke of Savoy, 162
Vienna, 93, 97, in, 120, 138, 156,
166, 167, 207, 212, 218, 224,
227
Vindobona, 14
Visigoths, 2, 15, 1 6, 19, 21, 34
Vistula, 4, 1 88
Viterbo, 81
Volga, 1 8, 19
Volhynia, 184
Volkerwanderung, 21*
Vblkerverein, 14
Voltaire, 170, 173, 198, 202
Von Biiren, Frederic, 49
Von Caprivi (Gen.), 260
Von Moltke, 242, 247, 256, 258
265
Vosges, 242
W.
Wagram, 218
Waiblingen. (See Ghibellines)
Waivode, 42
Waldemar, 86
Walhalla, 6
Wallachia, 2, 14, 182
Wallenstein, 143, 146 to 152
Walpole, 163, 169
Walter Fiirst, 95
Warsaw or Varsovie, 181, 184, 216,
231
War of Succession, Austrian, 165
to 169
War of Succession, Polish, 163 to
164
War of Succession, Spanish, 160
to 162, 196
Wartburg, 127
Warzburg, 25
Washington, 158, 184
Waterloo, 225
Wehr-manner, 4
Weiber-treue, 58
Weiner-Neustadt, 112
Weinsberg, 58
Weissenburg, 242
Well (SeeGuelph), 35
Wellington, 206, 220, 224, 225
Wels, 120
Wenceslas IV., 93
Wenceslas V., 98
Wenceslas VI., the Drunkard, 100
to 103, 104, 190
Wends, 38, 187
Werder, von, 244
Werth, John of, 152
Westphalia, 145, 216
Westphalia, Treaty of, 100, 136,
143, 152, 153, 156, 173, 194
White Mountain, 144
Wicliff, 103, 105, 122
Wilhclm Tell, 95
Wilhelmshohe, 243
Wilibrod, 25
William III. of Apulia, 66
William of Orange, 157
William III. of England, 160, 161
320
INDEX.
William IV., Stadtholder of Hol-
land, 203
William I., Emperor, 206, 207, 236
to 257
William II., Emperor, 258 to end
Winfred, 26
Winter King, 143, 144
Winkelried, Arnold von, 95, 105
Wismar, 86, 152
Witekind, 28, 32, etc.
Wittelsbach, 96, 108, 178
Wittelsbach, Otto von, 64
Wittemberg, 108, 123, 125, 126,
127, 128
Wodin, 6
Wolsey, 115
Worms, 53, 126, 155
Worship, 250
Worship of Sun, etc., 6
Worship of Images, 30, 89, 90
Worth, 242
Wrangel (Adm.), 152
Writing, 30
Wtirtemberg, 214, 238, 241, 247
Winbercht, Abbott, 26
Y.
Yolande of Jerusalem, 71
York, 30
Z.
Zacharias, Pope, 25
Zend, i
Ziska, 104, 105
Zollverein, 232
Zornclorf, 201
Zrinyi, 138
Zulpich, 23
Zurich, 131
Zwingli, 131
Zweibriicken. (See D^ux Ponts)
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11