THE NEW
SCHAFMERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
EDITED BY
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
( Editor-in- Chief )
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF
CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERMAN
[VOLUMES I— VI]
AND
GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.
{Associate Editors)
AND THE FOLLOWING DEPARTMENT EDITORS
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D.
(Department of Systematic Theology )
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.
(Department of Minor Denominations)
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
(Department of Liturgies and Religious Orders)
^ms^m^m\mtm/ff^K ll.d.
lent ofjffiel&ld Testament)
iE^^«^Vfell^RRilfA3SH,GD.D.
(Department of the New Testament)
itagT HENRY cNeWmAN0^^«L.D.
FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A.
(Department of Pronunciation and Typography)
Complete in twelve IDoIumes
FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY
NEW YORK AND LONDON
THE NEW
SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
EDITED BY
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
( Editor-in- Chief )
WITH THE SOLE ASSISTANCE, AFTER VOLUME VI., OF
GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.
{Associate Editor)
AND THE FOLLOWING DEPARTMENT EDITORS
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D.
(Department of Systematic Theology )
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.
(Department of Minor Denominations)
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
(Department of Liturgies and Religious Orders)
JAMES FREDERIC McCURDY, PH.D., LL.D.
(Department of the Old Testament)
HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.
(Department of the New Testament)
ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.
(Department of Church History)
FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A.
(Department of Pronunciation and Typography)
VOLUME X
REUSCH — SON OF GOD
FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY
NEW YORK AND LONDON
Copyright, 1911, by
FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY
Registered at Stationers' Hall, London, England
Printed in the United States of America
Published May, 1911
EDITORS
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(Editok-in-Chief. )
Professor of Church History, New York University.
GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.
(Associate Editor.)
New York,
Formerly Professor of Biblical History and Lecturer on Comparative Religion,
Bangor Theological Seminary.
DEPARTMENT EDITORS, VOLUME X
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH,
D.D.,
{Department of Systematic Theology.)
Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological
Seminary.
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.,
(Department of Minor Denominations.)
Secretary of Executive Committee of the Western Section
for the Fourth Ecumenical Methodist Conference.
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.,
(Department of Liturgies and Religious Orders.)
Rector of St. Gabriel's, New Rochelle, N. Y.
JAMES FREDERICK McCURDY, Ph.D.,
LL.D.,
(Department of the Old Testament.)
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College,
Toronto.
HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.,
(Department of the New Testament.)
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New
Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.
ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.,
(Department of Church History.)
Professor of Church History, Southwestern Baptist
Theological Seminary, Fort Worth, Tex.
FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A.,
(Department of Pronunciation and Typography.)
Managing Editor of the Standard Dictionary, etc.,
New York City.
CONTBIBUTOES AND COLLABOKATOKS, VOLUME X
JUSTIN EDWARDS ABBOTT, D.D.,
Missionary in Bombay, India.
HANS ACHELIS, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Halle.
FRANKLIN CARL ARNOLD, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Breslau. _,
BRUNO BAENTSCH (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor, University of Jena.
FERENCZ BALOGH, D.D.,
Professor of Church History, Reformed Theological Acad-
temy, Debreczen, Hungary.
HERMANN GEORG JULIUS BECK,
Consistorial Councilor and First Preacher, Bayreuth.
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH,
D.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology,
Seminary.
Chicago Theological
KARL BENRATH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Konigsberg.
IMMANUEL GUSTAV ADOLF BENZIN-
GER, Ph.D., Th.Lic,
German Orientalist and Vice-Consul for Holland in Jerusalem.
CARL BERTHEAU (t), Th.D.,
Late Pastor at St. Michael's, Hamburg.
EDWIN MUNSELL BLISS, D.D.,
Author of Books on Missions, Washington, D. C.
AMY GASTON CHARLES AUGUSTE
BONET-MAURY, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History, Independent School of Divinity,
Paris.
GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL BONWETSCH,
Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Gottingen.
GUSTAV BOSSERT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Retired Pastor, Stuttgart.
JOHANN FRANZ WILHELM BOUSSET,
Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of
Gottingen.
FRIEDRICH HEINRICH BRANDES,
Th.D.,
Reformed Minister and Chaplain at Buckeburg, Schaum-
burg-Lippe.
KARL BURGER (f), Th.D.,
Late Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Munich.
JOHN CAIRNS,
Clergyman of the United Free Church of Scotland,
Dumfries, Scotland.
PAOLO CALVINO,
Pastor at Lugano, Switzerland.
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.,
Secretary of the Executive Committee of the Western Section
for the Fourth Ecumenical Methodist Conference.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME X.
JOHN FLEMING CARSON, D,D.,
.Pastor of the Central Presbyterian Church, Brooklyn,
New York.
JAMES CARTER,
Professor of Church History and Sociology, Lincoln Univer-
sity, Pa.
PAUL CHRIST (f), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Zurich.
FERDINAND COHRS, Th.Lic,
Consistorial Councilor, Ilfeld, Germany.
WILLIAM HENRY COX,
Editor-in-Chief for the Salvation Army.
SAMUEL CRAMER, Th.D.,
Professor of the History of Christianity, University of Am-
sterdam, and Professor of Practical Theology, Mennonite
Theological Seminary, Amsterdam.
AUGUST HERMANN CREMER (f), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Systematic Theology, University of
Greifswald.
SAMUEL MARTIN DEUTSCH (f), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.
FRANZ WILHELM DIBELIUS, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor, City Superintendent, and
Pastor of the Kreuzkirche, Dresden.
ERNST VON DOBSCHUETZ, Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Breslau.
RICHARD WILHELM DOVE (f),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of Gottingen.
PAUL GOTTFRIED DREWS, Th.D.,
Professor of Theology, University of Berlin.
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.,
Pastor of St. Gabriel's, New Rochelle, New York.
SIMEON BILLINGHAM DUNN, D.D.,
Of the Editorial Staff of the New York Observer.
EMIL EGLI (f), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Zurich.
CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH DAVID
ERDMANN (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Honorary Professor of Church History, University of
Breslau.
JOHN OLUF EVJEN, Ph.D.,
Professor of Theology, Augsburg Seminary, Minneapolis,
Minn.
E. FABIAN, Ph.D.,
Gymnasial Professor in Zwickau, Saxony.
CHRISTIAN THEODOR FICKER, Ph.D.,
Emeritus Pastor at Eythra, near Leipsic.
FRITZ FLIEDNER (f), M.D.,
Late German Evangelist in Spain.
FRANK HUGH FOSTER, Ph.D., D.D.,
Professor of History, Olivet College, Michigan.
FRANZ HERMANN FRANK (f),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Erlangen.
GUSTAV WILHELM FRANK (f), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Dogmatics, Symbolics, and Christian
Ethics, University of Vienna.
ALBERT FREYBE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Emeritus Gymnasial Professor, Parchim, Mecklenburg.
GEORG FROBOESS,
Director for the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Prussia.
WILHELM GASS (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Heidelberg.
DAVID PERCY GILMORE, B.A.,
Specialist in Germanics, Brooklyn, N. Y.
GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.,
Formerly Lecturer on Comparative Religion, Bangor Theo-
logical Seminary, Associate Editor of The New Schaff-
Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge.
WASHINGTON GLADDEN, D.D., LL.D.,~
Pastor of the First Congregational Church, Columbus, Ohio.
FRANZ GOERRES, Ph.D.,
Assistant Librarian, University of Bonn.
LEOPOLD KARL GOETZ, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Philosophy, University of Bonn.
WILHELM GOETZ (f), Ph.D.,
Late Honorary Professor of Geography, Technical High
School, and Professor, Military Academy, Munich
GWILYM OSWALD GRIFFITH,
Pastor of the Sixth Avenue Baptist Church, Brooklyn, N. Y.
GEORG GRUETZMACHER, Ph.D., Th.Lic,
Extraordinary Professor of Church History, University of
Heidelberg.
HERMANN GUTHE, Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic.
WILHELM HADORN, Th.Lic,
Pastor in Bern and Lecturer on New Testament Exegesis,
University of Bern.
ARTHUR CRAWSHAY ALLISTON
HALL, D.D., LL.D.,
Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Vermont.
JULIUS HAMBURGER (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Munich.
ADOLF HARNACK, Ph.D., Th.D., Dr.
Jur., M.D.,
General Director of the Royal Library, Berlin.
EDWIN FRANCIS HATFIELD (f), D.D.,
Late Stated Clerk of the Presbyterian General Assembly,
New School.
ALBERT HAUCK, Ph.D., Th.D., Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Church History, University of Leipsic, Editor-
in-Chief of the Hauck-Herzog Realencyklopadie.
CARL FRIEDRICH GEORG HEINRICI,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic.
HEINRICH HERMELINK, Ph.D., Th.Lic,
Privat-docent in Church History, University of Leipsic.
JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRANZ MAX
HEROLD, Th.D.,
Ecclesiastical Councilor, Dean and City Preacher, Neustadt-
an-der-Aisch, Bavaria.
JOHANN JAKOB HERZOG (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Reformed Theology, University of
Erlangen.
PAUL HINSCHIUS (f), Th.D., Dr.Jur.,
Late Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of Berlin.
OSWALD HOLDER-EGGER, Ph.D.,
Professor at Berlin and Director for the Publication of the
Monumenta Germanice Historica.
KARL HOLL, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.
HENRY SCOTT HOLLAND, D.D.,
Canon of St. Paul's Cathedral, London.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME X.
GEORG HOLZ, Ph.D.,
Professor of German Language and Literature, University
of Leipsic.
JOHN HORSCH,
Pastor at Scottdale, Pa.
CARL BEBNHARD HUNDESHAGEN (t),
Th.D.,
Late Professor of New Testament Exegesis at Bonn.
george Mcpherson hunter,
Secretary of the American Seamen's Friend Society.
KARL JOHANNES HERMANN JACOBY,
Th.D.,
Professor of Homiletics, University of Konigsberg.
MARTIN KAEHLER, Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis,
University of Halle.
ADOLF HERMANN HEINRICH KAMP-
HAUSEN (f), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of
Bonn.
FERDINAND FRIEDRICH WILHELM
KATTENBUSCH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics, University of Halle.
EMIL FRIEDRICH KAUTZSCH,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Halle.
PETER GTJSTAV KAWERAU, Th.D.,
Supreme Gonsistorial Councilor, Provost of St. Peter's, Ber-
lin, and Honorary Professor, University of Berlin.
GOTTLOB KIRCHHOFER,
Minister at Schaffhausen, Switzerland.
OTTO KIRN, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics, University of Leipsic.
RUDOLF KITTEL, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic.
GEORG HEINRICH KLIPPEL (f), Ph.D.,
Late Rector at Verden, Prussia.
HEINRICH ADOLF KOESTLIN (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Privy Councilor in Cannstadt, formerly Professor of
Theology, University of Giessen.
THEODOR FRIEDRICH HERMANN
KOLDE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Erlangen.
HERMANN GUSTAV EDUARD KRUEGER,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Ghurch History, University 6i Giessen.
ERNST KUEHN, Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Dresden.
ABRAHAM KUENEN (f), D.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Leyden.
EUGEN LACHENMANN,
City Pastor, Leonberg, Wiirttemberg.
GEORG RITTER VON LAUBMANN (f),
Ph.D.,
Late Director of the Royal Library, Munich.
LUDWIG LEMME, Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Heidelberg.
C. H. d'E. LEPPINGTON,
Fellow of the Royal Economic Society, England.
ORLANDO FAULKLAND LEWIS,
General Secretary of the Prison Association of New York.
E. LEYRER (f),
Late Pastor in Plochingen, Wiirttemberg.
RUDOLF LIECHTENHAN, Th.Lic,
Pastor at Buch, Canton of Zurich, Switzerland.
PAUL LOBSTEIN, Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics in the Evangelical Theologies
Faculty, University of Strasburg.
GERHARD LOESCHKE, Th. Lie,
Privat-docent in Church History, University of Bonn
FRIEDRICH ARMIN LOOFS, Ph.D., Th.]
Professor of Church History, University of Halle.
WILHELM PHILIPP FRIEDRICH
FERDINAND LOTZ, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Erlang
CHARLES HALLAN McCARTHY, Ph.E
Professor of American History in the Catholic Universit
Washington, D. C.
HERMANN MALLET (f),
Late Pastor in Bremen.
PHILIPP MEYER, Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Hanover.
GEROLD MEYER VON KNONAU,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of History, University of Zurich.
ALEXANDER MICHELSEN (f), Ph.D.,
Late Pastor at Liibeck.
CARL THEODOR MIRBT, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Marburg.
ERNST FRIEDRICH KARL MUELLER
Th.D.,
Professor of Reformed Theology, University of Erlangen
GEORG MUELLER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Inspector of Schools, Leipsic.
CHRISTOF EBERHARD NESTLE,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor in the Theological Seminary, Maulbronn,
Wiirttemberg.
ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D
Professor of Church History, Southwestern Baptist The
logical Seminary, Fort Worth, Texas.
THEODOR JULIUS NEY, Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Speyer, Bavaria.
JAN JACOB VAN OOSTERZEE (+),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Utrecht.
CONRAD VON ORELLI, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and History of
Religion, University of Basel.
KARL HERMANN PAHNCKE,
Ecclesiastical Inspector, Public Schools, Pforta, Prussia.
ANTON FRIEDRICH LUDWIG PELT (t
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Superintendent in Kemnitz.
CARL PETER (f), Th.D.,
Late Consistorial Councilor, Jena.
CARL PFENDER,
Pastor of St. Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church, Paris
EDUARD CHARLES PLATZHOFF-
LEJEUNE, Ph.D.,
Formerly Privat-docent in Philosophy at Geneva.
LYMAN PIERSON POWELL,
Rector of St. John's, Northampton, Mass.
Vlll
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME X.
WALDO SELDEN PRATT, Mus.D.,
Professor of Music and Hymnology, Hartford Theological
Seminary, Conn.
ERWIN PREUSCHEN, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Pastor at Hirschhom-on-the-Neckar, Germany.
EDUARD GUILLAUME EUGENE
RETJSS (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor o." Theology, University of Strasburg.
OTTO KARL ALBRECHT RITSCHL, Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology in the Evangelical
Theological Faculty, Bonn.
RUDOLF ROCHOLL (f), Th.D.,
Late Ecclesiastical Councilor, Dusseldorf.
GUSTAV RUDLOFF (f), Th.D.,
Late Superintendent in Wangenheim.
KARL HEINRICH SACK (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology at Bonn.
DAVID SCHLEY SCHAFF, D.D.,
Professor of Church History, Western Theological Seminary,
Pittsburg, Pa.
PHILIP SCHAFF (f), D.D., LL.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, Union Theological
Seminary, New York, and Editor of the Original
Schaff-Hebzog Encyclopaedia.
CHRISTOF GOTTLOB VON SCHEURL (f),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor in Nuremberg.
CARL SCHMIDT (f), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Strasburg.
EDMUND SCHMIDT,
Pastor in Krappitz, Prussia.
OSWALD SCHMIDT (f),
Late Superintendent in Werdau, Saxony.
JOHANNES SCHNEIDER,
Emeritus Pastor, Darmstadt.
CARL WILHELM SCHOELL (f),
Ph.D., D.D.,
Late Pastor of the Savoy Church, London.
KARL SCHORNBAUM, Ph.D.,
Pastor in Alfeld, Prussia.
MAXIMILIAN VICTOR SCHULTZE,
Th.D.,
Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology,
University of Greifswald.
LUDWIG THEODOR SCHULZE, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Retired Professor of Systematic Theology, University of
Rostock.
REINHOLD SEEBERG, Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Berlin.
EMIL SEHLING, Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical and Commercial Law, University
of Erlangen.
WILLIAM AMBROSE SHEDD, D.D.,
Missionary, Urumia, Persia.
FRIEDRICH ANTON EMIL SIEFFERT,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Bonn.
ERNEST GOTTLIEB SIHLER, Ph.D.,
Professor of Latin, New York University.
EDUARD SIMONS, Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Practical Theology, University
of Berlin.
PHILIPP FRIEDRICH ADOLPH THEO-
DOR SPAETH (t), D.D., LL.D.,
Late Professor in the Lutheran Theological Seminary,
Mt. Airy, Philadelphia.
ANTHONY ANASTASIOU STAMOULI,
Formerly Member of the Editorial Staff of Atlantis, New York.
CHARLES JANEWAY STILLE (f), LL.D.,
Late Professor of History, University of Pennsylvania.
HERMANN LEBERECHT STRACK, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and
Semitic Languages, University of Berlin.
LEWIS CLINTON STRANG,
Author and Christian Science Practitioner, Boston, Mass.
RUDOLF STUEBE, Ph.D.,
Head Master, Nicolai Gymnasium, Leipsic.
JAMES WESTFALL THOMPSON, Ph.D.,
Associate Professor of History, University of Chicago.
CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, LL.D.,
Emeritus Professor of Hebrew, Harvard University.
PAUL TSCHACKERT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History University of Gottingen.
JOHANN GERHARD WILHELM
UHLHORN (f), Th.D.,
Late Abbot of Lokkum, Germany.
EBERHARD VISCHER, Th.D.,
Professor of Theology, University of Basel.
WILHELM VOGT, Ph.D.,
Gymnasial Rector, Nuremberg.
HENRI VUILLEUMIER, Th.D.,
Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, University
of Lausanne.
JULIUS AUGUST WAGENMANN (t),
Th.D.,
Late Consistorial Councilor, Gottingen.
HANS WAITZ, Th.D.,
Pastor in Darmstadt.
CARL HEINRICH VON WEIZ-
SAECKER (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Tubingen.
JOHANN JAKOB WERNER,
Privat-docent in Medieval Philology, Zurich.
FRANCIS METHERALL WHITLOCK,
Pastor of the Bethlehem Congregational Church, Cleveland,
Ohio.
AUGUST WUENSCHE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Retired Titular Professor, Dresden.
RUDOLF ZEHNPFUND, Ph.D.>
Pastor in Oranienbaum.
OTTO ZOECKLER (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
durch History and .
sity of Greifswald.
Late Professor of Church History and Apologetics, Univer-
jifsv
RICHARD OTTO ZOEPFFEL (f), Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Strasburg.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX-VOLS. I-X
The following list of books is supplementary to the bibliographies given at the end of the articles
contained in vols. I.-X., and brings the literature down to Feb. 20, 1911. In this list each title entry-
is printed in capital letters. It is to be noted that, throughout the work, in the articles as a rule only
first editions are given. In the bibliographies the aim is to give either the best or the latest edition,
and in case the book is published both in America and in some other country, the American place of
issue is usually given the preference.
Abbott, E. A.: The Son of Man: or, Contributions
to the Study of the Thoughts of Jesus, London,
1910.
Africa: R. E. Dennett, Nigerian Studies; the re-
ligious and political System of Yoruba, New
York, 1910.
Alexandria: CSCO, vol. IX., fasc. II., contains
Severus Ben el Mogaffa: Historia Patri-
archarum Alexandrinorum, vol. I., fasc. II.,
ed. C. F. Seybold, Vienna, 1910.
Apocrypha: J. Miiller, Beitrage zur Erkldrung und
Kritik des Buches Tobit, in Revue de Vorient
chretien, 1910.
Apologetics : J. F. Loye, The Unique Message and
the Universality of Christianity, New York
and Chicago, 1910.
W. D. Mackenzie, The Final Faith; a Statement
of the Nature and Authority of Christianity as
the Religion of the World, New York, 1910.
Armenia: T. E. Dowling, The Armenian Church,
London, 1910.
M. Ormanian, L'Eglise armenienne. Son his-
toire, sa doctrine, son regime, sa discipline, sa
Utter ature, son present, Paris, 1910.
Asylum: J. C. Cox, The Sanctuaries and Sanctuary
Seekers of Mediceval England, London, 1910.
Atonement: J. B. Champion, The Living Atone-
ment, Philadelphia, 1910.
C. C. Morgan, A Lawyer's Brief on the Atone-
ment, Boston, 1911.
Augustine: W. J. S. Simpson, St. Augustine and
African Church Divisions, London, 1910.
Sancti Aurelii Augustini episcopi de civitate
dei libri XXII., ed. E. Hoffmann, vol. I., libri
i.-xiii., Vienna, 1910.
Babylonia: C. Fossey, L'Assyriologie en 1907.
Generalites. Explorations et families. Langues
sumerienne et assyrienne. Geographie et his-
toire, religion, droit, vie privee, astronomie,
meteorologie, litterature, varia, archeologie, in-
fluences babyloniennes, Paris, 1910.
R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Letters
belonging to the Kouyunjik Collections of the
British Museum, vol. ix., Chicago, 1910.
H. Schneider, Kultur und Denker der Baby-
lonier und Juden, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1910.
Bacon, F. : G. W. Steeves, Francis Bacon: a Sketch
of his Life, Works, Literary Friends, etc.,
London, 1910.
Bernard of Clairvaux: St. Bernard, Abbot of
Clairvaux. Selections from his Letters, Medi-
tations, etc., rendered into English by H. Grim-
ley, London, 1910.
Bible Text: Der Cambridger Psalter, Hamburg,
1911.
H. A. Sanders, The Old Testament Manuscript
in the Freer Collection. Part I.: The Wash-
ington Manuscript of Deuteronomy and
Joshua, New York, 1910.
A. Souter, Novum Testamentum Grace, London,
1910.
H. J. Vogels, Die Harmonistik im Evangelium-
text des Codex Cantabrigiensis. Bin Beitrag
zur neutestamentlichen Textkritik, Leipsic,
1910.
Bible Versions: J. O. Bevan, Our English Bible:
The History and Its Development, London,
1911.
W. J. Heaton, Our Own English Bible: its
Translators and their Work, London, 1910;
The Bible of the Reformation, London, 1910.
J. P. Hentz, Hist, of Lutheran Versions of the
Bible, Columbus, Ohio, 1910.
W. Muir, Our Grand Old Bible. Being the Story
of the Authorized Version of the English Bible,
Told for the Tercentenary Celebration, London,
1910.
Fourteenth Century English Bible Versions, ed.
A. C. Pauis, Cambridge, 1904.
Biblical Criticism: F. C. Conybeare, History of
New Testament Criticism, London, 1910.
R. Kittel, The Scientific Study of the Old Testa-
ment. Its Principal Results, and their Bear-
ing upon Religious Instruction, London, 1910.
Biblical Theology: T. K. Cheyne, The Two Re-
ligions of Israel. With a Re-examination of
the Prophetic Narratives and Utterances,
London, 1910.
M. Dibelius, Die Geisterwelt im Glauben des
Paulus, Gottingen, 1909.
P. C. Purves, The Gospel according to Hosea and
the Master's Gospel, London, 1910.
H. C. Sheldon, New Testament Theology, new
rev. ed., New York, 1911.
J. Weiss, Paulus und Jesus, Berlin, 1909.
Blaurer, T.: Briefwechsel der Bruder Ambrosius
und Thomas Blaurer, 1509-1548. Herausge-
geben von der badischen historischen Kommis-
sion, ed. Traugott Schiess. Vol. i.: 1509 bis
Juni 1538. Vol. ii., August 1538 bis Ende
1548, Freiburg, 1908-10.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX— VOLUMES I-X
Bossuet, J. B.: E. Longuemare, Bossuet et la so-
ciete francaise sous le regne de Louis XIV.,
Paris, 1910.
Bourignon, A.: A. R. Macewen, Antoinette Bourig-
non, Quietist; her Life and Doctrines, New
York, 1910.
Bowne, B. P.: C. B. Pyle, The Philosophy of Bor-
den Parker Bowne and its Application to the
Religious Problem, Columbus, O., 1910.
Brooks, P.: J. Gregory, Phillips Brooks: A Study
for Present-day Preachers, London, 1911.
Brahmanism: H. Brunnhofer, Das Buch der hun-
dert Pfade (Catapatha Brahmana), die al-
teste Quelle der Ritualwissenschaft, Bern,
1910.
Buddhism: T. Richard, The New Testament of
Higher Buddhism, New York, 1911.
J. Wettha Sinha, The Singularity of Buddhism,
with Introduction and Notes by F. L. Wood-
ward, London, 1910.
Burkitt, F. C: The Earliest Sources for the Life of
Jesus, London, 1910.
Burma: R. T. Kelly, Burma; the Land and the
People, Boston, 1911.
Catharinus, Ambrosius: J. Schweizer, Ambrosius
Catharinus Politus (lJf8J,.—155S), ein Theologe
des Reformationzeitalters. Sein Leben und
seine Schriften, Miinster, 1910.
Charles V.: E. Armstrong, The Emperor Charles
V., 2 vols., new ed., London, 1910.
China: A. Little, Gleanings from Fifty Years in
China. Revised by Mrs. A. Little, London,
1910.
E. H. Parker, Studies in Chinese Religion, New
York, 1910.
Christology: W Olschewski, Die Wilrzeln der
paulinischen Christologie, Konigsberg, 1909.
Church History: H. Appel, Kurzgefasste Kirchen-
geschichte fur Studierende. Part 1. Alte
Kirchengeschichte, 1909. Part 2. Kirchen-
geschichte des Mittelalters, Leipsic, 1910.
B. W Bacon, The Founding of the Church,
London, 1910.
F. W. Butler, The Permanent Element in
Christianity, London, 1909.
L. David and P. Lorette, Histoire de Viglise,
Paris, 1910.
S. M. Deutsch, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte,
Bonn, 1909.
E. A. Edgehill, The Spirit of Power, as seen in
the Christian Church in the Second Century,
London, 1910.
Canon E. E. Holmes, The Church; her Books
and her Sacraments, New York, 1910.
W. Kohler, Idee und Personlichkeit in der
Kirchengeschichte, Tubingen, 1910.
M. Manitius, Geschichte der lateinischen Litera-
tur des Mittelalters, I. Teil: Von Justinian
bis zur Mitte des 10. Jahrhundert, Munich,
1910.
C. Platts, Pioneers of Faith, London, 1910.
Sir W. M. Ramsay, Pictures of the Apostolic
Church, its Life and Thought, Philadelphia,
1910.
K. Sell, Christenthum und Weltgeschichte bis
zur Reformation, Leipsic, 1910.
Clement of Rome: Bruchstiicke des ersten Clemens-
briefes, ed. F. Rosch, Strasburg, 1910.
Comenius, J. A.: The Great Didactic. Translated
into English and edited with biographical,
historical and critical Introductions by M. W
Keatinge, part 1, London, 1910.
Common Prayer, Book of: J. H. Benton, The
Book of Common Prayer and Books Con-
nected with its Origins and Growth; Catalogue
of the Collection of Josiah Henry Benton,
Boston, 1910.
Comparative Religion: A. Churchward, The
Signs and Symbols of Primordial Man. Being
an Explanation of the Evolution of Religious
Doctrines from the Eschatology of the ancient
Egyptians, London, 1910.
F. B. Jevons, The Idea of God in Early Religions,
London, 1910.
Conscience: T. H. Lipscomb, Conscience and its
Culture; or through Conscience to Christ,
Nashville, Tenn., 1910.
Cooke, G. A.: The Progress of Revelation. Sermons
chiefly on the Old Testament, Edinburgh,
1910.
Creation, Babylonian Accounts of the: A.
Kirchner, Die babylonische Kosmogonie und
der biblische Schopfungsbericht. Ein Beitrag
zur Apologie des biblischen Gottesbegriffes,
Miinster, 1910.
Daniel: E. Hertlein, Der Daniel der Romerzeit,
Leipsic, 1908.
Dante: R. W. Church, Dante, new ed., London,
1910.
F. Flamini, Introduction to the Study of the
Divine Comedy, Boston, 1910.
Denmark: A. Krarup and J. Lindbsek, Acta Pon-
tificum Danica, vol. iv., 1471-92, Copen-
hagen, 1910.
Dionysius: A. B. Sharpe, Mysticism, its true Na-
ture and Value. With a Translation of the
mystical Theology of Dionysius and of the
Letters of Carus and Dorotheus, London,
1910.
Diseases and the Healing Art: L. Kotelmann,
Die Opthalmologie bei den alten Hebrdern.
