Chocim Castle (Хотинська фортеця) - a defensive structure located on the high, rocky shore of the Dniester. Construction of the castle began in 1325, and work on it lasted until 1380.

The history of this castle is turbulent. From the 10th to the 13th century it belonged to the Ruthenian duchies, from the 14th century in various periods to Moldavia, Turkey and Poland.

In the 17th-18th century Turkish border fortress. The place of two great battles of the forces of the Commonwealth with the Turks in 1621 and 1673. In 1812, incorporated into Russia, from 1918 in Romania. In the years 1940-1991 together with northern Bukowina within the boundaries of the Ukrainian SSR.

Since 1991 it belongs to Ukraine.

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Zamek w Chocimiu (Хотинська фортеця) – budowla obronna usytuowana na wysokim, skalistym brzegu Dniestru. Budowa zamku rozpoczęła się w roku 1325, a prace nad nią trwały do 1380 roku.

Dzieje tego zamku są burzliwe. Od X do XIII wieku należał do księstw ruskich, od XIV wieku w różnych okresach do Mołdawii, Turcji i Polski.

W XVII–XVIII wieku turecka twierdza graniczna. Miejsce dwóch wielkich bitew wojsk Rzeczypospolitej z Turkami w 1621 r. i 1673 r. W 1812 r. włączony do Rosji, od 1918 r. w Rumunii. W latach 1940–1991 wraz z północną Bukowiną w granicach Ukraińskiej SSR.

Od 1991 r. należy do Ukrainy.

Chocim Castle (Хотинська фортеця) - a defensive structure located on the high, rocky shore of the Dniester. Construction of the castle began in 1325, and work on it lasted until 1380.

The history of this castle is turbulent. From the 10th to the 13th century it belonged to the Ruthenian duchies, from the 14th century in various periods to Moldavia, Turkey and Poland.

In the 17th-18th century Turkish border fortress. The place of two great battles of the forces of the Commonwealth with the Turks in 1621 and 1673. In 1812, incorporated into Russia, from 1918 in Romania. In the years 1940-1991 together with northern Bukowina within the boundaries of the Ukrainian SSR.

Since 1991 it belongs to Ukraine.

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Zamek w Chocimiu (Хотинська фортеця) – budowla obronna usytuowana na wysokim, skalistym brzegu Dniestru. Budowa zamku rozpoczęła się w roku 1325, a prace nad nią trwały do 1380 roku.

Dzieje tego zamku są burzliwe. Od X do XIII wieku należał do księstw ruskich, od XIV wieku w różnych okresach do Mołdawii, Turcji i Polski.

W XVII–XVIII wieku turecka twierdza graniczna. Miejsce dwóch wielkich bitew wojsk Rzeczypospolitej z Turkami w 1621 r. i 1673 r. W 1812 r. włączony do Rosji, od 1918 r. w Rumunii. W latach 1940–1991 wraz z północną Bukowiną w granicach Ukraińskiej SSR.

Od 1991 r. należy do Ukrainy.

Chocim Castle (Хотинська фортеця) - a defensive structure located on the high, rocky shore of the Dniester. Construction of the castle began in 1325, and work on it lasted until 1380.

The history of this castle is turbulent. From the 10th to the 13th century it belonged to the Ruthenian duchies, from the 14th century in various periods to Moldavia, Turkey and Poland.

In the 17th-18th century Turkish border fortress. The place of two great battles of the forces of the Commonwealth with the Turks in 1621 and 1673. In 1812, incorporated into Russia, from 1918 in Romania. In the years 1940-1991 together with northern Bukowina within the boundaries of the Ukrainian SSR.

Since 1991 it belongs to Ukraine.

-

Zamek w Chocimiu (Хотинська фортеця) – budowla obronna usytuowana na wysokim, skalistym brzegu Dniestru. Budowa zamku rozpoczęła się w roku 1325, a prace nad nią trwały do 1380 roku.

Dzieje tego zamku są burzliwe. Od X do XIII wieku należał do księstw ruskich, od XIV wieku w różnych okresach do Mołdawii, Turcji i Polski.

W XVII–XVIII wieku turecka twierdza graniczna. Miejsce dwóch wielkich bitew wojsk Rzeczypospolitej z Turkami w 1621 r. i 1673 r. W 1812 r. włączony do Rosji, od 1918 r. w Rumunii. W latach 1940–1991 wraz z północną Bukowiną w granicach Ukraińskiej SSR.

Od 1991 r. należy do Ukrainy.

Welcome to the rougier of North Aveyron, Villecomtal, the “Villa Comtalis”:

Fondé vers 1295 par Henri II, comte de Rodez, il fut bâti le long d’une voie desservant la vallée du Dourdou suivant un plan en damier dressé par un architecte de la cathédrale ruthénoise. En 1329, un arrêt de la Cour en Parlement de Paris, donne en toute propriété à Béatrix, fille aînée de Raymond II et épouse de Bertrand de La Tour d’Auvergne, la ville de Villecomtal et son mandement en compensation d’une rente annuelle comprise dans sa part d’héritage. La seigneurie, vendue aux de Rolland, noblesse très ancienne, resta dans cette famille jusqu’au XVIème siècle. Après divers possesseurs, elle fut apportée en dot à la maison de Nattes par Marie de Rességuier.

Il ne reste du bâtiment primitif que le donjon, le corps de logis; mais ces deux derniers modifiés pour les besoins des religieuses ne présentent plus aucun caractère de ce qu’ils pouvaient être à l’origine. Vers 1437, aux frais de la population, le village fut ceinturé d’une muraille longue d’environ 400 mètres, haute, par endroits, de 8 mètres. Le château fut construit à la même époque par Pierre de Rolland, Sénéchal de Castres.

La congrégation des sœurs de l’Union fit l’acquisition du château en 1850 pour le transformer en couvent et en pensionnat pour jeunes filles.

Depuis quelques années, la bâtisse devenue propriété de la commune a été revendue à un particulier. Deux portes fortifiées s’ouvraient sur la rue Droite, artère principale du bourg : “lo portal haut” et « lo portal bas » qui seul subsiste bien que très profondément modifié par l’adjonction d’un campanile achevé en 1785. Situé sur un passage, Villecomtal offrait de nombreuses auberges et écuries aux voyageurs et marchands.

L’église saint Barthélémy fut construite entre 1700 et 1715 afin de doter le village d’un lieu de culte intra-muros. A la fin des travaux, l’édifice avait la forme d’une croix latine et le clocher en peigne à cinq cloches, se trouvait sur l’un des côtés. Au XIXème, elle connaît de grands changements : la boiserie du chœur, la chaire et la table de communion sont refaites et les deux chapelles latérales sont agrandies vers la façade (d’où sa forme actuelle rectangulaire).

En 1900, le clocher est reconstruit au chevet de l’église.

Un épisode important de la vie religieuse qui débutera en 1801, à la signature du Concordat et qui perdurera jusqu’en 1931. En effet, Villecomtal fut «La Petite Rome» de «La Petite Eglise». Ses adeptes étaient alors appelés «Les Enfarinés».

Pour bien comprendre ce que fut le schisme anticoncordataire, il faut remonter à La Constitution Civile du Clergé promulguée le 12 juillet 1790 qui, entre autres dispositions, déclarait l’Eglise de France hors de l’autorité du Pape.En raison de l’imbrication des convictions religieuses et politiques de l’époque, mais aussi de la condamnation prononcée par Rome, la situation ne fut nette qu’après l’abolition de la royauté le 10 août 1792.Quatre vingt un évêques, réfugiés à l’étranger, organisèrent des réseaux clandestins autour d’hommes de confiance et par ce moyen administrèrent leur diocèse contre les prélats « jureurs » nommés par le gouvernement révolutionnaire.

En Aveyron, sous l’impulsion de Monseigneur Colbert de Seignelay, évêque de Rodez, la résistance à La Constitution Civile du Clergé fut active. La « Société Ecclésiastique » composée de prêtres réfractaires, dont à Villecomtal les abbés Delhom et Régis, fut une de ces cellules dirigées de Londres où l’évêque s’était réfugié.

En 1800, la nécessité de normaliser les relations diplomatiques avec le Vatican et de remettre de l’ordre dans l’Eglise de France se fit de plus en plus pressante et une négociation fut engagée entre Bonaparte, Premier Consul, et le cardinal Spina, envoyé spécial de Pie VII, pour aboutir en 1801 au Concordat promulgué à Paris en 1802. Trente cinq évêques anticonstitutionnels, dont celui de Rodez, tous résidant hors de France, en refusèrent les dispositions et entrèrent en dissidence contre Pie VII qui leur demandait de démissionner. Ils se servirent de leurs réseaux pour lutter contre le Concordat et l’administration de leur diocèse par les nouveaux promus. En Rouergue, de nombreux ecclésiastiques suivirent les consignes données par l’ex-évêque Colbert de Seignelay démis par le Vatican. A Villecomtal, les abbés Delhom et Régis se distinguèrent par leur zèle anticoncordataire au point qu’ils furent considérés comme les pontifes de « La Petite Eglise », autre nom donné à la dissidence du Rouergue.

Le rétablissement de la royauté en 1814/1815 et l’abolition du Concordat en 1905 ne changèrent pas l’attitude de « la Petite Eglise » qui sous le nom « La Petite Eglise Vieille Catholique » comptent de nos jours quelques milliers de fidèles en France et surtout à l’étranger : Europe, Afrique, Amérique. Plus de 24 paroisses aveyronnaises et 3 dans le Cantal adhérèrent à ce mouvement.

Leurs fidèles vinrent en grand nombre, jusqu’à un millier d’après les rapports de la police, assister aux messes célébrées à Villecomtal par l’abbé Delhom au lieu-dit « Le Taulan » et l’abbé Régis à « Los Topis ».

On les nommait « Les Enfarinés » car à l’instar des us de l’Ancien Régime, dont ils se réclamaient, sans pour autant qu’on puisse les considérer comme des royalistes avérés, les hommes dénouaient leurs cheveux qu’ils portaient longs et les poudraient avec de la farine (faute de poudre de riz) pour assister aux offices religieux. Les femmes vêtues de noir, portaient un bonnet à mentonnière, un scapulaire autour du cou et un grand chapelet de buis autour de la taille. Après le décès des derniers prêtres schismatiques, elles firent perdurer La Petite Eglise en organisant de pieuses réunions qui servaient de messe.

Le dernier fidèle en Rouergue est mort en 1931, dans un village voisin de Villecomtal en prononçant les dernières paroles « Soy Enfarinat »

Association “Terre des enfarinés”

Liens externes:

Les enfarinés sur Wikipédia

Le « Masque Rouge »

Dans les année 1946/1947, des paysans et notamment des marchands de bestiaux, de retour des foires locales, se faisaient agresser par un homme portant une cagoule ou un foulard rouge qui dissimulait son visage, le dos voûté, avec un accent étranger avéré ou simulé, qui les menaçait avec une mitraillette pour les dépouiller de l’argent gagné lors de la vente de leurs bêtes .L’homme dit « le masque rouge » connaissait parfaitement la région et arrivait à semer les gendarmes qui le poursuivaient. En effet, le masque rouge ne rentrait pas chez lui après avoir commis son larcin mais revenait à la foire où ses pas se mêlaient aux milliers d’autres.

Le masque rouge n’a jamais été arrêté ni identifié. Beaucoup d’hypothèses et de versions populaires ont couru à ce sujet mais en vain. Il faut quand même souligner, à sa décharge, qu’il n’a jamais utilisé sa mitraillette qui lui servait seulement à impressionner ses victimes.

Source Villecomtal.fr

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Founded around 1295 by Henri II, Count of Rodez, it was built along a road serving the Dourdou valley following a checkerboard plan drawn up by an architect of the Ruthenian cathedral. In 1329, a judgment of the Court in the Parliament of Paris, gives in full ownership to Béatrix, eldest daughter of Raymond II and wife of Bertrand de La Tour d'Auvergne, the town of Villecomtal and his mandate in compensation for an annual annuity included in its share of inheritance. The seigneury, sold to the de Rolland, a very old nobility, remained in this family until the 16th century. After various owners, it was brought as a dowry to the house of Nattes by Marie de Rességuier.

All that remains of the original building is the keep, the main building; but these last two modified for the needs of the nuns no longer present any character of what they might have been originally. Around 1437, at the expense of the population, the village was surrounded by a wall about 400 meters long and, in places, 8 meters high. The castle was built at the same time by Pierre de Rolland, Sénéchal de Castres.

The congregation of the Sisters of the Union acquired the castle in 1850 to transform it into a convent and boarding school for young girls.

In recent years, the building that has become the property of the municipality has been sold to an individual. Two fortified gates opened onto rue Droite, the town's main artery: “lo portal haut” and “lo portal bas” which alone remains although very profoundly modified by the addition of a campanile completed in 1785. Located on a hill Passage, Villecomtal offered many inns and stables to travelers and merchants.

Saint Bartholomew's Church was built between 1700 and 1715 to provide the village with an intramural place of worship. At the end of the work, the building had the shape of a Latin cross and the comb bell tower with five bells was on one side. In the 19th century, it underwent great changes: the woodwork of the choir, the pulpit and the communion table were redone and the two side chapels were enlarged towards the facade (hence its current rectangular shape).

In 1900, the bell tower was rebuilt at the apse of the church.

An important episode in religious life which began in 1801, when the Concordat was signed, and which lasted until 1931. Indeed, Villecomtal was "La Petite Rome" of "La Petite Eglise". Its followers were then called "Les Enfarinés".

To fully understand what the anticoncordat schism was, we must go back to La Constitution Civile du Clergé promulgated on July 12, 1790 which, among other provisions, declared the Church of France outside the authority of the Pope. religious and political convictions of the time, but also the condemnation pronounced by Rome, the situation was not clear until after the abolition of the kingship on August 10, 1792.Four twenty-one bishops, refugees abroad, organized clandestine networks around men of confidence and by this means administered their diocese against the prelates "jurors" appointed by the revolutionary government.

In Aveyron, under the leadership of Monsignor Colbert de Seignelay, Bishop of Rodez, resistance to La Constitution Civile du Clergé was active. The "Ecclesiastical Society" made up of refractory priests, including in Villecomtal the abbots Delhom and Régis, was one of those cells led from London where the bishop had taken refuge.

In 1800, the need to normalize diplomatic relations with the Vatican and to restore order in the Church of France became more and more urgent and a negotiation was initiated between Bonaparte, First Consul, and Cardinal Spina, envoy. special of Pius VII, to end in 1801 in the Concordat promulgated in Paris in 1802. Thirty-five unconstitutional bishops, including that of Rodez, all residing outside France, refused its provisions and entered into dissent against Pius VII who asked them to resign. They used their networks to fight against the Concordat and the administration of their diocese by the newly promoted. In Rouergue, many ecclesiastics followed the instructions given by ex-bishop Colbert de Seignelay, dismissed by the Vatican. In Villecomtal, the abbots Delhom and Régis were distinguished by their anti-concordance zeal to the point that they were considered the pontiffs of "La Petite Eglise", another name given to the dissidence of Rouergue.

The reestablishment of the kingship in 1814/1815 and the abolition of the Concordat in 1905 did not change the attitude of “la Petite Eglise” which under the name “La Petite Eglise Vieille Catholique” now has a few thousand faithful in France. and especially abroad: Europe, Africa, America. More than 24 parishes in Aveyron and 3 in Cantal joined this movement.

Their faithful came in large numbers, up to a thousand according to police reports, to attend the masses celebrated in Villecomtal by Father Delhom at a place called "Le Taulan" and Father Régis at "Los Topis" .

They were called "Les Enfarinés" because, like the habits of the Ancien Régime, which they claimed to be, without being able to consider them as proven royalists, the men untied their hair which they wore long and Powder them with flour (lack of rice powder) to attend religious services. The women, dressed in black, wore a chin-cup, a scapular around the neck and a large boxwood rosary around the waist. After the death of the last schismatic priests, they continued La Petite Eglise by organizing pious meetings which served as mass.

The last faithful in Rouergue died in 1931, in a neighboring village of Villecomtal, pronouncing the last words "Soy Enfarinat"

Association “Terre des enfarinés”

External links:

Flouries on Wikipedia

The "Red Mask"

In the years 1946/1947, peasants and in particular cattle dealers, returning from local fairs, were attacked by a man wearing a balaclava or a red scarf who concealed his face, his back arched, with a recognized foreign accent or simulated, which threatened them with a submachine gun to strip them of the money earned from the sale of their animals. The man called "the red mask" knew the region perfectly and managed to sow the gendarmes who were pursuing him. Indeed, the red mask did not return home after having committed the theft but returned to the fair where his footsteps mingled with thousands of others.

The red mask has never been arrested or identified. Many hypotheses and popular versions have been circulated about this, but to no avail. It should be noted, in his defense, that he never used his submachine gun, which he used only to impress his victims.

Source Villecomtal.fr

View from the castle in Sanok on the town and surroundings :)

Sanok is a town in the Subcarpathian Voivodeship of south-eastern Poland, located on the San River, not far from the Bieszczady Mountains and the Bieszczady National Park, which is the most uninhabited region in the country. The first written mention of the town dates back to 1150. Granted a town charter in 1339, Sanok developed to become an important trade centre and home to the offices of the town starosty and the chatelaine. Sanok, which had burgeoned under the Jagiellonian rule, was afflicted by numerous conflagrations and was left in a state of dilapidation following the invasions by the Tatars (1626), Swedes (1655-1660), and the army of Hugarian prince Gyorgy Rakoczi (1657). After the Partition of Poland in 1772 the town fell under Austrian rule and remained so until 1918. In the years of the German occupation during World War II it was home to a ghetto for a thousand or so people; a German prison for around ten thousands prisoners (Poles, Russians, Czechs and Slovaks). An old historic town, Sanok is studded with a plethora of historical buildings. Numbered among the most prominent is the Castle, built in the Gothic style during the reign of King Kazimierz the Great on the site of a former Ruthenian stronghold and later transformed into the Renaissance style in 1523-1548. Equally good is the Orthodox Cathedral-Church of the Holy Trinity, built in the neo-Classical style in 1784. Another attraction of Sanok is its open-air folk museum (skansen), one of the largest and most interesting of Poland.

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Widok z murów zamku w Sanoku na miasto i okolice :)

Sanok – miasto powiatowe w Polsce w województwie podkarpackim, położone w dolinie Sanu, niedaleko Bieszczad i Bieszczadzkiego Parku Narodowego, obszaru, który do dnia dzisiejszego zachował swój dziewiczy charakter. Miasto zostało założone około X/XI wieku, zaś w 1339 książę Jerzy II z rodu Piastów nadał mu przywilej lokacyjny. Sanok stał się siedzibą starostwa i kasztelana oraz ważnym ośrodkiem handlowym. Miasto rozkwitło za panowania dynastii jagiellońskiej, ale już w XVII wieku popadło w ruinę w wyniku najazdu tatarskiego (1626) i szwedzkiego (1655-1660) oraz inwazji wojsk księcia Siedmiogrodu Jerzego II Rakoczego (1657). W wyniku I rozbioru Polski (1772) Sanok wszedł w skład Austrii i pozostał w jej granicach aż do 1918 roku. W czasach II wojny światowej w okupowanym przez Niemców Sanoku znajdowało się getto, więzienie dla 10 000 osób narodowości polskiej, rosyjskiej, czeskiej i słowackiej. Najstarsza część miasta urzeka zabytkową zabudową. Na szczególną uwagę zasługuje gotycki zamek, zbudowany z inicjatywy Kazimierza Wielkiego na miejscu dawnego grodu ruskiego. W latach 1523-1548 zamek przebudowano w stylu renesansowym. Warto zobaczyć również cerkiew Św. Trójcy z 1784 roku, reprezentującą styl neoklasyczny. Kolejną atrakcją sanocką jest jeden z największych skansenów w Polsce.

The interior of one of the rooms of the castle in Sanok :)

The Castle in Sanok – built in Gothic style in times of Kazimierz the Great, on the site of a former Ruthenian stronghold, transformed in 1523-48 into Renaissance style. The castle is situated on the San River at hill 317 m above sea level on a steep slope. Side wings were destroyed in the 19th century. Today it is the seat of the Sanok Historical Museum. The Historical Museum in Sanok possesses the largest collection of works by Zdzisław Beksiński(Polish painter, photographer and sculptor). From May 19, 2012 his paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs and engravings are displayed in a space especially created for this purpose, in the reconstructed wing of Sanok Castle.

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Wnętrze jednej z sal na zamku w Sanoku :)

Zamek w Sanoku - zbudowany w stylu gotyckim w końcu XIVw., na wzgórzu 317m. n.p.m., w miejscu dawnego, ruskiego grodu, przebudowany w latach 1523-48 na styl renesansowy. Z dawnej budowli zachowała się do dziś jedynie część centralna. Wzgórze zamkowe oddzielała od starówki głęboka fosa. Obecnie w murach zamku mieści się Muzeum Historyczne, założone w 1934 r. Posiada najcenniejszą w kraju kolekcję ikon oraz największy zbiór prac wybitnego polskiego artysty Zdzisława Beksińskiego oraz cenne zbiory sztuki sakralnej, ceramiki pokuckiej, sztuki współczesnej, militariów, sarmackiej sztuki portretowej, zbiory archeologiczne i inne. Pod dziedzińcem zamkowym znajdują się dwa niemieckie schrony, zbudowane w latach 1940-41, jako element tzw. „Pozycji Granicznej Galicja”.

The Old Town Market Square in Sanok. On the left side you can see The Town Hall :)

Sanok is a town in the Subcarpathian Voivodeship of south-eastern Poland, located on the San River, not far from the Bieszczady Mountains and the Bieszczady National Park, which is the most uninhabited region in the country. The first written mention of the town dates back to 1150. Granted a town charter in 1339, Sanok developed to become an important trade centre and home to the offices of the town starosty and the chatelaine. Sanok, which had burgeoned under the Jagiellonian rule, was afflicted by numerous conflagrations and was left in a state of dilapidation following the invasions by the Tatars (1626), Swedes (1655-1660), and the army of Hugarian prince Gyorgy Rakoczi (1657). After the Partition of Poland in 1772 the town fell under Austrian rule and remained so until 1918. In the years of the German occupation during World War II it was home to a ghetto for a thousand or so people; a German prison for around ten thousands prisoners (Poles, Russians, Czechs and Slovaks). An old historic town, Sanok is studded with a plethora of historical buildings. Numbered among the most prominent is the Castle, built in the Gothic style during the reign of King Kazimierz the Great on the site of a former Ruthenian stronghold and later transformed into the Renaissance style in 1523-1548. Equally good is the Orthodox Cathedral-Church of the Holy Trinity, built in the neo-Classical style in 1784. Another attraction of Sanok is its open-air folk museum (skansen), one of the largest and most interesting of Poland.

Town Hall in Sanok - built at the end of the 18th century in the place of the former wooden town hall. The building was thoroughly renovated and rebuilt in 1892. In 1934, the building was rebuilt again, including adjacent tenement house. The central part of the town hall is crowned with a clock made in Prague and launched on February 1, 1906. Currently, it houses the Registry Office and various institutions, commercial and service points.

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Rynek na starówce w Sanoku. Z lewej strony widoczny budynek ratusza :)

Sanok – miasto powiatowe w Polsce w województwie podkarpackim, położone w dolinie Sanu, niedaleko Bieszczad i Bieszczadzkiego Parku Narodowego, obszaru, który do dnia dzisiejszego zachował swój dziewiczy charakter. Miasto zostało założone około X/XI wieku, zaś w 1339 książę Jerzy II z rodu Piastów nadał mu przywilej lokacyjny. Sanok stał się siedzibą starostwa i kasztelana oraz ważnym ośrodkiem handlowym. Miasto rozkwitło za panowania dynastii jagiellońskiej, ale już w XVII wieku popadło w ruinę w wyniku najazdu tatarskiego (1626) i szwedzkiego (1655-1660) oraz inwazji wojsk księcia Siedmiogrodu Jerzego II Rakoczego (1657). W wyniku I rozbioru Polski (1772) Sanok wszedł w skład Austrii i pozostał w jej granicach aż do 1918 roku. W czasach II wojny światowej w okupowanym przez Niemców Sanoku znajdowało się getto, więzienie dla 10 000 osób narodowości polskiej, rosyjskiej, czeskiej i słowackiej. Najstarsza część miasta urzeka zabytkową zabudową. Na szczególną uwagę zasługuje gotycki zamek, zbudowany z inicjatywy Kazimierza Wielkiego na miejscu dawnego grodu ruskiego. W latach 1523-1548 zamek przebudowano w stylu renesansowym. Warto zobaczyć również cerkiew Św. Trójcy z 1784 roku, reprezentującą styl neoklasyczny. Kolejną atrakcją sanocką jest jeden z największych skansenów w Polsce.

Ratusz w Sanoku - zbudowany w końcu XVIIIw., w miejscu dawnego drewnianego ratusza. Gruntownego remontu i przebudowy obiektu dokonano w 1892 r. W 1934 r. obiekt przebudowano ponownie, włączając w jego bryłę kolejną, sąsiednią kamienicę. Centralną część ratusza wieńczy zegar, wykonany w Pradze, a uruchomiony 1 lutego 1906 r. Obecnie ma tu siedzibę Urząd Stanu Cywilnego oraz różne instytucje, punkty handlowe i usługowe.

The castle in Krzemieniec - its history dates back to the 12th century, when a wooden stronghold of the Ruthenian dukes was erected here. In 1321, Krzemieniec and Łuck came under the rule of Lithuania, and later the Kingdom of Poland. In 1536, Queen Bona, wife of Zygmunt Stary, received the Kremenets starosty. The castle was rebuilt into a renaissance one and the walls were strengthened.

In October 1648, Cossack colonel Maksym Krzywonos captured the castle and demolished it. It remains in this state to this day.

In the foreground, the Orthodox Church of St. Nicholas.

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Zamek w Krzemieńcu - jego historia sięga XII wieku, kiedy wzniesiono tu drewniany gród książąt ruskich. W 1321 roku Krzemieniec wraz z Łuckiem znalazł się pod panowaniem Litwy, później Królewstwa Polskiego. W 1536 roku starostwo krzemienieckie otrzymała królowa Bona, żona Zygmunta Starego. Dokonano przebudowy zamku na renesansowy i wzmocniono mury.

W październiku 1648 roku pułkownik kozacki Maksym Krzywonos zdobył zamek i zburzył go. W takim stanie pozostaje do dzisiaj.

Na pierwszym planie cerkiew klasztorna św. Mikołaja.

Now we are in Sanok and first we visiting the castle :)

Sanok is a town in the Subcarpathian Voivodeship of south-eastern Poland, located on the San River, not far from the Bieszczady Mountains and the Bieszczady National Park, which is the most uninhabited region in the country. The first written mention of the town dates back to 1150. Granted a town charter in 1339, Sanok developed to become an important trade centre and home to the offices of the town starosty and the chatelaine. Sanok, which had burgeoned under the Jagiellonian rule, was afflicted by numerous conflagrations and was left in a state of dilapidation following the invasions by the Tatars (1626), Swedes (1655-1660), and the army of Hugarian prince Gyorgy Rakoczi (1657). After the Partition of Poland in 1772 the town fell under Austrian rule and remained so until 1918. In the years of the German occupation during World War II it was home to a ghetto for a thousand or so people; a German prison for around ten thousands prisoners (Poles, Russians, Czechs and Slovaks). An old historic town, Sanok is studded with a plethora of historical buildings. Numbered among the most prominent is the Castle. Equally good is the Orthodox Cathedral-Church of the Holy Trinity, built in the neo-Classical style in 1784. Another attraction of Sanok is its open-air folk museum (skansen), one of the largest and most interesting of Poland.

The Castle in Sanok – built in Gothic style in times of Kazimierz the Great, on the site of a former Ruthenian stronghold, transformed in 1523-48 into Renaissance style. The castle is situated on the San River at hill 317 m above sea level on a steep slope. Side wings were destroyed in the 19th century. Today it is the seat of the Sanok Historical Museum. The Historical Museum in Sanok possesses the largest collection of works by Zdzisław Beksiński(Polish painter, photographer and sculptor). From May 19, 2012 his paintings, drawings, sculptures, photographs and engravings are displayed in a space especially created for this purpose, in the reconstructed wing of Sanok Castle.

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Jesteśmy w Sanoku. Najpierw zwiedzamy zamek :)

Sanok – miasto powiatowe w Polsce w województwie podkarpackim, położone w dolinie Sanu, niedaleko Bieszczad i Bieszczadzkiego Parku Narodowego, obszaru, który do dnia dzisiejszego zachował swój dziewiczy charakter. Miasto zostało założone około X/XI wieku, zaś w 1339 książę Jerzy II z rodu Piastów nadał mu przywilej lokacyjny. Sanok stał się siedzibą starostwa i kasztelana oraz ważnym ośrodkiem handlowym. Miasto rozkwitło za panowania dynastii jagiellońskiej, ale już w XVII wieku popadło w ruinę w wyniku najazdu tatarskiego (1626) i szwedzkiego (1655-1660) oraz inwazji wojsk księcia Siedmiogrodu Jerzego II Rakoczego (1657). W wyniku I rozbioru Polski (1772) Sanok wszedł w skład Austrii i pozostał w jej granicach aż do 1918 roku. W czasach II wojny światowej w okupowanym przez Niemców Sanoku znajdowało się getto, więzienie dla 10 000 osób narodowości polskiej, rosyjskiej, czeskiej i słowackiej. Najstarsza część miasta urzeka zabytkową zabudową. Na szczególną uwagę zasługuje gotycki zamek. Warto zobaczyć również cerkiew Św. Trójcy z 1784 roku, reprezentującą styl neoklasyczny. Kolejną atrakcją sanocką jest jeden z największych skansenów w Polsce.

Zamek w Sanoku - zbudowany w stylu gotyckim w końcu XIVw., na wzgórzu 317m. n.p.m., w miejscu dawnego, ruskiego grodu, przebudowany w latach 1523-48 na styl renesansowy. Z dawnej budowli zachowała się do dziś jedynie część centralna. Wzgórze zamkowe oddzielała od starówki głęboka fosa. Obecnie w murach zamku mieści się Muzeum Historyczne, założone w 1934 r. Posiada najcenniejszą w kraju kolekcję ikon oraz największy zbiór prac wybitnego polskiego artysty Zdzisława Beksińskiego oraz cenne zbiory sztuki sakralnej, ceramiki pokuckiej, sztuki współczesnej, militariów, sarmackiej sztuki portretowej, zbiory archeologiczne i inne. Pod dziedzińcem zamkowym znajdują się dwa niemieckie schrony, zbudowane w latach 1940-41, jako element tzw. „Pozycji Granicznej Galicja”.

Stanisławów was founded as a fortress in 1650 and was named after the Polish hetman Stanisław "Rewera" Potocki, although other sources claim it is named after his grandson. In 1772 its name was transliterated into German as Stanislau when it became part of the Austrian Empire and later Austria-Hungary; however, after the revolution of 1868 the city carried three different linguistic renderings of its name: German, Polish, and Ruthenian (German: Stanislau; Polish: Stanisławów; Ukrainian: Станиславів, Stanyslaviv). Other spellings used in the local press-media included: Russian: Станиславов and Yiddish: סטאַניסלאוו. After World War II it was changed by the Soviet authorities into the simplified version Stanislav (Ukrainian: Станіслав; Russian: Станислав). In 1962, on the city's 300th anniversary, it was renamed to honour the Ukrainian writer Ivan Franko. Due to the city's over-sized name, unofficially it is sometimes called simply Franyk by its residents. Even though Ivano-Frankivsk is the officially accepted name, the city's original name was never fully abandoned and/or forgotten and can be found throughout the city in all kinds of variations.

I was clearly not the only tourist photographing the bronze statue of Grand Duke Vytautas with sword on Laisvės Alėja, the main pedestrianised shopping street in Kaunas, Lithuania’s second city and interwar capital. On the corners of the pedestal are defeated soldiers, one each Ruthenian, German, Tatar, and Polish, supporting the higher part of pedestal on which Vytautas is standing (click your ‘L’ key to zoom in for a look). Between the text and the dates is a medaillon with a map of Lithuania in the 14th century.

Vytautas (c. 1350 – October 27, 1430), also known as Vytautas the Great (Lithuanian: Vytautas Didysis) was a ruler of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which chiefly encompassed the Lithuanians and Ruthenians. He was also the Prince of Hrodna (1370–1382), Prince of Lutsk (1387–1389), and the postulated king of the Hussites.

In modern Lithuania, Vytautas is revered as a national hero and was an important figure in the national rebirth in the 19th century. Vytautas is a popular male given name in Lithuania. In commemoration of the 500-year anniversary of his death, Vytautas Magnus University was named after him. This original version of this statue in Kaunas was executed by Vincas Grybas in 1930, and was one of many monuments in Vytautas’ honour built across independent Lithuania during the interwar period from 1918 to 1939. This monument however was destroyed by the Soviets in 1952 and rebuilt in 1990 by public subscription.

This description incorporates text from the English Wikipedia and the statues database at vanderkrogt.net.

Although the original Golden Gates of Kiev, immortalised in Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition, dates back to the 11th Century, the current incarnation was built as recently as 1982, despite the fact that no images of the original survive. It is therefore at best an educated guess – and rather a controversial one – about what might have existed here centuries before.

Modern history accepts this gateway as one of three constructed by Yaroslav the Wise. The golden gates were built in 1017-1024 at about the same time the Saint Sophia Cathedral was erected. Originally named simply the Southern Gate, it was one of the three main entrances to the walled city, along with the Lyadski and Zhydivski (Polish and Jewish) Gates: a new Lyadski gate was erected on Maidan Nezalezhnosti, close to its original site, in 2001. In those times, the city’s stone walls stretched for 3.5 km. Later, the Southern Gate became known as the Great Gate of Kyiv. After the Blahovist Church (Church of the Annunciation) was built next to the gate, its golden domes became a prominent landmark easily visible from outside the city. Since then, the gateway has been referred to as the Golden Gate of Kiev.

In 1240, the gate was partially destroyed by Batu Khan's Golden Horde. It remained as a gate to the city (often used for ceremonies) through the eighteenth century, although it gradually fell into ruins.

In 1832, Metropolitan Eugenius had the ruins excavated and an initial survey for their conservation was undertaken. The square around the Golden Gate was created in the second half of the 19th Century and is now a protected monument. Further works in the 1970s added an adjacent pavilion, housing a museum of the gate.

In 1982, the gate was completely reconstructed for the celebrations of the 1500th anniversary of the establishment of Kyiv, though this was controversial at the time and remains so, as it meant disturbing the surviving ruins to show what may well not be an accurate reconstruction. Some art historians have called for this reconstruction to be demolished and for the ruins of the original gate to be revealed to public view.

In 1989, with the expansion of the Kiev Metro, Zoloti Vorota (Golden Gate) station was opened nearby to the landmark. Its architectural assemble is based on the internal decorations of ancient Ruthenian churches.

In 1997, the monument to Yaroslav the Wise, the kneeling figure just below the centre of this shot, was unveiled near the west end of the Golden Gate. He looks very small here even though the statue is just over 4 metres high! Prince Yaroslav holds in his hands the layout of the Sophia Cathedral, and his gaze is turned to the side where the cathedral is built; this is based on a sketch by the sculptor Ivan Kavaleridze for a small easel competition in 1949. After Ukrainian independence sculptors Mykola Bilyk, Alexey Redko and Vitaliy Sivko turned this into a statue.

This description incorporates text from the English Wikipedia and translations from the Ukrainian Wikipedia.

Stanisławów was founded as a fortress in 1650 and was named after the Polish hetman Stanisław "Rewera" Potocki, although other sources claim it is named after his grandson. In 1772 its name was transliterated into German as Stanislau when it became part of the Austrian Empire and later Austria-Hungary; however, after the revolution of 1868 the city carried three different linguistic renderings of its name: German, Polish, and Ruthenian (German: Stanislau; Polish: Stanisławów; Ukrainian: Станиславів, Stanyslaviv). Other spellings used in the local press-media included: Russian: Станиславов and Yiddish: סטאַניסלאוו. After World War II it was changed by the Soviet authorities into the simplified version Stanislav (Ukrainian: Станіслав; Russian: Станислав). In 1962, on the city's 300th anniversary, it was renamed to honour the Ukrainian writer Ivan Franko. Due to the city's over-sized name, unofficially it is sometimes called simply Franyk by its residents. Even though Ivano-Frankivsk is the officially accepted name, the city's original name was never fully abandoned and/or forgotten and can be found throughout the city in all kinds of variations.

Halych (Ukrainian and Russian: Галич, German: Halytsch, Polish: Halicz) is a historic city on the Dniester River in western Ukraine. The town gave its name to the historic province and kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, of which it was the capital until the early 14th century, when the seat of the local princes was moved to Lviv. In 1340-1772, the province comprised the Ruthenian Voivodeship. Today Halych is a small city and is located right next to the former capital of the Galicia Kingdom although it preserved its former name.

The San river in Sanok. Now we are going to the skansen :)

Sanok is a town in the Subcarpathian Voivodeship of south-eastern Poland, located on the San River, not far from the Bieszczady Mountains and the Bieszczady National Park, which is the most uninhabited region in the country. The first written mention of the town dates back to 1150. Granted a town charter in 1339, Sanok developed to become an important trade centre and home to the offices of the town starosty and the chatelaine. Sanok, which had burgeoned under the Jagiellonian rule, was afflicted by numerous conflagrations and was left in a state of dilapidation following the invasions by the Tatars (1626), Swedes (1655-1660), and the army of Hugarian prince Gyorgy Rakoczi (1657). After the Partition of Poland in 1772 the town fell under Austrian rule and remained so until 1918. In the years of the German occupation during World War II it was home to a ghetto for a thousand or so people; a German prison for around ten thousands prisoners (Poles, Russians, Czechs and Slovaks). An old historic town, Sanok is studded with a plethora of historical buildings. Numbered among the most prominent is the Castle, built in the Gothic style during the reign of King Kazimierz the Great on the site of a former Ruthenian stronghold and later transformed into the Renaissance style in 1523-1548. Equally good is the Orthodox Cathedral-Church of the Holy Trinity, built in the neo-Classical style in 1784. Another attraction of Sanok is its open-air folk museum (skansen), one of the largest and most interesting of Poland.

The San is a river in southeastern Poland and western Ukraine, a tributary of the river Vistula, with a length of 458 km (it is the 6th-longest Polish river) and a basin area of 16,861 km2 (14 390 km2 of it in Poland). The San arises in the Carpathian Mountains near the village of Sianky, at an elevation of 925 metres and forms the border between Poland and Ukraine for approximately its first 54 km. Poland's largest artificial lake, Lake Solina, was created by a dam on the San River near Lesko. Humans had first settled this region in prehistoric times. In the pre-Roman era various tribes, including the Celts, Goths and Vandals overran the The San Valley. After the fall of the Roman Empire, Hungarians and Slavs invaded the area. The oldest towns situated on the San river and recorded in historical sources before 1340 are: Przemyśl, Trepcza and Sanok.

In EXPLORE - 9 October 2021, # 107 :)

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Spacer wzdłuż Sanu w Sanoku. Idziemy teraz w kierunku skansenu :)

Sanok – miasto powiatowe w Polsce w województwie podkarpackim, położone w dolinie Sanu, niedaleko Bieszczad i Bieszczadzkiego Parku Narodowego, obszaru, który do dnia dzisiejszego zachował swój dziewiczy charakter. Miasto zostało założone około X/XI wieku, zaś w 1339 książę Jerzy II z rodu Piastów nadał mu przywilej lokacyjny. Sanok stał się siedzibą starostwa i kasztelana oraz ważnym ośrodkiem handlowym. Miasto rozkwitło za panowania dynastii jagiellońskiej, ale już w XVII wieku popadło w ruinę w wyniku najazdu tatarskiego (1626) i szwedzkiego (1655-1660) oraz inwazji wojsk księcia Siedmiogrodu Jerzego II Rakoczego (1657). W wyniku I rozbioru Polski (1772) Sanok wszedł w skład Austrii i pozostał w jej granicach aż do 1918 roku. W czasach II wojny światowej w okupowanym przez Niemców Sanoku znajdowało się getto, więzienie dla 10 000 osób narodowości polskiej, rosyjskiej, czeskiej i słowackiej. Najstarsza część miasta urzeka zabytkową zabudową. Na szczególną uwagę zasługuje gotycki zamek, zbudowany z inicjatywy Kazimierza Wielkiego na miejscu dawnego grodu ruskiego. W latach 1523-1548 zamek przebudowano w stylu renesansowym. Warto zobaczyć również cerkiew Św. Trójcy z 1784 roku, reprezentującą styl neoklasyczny. Kolejną atrakcją sanocką jest jeden z największych skansenów w Polsce.

San – rzeka w południowo-wschodniej Polsce, prawobrzeżny dopływ Wisły. Długość – 458 km. Na odcinku 54 km jest rzeką graniczną między Polską a Ukrainą. Powierzchnia zlewni – 16 861 km² (14 390 km² w Polsce). Źródło Sanu znajduje się na terenie Ukrainy, na wysokości około 925 m n.p.m., w pobliżu miejscowości Sianki. San w górnym biegu przepływa przez Bieszczady, gdzie utworzono dwa sztuczne zbiorniki wodne: Jezioro Solińskie i Jezioro Myczkowskie. Początki osadnictwa celtyckiego na terenie dorzecza Sanu sięgają IV wieku p.n.e. Celtowie osiedlili się w południowej części dorzecza, nad górnym i środkowym Sanem, w okolicach dzisiejszego Sanoka. Do kolonizacji ziem w górnym dorzeczu Sanu głównie na prawie wołoskim doszło dopiero na przełomie XIV i XV wieku. Osadnictwo wołoskie dało początek zamieszkującym te tereny wschodniosłowiańskim grupom etnicznym: Łemkom i Bojkom. Najstarszymi miejscowościami położonymi nad Sanem i odnotowanymi w źródłach historycznych przed rokiem 1340 są: Przemyśl, Trepcza i Sanok.

Although the original Golden Gates of Kiev, immortalised in Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition, dates back to the 11th Century, the current incarnation was built as recently as 1982, despite the fact that no images of the original survive. It is therefore at best an educated guess – and rather a controversial one – about what might have existed here centuries before.

Modern history accepts this gateway as one of three constructed by Yaroslav the Wise. The golden gates were built in 1017-1024 at about the same time the Saint Sophia Cathedral was erected. Originally named simply the Southern Gate, it was one of the three main entrances to the walled city, along with the Lyadski and Zhydivski (Polish and Jewish) Gates: a new Lyadski gate was erected on Maidan Nezalezhnosti, close to its original site, in 2001. In those times, the city’s stone walls stretched for 3.5 km. Later, the Southern Gate became known as the Great Gate of Kyiv. After the Blahovist Church (Church of the Annunciation) was built next to the gate, its golden domes became a prominent landmark easily visible from outside the city. Since then, the gateway has been referred to as the Golden Gate of Kiev.

In 1240, the gate was partially destroyed by Batu Khan's Golden Horde. It remained as a gate to the city (often used for ceremonies) through the eighteenth century, although it gradually fell into ruins.

In 1832, Metropolitan Eugenius had the ruins excavated and an initial survey for their conservation was undertaken. The square around the Golden Gate was created in the second half of the 19th Century and is now a protected monument. Further works in the 1970s added an adjacent pavilion, housing a museum of the gate.

In 1982, the gate was completely reconstructed for the celebrations of the 1500th anniversary of the establishment of Kyiv, though this was controversial at the time and remains so, as it meant disturbing the surviving ruins to show what may well not be an accurate reconstruction. Some art historians have called for this reconstruction to be demolished and for the ruins of the original gate to be revealed to public view.

In 1989, with the expansion of the Kiev Metro, Zoloti Vorota (Golden Gate) station was opened nearby to the landmark. Its architectural assemble is based on the internal decorations of ancient Ruthenian churches.

This description incorporates text from the English Wikipedia.

THE TUCSON SLAVIC FESTIVAL: This two-day festival celebrates the food, music and dance of eastern Europeans. Some of the many Slavic cultures on dispaly include: Ruthenian, Ukrainian, Croation, Slovak, Czech, Polish, and many others.

Authentic Slavic food including pierogi, halupki, kolach and kielbasa are some of the main attractions.

There are also crafts, music and dance performances, as well as a "Basil Funland" for the children with games, slide and a jumping castle.

The Festival is held every year at St. Melany Byzantine Catholic Church, 1212 N. Sahuara Ave., Tucson, AZ

Visit their webpage for more information about the Festival and their Church: www.byzantinetucson.com

Stanisławów was founded as a fortress in 1650 and was named after the Polish hetman Stanisław "Rewera" Potocki, although other sources claim it is named after his grandson. In 1772 its name was transliterated into German as Stanislau when it became part of the Austrian Empire and later Austria-Hungary; however, after the revolution of 1868 the city carried three different linguistic renderings of its name: German, Polish, and Ruthenian (German: Stanislau; Polish: Stanisławów; Ukrainian: Станиславів, Stanyslaviv). Other spellings used in the local press-media included: Russian: Станиславов and Yiddish: סטאַניסלאוו. After World War II it was changed by the Soviet authorities into the simplified version Stanislav (Ukrainian: Станіслав; Russian: Станислав). In 1962, on the city's 300th anniversary, it was renamed to honour the Ukrainian writer Ivan Franko. Due to the city's over-sized name, unofficially it is sometimes called simply Franyk by its residents. Even though Ivano-Frankivsk is the officially accepted name, the city's original name was never fully abandoned and/or forgotten and can be found throughout the city in all kinds of variations.

rutenijska modra sikavica (Echinops ritro L. ssp. ruthenicus / Ruthenian globe thistle / Ruthenische Kugeldistel)

Nacionalni park Paklenica, Velebit, Hrvatska / Paklenica National Park, Velebit, Croatia

rutenijska modra sikavica (Echinops ritro L. ssp. ruthenicus / Ruthenian globe thistle / Ruthenische Kugeldistel)

osa na modroj sikavici, Park prirode Velebit, Hrvatska / wasp on a globe thistle, Velebit Nature Park, Croatia

I went out shooting this afternoon with Birthday Girl Alison Poole, our first stop was at this church, I broke out the new pole aerial photography rig I recently put together.

Nativity of the Mother of God Ukrainian Catholic Church

In 1914 a small chapel was built on this land. Construction of the present sanctuary began in 1918 and it was officially incorporated eight years later as the “Ruthenian Greek Catholic Parish of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary at Leeshore”. The church was constructed in the Byzantine style, using the stone that was plentiful in this area. In 1924 the inside of the church, including the side altars, was finished by Phillip Pawliuk, and the painting of the icons and walls was completed in 1928 by Peter Lipinski. A church bell was donated in 1930 and the bell tower was erected in 1938.

rutenijska modra sikavica (Echinops ritro L. ssp. ruthenicus / Ruthenian globe thistle / Ruthenische Kugeldistel)

Park prirode Velebit, Hrvatska / Velebit Nature Park, Croatia

This monument to Prince Yaroslav the Wise was unveiled in 1997 next to the reconstructed Golden Gate of Kiev, part of which is visible in wood right of shot. It sits near the west face of the Golden Gate. This big fellow is just over 4 metres high.

Prince Yaroslav holds in his hands the layout of the Sophia Cathedral, and his gaze is turned to the side where the cathedral is built; this is based on a sketch by the sculptor Ivan Kavaleridze for a small easel competition in 1949. After Ukrainian independence sculptors Mykola Bilyk, Alexey Redko and Vitaliy Sivko turned this into a statue.

Although the original Golden Gates of Kiev, immortalised in Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition, dates back to the 11th Century, the current incarnation was built as recently as 1982, despite the fact that no images of the original survive. It is therefore at best an educated guess – and rather a controversial one – about what might have existed here centuries before.

Modern history accepts this gateway as one of three constructed by Yaroslav the Wise. The golden gates were built in 1017-1024 at about the same time the Saint Sophia Cathedral was erected. Originally named simply the Southern Gate, it was one of the three main entrances to the walled city, along with the Lyadski and Zhydivski (Polish and Jewish) Gates: a new Lyadski gate was erected on Maidan Nezalezhnosti, close to its original site, in 2001. In those times, the city’s stone walls stretched for 3.5 km. Later, the Southern Gate became known as the Great Gate of Kyiv. After the Blahovist Church (Church of the Annunciation) was built next to the gate, its golden domes became a prominent landmark easily visible from outside the city. Since then, the gateway has been referred to as the Golden Gate of Kiev.

In 1240, the gate was partially destroyed by Batu Khan's Golden Horde. It remained as a gate to the city (often used for ceremonies) through the eighteenth century, although it gradually fell into ruins.

In 1832, Metropolitan Eugenius had the ruins excavated and an initial survey for their conservation was undertaken. The square around the Golden Gate was created in the second half of the 19th Century and is now a protected monument. Further works in the 1970s added an adjacent pavilion, housing a museum of the gate.

In 1982, the gate was completely reconstructed for the celebrations of the 1500th anniversary of the establishment of Kyiv, though this was controversial at the time and remains so, as it meant disturbing the surviving ruins to show what may well not be an accurate reconstruction. Some art historians have called for this reconstruction to be demolished and for the ruins of the original gate to be revealed to public view.

In 1989, with the expansion of the Kiev Metro, Zoloti Vorota (Golden Gate) station was opened nearby to the landmark. Its architectural assemble is based on the internal decorations of ancient Ruthenian churches.

This description incorporates text from the English Wikipedia and translations from the Ukrainian Wikipedia.

Centro Cultural de Belem, Berardo Collection, Belem, Lisbon, Portugal

Material: Silk-screen ink on synthetic polymer on canvas

Collection: Berardo

BIOGRAPHY

Born Andrew Warhola; August 6, 1928 – February 22, 1987) was an American artist, director, and producer who was a leading figure in the visual art movement known as POP ART.

His works explore the relationship between artistic expression, advertising, and celebrity culture that flourished by the 1960s and span a variety of media, including painting, silkscreening, photography, film, and sculpture.

Some of his best-known works include the silkscreen paintings Campbell's Soup Cans (1962) and Marilyn Diptych (1962), the experimental film Chelsea Girls (1966), and the multimedia events known as the Exploding Plastic Inevitable (1966–67).

Born and raised in Pittsburgh, Warhol initially pursued a successful career as a commercial illustrator. After exhibiting his work in several galleries in the late 1950s, he began to receive recognition as an influential and controversial artist.

His New York studio, THE FACTORY, became a well-known gathering place that brought together distinguished intellectuals, drag queens, playwrights, Bohemian street people, Hollywood celebrities, and wealthy patrons. He promoted a collection of personalities known as Warhol superstars, and is credited with inspiring the widely used expression "15 minutes of fame".

In the late 1960s, he managed and produced the experimental rock band THE VELVET UNDERGROUND and founded Interview magazine. He authored numerous books, including The Philosophy of Andy Warhol and Popism: The Warhol Sixties. He lived openly as a gay man before the gay liberation movement. After gallbladder surgery, Warhol died of cardiac arrhythmia in February 1987 at the age of 58.

Warhol has been the subject of numerous retrospective exhibitions, books, and feature and documentary films. The Andy Warhol Museum in his native city of Pittsburgh, which holds an extensive permanent collection of art and archives, is the largest museum in the United States dedicated to a single artist. Many of his creations are very collectable and highly valuable. The highest price ever paid for a Warhol painting is US$105 million for a 1963 canvas titled Silver Car Crash (Double Disaster); his works include some of the most expensive paintings ever sold.[5] A 2009 article in The Economist described Warhol as the "bellwether of the art market".[6]

EARLY LIFE AND BEGINNINGS (1928–49)

Warhol's childhood home. 3252 Dawson Street, South Oakland neighbourhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Warhol was born on August 6, 1928, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[7] He was the fourth child of Ondrej Warhola (Americanized as Andrew Warhola, Sr., 1889–1942)[8][9] and Julia (née Zavacká, 1892–1972),[10] whose first child was born in their homeland and died before their move to the U.S.

His parents were working-class Lemko[11][12] emigrants from Mikó, Austria-Hungary (now called Miková, located in today's northeastern Slovakia). Warhol's father emigrated to the United States in 1914, and his mother joined him in 1921, after the death of Warhol's grandparents. Warhol's father worked in a coal mine. The family lived at 55 Beelen Street and later at 3252 Dawson Street in the Oakland neighbourhood of Pittsburgh.[13] The family was Ruthenian Catholic and attended St. John Chrysostom Byzantine Catholic Church. Andy Warhol had two older brothers—Pavol (Paul), the oldest, was born before the family emigrated; Ján was born in Pittsburgh. Pavol's son, James Warhola, became a successful children's book illustrator.

In third grade, Warhol had Sydenham's chorea (also known as St. Vitus' Dance), the nervous system disease that causes involuntary movements of the extremities, which is believed to be a complication of scarlet fever which causes skin pigmentation blotchiness.[14] At times when he was confined to bed, he drew, listened to the radio and collected pictures of movie stars around his bed. Warhol later described this period as very important in the development of his personality, skill-set and preferences. When Warhol was 13, his father died in an accident.[15]

As a teenager, Warhol graduated from Schenley High School in 1945. Also as a teen, Warhol won a Scholastic Art and Writing Award.[16] After graduating from high school, his intentions were to study art education at the University of Pittsburgh in the hope of becoming an art teacher, but his plans changed and he enrolled in the Carnegie Institute of Technology, now Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, where he studied commercial art. During his time there, Warhol joined the campus Modern Dance Club and Beaux Arts Society.[17] He also served as art director of the student art magazine, Cano, illustrating a cover in 1948[18] and a full-page interior illustration in 1949.[19] These are believed to be his first two published artworks.[19] Warhol earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts in pictorial design in 1949.[20] Later that year, he moved to New York City and began a career in magazine illustration and advertising.

The 1950s

Warhol's early career was dedicated to commercial and advertising art, where his first commission had been to draw shoes for Glamour magazine in the late 1940s.[21] In the 1950s, Warhol worked as a designer for shoe manufacturer Israel Miller.[21][22] American photographer John Coplans recalled that

nobody drew shoes the way Andy did. He somehow gave each shoe a temperament of its own, a sort of sly, Toulouse-Lautrec kind of sophistication, but the shape and the style came through accurately and the buckle was always in the right place. The kids in the apartment [which Andy shared in New York – note by Coplans] noticed that the vamps on Andy's shoe drawings kept getting longer and longer but [Israel] Miller didn't mind. Miller loved them.

Warhol's "whimsical" ink drawings of shoe advertisements figured in some of his earliest showings at the Bodley Gallery in New York.

Warhol was an early adopter of the silkscreen printmaking process as a technique for making paintings. A young Warhol was taught silk screen printmaking techniques by Max Arthur Cohn at his graphic arts business in Manhattan.[23] While working in the shoe industry, Warhol developed his "blotted line" technique, applying ink to paper and then blotting the ink while still wet, which was akin to a printmaking process on the most rudimentary scale. His use of tracing paper and ink allowed him to repeat the basic image and also to create endless variations on the theme, a method that prefigures his 1960s silk-screen canvas. In his book Popism: The Warhol Sixties, Warhol writes: "When you do something exactly wrong, you always turn up something."

Warhol habitually used the expedient of tracing photographs projected with an epidiascope.[25] Using prints by Edward Wallowitch, his 'first boyfriend'[26] the photographs would undergo a subtle transformation during Warhol's often cursory tracing of contours and hatching of shadows. Warhol used Wallowitch's photograph Young Man Smoking a Cigarette (c.1956),[27] for a 1958 design for a book cover he submitted to Simon and Schuster for the Walter Ross pulp novel The Immortal, and later used others for his dollar bill series,[28][29] and for Big Campbell's Soup Can with Can Opener (Vegetable), of 1962 which initiated Warhol's most sustained motif, the soup can.

With the rapid expansion of the record industry, RCA Records hired Warhol, along with another freelance artist, Sid Maurer, to design album covers and promotional materials.[30]

The 1960s

Warhol (left) and Tennessee Williams (right) talking on the SS France, 1967.

He began exhibiting his work during the 1950s. He held exhibitions at the Hugo Gallery[31] and the Bodley Gallery[32] in New York City; in California, his first West Coast gallery exhibition[33][34] was on July 9, 1962, in the Ferus Gallery of Los Angeles with Campbell's Soup Cans. The exhibition marked his West Coast debut of pop art.[35] Andy Warhol's first New York solo pop art exhibition was hosted at Eleanor Ward's Stable Gallery November 6–24, 1962. The exhibit included the works Marilyn Diptych, 100 Soup Cans, 100 Coke Bottles, and 100 Dollar Bills. At the Stable Gallery exhibit, the artist met for the first time poet John Giorno who would star in Warhol's first film, Sleep, in 1963.[36]

It was during the 1960s that Warhol began to make paintings of iconic American objects such as dollar bills, mushroom clouds, electric chairs, Campbell's Soup Cans, Coca-Cola bottles, celebrities such as Marilyn Monroe, Elvis Presley, Marlon Brando, Troy Donahue, Muhammad Ali, and Elizabeth Taylor, as well as newspaper headlines or photographs of police dogs attacking African-American protesters during the Birmingham campaign in the civil rights movement. During these years, he founded his studio, "The Factory" and gathered about him a wide range of artists, writers, musicians, and underground celebrities. His work became popular and controversial. Warhol had this to say about Coca-Cola:

What's great about this country is that America started the tradition where the richest consumers buy essentially the same things as the poorest. You can be watching TV and see Coca-Cola, and you know that the President drinks Coca-Cola, Liz Taylor drinks Coca-Cola, and just think, you can drink Coca-Cola, too. A Coke is a Coke and no amount of money can get you a better Coke than the one the bum on the corner is drinking. All the Cokes are the same and all the Cokes are good. Liz Taylor knows it, the President knows it, the bum knows it, and you know it.

New York City's Museum of Modern Art hosted a Symposium on pop art in December 1962 during which artists such as Warhol were attacked for "capitulating" to consumerism. Critics were scandalized by Warhol's open embrace of market culture. This symposium set the tone for Warhol's reception.

A pivotal event was the 1964 exhibit The American Supermarket, a show held in Paul Bianchini's Upper East Side gallery. The show was presented as a typical U.S. small supermarket environment, except that everything in it—from the produce, canned goods, meat, posters on the wall, etc.—was created by six prominent pop artists of the time, among them the controversial (and like-minded) Billy Apple, Mary Inman, and Robert Watts. Warhol's painting of a can of Campbell's soup cost $1,500 while each autographed can be sold for $6. The exhibit was one of the first mass events that directly confronted the general public with both pop art and the perennial question of what art is.[citation needed]

Andy Warhol, between 1966 and 1977

As an advertisement illustrator in the 1950s, Warhol used assistants to increase his productivity. Collaboration would remain a defining (and controversial) aspect of his working methods throughout his career; this was particularly true in the 1960s. One of the most important collaborators during this period was Gerard Malanga. Malanga assisted the artist with the production of silkscreens, films, sculpture, and other works at "The Factory", Warhol's aluminium foil-and-silver-paint-lined studio on 47th Street (later moved to Broadway). Other members of Warhol's Factory crowd included Freddie Herko, Ondine, Ronald Tavel, Mary Woronov, Billy Name, and Brigid Berlin (from whom he apparently got the idea to tape-record his phone conversations).

During the 1960s, Warhol also groomed a retinue of bohemian and counterculture eccentrics upon whom he bestowed the designation "Superstars", including Nico, Joe Dallesandro, Edie Sedgwick, Viva, Ultra Violet, Holly Woodlawn, Jackie Curtis, and Candy Darling. These people all participated in the Factory films, and some—like Berlin—remained friends with Warhol until his death. Important figures in the New York underground art/cinema world, such as writer John Giorno and film-maker Jack Smith, also appear in Warhol films (many premiering at the New Andy Warhol Garrick Theatre and 55th Street Playhouse) of the 1960s, revealing Warhol's connections to a diverse range of artistic scenes during this time. Less well known was his support and collaboration with several teenagers during this era, who would achieve prominence later in life including writer David Dalton,[39] photographer Stephen Shore[40] and artist Bibbe Hansen (mother of pop musician Beck).[41]

Attempted murder (1968)

On June 3, 1968, radical feminist writer Valerie Solanas shot Warhol and Mario Amaya, art critic and curator, at Warhol's studio.[42] Before the shooting, Solanas had been a marginal figure in the Factory scene. She authored in 1967 the S.C.U.M. Manifesto,[43] a separatist feminist tract that advocated the elimination of men; and appeared in the 1968 Warhol film I, a Man. Earlier on the day of the attack, Solanas had been turned away from the Factory after asking for the return of a script she had given to Warhol. The script had apparently been misplaced.[44]

Amaya received only minor injuries and was released from the hospital later the same day. Warhol was seriously wounded by the attack and barely survived: surgeons opened his chest and massaged his heart to help stimulate its movement again. He suffered physical effects for the rest of his life, including being required to wear a surgical corset.[14] The shooting had a profound effect on Warhol's life and art.[45][46]

Solanas was arrested the day after the assault, after turning herself in to police. By way of explanation, she said that Warhol "had too much control over my life." She was subsequently diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia and eventually sentenced to three years under the control of the Department of Corrections. After the shooting, the Factory scene heavily increased security, and for many, the "Factory 60s" ended.[46]

Warhol had this to say about the attack: "Before I was shot, I always thought that I was more half-there than all-there—I always suspected that I was watching TV instead of living life. People sometimes say that the way things happen in movies is unreal, but actually it's the way things happen in life that's unreal. The movies make emotions look so strong and real, whereas when things really do happen to you, it's like watching television—you don't feel anything. Right when I was being shot and ever since, I knew that I was watching television. The channels switch, but it's all television."[47]

The 1970s

President Jimmy Carter and Warhol in 1977

Compared to the success and scandal of Warhol's work in the 1960s, the 1970s were a much quieter decade, as he became more entrepreneurial. According to Bob Colacello, Warhol devoted much of his time to rounding up new, rich patrons for portrait commissions—including Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, his wife Empress Farah Pahlavi, his sister Princess Ashraf Pahlavi, Mick Jagger, Liza Minnelli, John Lennon, Diana Ross, and Brigitte Bardot.[48][49] Warhol's famous portrait of Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong was created in 1973. He also founded, with Gerard Malanga, Interview magazine, and published The Philosophy of Andy Warhol (1975). An idea expressed in the book: "Making money is art, and working is art and good business is the best art."

Warhol socialized at various nightspots in New York City, including Max's Kansas City; and, later in the 1970s, Studio 54.[51] He was generally regarded as quiet, shy, and a meticulous observer. Art critic Robert Hughes called him "the white mole of Union Square."

In 1979, along with his longtime friend Stuart Pivar, Warhol founded the New York Academy of Art.