Aus den alt- und neutestamentlichen Schrif-
ten mit Berucksichtigung des Talmuds dar-
gestellt, Hamburg, 1910.
Divorce: H. J. Wilkens, The History of Divorce
and Remarriage. Compiled from Holy Scrip-
ture, Church Councils, and Authoritative
Writers, London, 1910.
Dobschuetz, E. von: The Apostolic Age, New
York, 1910; The Eschatology of the Gospels,
London, 1910.
Doctrine, History of: G. N. Bonwetsch, Grund-
riss der Dogmengeschichte, Munich, 1909.
A. Humbert, Les Origines de la theologie mo-
derne. I. La Renaissance de I'antiquite chre-
tienne {1450-1620), Paris, 1910.
Dods, M. : Early Letters of Marcus Dods, London,
1911.
Dogma, Dogmatics: See below, Lobstein.
J. H. Snowden, The Basal Beliefs of Christi-
anity, New York, 1911.
Egypt: E. A. W. Budge, Facsimiles of Egyptian
Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum, Brit-
ish Museum, 1911.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX— VOLUMES I-X
Egyptian Exploration Fund: E. Naville, The
Eleventh Dynasty. Temple at Deir-el-Ba-
hari. Part II. With Architectural Descrip-
tions by Somers Clark. ISth Memoir of the
Egyptian Exploration Fund, 1911.
England, Church of: J. F. Kendall, A Short His-
tory of the Church of England, New York,
1911.
F. J. Kinsman, Principles of Anglicanism
London, 1911.
Epiphanius: K. Holl, Die handschriftliche Ueberlie-
ferung des Epiphanius (Ancoratus und Pan-
arion), Leipsic, 1910.
Episcopacy: D. Stone, Episcopacy and Valid
Orders in the Primitive Orders in the Primi-
tive Church. A Statement of Evidence, New
York, 1910.
Eschatology: See above, Dobschuetz.
Ethics: T. C. Hall, History of Ethics within Organ-
ized Christianity, London, 1910.
Eusebius of C^bsarea: Eusebii Hieronymi epis-
tulce. Pars I. Epistulce I.-LXX., ed. I. Hil-
berg, Vienna, 1910.
Exorcism: F. J. Dolger, Der Exorzismus im alt-
christlichen Tauf ritual. Eine religionsge-
schichtliche Studie, Paderborn, 1909.
Ezra-Nehemiah: J. Theis, Geschichtliche und
literarkritische Fragen in Esra i.-vi., in Ab-
handlungen, alttestamentliche, vol. ii., part 4,
Miinster, 1910.
Faith: J. G. W Herrmann, Faith and Morals.
1 . Faith as Ritschl defined it; 2, The Moral
Law as understood in Romanism and Pro-
testantism, London, 1910.
J. Lindsay, The Psychology of Belief, London,
1910.
Garvie, A. E.: The Christian Certainty amid the
Modern Perplexity, London, 1910.
Geiger, A. : L. Geiger, Abraham Geiger, Leben und
Lebenswerk, Berlin, 1910.
Germany: W. Konen, Germanenbekehrung . Part
I. Die Heidenpredigt und der Germanenbe-
kehrung, Diisseldorf, 1910.
Gospels: W M. F. Petrie, The Growth of the Gos-
pels as Shown by Structural Criticism, New
York, 1910.
T. J. Thoburn, The Resurrection Narratives and
Modern Criticism. A Critique of Prof.
Schmiedel's Article in the Encyclopaedia Bib-
lica, London, 1910.
J. M. Wilson, Studies in the Origins and Aims
of the Four Gospels, London, 1910.
Hall, F J.: The Trinity (Dogmatic Theology, vol.
iv.), New York and London, 1911.
Hebrews, Epistle to the: F Dibelius, Der Ver-
fasser des Hebraerbriefes. Eine Untersuch-
ung zur Geschichte des Urchristentums, Stras-
burg, 1910.
Hegel, G. W. F.: The Phenomenology of Mind, 2
vols., Transl., with Introduction and Notes
by J B. Baillie, London, 1910.
Herrmann, J. G. W. : See Faith, above.
Hexateuch: See below under Naville.
H. M. Wiener, The Origin of the Pentateuch,
Oberlin, O., 1910.
Hinduism: Brahm Sankar Misra, Discourses on
Radhasoami Faith. An Exposition of the
Principles of the New Religious Order, Benares,
1910.
Holy Spirit: W. E. Biederwolf, A Help to the
Study of the Holy Spirit, New York and
Chicago, 1911.
Huguenots: J. Bloundelle-Burton, The Fate of
Henry of Navarre, London, 1910.
Hutten, U. von: D. S. Jordan, Ulrich von Hutten
" Knight of the Order of Poets," Boston, 1910.
Innocent XL : F. de Bojani, Innocent XI. Sa cor-
respondance avec ses nonces 21 Septembre
1676-31 Decembre 1679, Rome, 1910.
Isaiah: M. Glazebrook, Studies in the Book of
Isaiah, New York, 1910.
Israel, History of: D. Chwolson, Beitrdge zur
Entwickelung des Judentums, Leipsic, 1910.
S. Daisches, The Jews in Babylonia in the Time
of Nehemiah according to Babylonian Inscrip-
tions, London, 1910.
A. Loisy, The Religion of Israel, New York,
1910.
L. Lucas, Zur Geschichte der Juden im 4- Jahr-
hundert, Berlin, 1910.
D. Neumark, Geschichte der judischen Philoso-
phic des Mittelalters nach Problemen darge-
stellt. Vol. II., part 1. Die Grundprinzipien;
part 3: Attributenlehre, 1st half: Altertum,
Berlin, 1910.
N. Peters, Die jildische Gemeinde von Elephan-
tine-Syene und ihr Tempel im 5. Jahrhundert
vor Christi, Freiburg, 1910.
W. M. F. Petrie, Egypt and Israel, London,
1910.
Italy: G. Buschbell, Reformation und Inquisition
in Italien um die Mitte des XVI. Jahrhun-
derts, Paderborn, 1910.
P. Villari, Mediceval Italy from Charlemagne to
Henry VII., London, 1910.
Jainism: Nyayavatara: The Earliest Jaina Work
on Pure Logic, by Siddha Sena Divakara,
Calcutta, 1909.
Jesus Christ: C. M. Bishop, Jesus the Worker;
Studies in the Ethical Leadership of the Son
of Man, London, 1910.
A. Drews, The Christ Myth. Translated from
the Third Edition (revised and enlarged) by
C. Burns, Chicago and London, 1910.
F. H. Dudden, Christ and Christ's Religion,
Edinburgh, 1910.
F. R. M. Hitchcock, Christ and His Critics.
Studies in the Person and Problems of Jesus,
London, 1910.
A. Niemojewski, Gott Jesus im Lichte fremder
und eigener Forschungen samt Darstellung
der evangelischen Astralstoffe, Astralszenen
und Astralsysteme, 2 vols., Munich, 1910.
Job: N. Schmidt, The Message of the Poets; the
Book of Job and Canticles and some Minor
Poems in the Old Testament, New York, 1911.
John the Apostle: E. H. Askwith, The Historical
Value of the Fourth Gospel, London, 1910.
P. Ferguson, A Month with the Apostle John.
A Study of his First Epistle, London, 1910.
G. T. Jowett, The Apocalypse of St. John; a
brief Contribution to the Controversy as to Date
and Authority thereof with a short History of
its interpretation, New York, 1910.
Xll
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX— VOLUMES I-X
Kant: F. Pinski, Der hochste Standpunkt der Tran-
zendental Philosophie. Versuch einer Ver-
vollstdndigung und systematischen Darstellung
der letzten Gedanken Immanuel Kants, Halle,
1911.
R. M. Wenley, Kant and his Philosophical Rev-
olution, Edinburgh, 1910.
Kempis, T. a.: R. Storr, Concordance to the Latin
Original of De imitatione Christi, New York,
1910.
Knox, G. W. : The Gospel of Jesus, the Son of God.
An Interpretation for the Modern Man,
London, 1910.
Leightox, R. : Archbishop Leighton's Practise of
the Presence of God: a Tercentenary Volume
with Biographical Introduction by D. But-
ler, London, 1911.
Liturgy: F C. Eeles, Traditional Ceremonial and
Customs Connected with the Scottish Liturgy,
New York, 1910.
T. Schermann, Der liturgische Papyrus von der
Balyzeh. Eine Abendmahlsliturgie des Oster-
morgens, Leipsic, 1910.
Lobstein, P.: An Introduction to Protestant Dog-
matics, Chicago, 1910.
Luke: B. S. Easton, Linguistic Evidence for the
Lucan Source L, in JBL, xxix (1910), 139-
180.
Lutherans: E. Weber, Der Einfluss der protes-
tantischen Schulphilosophie auf die orthodox-
lutherische Dogmatik, Leipsic, 1908.
McCabe, J.: The Evolution of Mind, London,
1910.
Magic: T. de Cauzons, La Magie et la sorcellerie en
France, Paris, 1910.
Manning: V de Marolles, Kardinal Manning,
Mainz, 1911.
Matr: S. Beissel, Geschichte der Verehrung Marias
im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert, Freiburg, 1910.
Missions: W. O. Carver, Missions and Modern
Thought, New York, 1910.
J. Jackson, Lepers: Thirty-six Years' Work
Among Them. Being the History of the Mis-
sion to Lepers in India and the East, 1874-
1910, new ed., London, 1910.
H. F Williams, In Four Continents; a Sketch
of the Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian
Church, U. S., Richmond, Va., 1910.
W. T. Coppin, John Martin; Pioneer, Mission-
ary, Hero, and Saint, London, 1911.
J. P. Jones, The Modern Missionary Challenge;
a Study of the Present Day World Missionary
Enterprise; its Problems and Results, New
York and Chicago, 1910.
H. C. Mabie, The Task worth while; or, the di-
vine Philosophy of Missions, Boston, 1910.
Alexander Tomory: Indian Missionary, Edin-
burgh, 1910.
Methodists: G. Alexander, The Doctrines and Dis-
cipline of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
South, Nashville, Tenn., 1910.
W J. Townsend, H. B. Workman, and G. E.
Ay res, New History of Methodism, 2 vols.,
London, 1910.
Mohammed, Mohammedanism: M. Bromhall, Islam
in China. A Neglected Problem, London,
1910.
J. Strzygowski, Beitrage zur Kunstgeschichte des
Mittelalters von Nordmesopotamien, in Ma-
teriaux pour Vepigraphie et Vhistoire musul-
manes du Diyar-Bekr par M. van Berchem,
Heidelberg and Paris, 1910.
Monasticism: M. Dix, Instructions on the Religious
Life. Given to the Sisters of St. Mary, New
York and London, 1910.
Morality, Moral Law: See Faith, above.
E. Westermarck, Ur sprung und Entwickelung
der Moralbegriffe, vol. ii., Leipsic, 1909.
Mythology: W Schmidt, Die Mythologie der
austronesischen Volker, Vienna, 1909; idem,
Grundlinien einer Vergleichung der Reli-
gionen und Mythologien der austronesischen
Volker, Vienna, 1910.
Naville, E. : La Decouverte de la loi sous le Roi
Josias. Une Interpretation egyptienne d'un
texte biblique, Paris, 1910, Eng. transl., The
Discovery of the Book of the Law under King
Josiah, London, 1910.
Nestorians: W. A. Wigram, An Introduction to
the History of the Assyrian Church; or the
Church of the Sassinid Persian Empire, 100-
640, A.D., London, 1910.
Nestorius : Le Livre d'Heraclide de Dumas. Traduit
en francais par F. Nau, avec le concurs du R.
P. Bedjan et de M. Briere. Suivi de texte
grec des trois homelies de Nestorius sur les
tentations de Notre-Seigneur et de trois ap-
pendices: Lettre a Cosme, Presents envoyis
d' Alexandrie, Lettre de Nestorius aux habitants
de Constantinople, Paris, 1910.
NicjEa: E. A. W. Budge, Texts Relating to Saint
Mena of Egypt and Canons of Nicasa in a
Nubian Dialect, London, 1910.
Nietzsche, F. : S. Friedlander, Friedrich Nietzsche:
Eine intellektuelle Biographie, Leipsic, 1911.
D. Halevy, The Life of Friedrich Nietzsche.
Translated by J. M. Hone, London, 1911.
A. M. Ludovici, Nietzsche, London, 1910.
Works, vols, vii.-ix., New York, 1911.
Non-conformists: J. Ritson, The Romance of Non-
conformity, London, 1910.
North African Church: F. Martroye, Genseric.
La Conquete vandale en Afrique et le destruc-
tion de Vempire d'occident, Paris, 1907.
W. J. S. Simpson, St. Augustine and African
Church Divisions, New York, 1910.
Oesterley, W. O. E., The Psalms in the Jewish
Church, London, 1910.
Ordination: T. A. Lacey, A Roman Diary and
other Documents Relating to the Papal In-
quiry into English Ordinations, London,
1910.
Organization: C. G. A. Harnack, Constitution and
Law of the Church in the First Two Centuries,
New York, 1910.
Orr, J. : The Faith of a Modern Christian, London,
1910.
Palestine: W Harvey and Others, The Church of
the Nativity at Bethlehem, London, 1911.
Parables: L. G. Broughton, The Kingdom Para-
bles and their Teaching, New York and
Chicago, 1910.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX— VOLUMES I-X
Xlll
Pascal: A. Grazier, Les Derniers Jours de Blaise
Pascal. Etude historique et critique, Paris,
1911.
Pastoral Theology: W J. Da vies, The Minister
at Work, London, 1910.
Paul the Apostle: R. J. Fletcher, A Study of the
Conversion of St. Paul, London, 1910.
M. Jones, St. Paul the Orator, London, 1910.
R. Knopf, Paulus, Leipsic, 1909.
E. Vischer, Der Apostel Paulus und sein Werk,
Leipsic, 1910.
Paul IV.: L. Riess, Die Politik Pauls IV und
seiner Nepoten, Berlin, 1909.
Persecutions: J. Visser, Der Christenvervolgin-
gen in de eerste eeuwen na Christus, Kempen,
1910.
Persia: V. Berard, Revolutions de la Perse. Les
Provinces, les peuples, et le governement du roi
des rois, Paris, 1910.
Ella C. Sykes, Persia and its People, New York,
1910.
Peru: C. R. Markham, The Incas of Peru, London,
1910.
Pessimism: A. Vogele, Der Pessimismus und das
Tragische in Kunst und Leben, Freiburg,
1910.
Petrie, W- M. F.: see above, Israel, History op.
Ppleiderer, O.: Primitive Christianity; Its Wri-
tings and Teachings in their Historical Con-
nections, vol. 3, London, 1910.
Philip of Hesse: P. Wappler, Die Stellung Kur-
sachsens und des Landgrafen Philipp von
Hessen zur Tauferbewegung, Minister, 1910.
Philo: E. Brehier, Philon, Commentaire allegorique
des Saintes Lois, Greek Text with French
Translation, Paris, 1909.
Pierson, A. T. : Knowing the Scriptures; Rules and
Methods of Bible Study, London, 1910.
Platonism: N. Hartmann, Platos Logik des Seins,
Giessen, 1909.
Pope, Papacy: W. E. Beet, The Rise of the Papacy,
London, 1910.
H. K. Mann, The Lives of the Popes in Middle
Ages, vols, v.-viii., London, 1910.
L. Pastor, History of the Popes from the close
of the Middle Ages, vol. x., London, 1911.
Regesta Pontificum Romanorum. lubente regia
societate Gottingensi congessit Paulus Fridoli-
nus Kehr. Vol. i., Italia pontificia sive reper-
torium privilegiorum et litterarum a Romanis
pontificibus ante annum MCLXXXXVIH.
Italia ecclesiis, monasteriis, concessorum sin-
gulisque personis concessorum, vol. iii.,
Etruria, Berlin, 1908.
Pragmatism: J. M. MacEachran, Pragmatismus,
eine neue Richtung der Philosophic, Leipsic,
1910.
A. W. Moore, Pragmatism and its Critics,
Chicago, 1910.
Property, Ecclesiastical: A. Hauck, Die Entste-
hung der geistlichen Territorien, Leipsic,
1909.
Psalms: See above, Oesterley.
Psychotherapy: R. M. Lawrence, Primitive
Psycho-Therapy and Quackery, Boston and
London, 1910.
Punishment, Eternal: C. K. Irwin, Eternal Pun-
ishment. The Teaching of the Church and
Holy Scripture upon the Doctrine, London,
1910.
Punishment, Future: Add to bibliography: W
Jackson, The Doctrine of Retribution, philo-
sophically Considered (Bampton lectures),
1875.
Reformation: F. Thudichum, Die deutsche Refor-
mation 1517 bis 1537, vol. ii., 1525-37, Leip-
sic, 1909.
Religion, Philosophy of: H. E. Warner, The
Psychology of the Christian Life, London,
1911.
Ritualism: F. G. Henke, A Study of the Psychology
of Ritualism, Chicago, 1910.
Robinson, C. S.: Add to list of his writings: Anno-
tations upon Popular Hymns: for Use in
Praise-Meetings (New York, 1893).
Sabbath: Add to bibliography: G. Schiaparelli,
Astronomy in the O. T ., chap, ix., Oxford,
1905.
A. T. Clay, Amurru, the Home of the Northern
Semites, pp. 55 sqq., Philadelphia, 1909.
Sanctification: P Fleisch, Zur Geschichte dei
Heiligungsbewegung . I Heft. Die Heiligungs-
bewegung von Wesley bis Boardman, Leipsic,
1910.
Savonarola, G.: T. Sardi, Girolamo Savonarola
giudicato da un suo contemporaneo.^ Docu-
menti inediti publicati da A. Bianconi, Rome.
1911.
Social Service: W. F. Crafts, A Quarter Century
of . . Legislation . . . Relating to Moral
and Social Reforms, Washington, D. C, 1911.
XIV
BIOGRAPHICAL ADDENDA— VOLUMES I-X
BIOGRAPHICAL ADDENDA
Atwill, E. R.: d. at Kansas City Jan. 24, 1911.
Bertheau, O: d. at Hamburg Dec. 19, 1910.
Bradford, A. H.: d. at Montclair, N. J., Feb. 18,
1911.
Dawson, W. J.: Accepted call to First Presby-
terian Church, Newark, N. J., 1911.
Ferris, J. M.: d. at Flatbush, L. I., Jan. 30,
1911.
Funcke, O. : d. at Bremen Dec. 26, 1910.
Hastings, T. S.: d. at New York Apr. 2, 1911.
Klostermann, E.: called to Strasburg as ordi-
nary professor of N. T. theology.
Krieg, K.: d. at Freiburg Jan. 24, 1911.
Mead, C. M.: d. at New Haven Feb. 15, 1911.
Paret, W.: d. at Baltimore Jan. 18, 1911.
ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA
Vol. vii., p. 251, col. 2, lines 7 and 6 from bottom:
Read " Donizo Domnizo " for " Doni-
zone Domnizone."
Vol. viii., p. 143, col. 2, line 14: Read " Odhner "
for " Odlmer."
Vol. viii., p. 162, col. 1, line 17, first word: Read
" Papacy " for " Popes."
Vol. viii., p. 236, col. 1, line 21 from bottom: Read
" Nagot " for " Magot."
Vol. viii., p. 487, col. 2, line 40: Read " S. D. F."
for " G. D. F."
Vol. ix., p. 120, col. 1, article Polycrates: Insert
after line 2 " by his controversy with Pope
Victor on the cele-."
Vol. ix., p. 122, col. 1, line 14 from bottom: Read
" den Ur sprung " for " den Alter."
Vol. ix., p. 132, col. 2, line 9 from bottom: Read
" Giesebrecht " for " Gieselbrecht."
Vol. ix., p. 143, col. 2: Read " Holscher " in
signature.
Vol. ix., p. 163, col. 2, lines 18-17 from bottom:
Read " Jan van Ruysbroeck " for " Henry
Ruysbroek."
Vol. ix., p. 174, col. 1, line 17: Remove " (q.v.)."
Vol. ix., p. 175, col. 1, line 1: Read " I. F. E." for
'■' J. E. F."
Vol. ix., p. 289, col. 1, line 21: Read " Batterson "
for " Patterson "; line 24: Read " E. E." for
" R. E."; line 47: Read " J. W." for " J. A.";
line 53: Read " F. N." for " F. W"
Vol. ix., p. 337, col. 1, line 20: Read " 1723 " for
" 1743 "; line 21: Read " Vlis " for " Blis ";
line 10 from bottom: Read " Gunkel " for
" Gunkelchen."
Vol. ix., p. 338, col. 1, line 21 from bottom: Read
"Apocrypha?" for "Apocryphi"; line 19
from bottom: Read " Beloved of God."
Vol. ix., p. 339, col. 1, line 6 from bottom: Read
" Abrahoe " for " Abrahamm "; line 4 from
bottom: Read " Vassilyew" for " Bassilyew."
Vol. ix., p. 340, col. 1, line 20-- Read " B. Beer "
for " G. Beer."
Vol. ix., p. 342, col. 1, line 2 from bottom: Read
"Bousset" for " Bossuet "; col. 2, line 6:
Read " Couard " for " Conrad."
Vol. ix., p. 479, col. 1, line 11 from bottom:
Read " 1911 $101,000 " for " 1908
$65,000."
Vol. ix., p. 422, col. 2, line 37: Read " 1570 " for
" 1557 "; line 39: Read " Bocskai " for
" Bocskag."
Vol. x., p. 19, col. 2: In signature read " G. E."
for " D."
Vol. x., p. 38, col. 2, line 3 from bottom: Change
signature to " H. Ckemer."
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations in common use or self-evident are not included here. For additional information con-
cerning the works listed, see vol. i., pp. viii.-xx., and the appropriate articles in the body of the work.
ir.r, j AUgemeine deutsche Biographie, Leipsic,
Aua \ 1875 sqq., vol. 53, 1907
Adv adversus, " against "
A rp ( American Journal of Philology, Balti-
AJtr I more, 1880 sqq.
i irp \ American Journal of Theology, Chicago,
AJ1 1 1897 sqq.
Azrn j Archie filr katholisches Kirchenrecht,
AJi-K 1 Innsbruck, 1857-61, Mainz, 1872 sqq.
1 Archiv filr Litteratur- und Kirchenge-
ALKG K schichte des Mittelalters, Freiburg, 1885
( sqq-
Am American
. , •• . I Abhandlungen der Milnchener Akademie,
AMA 1 Munich, 1763 sqq.
(Ante-Nicene Fathers, American edition
A xtw J by A. Cleveland Coxe, 8 vols, and in-
AN" 1 dex, Buffalo, 1887; vol. ix., ed. Allan
(. Menzies, New York, 1897
Apoc Apocrypha, apocryphal
Apol Apologia, Apology
Arab Arabic
Aram .... .... Aramaic
art article
Art. Schmal .... Schmalkald Articles
. (, i> J Acta sanctorum, ed. J. Bolland and others,
Ae>JS I Antwerp, 1643 sqq.
. c , » i Acta sanctorum ordinis S. Benedicti, ed.
AbM ] J. Mabillon, 9 vols., Paris, 1668-1701
Assyr Assyrian
A. T Altes Testament, " Old Testament "
Augs. Con Augsburg Confession
A. V Authorized Version (of the English Bible)
D . , . I J. M. Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy
n T™ i omd Psychology, 3 vols, in 4, New York,
Dictionary ... | igoi-05
Bardenhewer, | O. Bardenhewer, Geschichte der altkirch-
Geschichte. . \ lichen Litteratur, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1902
Bardenhewer, ( O. Bardenhewer, Patrologie, 2d ed. , Frei-
Patrologie. . . 1 burg, 1901
tj i I The Dictionary Historical and Critical of
n-4 ■ I Mr. Peter Bayle, 2d ed., 5 vols., London,
Dictionary . . . 1 1734-38
Benzinger, j I. Benzinger, Hebraische Archaologie, 2d
Archaologie. . . I ed., Freiburg, 1907
t,. , (J. Bingham, Origines ecclesiastical, 10
Bingham, J | London 1708-22; new ed., Ox-
Ongines | ford, 1855
JM. Bouquet, Recueil des historiens des
Gaules et de la France, continued by
various hands, 23 vols., Paris, 1738-76
Archibald Bower, History of the Popes
... to 1758, continued by S. H. Cox,
3 vols., Philadelphia, 1845-47
urtu ( Baptist Quarterly Review, Philadelphia,
a(*tt 1 1867 sqq.
BUG See Jaff6
Cant Canticles, Song of Solomon
cap caput, " chapter "
r, .... . , ( R. Ceillier, Histoire des auteurs sacres et
Ceilher, Auteurs 1 ecdSsiastiques, 16 vols, in 17, Paris,
sacres ( 1858-69
Chron Chronicon, " Chronicle "
I Chron I Chronicles
II Chron ... .II Chronicles
n7r, I Corpus inscriptionum Grcecarum, Berlin,
OYCr j 1825 sqq.
nil \ Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum, Berlin,
^lLl ( 1863 sqq.
,-,.„ I Corpus inscriptionum Semiticarum, Pans,
t/"> ( 1881 sqq.
cod codex
cod. Theod . . . . codex Theodosianus
Col Epistle to the Colossians
col., cols column, columns
Con} Confessiones, " Confessions "
I Cor First Epistle to the Corinthians
II Cor Second Epistle to the Corinthians
COT See Schrader
rnT> ( The Church Quarterly Review, London,
Cy H ) 1875 sqq.
Creighton,
Papacy .
CSCO.
DB.
DC A.
DCB.
DCG.
( Corpus reformatorum, begun at Halle,
CR -< 1834, vol. lxxxix., Berlin and Leipsic,
{ 1905 sqq.
fM. Creighton, A History of the Papacy
J from the Great Schism to the Sack of
. 1 Rome, new ed., 6 vols., New York and
t London, 1897
I Corpus scriptorum Christianorum orienta-
.< Hum, ed. J. B. Chabot, I. Guidi, and
( others, Paris and Leipsic, 1903 sqq.
/ioeit ( Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Lati-
t"5-e'^ I norum, Vienna, 1867 sqq.
pjttd j Corpus scriptorum historioe Byzantines, 49
t"Mi-B j vols., Bonn, 1828-78
Currier, Religious j C. W. Currier, History of Religious Orders,
Orders... \ New York, 1896
D Deuteronomist
Dan Daniel
J. Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, 4
vols, and extra vol., Edinburgh and
New York, 1898-1904
W. Smith and S. Cheetham, Dictionary
of Christian Antiquities, 2 vols., London,
1875-80
W. Smith and H. Wace, Dictionary of
Christian Biography, 4 vols., Boston,
' 1877-87
J. Hastings, J. A. Selbie, and J. C. Lambert,
A Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels, 2
vols., Edinburgh and New York, 1906-
1908
Deut Deuteronomy
De vir. ill De viris illustribus
DGQ See Wattenbach
i L. Stephen and S. Lee, Dictionary of
DNB < National Biography, 63 vols, and
/ supplement 3 vols., London, 1885-1901
t^ . 1 ._ . ( S. R. Driver, Introduction to the Literature
Driver, Introduc- ) of the om Testament mh ed New
twn j York, 1910
E Elohist
( T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, Encyclo-
EB ■< pcedia Biblica, 4 vols., London and
j New York, 1899-1903
Eccl Ecclesia, " Church "; ecclesiasticus, " ec-
clesiastical "
Eccles Ecclesiastes
Ecclus Ecclesiasticus
ed edition; edidit, " edited by "
Eph Epistle to the Ephesians
Epist Epistola, Epistolce, " Epistle," " Epistles "
Ersch and Gru- f J. S. Ersch and J. G. Gruber, Allgemeine
ber, Encyklo- \ Encyklopadie der Wissenschaften und
padie ( Kilnste, Leipsic, 1818 sqq.