The 1980s

Warhol had a re-emergence of critical and financial success in the 1980s, partially due to his affiliation and friendships with a number of prolific younger artists, who were dominating the "bull market" of 1980s New York art: Jean-Michel Basquiat, Julian Schnabel, David Salle and other so-called Neo-Expressionists, as well as members of the Transavantgarde movement in Europe, including Francesco Clemente and Enzo Cucchi. Before the 1984 Sarajevo Winter Olympics, he teamed with 15 other artists, including David Hockney and Cy Twombly, and contributed a Speed Skater print to the Art and Sport collection. The Speed Skater was used for the official Sarajevo Winter Olympics poster.[55]

By this time, graffiti artist Fab Five Freddy paid homage to Warhol when he painted an entire train with Campbell soup cans. This was instrumental in Freddy becoming involved in the underground NYC art scene and becoming an affiliate of Basquiat.[56]

By this period, Warhol was being criticized for becoming merely a "business artist".[57] In 1979, reviewers disliked his exhibits of portraits of 1970s personalities and celebrities, calling them superficial, facile and commercial, with no depth or indication of the significance of the subjects. They also criticized his 1980 exhibit of 10 portraits at the Jewish Museum in Manhattan, entitled Jewish Geniuses, which Warhol—who was uninterested in Judaism and Jews—had described in his diary as "They're going to sell."[57] In hindsight, however, some critics have come to view Warhol's superficiality and commerciality as "the most brilliant mirror of our times," contending that "Warhol had captured something irresistible about the zeitgeist of American culture in the 1970s."[57]

Warhol also had an appreciation for intense Hollywood glamour. He once said: "I love Los Angeles. I love Hollywood. They're so beautiful. Everything's plastic, but I love plastic. I want to be plastic."[58]

In 1984 Vanity Fair commissioned Warhol to produce a portrait of Prince, in order to accompany an article that celebrated the success of Purple Rain and its accompanying movie.

Referencing the many celebrity portraits produced by Warhol across his career, Orange Prince (1984) was created using a similar composition to the Marilyn "Flavors" series from 1962, among some of Warhol's very first celebrity portraits. Prince is depicted in a pop colour palette commonly used by Warhol, in bright orange with highlights of bright green and blue. The facial features and hair are screen-printed in black over the orange background.

In the Andy Warhol Diaries, Warhol recorded how excited he was to see Prince and Billy Idol together at a party in the mid-1980s, and he compared them to the Hollywood movie stars of the 1950s and 1960s who also inspired his portraits: "... seeing these two glamour boys, its like boys are the new Hollywood glamour girls, like Jean Harlow and Marilyn Monroe".

WORKS

PAINTINGS

By the beginning of the 1960s, pop art was an experimental form that several artists were independently adopting; some of these pioneers, such as Roy Lichtenstein, would later become synonymous with the movement. Warhol, who would become famous as the "Pope of Pop", turned to this new style, where popular subjects could be part of the artist's palette. His early paintings show images taken from cartoons and advertisements, hand-painted with paint drips. Marilyn Monroe was a pop art painting that Warhol had done and it was very popular. Those drips emulated the style of successful abstract expressionists (such as Willem de Kooning). Warhol's first pop art paintings were displayed in April 1961, serving as the backdrop for New York Department Store Bonwit Teller's window display. This was the same stage his Pop Art contemporaries, Jasper Johns, James Rosenquist and Robert Rauschenberg had also once graced.[65]

It was the gallerist Muriel Latow who came up with the ideas for both the soup cans and Warhol's dollar paintings. On November 23, 1961, Warhol wrote Latow a check for $50 which, according to the 2009 Warhol biography, Pop, The Genius of Warhol, was payment for coming up with the idea of the soup cans as subject matter.[66] For his first major exhibition, Warhol painted his famous cans of Campbell's soup, which he claimed to have had for lunch for most of his life. A 1964 Large Campbell's Soup Can be sold in a 2007 Sotheby's auction to a South American collector for £5.1 million ($7.4 million).

He loved celebrities, so he painted them as well. From these beginnings, he developed his later style and subjects. Instead of working on a signature subject matter, as he started out to do, he worked more and more on a signature style, slowly eliminating the handmade from the artistic process. Warhol frequently used silk-screening; his later drawings were traced from slide projections. At the height of his fame as a painter, Warhol had several assistants who produced his silk-screen multiples, following his directions to make different versions and variations.[68]

In 1979, Warhol was commissioned by BMW to paint a Group-4 race version of the then "elite supercar" BMW M1 for the fourth instalment in the BMW Art Car Project. It was reported at the time that, unlike the three artists before him, Warhol opted to paint directly onto the automobile himself instead of letting technicians transfer his scale-model design to the car.[69] It was indicated that Warhol spent only a total of 23 minutes to paint the entire car.[70]

Warhol produced both comic and serious works; his subject could be a soup can or an electric chair. Warhol used the same techniques—silkscreens, reproduced serially, and often painted with bright colours—whether he painted celebrities, everyday objects, or images of suicide, car crashes, and disasters, as in the 1962–63 Death and Disaster series. The Death and Disaster paintings included Red Car Crash, Purple Jumping Man, and Orange Disaster. One of these paintings, the diptych Silver Car Crash, became the highest-priced work of his when it sold at Sotheby's Contemporary Art Auction on Wednesday, November 13, 2013, for $105.4 million.

Some of Warhol's work, as well as his own personality, has been described as being Keatonesque. Warhol has been described as playing dumb to the media. He sometimes refused to explain his work. He has suggested that all one needs to know about his work is "already there 'on the surface'."

His Rorschach inkblots are intended as pop comments on art and what art could be. His cow wallpaper (literally, wallpaper with a cow motif) and his oxidation paintings (canvases prepared with copper paint that was then oxidized with urine) are also noteworthy in this context. Equally noteworthy is the way these works—and their means of production—mirrored the atmosphere at Andy's New York "Factory". Biographer Bob Colacello provides some details on Andy's "piss paintings":

Victor ... was Andy's ghost pisser on the Oxidations. He would come to the Factory to urinate on canvases that had already been primed with copper-based paint by Andy or Ronnie Cutrone, a second ghost pisser much appreciated by Andy, who said that the vitamin B that Ronnie took made a prettier colour when the acid in the urine turned the copper green. Did Andy ever use his own urine? My diary shows that when he first began the series, in December 1977, he did, and there were many others: boys who'd come to lunch and drink too much wine, and find it funny or even flattering to be asked to help Andy 'paint'. Andy always had a little extra bounce in his walk as he led them to his studio.

After many years of silkscreen, oxidation, photography, etc., Warhol returned to painting with a brush in hand in a series of more than 50 large collaborative works done with Jean-Michel Basquiat between 1984 and 1986. Despite negative criticism when these were first shown, Warhol called some of them "masterpieces," and they were influential for his later work.

Andy Warhol was commissioned in 1984 by collector and gallerist Alexander Iolas to produce work based on Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper for an exhibition at the old refectory of the Palazzo Delle Stelline in Milan, opposite from the Santa Maria Delle Grazie where Leonardo da Vinci's mural can be seen.[77] Warhol exceeded the demands of the commission and produced nearly 100 variations on the theme, mostly silkscreens and paintings, and among them a collaborative sculpture with Basquiat, the Ten Punching Bags (Last Supper).[78] The Milan exhibition that opened in January 1987 with a set of 22 silk-screens, was the last exhibition for both the artist and the gallerist.[79] The series of The Last Supper was seen by some as "arguably his greatest,"[80] but by others as "wishy-washy, religiose" and "spiritless."[81] It is the largest series of religious-themed works by any U.S. artist.[80]

Artist Maurizio Cattelan describes that it is difficult to separate daily encounters from the art of Andy Warhol: "That's probably the greatest thing about Warhol: the way he penetrated and summarized our world, to the point that distinguishing between him and our everyday life is basically impossible, and in any case useless." Warhol was an inspiration towards Cattelan's magazine and photography compilations, such as Permanent Food, Charley, and Toilet Paper.[82]

In the period just before his death, Warhol was working on Cars, a series of paintings for Mercedes-Benz.[83]

A self-portrait by Andy Warhol (1963–64), which sold in New York at the May Post-War and Contemporary evening sale in Christie's, fetched $38.4 million.

On May 9, 2012, his classic painting Double Elvis (Ferus Type) sold at auction at Sotheby's in New York for US$33 million. With commission, the sale price totalled US$37,042,500, short of the $50 million that Sotheby's had predicted the painting might bring. The piece (silkscreen ink and spray paint on canvas) shows Elvis Presley in a gunslinger pose. It was first exhibited in 1963 at the Ferus Gallery in Los Angeles. Warhol made 22 versions of the Double Elvis, nine of which are held in museums.

In November 2013, his Silver Car Crash (Double Disaster) diptych sold at Sotheby's Contemporary Art Auction for $105.4 million, a new record for the pop artist (pre-auction estimates were at $80 million).[71] Created in 1963, this work had rarely been seen in public in the previous years.[87] In November 2014, Triple Elvis sold for $81.9m (£51.9m) at an auction in New York.[88]

SOURCE: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Warhol

You can purchase this photo on Getty Images

The Rynok Square in Lviv (Ukrainian: Площа Ринок, Polish: Rynek we Lwowie) is a central square of the city of Lviv, Ukraine. It was planned in the second half of the 14th century, following granting city rights by Polish king Casimir III, who annexed Red Ruthenia. The king ordered Lviv to be moved more to the south, where a new city was built to the plan of a traditional European settlement: a central square surrounded by living quarters and fortifications. Old, Ruthenian Lviv had become a suburb of the new city.

The square is rectangular in shape, with measurements of 142 meters by 129 meters and with two streets radiating out of every corner. In the middle there was a row of houses, with its southern wall made by the Town Hall. However, when in 1825 the tower of the Town Hall burned, all adjacent houses were demolished and a new hall, with a 65-meter tower, was built in 1835 by architects J. Markl and F. Trescher.

Around the square, there are 44 tenement houses, which represent several architectural styles, from Renaissance to Modernism. In the four corners, there are fountains—wells from 1793, probably designed by Hartman Witwer. The sculptures represent four Greek mythological figures: Neptune, Diana, Amphitrite and Adonis. In front of the Town Hall, there was a pillory. In 1998 the Market Place, together with the historic city center of Lviv, was recognized as a UNESCO world heritage site.

The square was designed soon after Lviv’s location as a city. Originally, the buildings were Gothic; however, a great fire on 3 June 1527) destroyed most of the city. The new city, then known in Polish as Lwow, was rebuilt in Renaissance style, with a few remaining examples of Gothic architecture. There is a vault in tenement house number 24 and a portal in house number 25. The Rynok Square was witness to several important events in the history of Poland and Ukraine. Among these, in 1387 King Wladyslaw Jagiello accepted the homage of Petru I of Moldavia here. In 1436 another Moldavian ruler, Ilias of Moldavia, paid homage to King Wladyslaw III in Lviv. Also, at the pillory, several historical figures were executed, including rulers of Moldavia Ştefan Tomşa (1564), Ioan Potcoavă (Ivan Pidkova) (1577) and Iancu Sasul (1582). In 1848, during the Spring of Nations, a Polish National Guard was formed here. On 11 November 1920, prime minister Jozef Pilsudski hosted a military parade to commemorate awarding the Virtuti Militari cross to the city. Also, on 30 June 1941, Yaroslav Stetsko proclaimed Ukraine's independence in a house located on the square. In 2006, a major restoration of the square’s pavement was carried out.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market Square, Lviv

The Lviv palace of Prince Stanisław Lubomirski was built in the 1760s to Jan de Witte's design on the site of several older houses (one of which had been the property of Szymon Szymonowic). The palace's main façade, featuring decoration by Sebastian Vessinger, is on the Market Square. The two other fronts are considerably less conspicuous. Between 1771 and 1821, the Lubomirski Palace served as the residence for Austrian governors of Galicia. It was purchased by a Ukrainian organization, Prosvita, in the 19th century and subsequently became a hotbed of nationalist activities. It was there that Yaroslav Stetsko proclaimed Ukraine's independence several days after Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union. Next door to the Lubomirski Palace is the former palace of the Roman Catholic archbishops where King of Poland Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki died in 1673.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubomirski Palace, Lviv

The Dormition or Assumption Church (Ukrainian: Успенська церква, Uspenska tserkva) is the main Orthodox church in the city of Lviv, Ukraine. At present it is leased to the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church. It was constructed in the late 16th and early 17th centuries with funds provided by the Greek merchant Constantine Corniaktos and other members of the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood, a local bratstvo which also operated a well-known Orthodox school and press. The church's architecture bears the mark of the Renaissance. This especially applies to the profusely decorated façade of the adjacent Chapel of the Three Hierarchs, built between 1574 and 1591 to Piotr Krasowski's designs. Nearby is one of Lviv's most conspicuous landmarks, the Korniakt Tower, which was carried to its present height of 65 meters after a conflagration in 1695. This ornate bell-tower was originally commissioned by Corniaktos from architect Piotr Barbon in the 1570s.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dormition Church, Lviv

The Carmelite Church in Lviv was first mentioned in 1634 as the church of the monastery of the Barefoot Carmelites. In 1748 it was the scene of a notorious scuffle ("monomachia") between the Carmelites and their neighbours, the Capuchins. The suburban location caused the church to be rather well fortified, yet it was ravaged by the Cossacks in the Khmelnytsky Revolt and the Swedes in the Great Northern War. The entire façade was redesigned in the 19th century. Still, the building retains much of its original character and design, attributed to architect Jan Pokorowicz. Especially noteworthy are the 300-year-old black marble altar and a series of frescoes executed by Giuseppe Pedretti in the 1730s. After 1789 the church has passed through a succession of owners, ending with the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church which reconsecrated the church to Michael the Archangel in 1991.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmelite Church, Lviv

Belem, Berardo Collection, Centro Cultural de Belem, Lisbon, Portugal

Material: Silkscreen ink and synthetic polymer paint on wood

Collection: Berardo Collection

MOVEMENT: POP ART

BIOGRAPHY

Andy Warhol (/ˈwɔːrhɒl/;[1] born Andrew Warhola; August 6, 1928 – February 22, 1987) was an American artist, director and producer who was a leading figure in the visual art movement known as POP ART.

His works explore the relationship between artistic expression, celebrity culture, and advertising that flourished by the 1960s, and span a variety of media, including painting, silkscreening, photography, film, and sculpture.

Some of his best known works include the silkscreen paintings Campbell's Soup Cans (1962) and Marilyn Diptych (1962), the experimental film Chelsea Girls (1966), and the multimedia events known as the Exploding Plastic Inevitable (1966–67).

Born and raised in Pittsburgh, Warhol initially pursued a successful career as a commercial illustrator. After exhibiting his work in several galleries in the late 1950s, he began to receive recognition as an influential and controversial artist. His New York studio, The Factory, became a well-known gathering place that brought together distinguished intellectuals, drag queens, playwrights, Bohemian street people, Hollywood celebrities, and wealthy patrons.

He promoted a collection of personalities known as Warhol superstars, and is credited with coining the widely used expression "15 minutes of fame".

In the late 1960s, he managed and produced the experimental rock band The Velvet Underground and founded Interview magazine. He authored numerous books, including The Philosophy of Andy Warhol and Popism: The Warhol Sixties. He lived openly as a gay man before the gay liberation movement. After gallbladder surgery, Warhol died of cardiac arrhythmia in February 1987 at the age of 58.

Warhol has been the subject of numerous retrospective exhibitions, books, and feature and documentary films. The Andy Warhol Museum in his native city of Pittsburgh, which holds an extensive permanent collection of art and archives, is the largest museum in the United States dedicated to a single artist.

Many of his creations are very collectible and highly valuable. The highest price ever paid for a Warhol painting is US$105 million for a 1963 canvas titled Silver Car Crash (Double Disaster); his works include some of the most expensive paintings ever sold. A 2009 article in The Economist described Warhol as the "bellwether of the art market".

Warhol's childhood home. 3252 Dawson Street, South Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Warhol was born on August 6, 1928, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.He was the fourth child of Ondrej Warhola (Americanized as Andrew Warhola, Sr., 1889–1942) and Julia (née Zavacká, 1892–1972), whose first child was born in their homeland and died before their move to the U.S.

His parents were working-class Lemko emigrants from Mikó (now called Miková), located in today's northeastern Slovakia, part of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire. Warhol's father emigrated to the United States in 1914, and his mother joined him in 1921, after the death of Warhol's grandparents. Warhol's father worked in a coal mine. The family lived at 55 Beelen Street and later at 3252 Dawson Street in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh. The family was Ruthenian Catholic and attended St. John Chrysostom Byzantine Catholic Church. Andy Warhol had two older brothers—Pavol (Paul), the oldest, was born before the family emigrated; Ján was born in Pittsburgh. Pavol's son, James Warhola, became a successful children's book illustrator.

In third grade, Warhol had Sydenham's chorea (also known as St. Vitus' Dance), the nervous system disease that causes involuntary movements of the extremities, which is believed to be a complication of scarlet fever which causes skin pigmentation blotchiness.] At times when he was confined to bed, he drew, listened to the radio and collected pictures of movie stars around his bed. Warhol later described this period as very important in the development of his personality, skill-set and preferences. When Warhol was 13, his father died in an accident.

As a teenager, Warhol graduated from Schenley High School in 1945. Also as a teen, Warhol won a Scholastic Art and Writing Award. After graduating from high school, his intentions were to study art education at the University of Pittsburgh in the hope of becoming an art teacher, but his plans changed and he enrolled in the Carnegie Institute of Technology, now Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, where he studied commercial art.

During his time there, Warhol joined the campus Modern Dance Club and Beaux Arts Society. He also served as art director of the student art magazine, Cano, illustrating a cover in 1948[16] and a full-page interior illustration in 1949. These are believed to be his first two published artworks. Warhol earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts in pictorial design in 1949. Later that year, he moved to New York City and began a career in magazine illustration and advertising.

1950S

Warhol's early career was dedicated to commercial and advertising art, where his first commission had been to draw shoes for Glamour magazine in the late 1940s. In the 1950s, Warhol worked as a designer for shoe manufacturer Israel Miller.

American photographer John Coplans recalled that nobody drew shoes the way Andy did. He somehow gave each shoe a temperament of its own, a sort of sly, Toulouse-Lautrec kind of sophistication, but the shape and the style came through accurately and the buckle was always in the right place. The kids in the apartment [which Andy shared in New York – note by Coplans] noticed that the vamps on Andy's shoe drawings kept getting longer and longer but [Israel] Miller didn't mind. Miller loved them.

Warhol's "whimsical" ink drawings of shoe advertisements figured in some of his earliest showings at the Bodley Gallery in New York.

Warhol was an early adopter of the silk screen printmaking process as a technique for making paintings. A young Warhol was taught SILK SCREEN PRINTMAKING TECHNIQUES by Max Arthur Cohn at his graphic arts business in Manhattan

While working in the shoe industry, Warhol developed his "blotted line" technique, applying ink to paper and then blotting the ink while still wet, which was akin to a printmaking process on the most rudimentary scale. His use of tracing paper and ink allowed him to repeat the basic image and also to create endless variations on the theme, a method that prefigures his 1960s silk-screen canvas.

In his book Popism: The Warhol Sixties, Warhol writes: "WHEN YOU DO SOMETHING EXACTLY WRONG, YOU ALWAYS TURN UP SOMETHING."

Warhol habitually used the expedient of tracing photographs projected with an epidiascope. Using prints by Edward Wallowitch, his 'first boyfriend' the photographs would undergo a subtle transformation during Warhol's often cursory tracing of contours and hatching of shadows. Warhol used Wallowitch's photograph Young Man Smoking a Cigarette (c.1956), for a 1958 design for a book cover he submitted to Simon and Schuster for the Walter Ross pulp novel The Immortal, and later used others for his dollar bill series, and for Big Campbell's Soup Can with Can Opener (Vegetable), of 1962 which initiated Warhol's most sustained motif, the soup can.

With the rapid expansion of the record industry, RCA Records hired Warhol, along with another freelance artist, Sid Maurer, to design album covers and promotional materials.

1960S

Warhol (left) and Tennessee Williams (right) talking on the SS France, 1967.

He began exhibiting his work during the 1950s. He held exhibitions at the Hugo Gallery[30] and the Bodley Gallery[31] in New York City; in California, his first West Coast gallery exhibition[32][33] was on July 9, 1962, in the Ferus Gallery of Los Angeles. The exhibition marked his West Coast debut of pop art.[34] Andy Warhol's first New York solo pop art exhibition was hosted at Eleanor Ward's Stable Gallery November 6–24, 1962. The exhibit included the works Marilyn Diptych, 100 Soup Cans, 100 Coke Bottles, and 100 Dollar Bills. At the Stable Gallery exhibit, the artist met for the first time poet John Giorno who would star in Warhol's first film, Sleep, in 1963.[35]

It was during the 1960s that Warhol began to make paintings of iconic American objects such as dollar bills, mushroom clouds, electric chairs, Campbell's Soup Cans, Coca-Cola bottles, celebrities such as Marilyn Monroe, Elvis Presley, Marlon Brando, Troy Donahue, Muhammad Ali, and Elizabeth Taylor, as well as newspaper headlines or photographs of police dogs attacking African-American protesters during the Birmingham campaign in the civil rights movement. During these years, he founded his studio, "The Factory" and gathered about him a wide range of artists, writers, musicians, and underground celebrities. His work became popular and controversial. Warhol had this to say about Coca-Cola:

What's great about this country is that America started the tradition where the richest consumers buy essentially the same things as the poorest. You can be watching TV and see Coca-Cola, and you know that the President drinks Coca-Cola, Liz Taylor drinks Coca-Cola, and just think, you can drink Coca-Cola, too. A Coke is a Coke and no amount of money can get you a better Coke than the one the bum on the corner is drinking. All the Cokes are the same and all the Cokes are good. Liz Taylor knows it, the President knows it, the bum knows it, and you know it.[36]

New York City's Museum of Modern Art hosted a Symposium on pop art in December 1962 during which artists such as Warhol were attacked for "capitulating" to consumerism. Critics were scandalized by Warhol's open embrace of market culture. This symposium set the tone for Warhol's reception.

A pivotal event was the 1964 exhibit The American Supermarket, a show held in Paul Bianchini's Upper East Side gallery. The show was presented as a typical U.S. small supermarket environment, except that everything in it—from the produce, canned goods, meat, posters on the wall, etc.—was created by six prominent pop artists of the time, among them the controversial (and like-minded) Billy Apple, Mary Inman, and Robert Watts. Warhol's painting of a can of Campbell's soup cost $1,500 while each autographed can sold for $6. The exhibit was one of the first mass events that directly confronted the general public with both pop art and the perennial question of what art is.[citation needed]

ANDY WARHOL, BETWEEN 1966 AND 1977

As an advertisement illustrator in the 1950s, Warhol used assistants to increase his productivity. Collaboration would remain a defining (and controversial) aspect of his working methods throughout his career; this was particularly true in the 1960s. One of the most important collaborators during this period was Gerard Malanga. Malanga assisted the artist with the production of silkscreens, films, sculpture, and other works at "The Factory", Warhol's aluminum foil-and-silver-paint-lined studio on 47th Street (later moved to Broadway). Other members of Warhol's Factory crowd included Freddie Herko, Ondine, Ronald Tavel, Mary Woronov, Billy Name, and Brigid Berlin (from whom he apparently got the idea to tape-record his phone conversations).

During the 1960s, Warhol also groomed a retinue of bohemian and counterculture eccentrics upon whom he bestowed the designation "Superstars", including Nico, Joe Dallesandro, Edie Sedgwick, Viva, Ultra Violet, Holly Woodlawn, Jackie Curtis, and Candy Darling. These people all participated in the Factory films, and some—like Berlin—remained friends with Warhol until his death.

Important figures in the New York underground art/cinema world, such as writer John Giorno and film-maker Jack Smith, also appear in Warhol films (many premiering at the New Andy Warhol Garrick Theatre and 55th Street Playhouse) of the 1960s, revealing Warhol's connections to a diverse range of artistic scenes during this time. Less well known was his support and collaboration with several teen-agers during this era, who would achieve prominence later in life including writer David Dalton, photographer Stephen Shore and artist Bibbe Hansen (mother of pop musician Beck).

ATTEMPTED MURDER (1968)

On June 3, 1968, radical feminist writer Valerie Solanas shot Warhol and Mario Amaya, art critic and curator, at Warhol's studio. Before the shooting, Solanas had been a marginal figure in the Factory scene. She authored in 1967 the S.C.U.M. Manifesto, a separatist feminist tract that advocated the elimination of men; and appeared in the 1968 Warhol film I, a Man. Earlier on the day of the attack, Solanas had been turned away from the Factory after asking for the return of a script she had given to Warhol. The script had apparently been misplaced.

Amaya received only minor injuries and was released from the hospital later the same day. Warhol was seriously wounded by the attack and barely survived: surgeons opened his chest and massaged his heart to help stimulate its movement again. He suffered physical effects for the rest of his life, including being required to wear a surgical corset. The shooting had a profound effect on Warhol's life and art.

Solanas was arrested the day after the assault, after turning herself in to police. By way of explanation, she said that Warhol "had too much control over my life." She was subsequently diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia and eventually sentenced to three years under the control of the Department of Corrections. After the shooting, the Factory scene heavily increased security, and for many the "Factory 60s" ended.

Warhol had this to say about the attack: "Before I was shot, I always thought that I was more half-there than all-there—I always suspected that I was watching TV instead of living life. People sometimes say that the way things happen in movies is unreal, but actually it's the way things happen in life that's unreal. The movies make emotions look so strong and real, whereas when things really do happen to you, it's like watching television—you don't feel anything. Right when I was being shot and ever since, I knew that I was watching television. The channels switch, but it's all television."

1970S

Compared to the success and scandal of Warhol's work in the 1960s, the 1970s were a much quieter decade, as he became more entrepreneurial. According to Bob Colacello, Warhol devoted much of his time to rounding up new, rich patrons for portrait commissions—including Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, his wife Empress Farah Pahlavi, his sister Princess Ashraf Pahlavi, Mick Jagger, Liza Minnelli, John Lennon, Diana Ross, and Brigitte Bardot.[47][48] Warhol's famous portrait of Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong was created in 1973. He also founded, with Gerard Malanga, Interview magazine, and published The Philosophy of Andy Warhol (1975). An idea expressed in the book: "Making money is art, and working is art and good business is the best art."

Warhol socialized at various nightspots in New York City, including Max's Kansas City; and, later in the 1970s, Studio 54.He was generally regarded as quiet, shy, and a meticulous observer. Art critic Robert Hughes called him "the white mole of Union Square."

In 1979, along with his longtime friend Stuart Pivar, Warhol founded the New York Academy of Art.

1980S

Warhol had a re-emergence of critical and financial success in the 1980s, partially due to his affiliation and friendships with a number of prolific younger artists, who were dominating the "bull market" of 1980s New York art: Jean-Michel Basquiat, Julian Schnabel, David Salle and other so-called Neo-Expressionists, as well as members of the Transavantgarde movement in Europe, including Francesco Clemente and Enzo Cucchi.

Before the 1984 Sarajevo Winter Olympics, he teamed with 15 other artists, including David Hockney and Cy Twombly, and contributed a Speed Skater print to the Art and Sport collection. The Speed Skater was used for the official Sarajevo Winter Olympics poster.

By this time, graffiti artist Fab Five Freddy paid homage to Warhol when he painted an entire train with Campbell soup cans. This was instrumental in Freddy becoming involved in the underground NYC art scene and becoming an affiliate of Basquiat.

By this period, Warhol was being criticized for becoming merely a "business artist". In 1979, reviewers disliked his exhibits of portraits of 1970s personalities and celebrities, calling them superficial, facile and commercial, with no depth or indication of the significance of the subjects.

They also criticized his 1980 exhibit of 10 portraits at the Jewish Museum in Manhattan, entitled Jewish Geniuses, which Warhol—who was uninterested in Judaism and Jews—had described in his diary as "They're going to sell." In hindsight, however, some critics have come to view Warhol's superficiality and commerciality as "the most brilliant mirror of our times," contending that "Warhol had captured something irresistible about the zeitgeist of American culture in the 1970s."

Warhol also had an appreciation for intense Hollywood glamour. He once said: "I love Los Angeles. I love Hollywood. They're so beautiful. Everything's plastic, but I love plastic. I want to be plastic."

In 1984, Warhol immortalized the singer Prince by creating one of his final portraits, Orange Prince (1984), a commission from Vanity Fair to accompany an article to celebrate the success of Prince's album and movie entitled Purple Rain.Referencing the many celebrity portraits produced by Warhol across his career, Orange Prince (1984) was created using a similar composition to the Marilyn "Flavors" series from 1962, among some of Warhol's very first celebrity portraits. Prince is depicted in a pop color palette commonly used by Warhol, in bright orange with highlights of bright green and blue. The facial features and hair are screen-printed in black over the orange background.

In the Andy Warhol Diaries, Warhol recorded how excited he was to see Prince and Billy Idol together at a party in the mid 1980s, and he compared them to the Hollywood movie stars of the 1950s and '60s who also inspired his portraits: "... seeing these two glamour boys, its like boys are the new Hollywood glamour girls, like Jean Harlow and Marilyn Monroe".

WORKS

PAINTINGS

By the beginning of the 1960s, pop art was an experimental form that several artists were independently adopting; some of these pioneers, such as Roy Lichtenstein, would later become synonymous with the movement. Warhol, who would become famous as the "Pope of Pop", turned to this new style, where popular subjects could be part of the artist's palette. His early paintings show images taken from cartoons and advertisements, hand-painted with paint drips. Marilyn Monroe was a pop art painting that Warhol had done and it was very popular. Those drips emulated the style of successful abstract expressionists (such as Willem de Kooning). Warhol's first pop art paintings were displayed in April 1961, serving as the backdrop for New York Department Store Bronwit Teller's window display. This was the same stage his Pop Art contemporaries Jasper Johns, James Rosenquist and Robert Rauschenberg had also once graced.

It was the gallerist Muriel Latow who came up with the ideas for both the soup cans and Warhol's dollar paintings. On November 23, 1961, Warhol wrote Latow a check for $50 which, according to the 2009 Warhol biography, Pop, The Genius of Warhol, was payment for coming up with the idea of the soup cans as subject matter. For his first major exhibition, Warhol painted his famous cans of Campbell's soup, which he claimed to have had for lunch for most of his life. A 1964 Large Campbell's Soup Can was sold in a 2007 Sotheby's auction to a South American collector for £5.1 million ($7.4 million).

He loved celebrities, so he painted them as well. From these beginnings he developed his later style and subjects. Instead of working on a signature subject matter, as he started out to do, he worked more and more on a signature style, slowly eliminating the handmade from the artistic process.

Warhol frequently used silk-screening; his later drawings were traced from slide projections. At the height of his fame as a painter, Warhol had several assistants who produced his silk-screen multiples, following his directions to make different versions and variations.

In 1979, Warhol was commissioned by BMW to paint a Group-4 race version of the then "elite supercar" BMW M1 for the fourth installment in the BMW Art Car Project. It was reported at the time that, unlike the three artists before him, Warhol opted to paint directly onto the automobile himself instead of letting technicians transfer his scale-model design to the car. It was indicated that Warhol spent only a total of 23 minutes to paint the entire car.

Warhol produced both comic and serious works; his subject could be a soup can or an electric chair. Warhol used the same techniques—silkscreens, reproduced serially, and often painted with bright colors—whether he painted celebrities, everyday objects, or images of suicide, car crashes, and disasters, as in the 1962–63 Death and Disaster series. The Death and Disaster paintings included Red Car Crash, Purple Jumping Man, and Orange Disaster. One of these paintings, the diptych Silver Car Crash, became the highest priced work of his when it sold at Sotheby's Contemporary Art Auction on Wednesday, November 13, 2013, for $105.4 million.

Some of Warhol's work, as well as his own personality, has been described as being Keatonesque. Warhol has been described as playing dumb to the media. He sometimes refused to explain his work. He has suggested that all one needs to know about his work is "already there 'on the surface'."

His Rorschach inkblots are intended as pop comments on art and what art could be. His cow wallpaper (literally, wallpaper with a cow motif) and his oxidation paintings (canvases prepared with copper paint that was then oxidized with urine) are also noteworthy in this context. Equally noteworthy is the way these works—and their means of production—mirrored the atmosphere at Andy's New York "Factory". Biographer Bob Colacello provides some details on Andy's "piss paintings":

Victor ... was Andy's ghost pisser on the Oxidations. He would come to the Factory to urinate on canvases that had already been primed with copper-based paint by Andy or Ronnie Cutrone, a second ghost pisser much appreciated by Andy, who said that the vitamin B that Ronnie took made a prettier color when the acid in the urine turned the copper green.