E. V English versions (of the Bible)
Ex Exodus
Ezek Ezekiel
fasc fasciculus
Fr French
t? :„,!,.: v. en J J. Friedrich, Kirchengeschichte Deutsch-
Friednch, KD . . \ Unds< 2 v<;,s Bamberg, 1867-69
Gal Epistle to the Galatians
/-i.„_ <?_-„.. I P. B. Gams, Series episcoporum ecclesim
e^iscovTum \ Catholicce, Regensburg, 1873, and sup-
episcoporum . j plement, 1886
,-,„„j tj ,„ ( H. Gee and W. J. Hardy, Documents
DocTmentsy,\ gffi'lg^ En°USh ^"^ "^^
Germ German
rrr< a J Gottingische Gelehrte Anzeigen, Gottingen,
t(jA 1 1824 sqq.
n;uu„- n_-7-„«(E. Gibbon, History of the Decline and
7%3%nn i FaU of the Roman Empire, ed. J. B.
ana nau.. . . | Bury_ 7 yolg _ London 1896-1900
Gk Greek
I C. Gross, The Sources and Literature of
Gross, Sources..^ English History to 1485, London,
( 1900
Hab Habakkuk
Haddan and
Stubbs, Coun-
cils
fA. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, Councils
J and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating
1 to Great Britain and Ireland, 3 vols.,
I Oxford, 1869-78
XVI
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
{Refers to patristic works on heresies or
heretics, Tertullian's De prazscriptione,
the Pros haireseis of Ireneeus, the
Panarion of Epiphanius, etc.
Hag . . . .Haggai
Harduin, Con- 1 J. Hardum, Concihorum collecho regia
alia .' .... I maxima, 12 vols., Paris, 1715
I A. Harnack, History of Dogma , . . from
Harnack Dogma < the 3d German edition, 7 vols., Boston,
| 1895-1900
tt i t ■» (A. Harnack, Geschichte der altchristlichen
Harnack, Littera-i Litteratur bis Eusebius, 2 vols, in 3,
tur--- I Leipsic, 1893-1904
i A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutsch-
Hauck KD . . . i lands, vol. i., Leipsic, 1904; vol. ii.,
/ 1900; vol. iii., 1906; vol. iv., 1903
SRealenckylopadie fur protestantische The-
ologie und Kirche, founded by J. J.
Herzog, 3d ed. by A. Hauck, Leipsic,
1896-1909
Heb Epistle to the Hebrews
Hebr Hebrew
„,. ~ ... iC.J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, con-
Hefele.ConctZien- ) tinued by j Hergenrother, vols, i.-vi.,
geschichte. ... J viii ^ Freiburg, 1883-93
Heimbucher, Or- I M. Heimbucher, Die Orden und Kongre-
den und Kon-< gationen der katholischen Kirche, 2d ed.
gregationen. { 3 vols., Paderborn, 1907
tt . . n , i P. Helyot, Histoire des ordres monas-
rieiyot, urares j tiques religieux et militaires, 8 vols.,
monashques. . j p*rig^ 1714_19; new ed-j i839-42
Henderson, Doc- ( E. F. Henderson, Select Historical Docu-
uments .... ( ments of the Middle Ages, London, 1892
Hist History, histoire, historia
TT. , t \Historia ecclesiastica, ecclesiai, "Church
Hust.eccl -j History"
Horn Homilia, homiliai, " homily, homilies "
Hos. ... ... .Hosea
Isa ... Isaiah
Ital Italian
J . . . . Jahvist (Yahwist)
J A Journal Asiatique, Paris, 1822 sqq.
T i (A Standard Bible Dictionary, ed. M. W. Ja-
Jacobus, J cobug E E Nourse ... and A. C.
Dictionary....) ZeQOS^ New York and London, 1909
, -, „„/, j P. Jaff e, Bibliotheca rerum Germani-
Jane, BUG ... < ^^^ 6 vols ._ Berlin, 1864-73
i P. JarK, Regesta pontiflcum Romanorum
Jaffe\ Regesta. . . \ . . ad annum 1198, Berlin, 1851;
( 2d ed., Leipsic, 1881-88
t Ar><2 J Journal of the American Oriental Society,
JAUb ■) New Haven, 1849 sqq.
1 Journal of Biblical Literature and Exege-
sis, first appeared as Journal of the
Society of Biblical Literature and Exe-
gesis, Middletown, 1882-88, then Bos-
ton, 1890 sqq.
TW j The Jewish Encyclopedia, 12 vols., New
•/-ft I York, 1901-06
TTr, j The combined narrative of the Jahvist
Jtj j (Yahwist) and Elohist
Jer Jeremiah
T u a , j Flavius Josephus, " Antiquities of the
Josephus, Ant j Jews „
Josephus, Apion .Flavius Josephus, " Against Apion "
Josephus, Life. . .Life of Flavius Josephus
Josephus, War .Flavius Josephus, " The Jewish War "
Josh Joshua
jprp j Jahrbucher fur protestantische Theologie,
Jrl I Leipsic, 1875 sqq.
jnt/ j The Jewish Quarterly Review, London,
J^K 1 1888 sqq.
jr. a a 5 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Lon-
JKAb I don, 1834 sqq.
TrriQ S Journal of Theological Studies, London,
J 1 f I 1899 sqq.
Julian, Hym- j J. Julian, A Dictionary of Hymnology,
nology I revised edition, London, 1907
KAT SeeSchrader
KB See Schrader
KD See Friedrich, Hauck, Rettberg
1 Wetter und Welte's Kirchenlexikon, 2d
KL < ed., by J. Hergenrother and F. Kaulen,
( 12 vols., Freiburg, 1882-1903
I G. Kriiger, History of Early Christian
Kriiger, History < Literature in the First Three Centuries,
( New York, 1897
Krumbacher ( ^' Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzan-
Geschichte ' ) tinischen Litteratur, 2d ed., Munich,
i P. Labbe, Sacrorum concUiorum nova et
Labbe, Concilia -J amplissima collectio, 31 vols., Florence
( and Venice, 1759-98
Lam Lamentations
i .„:„._ p„„7 I J. Lanigan, Ecclesiastical History of Ire-
l^amgan, Uccl. J Und fo ^ lgth CentuTyi 4 vols _ Dub.
"lsl ■ ■■ I lin, 1829
Lat Latin, Latinized
Leg
Lev
Lichtenberger ,
ESR
Lorenz, DGQ
LXX
I Mace . .
II Mace
Mai, Nova col-
lectio
Mai
Mann, Popes . . .
Mansi, Concilia.
Matt
MGH ..
Mic.
Milman, Latin
Christianity
Mirbt, Quellen.
MPG
MPL
MS., MSS
Muratori, Scrip-
tores
NA .
Nah
n.d.
Neander, Chris-
tian Church.
Neh
Ni ceron, Me-
moires
Nielsen, Papacy .
Nippold, Papacy.
NKZ
Nowack, Archa-
ologie. .
n.p
NPNF
N. T
Num.
Ob...
.Leges, Legum
. Leviticus
( F. Lichtenberger, Encyclopedic des sci-
! ences religieuses, 13 vols., Paris, 1877-
I 1882
j O. Lorenz, Deutschlands Geschichtsquel-
I ten im Mittelalter, 3d ed., Berlin, 1887
.The Septuagint
. I Maccabees
. II Maccabees
1 A. Mai, Scriptorum veterum nova col-
I lectio, 10 vols., Rome, 1825-38
. Malachi
( R. C. Mann, Lives of the Popes in the
( Early Middle Ages, London, 1902 sqq.
!G. D. Mansi, Sanctorum concUiorum
collectio nova, 31 vols., Florence and
Venice, 1728
.Matthew
Monumenta Germanice historica, ed. G. H.
Pertz and others, Hanover and Ber-
lin, 1826 sqq. The following abbrevia-
tions are used for the sections and
subsections of this work: Ant., Antiqui-
tates, " Antiquities "; Auct. ant., Auc-
tores antiquissimi, " Oldest Writers ";
Chron. min., Chronica minora, " Lesser
Chronicles "; Dip., Diplomata, " Di-
plomas, Documents "; Epist., Epis-
tolm, " Letters "; Gest. pont. Rom.,
Gesta pontiflcum Romanorum, " Deeds
of the Popes of Rome "; Leg., Leges,
" Laws "; Lib. de lite, Libelli de lite
inter regnum et sacerdotium swculorum
xi. et xii. conscripti, " Books concerning
the Strife between the Civil and Eccle-
siastical Authorities in the Eleventh
and Twelfth Centuries "; Nee, Ne-
crologia Germania;, " Necrology of
Germany "; Poet. Lat. cevi Car.,
Poetce Latini cevi Carolini, ** Latin
Poets of the Caroline Time "; Poet.
Lat. med. cevi, Poetm Latini medii cevi,
" Latin Poets of the Middle Ages ";
Script, Scriptores, " Writers "; Script
rer. Germ., Scriptores rerum Germani-
carum, " Writers on German Sub-
jects "; Script, rer. Langob., Scriptores
rerum Langobardicarum et Italicarum,
" Writers on Lombard and Italian
Subjects "; Script, rer. Merov., Scrip-
tores rerum Merovingicarum, " Writers
on Merovingian Subjects "
Mi cab.
H. H. Milman, History of Latin Chris-
tianity, Including that of the Popes to
. , . Nicholas V., 8 vols., London,
1860-61
( C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papst-
< turns und des romischen Katholicismus,
( Tubingen, 1901
j J. P. Migne, Patrologice cursus completus,
I series Grceca, 162 vols., Paris, 1857-66
j J. P. Migne, Patrologioz cursus completus,
| series Latince, 221 vols., Paris, 1844-64
. Manuscript, Manuscripts
J L. A. Muratori, Rerum Italicarum scrip-
I tores, 28 vols., 1723-51
1 Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft fur aliere
< deutsche Geschichtskunde, Hanover,
( 1876 sqq.
.Nahum
. no date of publication
I A. Neander, General History of thf Chris-
\ tian Religion and Church, 6 vols., and
I index, Boston, 1872-81
. Nehemiah
1 R. P. Niceron, Memoires pour gervir a
< Vhistoire des homm.es UlustrSs , 43
( vols., Paris, 1729-45
I F. K. Nielsen, History of the Papacy in
\ the Nineteenth Century, 2 vols., New
( York, 1906
j F. Nippold, The Papacy in the Nineteenth
j Century, New York, 1900
| Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, Leipsic, 1890
1 sqq.
j W. Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebraischen
1 Archaologie, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1894
. no place of publication
I The Nicene and PosUNicene Fathers, 1st
< series, 14 vols., New York, 1887-92; 2d
( series, 14 vols., New York, 1890-1900
j New Testament, Novum Testamentum,
I Nouveau Testament, Neues Testament
. . Numbers
..Obadiah
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
O. S. B..
O. T. . .
OTJC.
■■{
Pastor, Popes
~\
PEA..
PEF. . .
I Pet. .
II Pet.
Platina, Popes
■\
Pliny, Hist. nat.
Potthast, Weg-\
weiser j
Prov
Ps
PSBA ]
q.v., qq.v
Ranke, Popes. . . j
RDM
RE
Reich, Docu- t
merits (
RE J
Rettberg, KD. . . \
Rev. . .
RHR |
Richardson, En-
cyclopaedia. . .
Richter, Kirchen-
recht
ffie-f
and J
Re-)
Robinson,
searches.
Later
searches.
Robinson, Euro- I
pean History . . 1
Robinson and i
Beard, Modern <
Europe . [
Rom
RTF \
R. V....
scec
I Sam . .
II Sam.
SB A ..
SBE .
SBOT.
Schaff, Christian J
Church J
Schaff,' Creeds. . . ■!
Schrader, COT
Schrader, KAT
Schrader, KB. .
Schtirer,
Geschichte
Script
Scrivener, (
Introduction . . \
Sent
S.J
SMA I
Smith, Kinship. ■ -j
Ordo sancti Benedicti, " Order of St.
Benedict "
Old Testament
See Smith
Priestly document
L. Pastor, The History of the Popes from
the Close of the Middle Ages, 8 vols.,
London, 1891-1908
Patres ecclesice Anglicance, ed. J. A. Giles,
34 vols., London, 1838-46
Palestine Exploration Fund
First Epistle of Peter
Second Epistle of Peter
B. Platina, Lives of the Popes from
Gregory VII. to Paul II., 2 vols.,
London, n.d.
Pliny, Historia naturalis
A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica medii
cevi. Wegweiser durch die Geschichts-
werke, Berlin, 1896
Proverbs
Psalms
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical
Archeology, London, 1880 sqq.
quod (quae) vide, " which see "
L. von Ranke, History of the Popes,
3 vols., London, 1906
Revue des deux mondes, Paris, 1831 sqq.
See Hauck-Herzog
E. Reich, Select Documents Illustrating Me-
dieval and Modern History, London, 1905
Revue des etudes juives, Paris, 1880 sqq.
F. W. Rettberg, Kirchengeschichte Deutsch-
lands, 2 vols., Gottingen, 1846-48
Book of Revelation
Revue de I'histoire des religions, Paris,
1880 sqq.
E. C. Richardson, Alphabetical Subject In-
dex and Index Encyclopaedia to Period-
ical Articles on Religion, 1890-99, New
York, 1907
A. L. Richter, Lehrbuch des katholischen
und evangelischen Kirchenrechts, 8th
ed. by W Kahl, Leipsic, 1886
E. Robinson, Biblical Researches in
Palestine, Boston, 1841, and Later
Biblical Researches in Palestine, 3d ed.
of the whole, 3 vols., 1867
J. H. Robinson, Readings in European
History, 2 vols., Boston, 1904-06
J. H. Robinson, and C. A. Beard, Develop-
ment of Modern Europe, 2 vols., Boston,
1907
Epistle to the Romans
Revue de theologie et de philosophic,
Lausanne, 1873
Revised Version (of the English Bible)
sceculum, " century "
I Samuel
II Samuel
Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie,
Berlin, 1882 sqq.
F. Max Miiller and others, The Sacred
Books of the East, Oxford, 1879 sqq.,
vol. xlviii., 1904
Sacred Books of the Old Testament (" Rain-
bow Bible "), Leipsic, London, and
Baltimore, 1894 sqq.
P. Schaff, History of the Christian Church,
vols, i.-iv., vi., vii., New York,1882-92,
vol. v., 2 parts, by D. S. Schaff, 1907-10
P. Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom,
3 vols., New York, 1877-84
E. Schrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and
the Old Testament, 2 vols., London,
1885-88
E. Schrader, Die Keilinschriften und das
Alte Testament, 2 vols., Berlin, 1902-03
E. Schrader, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek,
6 vols., Berlin, 1889-1901
E. Schiirer, Geschichte des jildischen
Volkes im Zeitalter J 'esu Christi, 4th ed.,
3 vols., Leipsic, 1902sqq.; Eng. transl.,5
vols., New York, 1891
Scriptores, " writers "
F. H. A. Scrivener, Introduction to New Tes-
tament Criticism, 4th ed., London, 1894
.Sentential, " Sentences "
Societas J esu, " Society of Jesus "
Sitzungsberichte der Munchener Aka-
demie, Munich, 1860 sqq.
W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in
Early Arabia, London, 1903
o_;,i riT rn J W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the
onutn, uijk,. j Jewish church, London, 1892
gm-n t>-„~.i-i. /W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel . to
emitn, rropnets.. j fhe EigMh Century, London, 1895
Smith, Rel. of ) W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites,
Sem I London, 1894
<3 T> n tr j Society for the Promotion of Christian
b- ^ C- K \ Knowledge
g p q I Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
I in Foreign Parts
sqq and following
Strom Stromata, " Miscellanies "
s.v sub voce, or sub verbo
Swete, Introduc- j H. B. Swete, Introduction to the Old Tes-
tion | tament in Greek, London, 1900
Syr Syriac
Thatcher and I O. J. Thatcher and E. H. McNeal, A
McNeal, Source < Source Book for Mediceval History,
Book ( New York, 1905
I Thess First Epistle to the Thessalonians
II Thess Second Epistle to the Thessalonians
77. m j Theologische Tijdschrift, Amsterdam and
j Leyden, 1867 sqq.
Tillemont Me- ) ^" ^- 'e Nain de Tillemont, Memoires
•mnire* ' i • • • ecclesiastiques des six premiers
/ siecles, 16 vols., Paris, 1693-1712
I Tim First Epistle to Timothy
II Tim Second Epistle to Timothy
1 Theologischer Jahresbericht, Leipsic, 1882—
TJB •{ 1887, Freiburg, 1888, Brunswick, 1889-
{ 1897, Berlin, 1898 sqq.
Tob Tobit
TV) j Theologische Quartalschrift, Tubingen,
Jy I 1819 sqq.
Tic; ( J. A. Robinson, Texts and Studies,
( Cambridge, 1891 sqq.
TSBA { Transactions of the Society of Biblical
I Archaeology, London, 1872 sqq.
rpajr S Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Ham-
'1'3-n- 1 burg, 1826 sqq.
f Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte
rpjr > der altchristlichen Litteratur, ed. 0. von
I Gebhardt and A. Harnack, Leipsic,
I 1882 sqq.
Ugolini, Thesau- I B. Ugolinus, Thesaurus antiquitatum
rus I sacrarum, 34 vols., Venice, 1744-69
V T Vetus Testamentum, Vieux Testament, "Old
Testament "
wQ+f<sr,v,a„ii IW. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichts-
wawenDacn, J queaen< 5th ed _ 2 vols., Berlin, 1885;
u^ ( 6th ed., 1893-94; 7th ed., 1904 sqq.
Wellhausen, 1 J. Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heiden-
Heidentum. . . . I turns, Berlin, 1887
w„nv,„„<,o„ ( J- Wellhausen, Prolegomena zur Geschichte
Proteaom^na 1 Israels' 6th ed- BerIin' 1905' EnS-
prolegomena... \ transl.. Edinburgh, 1885
7i i Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie, Leipric,
^ i 1886-88, Berlin, 1889 sqq.
!T. Zahn, Einleitung in das Neue Testa-
ment, 3d ed., Leipsic, 1907; Eng. transl.,
Introduction to the New Testament, 3
vols., Edinburgh, 1909
( T. Zahn, Geschichte des neulestamenl-
Zahn, Kanon... \ lichen Kanons, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1888-92
j Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wis-
ZATW j senschaft, Giessen, 1881 sqq.
yptAT i Zeitschrift fiir deutsches Alterlhum und deut-
^v^ \ sche Literatur, Berlin, 1876 sqq.
j Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenltindischen
ZDMG I Gesellschaft, Leipsic, 1847 sqq.
fyrtn J Zeitschrift fur deutsche Philologie, Halle,
Lut^ ] 1869 sqq.
ZDPV j Zeitschrift des deutschen Palastina-Ver-
) eins, Leipsic, 1878 sqq.
Zech Zechariah
Zeph Zephaniah
( Zeitschrift fur die historische Theologie,
ZHT •< published successively at Leipsic,
( Hamburg, and Gotha, 1832-75
7 i^rr j Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte, Gotha,
ZKG 1 1876 sqq.
7R-p j Zeitschrift fiir Kirchenrecht, Berlin, Tu-
" I bingen, Freiburg, 1861 sqq.
7 zrrp J Zeitschrift fiir katholische Theologie, Inns-
^^l I bruck, 1877 sqq.
7 Tj-TiT j Zeitschrift fur kirchliche Wissenschaft und
^*-vr I kirchliches Leben, Leipsic, 1880-89
7MTW i Zeitschrift fur die neutestamentliche Wis-
f"1'" ■) senschaft, Giessen, 1900 sqq.
7Pi- ( Zeitschrift fiir Protestantismus und Kirche,
^■"- 1 Erlangen, 1838-76
I Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Theologie,
ZWT { Jena, 1 858-60, Halle, 1861-67, Leipsic,
( 1868 sqq.
SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION
The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew :
X = ' or omitted at the
beginning of a word.
2 = b
3 = bh or b
3=g
i = gh or g
T = d
*T = dh or d
n = h
1 = w
T = z
n = h
B = t
3 = k
3 = kh or k
«. = !
» = m
3 = n
D = s
s = p
D = ph or p
¥ = z
P = k
"l = r
fe>= s
E> = sh
Pl = t
n = th or t
The vowels are transcribed by a, e, i, o, u, without attempt to indicate quantity or quality. Arabic
and other Semitic languages are transliterated according to the same system as Hebrew. Greek is
written with Roman characters, the common equivalents being used.
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
When the pronunciation is self-evident the titles are not respelled ; when by mere division and accen-
tuation it can be shown sufficiently clearly the titles have been divided into syllables, and the accented
syllables indicated.
iu as in duration
c = k " " cat
ch " " church
cw — qu as in oueen
dh (th) " " the
f " " /ancy
a
as in sofa
a
tt
" arm
a
tt
" at
a
a
" fare
e
it
" pen1
£
n
" fate
i
tt
" tin
i
n
" machine
0
tt
" obey
0
a
" no
e
as
in
not
S
tt
tt
nor
u
tt
tt
full'
Q
tt
tt
rule
u
tt
a
but
0
tt
tt
burn
ai
tt
it
pine
au
it
tt
out
ei
tt
tt
oil
iu
it
n
few
g (hard)
go
h " " tech (Scotch)
hw (wh) " " why
j " " /aw
1 In accented syllables only ; in unaccented syllables it approximates the sound of e in over. The letter n, with a dot
beneath it. indicates the sound of n as in ink. Nasal n (as in French words) is rendered n.
a In German and French names ii approximates the sound of u in dune.
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
REUSCH, reish, FRANZ HEINRICH: German
Old Catholic; b. at Brilon (78 m. n.e. of Cologne)
Dec. 4, 1825; d. at Bonn Mar. 3, 1900. He was ed-
ucated at the universities of Bonn (1843-45), Tu-
bingen, and Munich (1845^7), and the seminary
of Cologne (1848—49) ; he was ordained to the priest-
hood in 1849, chaplain of St. Alban's at Cologne
until 1853, when he returned to Bonn as lecturer
in the theological seminary there, and in 1854 be-
came privat-docent in the Roman Catholic theo-
logical faculty of the university of the same city.
In 1858 he was appointed associate professor of Old-
Testament exegesis, and three years later became
full professor, while in 1873-74 he was rector of the
university. The Vatican Council of 1870 marked
an epoch in the life of Reusch, after he had already
written his commentaries on Tobit (1857) and Ec-
clesiasticus (1861), as well as a Lehrbuch der Ein-
leitung in das Alte Testament (1859) and Bibel und
Natur, Vorlesungen iiber die mosaische Urgeschichte
und ihr Verhaltnis zu den Ergebnissen der Natur-
forschung (1862). As a theologian he had taken a
position with the liberal wing of the Roman Catho-
lics, as evidenced by his editorship of the Theologi-
sches Litteraturblatt from 1866 to 1877. His refusal
to subscribe to the declaration of papal infallibility,
however, caused him to be suspended and excom-
municated, and he then took an active part in or-
ganizing the Old Catholic Church, being made gen-
eral vicar by Reinkens, and also acting as pastor of
the Old Catholic congregation at Bonn. With the
abolition of the requirement of celibacy in his de-
nomination in 1878, Reusch resigned his offices,
though he continued to give instruction in religion,
as well as to conduct occasional services and to hear
confessions.
His change of confession turned Reusch from Old-
Testament exegesis to the history of the Roman
Catholic Church after the Reformation. Here be-
long, accordingly, his Luis de Leon und die spanische
Inquisition (1873), Der Prozess Galileis und die
Jesuiten (1879), and, above all, his Index der ver-
botenen Biicher (2 vols., 1883-85). Together with
J. J. I. von Dollinger (q. v.) he published the Selbst-
biographie des Kardinals Bellarmin (1887) and the
Geschichte der Moralstreitigkeiten in der romisch-
katholischen Kirche seit dem sechzehnten Jahrhundert
(2 vols., 1889), and after Dollinger's death he ed-
ited his Briefe und Erkldrungen uber die vatikani-
schen Dekrete (1890) and Kleiner e Schriften (1890).
X.— 1
During this latter period of his life Reusch also
wrote, besides numerous briefer contributions, Die
deutschen Bischofe und der Aberglaube (1879) and
Beitrdge zur Geschichte des Jesuitenordens (1894),
while his last work was his Briefe an Bunsen von
romischen Kardindlen und Prdlaten (1818-37) mit
Erlduterungen (1897). (L. K. Goetz.)
Bibliography: L. K. Goetz, Franz Heinrich Reusch 1825-
1900, Gotha, 1901; J. F. von Schulte, Der Altkatholicis-
mus, Giessen, 1887; J. Mayor, Franz Heinrich Reusch,
Cambridge, 1901; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fasc. xxxiv.
1078-79.
REUSS, reis, EDUARD GUILLAUME EUGENE:
Biblical scholar; b. at Strasburg July 18, 1804; d.
there Apr. 15, 1891. His preliminary studies were
pursued at the gymnasium of his native city, during
which his bent was developed for accurate scholar-
ship; he continued work first at the University of
Strasburg, where his dissertation De statu literarum
theologicarum per swcula VII. et VIII. was written
(1825), after which he went to GSttingen and later
to Halle and Jena, and finally to Paris, where he
worked under Sylvestre de Sacy. In 1828 he be-
came privat-docent in the Protestant seminary at
Strasburg, in 1829 licentiate in theology with the
thesis De libris Veteris Testamenti apocryphis, ex-
traordinary professor in 1834, professor in 1836,
and he entered the theological faculty in 1838. Dur-
ing the rest of his activity there he held many offices
of importance and influence.
Reuss did not permit himself to engage in a wide
field of research, and had no interest in either dog-
matic or practical theology, while he preached only
three times. Philosophic speculation also had no
attraction for him, and he confined his efforts to
Biblical science, in which he evinced the talents of a
historical investigator, showing patience in pur-
suing details and diligence in collecting facts. An
illustration of this is the fact that he projected his
work on the history of the Old Testament as early
as 1834 but issued it only in 1881 (Geschichte der
heiligen Schriften des Alten Testaments, Brunswick).
Graf was one of his students and was influenced by
him in the line of work carried on by himself and
further developed by Kuenen and Wellhausen. A
like importance attaches to his work on the New
Testament, his original edition of Die Geschichte der
heiligen Schriften Neuen Testaments appearing in
Brunswick, 1842 (6th ed., 1887; Eng. transl., Hist,
of the Sacred Scriptures of the N. T., Edinburgh,
Reiiter
Revelation
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
1884), in subsequent editions growing greatly in size,
comprehensiveness, and completeness. His general
attitude had some connections with the Tubingen
school, but was much more conservative. His Bib-
liotheca Xmn Testamenti Grceci (1872) is the result
of twenty years of unremitting toil. His work as a
teacher was no less effective than his literary labors,
fitting his teachings to the needs of his students, and
eschewing the merely pedantic, and he lectured in
both Trench and German. The results of his first
lectures in French was a demand for the printing
of bis work, and this ended in his Hist, de la theologie
chrctienne au siccle apostolique (2 vols., Strasburg,
1S52; Eng. transl., Hist, of Christian Theology in
the Apostolic Age, 2 vols., London, 1872-74). Other
works which may be noted are Die johanneische
Theologie (Jena, 1847); Hist, du canon des saintes
ecritures dans I'eglise chrctienne (Paris, 1863; Eng.
transl., Hist, of the Canon of the Holy Scriptures in
the Christian Church, Edinburgh, 1884); La Bible,
traduction nouvelle avec introductions et commentaires
(16 vols., Paris, 1S74-81); Notitia codicis quatuor
evangeliorum Grceci (Cambridge, 1889); and a
large number of luminous contributions to the
Revue de theologie (1850-67) and to other period-
icals. He also collaborated in the complete edition
of Calvin's works (see Calvin, John, Bibliography),
for which he furnished the prolegomena.
(P. Lobstein.)
Bibliography: Reuss' correspondence, ed. K. Budde and
H. J. Holtzmann, appeared at Giessen, 1904. Consult:
T. Gerold, Eduard Reuss, 1804-91, Strasburg, 1892; idem,
Edouard Reuss. Notice biographique, Paris, 1897; A.
Grotz, in Vie chretienne, May, 1891; H. Holtzmann, in
Protestantische Kirchenzeitung, 1891, pp. 385—393; P.
Lobstein, in Evangile et liberte, 1891, nos. 20-23; idem,
in Revue chretienne, viii (1891), 481-487; J. H. W. Stucken-
berg, in Homiletic Review, xxiii (1892), 81-82; C. A.
Briggs, General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture,
passim. New York, 1899; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fasc.
xxxiv. 1079-1080.
REUTER, rei'ter, HERMANN FERDINAND:
German Lutheran; b. at Hildesheim Aug. 30, 1817;
d. at Kreiensen (35 m. s.w. of Brunswick) Sept. 17,
1889. He was educated at the universities of Gdfr-
tingen (1837-38) and Berlin (1838-40), and in 1843,
after having published his De erroribus qui wtate
media doctrinam christianam de sancta eucharistia
turpaverunt (Berlin, 1840) and Johannes von Salis-
bury: zur Geschichte der christlichen Wissenschaft
(1842), he began as privat-docent his lectures at
Berlin, which were eventually to range over the
entire domain of the historical theology of the time.
In 1845 he published at Berlin the first volume of
his Geschichte Alexander des Dritten und seiner Zeit,
which he later entirely rewrote (3 vols., Berlin,
1860-64). In 1852 he became associate professor
at Breslau, where he lectured primarily on church
history, though he also gave courses in systematic
theology. During this period, besides editing the
AUgemeines Repertorium fur die theologische Lit-
teratur, of which he was the head from 1845 to 1860,
he published his Abhnndlungen zur systematischen
Theologie (Berlin, 1855). Immediately after the
publication of this collection Reuter was called to
Greifswald as professor .of theology. He now
began to restrict himself more and more to sym-
bolics, the results being shown in his Ueber die
Eigenthumlichkeit der sittlichen Tendenz des Pro-
testantismus im Verhdltnis zum Katholizismus
(Greifswald, 1869).
In 1866 Reuter returned to Breslau as professor
of church history. Pursuing the theme already be-
gun in his history of Alexander III., he wrote his
Geschichte der religiosen Aufkldrung im Mittelalter
vom Ende des achten Jahrhunderts bis zum Anfang
des vierzehnten (2 vols., Berlin, 1875-77). In 1876
he was called to Gottingen as the successor of
Duncker. Here he was appointed abbot of Burs-
felde in 1881, having been a consistorial councilor
at Breslau since 1869. In 1887 he issued his Augus-
tinische Studien (Gotha, 1887), and in the same
year received, in honor of his seventieth birthday,
the Kirchengeschichtliche Studien of T. Brieger, P.
Tschackert, T. Kolde, F. Loofs, K. Mirbt, and his
son, A. Reuter (Leipsic, 1888). Reuter also con-
tributed largely to theological periodicals, especially
to the ZKG, of which he was one of the founders.
(T. Kolde.)
Bibliography: Worte gesprochen an dem Sarge des Profes-
sors Hermann Reuter, Gotha, 1889; T. Brieger, in ZKG,
vol. xi.
REUTER, QUIRINUS: German Reformed; b.
at Mosbach (20 m. e. of Heidelberg) Sept. 27, 1558;
d. at Heidelberg Mar. 22, 1613. He was educated
at the Sapienzkollegium, a theological institution
in Heidelberg, and when the Reformed were dis-
missed from it in 1577 by the Lutheran Louis VI.,
he received a scholarship at the Dionysianum, an
institute for indigent scholars. In the following
year (1578) he accepted a call to Neustadt. In 1580
he went to Breslau as the tutor of the eldest son of
Andreas Dudith, whom he succeeded in winning
over completely to Reformed views. He quickly
became the confidant of Dudith, whose Orationes he
published posthumously (Offenbach, 1590). Dur-
ing his residence in Breslau, Reuter is said to have
written his De significatione cometarum, but early in
1582 he was recalled by John Casimir to Neustadt.
He did not, however, leave Breslau until the end of
Mar., 1583. His teacher Ursinus had died on the
sixth of the same month, and at the suggestion of
Dudith Reuter edited the works of Ursinus (3 vols.,
Heidelberg, 1612).
Reuter's initial duties in Neustadt were teaching
and preaching. He was soon appointed third pas-
tor at Neustadt, and in 1584 was the opponent of
Jakob Grynaeus in the disputation between the Lu-
therans and Reformed. Soon after he became
teacher at the Psedagogium, and in the same year
was made pastor at Bensheim, while in 1587 he was
called to the pastorate of Neuhausen near Worms.
Three years later he was appointed second teacher
at the Sapienzkollegium, but in 1593 became the
pastor of the Reformed church in Speyer. In 1598
he succeeded Pareus as ephor of the Sapienzkolle-
gium. Four years later he was appointed professor
of Old-Testament theology at Heidelberg, a posi-
tion which he retained until his death. Reuter was
the author of Censura catecheseos Heidclbcrgensis
diatriba de ubiquitate; Tractatus de ecclesia; Aphor-
ismi theologici de vera religione; De cultu Dei nat-
urali; De lege morali non abrogata; Utrum inter
ecclesiam Lutheranam et pontificiam sit speranda
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Reuter
Revelation
conjunctio; De reformatione ecclesim; and a com-
mentary on Obadiah. (J. Schneider.)
Bibliography: The original source ia an oration by Simon
Stenius issued in 1613. Dependent upon this are: P.
Freher, Theatrum virorum clarorum, 2 vols., Nuremberg,
1688; M. Adam, Vitas clarorum virorum, pp. 390 sqq.,
Frankfort, 1706; C. G. Jocher, Gelehrten-Lexikon, 10
vols., Bremen, 1750-87; J. Schwab, Quatuor seculorum
rectorum in academia, Heidelberg, 1786; ADB, xxxviii.
328-329.
REUTERDAHL, rei'ter-dal, HENRIK: Swe-
dish archbishop; b. at MalmS (20 m. s.e. of Copen-
hagen) Sept. 10, 1795; d. at Upsala June 29, 1870.
After completing his education at the University of
Lund, he became, in 1817, docent at the theolog-
ical seminary at the same city, associate adjunct
in the theological faculty in 1824, and prefect of
the seminary in 1826. Several years later he was
made first adjunct of theology, was appointed chief
librarian of the university in 1838, full professor of
theology in 1844. With all his duties Reuterdahl
found time for literary pursuits. Together with
J. H. Thomander, Bergquist, and others, he founded
the " Theological Quarterly " in 1827, and in 1838
published the first volume of his Svenska kyrkans
historia (3 vols., Lund, 1838-63), a work in which
the ecclesiastical material is obscured by details of
secular politics, though its author's careful investi-
gation of original sources renders it important for
future investigators. In 1844 Reuterdahl was
elected deputy to the diet for the theological sem-
inary, and was repeatedly reelected, even after be-
ing appointed provost of the cathedral at Lund in
1845. He was minister of religion, 1852-55, and
in this capacity sought forcibly to prevent any de-
fections from the Swedish church through sectarian
movements, thus arousing considerable opposition.
In 1855 Reuterdahl was chosen bishop of Lund,
and in the following year was appointed archbishop
by the king, as well as prochancellor of the Univer-
sity of Upsala. During his administration sweep-
ing reforms were carried out by Charles XV. in
1865, whereby the clergy ceased to form an estate
in the diet. Reuterdahl, reluctantly acquiescing,
held the first general synod under the new order of
affairs in Sept., 1868. In the winter of 1869 severe
illness put an end to his public career.
(A. MlCHELSENf.)
REVEL, ALBERT: Waldensian; b. at Torre Pel-
lice (21 m. s.w. of Turin), Italy, Jan. 2, 1837; d.
at Florence Nov. — , 1888. He was educated at the
Waldensian college of his native place, at the theo-
logical school at Florence, and in the New College
(Free Church), Edinburgh; was ordained in 1861;
became professor of Latin and Greek literature in
the Waldensian college at Torre Pellice, 1861, and
professor of Biblical literature and exegesis to the
Waldensian Church, Florence, 1870. He was the
author of L'Epistola di S. Jacobo (Florence, 1868);
L'Epistola di S. Clemente Romano a Corinti (1869);
Antichita bibliche (1872); Teoria del culto (1875);
Le origini del Papato (1875); Cento lezioni sulla
vita di Gesu (1875); Storia letteraria dell' antico
Testamento (Poggibonsi, 1879); Manuale -par lo
studio delta lingua ebraica (Florence, 1879) ; 7 Salmi;
verzione e commento sopra i Salmi i.-xl. (1880); II
Nuovo Testamento, tradotto sul testo originate (1881);
Le sette chiese dell' Asia Minor e (1886) ; Enciclopedia
delle scienze teologiche (1886) ; Letteratura ebraica (2
vols., Milan, 1888) ; and / sette suggelli (Apoc. IV.-
VII.; Florence, 1890).
REVELATION.
Origin and Meaning (§1).
Biblical History (§ 2).
Dogmatic History (§3).
Modern Method (§ 4).
Subjectivism (§ 5).
Depreciation of the Historical and Personal (§ 6) •
Theory Based on the Bible and Positivism (§ 7).
The Doctrine of the Word of God (§8).
Philosophic Adjustment of this View (§ 9).
Revelation is the act of God in disclosing or com-
municating truth to the human soul. The concept
here becomes a subject of theological discussion as
a scientific technical expression. Doubtless it comes
from the Greek Bible (apokalyptein,
i. Origin phaneroun, deloun, gnorizein), where
and the variety of representation indicates
Meaning, that, as later in the language of prayer
and hymn, no fixedness of idea had
yet been reached. The idea embodied in the later
technical term was distinctly that of an act of God,
direct or indirect. Ecclesiastical Latin first pro-
vided definite form by laying down the term revelare,
with manifestare for narrower usage. With the
Christian era philosophy ceased to employ itself
exclusively with the concept of God; so religious
phenomena, and consequently also the idea of reve-
lation, were taken under consideration, especially
after the advent of the genus-concept of religio,
which is not found in the Bible. With increasing
measure religio and revelare become twin-thoughts;
the idea of revelation became estranged from its
original historical ground and both were subjected to
comparative generalization and lifted to the rare at-
mosphere of abstraction. r The utmost content com-
prehended in these conceptions may be denoted as
that which constitutes the ground of religion. The
variety of meanings is not improbably due to sub-
servience to expediency in theological system-build-
ing. Fundamental to all views is a making or
becoming manifest, whether the object enter within
the horizon for the first time (either existing previ-
ously or coming into existence simultaneously), or
the removing of an impediment to its realization
(either without or within the recipient). By this
the conveyance of the description, originally re-
ceived by sensible appreciation, to the spiritual real-
ization is for the most part effected, if this also
mediates through sense. The process of revelation
presupposes consciousness for its object, and through
taking possession of intuition for the sphere of re-
ligion, there fall to revelation, as its content, the
actual or possible subjects of a religious character.
Thought on these points originated in connection
with the historical monotheism of the Bible. God
is represented as opening intercourse with men by
various means. Theophany or the ap-
2. Biblical pearance of angels alternates or corn-
History, bines with speech. Miraculous events
assume the value of signs. Decisive
experiences of the people or of divinely appointed
persons are conceived as specially designed dis-
pensations of God. Prophecy comes to the front,
Revelation
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
retiring what resembles oracle (Urim and Thum-
min; q.v.), and by the prophets God now speaks
directly to the people. Thus the word coming from
God takes its authoritative place. In the immedi-
ate pre-Christian period, under the impression that
prophecy has been silenced, apocalyptic revelation
takes its place. Instead of continuous intercourse
with God there arises tradition with the dogma
of sacred Scripture and its inspiration, more and
more extraordinary, in representation. Depend-
ence upon Hellenism introduced the allegorical
method of interpretation. This dogma of Old-Tes-
tament Scripture was carried over for the estima-
tion and treatment of the New, with two points of
difference. First, the Jewish representation dealt
with reflection upon events in the past; the New
arose under the sense of a living intercourse with
God. Second, and more significant, Judaism di-
rects its inquiry to the transcendent God who con-
trols the world; the New Testament realizes more
intimately than in olden time the relation with God,
and this through the presence of the Holy Spirit.
In the fellowship of the risen Christ all are in the
most direct communion, as were the prophets. This
assurance is dependent on the knowledge of the
person of him who was sent by the only true God
(John xvii. 3). Jesus is more than prophet; he not
only speaks the word of God, but this was made a
human person in him, manifesting the invisible God.
What this person represents historically, is trans-
mitted and interpreted by the Spirit of God and
Christ in the hearts of believers. In this Christ are
all the treasures of wisdom but not their acquire-
ment, for redemption is the instrumental good.
Two elements, more distinct in thought than in
life, are contained in the New-Testament idea of the
Spirit of Christ in Christianity: the distinctive sig-
nificance of the historical fact named Christ; and
the immediate contact of every Christian with God
through his Spirit. The conception of
3. Dogmatic the former is identified with the re-
History, ceived account of it, and subsequently
with the Bible. With the completion
of the double canon of Scripture, the other element,
conscious possession, either had to lose itself in the
confirmation of crystallizing tradition, or aim to
sustain its independence by new productivity, which
it did in Montanism (q.v.) and Ecstasy (q.v.), or in
eclectic Biblicism or mysticism. In the next place,
the Church in awe of traditionalism fell a victim to
the confusion of dogma and revelation. This, to-
gether with the native equipment and training of
the Greek theologians, resulted in positing the op-
eration of revelation as the advancement of knowl-
edge, and the validity of such knowledge was to be
deduced from the idea of the supernatural mode of
transmission. In support was adduced, in depend-
ence upon Scripture, the proof of the Spirit and
power evidenced by the accordance of prophecy
with fulfilment and by miracle. This resulted, in
the course of the Middle Ages, in the problem of the
relation of the reason to the materials of traditional"
thought (see Scholasticism). Previously an ob-
servation of far-reaching consequence comes into
view. The mission to the Greeks was fond of fall-
ing back upon the philosophic and popular mono-
theism for a basis of connection, and for a counter-
part to revelation. This gave rise to the assumption
of a revelation in all religions, even in the ethical,
and the claim was made for these remnants or rays
of light, in behalf of the revealer or Logos. The
Reformation planting itself on the Bible destroyed
irremediably the assurance that church doctrine
and revelation coincide. Protestant orthodoxy in
the interest of dogmatism followed with the reen-
forcing dogma of the inspiration of an infallible
text. The strain of attack drew out, on the part
of reason, the theory of an original revelation, of
the innate ideas, and of the two books of nature and
conscience. The period of the Enlightenment (q.v.)
brought forth the idea of a supernatural instruc-
tion as a supplement to a rational foundation given
in and with creation. A philosophic followed by a
literary criticism demolished the dogma of a mirac-
ulously constructed text. The supernatural in-
struction was said either to be substantially cor-
roborated by reason (Wolff), or to be a temporary
episode until rational knowledge was ripe and self-
sufficient (Semler, Lessing). Finally, the possibil-
ity itself of such a revelation comes to be challenged
(Reimarus), and ordinary rationalism presumes, on
the basis of deism, to have done with revelation as
superfluous, impossible, and unreal. Meanwhile,
earnest treatment of Scripture turns from the valid-
ity of dogma to the unity of Biblical history. Ro-
manticism (q.v.) instilled a reaction as to the value
and origin of religion. The mystical infusion is not
to be disregarded after Schleiermacher. To this
influence of psychological and anthropological em-
piricism only one more point of view has been added,
which may be termed ethnological empiricism.
Under its banner, Comparative Religion (q.v.) is
prosecuted, which is a statistic of religions with ret-
rospect of their origin and growth, which again in
respect of the study of the sources is denominated
history of religion, and on the basis of the evolu-
tionary hypothesis is elaborated into a philosophy
of religion.
During the long period of orthodox thought the
concept of revelation served to insure an otherwise
inaccessible content. To remain certain that this
was received intact, the representation
4. Modern of the communication was wrought out
Method, without regard to the facts of historical
and individual personal life. Ecstasy
as the intermission of personal life is valid in the
strictest sense, and miracle as interruption is a
mark for the recognition of revelation, particularly
in rationalistic supernaturalism (see Rationalism
and Supernaturalism), at the risk of losing a con-
tent, however, otherwise inaccessible. In straining
the point of the mode, the content was neglected,
with which, however, revelation originally started
out. The resulting modern movement has, in all
its variations, the observation of the human phe-
nomenal form of revelation in the forefront. The
problem presents itself in the relation of human
autonomy to divine operation, and further in tense
ethical subjectivism. This is most evident in the
consideration of prophecy. The matter of con-
tent, however, readily recedes into the background,
while the problem becomes epistcmological because
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Revelation
the content whose form of transmission is under
examination is itself spiritual. Within this anthro-
pocentric, exclusively earthly horizon two funda-
mentally distinct series of observation have found
room: one, the historical empiricism from Bengel
to Hegel, to the modern science of religion; the
other, the psychological, proceeding from " the
inner testimony of the Holy Spirit," through
Schleiermacher, to the agnostic mysticism of the
religion of the indeterminate or blank religiousness.
According to Aristotle (see Religion, Philosophy
of), the practical activity of reason consists in the
judgments of formal thought, from which results
the overestimation of coordinating abstractions and
of empty universal formal concepts.
5. Sub- Such a fate also befalls the considera-
jectivism. tion of the religious life from which
depends the understanding of revela-
tion. Employed by the universal concept of relig-
ion, revelation is either not universal and then not
essential to religion, or else remains as an insepa-
rable accompaniment, theology presumes to find
in revelation the cause of religion, and the term
offers itself conveniently to denote that unknown
quantity through the effective entrance of which
into the soul-processes the appearance of religion
in the inner household may be explained. The
points of connection with the ideas of natural re-
ligion and revelation lie already at hand for the
correlation of these ideas. The axiom is assumed:
no revelation, no religion, whether in history or in
personal life. ^Avhat, however, is thus thought of as
revelation is compared throughout with the preva-
lent idea of religion according to psychological de-
termination. In this collation immediacy of the
religious relation or the original capacity for relig-
ious experience in every human being coalesces with
revelation. R. A. Lipsius emphatically pronounces
mystical experience to be the vital center in relig-
ion and the essential in revelation. This experience,
however, is not a disclosure, since it gives rise to a
feeling never fully tangible to apprehension. Turn-
ing the thought around, it appears evident that re-
ligion, so far as its content is concerned, would never
get beyond the speaking of tongues. But the fun-
damental perception is everywhere at hand, wher-
ever the fact of religion is found in universal relig-
iousness fundamentally independent of history. In
case this religiousness is found in connection with
an atheistic philosophy, it affords revelation even
without deity. -< The transfer of the ecclesiastical
technical expression to formal analogies observed
in other departments of life affords means for closer
comparison. v Discoveries have been made, whether
by search or fortuitously, which have been desig-
nated revelations. The ingenious conception of the
thinker (especially of the artist), or vision, offers
itself as analogous to the flash of the religious spark.
If thought be not reinforced by conviction, with
reference to the content of religion, from elsewhere,
namely, from the more securely grounded ethical
consciousness, or if the pious only experiences him-
self and the self-assigned relation to the non-ego,
then the fear arises that such revelation may be no
more than self-deception of the imagination, or pos-
sibly a universal strained representation, without,]
foundation in fact (Feuerbach). Against such a
subjectivistic dissection of the generalized concept
of revelation recourse from the abstract theory of
religion to comparative religion affords no relief.
There is, indeed, no little mention, in such presenta-
tions, of revelation underlying all religions, without
going into the concept of it. Nevertheless it is ad-
mitted (Thiele) that a class of religions of revela-
tion is to be abstracted; namely, those conscious
of the possession of revelations. Meanwhile there
remains for this consciousness, so long as religion
is assumed to be nothing else than becoming in-
wardly aware of an inevitable superior power,
nothing but the verdict that it is an imagery of the
fancy pertaining to psychological movements other-
wise explainable. If it is only a matter of influences
and their psychological exercise, then the specially
religious lies either in the content, or perhaps on
the side of the elaborating soul and its mode of ap-
prehension. In either case the special mediation
of religious operations drops out and with this also
the occasion for applying the notion of revelation.
If not set aside, its universalized use serves to
generalize the Biblical religions with the others, by
presenting them merely as particularly shaded
modes of the universal concept of religion.
This entire point of view is guilty of a deprecia-
tion of the historical. Schleiermacher was aware of
this when he declared ethics to be the book of forms
for history, and history to be the book of illustra-
tions for ethics; only it is to be borne
6. Depre- in mind that by ethics he meant the
ciation of formulation of the natural laws of so-
the Histor- cial life. The uniform laws, therefore,
ical and are essential; the variations of phe-
Personal. nomena are secondary. So also as re-
gards the religious; they are varieties
similar in kind to the species of a genus. So far,
however, the introduction of the historical treat-
ment of religion does not alter the case. For if the
steps of religious movement are deduced not from
what is characteristic in religion, but from the prog-
ress of mental culture, the illumination of ethical
views, or the repletion of philosophical thought — in
short, from influences whose representations are in-
dependent of religion — then religion and its line of
development remain the same, namely, the ever
fundamentally invariable religiousness. Only its
reflex imagery in consciousness and its spiritual
elaboration vary. Consequently the standard for
judging these influences lies outside of the religious,
according to this position. In this connection also
appears, with some logical consequence, a departure
in the use of the concept of revelation. Originally
denoting an impulse giving rise to the fact of re-
ligion, its given historical connection leads to the
observation that religiousness in the strongly ex-
ercised becomes itself revealing upon the passively
susceptible. As these transmissions must fulfil
themselves in the active appropriation of impulses,
and their use is determined by influences from with-
out, these mediations must ultimately be of indif-
ferent importance or must act as inhibitions, just
as soon as religiousness becomes first-hand or orig-
inal. Inasmuch as this form of revelation again
removes itself from the field, all thought of a relig-
Revelation
THE NEW SCHAFP-HERZOG
6
ious content communicated thereby can no longer
be entertained, or the unvarying consciousness of
dependence continues to hold the ground, remain-
ing fundamentally awry with respect to all indi-
vidual or historical supplementing. The concept of
revelation is consumed by the naked idea of causa-
tion. The reason is that the phenomena dealt with
are taken from the observation of things in general
without respect to the peculiarity of personal life;
except that it is impossible to banish reflex imagery
from consciousness, although this receives treat-
ment only in accordance with the nature of those
phenomena. The main matter is not altered by
substituting for the differentiation of the class in
varieties the series of necessary development, i.e.,
for things coexistent things in succession. The re-
sultant ever remains the exercise of the unvarying
basis in religious consciousness. If this is as a mat-
ter of fact once conceded, its practical elaboration
or " revelation," just as readily on an atheistic as a
pantheistic hypothesis, is of itself understood.
In this way, the idea of revelation has become a
mere adjunct to that of religion, and with doubtful
advantage; for it serves partly to make prominent
the nativity of religion in every indi-
7. Theory vidual, and partly to describe in a
Based on vacillating manner the religion's recip-
the Bible rocal activity. In contrast, the idea
and has been positively remanded to its
Positivism, original field; i.e., for the historical lifeX
This has taken place in the name of the
Bible, on the part of the later Biblicists, and on the
ground that religion exists only in historical posi-
tivism (Ritschl). History is the department of
those facts which pertain to acting persons, their
practical conduct, and its effects. Here the setting
of aims or ends is a matter of fact. Room is af-
forded for the transactions of God apart from his
universal activity according to law. It may find
play in events, in the formal complexity of things,
or in the appointment of particular persons. Such
transaction invades effectively the whole; for the
receptive mind it is at the same time presentation.
It is to be called revelation by manifestation. In
reaction to the self-analyzing intellectualistic con-
ception, revelation by divine act merely has ob-
tained acceptance (Hofmann). The question then
occurs, What raises a fact or group of facts in their
revealing value above doubt? Two answers are
possible: the one points to the unity of universal
design; the other to the admission that the reveal-
ing fact may not be satisfactorily deduced from
historical conditions."' These considerations may
mutually support or may oppose each other. Both
result in recognizing in Jesus Christ the focus of
historical revelation. ''That is to say, they will ad-
mit, as real revelation, only history determined
through him. ^ Another path leads to this point. If
the personal life be held in view, its ethical quality
looms up as important, and so also, in connection
with the Bible, the fact of human sin. It throws
light upon the necessity of a special revelation, pro-
ductive ot the view that it is to be regarded as one
phase of the redemptive activity of God (Krauss).
As redemption appears to generalizing thought in
the aspect of a particular form of revelation, so here
this appears as an instrumental effort of divine ac-
tivity for the conquest of evil wrought by sin. Its
unique position within the comprehensive divine
activity becomes self-evident as well as character-
istic. However forcefully this special activity of
God in the manifestation of Christ is set forth, it
yet falls subject, so far as it is presentative, to the
conceptual appropriation of man. Then the old
question reappears — whence comes the warrant for
the corresponding conception and a reliable trans-
mission, if even this presentation constitutes an in-
dispensable part of the redeeming act. Further,
how is certainty to be gained that God is acting and
making revelation in any other way than in his
universal world-activity? Does not special history
dissolve on every hand into the stream of human
evolution in conformity with law? Within this, the
merely negative marks of an undeducible content
of the fact or uniqueness of the personal manifes-
tation of Christ will not submit to proof. The tran-
scendence above nature and the revelation value of
the fact has become questionable. Here the most
recent critical movement has applied the fruits of
oriental study to the Old Testament.
The Bible places the word foremost among the
instruments of revelation. Word and act are not
exclusive in simple meaning or in human life. Word
is not without act; it may be a most
8. The forceful act, but wordless act is never
Doctrine revelation. Revelation has not to do
of the Word with an all- working power that must
of God. be provided with the word by the con-
templation of its impression on man
who has fallen under its influence; but it knows
the speaking God. God avails himself of human
thought and speech to make himself known and
his speech intelligible, so far as knowledge of him
is requisite for sinners to overcome by it sin and
death. ^ How much, according to the Biblical mode
of thought, the divine act, for the sake of continu-
ing disclosure, is in need of the opening of the
mind to conceive and of the understanding to ex-
plain, is shown in that the incarnate Word attains
only to effective revelation by the aid of the Para-
clete. As indispensable as this instructive disclo-
sing activity may be, so positive is this effected
Word of revelation; it is not merely the inade-
quate expression of what is, according to its nature,
ineffable. Without hesitation this intuition so
obtained is regarded even to its very form of state-
ment as that designed and imparted by God con-
cerning himself and his will (I Cor. ii. 9-10). The
operatiQa_of_God_by his Spirit upon men is not lim-
_ited.to.the generation of his Word;* for it is the
comprehensive challenge, which calls forth the re-
lation to him in all phenomenal forms: but the
formation of words belongs to it essentially. Such
influence of the Holy Spirit restricts itself not to
impulse and feeling; it makes requisition upon all
the forms of thought. The indwelling Spirit is not
thought of as a power operating externally upon the
conscious activities which mediate through the
senses. The characteristic figure within the hori-
zon of this circle is not the genius who founds sects,
but the prophet prepared for martyrdom; the mes-
senger of the word which laid a task upon him.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Revelation
This statement concerning a process which inter-
relates manifestation and inspiration, the perma-
nent result of which is the word of God (C. J.
Nitzsch; Rothe), produces itself as the expression
of present experience. Just as soon as the thread
of continuity is broken, as among the Jews after
the exile and in the post-Apostolic Church, percep-
tion becomes readily darkened. That, however, not
merely its caput mortuum is present, is proved by
the experience that this word may by proxy repre-
sent the manifestation more effectively than the
manifestation itself, where there is a thorough ac-
tivity of the Spirit. \J This statement of the self-
revelation of God does not explain how religion
originated on the whole or primarily. The knowl-
edge concerning God, who may then be sought and
rediscovered in his world-activity, is presupposed
in all revealing action; the Bible knows nothing
concerning a monotheism discovered only in late
times. The fact of religion is presupposed for all
men, and not until the state of religious necessity
appears does revelation come under observation.