Did Andy ever use his own urine? My diary shows that when he first began the series, in December 1977, he did, and there were many others: boys who'd come to lunch and drink too much wine, and find it funny or even flattering to be asked to help Andy 'paint'. Andy always had a little extra bounce in his walk as he led them to his studio.

Warhol's first portrait of Basquiat (1982) is a black photo-silkscreen over an oxidized copper "piss painting".

After many years of silkscreen, oxidation, photography, etc., Warhol returned to painting with a brush in hand in a series of more than 50 large collaborative works done with Jean-Michel Basquiat between 1984 and 1986.

Despite negative criticism when these were first shown, Warhol called some of them "masterpieces," and they were influential for his later work.

Andy Warhol was commissioned in 1984 by collector and gallerist Alexander Iolas to produce work based on Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper for an exhibition at the old refectory of the Palazzo delle Stelline in Milan, opposite from the Santa Maria delle Grazie where Leonardo da Vinci's mural can be seen.

Warhol exceeded the demands of the commission and produced nearly 100 variations on the theme, mostly silkscreens and paintings, and among them a collaborative sculpture with Basquiat, the Ten Punching Bags (Last Supper).

The Milan exhibition that opened in January 1987 with a set of 22 silk-screens, was the last exhibition for both the artist and the gallerist. The series of The Last Supper was seen by some as "arguably his greatest," but by others as "wishy-washy, religiose" and "spiritless." It is the largest series of religious-themed works by any U.S. artist.

Artist Maurizio Cattelan describes that it is difficult to separate daily encounters from the art of Andy Warhol: "That's probably the greatest thing about Warhol: the way he penetrated and summarized our world, to the point that distinguishing between him and our everyday life is basically impossible, and in any case useless." Warhol was an inspiration towards Cattelan's magazine and photography compilations, such as Permanent Food, Charley, and Toilet Paper.

In the period just before his death, Warhol was working on Cars, a series of paintings for Mercedes-Benz.

A self-portrait by Andy Warhol (1963–64), which sold in New York at the May Post-War and Contemporary evening sale in Christie's, fetched $38.4 million.

On May 9, 2012, his classic painting Double Elvis (Ferus Type) sold at auction at Sotheby's in New York for US$33 million. With commission, the sale price totaled US$37,042,500, short of the $50 million that Sotheby's had predicted the painting might bring.

The piece (silkscreen ink and spray paint on canvas) shows Elvis Presley in a gunslinger pose. It was first exhibited in 1963 at the Ferus Gallery in Los Angeles. Warhol made 22 versions of the Double Elvis, nine of which are held in museums.

In November 2013, his Silver Car Crash (Double Disaster) diptych sold at Sotheby's Contemporary Art Auction for $105.4 million, a new record for the pop artist (pre-auction estimates were at $80 million).

Created in 1963, this work had rarely been seen in public in the previous years.[85] In November 2014, Triple Elvis sold for $81.9m (£51.9m) at an auction in New York.

FILMS

Warhol worked across a wide range of media—painting, photography, drawing, and sculpture. In addition, he was a highly prolific filmmaker. Between 1963 and 1968, he made more than 60 films, plus some 500 short black-and-white "screen test" portraits of Factory visitors. One of his most famous films, Sleep, monitors poet John Giorno sleeping for six hours. The 35-minute film Blow Job is one continuous shot of the face of DeVeren Bookwalter supposedly receiving oral sex from filmmaker Willard Maas, although the camera never tilts down to see this. Another, Empire (1964), consists of eight hours of footage of the Empire State Building in New York City at dusk. The film Eat consists of a man eating a mushroom for 45 minutes. Warhol attended the 1962 premiere of the static composition by LaMonte Young called Trio for Strings and subsequently created his famous series of static films including Kiss, Eat, and Sleep (for which Young initially was commissioned to provide music). Uwe Husslein cites filmmaker Jonas Mekas, who accompanied Warhol to the Trio premiere, and who claims Warhol's static films were directly inspired by the performance.

Batman Dracula is a 1964 film that was produced and directed by Warhol, without the permission of DC Comics. It was screened only at his art exhibits. A fan of the Batman series, Warhol's movie was an "homage" to the series, and is considered the first appearance of a blatantly campy Batman. The film was until recently thought to have been lost, until scenes from the picture were shown at some length in the 2006 documentary Jack Smith and the Destruction of Atlantis.

Warhol's 1965 film Vinyl is an adaptation of Anthony Burgess' popular dystopian novel A Clockwork Orange. Others record improvised encounters between Factory regulars such as Brigid Berlin, Viva, Edie Sedgwick, Candy Darling, Holly Woodlawn, Ondine, Nico, and Jackie Curtis. Legendary underground artist Jack Smith appears in the film Camp.

His most popular and critically successful film was Chelsea Girls (1966). The film was highly innovative in that it consisted of two 16 mm-films being projected simultaneously, with two different stories being shown in tandem. From the projection booth, the sound would be raised for one film to elucidate that "story" while it was lowered for the other. The multiplication of images evoked Warhol's seminal silk-screen works of the early 1960s.

Warhol was a fan of filmmaker Radley Metzger's film work and commented that Metzger's film, The Lickerish Quartet, was "an outrageously kinky masterpiece".

Blue Movie—a film in which Warhol superstar Viva makes love in bed with Louis Waldon, another Warhol superstar—was Warhol's last film as director. The film, a seminal film in the Golden Age of Porn, was, at the time, controversial for its frank approach to a sexual encounter. Blue Movie was publicly screened in New York City in 2005, for the first time in more than 30 years.

After his June 3, 1968, shooting, a reclusive Warhol relinquished his personal involvement in filmmaking. His acolyte and assistant director, Paul Morrissey, took over the film-making chores for the Factory collective, steering Warhol-branded cinema towards more mainstream, narrative-based, B-movie exploitation fare with Flesh, Trash, and Heat. All of these films, including the later Andy Warhol's Dracula and Andy Warhol's Frankenstein, were far more mainstream than anything Warhol as a director had attempted. These latter "Warhol" films starred Joe Dallesandro—more of a Morrissey star than a true Warhol superstar.

In the early 1970s, most of the films directed by Warhol were pulled out of circulation by Warhol and the people around him who ran his business. After Warhol's death, the films were slowly restored by the Whitney Museum and are occasionally projected at museums and film festivals. Few of the Warhol-directed films are available on video or DVD.

SOURCE: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Warhol

Centro Cultural de Belem, Berardo Collection, Belem, Lisbon, Portugal

Material: Silk-screen ink on synthetic polymer on canvas

Collection: Berardo

BIOGRAPHY

Born Andrew Warhola; August 6, 1928 – February 22, 1987) was an American artist, director, and producer who was a leading figure in the visual art movement known as POP ART.

His works explore the relationship between artistic expression, advertising, and celebrity culture that flourished by the 1960s and span a variety of media, including painting, silkscreening, photography, film, and sculpture.

Some of his best-known works include the silkscreen paintings Campbell's Soup Cans (1962) and Marilyn Diptych (1962), the experimental film Chelsea Girls (1966), and the multimedia events known as the Exploding Plastic Inevitable (1966–67).

Born and raised in Pittsburgh, Warhol initially pursued a successful career as a commercial illustrator. After exhibiting his work in several galleries in the late 1950s, he began to receive recognition as an influential and controversial artist.

His New York studio, THE FACTORY, became a well-known gathering place that brought together distinguished intellectuals, drag queens, playwrights, Bohemian street people, Hollywood celebrities, and wealthy patrons. He promoted a collection of personalities known as Warhol superstars, and is credited with inspiring the widely used expression "15 minutes of fame".

In the late 1960s, he managed and produced the experimental rock band THE VELVET UNDERGROUND and founded Interview magazine. He authored numerous books, including The Philosophy of Andy Warhol and Popism: The Warhol Sixties. He lived openly as a gay man before the gay liberation movement. After gallbladder surgery, Warhol died of cardiac arrhythmia in February 1987 at the age of 58.

Warhol has been the subject of numerous retrospective exhibitions, books, and feature and documentary films. The Andy Warhol Museum in his native city of Pittsburgh, which holds an extensive permanent collection of art and archives, is the largest museum in the United States dedicated to a single artist. Many of his creations are very collectable and highly valuable. The highest price ever paid for a Warhol painting is US$105 million for a 1963 canvas titled Silver Car Crash (Double Disaster); his works include some of the most expensive paintings ever sold.[5] A 2009 article in The Economist described Warhol as the "bellwether of the art market".[6]

EARLY LIFE AND BEGINNINGS (1928–49)

Warhol's childhood home. 3252 Dawson Street, South Oakland neighbourhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Warhol was born on August 6, 1928, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[7] He was the fourth child of Ondrej Warhola (Americanized as Andrew Warhola, Sr., 1889–1942)[8][9] and Julia (née Zavacká, 1892–1972),[10] whose first child was born in their homeland and died before their move to the U.S.

His parents were working-class Lemko[11][12] emigrants from Mikó, Austria-Hungary (now called Miková, located in today's northeastern Slovakia). Warhol's father emigrated to the United States in 1914, and his mother joined him in 1921, after the death of Warhol's grandparents. Warhol's father worked in a coal mine. The family lived at 55 Beelen Street and later at 3252 Dawson Street in the Oakland neighbourhood of Pittsburgh.[13] The family was Ruthenian Catholic and attended St. John Chrysostom Byzantine Catholic Church. Andy Warhol had two older brothers—Pavol (Paul), the oldest, was born before the family emigrated; Ján was born in Pittsburgh. Pavol's son, James Warhola, became a successful children's book illustrator.

In third grade, Warhol had Sydenham's chorea (also known as St. Vitus' Dance), the nervous system disease that causes involuntary movements of the extremities, which is believed to be a complication of scarlet fever which causes skin pigmentation blotchiness.[14] At times when he was confined to bed, he drew, listened to the radio and collected pictures of movie stars around his bed. Warhol later described this period as very important in the development of his personality, skill-set and preferences. When Warhol was 13, his father died in an accident.[15]

As a teenager, Warhol graduated from Schenley High School in 1945. Also as a teen, Warhol won a Scholastic Art and Writing Award.[16] After graduating from high school, his intentions were to study art education at the University of Pittsburgh in the hope of becoming an art teacher, but his plans changed and he enrolled in the Carnegie Institute of Technology, now Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, where he studied commercial art. During his time there, Warhol joined the campus Modern Dance Club and Beaux Arts Society.[17] He also served as art director of the student art magazine, Cano, illustrating a cover in 1948[18] and a full-page interior illustration in 1949.[19] These are believed to be his first two published artworks.[19] Warhol earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts in pictorial design in 1949.[20] Later that year, he moved to New York City and began a career in magazine illustration and advertising.

The 1950s

Warhol's early career was dedicated to commercial and advertising art, where his first commission had been to draw shoes for Glamour magazine in the late 1940s.[21] In the 1950s, Warhol worked as a designer for shoe manufacturer Israel Miller.[21][22] American photographer John Coplans recalled that

nobody drew shoes the way Andy did. He somehow gave each shoe a temperament of its own, a sort of sly, Toulouse-Lautrec kind of sophistication, but the shape and the style came through accurately and the buckle was always in the right place. The kids in the apartment [which Andy shared in New York – note by Coplans] noticed that the vamps on Andy's shoe drawings kept getting longer and longer but [Israel] Miller didn't mind. Miller loved them.

Warhol's "whimsical" ink drawings of shoe advertisements figured in some of his earliest showings at the Bodley Gallery in New York.

Warhol was an early adopter of the silkscreen printmaking process as a technique for making paintings. A young Warhol was taught silk screen printmaking techniques by Max Arthur Cohn at his graphic arts business in Manhattan.[23] While working in the shoe industry, Warhol developed his "blotted line" technique, applying ink to paper and then blotting the ink while still wet, which was akin to a printmaking process on the most rudimentary scale. His use of tracing paper and ink allowed him to repeat the basic image and also to create endless variations on the theme, a method that prefigures his 1960s silk-screen canvas. In his book Popism: The Warhol Sixties, Warhol writes: "When you do something exactly wrong, you always turn up something."

Warhol habitually used the expedient of tracing photographs projected with an epidiascope.[25] Using prints by Edward Wallowitch, his 'first boyfriend'[26] the photographs would undergo a subtle transformation during Warhol's often cursory tracing of contours and hatching of shadows. Warhol used Wallowitch's photograph Young Man Smoking a Cigarette (c.1956),[27] for a 1958 design for a book cover he submitted to Simon and Schuster for the Walter Ross pulp novel The Immortal, and later used others for his dollar bill series,[28][29] and for Big Campbell's Soup Can with Can Opener (Vegetable), of 1962 which initiated Warhol's most sustained motif, the soup can.

With the rapid expansion of the record industry, RCA Records hired Warhol, along with another freelance artist, Sid Maurer, to design album covers and promotional materials.[30]

The 1960s

Warhol (left) and Tennessee Williams (right) talking on the SS France, 1967.

He began exhibiting his work during the 1950s. He held exhibitions at the Hugo Gallery[31] and the Bodley Gallery[32] in New York City; in California, his first West Coast gallery exhibition[33][34] was on July 9, 1962, in the Ferus Gallery of Los Angeles with Campbell's Soup Cans. The exhibition marked his West Coast debut of pop art.[35] Andy Warhol's first New York solo pop art exhibition was hosted at Eleanor Ward's Stable Gallery November 6–24, 1962. The exhibit included the works Marilyn Diptych, 100 Soup Cans, 100 Coke Bottles, and 100 Dollar Bills. At the Stable Gallery exhibit, the artist met for the first time poet John Giorno who would star in Warhol's first film, Sleep, in 1963.[36]

It was during the 1960s that Warhol began to make paintings of iconic American objects such as dollar bills, mushroom clouds, electric chairs, Campbell's Soup Cans, Coca-Cola bottles, celebrities such as Marilyn Monroe, Elvis Presley, Marlon Brando, Troy Donahue, Muhammad Ali, and Elizabeth Taylor, as well as newspaper headlines or photographs of police dogs attacking African-American protesters during the Birmingham campaign in the civil rights movement. During these years, he founded his studio, "The Factory" and gathered about him a wide range of artists, writers, musicians, and underground celebrities. His work became popular and controversial. Warhol had this to say about Coca-Cola:

What's great about this country is that America started the tradition where the richest consumers buy essentially the same things as the poorest. You can be watching TV and see Coca-Cola, and you know that the President drinks Coca-Cola, Liz Taylor drinks Coca-Cola, and just think, you can drink Coca-Cola, too. A Coke is a Coke and no amount of money can get you a better Coke than the one the bum on the corner is drinking. All the Cokes are the same and all the Cokes are good. Liz Taylor knows it, the President knows it, the bum knows it, and you know it.

New York City's Museum of Modern Art hosted a Symposium on pop art in December 1962 during which artists such as Warhol were attacked for "capitulating" to consumerism. Critics were scandalized by Warhol's open embrace of market culture. This symposium set the tone for Warhol's reception.

A pivotal event was the 1964 exhibit The American Supermarket, a show held in Paul Bianchini's Upper East Side gallery. The show was presented as a typical U.S. small supermarket environment, except that everything in it—from the produce, canned goods, meat, posters on the wall, etc.—was created by six prominent pop artists of the time, among them the controversial (and like-minded) Billy Apple, Mary Inman, and Robert Watts. Warhol's painting of a can of Campbell's soup cost $1,500 while each autographed can be sold for $6. The exhibit was one of the first mass events that directly confronted the general public with both pop art and the perennial question of what art is.[citation needed]

Andy Warhol, between 1966 and 1977

As an advertisement illustrator in the 1950s, Warhol used assistants to increase his productivity. Collaboration would remain a defining (and controversial) aspect of his working methods throughout his career; this was particularly true in the 1960s. One of the most important collaborators during this period was Gerard Malanga. Malanga assisted the artist with the production of silkscreens, films, sculpture, and other works at "The Factory", Warhol's aluminium foil-and-silver-paint-lined studio on 47th Street (later moved to Broadway). Other members of Warhol's Factory crowd included Freddie Herko, Ondine, Ronald Tavel, Mary Woronov, Billy Name, and Brigid Berlin (from whom he apparently got the idea to tape-record his phone conversations).

During the 1960s, Warhol also groomed a retinue of bohemian and counterculture eccentrics upon whom he bestowed the designation "Superstars", including Nico, Joe Dallesandro, Edie Sedgwick, Viva, Ultra Violet, Holly Woodlawn, Jackie Curtis, and Candy Darling. These people all participated in the Factory films, and some—like Berlin—remained friends with Warhol until his death. Important figures in the New York underground art/cinema world, such as writer John Giorno and film-maker Jack Smith, also appear in Warhol films (many premiering at the New Andy Warhol Garrick Theatre and 55th Street Playhouse) of the 1960s, revealing Warhol's connections to a diverse range of artistic scenes during this time. Less well known was his support and collaboration with several teenagers during this era, who would achieve prominence later in life including writer David Dalton,[39] photographer Stephen Shore[40] and artist Bibbe Hansen (mother of pop musician Beck).[41]

Attempted murder (1968)

On June 3, 1968, radical feminist writer Valerie Solanas shot Warhol and Mario Amaya, art critic and curator, at Warhol's studio.[42] Before the shooting, Solanas had been a marginal figure in the Factory scene. She authored in 1967 the S.C.U.M. Manifesto,[43] a separatist feminist tract that advocated the elimination of men; and appeared in the 1968 Warhol film I, a Man. Earlier on the day of the attack, Solanas had been turned away from the Factory after asking for the return of a script she had given to Warhol. The script had apparently been misplaced.[44]

Amaya received only minor injuries and was released from the hospital later the same day. Warhol was seriously wounded by the attack and barely survived: surgeons opened his chest and massaged his heart to help stimulate its movement again. He suffered physical effects for the rest of his life, including being required to wear a surgical corset.[14] The shooting had a profound effect on Warhol's life and art.[45][46]

Solanas was arrested the day after the assault, after turning herself in to police. By way of explanation, she said that Warhol "had too much control over my life." She was subsequently diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia and eventually sentenced to three years under the control of the Department of Corrections. After the shooting, the Factory scene heavily increased security, and for many, the "Factory 60s" ended.[46]

Warhol had this to say about the attack: "Before I was shot, I always thought that I was more half-there than all-there—I always suspected that I was watching TV instead of living life. People sometimes say that the way things happen in movies is unreal, but actually it's the way things happen in life that's unreal. The movies make emotions look so strong and real, whereas when things really do happen to you, it's like watching television—you don't feel anything. Right when I was being shot and ever since, I knew that I was watching television. The channels switch, but it's all television."[47]

The 1970s

President Jimmy Carter and Warhol in 1977

Compared to the success and scandal of Warhol's work in the 1960s, the 1970s were a much quieter decade, as he became more entrepreneurial. According to Bob Colacello, Warhol devoted much of his time to rounding up new, rich patrons for portrait commissions—including Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, his wife Empress Farah Pahlavi, his sister Princess Ashraf Pahlavi, Mick Jagger, Liza Minnelli, John Lennon, Diana Ross, and Brigitte Bardot.[48][49] Warhol's famous portrait of Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong was created in 1973. He also founded, with Gerard Malanga, Interview magazine, and published The Philosophy of Andy Warhol (1975). An idea expressed in the book: "Making money is art, and working is art and good business is the best art."

Warhol socialized at various nightspots in New York City, including Max's Kansas City; and, later in the 1970s, Studio 54.[51] He was generally regarded as quiet, shy, and a meticulous observer. Art critic Robert Hughes called him "the white mole of Union Square."

In 1979, along with his longtime friend Stuart Pivar, Warhol founded the New York Academy of Art.

The 1980s

Warhol had a re-emergence of critical and financial success in the 1980s, partially due to his affiliation and friendships with a number of prolific younger artists, who were dominating the "bull market" of 1980s New York art: Jean-Michel Basquiat, Julian Schnabel, David Salle and other so-called Neo-Expressionists, as well as members of the Transavantgarde movement in Europe, including Francesco Clemente and Enzo Cucchi. Before the 1984 Sarajevo Winter Olympics, he teamed with 15 other artists, including David Hockney and Cy Twombly, and contributed a Speed Skater print to the Art and Sport collection. The Speed Skater was used for the official Sarajevo Winter Olympics poster.[55]

By this time, graffiti artist Fab Five Freddy paid homage to Warhol when he painted an entire train with Campbell soup cans. This was instrumental in Freddy becoming involved in the underground NYC art scene and becoming an affiliate of Basquiat.[56]

By this period, Warhol was being criticized for becoming merely a "business artist".[57] In 1979, reviewers disliked his exhibits of portraits of 1970s personalities and celebrities, calling them superficial, facile and commercial, with no depth or indication of the significance of the subjects. They also criticized his 1980 exhibit of 10 portraits at the Jewish Museum in Manhattan, entitled Jewish Geniuses, which Warhol—who was uninterested in Judaism and Jews—had described in his diary as "They're going to sell."[57] In hindsight, however, some critics have come to view Warhol's superficiality and commerciality as "the most brilliant mirror of our times," contending that "Warhol had captured something irresistible about the zeitgeist of American culture in the 1970s."[57]

Warhol also had an appreciation for intense Hollywood glamour. He once said: "I love Los Angeles. I love Hollywood. They're so beautiful. Everything's plastic, but I love plastic. I want to be plastic."[58]

In 1984 Vanity Fair commissioned Warhol to produce a portrait of Prince, in order to accompany an article that celebrated the success of Purple Rain and its accompanying movie.

Referencing the many celebrity portraits produced by Warhol across his career, Orange Prince (1984) was created using a similar composition to the Marilyn "Flavors" series from 1962, among some of Warhol's very first celebrity portraits. Prince is depicted in a pop colour palette commonly used by Warhol, in bright orange with highlights of bright green and blue. The facial features and hair are screen-printed in black over the orange background.

In the Andy Warhol Diaries, Warhol recorded how excited he was to see Prince and Billy Idol together at a party in the mid-1980s, and he compared them to the Hollywood movie stars of the 1950s and 1960s who also inspired his portraits: "... seeing these two glamour boys, its like boys are the new Hollywood glamour girls, like Jean Harlow and Marilyn Monroe".

WORKS

PAINTINGS

By the beginning of the 1960s, pop art was an experimental form that several artists were independently adopting; some of these pioneers, such as Roy Lichtenstein, would later become synonymous with the movement. Warhol, who would become famous as the "Pope of Pop", turned to this new style, where popular subjects could be part of the artist's palette. His early paintings show images taken from cartoons and advertisements, hand-painted with paint drips. Marilyn Monroe was a pop art painting that Warhol had done and it was very popular. Those drips emulated the style of successful abstract expressionists (such as Willem de Kooning). Warhol's first pop art paintings were displayed in April 1961, serving as the backdrop for New York Department Store Bonwit Teller's window display. This was the same stage his Pop Art contemporaries, Jasper Johns, James Rosenquist and Robert Rauschenberg had also once graced.[65]

It was the gallerist Muriel Latow who came up with the ideas for both the soup cans and Warhol's dollar paintings. On November 23, 1961, Warhol wrote Latow a check for $50 which, according to the 2009 Warhol biography, Pop, The Genius of Warhol, was payment for coming up with the idea of the soup cans as subject matter.[66] For his first major exhibition, Warhol painted his famous cans of Campbell's soup, which he claimed to have had for lunch for most of his life. A 1964 Large Campbell's Soup Can be sold in a 2007 Sotheby's auction to a South American collector for £5.1 million ($7.4 million).

He loved celebrities, so he painted them as well. From these beginnings, he developed his later style and subjects. Instead of working on a signature subject matter, as he started out to do, he worked more and more on a signature style, slowly eliminating the handmade from the artistic process. Warhol frequently used silk-screening; his later drawings were traced from slide projections. At the height of his fame as a painter, Warhol had several assistants who produced his silk-screen multiples, following his directions to make different versions and variations.[68]

In 1979, Warhol was commissioned by BMW to paint a Group-4 race version of the then "elite supercar" BMW M1 for the fourth instalment in the BMW Art Car Project. It was reported at the time that, unlike the three artists before him, Warhol opted to paint directly onto the automobile himself instead of letting technicians transfer his scale-model design to the car.[69] It was indicated that Warhol spent only a total of 23 minutes to paint the entire car.[70]

Warhol produced both comic and serious works; his subject could be a soup can or an electric chair. Warhol used the same techniques—silkscreens, reproduced serially, and often painted with bright colours—whether he painted celebrities, everyday objects, or images of suicide, car crashes, and disasters, as in the 1962–63 Death and Disaster series. The Death and Disaster paintings included Red Car Crash, Purple Jumping Man, and Orange Disaster. One of these paintings, the diptych Silver Car Crash, became the highest-priced work of his when it sold at Sotheby's Contemporary Art Auction on Wednesday, November 13, 2013, for $105.4 million.

Some of Warhol's work, as well as his own personality, has been described as being Keatonesque. Warhol has been described as playing dumb to the media. He sometimes refused to explain his work. He has suggested that all one needs to know about his work is "already there 'on the surface'."

His Rorschach inkblots are intended as pop comments on art and what art could be. His cow wallpaper (literally, wallpaper with a cow motif) and his oxidation paintings (canvases prepared with copper paint that was then oxidized with urine) are also noteworthy in this context. Equally noteworthy is the way these works—and their means of production—mirrored the atmosphere at Andy's New York "Factory". Biographer Bob Colacello provides some details on Andy's "piss paintings":

Victor ... was Andy's ghost pisser on the Oxidations. He would come to the Factory to urinate on canvases that had already been primed with copper-based paint by Andy or Ronnie Cutrone, a second ghost pisser much appreciated by Andy, who said that the vitamin B that Ronnie took made a prettier colour when the acid in the urine turned the copper green. Did Andy ever use his own urine? My diary shows that when he first began the series, in December 1977, he did, and there were many others: boys who'd come to lunch and drink too much wine, and find it funny or even flattering to be asked to help Andy 'paint'. Andy always had a little extra bounce in his walk as he led them to his studio.

After many years of silkscreen, oxidation, photography, etc., Warhol returned to painting with a brush in hand in a series of more than 50 large collaborative works done with Jean-Michel Basquiat between 1984 and 1986. Despite negative criticism when these were first shown, Warhol called some of them "masterpieces," and they were influential for his later work.

Andy Warhol was commissioned in 1984 by collector and gallerist Alexander Iolas to produce work based on Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper for an exhibition at the old refectory of the Palazzo Delle Stelline in Milan, opposite from the Santa Maria Delle Grazie where Leonardo da Vinci's mural can be seen.[77] Warhol exceeded the demands of the commission and produced nearly 100 variations on the theme, mostly silkscreens and paintings, and among them a collaborative sculpture with Basquiat, the Ten Punching Bags (Last Supper).[78] The Milan exhibition that opened in January 1987 with a set of 22 silk-screens, was the last exhibition for both the artist and the gallerist.[79] The series of The Last Supper was seen by some as "arguably his greatest,"[80] but by others as "wishy-washy, religiose" and "spiritless."[81] It is the largest series of religious-themed works by any U.S. artist.[80]

Artist Maurizio Cattelan describes that it is difficult to separate daily encounters from the art of Andy Warhol: "That's probably the greatest thing about Warhol: the way he penetrated and summarized our world, to the point that distinguishing between him and our everyday life is basically impossible, and in any case useless." Warhol was an inspiration towards Cattelan's magazine and photography compilations, such as Permanent Food, Charley, and Toilet Paper.[82]

In the period just before his death, Warhol was working on Cars, a series of paintings for Mercedes-Benz.[83]

A self-portrait by Andy Warhol (1963–64), which sold in New York at the May Post-War and Contemporary evening sale in Christie's, fetched $38.4 million.

On May 9, 2012, his classic painting Double Elvis (Ferus Type) sold at auction at Sotheby's in New York for US$33 million. With commission, the sale price totalled US$37,042,500, short of the $50 million that Sotheby's had predicted the painting might bring. The piece (silkscreen ink and spray paint on canvas) shows Elvis Presley in a gunslinger pose. It was first exhibited in 1963 at the Ferus Gallery in Los Angeles. Warhol made 22 versions of the Double Elvis, nine of which are held in museums.

In November 2013, his Silver Car Crash (Double Disaster) diptych sold at Sotheby's Contemporary Art Auction for $105.4 million, a new record for the pop artist (pre-auction estimates were at $80 million).[71] Created in 1963, this work had rarely been seen in public in the previous years.[87] In November 2014, Triple Elvis sold for $81.9m (£51.9m) at an auction in New York.[88]

SOURCE: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Warhol

This photograph was taken 1920 in Galicia (todays West Ukraine) in the area around Rohatyn and Kuniuszki. Unidentified photographer.

Old script on the reverse (in german): "Ruthenians in Sunday Best".

Lviv, Ukraine

The Rynok Square in Lviv (Ukrainian: Площа Ринок, Polish: Rynek we Lwowie) is a central square of the city of Lviv, Ukraine. It was planned in the second half of the 14th century, following granting city rights by Polish king Casimir III, who annexed Red Ruthenia. The king ordered Lviv to be moved more to the south, where a new city was built to the plan of a traditional European settlement: a central square surrounded by living quarters and fortifications.[1] Old, Ruthenian Lviv had become a suburb of the new city.

Farmhouses in Galicia, 1920s.

Photographer: Hoetz ?

You can purchase this photo on Getty Images

The Rynok Square in Lviv (Ukrainian: Площа Ринок, Polish: Rynek we Lwowie) is a central square of the city of Lviv, Ukraine. It was planned in the second half of the 14th century, following granting city rights by Polish king Casimir III, who annexed Red Ruthenia. The king ordered Lviv to be moved more to the south, where a new city was built to the plan of a traditional European settlement: a central square surrounded by living quarters and fortifications. Old, Ruthenian Lviv had become a suburb of the new city. The square is rectangular in shape, with measurements of 142 meters by 129 meters and with two streets radiating out of every corner. In the middle there was a row of houses, with its southern wall made by the Town Hall. However, when in 1825 the tower of the Town Hall burned, all adjacent houses were demolished and a new hall, with a 65-meter tower, was built in 1835 by architects J. Markl and F. Trescher. Around the square, there are 44 tenement houses, which represent several architectural styles, from Renaissance to Modernism. In the four corners, there are fountains—wells from 1793, probably designed by Hartman Witwer. The sculptures represent four Greek mythological figures: Neptune, Diana, Amphitrite and Adonis. In front of the Town Hall, there was a pillory. In 1998 the Market Place, together with the historic city center of Lviv, was recognized as a UNESCO world heritage site.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_Square_(Lviv)

In the vicinity of Rohatyn and Kuniuszki in West Ukraine.

When this photograph was taken, about 1920, this region belonged to Poland.

I am not familiar with traditional costumes. Are they Rusyns (Ruthenians)?

Walking in the Homole Gorge, near Szczawnica in Pieniny mountains.

Homole Gorge Reserve - established in 1963, this reserve covers an area of 58.6 ha and forms a deep, steep-sided ravine in Małe Pieniny (Small Pieniny). The gorge is regarded as the one of the most beautiful in the Pieniny mountain range. At the bottom of the ravine flows the Kamionka stream with a very clean water. In the upper part of the gorge there is very interesting scree dating back to the Pleistocene period. The plant cover is very abundant, amongst the clusters of rock and scree. Rock shelves provide nesting sites for peregrine falcons, kestrels and the eagle owl. The ravine name derives from the Ruthenian words “gomoła”, “homoła”, which means “oval”, “no horned” and refers to the valley shape. The green tourist trail leads the visitor through the ravine from Jaworki to the bottom of Wysoka mountain.