Revelation is fundamentally always the self-evi-
dencing of God for the recognition of him, and only
subsequently does it extend itself also to the cor-
relative. Wherefore, the knowledge of God has just
the opposite force, within these limits, of humanly
found and humanly conditioned thoughts concern-
ing the divine. For it no simpler or more absolute
testimony can be given than that of the first peti-
tion of the Lord's Prayer. Neither are the depths
of deity exhausted in every dimension nor are the
means provided for the impenetration of the uni-
verse in detail (theosophy); only the reality and
verity of the acquaintance with the self-revealing
God are assured.
It has already become clear that the historicity
of revelation is not alone to be proved in the fact
that it fulfils itself- in. actuality Jthatjmist first be
understood in order to be described;
9. Philo- much rather the emphasis rests upon
sophic Ad- the complex happening, evidently in
justment of fulfilment of a purpose, in which the
this View, indicating word is involved in a cor-
responding onward movement.-^ So it
may well be said of revelation, that it generates a
development; in a certain sense also that it devel-
ops in its results. Only that such revelation must
not be taken as analogous to the process in nature,
but is to be conceived as the manifestation of a
training according to design; for otherwise there
would be a becoming manifest by means of, but not
a revelation to, human consciousness. If abstract
metaphysics, to the extent of deism, has assumed
too disparate a conception of the highest being for
alternative activity with the finite, then modern
anthropology takes too disparate a conception of
the subjectivity of persons to get any farther with
respect to influence upon them than a stimulus to
self-propulsion. Both exclude such a revealing op-
eration of God, which is something else than a con-
dition of the well-ordering of the whole. Therefore
the God-man must be, apart from the ethical, a
cosmic ordering and with him and in him is revela-
tion (Dorner). At this point comes to view the de-
pendence of the various forms of the conception of
revelation upon cosmology. Something of this kind
seems to be unavoidably bound up with the solu-
tion of the problem of the natural or the supernat-
ural character of revelation through the generali-
zing of this idea, which is really indigenous only to
the circle of New-Testament religions. Therefore,
it is advisable, in its theological treatment, not to
overlook how, in its origins, revelation serves, not
only to weigh the knowledge of God afforded by it
over against other representations; but, much more,
to distinguish it as the true over against the decep-
tions; and not to forget how positively revelation
is identified in thought, not merely with the reality
of contact with God, but above all with the truth of
the knowledge of God. In the restriction of the
concept to this one side of the comprehensive activ-
ity of God, by which he founds the new life and
within it the perfect religion, it preserves its pecu-
liar significance, and is indispensable for the main-
tenance of the understanding of the religious rela-
tion on the high level of personal life, be it in the
form of religiousness or of positive religion.
(M. Kahler.)
Bibliography: For the Biblical side consult the literature
named in and under Biblical Theology; and for the
dogmatic side the works on systematic theology named
in and under Apologetics; Dogma, Dogmatics; Doc-
trine, History of; and Inspiration. Consult further:
R. Seeberg, Revelation and Inspiration, New York, 1910;
J. Leland, The Advantage and Necessity of Christian Reve-
lation, shown from the State of Religion in the Ancient
Heathen World, 2 vols., London, 1768, Philadelphia, 1818;
H. Alford, Consistency of the Divine Conduct in Revealing
the Doctrines of Redemption, 2 vols., London, 1842; F. D.
Maurice, What is Revelation? A Series of Sermons on the
Epiphany, ib. 1859; idem, Sequel, to the Inquiry, " What
is Revelation?" Letters in Reply to Mansel's Examination
of Strictures on the Bampton Lectures, ib. 1860; K. A.
Auberlen, Die gbttliche Offenbarung, Basel, 1861, Eng.
transl., The Divine Revelation, Edinburgh, 1867; E.
Krauss, Die Lehre vonder Offenbarung, Gotha, 1868; A. B.
Bruce, The Chief End of Revelation, London, 1881, new
ed. 1887; R. W. Dale, Epistle to the Ephesians, its Doctrine
and Ethics, lecture viii., ib. 1882; G. T. Ladd, The Doc-
trine of Sacred Scripture, 2 vols., New York, 1883; J.
Robson, The Bible; its Revelation . . , London, 1883;
C. A. Row, Revelation and Modern Theology, ib. 1883;
J. H. A. Ewald, Revelation: its Nature and Record, Edin-
burgh, 1884; H. Rogers, The Superhuman Origin of the
Bible, London, 1884; W. W. Olssen, Revelation, Universal
and Special, New York, 1885; S. J. Andrews, God's Reve-
lations of Himself to Men as successively made in the Patri-
archal, Jewish, and Christian Dispensations and in the
Messianic Kingdom, ib. 1886; R. H. Hutton, Essays Theo-
logical and Literary, 2 vols., London, 1888; J. F. Weir,
The Way, the Nature, and the Means of Revelation, Edin-
burgh, 1889; G. P. Fisher, The Nature and Method of
Revelation, New York, 1890; E. Cowley, The Writers of
Genesis and Related Topics, Illustrating Divine Revelation,
ib. 1890; W. D. Thomson, Revelation and the Bible. A
popular Exposition for the Times, London, 1890; R. F. Hor-
ton, Revelation and the Bible. An Attempt at Reconstruc-
tion, ib., New York, 1892; E. R. Palmer, Development
of Revelation, London, 1892; D. Van Home, Religion and
Revelation, Dayton, Ohio, 1892; J. Macgregor, Revelation
and the Record, London, 1893; S. J. Andrews, God's Reve-
lations of Himself to Men, New York, 1901; C. B. Brews-
ter, Aspects of Revelation, London, 1901; J. R. Illingworth,
Reason and Revelation, ib. 1902, new ed., 1908; T. Simon,
Entwicklung und Offenbarung, Berlin, 1907; H. Bavinck,
The Philosophy of Revelation, New York, 1909; J. Wilson,
How God has spoken. Or, Divine Revelation in Nature, in
Man, in Hebrew History and in Jesus Christ, Edinburgh,
1909; J. Orr, Revelation and Inspiration, London, 1910;
G. Henderson, The Bible a Revelation from God, Edin-
burgh, 1910; DCG, ii. 520-526; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire,
fasc. xxxiv. 1080-83.
B&vesz
Revivals of Religion
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
REVESZ, IMRE: Hungarian Reformed; b. at
Debreczin (116 m. e. of Budapest) Jan. 14, 1826;
d. there Feb. 13, 1881. He was educated at De-
breczin (1841-51), and after completing his studies
at Vienna, Berlin, and in Switzerland, became, in
1856, pastor at Debreczin. In 1861 he was elected
to the Reichstag, though he resigned a few months
later to devote himself exclusively to pastoral and
literary labors. He distinguished himself in the de-
fense of his church, when, in 1856, Leo Thun, the
Austrian minister of public worship, drafted a new
system of government for the Hungarian Protes-
tants which completely destroyed consistorial in-
dependence. Three years later an imperial patent
was issued directing the Hungarian Lutherans and
Reformed to organize in accordance with the royal
charter. Both churches protested, while Re><§sz
presented arguments from history to show that the
autonomy of the Protestant bodies could not be
changed without the consent of their own synods.
He likewise addressed a memorial to the foreign
powers, which was presented, in English transla-
tion, to the British ambassador and printed in The
Edinburgh Review (1860). He was a member of
the Protestant deputation which unsuccessfully
sought to gain audience with Francis Joseph I. in
Jan., 1860, and after his return he drew up and pub-
lished a program for passive resistance to the exe-
cution of the obnoxious patent. The program was,
however, confiscated by the government, and R6-
v6sz, among others, was summoned to appear be-
fore the civil courts. He now wrote his " Defense
of the Hungarian Protestant Church " (Sarospatak,
1862; which appeared in its essential parts in
German in the Protestantische KirchenzeUung , 1861).
In 1860 the obnoxious patent was withdrawn, and
the suits against ReV£sz and other Protestants were
quashed.
In 1870 R4v6sz founded the monthly Figyel-
mezo, which he conducted for nine years, and in
this he combated the German Protestant Union
(see Protestant Uniox, German). Among his
numerous works, all of them in Hungarian, special
mention may be made of the following: " Basal
Principles of Protestant Church Organization "
(Szarvas, 1856); "Jan Erdosi, the Hungarian Re-
former " (Budapest, 1859); " Life and Works of the
first Hungarian Reformer, Mathias Biro of Deva "
(1863); "Calvin's Life and Calvinism" (1864); and
a Hungarian translation of the sermons of Frederick
William Robertson (3 vols., 1864-69).
F Balogh.
Bibliography: F. Balogh, in The Catholic Presbyterian,
London, 1861, pp. 418-427; K. Kuzmani, Urkundenbuch
zum osterreichischen evangelischen Kirchenrecht, Vienna,
1856.
REVILLE, re-vil', ALBERT: French Protestant:
b. at Dieppe Nov. 4, 1826; d. at Paris Oct. 25, 1906.
He was educated in his native city and at the uni-
versities of Geneva and Strasburg; was assistant
pastor at Nimes'm 1847-48; pastor at Luneray in
1848-51; and of the Walloon church at Rotterdam,
1851-73; professor of the history of religions in the
College de France, Paris, 1880-1906, as well as presi-
dent of the section in the Ecole pratique des hautes
Etudes for religious sciences in the same city after
1884. He translated J. H. Scholten's Geschiedenis
der godsdienst en wijsbegeerte (Leyden, 1853) under
the title Manuel d'histoire comparie de la philoso-
phic et de la religion (Paris, 1861); and wrote L' Au-
thenticity du Nouveau Testament (1851); De la re-
demption (1860); Essais de critique religieuse (1860);
fitudes critiques sur I'Svangile selon Saint Matthieu
(Leyden, 1862); Manuel d'instruction religieuse
(1863; Eng. transl., London, 1864); TModore
Parker, sa vie et ses ceuvres (1865; Eng. transl., Lon-
don, 1865); Histoire du dogme de la divinity de
Jisus-Christ (1869; 5th ed., 1906; Eng. transl., His-
tory of the Doctrine of the Deity of Jesus Christ, Lon-
don, 1870; revised, 1905); Histoire du diable, ses
origines, sa grandeur et sa decadence (Strasburg,
1870; Eng. transl., The Devil, his Origin, Greatness,
and Decadence, London, 1871); Prolegomenes de
I'histoire des religions (1881; Eng. transl., London,
1884); Les Religions des peuples non-civilises (2
vols., 1883) ; The Origin and Growth of Religion as
illustrated by the Native Religions of Mexico and
Peru (Hibbert lectures, London, 1884; French
transl., Paris, 1885); La Religion chinoise (2 vols.,
Paris, 1888); and Jisus de Nazareth (2 vols., 1897).
Bibliography: Polybiblion, 1897, pp. 199-203; P. Alphan-
dery, in RHR, 1906, pp. 401-423; Revue chritienne, 1896,
pp. 416-417; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fase. xxxiv. 1083-
1084.
REVILLE, JEAN: French Protestant, son of the
preceding; b. at Rotterdam, Holland, Nov. 6,
1854; d. at Paris May 6, 1908. He was educated at
the universities of Geneva, Paris, Berlin, and Hei-
delberg; was pastor at Sainte-Suzanne (1880-83);
teacher of the Evangelical religion in the Lycee
Henri Quatre, Paris (1884-86); instructor in church
history in the Ecole pratique des hautes etudes,
Paris (1886-94); and professor of patristics in the
Protestant theological faculty of the University of
Paris (1894-1907); succeeded his father as profes-
sor of the history of religions in the College de
France. He was also editor of the Revue de I'his-
toire des religions after 1884. Among his numerous
works special mention may be made of La Religion
a Rome sous les SSveres (Paris, 1884); Les Origines
de Vipiscopat (1894); Paroles d'un libre croyant
(1898); Le Quatrieme Evangile, son origine et sa
valeur historique (1900); Le Protestantisms liberal,
ses origines, sa nature, sa mission (1903; Eng. transl.,
Liberal Christianity, its Origin, Nature, and Mission,
London, 1903); and Le ProphMisme h&treu; es-
quisse de son hist, et de ses destinies (Paris, 1906).
Bibliography: W. Sanday, Criticism of the Fourth Gospel,
pp. 2, 28, 31, 200, 256, Oxford, 1905; Journal de Geneve,
May 8, 1908; A. Reiyss, in Le Protestant, journal des chrt-
tiens libSraux, 1908, pp. 155-156; RHR, June-July, 1908;
Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, faso. xxxiv. 1084.
REVIUS, rS'vi-us, JACOBUS: Dutch theologian;
b. at Deventer (8 m. n. of Zutphen) Nov., 1586; d. at
Leyden Nov. 15, 1658. He was educated at Leyden
(1604-07) and Franeker (1607-10), and in 1610-
1612 visited various foreign universities, particu-
larly Saumur, Montauban, and Orleans. Return-
ing to Holland, he held brief pastorates at Zeddam,
Winterswijk, and Aalten in 1613, and by Oct., 1614,
had become pastor in his native city, where he re-
mained twenty-seven years. In 1618 he was ap-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Revlsz
Revivals of Religion
pointed librarian of the Fraterhuis, and in the same
year the Synod of Dort assigned him a part in the
new revision of the Dutch translation of the Old
Testament. The committee of translators and re-
visers, which convened at Leyden in 1633-34, made
Revius secretary. He likewise took an active part
in the establishment of the Athenaeum at Deventer
in 1630, and was influential in calling the first pro-
fessors. In 1641 he accepted a call to Leyden as
regent of the state college, and held this position
for the remainder of his life. His closing years
were embittered by the rise of Cartesianism, to which
he was intensely opposed. A rare Hebrew scholar,
Revius was also a prolific writer. He showed, how-
ever, a domineering disposition and exercised a
vehement polemic, as shown in his struggle with
Cartesianism and the Remonstrants. Against the
latter he wrote, Schriftuurlijk tegen Bericht van de
Leere der Gereformeerde Kerken aengaende de godde-
lijke Predestinatie ende andere aen-clevende Poincten
(Deventer, 1617); against the former he wrote es-
pecially his Statera philosophies Cartesiance (Leyden,
1650); and Theke, hoc est levitas defensionis Carte-
siance (Briel, 1653). The rights of the Church he
defended in his Examen seu de potestate magis-
tratuum reformatorum circa res ecclesiasticas (Amster-
dam, 1642), and his Uittreksels over de rnacht
der overheid in het afzetten van predikanien (Leyden,
1650). While endeavoring to avoid the contempo-
rary controversy whether men might wear long
hair, he was obliged to defend his moderate position
in his Libertas Christiana circa usum capillitii defensa
(1647).
While he was regent, no less than 576 disputa-
tions took place at Leyden. In 1623 Revius pub-
lished at Leyden his own Greek and Latin
translation of the Belgic Confession, a revised and
enlarged edition appearing four years later as Bel-
gicarum ecclesiarum doctrina et ordo. Copies of this
were widely circulated among the Orthodox Greeks
and won the approval of Cyril Lucar (q.v.), whose
own " Confession " may thus have been materially
influenced by the Belgic Confession. Revius also
conferred a considerable service on science by edit-
ing 300 letters of the famous Joseph Juste Scaliger
(q.v.) under the title Epistres francoises des person-
nages illustres et doctes a M. Joseph Juste de la Scala
(Harderwijk, 1624). His main work entitled him
to prominence among historical writers, Daventrice
illustrated, sive histories urbis Daventriensis libri sex
(Leyden, 1651). Revius was also one of the best
poets of his time, publishing Over-Yseselsche Sangen
en Dichten (Deventer, 1630; enlarged ed., Leyden,
1634), and De CL Psalmen Davids in sin en de
rijmen gebetert (Deventer, 1640).
(S. D. van Veen.)
Bibliography : Sources are his own sketch in his Daventrice
illustrates, ut sup., pp. 725-728; and J. Hoornbeek, Mis-
cellanea sacra, pp. 575-591, Utrecht, 1676. Consult: J.
van Vloten, Het Leven en de uitgelezen zangen en dichten van
Jacobus Revius, Schiedam, 1863; E. J. W. Posthumus
Meyjes, Jacobus Revius, zijn Leven en Werken, Amsterdam,
1895.
I.
II.
III.
1.
Theory of Revivals.
Early Revivals.
In Biblical Times (§1).
Protestant Revivals (§ 2).
In America.
Revivals under Edwards.
Revival of 1734-35 (§ 1).
Great Awakening, 1740 (§ 2).
Revival under Criticism (§ 3).
James Davenport (§ 4).
Edwards' Defense; Statistics
(§5).
Revivals about the Year 1800.
REVIVALS OF RELIGION.
College Revivals; Timothy Dwight
(§ 1).
Lyman Beecher (§ 2).
Kentucky Revival (§ 3).
3. Theology of these Revivals.
4. Later Revivals.
Asahel Nettleton (§ 1).
Charles Grandison Finney (§ 2).
Criticism of Finney's Methods
(§3).
Dwight Lyman Moody (§ 4).
5. General View of the Nineteenth and
Twentieth Centuries.
In General (§ 1).
Benjamin Fay Mills (§ 2).
Reuben Archer Torrey (§ 3).
J. Wilbur Chapman (§ 4).
IV. The Welsh Revival of 1904-1906.
The Welsh People (§ 1).
The Revival Described (§ 2).
Its Origin (§ 3).
Evan John Roberts; Early Life
(§4).
Work in the Revival (§ 5).
Occult Phenomena (§ 6).
V. Roman Catholic Mission.
The phrase " revivals of religion " is ordinarily
applied to the spiritual condition of a Christian
community, more or less limited in extent, in which
a special interest is very generally felt in respect to
religious concerns, accompanied with a marked
manifestation of divine power and grace in the
quickening of believers, the reclaiming of back-
sliders, and the awakening, conviction, and conver-
sion of the unregenerate.
I. Theory of Revivals: The progress of Chris-
tianity in the world has rarely, for any length of
time, been uniform. Its growth in the individual
and in the community is characterized by very ob-
vious fluctuations. Like all things temporal, it is
subject to constant change, exposed to influences
the most varied and antagonistic. Now it makes
rapid advances in its conflict with sinful propen-
sities and developments; again it is subjected to
obstructions and reverses that effectually check its
onward course, and result in spiritual declensions.
Growth in grace is attainable only by ceaseless vigi-
lance, untiring diligence, unremitting conflict, and
a faithful improvement of the opportunities and
means of spiritual advancement. Any relaxation
in the strife with moral evil tends to spiritual re-
tardation: the evil gets the advantage over the
good; the religious fervor abates; the soul becomes
lukewarm, cold, dead. As with the individual be-
liever, so is it with the community. A church, a
sisterhood of churches covering a large section of
country, by reason of the predominating influence
of some worldly interests — the greed of gain in a
season of great commercial prosperity, the strife of
party during a highly excited political campaign,
the prevalence of a martial spirit in time of war, or
the lust of pleasure in a time of general worldly
gaiety and festivity, or any absorbing passion for
mere temporal good — may be so diverted from the
direct pursuit of holiness, and the prosecution of
the work of advancing the kingdom of Christ, as to
Revivals of Religion
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
10
lose, to a considerable extent, the power, if not the
life, of godliness. The spiritual and eternal become
subordinate to the worldly and temporal. The
blight of spiritual declension settles down and at-
taches itself with increasing persistency year by
year. Such has been the history of Christian
churches everywhere. This being the testimony of
universal experience to the proneness of human
nature to decline from the spirit and the power of
godliness, how, it is asked, is this tendency to be
checked ? Obviously the true and only effective
and appropriate remedy for a season of spiritual
declension is a season of spiritual revival. Such a
season, by whatever agencies or instrumentalities
brought about, by whatever adjuncts of question-
able propriety it may be accompanied, and of
greater or less extent, may properly be termed " a
revival of religion." These manifestations, more-
over, are to be regarded as a result of a special and
peculiar effusion of the Holy Spirit. All spiritual
life, all progress in the divine life, whether in the in-
dividual or in the community, in the church or in
the nation, is the Spirit of God. The whole period
of grace, from the Day of Pentecost to the final
judgment, is properly termed " the dispensation of
the Holy Spirit." Every true convert is begotten
of the Spirit, and so becomes a child of God. The
Spirit is always in and with the Church, carrying
forward the work of redemption.
II. Early Revivals : Mention, moreover, is made
in the Scriptures of special dispensations of the
Holy Spirit, of copious effusions of the Spirit of par-
ticular times of refreshing from the
i. In Bib- presence of the Lord: " It shall come to
lical Times, pass afterward, that I will pour out
my spirit upon all flesh." The fulfil-
ment of this prediction of the prophet Joel began,
as the Apostle Peter testifies, on the Day of Pen-
tecost next following the crucifixion of our Lord.
So great and so efficacious was this outpouring of
the Spirit, that about 3,000 souls were that day
made partakers of the divine nature by regenera-
tion. And this was only the initial of a marvelous
dispensation and display of divine grace in the re-
newal and sanctification of a great multitude of
souls extending through a continued series of years,
whereby the Christian Church was planted, took
root, and filled the land of Israel with its blessed
fruits. It was a great and glorious revival of re-
ligion. This was but the first great revival in the
history of the Christian Church. Times without
number, at particular periods, in peculiar exigen-
cies God has interposed for the redemption of the
Church and for the triumphant advancement of the
Gospel of Christ. After a season of spiritual de-
clension, when iniquity had come in, and rolled over
the whole land like a desolating flood, a wave of
renewing and sanctifying grace has spread itself
over a whole region of country, whereby the atten-
tion of the multitude has been aroused, great num-
bers of the careless and thoughtless have been
brought under saving conviction, and converts by
thousands have been brought into the Church of
such as should be saved. Marvelous changes have
thus been wrought in the aspect of large communi-
ties, affecting most favorably the character and the
results of the preaching of the Word, the devotions
of the closet, the family, and the sanctuary, and the
interest taken by the multitude in spiritual and ex-
ternal concerns, resulting in an extraordinary quick-
ening of religious affections, a general stimulus of
Christian graces, and the divine renewal of souls
that were dead in trespasses and sins. Not only at
Jerusalem, but everywhere in all the region round
about where the apostles and apostolic men preached
in those days, and far away among the Gentiles,
such scenes were witnessed. So many and so mighty
were those special manifestations of divine power
and grace in the Gospel, by reason of such effusions
of the Holy Spirit, that Tertullian could say at the
beginning of the third century, in his appeal to the
civil authorities, " We have filled all places of your
dominions, — cities, islands, corporations, councils,
armies, tribes, the senate, the palace, the court of
judicature." " So mightily grew the work of God,
and prevailed."
Passing over the intervening centuries, it may
well be asked, What was the Protestant Reforma-
tion, that, beginning in the fourteenth century under
Wyclif, and continuing under Huss in the fifteenth,
at length culminated in the sixteenth
2. Protes- under Luther and Calvin and a host of
tant kindred spirits? It was a special dis-
Revivals. pensation of the Spirit, whereby the
minds of men everywhere in Christian
lands were turned toward the utterances of the
divine word, the errors of the papacy were discov-
ered and renounced, the truth as it is in Jesus was
apprehended and embraced by multitudes, and the
churches were built up in the faith of the Gospel. It
was a great and general revival of religion, whereby
converts by tens of thousands were born of the
Spirit of God. So thorough and wide-spread were
those conversions, that the fires of persecution were
kindled in vain. In spite of princes and prelates,
converts to the pure faith of the Gospel were made
all over Germany, Switzerland, France, Holland,
and Great Britain, and not a few in Spain and Italy.
It was the greatest revival of religion that the world
had witnessed, and the Church enjoyed, since the
days of Constantine. From that day, all along the
centuries, the annals of the Church abound in tes-
timonies to the reality and efficacy of these special
effusions of the Spirit. The Church of Scotland was
born anew in the great revival under Knox and his
brethren. " The whole nation," says Kirkton,
" was converted by lump." Near the close of the
sixteenth century, under the ministry of such di-
vines as Wishart, Cooper, and Welsh, all Scotland
was visited by an extraordinary effusion of the Holy
Spirit. So mightily were men affected, that the
whole general assembly, 400 ministers and elders,
while renewing their solemn league and covenant,
with sighs and groans and tears, were swayed by
the Spirit, as the leaves of the forest by the " rush-
ing of the wind " of the driving tempest. Similar
scenes were further witnessed in Scotland, begin-
ning in 1625, at Stewarton, extending through the
land and into the north of Ireland, and eventuating
in that remarkable display of divine grace in the
Kirk of Scotland, where in June, 1630, under the
preaching of Bruce and Livingston, " near 500 "
11
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Revivals of Religion
souls in one day were brought under deep convic-
tion of sin, and presently into the light and liberty
of the Gospel. So, too, in 1638, on the occasion of
signing the covenant, the whole country was stirred
as by the mighty hand of God. Such was the prep-
aration in Scotland, and in England, also, for the
great reformation that issued in the commonwealth
under Cromwell and the prevalence of Puritanism
in the Church of England.
Like importance attaches to what is known as the
Evangelical revival under the Wesleys in Great
Britain, which spread also to America under Francis
Asbury (q.v.) and Philip Embury (q.v.), resulting
in the foundation and upbuilding of Methodism
(see Methodists). E. F. Hatfield-)-.
III. In America. — 1. Revivals under Edwards:
The earliest period of New England history
was a period of almost constant revival, for
religion was the chief interest of the Pilgrim and
Puritan churches, and revivals of a
1. Revival less continuous type were not infre-
of 1734-35. quent in the later years of their first
century and the beginning of the
next. Increase Mather was a powerful revival
preacher. Both the father and the grandfather
(Solomon Stoddard, q.v.) of Jonathan Edwards had
revivals in their parishes. But the history of Amer-
ican revivals, as a distinct element of the religious
life, begins properly in 1734 with the preaching of
a series of sermons by Edwards, at Northampton,
upon justification by faith. There had at this date
been no considerable additions to the village church
for a long time. The religious condition of the
church had become low, and that of the community
around it worse. Interest began among the young
and spread to the old. Five or six persons were con-
verted; and then, all at once, the community as a
whole began to manifest an absorbing interest in per-
sonal religion. Religious meetings became thronged.
In half a year about 300 persons were converted,
embracing nearly all the town above sixteen years
of age. The revival was not limited to Northamp-
ton, but spread, partly with the active cooperation
of Edwards, to most of the towns about, then into
Connecticut, and even into New Jersey. The means
taken to extend the revival were the simple and
ordinary services of the house of God, special meet-
ings for a lecture by the minister, followed by meet-
ings for prayer, group meetings of young and of old,
and private interviews by the pastor with persons
specially concerned. The sermons upon justifica-
tion were upon the traditional lines of Calvinistic
theology, and great emphasis was laid upon what
" justice " would demand in God's treatment of
men, and upon the utter lack of claim that any
sinner had upon God for favorable treatment. And
the sovereignty of God was so emphasized as to
give the impression that, even after the sinner has
repented, it may be entirely uncertain whether God
will forgive him or not! Still, Edwards took occa-
sion to encourage the diffident with the assurance
of the goodness of God, and that it is his " man-
ner " to give success to diligence. The great
motive employed was, however, fear. It was
Edwards' purpose to produce conviction of sin
and a sense of the great danger in which the
soul stood of suffering the torments of an eternal
hell.
In the spring of 1740 the spirit of revival was
again present. The same increasing seriousness as
had ushered in the former revival was observed.
Some conversions occurred. And in
2. Great October George Whitefield (q.v.), who
1740 ne'had come t0 New En§land from Geor-
gia, and was preaching from place to
place with great power, to immense assemblies of
people, arrived in Northampton. While his com-
ing does not seem to have had a revolutionary in-
fluence, he was largely instrumental in producing
the general prevalence of a revival which was lim-
ited to no part of the country, and enlisted the ac-
tive cooperation of a large number of effective
preachers. Of these one of the most famous was
Gilbert Tennent (q.v.). Edwards himself joined in
the itinerant work in which Whitefield took the
lead. In this revival, as in the former, the great
appeal was to fear. It was at this time that the
famous sermon of Edwards upon Sinners in the
Hands of an Angry God was preached at Enfield,
Conn. " Before the sermon was ended, the assem-
bly appeared deeply impressed and bowed down
with an awful conviction of their sin and danger.