Spacer po wąwozie Homole w Pieninach :)

Wąwóz Homole – wąwóz na terenie południowej Polski w Małych Pieninach, w miejscowości Jaworki koło Szczawnicy. Nazwa pochodzi od ruskiego słowa homoła, gomoła, które oznacza obły, bezrogi (nawiązanie do kształtu doliny). Ma długość ok. 800 m. Jego ściany zbudowane są głównie ze skał wapiennych pochodzących z okresu jury i kredy z domieszką łupków i margli. Ma bardzo urozmaiconą rzeźbę i ciekawą budowę geologiczną. Dnem tego bardzo znanego wąwozu, uważanego za jeden z najpiękniejszych w Polsce, płynie potok Kamionka, który również odegrał dużą rolę w rzeźbieniu koryta wąwozu. Potok tworzy liczne kaskady, a w jego korycie znajdują się ogromne głazy. Płynie nim krystalicznie czysta woda. W górnej części wąwozu rumowisko osuwiskowe powstałe w okresie plejstocenu. Na wapiennych skałach wąwozu Homole rosną rzadkie gatunki roślin wapieniolubnych i liczne okazy światłolubnych jałowców. Od 1963 r. jest rezerwatem przyrody, licznie odwiedzanym przez turystów i wycieczki szkolne.

Digital ID: 418034. Sherman, Augustus F. (Augustus Francis) -- Photographer. [ca. 1906]

Source: William Williams papers / Photographs of immigrants (more info)

Repository: The New York Public Library. Manuscripts and Archives Division.

See more information about this image and others at NYPL Digital Gallery.

Persistent URL: digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/id?418034

Rights Info: No known copyright restrictions; may be subject to third party rights (for more information, click here)

Moscow (/ˈmɒskoʊ/ MOS-koh, US chiefly /ˈmɒskaʊ/ MOS-kow;[10][11] Russian: Москва, tr. Moskva, IPA: [mɐˈskva] (About this soundlisten)) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 12.4 million residents within the city limits,[12] over 17 million residents in the urban area,[13] and over 20 million residents in the metropolitan area.[14] The city covers an area of 2,511 square kilometres (970 sq mi), while the urban area covers 5,891 square kilometres (2,275 sq mi),[13] and the metropolitan area covers over 26,000 square kilometres (10,000 sq mi).[14] Moscow is among the world's largest cities, being the largest city entirely in Europe, the largest urban area in Europe,[13] the largest metropolitan area in Europe,[14] and the largest city by land area on the European continent.[15]

First documented in 1147, Moscow grew to become a prosperous and powerful city that served as the capital of the Grand Duchy that bears its namesake. When the Grand Duchy of Moscow evolved into the Tsardom of Russia, Moscow still remained as the political and economic center for most of the Tsardom's history. When the Tsardom was reformed into the Russian Empire, the capital was moved from Moscow to Saint Petersburg diminishing the influence of the city. The capital was then moved back to Moscow following the October Revolution and the city was brought back as the political centre of the Russian SFSR and then the Soviet Union.[16] In the aftermath of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Moscow remained as the capital city of the contemporary and newly established Russian Federation.

As the northernmost and coldest megacity in the world, and with a history that dates over eight centuries, Moscow is governed as a federal city (since 1993)[17] that serves as the political, economic, cultural, and scientific centre of Russia and Eastern Europe. As an alpha world city,[18] Moscow has one of the world's largest urban economies. The city is one of the fastest growing tourist destinations in the world,[19] and is one of Europe's most visited cities. Moscow is home to the fourth-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world,[20] and has the highest number of billionaires of any city in Europe. The Moscow International Business Center is one of the largest financial centres in Europe and the world, and features some of Europe's tallest skyscrapers. Muscovites enjoy public digital services more than anywhere else in Europe,[21] and the best e-government services in the world.[22] Moscow was the host city of the 1980 Summer Olympics, and one of the host cities of the 2018 FIFA World Cup.[23]

As the historic core of Russia, Moscow serves as the home of numerous Russian artists, scientists, and sports figures due to the presence of its various museums, academic and political institutions and theatres. The city is home to several UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and is well known for its display of Russian architecture, particularly its historic Red Square, and buildings such as the Saint Basil's Cathedral and the Moscow Kremlin, of which the latter serves as the seat of power of the Government of Russia. Moscow is home to many Russian companies in numerous industries, and is served by a comprehensive transit network, which includes four international airports, nine railway terminals, a tram system, a monorail system, and most notably the Moscow Metro, the busiest metro system in Europe, and one of the largest rapid transit systems in the world. The city has over 40 percent of its territory covered by greenery, making it one of the greenest cities in Europe and the world.[15][24]

The name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River.[25][26] There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river. Finno-Ugric Merya and Muroma people, who were among the several pre-Slavic tribes which originally inhabited the area, called the river supposedly Mustajoki, in English: Black river. It has been suggested that the name of the city derives from this term.[27][28]

The most linguistically well-grounded and widely accepted is from the Proto-Balto-Slavic root *mŭzg-/muzg- from the Proto-Indo-European *meu- "wet",[26][29][30] so the name Moskva might signify a river at a wetland or a marsh.[25] Its cognates include Russian: музга, muzga "pool, puddle", Lithuanian: mazgoti and Latvian: mazgāt "to wash", Sanskrit: májjati "to drown", Latin: mergō "to dip, immerse".[25][29] In many Slavic countries Moskov is a surname, most common in Bulgaria, Russia, Ukraine and North Macedonia.[31] Additionally, there are similarly named places in Poland like Mozgawa.[25][26][29]

The original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky,[25][26] hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. As with other nouns of that declension, it had been undergoing a morphological transformation at the early stage of the development of the language, as a result the first written mentions in the 12th century were Московь, Moskovĭ (accusative case), Москви, Moskvi (locative case), Москвe/Москвѣ, Moskve/Moskvě (genitive case).[25][26] From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, which is a result of morphological generalisation with the numerous Slavic ā-stem nouns.

However, the form Moskovĭ has left some traces in many other languages, such as English: Moscow, German: Moskau, French: Moscou, Georgian: მოსკოვი, Latvian: Maskava, Ottoman Turkish: Moskov, Bashkir: Мәскәү, Tatar: Mäskäw, Kazakh: Мәскеу, Mäskew, Chuvash: Мускав, Muskav, etc. In a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy and muscovite.[32]

Various other theories (of Celtic, Iranian, Caucasic origins), having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists.[25][26]

Other names

Moscow has acquired a number of epithets, most referring to its size and preeminent status within the nation: The Third Rome (Третий Рим), the Whitestone One (Белокаменная), the First Throne (Первопрестольная), the Forty Soroks (Сорок Сороков) ("sorok" meaning both "forty, a great many" and "a district or parish" in Old Russian). Moscow is also one of the twelve Hero Cities. The demonym for a Moscow resident is "москвич" (moskvich) for male or "москвичка" (moskvichka) for female, rendered in English as Muscovite. The name "Moscow" is abbreviated "MSK" (МСК in Russian).[citation needed]

History

Main articles: History of Moscow and Timeline of Moscow

Prehistory

Archaeological digs show that the site of today's Moscow and the surrounding area have been inhabited since time immemorial. Among the earliest finds are relics of the Lyalovo culture, which experts assign to the Neolithic period, the last phase of the Stone Age.[33]

They confirm that the first inhabitants of the area were hunters and gatherers. Around 950 AD, two Slavic tribes, Vyatichi and Krivichi, settled here. Possibly the Vyatichi formed the core of Moscow's indigenous population.[34]

Early history (1147–1283)

Further information: Kievan Rus' and Vladimir-Suzdal

Vladimir-Suzdal, a principality on the northeastern periphery of Kievan Rus', grew into the Grand Duchy of Moscow.

The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a meeting place of Yuri Dolgoruky and Sviatoslav Olegovich. At the time it was a minor town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. The chronicle says, "Come, my brother, to Moskov" (Приди ко мне, брате, в Москов).[35]

In 1156, Knyaz Yury Dolgoruky fortified the town with a timber fence and a moat. In the course of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus', the Mongols under Batu Khan burned the city to the ground and killed its inhabitants.[citation needed]

The timber fort na Moskvě "on the Moscow River" was inherited by Daniel, the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, in the 1260s, at the time considered the least valuable of his father's possessions. Daniel was still a child at the time, and the big fort was governed by tiuns (deputies), appointed by Daniel's paternal uncle, Yaroslav of Tver.[citation needed]

Daniel came of age in the 1270s and became involved in the power struggles of the principality with lasting success, siding with his brother Dmitry in his bid for the rule of Novgorod. From 1283 he acted as the ruler of an independent principality alongside Dmitry, who became Grand Duke of Vladimir. Daniel has been credited with founding the first Moscow monasteries, dedicated to the Lord's Epiphany and to Saint Daniel.[36]

Grand Duchy (1283–1547)

Main article: Grand Duchy of Moscow

Kremlenagrad.jpgFacial Chronicle - b.10, p.049 - Tokhtamysh at Moscow.jpgMikhail Feodorovich Izbranie.jpg

The Moscow Kremlin in the late 16th centuryThe Siege of MoscowRed Square

Daniel ruled Moscow as Grand Duke until 1303 and established it as a prosperous city that would eclipse its parent principality of Vladimir by the 1320s.

On the right bank of the Moskva River, at a distance of five miles (8.0 kilometres) from the Kremlin, not later than in 1282, Daniel founded the first monastery with the wooden church of St. Daniel-Stylite, which is now the Danilov Monastery. Daniel died in 1303, at the age of 42. Before his death, he became a monk and, according to his will, was buried in the cemetery of the St. Daniel Monastery.

Moscow was quite stable and prosperous for many years and attracted a large number of refugees from across Russia. The Rurikids maintained large landholdings by practicing primogeniture, whereby all land was passed to the eldest sons, rather than dividing it up among all sons. By 1304, Yury of Moscow contested with Mikhail of Tver for the throne of the principality of Vladimir. Ivan I eventually defeated Tver to become the sole collector of taxes for the Mongol rulers, making Moscow the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal. By paying high tribute, Ivan won an important concession from the Khan.

Spassky Cathedral (Moscow's oldest extant building), built c. 1357

While the Khan of the Golden Horde initially attempted to limit Moscow's influence, when the growth of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania began to threaten all of Russia, the Khan strengthened Moscow to counterbalance Lithuania, allowing it to become one of the most powerful cities in Russia. In 1380, prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow led a united Russian army to an important victory over the Mongols in the Battle of Kulikovo. Afterwards, Moscow took the leading role in liberating Russia from Mongol domination. In 1480, Ivan III had finally broken the Russians free from Tatar control, and Moscow became the capital of an empire that would eventually encompass all of Russia and Siberia, and parts of many other lands.

The Spasskaya Tower, built in 1491

In 1462 Ivan III, (1440–1505) became Grand Prince of Moscow (then part of the medieval Muscovy state). He began fighting the Tatars, enlarged the territory of Muscovy, and enriched his capital city. By 1500 it had a population of 100,000 and was one of the largest cities in the world. He conquered the far larger principality of Novgorod to the north, which had been allied to the hostile Lithuanians. Thus he enlarged the territory sevenfold, from 430,000 to 2,800,000 square kilometres (170,000 to 1,080,000 square miles). He took control of the ancient "Novgorod Chronicle" and made it a propaganda vehicle for his regime.[37][38]

The original Moscow Kremlin was built in the 14th century. It was reconstructed by Ivan, who in the 1480s invited architects from Renaissance Italy, such as Petrus Antonius Solarius, who designed the new Kremlin wall and its towers, and Marco Ruffo who designed the new palace for the prince. The Kremlin walls as they now appear are those designed by Solarius, completed in 1495. The Kremlin's Great Bell Tower was built in 1505–08 and augmented to its present height in 1600.

A trading settlement, or posad, grew up to the east of the Kremlin, in the area known as Zaradye (Зарядье). In the time of Ivan III, the Red Square, originally named the Hollow Field (Полое поле) appeared.

In 1508–1516, the Italian architect Aleviz Fryazin (Novy) arranged for the construction of a moat in front of the eastern wall, which would connect the Moskva and Neglinnaya and be filled in with water from Neglinnaya. This moat, known as the Alevizov moat and having a length of 541 metres (1,775 feet), width of 36 metres (118 feet), and a depth of 9.5 to 13 metres (31–43 feet) was lined with limestone and, in 1533, fenced on both sides with low, four-metre-thick (13-foot) cogged-brick walls.

Tsardom (1547–1721)

Further information: Tsardom of Russia

Saint Basil's Cathedral, built in 1561

In the 16th and 17th centuries, the three circular defenses were built: Kitay-gorod (Китай-город), the White City (Белый город) and the Earthen City (Земляной город). However, in 1547, two fires destroyed much of the town, and in 1571 the Crimean Tatars captured Moscow, burning everything except the Kremlin.[39] The annals record that only 30,000 of 200,000 inhabitants survived.

View of 17th-century Moscow (1922 drawing by Apollinary Vasnetsov)

The Crimean Tatars attacked again in 1591, but this time were held back by new defense walls, built between 1584 and 1591 by a craftsman named Fyodor Kon. In 1592, an outer earth rampart with 50 towers was erected around the city, including an area on the right bank of the Moscow River. As an outermost line of defense, a chain of strongly fortified monasteries was established beyond the ramparts to the south and east, principally the Novodevichy Convent and Donskoy, Danilov, Simonov, Novospasskiy, and Andronikov monasteries, most of which now house museums. From its ramparts, the city became poetically known as Bielokamennaya, the "White-Walled". The limits of the city as marked by the ramparts built in 1592 are now marked by the Garden Ring.

Three square gates existed on the eastern side of the Kremlin wall, which in the 17th century, were known as Konstantino-Eleninsky, Spassky, Nikolsky (owing their names to the icons of Constantine and Helen, the Saviour and St. Nicholas that hung over them). The last two were directly opposite the Red Square, while the Konstantino-Elenensky gate was located behind Saint Basil's Cathedral.

"Sigismundian" Plan of Moscow (1610), named after Sigismund III of Poland, is the last city plan compiled before the destruction of the city in 1612 by retreating Polish troops and subsequent changes to the street network. Orientation: north is at the right, west at the top

The Russian famine of 1601–03 killed perhaps 100,000 in Moscow. From 1610 through 1612, troops of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied Moscow, as its ruler Sigismund III tried to take the Russian throne. In 1612, the people of Nizhny Novgorod and other Russian cities conducted by prince Dmitry Pozharsky and Kuzma Minin rose against the Polish occupants, besieged the Kremlin, and expelled them. In 1613, the Zemsky sobor elected Michael Romanov tsar, establishing the Romanov dynasty. The 17th century was rich in popular risings, such as the liberation of Moscow from the Polish–Lithuanian invaders (1612), the Salt Riot (1648), the Copper Riot (1662), and the Moscow Uprising of 1682.

During the first half of the 17th century, the population of Moscow doubled from roughly 100,000 to 200,000. It expanded beyond its ramparts in the later 17th century. It is estimated, that in the middle of the 17th century, 20% of Moscow suburb's inhabitants were from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, practically all of them being driven from their homeland to Moscow by Muscovite invaders.[40] By 1682, there were 692 households established north of the ramparts, by Ukrainians and Belarusians abducted from their hometowns in the course of the Russo-Polish War (1654–1667). These new outskirts of the city came to be known as the Meshchanskaya sloboda, after Ruthenian meshchane "town people". The term meshchane (мещане) acquired pejorative connotations in 18th-century Russia and today means "petty bourgeois" or "narrow-minded philistine".[41]

The entire city of the late 17th century, including the slobodas that grew up outside the city ramparts, are contained within what is today Moscow's Central Administrative Okrug.

Numerous disasters befell the city. The plague epidemics ravaged Moscow in 1570–1571, 1592 and 1654–1656.[42] The plague killed upwards of 80% of the people in 1654–55. Fires burned out much of the wooden city in 1626 and 1648.[43] In 1712 Peter the Great moved his government to the newly built Saint Petersburg on the Baltic coast. Moscow ceased to be Russia's capital, except for a brief period from 1728 to 1732 under the influence of the Supreme Privy Council.

Empire (1721–1917)

Main article: Moscow Governorate

Further information: Russian Empire

Panorama of Moscow in 1819-1823

A panoramic view of Moscow from the Spasskaya Tower in 1819-1823

Moskva riverfront in the 19th century

After losing the status as the capital of the empire, the population of Moscow at first decreased, from 200,000 in the 17th century to 130,000 in 1750. But after 1750, the population grew more than tenfold over the remaining duration of the Russian Empire, reaching 1.8 million by 1915. The 1770–1772 Russian plague killed up to 100,000 people in Moscow.[44]

Bookshops at the Novospassky Bridge in the 17th century, by Apollinary Vasnetsov

By 1700, the building of cobbled roads had begun. In November 1730, the permanent street light was introduced, and by 1867 many streets had a gaslight. In 1883, near the Prechistinskiye Gates, arc lamps were installed. In 1741 Moscow was surrounded by a barricade 25 miles (40 kilometres) long, the Kamer-Kollezhskiy barrier, with 16 gates at which customs tolls were collected. Its line is traced today by a number of streets called val (“ramparts”). Between 1781 and 1804 the Mytischinskiy water-pipe (the first in Russia) was built. In 1813, following the destruction of much of the city during the French occupation, a Commission for the Construction of the City of Moscow was established. It launched a great program of rebuilding, including a partial replanning of the city-centre. Among many buildings constructed or reconstructed at this time was the Grand Kremlin Palace and the Kremlin Armoury, the Moscow University, the Moscow Manege (Riding School), and the Bolshoi Theatre. In 1903 the Moskvoretskaya water-supply was completed.

In the early 19th century, the Arch of Konstantino-Elenensky gate was paved with bricks, but the Spassky Gate was the main front gate of the Kremlin and used for royal entrances. From this gate, wooden and (following the 17th-century improvements) stone bridges stretched across the moat. Books were sold on this bridge and stone platforms were built nearby for guns – "raskats". The Tsar Cannon was located on the platform of the Lobnoye mesto.

The road connecting Moscow with St. Petersburg, now the M10 highway, was completed in 1746, its Moscow end following the old Tver road, which had existed since the 16th century. It became known as Peterburskoye Schosse after it was paved in the 1780s. Petrovsky Palace was built in 1776–1780 by Matvey Kazakov.

Napoleon retreating from the city during the Fire of Moscow, after the failed French Invasion of Russia

When Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812, the Moscovites were evacuated. It is suspected that the Moscow fire was principally the effect of Russian sabotage. Napoleon's Grande Armée was forced to retreat and was nearly annihilated by the devastating Russian winter and sporadic attacks by Russian military forces. As many as 400,000 of Napoleon's soldiers died during this time.[45]

Cathedral Square during the coronation of Alexander I, 1802, by Fyodor Alekseyev

Moscow State University was established in 1755. Its main building was reconstructed after the 1812 fire by Domenico Giliardi. The Moskovskiye Vedomosti newspaper appeared from 1756, originally in weekly intervals, and from 1859 as a daily newspaper.

The Arbat Street had been in existence since at least the 15th century, but it was developed into a prestigious area during the 18th century. It was destroyed in the fire of 1812 and was rebuilt completely in the early 19th century.

In the 1830s, general Alexander Bashilov planned the first regular grid of city streets north from Petrovsky Palace. Khodynka field south of the highway was used for military training. Smolensky Rail station (forerunner of present-day Belorussky Rail Terminal) was inaugurated in 1870. Sokolniki Park, in the 18th century the home of the tsar's falconers well outside Moscow, became contiguous with the expanding city in the later 19th century and was developed into a public municipal park in 1878. The suburban Savyolovsky Rail Terminal was built in 1902. In January 1905, the institution of the City Governor, or Mayor, was officially introduced in Moscow, and Alexander Adrianov became Moscow's first official mayor.

When Catherine II came to power in 1762, the city's filth and the smell of sewage was depicted by observers as a symptom of disorderly life styles of lower-class Russians recently arrived from the farms. Elites called for improving sanitation, which became part of Catherine's plans for increasing control over social life. National political and military successes from 1812 through 1855 calmed the critics and validated efforts to produce a more enlightened and stable society. There was less talk about the smell and the poor conditions of public health. However, in the wake of Russia's failures in the Crimean War in 1855–56, confidence in the ability of the state to maintain order in the slums eroded, and demands for improved public health put filth back on the agenda.[46]

Soviet period (1917–1991)

Further information: Moscow Bolshevik Uprising and Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic

Soviet parade outside Hotel Moskva on the Manezhnaya Square, 1964

City plan of Moscow, 1917

Victory Day celebration on Red Square, May 9, 1975

External video

video icon Song from the Soviet "New Moscow" film

Following the success of the Russian Revolution of 1917, Vladimir Lenin, fearing possible foreign invasion, moved the capital from Petrograd to Moscow on March 12, 1918.[47] The Kremlin once again became the seat of power and the political centre of the new state.

With the change in values imposed by communist ideology, the tradition of preservation of cultural heritage was broken. Independent preservation societies, even those that defended only secular landmarks such as Moscow-based OIRU were disbanded by the end of the 1920s. A new anti-religious campaign, launched in 1929, coincided with collectivization of peasants; destruction of churches in the cities peaked around 1932. In 1937 several letters were written to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to rename Moscow to "Stalindar" or "Stalinodar", one from an elderly pensioner whose dream was to "live in Stalinodar" and had selected the name to represent the "gift" (dar) of the genius of Stalin.[48] Stalin rejected this suggestion, and after it was suggested again to him by Nikolai Yezhov, he was outraged, saying "What do I need this for?". This was following Stalin banning the renaming of places in his name in 1936.[49]

During World War II, the Soviet State Committee of Defence and the General Staff of the Red Army were located in Moscow. In 1941, 16 divisions of the national volunteers (more than 160,000 people), 25 battalions (18,000 people) and 4 engineering regiments were formed among the Muscovites. Between October 1941 and January 1942, the German Army Group Centre was stopped at the outskirts of the city and then driven off in the course of the Battle of Moscow. Many factories were evacuated, together with much of the government, and from October 20 the city was declared to be in a state of siege. Its remaining inhabitants built and manned antitank defences, while the city was bombarded from the air. On May 1, 1944, a medal "For the defence of Moscow" and in 1947 another medal "In memory of the 800th anniversary of Moscow" was instituted.

Both German and Soviet casualties during the battle of Moscow have been a subject of debate, as various sources provide somewhat different estimates. Total casualties between September 30, 1941, and January 7, 1942, are estimated to be between 248,000 and 400,000 for the Wehrmacht and between 650,000 and 1,280,000 for the Red Army.[50][51][52]

During the postwar years, there was a serious housing crisis, solved by the invention of high-rise apartments. There are over 11,000 of these standardised and prefabricated apartment blocks, housing the majority of Moscow's population, making it by far the city with the most high-rise buildings.[53] Apartments were built and partly furnished in the factory before being raised and stacked into tall columns. The popular Soviet-era comic film Irony of Fate parodies this construction method.

The city of Zelenograd was built in 1958 at 37 kilometres (23 miles) from the city centre to the north-west, along with the Leningradskoye Shosse, and incorporated as one of Moscow's administrative okrugs. Moscow State University moved to its campus on Sparrow Hills in 1953.

In 1959 Nikita Khrushchev launched his anti-religious campaign. By 1964 over 10 thousand churches out of 20 thousand were shut down (mostly in rural areas) and many were demolished. Of 58 monasteries and convents operating in 1959, only sixteen remained by 1964; of Moscow's fifty churches operating in 1959, thirty were closed and six demolished.

On May 8, 1965, due to the actual 20th anniversary of the victory in World War II, Moscow was awarded a title of the Hero City. In 1980 it hosted the Summer Olympic Games.

The MKAD (ring road) was opened in 1961. It had four lanes running 109 kilometres (68 miles) along the city borders. The MKAD marked the administrative boundaries of the city of Moscow until the 1980s when outlying suburbs beyond the ring road began to be incorporated. In 1980, it hosted the Summer Olympic Games, which were boycotted by the United States and several other Western countries due to the Soviet Union's involvement in Afghanistan in late 1979. In 1991 Moscow was the scene of a coup attempt by conservative communists opposed to the liberal reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev.

Recent history (1991–present)

View of the Floating bridge in Zaryadye Park, with the Red Square and the Moscow Kremlin in the distance

Tverskaya Street, the main radial street in the city

When the USSR was dissolved in the same year, Moscow remained the capital of the Russian SFSR (on December 25, 1991, the Russian SFSR was renamed the Russian Federation). Since then, a market economy has emerged in Moscow, producing an explosion of Western-style retailing, services, architecture, and lifestyles.

The city has continued to grow during the 1990s to 2000s, its population rising from below nine to above ten million. Mason and Nigmatullina argue that Soviet-era urban-growth controls (before 1991) produced controlled and sustainable metropolitan development, typified by the greenbelt built in 1935. Since then, however, there has been a dramatic growth of low-density suburban sprawl, created by heavy demand for single-family dwellings as opposed to crowded apartments. In 1995–1997 the MKAD ring road was widened from the initial four to ten lanes.

In December 2002 Bulvar Dmitriya Donskogo became the first Moscow Metro station that opened beyond the limits of MKAD. The Third Ring Road, intermediate between the early 19th-century Garden Ring and the Soviet-era outer ring road, was completed in 2004. The greenbelt is becoming more and more fragmented, and satellite cities are appearing at the fringe. Summer dachas are being converted into year-round residences, and with the proliferation of automobiles there is heavy traffic congestion.[54] Multiple old churches and other examples of architectural heritage that had been demolished during the Stalin era have been restored, such as the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour. In 2010s Moscow's Administration has launched some long duration projects like the Moja Ulitsa (in English: My Street) urban redevelopment program[55] or the Residency renovation one.[56]

By its territorial expansion on July 1, 2012 southwest into the Moscow Oblast, the area of the capital more than doubled, going from 1,091 to 2,511 square kilometers (421 to 970 sq mi), resulting in Moscow becoming the largest city on the European continent by area; it also gained an additional population of 233,000 people.[57][58]

Geography

Location

Satellite view of Moscow and its nearby suburbs

Moscow is situated on the banks of the Moskva River, which flows for just over 500 km (311 mi) through the East European Plain in central Russia. 49 bridges span the river and its canals within the city's limits. The elevation of Moscow at the All-Russia Exhibition Center (VVC), where the leading Moscow weather station is situated, is 156 metres (512 feet). Teplostanskaya highland is the city's highest point at 255 metres (837 feet).[59] The width of Moscow city (not limiting MKAD) from west to east is 39.7 km (24.7 mi), and the length from north to south is 51.8 km (32.2 mi).

Time

Main article: Moscow Time

Moscow serves as the reference point for the time zone used in most of European Russia, Belarus and the Republic of Crimea. The areas operate in what is referred to in international standards as Moscow Standard Time (MSK, МСК), which is 3 hours ahead of UTC, or UTC+3. Daylight saving time is no longer observed. According to the geographical longitude the average solar noon in Moscow occurs at 12:30.[60]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Moscow

VDNKh after rain

Moscow has a humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfb) with long, cold (although average by Russian standards) winters usually lasting from mid-November to the end of March, and warm summers. More extreme continental climates at the same latitude- such as parts of Eastern Canada or Siberia- have much colder winters than Moscow, suggesting that there is still significant moderation from the Atlantic Ocean despite the fact that Moscow is far from the sea. Weather can fluctuate widely, with temperatures ranging from −25 °C (−13 °F) in the city and −30 °C (−22 °F) in the suburbs to above 5 °C (41 °F) in the winter, and from 10 to 35 °C (50 to 95 °F) in the summer.[61]

Petrovsky Palace on Leningradsky Avenue in winter

Typical high temperatures in the warm months of June, July and August are around a comfortable 20 to 26 °C (68 to 79 °F), but during heat waves (which can occur between May and September), daytime high temperatures often exceed 30 °C (86 °F), sometimes for a week or two at a time. In the winter, average temperatures normally drop to approximately −10 °C (14 °F), though almost every winter there are periods of warmth with day temperatures rising above 0 °C (32 °F), and periods of cooling with night temperatures falling below −20 °C (−4 °F). These periods usually last about a week or two. The growing season in Moscow normally lasts for 156 days usually around May 1 to October 5.[62]

The highest temperature ever recorded was 38.2 °C (100.8 °F)[63] at the VVC weather station and 39.0 °C (102.2 °F) in the center of Moscow and Domodedovo airport on July 29, 2010 during the unusual 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves. Record high temperatures were recorded for January, March, April, May, July, August, November, and December in 2007–2014.[64] The average July temperature from 1981 to 2010 is 19.2 °C (66.6 °F). The lowest ever recorded temperature was −42.1 °C (−43.8 °F) in January 1940. Snow, which is present for about five months a year, often begins to fall mid October, while snow cover lies in November and melts at the beginning of April.

On average, Moscow has 1731 hours of sunshine per year, varying from a low of 8% in December to 52% from May to August.[65] This large annual variation is due to convective cloud formation. In the winter, moist air from the Atlantic condenses in the cold continental interior, resulting in very overcast conditions. However, this same continental influence results in considerably sunnier summers than oceanic cities of similar latitude such as Edinburgh. Between 2004 and 2010, the average was between 1800 and 2000 hours with a tendency to more sunshine in summer months, up to a record 411 hours in July 2014, 79% of possible sunshine. December 2017 was the darkest month in Moscow since records began, with only six minutes of sunlight.[66][67]

Temperatures in the centre of Moscow are often significantly higher than in the outskirts and nearby suburbs, especially in winter. For example, if the average February temperature in the north-east of Moscow is −6.7 °C (19.9 °F), in the suburbs it is about −9 °C (16 °F).[68] The temperature difference between the centre of Moscow and nearby areas of Moscow Oblast can sometimes be more than 10 °C (18 °F) on frosty winter nights.

Climate data for Moscow (VVC) normals 1981–2010, records 1879 – the present

MonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear

Record high °C (°F)8.6

(47.5)8.3

(46.9)19.7

(67.5)28.9

(84.0)33.2

(91.8)34.9

(94.8)38.2

(100.8)37.3

(99.1)32.3

(90.1)24.0

(75.2)16.2

(61.2)9.6

(49.3)38.2

(100.8)

Average high °C (°F)−4

(25)−3.7

(25.3)2.6

(36.7)11.3

(52.3)18.6

(65.5)22.0

(71.6)24.3

(75.7)21.9

(71.4)15.7

(60.3)8.7

(47.7)0.9

(33.6)−3

(27)9.6

(49.3)

Daily mean °C (°F)−6.5

(20.3)−6.7

(19.9)−1

(30)6.7

(44.1)13.2

(55.8)17.0

(62.6)19.2

(66.6)17.0

(62.6)11.3

(52.3)5.6

(42.1)−1.2

(29.8)−5.2

(22.6)5.8

(42.4)

Average low °C (°F)−9.1

(15.6)−9.8

(14.4)−4.4

(24.1)2.2

(36.0)7.7

(45.9)12.1

(53.8)14.4

(57.9)12.5

(54.5)7.4

(45.3)2.7

(36.9)−3.3

(26.1)−7.6

(18.3)2.1

(35.8)

Record low °C (°F)−42.1

(−43.8)−38.2

(−36.8)−32.4

(−26.3)−21

(−6)−7.5

(18.5)−2.3

(27.9)1.3

(34.3)−1.2

(29.8)−8.5

(16.7)−16.1

(3.0)−32.8

(−27.0)−38.8

(−37.8)−42.1

(−43.8)

Average precipitation mm (inches)52

(2.0)41

(1.6)35

(1.4)37

(1.5)49

(1.9)80

(3.1)85

(3.3)82

(3.2)68

(2.7)71

(2.8)55

(2.2)52

(2.0)707

(27.7)

Average rainy days0.80.73913141515151262105.5

Average snowy days1815910.10000.12101772.2

Average relative humidity (%)83807467647074778181848577

Mean monthly sunshine hours33721281702652792712381477832181,731

Percent possible sunshine1427354053535251382413834

Average ultraviolet index0123566531103

Source: thermograph.ru[69], pogoda.ru.net[70] [71], meteoweb.ru[72] and Weather Atlas[73]

Climate change

Below is the 1961–1990 normals table. The annual temperature rose from 5.0 °C (41.0 °F)[74] to 5.8 °C (42.4 °F) in the new 1981–2010 normals. In 2019, the average annual temperature reached a record high of 7.8 °C (46.0 °F)[75]

Climate data for Moscow (VVC) normals 1961–1990

Recent changes in Moscow's regional climate, since it is in the mid-latitudes of the northern hemisphere, are often cited by climate scientists as evidence of global warming[citation needed], though by definition, climate change is global, not regional. During the summer, extreme heat is often observed in the city (2001, 2002, 2003, 2010, 2011). Along with a southern part of Central Russia,[79][80] after recent years of hot summer seasons, the climate of the city gets hot-summer classification trends. Winter also became significantly milder: for example, the average January temperature in the early 1900s was −12.0 °C (10.4 °F), while now it is about −7.0 °C (19.4 °F).[81] At the end of January–February it is often colder, with frosts reaching −30.0 °C (−22.0 °F) a few nights per year (2006, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013).

The last decade was the warmest in the history of meteorological observations of Moscow. Temperature changes in the city are depicted in the table below:

Climate data for Moscow (2009–2018, VVC)

MonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear

Average high °C (°F)−6

(21)−3.6

(25.5)2.4

(36.3)11.4

(52.5)20.1

(68.2)22.6

(72.7)25.8

(78.4)23.9

(75.0)16.7

(62.1)7.9

(46.2)2.1

(35.8)−2.4

(27.7)10.2

(50.4)

Daily mean °C (°F)−7.9

(17.8)−6

(21)−1

(30)6.9

(44.4)14.7

(58.5)17.6

(63.7)20.7

(69.3)18.9

(66.0)12.9

(55.2)5.5

(41.9)0.7

(33.3)−3.9

(25.0)6.6

(43.9)

Average low °C (°F)−9.7

(14.5)−8.3

(17.1)−4.5

(23.9)2.3

(36.1)9.4

(48.9)12.5

(54.5)15.6

(60.1)13.8

(56.8)9.1

(48.4)3.1

(37.6)−0.7

(30.7)−5.4

(22.3)3.1

(37.6)

Mean monthly sunshine hours37651422132742993232421718833141,901

Source: weatheronline.co.uk[82]

Wind direction in Moscow from 2002 to 2012 (average values)

NorthNortheastEastSouth EastSouthernSouthwestWestNorthwest

15%6.8%7.8%12.2%12.6%14.6%16.4%14.5%

Source: world-weather.ru

Demographics

Population

See also: Ethnic groups in Moscow

Historical population

YearPop.±%

18971,038,625—

19262,019,500+94.4%

19394,137,000+104.9%

19595,032,000+21.6%

19706,941,961+38.0%

19797,830,509+12.8%

19898,967,332+14.5%

200210,382,754+15.8%

201011,503,501+10.8%

201812,506,468+8.7%

202112,593,000+0.7%

Population size may be affected by changes in administrative divisions.

Population of Moscow by year

According to the results of the 2010 Census, the population of Moscow was 11,503,501;[83] up from 10,382,754 recorded in the 2002 Census.[84]

Ethnic groups in Moscow, 2010 census[83]

(excluding migrant workers and illegal immigrants)

EthnicityPopulationPercentage

Russians9,930,41091.6%

Ukrainians154,1041.4%

Tatars149,0431.4%

Armenians106,4661.0%

Azerbaijanis57,1230.5%

Jews53,1450.5%

Belarusians39,2250.4%

Georgians38,9340.4%

Uzbeks35,5950.3%

Tajiks27,2800.2%

Moldovans21,6990.2%

Others234,8042.2%

668,409 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group.[85]

The official population of Moscow is based on those holding "permanent residency". According to Russia's Federal Migration Service, Moscow holds 1.8 million official "guests" who have temporary residency on the basis of visas or other documentation, giving a legal population of 13.3 million. The number of Illegal immigrants, the vast majority originating from Central Asia, is estimated to be an additional 1 million people,[86] giving a total population of about 14.3 million.

Total fertility rate:[87]

2010 - 1.25

2014 - 1.34

2015 - 1.41

2016 - 1.46

2017 - 1.38

2018 - 1.41

2019 - 1.50

2020 - 1.47

Births (2016): 145,252 (11.8 per 1000)

Deaths (2016): 123,623 (10.0 per 1000)

Religion

Religion in Moscow (2020)[88][89]

Russian Orthodoxy

55%

Atheism and irreligion

28%

Islam

8%

Other religions

3%

Other Christians

2%

Undeclared

4%

Clockwise from left: The Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, demolished during the Soviet period and reconstructed from 1990–2000; Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception; Moscow Cathedral Mosque; and Moscow Choral Synagogue

Christians form the majority of the city's population; most of whom adhere Russian Orthodox Church. The Patriarch of Moscow serves as the head of the church and resides in the Danilov Monastery. Moscow was called the "city of 40 times 40 churches"—prior to 1917. Moscow is Russia's capital of Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which has been the country's traditional religion.

Other religions practiced in Moscow include Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Yazidism, and Rodnovery. The Moscow Mufti Council claimed that Muslims numbered around 1.5 million of 10.5 million of the city's population in 2010;[90] There are four mosques in the city.[91]

Cityscape

See also: List of tallest buildings in Moscow

Architecture

Saint Basil's Cathedral in Moscow, a masterpiece of Russian architecture

The State Historical Museum, an example of the Neo-Russian style

The Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, an example of Neo-Byzantine architecture

Moscow's architecture is world-renowned. Moscow is the site of Saint Basil's Cathedral, with its elegant onion domes, as well as the Cathedral of Christ the Savior and the Seven Sisters. The first Kremlin was built in the middle of the 12th century.

Medieval Moscow's design was of concentric walls and intersecting radial thoroughfares. This layout, as well as Moscow's rivers, helped shape Moscow's design in subsequent centuries.

The Kremlin was rebuilt in the 15th century. Its towers and some of its churches were built by Italian architects, lending the city some of the aurae of the renaissance. From the end of the 15th century, the city was embellished by masonry structures such as monasteries, palaces, walls, towers, and churches.

The city's appearance had not changed much by the 18th century. Houses were made of pine and spruce logs, with shingled roofs plastered with sod or covered by birch bark. The rebuilding of Moscow in the second half of the 18th century was necessitated not only by constant fires but also the needs of the nobility. Much of the wooden city was replaced by buildings in the classical style.[92]

For much of its architectural history, Moscow was dominated by Orthodox churches. However, the overall appearance of the city changed drastically during Soviet times, especially as a result of Joseph Stalin's large-scale effort to "modernize" Moscow. Stalin's plans for the city included a network of broad avenues and roadways, some of them over ten lanes wide, which, while greatly simplifying movement through the city, were constructed at the expense of a great number of historical buildings and districts. Among the many casualties of Stalin's demolitions was the Sukharev Tower, a longtime city landmark, as well as mansions and commercial buildings The city's newfound status as the capital of a deeply secular nation, made religiously significant buildings especially vulnerable to demolition. Many of the city's churches, which in most cases were some of Moscow's oldest and most prominent buildings, were destroyed; some notable examples include the Kazan Cathedral and the Cathedral of Christ the Savior. During the 1990s, both were rebuilt. Many smaller churches, however, were lost.[93]

GUM department store, facing the Red Square

Ostankino Tower, the tallest freestanding structure in Europe, and the eighth-tallest in the world

While the later Stalinist period was characterized by the curtailing of creativity and architectural innovation, the earlier post-revolutionary years saw a plethora of radical new buildings created in the city. Especially notable were the constructivist architects associated with VKHUTEMAS, responsible for such landmarks as Lenin's Mausoleum. Another prominent architect was Vladimir Shukhov, famous for Shukhov Tower, just one of many hyperboloid towers designed by Shukhov. It was built between 1919 and 1922 as a transmission tower for a Russian broadcasting company.[94] Shukhov also left a lasting legacy to the Constructivist architecture of early Soviet Russia. He designed spacious elongated shop galleries, most notably the GUM department store on Red Square,[94] bridged with innovative metal-and-glass vaults.

One of the Seven Sisters, Hotel Ukraina, is the tallest hotel in Europe, and one of the tallest hotels in the world

Zhivopisny Bridge, the highest cable-stayed bridge in Europe

Perhaps the most recognizable contributions of the Stalinist period are the so-called Seven Sisters, seven massive skyscrapers scattered throughout the city at about an equal distance from the Kremlin. A defining feature of Moscow's skyline, their imposing form was allegedly inspired by the Manhattan Municipal Building in New York City, and their style—with intricate exteriors and a large central spire—has been described as Stalinist Gothic architecture. All seven towers can be seen from most high points in the city; they are among the tallest constructions in central Moscow apart from the Ostankino Tower, which, when it was completed in 1967, was the highest free-standing land structure in the world and today remains the world's seventy-second tallest, ranking among buildings such as the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, Taipei 101 in Taiwan and the CN Tower in Toronto.[95]

The Soviet goal of providing housing for every family, and the rapid growth of Moscow's population, led to the construction of large, monotonous housing blocks. Most of these date from the post-Stalin era and the styles are often named after the leader then in power (Brezhnev, Khrushchev, etc.). They are usually badly maintained.

Although the city still has some five-story apartment buildings constructed before the mid-1960s, more recent apartment buildings are usually at least nine floors tall, and have elevators. It is estimated that Moscow has over twice as many elevators as New York City and four times as many as Chicago. Moslift, one of the city's major elevator operating companies, has about 1500 elevator mechanics on call, to release residents trapped in elevators.[96]

Stalinist-era buildings, mostly found in the central part of the city, are massive and usually ornamented with Socialist realism motifs that imitate classical themes. However, small churches—almost always Eastern Orthodox– found across the city provide glimpses of its past. The Old Arbat Street, a tourist street that was once the heart of a bohemian area, preserves most of its buildings from prior to the 20th century. Many buildings found off the main streets of the inner city (behind the Stalinist façades of Tverskaya Street, for example) are also examples of bourgeois architecture typical of Tsarist times. Ostankino Palace, Kuskovo, Uzkoye and other large estates just outside Moscow originally belong to nobles from the Tsarist era, and some convents, and monasteries, both inside and outside the city, are open to Muscovites and tourists.

Modern methods of skyscraper construction were implemented in the city for the first time with the ambitious MIBC.

Attempts are being made to restore many of the city's best-kept examples of pre-Soviet architecture. These restored structures are easily spotted by their bright new colors and spotless façades. There are a few examples of notable, early Soviet avant-garde work too, such as the house of the architect Konstantin Melnikov in the Arbat area. Many of these restorations were criticized for alleged disrespect of historical authenticity. Facadism is also widely practiced.[97] Later examples of interesting Soviet architecture are usually marked by their impressive size and the semi-Modernist styles employed, such as with the Novy Arbat project, familiarly known as "false teeth of Moscow" and notorious for the wide-scale disruption of a historic area in central Moscow involved in the project.

Borovitskaya square, Monument to Vladimir the Great and Pashkov House

Plaques on house exteriors will inform passers-by that a well-known personality once lived there. Frequently, the plaques are dedicated to Soviet celebrities not well known outside (or often, like with decorated generals and revolutionaries, now both inside) of Russia. There are also many "museum houses" of famous Russian writers, composers, and artists in the city.

Moscow's skyline is quickly modernizing, with several new towers under construction. In recent years, the city administration has been widely criticized for heavy destruction that has affected many historical buildings. As much as a third of historic Moscow has been destroyed in the past few years[98] to make space for luxury apartments and hotels.[99] Other historical buildings, including such landmarks as the 1930 Moskva hotel and the 1913 department store Voyentorg, have been razed and reconstructed anew, with the inevitable loss of historical value. Critics blame the government for not enforcing conservation laws: in the last 12 years more than 50 buildings with monument status were torn down, several of those dating back to the 17th century.[100] Some critics also wonder if the money used for the reconstruction of razed buildings could not be used for the renovation of decaying structures, which include many works by architect Konstantin Melnikov[101] and Mayakovskaya metro station.

Some organizations, such as Moscow Architecture Preservation Society[102] and Save Europe's Heritage,[103] are trying to draw the international public attention to these problems.[104]

Panoramic view of Moscow

Parks and landmarks

See also: List of Moscow tourist attractions

Red Square is a World Heritage Site.

There are 96 parks and 18 gardens in Moscow, including four botanical gardens. There are 450 square kilometres (170 sq mi) of green zones besides 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi) of forests.[105] Moscow is a very green city, if compared to other cities of comparable size in Western Europe and North America; this is partly due to a history of having green "yards" with trees and grass, between residential buildings. There are on average 27 square meters (290 sq ft) of parks per person in Moscow compared with 6 for Paris, 7.5 in London and 8.6 in New York.[106]

Gorky Park

Gorky Park (officially the Central Park of Culture and Rest named after Maxim Gorky), was founded in 1928. The main part (689,000 square metres or 170 acres)[106] along the Moskva river contains estrades, children's attractions (including the Observation Wheel water ponds with boats and water bicycles), dancing, tennis courts and other sports facilities. It borders the Neskuchny Garden (408,000 square metres or 101 acres), the oldest park in Moscow and a former imperial residence, created as a result of the integration of three estates in the 18th century. The Garden features the Green Theater, one of the largest open amphitheaters in Europe, able to hold up to 15 thousand people.[107] Several parks include a section known as a "Park of Culture and Rest", sometimes alongside a much wilder area (this includes parks such as Izmaylovsky, Fili and Sokolniki). Some parks are designated as Forest Parks (lesopark).

Dream Island, the largest indoor theme park in Europe

Izmaylovsky Park, created in 1931, is one of the largest urban parks in the world along with Richmond Park in London. Its area of 15.34 square kilometres (5.92 sq mi) is six times greater than that of Central Park in New York.[106]

Novodevichy Convent is a World Heritage Site.

Sokolniki Park, named after the falcon hunting that occurred there in the past, is one of the oldest parks in Moscow and has an area of 6 square kilometres (2.3 sq mi). A central circle with a large fountain is surrounded by birch, maple and elm tree alleys. A labyrinth composed of green paths lies beyond the park's ponds.

Losiny Ostrov National Park ("Elk Island" National Park), with a total area of more than 116 square kilometres (45 sq mi), borders Sokolniki Park and was Russia's first national park. It is quite wild, and is also known as the "city taiga" – elk can be seen there.

The Church of Ascension in Kolomenskoye is a World Heritage Site.

Tsytsin Main Botanical Garden of Academy of Sciences, founded in 1945 is the largest in Europe.[108] It covers the territory of 3.61 square kilometres (1.39 sq mi) bordering the All-Russia Exhibition Center and contains a live exhibition of more than 20 thousand species of plants from around the world, as well as a lab for scientific research. It contains a rosarium with 20 thousand rose bushes, a dendrarium, and an oak forest, with the average age of trees exceeding 100 years. There is a greenhouse taking up more than 5,000 square metres (53,820 square feet) of land.[106]

The All-Russian Exhibition Center (Всероссийский выставочный центр), formerly known as the All-Union Agricultural Exhibition (VSKhV) and later Exhibition of Achievements of the National Economy (VDNKh), though officially named a "permanent trade show", is one of the most prominent examples of Stalinist-era monumental architecture. Among the large spans of a recreational park, areas are scores of elaborate pavilions, each representing either a branch of Soviet industry and science or a USSR republic. Even though during the 1990s it was, and for some part still is, misused as a gigantic shopping center (most of the pavilions are rented out for small businesses), it still retains the bulk of its architectural landmarks, including two monumental fountains (Stone Flower and Friendship of Nations) and a 360 degrees panoramic cinema. In 2014 the park returned to the name Exhibition of Achievements of National Economy, and in the same year huge renovation works had been started.[109]

Lilac Park, founded in 1958, has a permanent sculpture display and a large rosarium. Moscow has always been a popular destination for tourists. Some of the more famous attractions include the city's UNESCO World Heritage Site, Moscow Kremlin and Red Square,[110] which was built between the 14th and 17th centuries.[111] The Church of the Ascension at Kolomenskoye, which dates from 1532, is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site and another popular attraction.[112]

Near the new Tretyakov Gallery there is a sculpture garden, Museon, often called "the graveyard of fallen monuments" that displays statues of the former Soviet Union that were removed from their place after its dissolution.

Other attractions include the Moscow Zoo, a zoological garden in two sections (the valleys of two streams) linked by a bridge, with nearly a thousand species and more than 6,500 specimens.[113] Each year, the zoo attracts more than 1.2 million visitors.[113] Many of Moscow's parks and landscaped gardens are protected natural environments.

Zaryadye31.jpgGL(176155)(10).webpVictory park on Poklonnaya Hill1.jpg

Zaryadye ParkVDNKhVictory park on Poklonnaya Hill

Moscow rings

Moscow's road system is centered roughly on the Kremlin at the heart of the city. From there, roads generally span outwards to intersect with a sequence of circular roads ("rings").

The first and innermost major ring, Bulvarnoye Koltso (Boulevard Ring), was built at the former location of the 16th-century city wall around what used to be called Bely Gorod (White Town).[114] The Bulvarnoye Koltso is technically not a ring; it does not form a complete circle, but instead a horseshoe-like arc that begins at the Cathedral of Christ the Savior and ends at the Yauza River.

The second primary ring, located outside the bell end of the Boulevard Ring, is the Sadovoye Koltso (Garden Ring). Like the Boulevard Ring, the Garden Ring follows the path of a 16th-century wall that used to encompass part of Moscow.[114]

Moscow as viewed from the International Space Station, January 29, 2014

The Third Ring Road, was completed in 2003 as a high-speed freeway.

The Fourth Transport Ring, another freeway, was planned, but cancelled in 2011. It will be replaced by a system of chordal highways.

Aside from aforementioned hierarchy, line 5 of Moscow Metro is a circle-shaped looped subway line (hence the name Koltsevaya Liniya, "ring line"), which is located between the Sadovoye Koltso and Third Transport Ring.

September 10, 2016, Moscow Central Circle renovated railroad (former Moskovskaya Okruzhnaya Zheleznaya Doroga) was introduced as 14th line of Moscow Metro. The railroad itself was in use since 1907, but before the renovation, it was a non-electrified railroad for transit needs of fueled locomotives only.

Another circle metro line - Big Circle Line (Bolshaya Koltsevaya Liniya) is under construction and will be finished about 2023.

The outermost ring within Moscow is the Moscow Ring Road (often called MKAD, acronym word for Russian Московская Кольцевая Автомобильная Дорога), which forms the cultural boundary of the city, was established in the 1950s. It is to note the method of building the road (usage of ground elevation instead of concrete columns throughout the whole way) formed a wall-like barrier that obstacles building roads under the MKAD highway itself).

Before 2012 expansion of Moscow, MKAD was considered an approximate border for Moscow boundaries.

Outside Moscow, some of the roads encompassing the city continue to follow this circular pattern seen inside city limits, with the notable examples of Betonka roads (highways A107 and A108), originally made of concrete pads.

In order to reduce transit traffic on MKAD, the new ring road (called CKAD - Centralnaya Koltsevaya Avtomobilnaya Doroga, Central Ring Road) is under construction now.

Transport rings in Moscow

LengthNameType

9 kmBoulevard Ring – Bulvarnoye Koltso (not a full ring)Road

16 kmGarden Ring – Sadovoye Koltso ("B")Road

19 kmKoltsevaya Line (Line 5)Metro

35 kmThird Ring Road – Third Transport Ring – Tretye Transportnoye Koltso (TTK)Road

54 kmLittle Ring of the Moscow Railway, re-opened as Moscow Central Ring (MCC) – Line 14Railway

20.2 kmBolshaya Koltsevaya line – Line 11Metro

109 kmMoscow Automobile Ring Road – Moskovskaya Koltsevaya Avtomobilnaya Doroga (MKAD)Road

Culture

Tretyakov Gallery

One of the most notable art museums in Moscow is the Tretyakov Gallery, which was founded by Pavel Tretyakov, a wealthy patron of the arts who donated a large private collection to the city.[115] The Tretyakov Gallery is split into two buildings. The Old Tretyakov gallery, the original gallery in the Tretyakovskaya area on the south bank of the Moskva River, houses works in the classic Russian tradition.[116] The works of famous pre-Revolutionary painters, such as Ilya Repin, as well as the works of early Russian icon painters can be found here. Visitors can even see rare originals by early 15th-century iconographer Andrei Rublev.[116] The New Tretyakov gallery, created in Soviet times, mainly contains the works of Soviet artists, as well as of a few contemporary paintings, but there is some overlap with the Old Tretyakov Gallery for early 20th-century art. The new gallery includes a small reconstruction of Vladimir Tatlin's famous Monument to the Third International and a mixture of other avant-garde works by artists like Kazimir Malevich and Wassily Kandinsky. Socialist realism features can also be found within the halls of the New Tretyakov Gallery.

The Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts

Another art museum in the city of Moscow is the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts, which was founded by, among others, the father of Marina Tsvetaeva. The Pushkin Museum is similar to the British Museum in London in that its halls are a cross-section of exhibits on world civilisations, with many copies of ancient sculptures. However, it also hosts paintings from every major Western era; works by Claude Monet, Paul Cézanne, and Pablo Picasso are present in the museum's collection.

The State Historical Museum of Russia (Государственный Исторический музей) is a museum of Russian history located between Red Square and Manege Square in Moscow. Its exhibitions range from relics of the prehistoric tribes inhabiting present-day Russia, through priceless artworks acquired by members of the Romanov dynasty. The total number of objects in the museum's collection numbers is several million. The Polytechnical Museum,[117] founded in 1872 is the largest technical museum in Russia, offering a wide array of historical inventions and technological achievements, including humanoid automata from the 18th century and the first Soviet computers. Its collection contains more than 160,000 items.[118] The Borodino Panorama[119] museum located on Kutuzov Avenue provides an opportunity for visitors to experience being on a battlefield with a 360° diorama. It is a part of the large historical memorial commemorating the victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 over Napoleon's army, that includes also the triumphal arch, erected in 1827. There is also a military history museum that includes statues, and military hardware.

The Bolshoi Theatre

Moscow is the heart of the Russian performing arts, including ballet and film, with 68 museums[120] 103[121] theaters, 132 cinemas and 24 concert halls. Among Moscow's theaters and ballet studios is the Bolshoi Theatre and the Malyi Theatre[122] as well as Vakhtangov Theatre and Moscow Art Theatre.

The Moscow International Performance Arts Center,[123] opened in 2003, also known as Moscow International House of Music, is known for its performances in classical music. It has the largest organ in Russia installed in Svetlanov Hall.

There are also two large circuses in Moscow: Moscow State Circus and Moscow Circus on Tsvetnoy Boulevard[124] named after Yuri Nikulin.

Memorial Museum of Astronautics under the Monument to the Conquerors of Space at the end of Cosmonauts Alley is the central memorial place for the Russian space officials.

The Mosfilm studio was at the heart of many classic films, as it is responsible for both artistic and mainstream productions.[125] However, despite the continued presence and reputation of internationally renowned Russian filmmakers, the once prolific native studios are much quieter. Rare and historical films may be seen in the Salut cinema, where films from the Museum of Cinema[126] collection are shown regularly.

The Shchusev State Museum of Architecture is the national museum of Russian architecture by the name of the architect Alexey Shchusev near the Kremlin area.

Moscow will get its own branch of the Hermitage Museum in 2024, with authorities having agreed upon the final project, to be executed by Hani Rashid, co-founder of New York-based 'Asymptote Architecture' - the same bureau that's behind the city's stock market building, the Busan-based World Business Center Solomon Tower and the Strata Tower in Abu-Dhabi.[127]

Sports

See also: Football in Moscow

The Luzhniki Stadium hosted the 1980 Summer Olympics and the 2018 FIFA World Cup Final.

SC Olimpiyskiy was built for the 1980 Summer Olympics.

Over 500 Olympic sports champions lived in the city by 2005.[128] Moscow is home to 63 stadiums (besides eight football and eleven light athletics maneges), of which Luzhniki Stadium is the largest and the 4th biggest in Europe (it hosted the 1998–99 UEFA Cup, 2007–08 UEFA Champions League finals, the 1980 Summer Olympics, and the 2018 FIFA World Cup with 7 games total, including the final). Forty other sport complexes are located within the city, including 24 with artificial ice. The Olympic Stadium was the world's first indoor arena for bandy and hosted the Bandy World Championship twice.[129] Moscow was again the host of the competition in 2010, this time in Krylatskoye.[130] That arena has also hosted the World Speed Skating Championships. There are also seven horse racing tracks in Moscow,[105] of which Central Moscow Hippodrome,[131] founded in 1834, is the largest.

CSKA Arena during a game of KHL, considered to be the second-best ice hockey league in the world

Moscow was the host city of the 1980 Summer Olympics, with the yachting events being held at Tallinn, in present-day Estonia. Large sports facilities and the main international airport, Sheremetyevo Terminal 2, were built in preparation for the 1980 Summer Olympics. Moscow had made a bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics. However, when final voting commenced on July 6, 2005, Moscow was the first city to be eliminated from further rounds. The Games were awarded to London.

The most titled ice hockey team in the Soviet Union and in the world, HC CSKA Moscow comes from Moscow. Other big ice hockey clubs from Moscow are HC Dynamo Moscow, which was the second most titled team in the Soviet Union, and HC Spartak Moscow.

The most titled Soviet, Russian, and one of the most titled Euroleague clubs, is the basketball club from Moscow PBC CSKA Moscow. Moscow hosted the EuroBasket in 1953 and 1965.

Moscow had more winners at the USSR and Russian Chess Championship than any other city.

The most titled volleyball team in the Soviet Union and in Europe (CEV Champions League) is VC CSKA Moscow.

In football, FC Spartak Moscow has won more championship titles in the Russian Premier League than any other team. They were second only to FC Dynamo Kyiv in Soviet times. PFC CSKA Moscow became the first Russian football team to win a UEFA title, the UEFA Cup (present-day UEFA Europa League). FC Lokomotiv Moscow, FC Dynamo Moscow and FC Torpedo Moscow are other professional football teams also based in Moscow.

Otkrytiye Arena, home of FC Spartak Moscow

VEB Arena, home of PFC CSKA Moscow

VTB Arena, home of FC Dynamo Moscow and HC Dynamo Moscow

RZD Arena, home of FC Lokomotiv Moscow

Moscow (/ˈmɒskoʊ/ MOS-koh, US chiefly /ˈmɒskaʊ/ MOS-kow;[10][11] Russian: Москва, tr. Moskva, IPA: [mɐˈskva] (About this soundlisten)) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 12.4 million residents within the city limits,[12] over 17 million residents in the urban area,[13] and over 20 million residents in the metropolitan area.[14] The city covers an area of 2,511 square kilometres (970 sq mi), while the urban area covers 5,891 square kilometres (2,275 sq mi),[13] and the metropolitan area covers over 26,000 square kilometres (10,000 sq mi).[14] Moscow is among the world's largest cities, being the largest city entirely in Europe, the largest urban area in Europe,[13] the largest metropolitan area in Europe,[14] and the largest city by land area on the European continent.[15]

First documented in 1147, Moscow grew to become a prosperous and powerful city that served as the capital of the Grand Duchy that bears its namesake. When the Grand Duchy of Moscow evolved into the Tsardom of Russia, Moscow still remained as the political and economic center for most of the Tsardom's history. When the Tsardom was reformed into the Russian Empire, the capital was moved from Moscow to Saint Petersburg diminishing the influence of the city. The capital was then moved back to Moscow following the October Revolution and the city was brought back as the political centre of the Russian SFSR and then the Soviet Union.[16] In the aftermath of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Moscow remained as the capital city of the contemporary and newly established Russian Federation.

As the northernmost and coldest megacity in the world, and with a history that dates over eight centuries, Moscow is governed as a federal city (since 1993)[17] that serves as the political, economic, cultural, and scientific centre of Russia and Eastern Europe. As an alpha world city,[18] Moscow has one of the world's largest urban economies. The city is one of the fastest growing tourist destinations in the world,[19] and is one of Europe's most visited cities. Moscow is home to the fourth-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world,[20] and has the highest number of billionaires of any city in Europe. The Moscow International Business Center is one of the largest financial centres in Europe and the world, and features some of Europe's tallest skyscrapers. Muscovites enjoy public digital services more than anywhere else in Europe,[21] and the best e-government services in the world.[22] Moscow was the host city of the 1980 Summer Olympics, and one of the host cities of the 2018 FIFA World Cup.[23]

As the historic core of Russia, Moscow serves as the home of numerous Russian artists, scientists, and sports figures due to the presence of its various museums, academic and political institutions and theatres. The city is home to several UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and is well known for its display of Russian architecture, particularly its historic Red Square, and buildings such as the Saint Basil's Cathedral and the Moscow Kremlin, of which the latter serves as the seat of power of the Government of Russia. Moscow is home to many Russian companies in numerous industries, and is served by a comprehensive transit network, which includes four international airports, nine railway terminals, a tram system, a monorail system, and most notably the Moscow Metro, the busiest metro system in Europe, and one of the largest rapid transit systems in the world. The city has over 40 percent of its territory covered by greenery, making it one of the greenest cities in Europe and the world.[15][24]

The name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River.[25][26] There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river. Finno-Ugric Merya and Muroma people, who were among the several pre-Slavic tribes which originally inhabited the area, called the river supposedly Mustajoki, in English: Black river. It has been suggested that the name of the city derives from this term.[27][28]

The most linguistically well-grounded and widely accepted is from the Proto-Balto-Slavic root *mŭzg-/muzg- from the Proto-Indo-European *meu- "wet",[26][29][30] so the name Moskva might signify a river at a wetland or a marsh.[25] Its cognates include Russian: музга, muzga "pool, puddle", Lithuanian: mazgoti and Latvian: mazgāt "to wash", Sanskrit: májjati "to drown", Latin: mergō "to dip, immerse".[25][29] In many Slavic countries Moskov is a surname, most common in Bulgaria, Russia, Ukraine and North Macedonia.[31] Additionally, there are similarly named places in Poland like Mozgawa.[25][26][29]

The original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky,[25][26] hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. As with other nouns of that declension, it had been undergoing a morphological transformation at the early stage of the development of the language, as a result the first written mentions in the 12th century were Московь, Moskovĭ (accusative case), Москви, Moskvi (locative case), Москвe/Москвѣ, Moskve/Moskvě (genitive case).[25][26] From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, which is a result of morphological generalisation with the numerous Slavic ā-stem nouns.

However, the form Moskovĭ has left some traces in many other languages, such as English: Moscow, German: Moskau, French: Moscou, Georgian: მოსკოვი, Latvian: Maskava, Ottoman Turkish: Moskov, Bashkir: Мәскәү, Tatar: Mäskäw, Kazakh: Мәскеу, Mäskew, Chuvash: Мускав, Muskav, etc. In a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy and muscovite.[32]

Various other theories (of Celtic, Iranian, Caucasic origins), having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists.[25][26]

Other names

Moscow has acquired a number of epithets, most referring to its size and preeminent status within the nation: The Third Rome (Третий Рим), the Whitestone One (Белокаменная), the First Throne (Первопрестольная), the Forty Soroks (Сорок Сороков) ("sorok" meaning both "forty, a great many" and "a district or parish" in Old Russian). Moscow is also one of the twelve Hero Cities. The demonym for a Moscow resident is "москвич" (moskvich) for male or "москвичка" (moskvichka) for female, rendered in English as Muscovite. The name "Moscow" is abbreviated "MSK" (МСК in Russian).[citation needed]

History

Main articles: History of Moscow and Timeline of Moscow

Prehistory

Archaeological digs show that the site of today's Moscow and the surrounding area have been inhabited since time immemorial. Among the earliest finds are relics of the Lyalovo culture, which experts assign to the Neolithic period, the last phase of the Stone Age.[33]

They confirm that the first inhabitants of the area were hunters and gatherers. Around 950 AD, two Slavic tribes, Vyatichi and Krivichi, settled here. Possibly the Vyatichi formed the core of Moscow's indigenous population.[34]

Early history (1147–1283)

Further information: Kievan Rus' and Vladimir-Suzdal

Vladimir-Suzdal, a principality on the northeastern periphery of Kievan Rus', grew into the Grand Duchy of Moscow.