There were such manifestations of distress and weep-
ing that the preacher was obliged to speak to the
people and desire silence that he might be heard.
This was the beginning of the same great and pre-
vailing concern in that place with which the colony
in general was visited."
Had the revival been confined to places under the
influence of Edwards and his more immediate asso-
ciates, it may be that comparatively
eTlv little criticism would have been called
Criticism f°rth- It is necessary here to call at-
tention to certain phemonena which
arose in the newly compacted Presbyterian church
of New Jersey. This was composed of a Scotch-
Irish element, attached to the forms and methods
of an established church, and making little inquiry
into the evidence of regeneration among professing
Christians, and a New England Congregational ele-
ment, with whom the reality of the experience of
regeneration was the great prerequisite for church
membership as well as the great essential of the re-
ligious life. William Tennent (q.v.), of the New
England side, had founded a college in his parish
to educate men for the ministry, upon which the
Scotch looked with some suspicion; and when his
son, Gilbert Tennent (q.v.), inveighed against an
" unconverted ministry " and went about preach-
ing the Gospel to all whom he could gather, the
criticism was still stronger. Tennent and his friends
were thus brought into the parishes of many men
who had no sympathy with their doctrines or their
methods. And so at the synod of 1741 a " protes-
tation " was made which objected to their " an-
archical principles," their " irregular irruptions
upon the congregation to which they have no im-
mediate relation," " their principles and practise of
rash judging and condemning all who do not fall in
with their measures, both ministers and people,"
their doctrine of the necessity of an inward divine
call to the ministry, " their preaching the terrors of
Revivals of Religion
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
12
4. James
Davenport. '.
the law," and their doctrine of conscious religious
experience. It was natural that Tennent's preach-
ing in New England should arouse strong criticism
from men of like mind with the " Old Side " of his
own church.
The first and chief difficulty in New England was,
however, connected with James Davenport, of
Southold, L. I. The news of Whitefield's successes
had led him in 1740 to begin special exhortation of
his people, and in the following year he began an
itinerary at Easthampton which carried him through
Connecticut, and finally as far as Bos-
ton. While his piety was genuine, it
is not to be doubted that he was labor-
ing under a mental aberration which increased dur-
ing his itinerant ministry. He indulged in caustic
criticism of most of the ministers whom he met. In
New Haven the final outcome of his work was the
formation of a separate church. Even the legisla-
ture at Hartford took notice of his excesses and
sent him home as a man of disordered mind. In
June, 1742, he appeared in Boston, and here began
in consequence that opposition to the revival which
long continued and greatly affected the entire later
history not only of that city but of all America.
The association of ministers issued a declaration in
which they gave generous recognition to Davenport's
excellencies, but on account of his irregularities,
they judged it their " present duty not to invite
Mr. Davenport into our places of public wor-
ship." The result of this declaration was that there
were preachings upon the common, a great deal of
controversy and disturbance, and finally a present-
ment before the general court, upon which Daven-
port was discharged as not guilty because non com-
pos mentis. After a while Davenport departed for
home. On his arrival, and with the mending of his
health, he saw his errors and published " retracta-
tions " in which he withdrew bis statements and
explicitly recognized his errors. It is upon such a
background that the history of Whitefield's revival
movements in New England is painted. He was
charged with being an " enthusiast," i.e., one who
acted on stimuli furnished by dreams and sudden
impulses which he mistook for inspiration, with
disorderly methods, censoriousness, slander, and
with deluding the people.
Edwards' defense of the revival did not ignore
" imprudences," " irregularities," " indiscreet zeal,"
nor " outcries, agitations, and faintings of the
body "; but he defended the revival, nevertheless,
5 Edwards' Decause ** nac* produced " a remark-
Defense; a^e an(* Seneral alteration in the face
Statistics. °* New England " in matters pertain-
ing to religion and common morals. He
defends the evangelists in respect to many things
for which they had been unjustly blamed, as he
thought, and maintains that there is a proper ad-
dress to the emotions, and that the preaching of
terror is justifiable, for the state of unrepentant
man is indeed terrible. Neither did he refuse to see
in physical effects of preaching " probable tokens
of God's presence." Edwards left quite complete
and very significant data as to the numbers affected
by this revival, and their ages, from which the fol-
lowing table is compiled, in which no distinction is
made between males and females, who were con-
verted, according to Edwards' explicit statement,
in about equal numbers.
Age.
Number.
Age.
Number.
4
1
10
9
2
7
12
30
22
3
13
21
23
4
14
24
24
2
15
25
25
5
16
. . 35
45
55
50
17
22
20
18
11
65
10
19
17
70
2
It will serve the purposes of confirmation of the
Edwardean table as normal and valuable, if the fol-
lowing table of a revival in an Iowa town, about
ten years since, be given. It was conducted by a,
Congregational minister.
Age.
Number.
Age.
Number.
7
1
32
2
11
1
33
6
12
4
34
1
13
6
36
1
14
4
37
2
15
1
38
1
16
3
39
1
17
7
40
7
18
5
44
1
19
6
45
1
20
6
46
1
21
2
48
1
23
2
50
1
24
1
54
2
25
7
55
2
27
1
56
1
28
1
58
1
29
2
64
1
30
2
67
1
31
1
The numerical results of the revival in the coun-
try at large can be estimated upon the basis of only
partial information; a conservative estimate pats
the number of additions to the New England
churches in consequence of the revival at 25,000,
which, as there seem to have been then about 250,-
000 population in New England, makes the pro-
portion of conversions to the population at least ten
per cent. This does not, however, completely cover
the number of conversions, for a large number were
already within the churches by the operation of the
Half Way Covenant (q.v.), who needed conversion,
and actually were converted. The whole number
of conversions, therefore, when these dead church-
members are included in the enumeration, must
have been nearly 50,000. One hundred and fifty
Congregational churches were formed in less than
twenty years, most of which can be credited to the
revival. A considerable number of separatist
churches were formed, many of which contributed
powerfully to the influence of practical religion;
while Baptist and Presbyterian forces were largely
increased. Thus, when a broad review of the nu-
merical results is taken, it is evident at once that
the reenforcement of the religious forces of the
country was very great.
2. Revivals About the Year 1800: From the
close of the " Great Awakening," as the revival just
sketched was called, there were no general revivals
in America till about the year 1800. It was the
period of war, with the consequent demoralization.
13
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Revivals of Religion
But as the new century drew near, isolated revi-
vals occurred in a number of places. In 1781
there was a revival in Dartmouth Col-
1. College jegSj extending into the towns twenty
TimJth8 ' mUes around; in 1783 in Yale College,
Dwisrht wnicn increased the membership of the
college church to a point to which it had
never before attained. Twelve years later, how-
ever, its visible effects had departed. Princeton
College was in a condition quite similar to Yale.
From 1778 to 1787 there had been a revival, under
the lead of a layman, Joseph Patterson, in western
Pennsylvania, and more than 1,000 persons pro-
fessed conversion. In the winter of 1798 there was
a great revival in western New York, and in 1796-
1798 in western Connecticut and Massachusetts.
But in eastern Massachusetts there was no revival
from 1745 till long after 1800. The most important
center of this revival was Yale College under Tim-
othy Dwight. When he came to the presidency in
1795 he found infidelity very prevalent among the
students, while the college church was almost ex-
tinct. Dwight began by discussing the fundamen-
tals of theology with the senior students, and soon
open infidelity passed away. But the " revival "
proper did not break out in Yale College till 1802.
A student destined to play a large part in later re-
vivals, Lyman Beecher, was converted in 1795-96,
but it was a case of solitary religious interest, be-
ginning at home in consequence of a chance remark
of his mother, but kept in progress largely by the
sermons of Dwight in the college pulpit, and gradu-
ally developing into fixity of purpose to serve God.
There were other solitary cases, but the college for
some time went backward rather than forward. In
1799 only four or five undergraduates were members
of the college church. But in 1801 desire for a re-
vival began to be manifested, and in the spring of
1802 the work developed until seventy-five out of
230 students had been converted, of whom about
one-half became ministers. There were later revi-
vals in 1808, in 1812-13 with twenty converts; in
1815 with eighty; in 1831, and so on, so that up
to 1837 there were seventeen distinct revivals in
Yale College.
What Dwight was as a revivalist may be still
more clearly seen from the work of his pupil, Ly-
man Beecher (q.v.). Settled in Easthampton in
2 T 1799, his activity in revivals began at
Beecher once- Interest was awakened that
spring, and in 1800 a marked revival,
continuing six weeks, resulted in the conversion of
eighty and the addition of fifty to the church. But
the revival of 1807-08 brought out the principles
upon which Beecher always conducted such work
and showed what manner of man he was. From
the general assembly at Newark he returned with
" fire in his heart," and began with the young peo-
ple; but when nothing " would take hold," he
planned a series of sermons on election. He preached
" cut and thrust, hip and thigh," but it was a new
doctrine of election that he taught, under the influ-
ence of Dwight and Taylor, by which its eminent
reasonableness was emphasized. The doctrine of
eternal punishment was also so preached as to pre-
sent " the kingdom of darkness as nothing
but the prison of the universe and small com-
pared to the realms of light and glory." It was the
emancipation of the congregation from the domina-
tion of the instinctive emotion of overpowering fear.
While this early revival at Yale was proceeding
quietly, avoiding excesses of every kind, in Ken-
tucky in the year 1800 there was proceeding a re-
vival which illustrated the dangers
3. Kentuckywhich attend the supreme appeal to
Revival, fear in a population of a low grade of
intellectual life. The Scotch-Irish im-
migration into America had brought into the moun-
tains of Kentucky and Tennessee a population
which had degenerated in the seclusion of these re-
mote regions. Religion had lost its hold upon them.
The " inhibitions " of both the intellectual and the
moral natures were largely removed, and at the
same time a condition of unstable equilibrium had
been set up in the nervous system. They had to be
ever upon the alert against the savages. Thus they
lived in an environment of apprehension, the power
of " latent fear " was therefore very great, and ex-
cessive emotional manifestations might be counted
upon. This mountain population sent out num-
bers of emigrants as time went on, and about the
year 1800 there had gathered in Logan County, in
southwestern Kentucky, on the Tennessee border,
a large population of this people, intermixed with
numbers of violent and hardened criminals. An
irregular government had been established in the
interest of law and order, and a miniature civil war
had been waged till finally the better elements had
got the upper hand. The ministry of James Mc-
Gready, who came to this region in 1796, was from
the first attended with great power. His preaching
seems to have resembled that of Edwards. " He
would so array hell before the wicked," it was said,
" that they would tremble and quake, imagining a
lake of fire and brimstone yawning to overwhelm
them and the hand of the Almighty thrusting them
down the horrible abyss." In 1799 he was holding
a meeting at Red River for the purpose of observ-
ing the sacrament when violent physical demonstra-
tions began in the audience so that people fell from
their seats to the floor. This was the beginning of
a great epoch of nervous excitement in connection
with revivals. The work spread to Pennsylvania
and Ohio, and violent physical phenomena called
" the jerks " prevailed. Great camp-meetings were
gathered, and, like a contagion, excitement would
run through the crowds assembled. People would
continue for hours in an apparently breathless and
motionless state; about one in every six would fall
helpless to the earth, and one man jerked so vio-
lently as to snap his neck and die. It was not till
the summer of 1803 that an end came to such mani-
festations.
3. Theology of these Revivals: Theology had
passed through a regular development since the
time of Edwards. The treatise upon the freedom
of the will, in which the great leader had pronounced
for determinism, had led to a constant discussion
of the whole psychology of revivals, and while thia
was conducted upon the universal plan of that day,
the consultation of the individual consciousness, it
had led to a gradual modification of determinism
Revivals of Religion
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
14
1. Asahel
Nettleton.
in favor of a true freedom, till in Nathaniel William
Taylor's teaching the will has always, in every case
of actual choice, a " power to the contrary " (for
the history see New England Theology). As the
outcome of the development of this theology, the
preacher in these revivals felt that he was actually
and powerfully influencing his hearers to repentance,
and they felt that upon them alone lay the respon-
sibility of choosing or refusing the service of God,
since they possessed a perfect ability to choose or
refuse; and yet preacher and convert praised the
grace of God as efficient agent and divine benefac-
tor in every man's salvation (cf. F H. Foster's
Genetic History of the Xew England Theology, Chi-
cago, 1907).
4. Later Revivals: Among Congregationalists
and associated denominations revivals went for-
ward up to the point now reached without the help
of any one who was exclusively devoted to this
work. The period of professional revivalists had
not set in. The early educational advantages of
Asahel Nettleton (q.v.) were small,
and, as his parents were not professing
Christians, it was not till his eighteenth
year that he became a Christian. Inclined first to
the foreign missionary work, he was gradually
drawn into revival labors, and was never able to
extricate himself from the responsibilities thus in-
curred. He traversed a large part of Connecticut,
with frequent labors in Massachusetts and New
York, and in the South his journeys carried him as
far as Charleston, S. C. For about twenty-three
years he was one of the most active and conspicu-
ous figures in the service of the churches through
the conduct of revivals. Of his special preparation
for his work, gained by experience in the work itself,
his observers frequently speak. Because of his
familiarity with the experiences of many different
men in many different places, he often seemed to be
describing the experience of his auditors as if he
were personally acquainted with their innermost
thoughts. '"' When he commenced his labors in any
place, he first attempted to impress the people with
the fact that their help must come from above, and
that they must place no dependence upon an arm
of flesh." So earnest was he in this feeling, that if
he thought they were depending too much upon
him, he would suddenly leave them for a time. He
began his work by seeking to deepen the earnest-
ness of the church and the sense of responsibility.
He would preach upon the sins of Christians, and
by his searching and personal methods of applica-
tion seek to carry conviction home to them first.
Then he was ready to preach to sinners. His style
was simple and impressive. He did not seek to
awaken great emotion, but preferred a quiet re-
vival. Preaching earnestly, following this with
familiar addresses in the lecture room, and adding
to these faithful private conversation and personal
labor, he gathered the fruit " by hand," as some
one has felicitously described the personal method
of labor. His conversation with such was, however,
usually brief, and partook somewhat of the nature
of a physician's prescriptions. One duty and one
only did he press upon anxious inquirers, that
of immediate repentance. He urged this upon them
because they could do nothing short of it which
would in any way improve their condition. Thus
he fell in with the best line of New England teach-
ing. In one respect these revivals were very defect-
ive. To the end, the peculiar path which Nettleton
had had to tread when he came into the kingdom
continued to exercise an influence upon him and
upon the religious experience of his converts. There
was a long period of distress through which most of
them had to pass, and a great degree of dimness
and mystery and uncertainty about the act of con-
version itself. It was the result of bad teaching,
just as was the supreme (and successful!) effort
which one of Edwards' young people went through
with, to repent of her sin in Adam I Nowhere is it
possible to find a clear explanation of the nature of
faith in his sermons. Nowhere does he tell a sinner
exactly what he is to do in terms which possess
clearness because resting upon a clear psychology
of repentance and faith. The day for all this had
not come. He produced true faith because he so
powerfully presented the motives under which it
arises; but just what happened at the decisive
moment in his soul, neither the sinner nor his
teacher really knew.
Charles Grandison Finney (q.v.), living in Central
New York, then a frontier country, was brought up
with meager advantages as to education, and with
religious advantages yet more deficient; so he grew
to young manhood, studied law and
^l„„„^„™ entered upon its practise, in Adams,
N. Y., without any real acquaintance
Grandison
Finney.
with the Gospel. He had had some
educational opportunities in his later youth, hav-
ing spent a brief time in a high school in Connecticut;
but the religious privileges which he then enjoyed
had brought little light to his mind. He says of
himself, when he began the study of law, that he
was " almost as ignorant of religion as a heathen."
His first Bible was purchased because of the refer-
ences to it which he found in his law books. There
was a new element in the revival work which Fin-
ney's conversion led him to undertake which goes
back to his own mental processes and spiritual ex-
periences. The day he was converted he gained a
new idea of the nature of faith. He had held it to
be an intellectual belief, but now he understood
that it was a voluntary trust. This he put forth
by the direct act of his will, and upon this his con-
version followed, though he did not at once under-
stand that he was converted, in this particular re-
hearsing the experiences of many converts from the
time of Edwards down. But the application of this
principle to the philosophy and the methods of re-
vivals could not long remain hid from him, nor his
own mode of procedure remain unaffected by it.
The out-working of this principle manifested itself
first in the realm of theology. Finney was a born
theologian. He possessed the interest in abstract
truth, the power of analytical thought, and the love
of cogent proof, which united make the theologian,
and constitute him, at the same time, an original,
investigating, and advancing theologian. He was
therefore soon engaged in further discussions with
his pastor, and was led step by step to substantially
the same positions taken by Nathaniel William
15
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Revivals of Religion
Taylor (see New England Theology, V., § 1), with
whom he afterward had some brief association. He
was soon licensed to preach by the local presbytery
and subsequently ordained, though not without
much criticism of his peculiar views. His labors had,
however, been too fruitful to permit of refusing him
ordination. After his work at Adams, Finney went
to Evans' Mills and began that long series of re-
vival meetings by which he wrought more power-
fully and over a greater territory than any man of
his generation. The story is fascinating as repeated
by himself in his Memoirs, replete with striking in-
cidents and with remarkable successes. From the
first he was apparently fully prepared and entirely
mature. His eloquence was astonishing, his meth-
ods were original and effective, his personal power
was extraordinary, the results were unmatched.
The open secret of his skill in handling men was the
perfect clearness with which he apprehended the
nature of conversion and the nature of man. His
perfect confidence also in the main doctrines of
the Evangelical scheme and the startling vividness
with which he presented them led to the most pro-
found self-examination and personal consecration.
Through it all ran the vein of rationality, for Finney
was always explaining and defending doctrines, and
had the art of making them appear self-evident and
their contradictories inconceivable. It is to be
doubted if anywhere, at any period in the history
of the Christian church, there were more profound
experiences or a firmer and more intelligent grasp
of the essentials of the process of making one's
peace with God.
Opposition was early felt in various ways, but it
was to those features of Finney's methods which
would to-day be regarded as his principal merits,
to his use of homely illustrations, his avoidance of
a stilted rhetorical style, and his extemporaneous
address. They were the very reasons
of his success, and had he listened to
3. Criticism
of Finney's
Methods.
the directions of those about him, he
would have become as ineffective as
they were. But there was no opposition from those
that knew the work because of any irregularities,
such as were soon to raise the antagonism of the
brethren in New England and involve Asahel Net-
tleton. Nettleton's objections to Finney's methods
were to the " irreverence " displayed in prayer, to
" the spirit of denunciation " exhibited, especially
against ministers, " the practise of females praying
in promiscuous assemblies," the creation of discord
in churches, and " praying for people by name."
In his own letters nothing is said against the prac-
tise of asking inquirers to come forward to anxious
seats; but this is one of the new measures against
which Nettleton's biographer, Bennet Tyler, repre-
sents him as objecting. On the whole, it appears
that Tyler's representation of the matter is some-
what exaggerated, and that he did not have correct
sources of information; Nettleton also seems to
have obtained his information largely indirectly,
and it appears exaggerated and incorrect. Finney's
work was not open to the charges which both of
these men made so freely against it. The antago-
nism between Finney and Nettleton was a matter of
temperament, for the one was as contained as the
other was unrestrained. It was partly a matter of
civilization — the settled and staid East against the
newer West; partly a matter of party — conserva-
tive New England against a man who reproduced
in the West the Taylorism against which Tyler and
Nettleton were contending in the East. But at
bottom it was an antagonism of ideas, excited by
the inability of Nettleton and others to think their
way through the consequences and implications of
a new theory of the will.
Finney's revivals covered a wide and interesting
field, which included Philadelphia, New York (where
he founded the Broadway Tabernacle, and made
the acquaintance of the men who sustained him at
Oberlin), Oberlin itself and the intense and wonder-
ful history of its early years, London, England, and
back again among American towns of greater or less
celebrity. The revivals at Rochester were among
his greatest, and long left their mark upon that city.
That in the year 1842 was chiefly among the lawyers
of the city, a large number of whom were converted.
The preaching was argumentative and covered the
range of Christian doctrine. That Finney should
have gained men is not strange when it is remem-
bered that men are gained preeminently by the
ideal, by convictions as to duty, and rational fear.
Were exact statistics present, they would probably
show something like those of Edwards' revival of
1734-35, the culmination of conversions lying about
the years of a man's prime, viz., about forty-five.
For the work of Dwight Lyman Moody see the
article on him. The philosophy of revivals under
which this laborer worked was, for the most part,
the philosophy of common sense. He believed in
large assemblies of people, and was anxious to have
Christian people in great numbers. He
4. Dwight knew t^ dangers of a crowd, and
wym?n promptly suppressed everything like
undue excitement. To preach the
Gospel as wisely as he could, to gather the interested
together for special instruction and encouragement,
to rely greatly upon prayer, to busy converted men
in various Christian work, these constituted all the
method Mr. Moody had. Perhaps a greater change
from the methods of his predecessors was to be
found in his preaching than anywhere else. His
doctrine was of the old Evangelical type, and he
taught as an essential part of it the eternal future
punishment of the wicked. This position gave
strenuousness to his efforts for the salvation of men;
but it did not fix that salvation as consisting pri-
marily in rescue from punishment. He preached
the doctrine of atonement by the substitution of
Christ for the sinner before the face of justice; but
this did not make the salvation which Christ brought
an external and merely forensic affair which left
the innermost man untouched. Both of these
doctrines were transfigured by the conception of
the awfulness of sin as alienation from God, and
the glory of salvation as the restoration of personal
and loving relations between the sinful child and
the heavenly Father. The doctrine of the divine
love had at last come to its rights. Moody urged
predominantly the love of God as the great reason
for repentance. It was preeminently reasonable
that the child should return to his Father, to be
Revivals of Religion
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
16
away from him could be nothing but misery, the
love of God constituted a claim upon the man which
could not be ignored — all of which considerations
Moody urged with great power and pathos, guided
by the instincts of a great heart, aflame with love
to God. He preached particularly to despairing
sinners, sinners who knew they were such and who
could not believe that the grace of God was meant
for them. Probably his greatest sermons were
upon this general topic.
5. General "View of the Nineteenth and Twen-
tieth Centuries: Besides the revivals of the
year 1800 and the years immediately follow-
ing, it should be noted that the period of
the Unitarian controversy in New
1. In England (1S19 sqq.) was also one of
General, revival. During the first thirty years
of the century the Presbyterians in-
creased fourfold in membership, chiefly by revivals,
the Congregationalists twofold, the Baptists three-
fold, and the Methodists sevenfold. In the six
years from 1S26 to 1S32 it is estimated that 200,000
people united with the leading Evangelical churches,
of whom 60,000 were young men. The financial
panics of 1S37 and 1857 were followed by revivals,
the latter of great power. The Millerite excite-
ment of 1S43 (see Advextists) produced a reaction
unfavorable to revivals. But after 1857, for two
years there was a general revival all over the coun-
try, conducted for the most part by pastors through
their regular ministrations, having its chief expres-
sion in prayer-meetings, which brought in about
300,000 into the churches. The period of the Civil
War was unfavorable to revivals; and it was not
till 1874 that the current was reversed in connec-
tion with the great revivals under Moody, George
Frederick Pentecost (q.v.), and others. The decade
from 1870 to 1880 saw an increase of 3,392,567 com-
municants in Evangelical churches, among the best
in the history of American Christianity. Nothing
is more remarkable in the whole history than the
revivals in colleges. Among recent prominent re-
vivalists are to be mentioned B. Fay Mills, Sam
Jones, and Sam Small, William A. Sunday, R. A.
Torrey, and J. Wilbur Chapman (qq.v.).
F. H. Foster.
In the perspective of revival history during the
close of the nineteenth and beginning of the twen-
tieth century, three persons, Benjamin Fay Mills,
Reuben Archer Torrey, and J Wilbur Chapman
(qq.v.), all clergymen, appear as leaders in a move-
ment especially noted for the prominent part taken
in it by the laity. They all owe their stimulus in
their special work to Dwight L. Moody (q.v., and
see above), with whom they were early brought
into close touch. They borrowed from him their
message — plain, Scriptural, urgent, made effect-
ive by a fiery conviction, feathered by anec-
dote, incident, and experience, and unfettered by
labored argumentation or the embellishments of
rhetoric.
The first of these, Benjamin Fay Mills (q.v.), was
a classmate at Lake Forest University, 111., of
Chapman, with whom also for a time later he was
associated with marked success in revival cam-
paigns. He be;ran his evangelistic work in 1886,
and for ten years continued in it uninterruptedly,
visiting many of the principal centers of population
in the United States and Canada. His main and
immediate dependence was a popular
2. Benjamin address to the masses assembled, in
Fay Mills, which he was a master; but back of
that, Mills may be said to have been
the first to have " organized success." His one
outstanding method was his " district combination
plan " by which cities were divided into sectionr
over which a network of services was spread. He
was systematic, taking time and pains to prepare
by arousing interest, enlisting support, and form-
ing and multiplying prayer-circles. And then when
the blow was struck in his Gospel appeal he drew
the net by his card-signing device, which he was
the first to introduce, thereby securing immediate
decision. For the time in which Benjamin Fay
Mills gave his fine talents to the work of soul-
saving, few men have been more honored of
God.
Next to him, an evangelist of commanding per-
sonality is Reuben Archer Torrey (q.v.). The rise
of Torrey goes back to the founding
3. Reuben in 1889 at Chicago of the Moody Bible
Arc er Institute, the purpose of it being a
thorough and practical study of the
English Bible. His close, personal connection with
Moody in this Bible work made him, like Moody
himself, a " Bible-man." Torrey is distinguished
above both Mills and Chapman by a thorough
mastery and use in revival work of the Bible in the
vernacular. That Bible Institute, under Moody,
Torrey, and others, became a veritable " power-
house " in the great World's Fair campaign in
Chicago in 1893. And since then, out from its Bible
atmosphere Torrey himself has gone forth on many
a revival enterprise, notably in the instance of his
recent English mission which was marked by such
intense interest, not, however, without much antag-
onism on the part of some non-conforming clergy-
men who took exception to his hyper-orthodoxy.
But the foremost of the three named is J Wilbur
Chapman (q.v.). He is the product of a wider en-
vironment, and therefore reaches out
4. J Wilbur in influence to a larger periphery. He
Chapman, was early associated with Moody both
as vice-president of the Bible Insti-
tute and in evangelistic work. His pastorates were
a gymnasium where he was put in training for the
noblest athletics, that of bringing sinners to God
— in Albany, N. Y., where in one revival he har-
vested more than 100 souls, including some of the
leading men of the city; and later in a steady re-
vival fire, gathering in more than 500 converts in
five years; in Philadelphia, adding 1,100 to the
membership of the church in three years; and in
New York, when he resigned the pastorate, in 1902,
to become head of the Evangelistic Committee of
the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church
in the United States of America.
His subsequent record is brilliant. His famous
Boston campaign, for magnitude, power, and per-
manence of results, is without a parallel in this
country. Early in 1910 he returned from evangel-
istic journey around the world, in which he visited
17
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Revivals of Religion
eleven countries, spoke in sixty cities — in Australia,
China, Japan, and England. Late in the winter of
1910-11 he resumed work in Brooklyn, N. Y.
The period of Mills, Torrey, and Chapman has
been the most fruitful in the history of revivals in
American Christianity. Those named have had as
associates and imitators men like A. C. Dixon, H.
M. Wharton, Major Whittle, J. Arthur Smith, and
others; and so their methods have been adopted in
many places with greater or less effect.