The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a meeting place of Yuri Dolgoruky and Sviatoslav Olegovich. At the time it was a minor town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. The chronicle says, "Come, my brother, to Moskov" (Приди ко мне, брате, в Москов).[35]

In 1156, Knyaz Yury Dolgoruky fortified the town with a timber fence and a moat. In the course of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus', the Mongols under Batu Khan burned the city to the ground and killed its inhabitants.[citation needed]

The timber fort na Moskvě "on the Moscow River" was inherited by Daniel, the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, in the 1260s, at the time considered the least valuable of his father's possessions. Daniel was still a child at the time, and the big fort was governed by tiuns (deputies), appointed by Daniel's paternal uncle, Yaroslav of Tver.[citation needed]

Daniel came of age in the 1270s and became involved in the power struggles of the principality with lasting success, siding with his brother Dmitry in his bid for the rule of Novgorod. From 1283 he acted as the ruler of an independent principality alongside Dmitry, who became Grand Duke of Vladimir. Daniel has been credited with founding the first Moscow monasteries, dedicated to the Lord's Epiphany and to Saint Daniel.[36]

Grand Duchy (1283–1547)

Main article: Grand Duchy of Moscow

Kremlenagrad.jpgFacial Chronicle - b.10, p.049 - Tokhtamysh at Moscow.jpgMikhail Feodorovich Izbranie.jpg

The Moscow Kremlin in the late 16th centuryThe Siege of MoscowRed Square

Daniel ruled Moscow as Grand Duke until 1303 and established it as a prosperous city that would eclipse its parent principality of Vladimir by the 1320s.

On the right bank of the Moskva River, at a distance of five miles (8.0 kilometres) from the Kremlin, not later than in 1282, Daniel founded the first monastery with the wooden church of St. Daniel-Stylite, which is now the Danilov Monastery. Daniel died in 1303, at the age of 42. Before his death, he became a monk and, according to his will, was buried in the cemetery of the St. Daniel Monastery.

Moscow was quite stable and prosperous for many years and attracted a large number of refugees from across Russia. The Rurikids maintained large landholdings by practicing primogeniture, whereby all land was passed to the eldest sons, rather than dividing it up among all sons. By 1304, Yury of Moscow contested with Mikhail of Tver for the throne of the principality of Vladimir. Ivan I eventually defeated Tver to become the sole collector of taxes for the Mongol rulers, making Moscow the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal. By paying high tribute, Ivan won an important concession from the Khan.

Spassky Cathedral (Moscow's oldest extant building), built c. 1357

While the Khan of the Golden Horde initially attempted to limit Moscow's influence, when the growth of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania began to threaten all of Russia, the Khan strengthened Moscow to counterbalance Lithuania, allowing it to become one of the most powerful cities in Russia. In 1380, prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow led a united Russian army to an important victory over the Mongols in the Battle of Kulikovo. Afterwards, Moscow took the leading role in liberating Russia from Mongol domination. In 1480, Ivan III had finally broken the Russians free from Tatar control, and Moscow became the capital of an empire that would eventually encompass all of Russia and Siberia, and parts of many other lands.

The Spasskaya Tower, built in 1491

In 1462 Ivan III, (1440–1505) became Grand Prince of Moscow (then part of the medieval Muscovy state). He began fighting the Tatars, enlarged the territory of Muscovy, and enriched his capital city. By 1500 it had a population of 100,000 and was one of the largest cities in the world. He conquered the far larger principality of Novgorod to the north, which had been allied to the hostile Lithuanians. Thus he enlarged the territory sevenfold, from 430,000 to 2,800,000 square kilometres (170,000 to 1,080,000 square miles). He took control of the ancient "Novgorod Chronicle" and made it a propaganda vehicle for his regime.[37][38]

The original Moscow Kremlin was built in the 14th century. It was reconstructed by Ivan, who in the 1480s invited architects from Renaissance Italy, such as Petrus Antonius Solarius, who designed the new Kremlin wall and its towers, and Marco Ruffo who designed the new palace for the prince. The Kremlin walls as they now appear are those designed by Solarius, completed in 1495. The Kremlin's Great Bell Tower was built in 1505–08 and augmented to its present height in 1600.

A trading settlement, or posad, grew up to the east of the Kremlin, in the area known as Zaradye (Зарядье). In the time of Ivan III, the Red Square, originally named the Hollow Field (Полое поле) appeared.

In 1508–1516, the Italian architect Aleviz Fryazin (Novy) arranged for the construction of a moat in front of the eastern wall, which would connect the Moskva and Neglinnaya and be filled in with water from Neglinnaya. This moat, known as the Alevizov moat and having a length of 541 metres (1,775 feet), width of 36 metres (118 feet), and a depth of 9.5 to 13 metres (31–43 feet) was lined with limestone and, in 1533, fenced on both sides with low, four-metre-thick (13-foot) cogged-brick walls.

Tsardom (1547–1721)

Further information: Tsardom of Russia

Saint Basil's Cathedral, built in 1561

In the 16th and 17th centuries, the three circular defenses were built: Kitay-gorod (Китай-город), the White City (Белый город) and the Earthen City (Земляной город). However, in 1547, two fires destroyed much of the town, and in 1571 the Crimean Tatars captured Moscow, burning everything except the Kremlin.[39] The annals record that only 30,000 of 200,000 inhabitants survived.

View of 17th-century Moscow (1922 drawing by Apollinary Vasnetsov)

The Crimean Tatars attacked again in 1591, but this time were held back by new defense walls, built between 1584 and 1591 by a craftsman named Fyodor Kon. In 1592, an outer earth rampart with 50 towers was erected around the city, including an area on the right bank of the Moscow River. As an outermost line of defense, a chain of strongly fortified monasteries was established beyond the ramparts to the south and east, principally the Novodevichy Convent and Donskoy, Danilov, Simonov, Novospasskiy, and Andronikov monasteries, most of which now house museums. From its ramparts, the city became poetically known as Bielokamennaya, the "White-Walled". The limits of the city as marked by the ramparts built in 1592 are now marked by the Garden Ring.

Three square gates existed on the eastern side of the Kremlin wall, which in the 17th century, were known as Konstantino-Eleninsky, Spassky, Nikolsky (owing their names to the icons of Constantine and Helen, the Saviour and St. Nicholas that hung over them). The last two were directly opposite the Red Square, while the Konstantino-Elenensky gate was located behind Saint Basil's Cathedral.

"Sigismundian" Plan of Moscow (1610), named after Sigismund III of Poland, is the last city plan compiled before the destruction of the city in 1612 by retreating Polish troops and subsequent changes to the street network. Orientation: north is at the right, west at the top

The Russian famine of 1601–03 killed perhaps 100,000 in Moscow. From 1610 through 1612, troops of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied Moscow, as its ruler Sigismund III tried to take the Russian throne. In 1612, the people of Nizhny Novgorod and other Russian cities conducted by prince Dmitry Pozharsky and Kuzma Minin rose against the Polish occupants, besieged the Kremlin, and expelled them. In 1613, the Zemsky sobor elected Michael Romanov tsar, establishing the Romanov dynasty. The 17th century was rich in popular risings, such as the liberation of Moscow from the Polish–Lithuanian invaders (1612), the Salt Riot (1648), the Copper Riot (1662), and the Moscow Uprising of 1682.

During the first half of the 17th century, the population of Moscow doubled from roughly 100,000 to 200,000. It expanded beyond its ramparts in the later 17th century. It is estimated, that in the middle of the 17th century, 20% of Moscow suburb's inhabitants were from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, practically all of them being driven from their homeland to Moscow by Muscovite invaders.[40] By 1682, there were 692 households established north of the ramparts, by Ukrainians and Belarusians abducted from their hometowns in the course of the Russo-Polish War (1654–1667). These new outskirts of the city came to be known as the Meshchanskaya sloboda, after Ruthenian meshchane "town people". The term meshchane (мещане) acquired pejorative connotations in 18th-century Russia and today means "petty bourgeois" or "narrow-minded philistine".[41]

The entire city of the late 17th century, including the slobodas that grew up outside the city ramparts, are contained within what is today Moscow's Central Administrative Okrug.

Numerous disasters befell the city. The plague epidemics ravaged Moscow in 1570–1571, 1592 and 1654–1656.[42] The plague killed upwards of 80% of the people in 1654–55. Fires burned out much of the wooden city in 1626 and 1648.[43] In 1712 Peter the Great moved his government to the newly built Saint Petersburg on the Baltic coast. Moscow ceased to be Russia's capital, except for a brief period from 1728 to 1732 under the influence of the Supreme Privy Council.

Empire (1721–1917)

Main article: Moscow Governorate

Further information: Russian Empire

Panorama of Moscow in 1819-1823

A panoramic view of Moscow from the Spasskaya Tower in 1819-1823

Moskva riverfront in the 19th century

After losing the status as the capital of the empire, the population of Moscow at first decreased, from 200,000 in the 17th century to 130,000 in 1750. But after 1750, the population grew more than tenfold over the remaining duration of the Russian Empire, reaching 1.8 million by 1915. The 1770–1772 Russian plague killed up to 100,000 people in Moscow.[44]

Bookshops at the Novospassky Bridge in the 17th century, by Apollinary Vasnetsov

By 1700, the building of cobbled roads had begun. In November 1730, the permanent street light was introduced, and by 1867 many streets had a gaslight. In 1883, near the Prechistinskiye Gates, arc lamps were installed. In 1741 Moscow was surrounded by a barricade 25 miles (40 kilometres) long, the Kamer-Kollezhskiy barrier, with 16 gates at which customs tolls were collected. Its line is traced today by a number of streets called val (“ramparts”). Between 1781 and 1804 the Mytischinskiy water-pipe (the first in Russia) was built. In 1813, following the destruction of much of the city during the French occupation, a Commission for the Construction of the City of Moscow was established. It launched a great program of rebuilding, including a partial replanning of the city-centre. Among many buildings constructed or reconstructed at this time was the Grand Kremlin Palace and the Kremlin Armoury, the Moscow University, the Moscow Manege (Riding School), and the Bolshoi Theatre. In 1903 the Moskvoretskaya water-supply was completed.

In the early 19th century, the Arch of Konstantino-Elenensky gate was paved with bricks, but the Spassky Gate was the main front gate of the Kremlin and used for royal entrances. From this gate, wooden and (following the 17th-century improvements) stone bridges stretched across the moat. Books were sold on this bridge and stone platforms were built nearby for guns – "raskats". The Tsar Cannon was located on the platform of the Lobnoye mesto.

The road connecting Moscow with St. Petersburg, now the M10 highway, was completed in 1746, its Moscow end following the old Tver road, which had existed since the 16th century. It became known as Peterburskoye Schosse after it was paved in the 1780s. Petrovsky Palace was built in 1776–1780 by Matvey Kazakov.

Napoleon retreating from the city during the Fire of Moscow, after the failed French Invasion of Russia

When Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812, the Moscovites were evacuated. It is suspected that the Moscow fire was principally the effect of Russian sabotage. Napoleon's Grande Armée was forced to retreat and was nearly annihilated by the devastating Russian winter and sporadic attacks by Russian military forces. As many as 400,000 of Napoleon's soldiers died during this time.[45]

Cathedral Square during the coronation of Alexander I, 1802, by Fyodor Alekseyev

Moscow State University was established in 1755. Its main building was reconstructed after the 1812 fire by Domenico Giliardi. The Moskovskiye Vedomosti newspaper appeared from 1756, originally in weekly intervals, and from 1859 as a daily newspaper.

The Arbat Street had been in existence since at least the 15th century, but it was developed into a prestigious area during the 18th century. It was destroyed in the fire of 1812 and was rebuilt completely in the early 19th century.

In the 1830s, general Alexander Bashilov planned the first regular grid of city streets north from Petrovsky Palace. Khodynka field south of the highway was used for military training. Smolensky Rail station (forerunner of present-day Belorussky Rail Terminal) was inaugurated in 1870. Sokolniki Park, in the 18th century the home of the tsar's falconers well outside Moscow, became contiguous with the expanding city in the later 19th century and was developed into a public municipal park in 1878. The suburban Savyolovsky Rail Terminal was built in 1902. In January 1905, the institution of the City Governor, or Mayor, was officially introduced in Moscow, and Alexander Adrianov became Moscow's first official mayor.

When Catherine II came to power in 1762, the city's filth and the smell of sewage was depicted by observers as a symptom of disorderly life styles of lower-class Russians recently arrived from the farms. Elites called for improving sanitation, which became part of Catherine's plans for increasing control over social life. National political and military successes from 1812 through 1855 calmed the critics and validated efforts to produce a more enlightened and stable society. There was less talk about the smell and the poor conditions of public health. However, in the wake of Russia's failures in the Crimean War in 1855–56, confidence in the ability of the state to maintain order in the slums eroded, and demands for improved public health put filth back on the agenda.[46]

Soviet period (1917–1991)

Further information: Moscow Bolshevik Uprising and Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic

Soviet parade outside Hotel Moskva on the Manezhnaya Square, 1964

City plan of Moscow, 1917

Victory Day celebration on Red Square, May 9, 1975

External video

video icon Song from the Soviet "New Moscow" film

Following the success of the Russian Revolution of 1917, Vladimir Lenin, fearing possible foreign invasion, moved the capital from Petrograd to Moscow on March 12, 1918.[47] The Kremlin once again became the seat of power and the political centre of the new state.

With the change in values imposed by communist ideology, the tradition of preservation of cultural heritage was broken. Independent preservation societies, even those that defended only secular landmarks such as Moscow-based OIRU were disbanded by the end of the 1920s. A new anti-religious campaign, launched in 1929, coincided with collectivization of peasants; destruction of churches in the cities peaked around 1932. In 1937 several letters were written to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to rename Moscow to "Stalindar" or "Stalinodar", one from an elderly pensioner whose dream was to "live in Stalinodar" and had selected the name to represent the "gift" (dar) of the genius of Stalin.[48] Stalin rejected this suggestion, and after it was suggested again to him by Nikolai Yezhov, he was outraged, saying "What do I need this for?". This was following Stalin banning the renaming of places in his name in 1936.[49]

During World War II, the Soviet State Committee of Defence and the General Staff of the Red Army were located in Moscow. In 1941, 16 divisions of the national volunteers (more than 160,000 people), 25 battalions (18,000 people) and 4 engineering regiments were formed among the Muscovites. Between October 1941 and January 1942, the German Army Group Centre was stopped at the outskirts of the city and then driven off in the course of the Battle of Moscow. Many factories were evacuated, together with much of the government, and from October 20 the city was declared to be in a state of siege. Its remaining inhabitants built and manned antitank defences, while the city was bombarded from the air. On May 1, 1944, a medal "For the defence of Moscow" and in 1947 another medal "In memory of the 800th anniversary of Moscow" was instituted.

Both German and Soviet casualties during the battle of Moscow have been a subject of debate, as various sources provide somewhat different estimates. Total casualties between September 30, 1941, and January 7, 1942, are estimated to be between 248,000 and 400,000 for the Wehrmacht and between 650,000 and 1,280,000 for the Red Army.[50][51][52]

During the postwar years, there was a serious housing crisis, solved by the invention of high-rise apartments. There are over 11,000 of these standardised and prefabricated apartment blocks, housing the majority of Moscow's population, making it by far the city with the most high-rise buildings.[53] Apartments were built and partly furnished in the factory before being raised and stacked into tall columns. The popular Soviet-era comic film Irony of Fate parodies this construction method.

The city of Zelenograd was built in 1958 at 37 kilometres (23 miles) from the city centre to the north-west, along with the Leningradskoye Shosse, and incorporated as one of Moscow's administrative okrugs. Moscow State University moved to its campus on Sparrow Hills in 1953.

In 1959 Nikita Khrushchev launched his anti-religious campaign. By 1964 over 10 thousand churches out of 20 thousand were shut down (mostly in rural areas) and many were demolished. Of 58 monasteries and convents operating in 1959, only sixteen remained by 1964; of Moscow's fifty churches operating in 1959, thirty were closed and six demolished.

On May 8, 1965, due to the actual 20th anniversary of the victory in World War II, Moscow was awarded a title of the Hero City. In 1980 it hosted the Summer Olympic Games.

The MKAD (ring road) was opened in 1961. It had four lanes running 109 kilometres (68 miles) along the city borders. The MKAD marked the administrative boundaries of the city of Moscow until the 1980s when outlying suburbs beyond the ring road began to be incorporated. In 1980, it hosted the Summer Olympic Games, which were boycotted by the United States and several other Western countries due to the Soviet Union's involvement in Afghanistan in late 1979. In 1991 Moscow was the scene of a coup attempt by conservative communists opposed to the liberal reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev.

Recent history (1991–present)

View of the Floating bridge in Zaryadye Park, with the Red Square and the Moscow Kremlin in the distance

Tverskaya Street, the main radial street in the city

When the USSR was dissolved in the same year, Moscow remained the capital of the Russian SFSR (on December 25, 1991, the Russian SFSR was renamed the Russian Federation). Since then, a market economy has emerged in Moscow, producing an explosion of Western-style retailing, services, architecture, and lifestyles.

The city has continued to grow during the 1990s to 2000s, its population rising from below nine to above ten million. Mason and Nigmatullina argue that Soviet-era urban-growth controls (before 1991) produced controlled and sustainable metropolitan development, typified by the greenbelt built in 1935. Since then, however, there has been a dramatic growth of low-density suburban sprawl, created by heavy demand for single-family dwellings as opposed to crowded apartments. In 1995–1997 the MKAD ring road was widened from the initial four to ten lanes.

In December 2002 Bulvar Dmitriya Donskogo became the first Moscow Metro station that opened beyond the limits of MKAD. The Third Ring Road, intermediate between the early 19th-century Garden Ring and the Soviet-era outer ring road, was completed in 2004. The greenbelt is becoming more and more fragmented, and satellite cities are appearing at the fringe. Summer dachas are being converted into year-round residences, and with the proliferation of automobiles there is heavy traffic congestion.[54] Multiple old churches and other examples of architectural heritage that had been demolished during the Stalin era have been restored, such as the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour. In 2010s Moscow's Administration has launched some long duration projects like the Moja Ulitsa (in English: My Street) urban redevelopment program[55] or the Residency renovation one.[56]

By its territorial expansion on July 1, 2012 southwest into the Moscow Oblast, the area of the capital more than doubled, going from 1,091 to 2,511 square kilometers (421 to 970 sq mi), resulting in Moscow becoming the largest city on the European continent by area; it also gained an additional population of 233,000 people.[57][58]

Geography

Location

Satellite view of Moscow and its nearby suburbs

Moscow is situated on the banks of the Moskva River, which flows for just over 500 km (311 mi) through the East European Plain in central Russia. 49 bridges span the river and its canals within the city's limits. The elevation of Moscow at the All-Russia Exhibition Center (VVC), where the leading Moscow weather station is situated, is 156 metres (512 feet). Teplostanskaya highland is the city's highest point at 255 metres (837 feet).[59] The width of Moscow city (not limiting MKAD) from west to east is 39.7 km (24.7 mi), and the length from north to south is 51.8 km (32.2 mi).

Time

Main article: Moscow Time

Moscow serves as the reference point for the time zone used in most of European Russia, Belarus and the Republic of Crimea. The areas operate in what is referred to in international standards as Moscow Standard Time (MSK, МСК), which is 3 hours ahead of UTC, or UTC+3. Daylight saving time is no longer observed. According to the geographical longitude the average solar noon in Moscow occurs at 12:30.[60]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Moscow

VDNKh after rain

Moscow has a humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfb) with long, cold (although average by Russian standards) winters usually lasting from mid-November to the end of March, and warm summers. More extreme continental climates at the same latitude- such as parts of Eastern Canada or Siberia- have much colder winters than Moscow, suggesting that there is still significant moderation from the Atlantic Ocean despite the fact that Moscow is far from the sea. Weather can fluctuate widely, with temperatures ranging from −25 °C (−13 °F) in the city and −30 °C (−22 °F) in the suburbs to above 5 °C (41 °F) in the winter, and from 10 to 35 °C (50 to 95 °F) in the summer.[61]

Petrovsky Palace on Leningradsky Avenue in winter

Typical high temperatures in the warm months of June, July and August are around a comfortable 20 to 26 °C (68 to 79 °F), but during heat waves (which can occur between May and September), daytime high temperatures often exceed 30 °C (86 °F), sometimes for a week or two at a time. In the winter, average temperatures normally drop to approximately −10 °C (14 °F), though almost every winter there are periods of warmth with day temperatures rising above 0 °C (32 °F), and periods of cooling with night temperatures falling below −20 °C (−4 °F). These periods usually last about a week or two. The growing season in Moscow normally lasts for 156 days usually around May 1 to October 5.[62]

The highest temperature ever recorded was 38.2 °C (100.8 °F)[63] at the VVC weather station and 39.0 °C (102.2 °F) in the center of Moscow and Domodedovo airport on July 29, 2010 during the unusual 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves. Record high temperatures were recorded for January, March, April, May, July, August, November, and December in 2007–2014.[64] The average July temperature from 1981 to 2010 is 19.2 °C (66.6 °F). The lowest ever recorded temperature was −42.1 °C (−43.8 °F) in January 1940. Snow, which is present for about five months a year, often begins to fall mid October, while snow cover lies in November and melts at the beginning of April.

On average, Moscow has 1731 hours of sunshine per year, varying from a low of 8% in December to 52% from May to August.[65] This large annual variation is due to convective cloud formation. In the winter, moist air from the Atlantic condenses in the cold continental interior, resulting in very overcast conditions. However, this same continental influence results in considerably sunnier summers than oceanic cities of similar latitude such as Edinburgh. Between 2004 and 2010, the average was between 1800 and 2000 hours with a tendency to more sunshine in summer months, up to a record 411 hours in July 2014, 79% of possible sunshine. December 2017 was the darkest month in Moscow since records began, with only six minutes of sunlight.[66][67]

Temperatures in the centre of Moscow are often significantly higher than in the outskirts and nearby suburbs, especially in winter. For example, if the average February temperature in the north-east of Moscow is −6.7 °C (19.9 °F), in the suburbs it is about −9 °C (16 °F).[68] The temperature difference between the centre of Moscow and nearby areas of Moscow Oblast can sometimes be more than 10 °C (18 °F) on frosty winter nights.

Climate data for Moscow (VVC) normals 1981–2010, records 1879 – the present

MonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear

Record high °C (°F)8.6

(47.5)8.3

(46.9)19.7

(67.5)28.9

(84.0)33.2

(91.8)34.9

(94.8)38.2

(100.8)37.3

(99.1)32.3

(90.1)24.0

(75.2)16.2

(61.2)9.6

(49.3)38.2

(100.8)

Average high °C (°F)−4

(25)−3.7

(25.3)2.6

(36.7)11.3

(52.3)18.6

(65.5)22.0

(71.6)24.3

(75.7)21.9

(71.4)15.7

(60.3)8.7

(47.7)0.9

(33.6)−3

(27)9.6

(49.3)

Daily mean °C (°F)−6.5

(20.3)−6.7

(19.9)−1

(30)6.7

(44.1)13.2

(55.8)17.0

(62.6)19.2

(66.6)17.0

(62.6)11.3

(52.3)5.6

(42.1)−1.2

(29.8)−5.2

(22.6)5.8

(42.4)

Average low °C (°F)−9.1

(15.6)−9.8

(14.4)−4.4

(24.1)2.2

(36.0)7.7

(45.9)12.1

(53.8)14.4

(57.9)12.5

(54.5)7.4

(45.3)2.7

(36.9)−3.3

(26.1)−7.6

(18.3)2.1

(35.8)

Record low °C (°F)−42.1

(−43.8)−38.2

(−36.8)−32.4

(−26.3)−21

(−6)−7.5

(18.5)−2.3

(27.9)1.3

(34.3)−1.2

(29.8)−8.5

(16.7)−16.1

(3.0)−32.8

(−27.0)−38.8

(−37.8)−42.1

(−43.8)

Average precipitation mm (inches)52

(2.0)41

(1.6)35

(1.4)37

(1.5)49

(1.9)80

(3.1)85

(3.3)82

(3.2)68

(2.7)71

(2.8)55

(2.2)52

(2.0)707

(27.7)

Average rainy days0.80.73913141515151262105.5

Average snowy days1815910.10000.12101772.2

Average relative humidity (%)83807467647074778181848577

Mean monthly sunshine hours33721281702652792712381477832181,731

Percent possible sunshine1427354053535251382413834

Average ultraviolet index0123566531103

Source: thermograph.ru[69], pogoda.ru.net[70] [71], meteoweb.ru[72] and Weather Atlas[73]

Climate change

Below is the 1961–1990 normals table. The annual temperature rose from 5.0 °C (41.0 °F)[74] to 5.8 °C (42.4 °F) in the new 1981–2010 normals. In 2019, the average annual temperature reached a record high of 7.8 °C (46.0 °F)[75]

Climate data for Moscow (VVC) normals 1961–1990

Recent changes in Moscow's regional climate, since it is in the mid-latitudes of the northern hemisphere, are often cited by climate scientists as evidence of global warming[citation needed], though by definition, climate change is global, not regional. During the summer, extreme heat is often observed in the city (2001, 2002, 2003, 2010, 2011). Along with a southern part of Central Russia,[79][80] after recent years of hot summer seasons, the climate of the city gets hot-summer classification trends. Winter also became significantly milder: for example, the average January temperature in the early 1900s was −12.0 °C (10.4 °F), while now it is about −7.0 °C (19.4 °F).[81] At the end of January–February it is often colder, with frosts reaching −30.0 °C (−22.0 °F) a few nights per year (2006, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013).

The last decade was the warmest in the history of meteorological observations of Moscow. Temperature changes in the city are depicted in the table below:

Climate data for Moscow (2009–2018, VVC)

MonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear

Average high °C (°F)−6

(21)−3.6

(25.5)2.4

(36.3)11.4

(52.5)20.1

(68.2)22.6

(72.7)25.8

(78.4)23.9

(75.0)16.7

(62.1)7.9

(46.2)2.1

(35.8)−2.4

(27.7)10.2

(50.4)

Daily mean °C (°F)−7.9

(17.8)−6

(21)−1

(30)6.9

(44.4)14.7

(58.5)17.6

(63.7)20.7

(69.3)18.9

(66.0)12.9

(55.2)5.5

(41.9)0.7

(33.3)−3.9

(25.0)6.6

(43.9)

Average low °C (°F)−9.7

(14.5)−8.3

(17.1)−4.5

(23.9)2.3

(36.1)9.4

(48.9)12.5

(54.5)15.6

(60.1)13.8

(56.8)9.1

(48.4)3.1

(37.6)−0.7

(30.7)−5.4

(22.3)3.1

(37.6)

Mean monthly sunshine hours37651422132742993232421718833141,901

Source: weatheronline.co.uk[82]

Wind direction in Moscow from 2002 to 2012 (average values)

NorthNortheastEastSouth EastSouthernSouthwestWestNorthwest

15%6.8%7.8%12.2%12.6%14.6%16.4%14.5%

Source: world-weather.ru

Demographics

Population

See also: Ethnic groups in Moscow

Historical population

YearPop.±%

18971,038,625—

19262,019,500+94.4%

19394,137,000+104.9%

19595,032,000+21.6%

19706,941,961+38.0%

19797,830,509+12.8%

19898,967,332+14.5%

200210,382,754+15.8%

201011,503,501+10.8%

201812,506,468+8.7%

202112,593,000+0.7%

Population size may be affected by changes in administrative divisions.

Population of Moscow by year

According to the results of the 2010 Census, the population of Moscow was 11,503,501;[83] up from 10,382,754 recorded in the 2002 Census.[84]

Ethnic groups in Moscow, 2010 census[83]

(excluding migrant workers and illegal immigrants)

EthnicityPopulationPercentage

Russians9,930,41091.6%

Ukrainians154,1041.4%

Tatars149,0431.4%

Armenians106,4661.0%

Azerbaijanis57,1230.5%

Jews53,1450.5%

Belarusians39,2250.4%

Georgians38,9340.4%

Uzbeks35,5950.3%

Tajiks27,2800.2%

Moldovans21,6990.2%

Others234,8042.2%

668,409 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group.[85]

The official population of Moscow is based on those holding "permanent residency". According to Russia's Federal Migration Service, Moscow holds 1.8 million official "guests" who have temporary residency on the basis of visas or other documentation, giving a legal population of 13.3 million. The number of Illegal immigrants, the vast majority originating from Central Asia, is estimated to be an additional 1 million people,[86] giving a total population of about 14.3 million.

Total fertility rate:[87]

2010 - 1.25

2014 - 1.34

2015 - 1.41

2016 - 1.46

2017 - 1.38

2018 - 1.41

2019 - 1.50

2020 - 1.47

Births (2016): 145,252 (11.8 per 1000)

Deaths (2016): 123,623 (10.0 per 1000)

Religion

Religion in Moscow (2020)[88][89]

Russian Orthodoxy

55%

Atheism and irreligion

28%

Islam

8%

Other religions

3%

Other Christians

2%

Undeclared

4%

Clockwise from left: The Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, demolished during the Soviet period and reconstructed from 1990–2000; Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception; Moscow Cathedral Mosque; and Moscow Choral Synagogue

Christians form the majority of the city's population; most of whom adhere Russian Orthodox Church. The Patriarch of Moscow serves as the head of the church and resides in the Danilov Monastery. Moscow was called the "city of 40 times 40 churches"—prior to 1917. Moscow is Russia's capital of Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which has been the country's traditional religion.

Other religions practiced in Moscow include Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Yazidism, and Rodnovery. The Moscow Mufti Council claimed that Muslims numbered around 1.5 million of 10.5 million of the city's population in 2010;[90] There are four mosques in the city.[91]

Cityscape

See also: List of tallest buildings in Moscow

Architecture

Saint Basil's Cathedral in Moscow, a masterpiece of Russian architecture

The State Historical Museum, an example of the Neo-Russian style

The Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, an example of Neo-Byzantine architecture

Moscow's architecture is world-renowned. Moscow is the site of Saint Basil's Cathedral, with its elegant onion domes, as well as the Cathedral of Christ the Savior and the Seven Sisters. The first Kremlin was built in the middle of the 12th century.

Medieval Moscow's design was of concentric walls and intersecting radial thoroughfares. This layout, as well as Moscow's rivers, helped shape Moscow's design in subsequent centuries.

The Kremlin was rebuilt in the 15th century. Its towers and some of its churches were built by Italian architects, lending the city some of the aurae of the renaissance. From the end of the 15th century, the city was embellished by masonry structures such as monasteries, palaces, walls, towers, and churches.

The city's appearance had not changed much by the 18th century. Houses were made of pine and spruce logs, with shingled roofs plastered with sod or covered by birch bark. The rebuilding of Moscow in the second half of the 18th century was necessitated not only by constant fires but also the needs of the nobility. Much of the wooden city was replaced by buildings in the classical style.[92]

For much of its architectural history, Moscow was dominated by Orthodox churches. However, the overall appearance of the city changed drastically during Soviet times, especially as a result of Joseph Stalin's large-scale effort to "modernize" Moscow. Stalin's plans for the city included a network of broad avenues and roadways, some of them over ten lanes wide, which, while greatly simplifying movement through the city, were constructed at the expense of a great number of historical buildings and districts. Among the many casualties of Stalin's demolitions was the Sukharev Tower, a longtime city landmark, as well as mansions and commercial buildings The city's newfound status as the capital of a deeply secular nation, made religiously significant buildings especially vulnerable to demolition. Many of the city's churches, which in most cases were some of Moscow's oldest and most prominent buildings, were destroyed; some notable examples include the Kazan Cathedral and the Cathedral of Christ the Savior. During the 1990s, both were rebuilt. Many smaller churches, however, were lost.[93]

GUM department store, facing the Red Square

Ostankino Tower, the tallest freestanding structure in Europe, and the eighth-tallest in the world

While the later Stalinist period was characterized by the curtailing of creativity and architectural innovation, the earlier post-revolutionary years saw a plethora of radical new buildings created in the city. Especially notable were the constructivist architects associated with VKHUTEMAS, responsible for such landmarks as Lenin's Mausoleum. Another prominent architect was Vladimir Shukhov, famous for Shukhov Tower, just one of many hyperboloid towers designed by Shukhov. It was built between 1919 and 1922 as a transmission tower for a Russian broadcasting company.[94] Shukhov also left a lasting legacy to the Constructivist architecture of early Soviet Russia. He designed spacious elongated shop galleries, most notably the GUM department store on Red Square,[94] bridged with innovative metal-and-glass vaults.

One of the Seven Sisters, Hotel Ukraina, is the tallest hotel in Europe, and one of the tallest hotels in the world

Zhivopisny Bridge, the highest cable-stayed bridge in Europe

Perhaps the most recognizable contributions of the Stalinist period are the so-called Seven Sisters, seven massive skyscrapers scattered throughout the city at about an equal distance from the Kremlin. A defining feature of Moscow's skyline, their imposing form was allegedly inspired by the Manhattan Municipal Building in New York City, and their style—with intricate exteriors and a large central spire—has been described as Stalinist Gothic architecture. All seven towers can be seen from most high points in the city; they are among the tallest constructions in central Moscow apart from the Ostankino Tower, which, when it was completed in 1967, was the highest free-standing land structure in the world and today remains the world's seventy-second tallest, ranking among buildings such as the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, Taipei 101 in Taiwan and the CN Tower in Toronto.[95]

The Soviet goal of providing housing for every family, and the rapid growth of Moscow's population, led to the construction of large, monotonous housing blocks. Most of these date from the post-Stalin era and the styles are often named after the leader then in power (Brezhnev, Khrushchev, etc.). They are usually badly maintained.

Although the city still has some five-story apartment buildings constructed before the mid-1960s, more recent apartment buildings are usually at least nine floors tall, and have elevators. It is estimated that Moscow has over twice as many elevators as New York City and four times as many as Chicago. Moslift, one of the city's major elevator operating companies, has about 1500 elevator mechanics on call, to release residents trapped in elevators.[96]

Stalinist-era buildings, mostly found in the central part of the city, are massive and usually ornamented with Socialist realism motifs that imitate classical themes. However, small churches—almost always Eastern Orthodox– found across the city provide glimpses of its past. The Old Arbat Street, a tourist street that was once the heart of a bohemian area, preserves most of its buildings from prior to the 20th century. Many buildings found off the main streets of the inner city (behind the Stalinist façades of Tverskaya Street, for example) are also examples of bourgeois architecture typical of Tsarist times. Ostankino Palace, Kuskovo, Uzkoye and other large estates just outside Moscow originally belong to nobles from the Tsarist era, and some convents, and monasteries, both inside and outside the city, are open to Muscovites and tourists.

Modern methods of skyscraper construction were implemented in the city for the first time with the ambitious MIBC.

Attempts are being made to restore many of the city's best-kept examples of pre-Soviet architecture. These restored structures are easily spotted by their bright new colors and spotless façades. There are a few examples of notable, early Soviet avant-garde work too, such as the house of the architect Konstantin Melnikov in the Arbat area. Many of these restorations were criticized for alleged disrespect of historical authenticity. Facadism is also widely practiced.[97] Later examples of interesting Soviet architecture are usually marked by their impressive size and the semi-Modernist styles employed, such as with the Novy Arbat project, familiarly known as "false teeth of Moscow" and notorious for the wide-scale disruption of a historic area in central Moscow involved in the project.

Borovitskaya square, Monument to Vladimir the Great and Pashkov House

Plaques on house exteriors will inform passers-by that a well-known personality once lived there. Frequently, the plaques are dedicated to Soviet celebrities not well known outside (or often, like with decorated generals and revolutionaries, now both inside) of Russia. There are also many "museum houses" of famous Russian writers, composers, and artists in the city.

Moscow's skyline is quickly modernizing, with several new towers under construction. In recent years, the city administration has been widely criticized for heavy destruction that has affected many historical buildings. As much as a third of historic Moscow has been destroyed in the past few years[98] to make space for luxury apartments and hotels.[99] Other historical buildings, including such landmarks as the 1930 Moskva hotel and the 1913 department store Voyentorg, have been razed and reconstructed anew, with the inevitable loss of historical value. Critics blame the government for not enforcing conservation laws: in the last 12 years more than 50 buildings with monument status were torn down, several of those dating back to the 17th century.[100] Some critics also wonder if the money used for the reconstruction of razed buildings could not be used for the renovation of decaying structures, which include many works by architect Konstantin Melnikov[101] and Mayakovskaya metro station.

Some organizations, such as Moscow Architecture Preservation Society[102] and Save Europe's Heritage,[103] are trying to draw the international public attention to these problems.[104]

Panoramic view of Moscow

Parks and landmarks

See also: List of Moscow tourist attractions

Red Square is a World Heritage Site.

There are 96 parks and 18 gardens in Moscow, including four botanical gardens. There are 450 square kilometres (170 sq mi) of green zones besides 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi) of forests.[105] Moscow is a very green city, if compared to other cities of comparable size in Western Europe and North America; this is partly due to a history of having green "yards" with trees and grass, between residential buildings. There are on average 27 square meters (290 sq ft) of parks per person in Moscow compared with 6 for Paris, 7.5 in London and 8.6 in New York.[106]

Gorky Park

Gorky Park (officially the Central Park of Culture and Rest named after Maxim Gorky), was founded in 1928. The main part (689,000 square metres or 170 acres)[106] along the Moskva river contains estrades, children's attractions (including the Observation Wheel water ponds with boats and water bicycles), dancing, tennis courts and other sports facilities. It borders the Neskuchny Garden (408,000 square metres or 101 acres), the oldest park in Moscow and a former imperial residence, created as a result of the integration of three estates in the 18th century. The Garden features the Green Theater, one of the largest open amphitheaters in Europe, able to hold up to 15 thousand people.[107] Several parks include a section known as a "Park of Culture and Rest", sometimes alongside a much wilder area (this includes parks such as Izmaylovsky, Fili and Sokolniki). Some parks are designated as Forest Parks (lesopark).

Dream Island, the largest indoor theme park in Europe

Izmaylovsky Park, created in 1931, is one of the largest urban parks in the world along with Richmond Park in London. Its area of 15.34 square kilometres (5.92 sq mi) is six times greater than that of Central Park in New York.[106]

Novodevichy Convent is a World Heritage Site.

Sokolniki Park, named after the falcon hunting that occurred there in the past, is one of the oldest parks in Moscow and has an area of 6 square kilometres (2.3 sq mi). A central circle with a large fountain is surrounded by birch, maple and elm tree alleys. A labyrinth composed of green paths lies beyond the park's ponds.

Losiny Ostrov National Park ("Elk Island" National Park), with a total area of more than 116 square kilometres (45 sq mi), borders Sokolniki Park and was Russia's first national park. It is quite wild, and is also known as the "city taiga" – elk can be seen there.

The Church of Ascension in Kolomenskoye is a World Heritage Site.

Tsytsin Main Botanical Garden of Academy of Sciences, founded in 1945 is the largest in Europe.[108] It covers the territory of 3.61 square kilometres (1.39 sq mi) bordering the All-Russia Exhibition Center and contains a live exhibition of more than 20 thousand species of plants from around the world, as well as a lab for scientific research. It contains a rosarium with 20 thousand rose bushes, a dendrarium, and an oak forest, with the average age of trees exceeding 100 years. There is a greenhouse taking up more than 5,000 square metres (53,820 square feet) of land.[106]

The All-Russian Exhibition Center (Всероссийский выставочный центр), formerly known as the All-Union Agricultural Exhibition (VSKhV) and later Exhibition of Achievements of the National Economy (VDNKh), though officially named a "permanent trade show", is one of the most prominent examples of Stalinist-era monumental architecture. Among the large spans of a recreational park, areas are scores of elaborate pavilions, each representing either a branch of Soviet industry and science or a USSR republic. Even though during the 1990s it was, and for some part still is, misused as a gigantic shopping center (most of the pavilions are rented out for small businesses), it still retains the bulk of its architectural landmarks, including two monumental fountains (Stone Flower and Friendship of Nations) and a 360 degrees panoramic cinema. In 2014 the park returned to the name Exhibition of Achievements of National Economy, and in the same year huge renovation works had been started.[109]

Lilac Park, founded in 1958, has a permanent sculpture display and a large rosarium. Moscow has always been a popular destination for tourists. Some of the more famous attractions include the city's UNESCO World Heritage Site, Moscow Kremlin and Red Square,[110] which was built between the 14th and 17th centuries.[111] The Church of the Ascension at Kolomenskoye, which dates from 1532, is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site and another popular attraction.[112]

Near the new Tretyakov Gallery there is a sculpture garden, Museon, often called "the graveyard of fallen monuments" that displays statues of the former Soviet Union that were removed from their place after its dissolution.

Other attractions include the Moscow Zoo, a zoological garden in two sections (the valleys of two streams) linked by a bridge, with nearly a thousand species and more than 6,500 specimens.[113] Each year, the zoo attracts more than 1.2 million visitors.[113] Many of Moscow's parks and landscaped gardens are protected natural environments.

Zaryadye31.jpgGL(176155)(10).webpVictory park on Poklonnaya Hill1.jpg

Zaryadye ParkVDNKhVictory park on Poklonnaya Hill

Moscow rings

Moscow's road system is centered roughly on the Kremlin at the heart of the city. From there, roads generally span outwards to intersect with a sequence of circular roads ("rings").

The first and innermost major ring, Bulvarnoye Koltso (Boulevard Ring), was built at the former location of the 16th-century city wall around what used to be called Bely Gorod (White Town).[114] The Bulvarnoye Koltso is technically not a ring; it does not form a complete circle, but instead a horseshoe-like arc that begins at the Cathedral of Christ the Savior and ends at the Yauza River.

The second primary ring, located outside the bell end of the Boulevard Ring, is the Sadovoye Koltso (Garden Ring). Like the Boulevard Ring, the Garden Ring follows the path of a 16th-century wall that used to encompass part of Moscow.[114]

Moscow as viewed from the International Space Station, January 29, 2014

The Third Ring Road, was completed in 2003 as a high-speed freeway.

The Fourth Transport Ring, another freeway, was planned, but cancelled in 2011. It will be replaced by a system of chordal highways.

Aside from aforementioned hierarchy, line 5 of Moscow Metro is a circle-shaped looped subway line (hence the name Koltsevaya Liniya, "ring line"), which is located between the Sadovoye Koltso and Third Transport Ring.

September 10, 2016, Moscow Central Circle renovated railroad (former Moskovskaya Okruzhnaya Zheleznaya Doroga) was introduced as 14th line of Moscow Metro. The railroad itself was in use since 1907, but before the renovation, it was a non-electrified railroad for transit needs of fueled locomotives only.

Another circle metro line - Big Circle Line (Bolshaya Koltsevaya Liniya) is under construction and will be finished about 2023.

The outermost ring within Moscow is the Moscow Ring Road (often called MKAD, acronym word for Russian Московская Кольцевая Автомобильная Дорога), which forms the cultural boundary of the city, was established in the 1950s. It is to note the method of building the road (usage of ground elevation instead of concrete columns throughout the whole way) formed a wall-like barrier that obstacles building roads under the MKAD highway itself).

Before 2012 expansion of Moscow, MKAD was considered an approximate border for Moscow boundaries.

Outside Moscow, some of the roads encompassing the city continue to follow this circular pattern seen inside city limits, with the notable examples of Betonka roads (highways A107 and A108), originally made of concrete pads.

In order to reduce transit traffic on MKAD, the new ring road (called CKAD - Centralnaya Koltsevaya Avtomobilnaya Doroga, Central Ring Road) is under construction now.

Transport rings in Moscow

LengthNameType

9 kmBoulevard Ring – Bulvarnoye Koltso (not a full ring)Road

16 kmGarden Ring – Sadovoye Koltso ("B")Road

19 kmKoltsevaya Line (Line 5)Metro

35 kmThird Ring Road – Third Transport Ring – Tretye Transportnoye Koltso (TTK)Road

54 kmLittle Ring of the Moscow Railway, re-opened as Moscow Central Ring (MCC) – Line 14Railway

20.2 kmBolshaya Koltsevaya line – Line 11Metro

109 kmMoscow Automobile Ring Road – Moskovskaya Koltsevaya Avtomobilnaya Doroga (MKAD)Road

Culture

Tretyakov Gallery

One of the most notable art museums in Moscow is the Tretyakov Gallery, which was founded by Pavel Tretyakov, a wealthy patron of the arts who donated a large private collection to the city.[115] The Tretyakov Gallery is split into two buildings. The Old Tretyakov gallery, the original gallery in the Tretyakovskaya area on the south bank of the Moskva River, houses works in the classic Russian tradition.[116] The works of famous pre-Revolutionary painters, such as Ilya Repin, as well as the works of early Russian icon painters can be found here. Visitors can even see rare originals by early 15th-century iconographer Andrei Rublev.[116] The New Tretyakov gallery, created in Soviet times, mainly contains the works of Soviet artists, as well as of a few contemporary paintings, but there is some overlap with the Old Tretyakov Gallery for early 20th-century art. The new gallery includes a small reconstruction of Vladimir Tatlin's famous Monument to the Third International and a mixture of other avant-garde works by artists like Kazimir Malevich and Wassily Kandinsky. Socialist realism features can also be found within the halls of the New Tretyakov Gallery.

The Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts

Another art museum in the city of Moscow is the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts, which was founded by, among others, the father of Marina Tsvetaeva. The Pushkin Museum is similar to the British Museum in London in that its halls are a cross-section of exhibits on world civilisations, with many copies of ancient sculptures. However, it also hosts paintings from every major Western era; works by Claude Monet, Paul Cézanne, and Pablo Picasso are present in the museum's collection.

The State Historical Museum of Russia (Государственный Исторический музей) is a museum of Russian history located between Red Square and Manege Square in Moscow. Its exhibitions range from relics of the prehistoric tribes inhabiting present-day Russia, through priceless artworks acquired by members of the Romanov dynasty. The total number of objects in the museum's collection numbers is several million. The Polytechnical Museum,[117] founded in 1872 is the largest technical museum in Russia, offering a wide array of historical inventions and technological achievements, including humanoid automata from the 18th century and the first Soviet computers. Its collection contains more than 160,000 items.[118] The Borodino Panorama[119] museum located on Kutuzov Avenue provides an opportunity for visitors to experience being on a battlefield with a 360° diorama. It is a part of the large historical memorial commemorating the victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 over Napoleon's army, that includes also the triumphal arch, erected in 1827. There is also a military history museum that includes statues, and military hardware.

The Bolshoi Theatre

Moscow is the heart of the Russian performing arts, including ballet and film, with 68 museums[120] 103[121] theaters, 132 cinemas and 24 concert halls. Among Moscow's theaters and ballet studios is the Bolshoi Theatre and the Malyi Theatre[122] as well as Vakhtangov Theatre and Moscow Art Theatre.

The Moscow International Performance Arts Center,[123] opened in 2003, also known as Moscow International House of Music, is known for its performances in classical music. It has the largest organ in Russia installed in Svetlanov Hall.

There are also two large circuses in Moscow: Moscow State Circus and Moscow Circus on Tsvetnoy Boulevard[124] named after Yuri Nikulin.

Memorial Museum of Astronautics under the Monument to the Conquerors of Space at the end of Cosmonauts Alley is the central memorial place for the Russian space officials.

The Mosfilm studio was at the heart of many classic films, as it is responsible for both artistic and mainstream productions.[125] However, despite the continued presence and reputation of internationally renowned Russian filmmakers, the once prolific native studios are much quieter. Rare and historical films may be seen in the Salut cinema, where films from the Museum of Cinema[126] collection are shown regularly.

The Shchusev State Museum of Architecture is the national museum of Russian architecture by the name of the architect Alexey Shchusev near the Kremlin area.

Moscow will get its own branch of the Hermitage Museum in 2024, with authorities having agreed upon the final project, to be executed by Hani Rashid, co-founder of New York-based 'Asymptote Architecture' - the same bureau that's behind the city's stock market building, the Busan-based World Business Center Solomon Tower and the Strata Tower in Abu-Dhabi.[127]

Sports

See also: Football in Moscow

The Luzhniki Stadium hosted the 1980 Summer Olympics and the 2018 FIFA World Cup Final.

SC Olimpiyskiy was built for the 1980 Summer Olympics.

Over 500 Olympic sports champions lived in the city by 2005.[128] Moscow is home to 63 stadiums (besides eight football and eleven light athletics maneges), of which Luzhniki Stadium is the largest and the 4th biggest in Europe (it hosted the 1998–99 UEFA Cup, 2007–08 UEFA Champions League finals, the 1980 Summer Olympics, and the 2018 FIFA World Cup with 7 games total, including the final). Forty other sport complexes are located within the city, including 24 with artificial ice. The Olympic Stadium was the world's first indoor arena for bandy and hosted the Bandy World Championship twice.[129] Moscow was again the host of the competition in 2010, this time in Krylatskoye.[130] That arena has also hosted the World Speed Skating Championships. There are also seven horse racing tracks in Moscow,[105] of which Central Moscow Hippodrome,[131] founded in 1834, is the largest.

CSKA Arena during a game of KHL, considered to be the second-best ice hockey league in the world

Moscow was the host city of the 1980 Summer Olympics, with the yachting events being held at Tallinn, in present-day Estonia. Large sports facilities and the main international airport, Sheremetyevo Terminal 2, were built in preparation for the 1980 Summer Olympics. Moscow had made a bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics. However, when final voting commenced on July 6, 2005, Moscow was the first city to be eliminated from further rounds. The Games were awarded to London.

The most titled ice hockey team in the Soviet Union and in the world, HC CSKA Moscow comes from Moscow. Other big ice hockey clubs from Moscow are HC Dynamo Moscow, which was the second most titled team in the Soviet Union, and HC Spartak Moscow.

The most titled Soviet, Russian, and one of the most titled Euroleague clubs, is the basketball club from Moscow PBC CSKA Moscow. Moscow hosted the EuroBasket in 1953 and 1965.

Moscow had more winners at the USSR and Russian Chess Championship than any other city.

The most titled volleyball team in the Soviet Union and in Europe (CEV Champions League) is VC CSKA Moscow.

In football, FC Spartak Moscow has won more championship titles in the Russian Premier League than any other team. They were second only to FC Dynamo Kyiv in Soviet times. PFC CSKA Moscow became the first Russian football team to win a UEFA title, the UEFA Cup (present-day UEFA Europa League). FC Lokomotiv Moscow, FC Dynamo Moscow and FC Torpedo Moscow are other professional football teams also based in Moscow.

Otkrytiye Arena, home of FC Spartak Moscow

VEB Arena, home of PFC CSKA Moscow

VTB Arena, home of FC Dynamo Moscow and HC Dynamo Moscow

RZD Arena, home of FC Lokomotiv Moscow

Moscow (/ˈmɒskoʊ/ MOS-koh, US chiefly /ˈmɒskaʊ/ MOS-kow;[10][11] Russian: Москва, tr. Moskva, IPA: [mɐˈskva] (About this soundlisten)) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 12.4 million residents within the city limits,[12] over 17 million residents in the urban area,[13] and over 20 million residents in the metropolitan area.[14] The city covers an area of 2,511 square kilometres (970 sq mi), while the urban area covers 5,891 square kilometres (2,275 sq mi),[13] and the metropolitan area covers over 26,000 square kilometres (10,000 sq mi).[14] Moscow is among the world's largest cities, being the largest city entirely in Europe, the largest urban area in Europe,[13] the largest metropolitan area in Europe,[14] and the largest city by land area on the European continent.[15]

First documented in 1147, Moscow grew to become a prosperous and powerful city that served as the capital of the Grand Duchy that bears its namesake. When the Grand Duchy of Moscow evolved into the Tsardom of Russia, Moscow still remained as the political and economic center for most of the Tsardom's history. When the Tsardom was reformed into the Russian Empire, the capital was moved from Moscow to Saint Petersburg diminishing the influence of the city. The capital was then moved back to Moscow following the October Revolution and the city was brought back as the political centre of the Russian SFSR and then the Soviet Union.[16] In the aftermath of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Moscow remained as the capital city of the contemporary and newly established Russian Federation.

As the northernmost and coldest megacity in the world, and with a history that dates over eight centuries, Moscow is governed as a federal city (since 1993)[17] that serves as the political, economic, cultural, and scientific centre of Russia and Eastern Europe. As an alpha world city,[18] Moscow has one of the world's largest urban economies. The city is one of the fastest growing tourist destinations in the world,[19] and is one of Europe's most visited cities. Moscow is home to the fourth-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world,[20] and has the highest number of billionaires of any city in Europe. The Moscow International Business Center is one of the largest financial centres in Europe and the world, and features some of Europe's tallest skyscrapers. Muscovites enjoy public digital services more than anywhere else in Europe,[21] and the best e-government services in the world.[22] Moscow was the host city of the 1980 Summer Olympics, and one of the host cities of the 2018 FIFA World Cup.[23]

As the historic core of Russia, Moscow serves as the home of numerous Russian artists, scientists, and sports figures due to the presence of its various museums, academic and political institutions and theatres. The city is home to several UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and is well known for its display of Russian architecture, particularly its historic Red Square, and buildings such as the Saint Basil's Cathedral and the Moscow Kremlin, of which the latter serves as the seat of power of the Government of Russia. Moscow is home to many Russian companies in numerous industries, and is served by a comprehensive transit network, which includes four international airports, nine railway terminals, a tram system, a monorail system, and most notably the Moscow Metro, the busiest metro system in Europe, and one of the largest rapid transit systems in the world. The city has over 40 percent of its territory covered by greenery, making it one of the greenest cities in Europe and the world.[15][24]

The name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River.[25][26] There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river. Finno-Ugric Merya and Muroma people, who were among the several pre-Slavic tribes which originally inhabited the area, called the river supposedly Mustajoki, in English: Black river. It has been suggested that the name of the city derives from this term.[27][28]

The most linguistically well-grounded and widely accepted is from the Proto-Balto-Slavic root *mŭzg-/muzg- from the Proto-Indo-European *meu- "wet",[26][29][30] so the name Moskva might signify a river at a wetland or a marsh.[25] Its cognates include Russian: музга, muzga "pool, puddle", Lithuanian: mazgoti and Latvian: mazgāt "to wash", Sanskrit: májjati "to drown", Latin: mergō "to dip, immerse".[25][29] In many Slavic countries Moskov is a surname, most common in Bulgaria, Russia, Ukraine and North Macedonia.[31] Additionally, there are similarly named places in Poland like Mozgawa.[25][26][29]

The original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky,[25][26] hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. As with other nouns of that declension, it had been undergoing a morphological transformation at the early stage of the development of the language, as a result the first written mentions in the 12th century were Московь, Moskovĭ (accusative case), Москви, Moskvi (locative case), Москвe/Москвѣ, Moskve/Moskvě (genitive case).[25][26] From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, which is a result of morphological generalisation with the numerous Slavic ā-stem nouns.

However, the form Moskovĭ has left some traces in many other languages, such as English: Moscow, German: Moskau, French: Moscou, Georgian: მოსკოვი, Latvian: Maskava, Ottoman Turkish: Moskov, Bashkir: Мәскәү, Tatar: Mäskäw, Kazakh: Мәскеу, Mäskew, Chuvash: Мускав, Muskav, etc. In a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy and muscovite.[32]

Various other theories (of Celtic, Iranian, Caucasic origins), having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists.[25][26]

Other names

Moscow has acquired a number of epithets, most referring to its size and preeminent status within the nation: The Third Rome (Третий Рим), the Whitestone One (Белокаменная), the First Throne (Первопрестольная), the Forty Soroks (Сорок Сороков) ("sorok" meaning both "forty, a great many" and "a district or parish" in Old Russian). Moscow is also one of the twelve Hero Cities. The demonym for a Moscow resident is "москвич" (moskvich) for male or "москвичка" (moskvichka) for female, rendered in English as Muscovite. The name "Moscow" is abbreviated "MSK" (МСК in Russian).[citation needed]

History

Main articles: History of Moscow and Timeline of Moscow

Prehistory

Archaeological digs show that the site of today's Moscow and the surrounding area have been inhabited since time immemorial. Among the earliest finds are relics of the Lyalovo culture, which experts assign to the Neolithic period, the last phase of the Stone Age.[33]

They confirm that the first inhabitants of the area were hunters and gatherers. Around 950 AD, two Slavic tribes, Vyatichi and Krivichi, settled here. Possibly the Vyatichi formed the core of Moscow's indigenous population.[34]

Early history (1147–1283)

Further information: Kievan Rus' and Vladimir-Suzdal

Vladimir-Suzdal, a principality on the northeastern periphery of Kievan Rus', grew into the Grand Duchy of Moscow.

The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a meeting place of Yuri Dolgoruky and Sviatoslav Olegovich. At the time it was a minor town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. The chronicle says, "Come, my brother, to Moskov" (Приди ко мне, брате, в Москов).[35]

In 1156, Knyaz Yury Dolgoruky fortified the town with a timber fence and a moat. In the course of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus', the Mongols under Batu Khan burned the city to the ground and killed its inhabitants.[citation needed]

The timber fort na Moskvě "on the Moscow River" was inherited by Daniel, the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, in the 1260s, at the time considered the least valuable of his father's possessions. Daniel was still a child at the time, and the big fort was governed by tiuns (deputies), appointed by Daniel's paternal uncle, Yaroslav of Tver.[citation needed]

Daniel came of age in the 1270s and became involved in the power struggles of the principality with lasting success, siding with his brother Dmitry in his bid for the rule of Novgorod. From 1283 he acted as the ruler of an independent principality alongside Dmitry, who became Grand Duke of Vladimir. Daniel has been credited with founding the first Moscow monasteries, dedicated to the Lord's Epiphany and to Saint Daniel.[36]

Grand Duchy (1283–1547)

Main article: Grand Duchy of Moscow

Kremlenagrad.jpg Facial Chronicle - b.10, p.049 - Tokhtamysh at Moscow.jpg Mikhail Feodorovich Izbranie.jpg

The Moscow Kremlin in the late 16th century The Siege of Moscow Red Square

Daniel ruled Moscow as Grand Duke until 1303 and established it as a prosperous city that would eclipse its parent principality of Vladimir by the 1320s.

On the right bank of the Moskva River, at a distance of five miles (8.0 kilometres) from the Kremlin, not later than in 1282, Daniel founded the first monastery with the wooden church of St. Daniel-Stylite, which is now the Danilov Monastery. Daniel died in 1303, at the age of 42. Before his death, he became a monk and, according to his will, was buried in the cemetery of the St. Daniel Monastery.

Moscow was quite stable and prosperous for many years and attracted a large number of refugees from across Russia. The Rurikids maintained large landholdings by practicing primogeniture, whereby all land was passed to the eldest sons, rather than dividing it up among all sons. By 1304, Yury of Moscow contested with Mikhail of Tver for the throne of the principality of Vladimir. Ivan I eventually defeated Tver to become the sole collector of taxes for the Mongol rulers, making Moscow the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal. By paying high tribute, Ivan won an important concession from the Khan.

Spassky Cathedral (Moscow's oldest extant building), built c. 1357

While the Khan of the Golden Horde initially attempted to limit Moscow's influence, when the growth of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania began to threaten all of Russia, the Khan strengthened Moscow to counterbalance Lithuania, allowing it to become one of the most powerful cities in Russia. In 1380, prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow led a united Russian army to an important victory over the Mongols in the Battle of Kulikovo. Afterwards, Moscow took the leading role in liberating Russia from Mongol domination. In 1480, Ivan III had finally broken the Russians free from Tatar control, and Moscow became the capital of an empire that would eventually encompass all of Russia and Siberia, and parts of many other lands.

The Spasskaya Tower, built in 1491

In 1462 Ivan III, (1440–1505) became Grand Prince of Moscow (then part of the medieval Muscovy state). He began fighting the Tatars, enlarged the territory of Muscovy, and enriched his capital city. By 1500 it had a population of 100,000 and was one of the largest cities in the world. He conquered the far larger principality of Novgorod to the north, which had been allied to the hostile Lithuanians. Thus he enlarged the territory sevenfold, from 430,000 to 2,800,000 square kilometres (170,000 to 1,080,000 square miles). He took control of the ancient "Novgorod Chronicle" and made it a propaganda vehicle for his regime.[37][38]

The original Moscow Kremlin was built in the 14th century. It was reconstructed by Ivan, who in the 1480s invited architects from Renaissance Italy, such as Petrus Antonius Solarius, who designed the new Kremlin wall and its towers, and Marco Ruffo who designed the new palace for the prince. The Kremlin walls as they now appear are those designed by Solarius, completed in 1495. The Kremlin's Great Bell Tower was built in 1505–08 and augmented to its present height in 1600.

A trading settlement, or posad, grew up to the east of the Kremlin, in the area known as Zaradye (Зарядье). In the time of Ivan III, the Red Square, originally named the Hollow Field (Полое поле) appeared.

In 1508–1516, the Italian architect Aleviz Fryazin (Novy) arranged for the construction of a moat in front of the eastern wall, which would connect the Moskva and Neglinnaya and be filled in with water from Neglinnaya. This moat, known as the Alevizov moat and having a length of 541 metres (1,775 feet), width of 36 metres (118 feet), and a depth of 9.5 to 13 metres (31–43 feet) was lined with limestone and, in 1533, fenced on both sides with low, four-metre-thick (13-foot) cogged-brick walls.

Tsardom (1547–1721)

Further information: Tsardom of Russia

Saint Basil's Cathedral, built in 1561

In the 16th and 17th centuries, the three circular defenses were built: Kitay-gorod (Китай-город), the White City (Белый город) and the Earthen City (Земляной город). However, in 1547, two fires destroyed much of the town, and in 1571 the Crimean Tatars captured Moscow, burning everything except the Kremlin.[39] The annals record that only 30,000 of 200,000 inhabitants survived.

View of 17th-century Moscow (1922 drawing by Apollinary Vasnetsov)

The Crimean Tatars attacked again in 1591, but this time were held back by new defense walls, built between 1584 and 1591 by a craftsman named Fyodor Kon. In 1592, an outer earth rampart with 50 towers was erected around the city, including an area on the right bank of the Moscow River. As an outermost line of defense, a chain of strongly fortified monasteries was established beyond the ramparts to the south and east, principally the Novodevichy Convent and Donskoy, Danilov, Simonov, Novospasskiy, and Andronikov monasteries, most of which now house museums. From its ramparts, the city became poetically known as Bielokamennaya, the "White-Walled". The limits of the city as marked by the ramparts built in 1592 are now marked by the Garden Ring.

Three square gates existed on the eastern side of the Kremlin wall, which in the 17th century, were known as Konstantino-Eleninsky, Spassky, Nikolsky (owing their names to the icons of Constantine and Helen, the Saviour and St. Nicholas that hung over them). The last two were directly opposite the Red Square, while the Konstantino-Elenensky gate was located behind Saint Basil's Cathedral.

"Sigismundian" Plan of Moscow (1610), named after Sigismund III of Poland, is the last city plan compiled before the destruction of the city in 1612 by retreating Polish troops and subsequent changes to the street network. Orientation: north is at the right, west at the top

The Russian famine of 1601–03 killed perhaps 100,000 in Moscow. From 1610 through 1612, troops of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied Moscow, as its ruler Sigismund III tried to take the Russian throne. In 1612, the people of Nizhny Novgorod and other Russian cities conducted by prince Dmitry Pozharsky and Kuzma Minin rose against the Polish occupants, besieged the Kremlin, and expelled them. In 1613, the Zemsky sobor elected Michael Romanov tsar, establishing the Romanov dynasty. The 17th century was rich in popular risings, such as the liberation of Moscow from the Polish–Lithuanian invaders (1612), th