S. B. Dunn.
IV. The Welsh Revival of 1904- 1906: Wales is
well known as the land of revivals. Owing to the
intense national spirit of the Welsh people these
awakenings possess characteristics
1. The which distinguish them from the gen-
Welsh eral religious movements of Great
People. Britain as a whole. Through the long
centuries of Saxon domination the in-
habitants of Wales — who number, all told, less than
one-half of the population of London — have pre-
served their independence in language, literature,
and national consciousness. A fiery and imagina-
tive race of mountaineers, imbued with a strong
religious spirit, they have from time to time ex-
perienced great spiritual upheavals which have
proved epochal in the life of the nation. Thus the
revival^ of the eighteenth century under Daniel
Rowlands and Howel Harris was a national renais-
sance which liberated the forces of Christian de-
mocracy in the principality and introduced a new
era of progress and education.
The religious movement known as " The Great
Welsh Revival " is the latest and most widely
known of these national awakenings.
2. The This revival covers a period of two
Revival years — from the early part of 1904 to
Described, the beginning of 1906. During that
time it is estimated that over 100,000
professed conversion. Of this number some 60,000
can be accounted for as being in 1910 members in
good standing in the Protestant churches of Wales.
The immediate ethical results of the movement
were remarkable. A great wave of sobriety over-
swept the country so that the liquor trade suffered
enormous financial losses; the decrease in criminal
cases was no less remarkable; hundreds of out-
lawed debts were settled; goods stolen fifteen or
twenty years before were returned to their owners;
a phenomenal increase was recorded in the demand
for good literature; feuds of long standing were
healed; and sectarianism, a great curse of Welsh
national life, was softened by a larger charity and
a deeper consciousness of an underlying unity.
The movement must not be confused with the or-
ganized missions that were held about this time in
various parts of Great Britain. The genius of the
Welsh revival was quite distinct from that of any
of these missions. It was spontaneous, unconven-
tional, and without organization of any sort. None
of its " leaders " was over thirty years of age, and
none was a great preacher. Most of the workers
were from the humble walks of life and were com-
paratively uneducated. Some of the most success-
ful were young girls, under twenty, who assisted
at the meetings with exhortation and song. In
X.— 2
method — or its absence — the services have been
termed a triumph for Quakerism; " obedience to
the Spirit " was the only condition insisted upon.
Only very rarely was a sermon attempted; the
meetings were devoted to prayer, song, testimony,
and exhortation, and seldom concluded before the
small hours of the morning. They were character-
ized by far less violent demonstrations than previ-
ous revivals in the principality. The burden of the
revival-message was the love of God. As is usually
the case in Wales, there were many apparently
occult phenomena — visions, voices, and signs in
the heavens (see § 6, below).
So far as the origin of the movement can be
traced at all, it appears to have begun in Feb.,
1904, in New Quay, Carmarthenshire, South Wales.
Revival manifestations were first noticed in the
local Calvinistic Methodist Church, of
3. Its which Joseph Jenkins was pastor.
Origin. Later, a convention was held in Blaen-
anerch where there were many indi-
cations of a spiritual awakening. This convention
was attended by a young man who was to I e known
later as the " leader " of the revival — Evan John
Roberts, at that time a candidate for the Welsh
Presbyterian ministry and student in a prepara-
tory school in Newcastle Emlyn, South Wales. In
the autumn of the same year the revival flame that
had been nickering obscurely in New Quay and
other places, burst forth and quickly spread over
the country, sweeping upward from the South to
the mountainous extremities of northern Wales
and subduing all before it. The remarkable scenes
witnessed were reported in the English press and
presently aroused the interest of the entire civil-
ized world. By this time Evan Roberts had be-
come the central figure of the awakening; still, to
designate him the "leader" of the revival is to
contradict the real genius of the movement, which,
throughout, was without organization or executive
direction. The revival was really begun before
Roberts started upon his apostolate; but undoubt-
edly he became the chief and most honored repre-
sentative of the movement.
Evan John Roberts was born on July 8, 1878.
He is of humble parentage and is the ninth of a
family of fourteen children; of these, two sisters are
living in the United States. His birth-
4. Evan place is Bwlchymynydd, Loughor,
John South Wales, a small mining town of
Roberts; 3,000 or 4,000 inhabitants. He was
Early Life, brought up in the Welsh Calvinistic
Methodist Church (see Presbyterians.
IV.), of which his parents are members and which
he himself joined at the age of thirteen. When
eleven years old Roberts left school and went to
work as door-boy in a local coal mine where his
father also labored. Here he narrowly escaped death
in a coal-truck accident, and, later on, in a colliery
explosion A third narrow escape happened toward
the end of the revival when, a few yards from a steep
precipice, he was thrown from a carriage drawn by
a runaway team. At twenty-four Evan Roberts left
the mines and apprenticed himself to the trade of
his uncle, Evan Edwards, a blacksmith. A year
later he was accepted as candidate for the Welsh
Eevivals of Religion
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
18
Presbyterian ministry and in 1904 entered a pre-
paratory school in Newcastle Emlyn, South Wales.
Before this he had become subject to mystical expe-
riences of a trance-like nature. He devoted many
hours each day to prayer. He heard " voices " and
saw " visions " and felt himself caught up above
the limitations of time and sense into the immediate
presence of God. This last experience came to him
twice a day at regular hours and continued for some
time. He found himself unable to pursue his studies
to his own satisfaction in Newcastle Emlyn. His
text-books would seem, as he has expressed it, to
be aflame in his hand, and he would be seized with
violent physical pain until he would drop the book
and take up his Bible. His friends feared for his
mental condition. On Sept. 29, 1904, in Blaen-
anerch Calvinistic Methodist Chapel he passed
through a spiritual crisis, in which, to use his own
words, " Living Force " entered him with almost
physical violence, imparting to him intense joy,
bodily strength, and mental illumination, as well
as spiritual earnestness and power.
On Oct. 31 he returned to his home in Loughor
and began his work as revivalist — first among his
own family and then in the church of which he was
a member. At the beginning he was
5. Work regarded with suspicion and consid-
in the ered demented, but the power of his
Revival, meetings was irresistible and he quickly
became a national figure as the torch-
bearer of the revival. In his meetings he confined
himself almost exclusively to the Welsh language.
He sometimes gave addresses of an hour or an hour
and a half in duration, but usually he spoke for
less than ten minutes at a time. His style was pithy
and epigrammatic, abounding in quaint metaphor
and homely illustration. He was ready-witted and
often in the meetings indulged in dialogue and quick
repartee. He is possessed of clairvoyant and clair-
audient powers, and occasionally these were exer-
cised in the meetings. Toward the close of the re-
vival he cloistered himself in the home of a friend
and observed a seven-days' silence, shutting himself
away from the outside world, and refusing to com-
municate with any one except by writing. This he
did, as he believed, in obedience to the divine voice.
He emerged from this strange experience much
stronger physically and in a state of great mental
and spiritual exaltation. His only mission outside
Wales was in Liverpool (where he was accorded a
public banquet by the lord mayor, Apr. 7, 1905).
In this mission he addressed himself mainly to the
Welsh people and rarely spoke in English. When
in Liverpool, in order to silence adverse criticism
which had raised the question of his sanity, he was
examined by five English specialists who issued a
certificate of his mental soundness. In 1906, at the
end of the revival, Roberts suffered a severe nerv-
ous collapse. He passed into retirement in the home
of friends residing in Leicestershire, England, where,
until Nov., 1910, he remained in comparative se-
clusion. His health has improved. From his re-
tirement he has written one or two articles for the
religious press, but they lack the brilliance of his
extempore revival addresses. He is a good musician
and a poet of some ability. Before the revival he
acquired an elementary knowledge of Greek and
Latin and took up as a diversion the study of as-
tronomy and some of the occult sciences.
The religious awakening has brought about in
Wales a quickening of national spirit which is seek-
ing expression in progressive legislation and general
reform, and in this way it is still fulfilling itself.
It has undoubtedly contributed to the movement
for the political independence of Wales — the grant-
ing of a measure of autonomy by which the idealism
of Welsh democracy can be given an adequate organ
of expression.
Concerning the so-called occult phenomena of
the revival much could be written. In almost every
village within the revival zone testimony was given
to the experience of mysterious psychical experi-
ences. In Evan Roberts himself, the
6. Occult occult faculties are strongly developed
Phenomena, (see § 4 above). He is (or was) subject
to trance-like ecstasies. He claimed to
be able to hear the prayers offered for him in far-
distant places; he was quick to detect any spirit
of opposition or skepticism in his meetings and to
trace it to its source; he was continually hearing
" voices " and seeing visions. It must be added
that in these matters the self-restraint of the re-
vivalist was as remarkable as the experiences
themselves. They came to him unsought and were
consistently subordinated to his Evangelical mes-
sage. The Rev. H. El vet Lewis in his chronicles
of the awakening (With Christ among the Miners,
London, 1906) narrates many instances of signs
and visions, the most noteworthy being the case
of Mrs. Jones, a peasant woman of Egryn, Meri-
onethshire, whose evangelistic work during the re-
vival was largely influenced by the appearance of
phenomenal lights (a record of her experiences is
to be found in the Transactions of the British Psy-
chical Research Society for Dec, 1905). Mr. Lewis
thus describes his meeting with her: " She made no
reference to the signs until my friend and I asked
her. She answered us simply as if she were speak-
ing about the fire on the hearth, that she had seen,
almost from the first, each evening a fire or light
between her and the hills which rise from the marshy
shore — a quickly vibrating light, ' as though full of
eyes,' so another described it. It had revealed to
her what to expect at the meetings? Yes, without
fail. One evening she had interpreted the sign to
mean four converts. But only three responded
when the test was made in the crowded little chapel.
' But there must be four,' she said. No, there could
not be; all the rest, except the three who had de-
clared themselves that night, were already members.
' But there ought to be four to-night,' she repeated.
No fourth could be found, until the door of the little
vestibule was opened and one stood there halting
between two opinions. The opening of the door
and a kindly word of invitation brought the in-
quirer inside. And the four was completed. She
had seen the light hovering over some houses on
the hilltops; she was puzzled, for she thought there
was no one in those houses unconverted, or at least
out of church membership. But one day she was
told by the Wesleyan minister at Barmouth and
another friend who visited her, that there was one
19
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Revivals of Religion
old woman in one of the houses, not now on Christ's
side. ' Ah, that must be it,' she said. The two
friends went up — found the woman in concern for her
soul. Mrs. Jones herself visited her; she became one
of the fifty-one [converts] in that marvelous fort-
night.
" She had visited several villages near her home
during the dark nights. The light, she said, had
frequently accompanied her — not a terrifying light,
but gentle and calm, just showing her way as she
walked." " The problem," concludes Mr. Lewis,
" still remains unsolved. But there can be no rea-
sonable doubt of the appearance of these lights, at
the time and place. Afterward they grew, no doubt,
into a sort of foolish cult. Some, from mischief,
made lights appear where Mrs. Jones went to con-
duct missions; at other times natural lights were
taken to be extraordinary. But the earlier phe-
nomena stand by themselves — possibly natural,
but in any case abnormal. There still remain to be
explained their association with her movements
and their alleged clairvoyant signs."
It must be said that these phenomena have in
some quarters been exaggerated out of all pro-
portion to their importance in the revival. The
part that they played was comparatively insignifi-
cant. Gwilym Oswald Griffith.
V. The Roman Catholic Mission: " Mission " is
a term applied by Roman Catholics to efforts which
are the equivalent of the Protestant " revival,"
consisting of efforts directed to reclaiming those
within the territory of the Church who have been
estranged from religious observances. There was no
need for this sort of work until, with the establish-
ment of Christianity as the state religion, large num-
bers of pagans came in, and, with the conversion of
the Teutonic races, the Church was further increased
by multitudes who were only superficially affected
by the Christian spirit. The earlier penitential in-
stitutions no longer sufficed. When, in 1215, the
duty of confession was made universal, the idea of
legal satisfaction, made prominent by the hierarch-
ical tendency, was a hindrance to real pastoral work,
and neither the monks nor even the friars found the
right road to successful pastoral influence. Only
small communities, like the Brothers of the Com-
mon Life (see Common Life, Brethren of the) at
the end of the Middle Ages, devoted themselves with
real thoroughness and love to the cultivation of an
inner spirit of Christian piety. It was the Reforma-
tion which stirred the Roman Catholic Church to
make strong efforts to confirm the wavering and re-
claim the wanderers. The Jesuits (q.v.) were the
most zealous instruments of this movement for res-
toration among the upper classes, and the Capu-
chins (q.v.) among the lower. The movement first
gained strength in France, where the bishops had
kept up a tradition of personal acquaintance with
the spiritual state of their dioceses. It was fur-
thered by Vincent de Paul, who, in 1616, began his
work in behalf of the galley-slaves, and at Folleville
in the next year preached the desirability of general
confession with such fervor that he was obliged to
call in the Jesuits from Amiens to help him with the
crowds who came. Ultimately he founded the Con-
gregation of the Mission, or Lazarist order (see
Lazarists), to promote not only education and
missions among the heathen but also similar efforts
in Christian lands. A new impulse was given by the
congregation of mission-priests founded in 1815 by
the Abbe Legris-Duval, expressly devoted to this
particular work. After the upheaval of 1848 the
German episcopate made frequent use of missions to
reclaim the estranged masses; they were usually
preached by Jesuits and Redemptorists (qq.v.),
sometimes by Capuchins and Franciscans (qq.v.),
and by the two latter orders from 1872 to 1894,
when the two former were excluded from the Em-
pire. [In the United States missions have become
a regular part of the ecclesiastical machinery, held
at intervals in most of the larger parishes, by Jesu-
its, Augustinians, Dominicans, Passionists, Paul-
ists (qq.v.), and other orders.] They last two or
three weeks, after careful preparation of the ground
by the parochial clergy, and consist largely of fre-
quent stirring sermons on sin, repentance, judgment,
and Christian duties, leading to the reception of the
sacraments of penance and communion, and closing
with the solemn renewal of the baptismal vow by
the whole congregation. There can be no difference
of view between Protestants and Roman Catholics
as to the duty of the Church to preach the Gospel
not only to the heathen but also to lukewarm and
nominal Christians. But there may well be a ques-
tion as to whether this rapid succession of exciting
sermons, accompanied by appeals to the emotions
in external ways, is really calculated to produce
lasting fruits rather than simply to bring the
people into obedience to ecclesiastical precepts,
especially confession. It is doubtful whether the
constant striving after effect, the rhetorical decla-
mation, the exaggerated pictures drawn of the evils
and the punishment of sin, and the appeal to fear
can well be productive of real moral renewal.
(D. STEITZf.)
Bibliography: To be taken into account are (1) the arti-
cles in this work on the men named as revivalists in the
text, especially those of Edwards, Lyman Beecher, Tyler,
Finney, Spring, Taylor, Wesley, Whitefield, Moody, Tor-
rey, and others; (2) the works by those men which deal
with the subject (e.g., Edwards' Thoughts concerning the
Present Revival of Religion, and Narrative of the Work of
Ood in Northampton); and (3) the literature under the ar-
ticles on these men, which often discusses the revival activi-
ties of the subjects.
Treatises on the general history of revivals are: W. B.
Sprague, Lectures on Revivals of Religion, New York, 1833;
G. G. Finney, Lectures on Revivals of Religion, Boston>
1835, new ed., London, 1910; J. Gillies, Historical Collec-
tions Relating to Remarkable Periods of Success of the Gos-
pel. Preface by H. Bonar, London, 1845; B. Tyler, New
England Revivals, as they Existed at the Close of the 18th
and the Beginning of the 19th Centuries, Boston, 1846; E.
Porter, Letters on the Religious Revivals which Prevailed
about the Beginning of the Present Century, Boston, 1858;
H. Humphrey, Revival Sketches and Manual, New York,
1859; W. Gibson, The Year of Grace: a Hist, of the Re-
vival in Ireland, 1859 A.D., Boston, 1860; J. H. Vincent,
Hist, of the Camp Meeting and Grounds at Wesleyan Grove,
Boston, 1869; Mrs. M. N. Van Cott, The Harvest and the
Reaper: Reminiscences of Revival Work, New York, 1876;
C. L. Thompson, Times of Refreshing: Hist, of American
Revivals, Chicago, 1877; W. W. Bennett, Narrative of the
Great Revival in the Southern Armies during the Civil War,
Philadelphia, 1877; J. Porter, Revivals of Religion, New
York, 1878: S. G. Swallow, Camp Meetings: their Origin,
Hist., and Utility; also their Perversion, New York, 1878;
H. Bushnell, Building Eras in Religion, New York, 1881;
G. F, Jones, From the Forecastle to the Pulpit; fifty Years
Revivals of Religion
Reynolds
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
20
among Sailors; containing an Account of a wonderful Re-
vival upon the Sea; with an Introduction by W. P. Strick-
land, New York, 1SS4; S. B. Halliday and D. S. Gregory,
The' Church in America and its Baptisms of Fire, Lon-
don and Toronto, 1S96; A. Sims, Remarkable Narratives,
or Records of Powerful Revivals, Kingston, Ont., 1896;
H. Johnson, Stories of Great Revivals, London, 1900; A.
T. Pierson, Forward Movements of the Last Half Century,
New York, 1900; G. C. Morgan, Evangelism: a Study of
Need and Opportunity, London, 1904; W. A. Candler,
Great Revivals and the Great Republic, Atlanta, Ga., 1904;
F. G. Beardsley, Hist, of American Revivals, New York,
1904; J. Page, Great Evangelists and how God has used
them', London, 1905; J. Burns, Revivals; their Laws and
Leaders, London, 1909.
On the " Great Awakening " consult: J. Tracy, The
Great A wakening: a Hist, of the Revival of Religion in the
Time of Edwards and Whitefield, Boston, 1842 (a classic);
E. P. Hood, Vignettes of the Great Revival of the 18th Cen-
tury, London, 1880, reissued With a supplemental De-
scription of the Revival in America, Philadelphia, 1882;
J. H. Overton, Evangelical Revival in the 18th Century,
New York, 1886.
On special recent revivals: D. L. Moody and I. D.
Sankey, Narrative of Labors in Great Britain and Ireland;
with Addresses and Lectures, New York, 1875; R. W. Clark,
The Work of God in Great Britain under Messrs. Moody
and Sankey in 1873-76, New York, 1875; Christian Con-
vention of the Northwest. . . Union Revival Meetings con-
ducted by B. F. Mills and J. W Chapman, Minneapolis,
1893; R. Harkness, With the Torrey- Alexander Mission
round the World, London, 1904; J. K. Maclean, Triumphant
Evangelism: the three Years' Missions of Torrey and Alex-
ander in Great Britain, London, 1905; G. T. B. Davis,
Torrey and Alexander; the Story of a World-wide Revival,
London, 1905; T. R. Williams, The True Revival versus
Torreyism, London, 1905.
On the Welsh revival: W. T. Stead, The Coming Re-
vival. What I have seen and hope to see, London, 1905;
idem, The Revival in the West, ib. 1905; Awstin (pseud.),
The Religious Revival in Wales, 1904, Cardiff, 1905; I. W
Charlton, The Revival in Wales, London, 1905; J. P
Lewis, The Awakening in Wales and Some of the Hidden
Springs, London, 1905; H. Elvet Lewis, With Christ among
the Miners, ib., 1907; J. V. Morgan, The Welsh Religious
Revival 1904-05; a Retrospect and a Criticism, London,
1909; The Welsh Revival, in Cambridge Modern History, vi.
81 sqq., New York, 1909.
On the psychology of revivals: E. D. Starbuck, Psy-
chology of Religion; an empirical Study of the Growth of
religious Consciousness, New York, 1899; G. A. Coe, Spir-
itual Life, Studies in the Science of Religion, New York,
1900; W. James, Varieties of Religious Experience, New
York, 1902; F. M. Davenport, Primitive Traits in Relig-
ious Revivals, New York, 1905; Henke, in AJT, 1909, pp.
193 sqq.
On the theory and practise consult: J. W. Alexander,
The Revival and its Lessons, New York, 1861; L. T. Town-
send, The Supernatural Factor in Religious Revivals, Bos-
ton, 1877; W. W. Newell, Revivals: how and when, New
York, 1882; W. P Doe, editor, Revivals; how to promote
them, New York, 1884; G. W Hervey, Manual of Re-
vivals, New York, 1884; J. O. Peck, The Revival and the
Pastor, New York, 1894; J. E. W. Ditchfield, Fishers of
Men, or how to win the Men, London, 1899; J. W. Chap-
man, Revivals and Missions, New York, 1900; idem, Pres-
ent-Day Evangelism, ib., 1903; J. P. Brushingham, Catching
Men: Studies in vital Evangelism, Cincinnati, 1906; R. A.
Torrey, How to Conduct and Promote a Successful Revival,
Chicago, 1906; J. V. Coombs, Christian Evangelism, Cin-
cinnati, 1907; C. LeR. Goodell, Pastoral and Personal
Evangelism, New York, 1907; W. Hamilton, Sane Evangel-
ism, Philadelphia, 1909; J. Burns, Revivals, their Laws
and Leaders, London, 1909; O. O. Green, Normal Evangel-
ism, New York, 1910.
REWARD: That which is given in recognition
of merit or work performed, or in requital of good
or evil. The Bible frequently employs the concep-
tion of reward to express the certainty that God
guarantees the ultimate success and happiness of
those who obey his law. Such expressions, how-
ever, raise two serious questions: Does not the
promise of a reward vitiate the motive of ethical
conduct by introducing into it an egoistic element,
and does it not contradict the doctrine of salvation
through God's grace as taught by Paul?
On closer examination it will be seen that both
questions can be answered in the negative. In
private life reward is an economic conception, repre-
senting proportionate compensation for work accom-
plished. Here the reward is usually the sole mo-
tive for action. In public life the case may be quite
different. Here altruistic motives come into play,
and reward, in the sense of remuneration, may
cease to form a motive for action, since the service
rendered, the good done the community, may be
its own reward. However, the public official who
neglects his private affairs to serve the community
may. reasonably expect to be provided for. Simi-
larly the Christian in the service of God. Since his
work in the moral vineyard leaves mere personal
interest out of account, it, too, can be regarded as a
service rendered to the community, or to the di-
vine power that presides over the moral order; and
it carries with it naturally the expectation of rec-
ompense for the personal sacrifice entailed. Here
there is no thought of an equivalent for service
rendered, as in the case of a laborer in private life,
for the reward has not been the sole motive to ac-
tion. If reward be taken in the strictest sense, it is
clear that no one can make demand of God for rec-
ompense. The expectation of a reward, therefore,
becomes a matter of faith, and the reward itself a
matter of grace. In the last analysis human service
itself is a gift of grace, since it is accomplished
through the spirit of God (Phil. i. 6, ii. 13). In this
view the objections urged by many modern ethical
writers (most strongly by Eduard von Hartmann
and Nietzsche, qq.v.) against reward as a motive
become irrelevant. Both Jesus and Paul taught ex-
pressly that the Christian-ethical life does not spring
from any thought of reward, but from the grace of
God in us and from the love toward God and our
neighbors which it awakens. In the New Testament
the conception of reward is not employed as a motive
for conversion, but as an encouragement to per-
severance in the Christian life; and in the religious
view of the world it serves to express the certainty
that the moral order is not merely a human but a
divine affair.
The idea that God not only gives the law but
also sees to its fulfilment is inseparable from the
religious view of the world. According to the proph-
ets it is an inviolable rule that the righteous are re-
warded and the wicked punished (Isa. iii. 10-11;
Amos v. 14-27; Hos. iv. 1-3). A decision between
obedience and disobedience toward God is a choice
between blessing and curse, between life and death
(Deut. xxviii. 1-68, xxx. 15-20; Lev. xxvi. 3-45;
Josh, xxiii. 14-16). In numerous sayings and para-
bles Jesus promises the goods of his kingdom, or
eternal life, as the reward of his disciples (Matt. v.
2-10, xix. 29, xxiv. 45-51, xxv. 34-46; Luke vi.
22-35, xii. 33^4, xiv. 12-14); but it is clear that
he did not make the expectation of reward the chief
motive of Christian life. In fact, the man who seeks
to gain the reward by his own efforts forfeits it
21
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Revivals of Religion
Reynolds
(cf. Matt. vi. 1-6, 16, xviii. 1-4; Mark viii. 35).
It is duty done without expectation of reward that
is rewarded (cf. Luke xvii. 10). In the writings of
Paul the idea of reward is subordinated to the doc-
trine of salvation by grace. Eternal life is a gift
of God (Rom. vi. 23), which can not be demanded
as a right (cf . Rom. iv. 4-5) ; and the basis of eth-
ical conduct is not the hope of reward, but a real-
ization of the mercy of God (Rom. xii. 1), love
toward Christ and a desire to obey him (II Cor.
viii. 8, x. 5-7), and the desire to live in the spirit
(Gal. v. 25; Rom. viii. 13-17). While Paul does
not always reconcile the idea of reward with the
doctrine of salvation by grace, on the whole he
teaches that any divine requital of human activity
is a manifestation of grace; and that such activity
itself can not be dissolved into a series of separate
deeds meriting reward. Rather, Christian conduct
presents itself as a uniform manifestation of faith
working itself out ethically.
The Biblical conception of reward has been ex-
plained away in mysticism, which sees in it a relic
of egoism; or it has been rejected in non-religious
systems of ethics, which, regarding ethical conduct
as a human affair, find that the idea of an eternal
reward obscures ethical insight; or it has been
coarsened and formalized in legal conceptions of
religion, where the basis of Christian-ethical con-
duct is laid in arbitrary statutes. Here the
striving for a reward, which was only an acces-
sory motive in the Biblical view, becomes the chief
motive.
From the view of Augustine that to cling to God
is both virtue and the reward of virtue (Epist., civ.
12) was developed in the Middle Ages that mystical
love of God in which the self is forgotten. Bernard
of Clairvaux gave this mysticism its classic expres-
sion in his doctrine of the four gradations of love.
It may be added that Melanchthon, in the " Apol-
ogy " of the Augsburg Confession (CR, xxvii. 275
sqq.), opposes the obscuring of the Pauline doc-
trine of grace by the conception of reward. Simi-
larly, the Council of Trent (Session VI., cap. xi.)
characterized the expectation of an eternal reward
as a subsidiary motive beside the chief motive, viz.,
the glorification of God, though Canon XXXI.
seems to make expectation of reward alone a suffi-
cient motive (Schaff, Creeds, ii. 117). While in
modern philosophical ethics reward as a motive has
been severely criticized and generally rejected, it
may be said that any system of ethics which re-
jects the idea of an ultimate divine recompense is
incomplete, in that it neglects to emphasize the
dominant position of the good in the world.
(O. Kirn.)
Bibliography: R. W. Hamilton, The Revealed Doctrine of
Rewards and Punishments, London, 1853; P. Mehlhorn,
in Jahrbucher fur protestantische Theologie, 1876; R. Neu-
meister, Die neutestamentliche Lehre vom Lohn, Halle, 1880 ;
W. G. T. Shedd, Dogmatic Theology, i. 369, New York,
1889; H. Schultz, in TSK, 1890, 1894; A. Juncker, Das
Ich und die Motivation des Willens im Christenthum, Halle,
1891; H. P. Liddon, Sermons on Some Words of Christ,
London, 1892; H. H. Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu, pp. 166
sqq., 2d ed., Gottingen, 1901, Eng. transl. of 1st ed., The
Teaching of Jesus, 2 vols., London, 1892; E. Ehrhardt,
Der Grundcharakter der Ethik Jesu, Freiburg, 1895; K.
Thieme, Die sittliche Triebkraft des Glaubens, Leipsic,
1895; A. Titius, Die neutestamentliche Lehre von der Selig-
keit, parts i.-iv., Tubingen, 1895-1900; H. Jacoby, Neu-
testamentliche Ethik, Konigsberg, 1899; H. Cremer, Die
paulinische Rechtfertigungslehre, pp. 359-368, Gtitersloh,
1900; C. A. Briggs, Ethical Teaching of Jesus, pp. 206,
240, New York, 1904; DCG, ii. 528.
REYNOLDS, ren'elz, EDWARD: Church of Eng-
land bishop; b. at Southampton Nov., 1599; d. at
Norwich Jan. 16, 1676. He was educated at Mer-
ton College, Oxford (B.A., 1618; fellow, 1620;
M.A., 1624; D.D., 1648); became preacher at
Lincoln's Inn in 1622 and served as royal chaplain;
became vicar of All Saints, Northamptonshire, 1628,
and rector of Bramston, 1631. At the breaking
out of the civil war he was a moderate Anglican,
was a member of the Westminster Assembly, 1643,
but did not take the covenant till 1644. He was
one of the committee of twenty-two to examine
and approve ministers, was vicar of St. Lawrence
Jewry, London, 1645-62; dean of Christ Church,
1648-50 and again in 1659; was chosen vice-chan-
cellor in 1648, but ejected from Christ Church in
1659 for not taking the " engagement." At the
Restoration Reynolds conformed, was made war-
den of Merton College and canon of Worcester in
1660, and bishop of Norwich in 1661. In the same
year he took part in the Savoy Conference (q.v.).
He carried his Puritanic principles into practise
even while a bishop, and lived only for his diocese.
His Works were first collected and published in
1658; best edition, with Life, by A. Chalmers,
6 vols. (London, 1826).
Bibliography: Besides the Life by A. Chalmers, ut sup.,
consult: A. a Wood, Athenm Oxonienses, ed. P. Bliss, iii.
1083, and Fasti Oxonienses, ii. 115, 129, 355, 4 vols., Lon-
don, 1813-20; DNB, xlviii. 40-41.
REYNOLDS, HENRY ROBERT: Congregation-
alist; b. at Romsey (7 m. n.w. of Southampton),
Hampshire, England, Feb. 26, 1825; d. at Brox-
bourne (16 m. n.n.e. of London), Hertfordshire,
Sept. 10, 1896. He was educated at Coward Col-
lege and University College, London (B.A., 1848);
became pastor at Halsted, Essex, 1846; at Leeds,
1849; president of Countess of Huntingdon's Col-
lege, Cheshunt, Herts, 1860, from which he retired
in 1894. He was author of Beginnings of the Di-
vine Life (London, 1859) ; Notes of the Christian
Life (1865); John the Baptist, Congregational Union
lectures for 1874 (1874); Philosophy of Prayer, and
other Essays (1881); commentary on Hosea and
Amos (1884), in C. J. Ellicott's Old-Testament Com-
mentary (1882-84); of exposition, commentary, and
introduction to the Gospel of John (1887-88; in the
Pulpit Commentary) ; Athanasius: his Life and Life
Work (1889); Light and Peace. Sermons and Ad-
dresses (1892); and Lamps of the Temple, and other
Addresses to Young Men (1895). He was also joint
editor and compiler of Psalms, Hymns, and Passages
of Scripture for Christian Worship (1853); editor
of Ecclesia: Church Problems, 2 series (1870-71);
Athanasius (1889); and was coeditor of the British
Quarterly Review (1866-74), and of The Evangelical
Magazine (1877-82).
Bibliography: A memoir is prefixed to one of his publica-
tions not named above, Who say ye that I am, London,
1896; H . R. Reynolds, His Life and Letters, ed. by his sis-
ters, ib. 189S.
Reynolds
Ricci
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
22
REYNOLDS (RAINOLDS), JOHN: Puritan di-
vine; b. at Pinhoe (4 m. n.e. of Exeter), Devon-
shire, 1549; d. at Oxford May 21, 1607. He prob-
ably entered Merton College, Oxford, but in 1563
received a scholarship at Corpus Christi (probation-
ary fellow, 1566; full fellow, and B.A., 1568); he
there became tutor to Richard Hooker (q.v.), Greek
reader (an important office), 1572-73-78; resigned
his fellowship in 15S6; was then appointed to a
temporary lectureship; became dean of Lincoln,
1593; and president of Corpus Christi, 1598. He
was one of four Puritan representatives (and the
chief one) at the Hampton Court Conference (q.v.),
at which he is credited with suggesting to King
James the desirability of a new translation of the
Bible (see Bible Versions, B, IV., 6). Of this
work he was made a participant, being one of the
committee which had in charge the translation of
the prophets, but he did not live to see the com-
pletion of the task. He was celebrated for his great
learning, remarkable memory, sound judgment,
lofty character, uprightness, piety, and regard for
his students. Among the works published by him
are: Sex theses de sacra Scriptura et ecclesia (Lon-
don, 1580); The Summe of the Conference between
John Rainolds and John Hart touching the Head and
the Faith of the Church (15S4); De Romano, ecclesia.
idolatria (1586); The Overthrow of Stage-Players
(1599). The following were issued after his death:
Defence of the Judgment of the Reformed Churches
that a Man may laufullie not onlie put awaie his Wife
for her Adidterie but also marry another (1609) ; C en-
sura librorum Apocryphorum Veteris Testamenti
(1611); The Prophecie of Obadiah opened and ex-
plained (1613); The Judgment of Doctor Reignolds
concerning Episcopacy, whether it be God's Ordinance
(1641); and Sermons on the Prophecies of Haggai
(1648).
Bibliography: R. Crackanthorpe, Defensio ecclesice Ang-
licanae, chap, lxix., London, 1625; D. Neal, Hist, of the
Puritans, i. 252, ed. J. Toulmin, Bath, 1793; W. H. Frere,
The English Church (.1558-1625), pp. 296 sqq., ib. 1904;
R. G. Usher, The Reconstruction of the English Church,
New York, 1910; L>.Vj5, xlvii. 180-182.
RHABANUS MAURUS. See Rabanus Maubus.
RHEES, riz, RUSH: Baptist; b. at Chicago Feb.
8, 1860. He was educated at Amherst (A.B., 1883),
where he was Walker instructor in mathematics in
1883-85, and at Hartford Theological Seminary,
from which he was graduated in 1888. After being
pastor of the Middle Street Baptist Church, Ports-
mouth (lsvi-92), he was associate professor of New-
Testament interpretation at Newton Theological
Institution (1892-94); professor of the same sub-
ject (1894-1900); and president of the University
of Rochester since 1900. He has written The Life
of Jesus of Xazareth: A Study (New York, 1900).
RHEGIUS, ri'ji-us (RIEGER), URBANUS: Ger-
man Reformer; b. at Langenargen (17 m. e. of
Constance) in the latter half of May, 1489; d. at
Celle (23 m. n.e. of Hanover) May 27, 1541. He
received his first education at Lindau, whence he
went to Freiburg, where he came under strong hu-
manistic influence, also associating much with Eck,
the subsequent opponent of Luther. When Eck
was called to a professorship at Ingolstadt in 1510,
Rhegius followed him. After 1512 he devoted in-
creased attention to theology, still under Eck's
guidance, and in 1518, while visiting Constance, he
wrote his first theological treatise, the De dignitate
sacerdotum, from a strictly orthodox Roman Catho-
lic point of view. In 1519 he was ordained to the
priesthood at Constance, and at the beginning of
the controversy between Luther and Eck took the
side of his teacher. By Mar., 1520, however, his
position had for some unknown reason so veered
that he could be termed a friend of Luther. He
can not, however, at that time have changed his
attitude decidedly, for in the same year he was called
to Augsburg as cathedral preacher in place of CEco-
lampadius, who had entered the monastery of St.
Brigitta. He was forced to leave late in 1521 for
openly supporting Luther, and he then lived at
Argen and Tetnang, and preached for a time at
Hall in the valley of the Inn. In 1524 he published
his Ob das new testament yetz recht verteutscht sey, in
reply to the attack of Hieronymus Emser (q.v.)
against Luther's translation of the Bible in his Auss
was grand vnnd ursach Luther's dolmatschung
dem gemeinen man billig vorbotten sey (Leipsic, 1523),
and in the same year returned to Augsburg as a
private citizen. During his absence friction be-
tween the old faith and the new movement had led
to riot and even to conspiracy, until the demands
laid on the vacillating city council forced it to take
a firm stand and finally to check the uprising.
Rhegius now became pastor of St. Anne's; on Christ-
mas Day, 1524, he administered the Lord's Supper
under both kinds; and in 1526 he married. In the
eucharistic controversy, except for a brief period of
practical subscription to Zwinglianism, Rhegius
adhered to the position of Luther, swayed, no doubt,
by fear of the dangerous radicalism of the Anabap-
tist movement, which both he and his colleagues
vainly sought to check. His feeble efforts to effect
a mediation between Lutheranism and Zwinglian-
ism were equally fruitless; religious dissension of
all kinds steadily increased, and the civil authorities
were timid and wavering.
The diet of 1530 ended the career of Rhegius at
Augsburg. On the day after his arrival (June 17)
the emperor demanded that all Protestant preach-
ing cease at once, and Rhegius was dismissed with
the other preachers. Toward the end of August he
accepted the invitation of Ernest the Confessor
(q.v.), duke of Liineburg, to become pastor at Celle,
and, after having brought about a conference be-
tween Melanchthon and Butzer, he took with him
a series of articles to be submitted to Luther, whom
he met at Coburg in an interview which made a deep
impression upon him. In the territory of Liineburg,
though it was already won for the Lutheran cause
with the exception of the capital, much remained to
be done by Rhegius, who was appointed superin-
tendent in 1531. In this same year he preached at
Liineburg and issued a church order, though it was
not firmly established until Sept., 1532. As super-
intendent Rhegius took special pains to provide the
congregations with efficient preachers and to rouse
those already in office to the proper discharge of
their duties. His activity extended even beyond
23
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Reynolds
Ricci
the duchy of Liineburg, especially after the monas-
teries had been reformed by his untiring activity.
The city of Hanover owes to him the renovation of
its religious life after the victory of the Reformation,
for in 1536 he drew up for it the church order which
is still in force. He was also active in the reforma-
tion of the cities of Minden, Soest, and Lemgo, and
he strenuously opposed the Anabaptists who found
warm sympathizers throughout northern Germany.
As the adviser of Duke Ernest, Rhegius was an im-
portant factor in securing the acceptance of the
Formula of Concord. His last public appearance
was at the conference of Hagenau in 1540. Among
his writings special mention may be made of the
following: De dignitate sacerdotum (Augsburg, 1519) ;
Underricht, Wie ain Christenmensch Got seinem her-
ren teglich beichten soil (1521); Wider den newen
irrsal Doctors Andres von Carlstadt des Sacraments
halb warming (n.p., 1524); Von leybeygenschafft oder
Knechtheyt (n.p., 1525); Warnung wider den neuen
Tauforden (1527); and Formula caute loquendi
(Wittenberg, 1535; Germ, ed., 1536, Celle, 1880).
The works of Rhegius, both Latin and German,
were almost completely edited by his son, E. Rhe-
gius (2 vols., Nuremberg, 1561-62).
[Rhegius also wrote the following works which
were translated into English: Nova doctrince ad
veterem collatio (Augsburg, 1526 [?]), transl. by W
Turner, A Comparison betwene the Olde learnynge
and the Newe (South wark, 1557); Ain Summa
christlicher leer (Augsburg, 1527), transl. by W.
Lynne, A declaration of the twelve articles of the
christen fay the (London, 1548); and Doctrina cer-
tissima (Frankfort, 1545), transl. by J. Fox, An
instruccyon of Christen fay th (London, 1550 [?]); as
well as sermons on Matt. ix. 16-26 (transl. by W.
Lynne, London, 1548), Luke xxiv. (transl. by W.
Hilton, London, 1578), and Matt, xviii. 10 (transl.
by R. Robinson, London, 1590), and an exposition
of Ps. lxxxvii. (transl. by R. Robinson, London,
1594).] (Paul Tschackert.)
Bibliography : H. C. Heimburger, Vrbanus Rhegius, Gotha,
1851; G. Uhlhorn, Urbanus Rhegius, Leben und ausge-
wahlte Schriften, Elberfeld, 1862; O. Seitz, Die theologische
Entwickelung des Urbanus Rhegius, Gotha, 1898; and
literature under Luther, Martin; and Zwingli, Huld-
reich.
RHEIMS NEW TESTAMENT. See Bible Ver-
sions, B, IV., § 5.
RHODES. See Asia Minor, V.
RHODES, KNIGHTS OF. See John, Saint,
Order of Hospitalers op.
RHODON, ro'den: Greek author of the second
century. The sole source of information concerning
him is Eusebius (Hist, eccl., V., xiii.), who states that
he was born in Asia and educated at Rome by
Tatian, so that he would seem to have been con-
verted between 165 and 172. Rhodon, however,
never broke with the Church. According to Euse-
bius, he was the author of a work against Marcion,
and the citations preserved by Eusebius are impor-
tant for a knowledge of Apelles and his doctrine, as
well as other Marcionists. Eusebius likewise states
that Rhodon wrote a commentary on the hexaem-
eron, and that he designed a polemic against an
otherwise unknown work of Tatian entitled " Prob-
lems," in which all difficult passages of the Bible
had been collected. Whether Rhodon ever wrote
this refutation and explained the problems thus
posited is unknown. At Rome Rhodon held a dis-
putation with Apelles, and as the latter died about
180, while Rhodon wrote his anti-Marcionistic trea-
tise during the lifetime of Apelles, the composition
of the work must have been between 170 and 180.
It has been suggested, though without foundation,
that Rhodon was the author of the Canon of Mura-
tori (q.v.; Harnack, Litteratur, i. 599) and of the
anti-Montanistic treatise excerpted by Epiphanius
(Hist, eccl., xlviii. 2-13; H. G. Voigt, Eine verschol-
lene Urkunde des antimontanistischen Kampfes, pp.
224 sqq., Leipsic, 1891).
(Erwin Preuschen.)
Bibliography: The fragments are collected, with notes, in
M. J. Routh, Reliquiae sacroe, i. 435-446, Oxford, 1846;
MPG, v. 1331-38; Eng. transl. in ANF, viii. 766. Con-
sult: A. Gallandi, Bibliotheca veterum patrum, ii., pp. xvii.,
144-145, Venice, 1765; P. Caspari, Ungedruckte . .
Quellen zur Geschichte des Taufsymbols, hi. 315, 340—341,
364-365, Christiania, 1871; A. Hilgenfeld, Die Ketzerge-
schichte des Urchristenthums, 532-533, Leipsic, 1884; Bar-
denhewer, Patrologie, pp. 105, 110-111, Eng. transl., St.
Louis, 1908; idem, Geschichte, i. 490—491; Kruger, History,
pp. 143-144; Harnack, Litteratur, i. 599, ii. 1, pp. 313-314;
DCB, iv. 545.
RICCI, CATHERINE DE. See Catherine de
Ricci.
RICCI, rit'chi, LORENZO: General of the Jesuits;
b. at Florence Aug. 2, 1703; d. at Rome Nov. 24,
1775. He entered the order of the Jesuits in 1718,
and became its general in 1758. He was of an ami-
able yet inflexible disposition, and was unalterably
attached to the tenet of obedience. To all proposi-
tions to change the constitution of the order, ema-
nating either from the pope or from the Roman
Catholic princes, he answered " Sint ut sunt, aut
non sint." (" Let them [the Jesuits] be as they are
or let them cease to exist "). The consequence
was that the pope dissolved the order by the bull
Dominus ac redemptor noster, July 21, 1773. Ricci
protested emphatically against the action and was
confined in the castle of St. Angelo for the rest of
his life.
Bibliography: J. J. I. von Dollinger, Beitrage zur politi-
schen, kirchlichen, und Culturgeschichte, iii. 1-74, Vienna,
1882; A Circumstantial Account of the Death of Abbe
Laurence Ricci. To which is annexed a Copy of the Pro-
testation which he left at his Death, London, 1776; A.
Carayon, Documents inedits concernant la compagnie d*
Jesus, vol. xvii., Paris, 1869; L. A. de Caraccioli, Vita
dell' Abati Lorenzo Ricci, n.p., n.d.; Ranke, Popes, ii. 446-
447; KL, x. 1170-72.
RICCI, MATTEO: Roman Catholic missionary
and astronomer; b. at Macerata (120 m. e.s.e. of
Florence), Italy, Oct. 6, 1553; d. at Peking, China,
May 11, 1610. He first studied law, but, going to
Rome in 1571, entered the Society of Jesus and gave
especial attention to the study of astronomy; he
was sent to India as a missionary in 1577, and there
completed his theological studies and was made
priest; thence he was called to Macao, where he
gained the favor of the viceroy of the province of
Kwantung both by his personal characteristics and
by his acquaintance with the Chinese language.
Under the new viceroy he was compelled to leave
Kicci
Richard of St. Victor
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
24
Macao, but had permission to settle at Shaotsao in
the same province, 1590. He had as his object,
which he kept steadily in mind, a mission to Peking;
this he brought about in 1600, where his astronom-
ical instruments aroused the curiosity of the em-
peror; permission to remain was not definitely
gained, however, until 1605, when he was enabled
to gain a settled residence. His further religious ac-
tivities were carried on there, looking to the con-
version of the Chinese; and no less devoted were
his services to astronomy and mathematics, which,
however, he made use of as an introduction to the
truths of Christianity. The esteem which he won
at court paved the way for the success of Roman
Catholic missions in China, and his work was car-
ried on by his successors. He did much in the way
of writing in the Chinese language, producing works
not only in theology, but also in mathematics and
geometry. See Chixa, II., 2, § 2.
Bibliography: Biographies have been written by Pere
D'Orleans, Paris, 1693; C. Sainte-Foi, ib., 1859; A. Werfer,
Regensburg, 1S70; and L. Nocentini, in the " Acts " of the
fourth international congress of orientalists, ii. 273 sqq.,
Florence, 1SS1.
RICCI, SCIPIONE DE': Bishop of Pistoja and
one of the few representatives of the Enlightenment
within the Roman Catholic Church in Italy; b. at
Florence Jan. 9, 1741; d. at Rignano (11 m. e.s.e.
of Florence) Jan. 27, 1810. At the age of fifteen he
was placed in a Jesuit school at Rome, but was re-
called on manifesting a tendency to enter the order,
and completed his theological studies at Pisa and
Florence. He was ordained to the priesthood in
1766, and in 1775 became vicar-general to the arch-
bishop of Florence. Five years later, on the death
of the bishop of Pistoja, Ricci was nominated as his
successor by Leopold, grand duke of Tuscany, who
deemed him capable of carrying out proposed re-
forms in the training of the clergy, the improve-
ment of moral conditions, and the introduction of
the Janienistic " Colbert catechism." Ricci was
duly consecrated, only to be confronted by almost
insuperable difficulties in his diocese. Evil condi-
tions in the monasteries could be remedied only by
abrogating their exemption and placing them under
episcopal jurisdiction; and other reform measures
contemplated the improvement of the cure of souls
and of preaching, the protection of the secular
against the regular clergy, the enforcement of the
rules on fasting, the introduction and diffusion of
enlightening literature; the purification of religious
ideals, and the diminution of the cult of saints and
relics and of the Sacred Heart. To these the synod
convened by Ricci at Pistoja in 1786 added the
holding of annual synods, improvement of the brev-
iary, encouragement of Bible reading, and the
strengthening of episcopal power against the Curia.
Only two bishops, however, besides Ricci, took the
decisions of the synod seriously, although the ses-
sions were attended by 233 parish priests and thir-
teen regular clergy. Every effort was made to ob-
viate the charges of Jansenism already made against
the leaders by stressing the articles on sin and orig-
inal sin transmitted by the faculty of Louvain to
Innocent XI. and recognized as orthodox. It was
also affirmed that even the Church had no power to
posit new rules of faith, her sole duty being to pre-
serve in original purity what had been given her by
Christ and the apostles. Indulgences, moreover,
were declared to be simply the remission of the dis-
cipline of the Church; parallel forms for the liturgy
in the vernacular were demanded; processions were
restricted; the number of saints' days was decreased,
and a decree on the life of the clergy and the con-
ferring of ecclesiastical offices formed the conclu-
sion. A letter was likewise addressed to the grand
duke, containing additional proposed reforms, and
asking that a national council be convened.
'With the express sanction of Leopold, the coun-
cil was convened at Florence on Apr. 23, 1787, only
to reject most decidedly the fifty-seven propositions
of the grand duke. The canonists and theologians
deputed to present them were silenced by the epis-
copal authority of the assembled bishops, who, with
the exception of Ricci and the bishops of Chiusi
and Colle, voted unanimously against each of Leo-
pold's proposed reforms. This overwhelming op-
position rendered it impossible for the grand duke
to carry out the changes which he desired, although,
as long as he remained in Italy, he supported Ricci
against the efforts of his opponents to render it im-
possible for him to remain in Pistoja. When, how-
ever, Leopold succeeded his brother, Joseph II., as
emperor of Austria in 1790, Ricci's enemies, aided
by a feeble regency, attained their object, and the
bishop, resigning from his see, retired to private life.
The resolutions of the Synod of Pistoja were con-
demned by the bull Auctorem fidei (Aug. 28, 1794),
which also rejected eighty-five statements in it as
heretical and erroneous, a decision to which Ricci
formally submitted before Pius VII., when the
pontiff was returning from Paris in 1805. Ricci
was the author of a number of episcopal charges as
well as of Istruzione cristiana sopra il sacramento
delta confermazione (3d ed., Pistoja, 1783), a volume
of sermons (1788), and the posthumous Memorie di
Scipione de' Ricci, vescovo di Prato e Pistoja (ed.
A. Gelli, 2 vols., Florence, 1865) and Alcune lettere
inedite di Scipione de' Ricci ad Antonio Marini (ed.
C. Guasti, Prato, 1857). K. Beneath.
Bibliography: The sources are the Memorie and Alcune
lettere noted above. Based on these is L. J. A. de Pot-
ter's Vie de Scipion de Ricci, 3 vols., Brussels, 1825, which
was put on the Index. Consult further: A. von Reu'
mont, Geschichte Toscanas, ii. 148 sqq., Gotha, 1877;
KL, x. 34 sqq.; Lichtenberger, ESR, xi. 230-231.
RICE, EDWIN WILBUR: Congregationalist;
b. at Kingsborough, N. Y., July 24, 1831. He was
graduated from Union College (A.B., 1854) and
Union Theological Seminary, New York (1857).
He has been associated with the American Sunday
School Union since 1859, in which he has been a
missionary (1859-64), superintendent of missions
(1864-70), assistant secretary of missions (1870-
1879), and editor of the periodicals and other pub-
lications of the organization (since 1879). He has
prepared the Scholar's Handbooks on the Interna-
tional School Lessons from 1873 to 1889 and written
popular commentaries on Matthew (Philadelphia,
1886; 6th ed., 1910); Luke (1889); John (1891), and
Acts (1896; 4th ed., 1909), as well as Organization
and Classification of Sunday Schools (1881); The
Origin of Sunday Schools (1886); Stories of Great
Painters: or, Religion in Art (1887); Our Sixty-Six
25
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ricci
Richard of St. Victor
Sacred Books: How they came to us and What they
are (1892); Handy Helps for Busy Workers (1899);
The Heavenly City (1899); A Century of Sunday
School Progress (1899); and A Short History of the
International Lesson System (1902).
RICE, LUTHER: Baptist; b. at Northborough,
Mass., Mar. 25, 1783; d. at Edgefield, S. C, Sept.
25, 1836. Converted in his youth, he united with
the Northborough Congregational church in Mar.,
1802. As a student in Williams College he mani-
fested a deep interest in missions to the heathen
and in association with other students was instru-
mental in bringing about the organization of the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mis-
sions (see Congregationalists, I., 4, § 11; cf.
Judson, Adoniram). He offered himself as a mis-
sionary along with Judson, Nott, Mills, and Richards
(1811). The number of applicants being thought
too great, his appointment was made conditional on
his first raising the money for outfit and passage.
He accomplished this in a few days and was ready
to go with the rest (Feb. 6, 1S12). He followed
Judson and his wife in adopting Baptist views and
was immersed in India by the English Baptist mis-
sionary William Ward, Nov. 1, 1812. He returned
to America (Sept., 1813) to adjust relations with the
American Board and to interest and organize the
Baptists for the support of the Burman mission
which Judson proceeded to inaugurate. Through
his untiring efforts funds were raised for the imme-
diate need, local missionary societies were organ-
ized in many places, and in 1814 the Triennial Con-
vention was formed as a national Baptist society for
the support of missions. Largely through his efforts
a theological seminary in Philadelphia was estab-
lished in 1818, and Columbian University in Wash-
ington in 1822. Under his leadership the Triennial
Convention undertook home mission work (from
1817), for which a separate society was later con-
stituted. In 1S16 he began the publication of a re-
ligious quarterly (Latter Day Luminary) and in 1822
he began to issue the first Baptist weekly, The
Columbian Star. His multifarious denominational
enterprises soon outgrew the income that he was
able to secure and financial worries probably short-
ened his days. A. H. Newman.
Bibliography: T. Armitage, Hist, of the Baptists, pp. 434,
464, 502, New York, 1893; A. H. Newman, in American
Church History Series, ii., 390, 392, 399, 405, 427, ib., 1894;
H. C. Vedder, The Baptists, pp. 163-164, ib., 1902.
RICE, NATHAN LEWIS: Presbyterian; b. in
Garrard County, Ky., Dec. 29, 1807; d. at Chatham,
Bracken County, Ky., June 11, 1877. He studied
at Center College, Danville, Ky., and at Princeton
Theological Seminary, 1829; and was pastor at
Bardstown, Ky., 1833-41, where he also established
an academy and a newspaper, the Western Protes-
tant, afterward merged in the Louisville Presby-
terian Herald. He preached at Paris, Ky., 1841-
1844; was pastor at Cincinnati, 1845-53; at St.
Louis, Mo., 1853-58, where he edited the St. Louis
Presbyterian; was pastor at Chicago, 1857-61; pro-
fessor of theology at the Chicago Theological Semi-
nary, 1859-61; pastor of the Fifth Avenue Presby-
terian Church, New York, 1861-67; president of
Westminster College, Fulton, Mo., 1869-74; and
professor of theology at Danville, Ky., 1874-77.
An able debater and preacher, he engaged in several
memorable discussions: namely, with Alexander
Campbell (q.v.) at Lexington, Ky., in 1843, on bap-
tism; with J. A. Blanchard in 1845, on slavery;
with E. Pingree the same year, on universal salva-
tion; and with J. B. Purcell (q.v.) in 1851, on Ro-
manism. His publications, besides the debates al-
ready referred to, include God Sovereign, and Man
Free (Philadelphia); Romanism not Christianity
(New York, 1847) ; Baptism, the Design, Mode, and
Subjects (St. Louis, 1855); and Immortality (Phila-
delphia, 1871).
RICH, EDMUND. See Edmund, Saint, of
Canterbury.
RICHARD FITZRALPH: Archbishop of Armagh
and primate of Ireland; b. at Dundalh (50 m. n. of
Dublin), County of Louth, Ireland, probably in the
last years of the thirteenth century; d. at Avignon,
France, probably Nov. 16, 1360. He was fellow of
Balliol College, Oxford; became chancellor of the
University of Oxford in 1333; chancellor of Lincoln
cathedral, 1334; soon after archdeacon of Chester;
dean of Lichfield in 1337; and in July, 1347, arch-
bishop of Armagh, from which he was called " Arma-
chanus." When negotiations were going on between
the Armenians and Pope Boniface XII., and two of
their number, Nerses, archbishop of Melaggert, and
John, bishop-elect of Khilat, appeared at Avignon,
Richard, who happened to be on a mission at the
papal court, upon their request, wrote a treatise in
nineteen books, Summa in quwstionibus Armenorum
(Paris, 1511), in which he examined their doctrines
and refuted their heresies. This work won him wide-
spread fame as defender of Roman orthodoxy. His
visit to Avignon in 1349 marked the opening of a
conflict with the mendicant friars which lasted all
his lifetime. A memorial to the pope, presented in
July, 1350, he later elaborated and published as De
pauperie salvatoris in seven books. His attacks
upon mendicancy occasioned great agitation in the
orders which were quietly supported by the pope.
Richard was summoned to appear at Avignon and
there defended himself in a discourse, Nov. 8, 1357,
later published as Defensio curatorum (Lyons, 1496;
also in Fasciculus rerum expetendarum et fugien-
darum, ed. E. Brown, ii. 466-487, London, 1690).
Bibliography: J. Ware, De prcesulibus Hibernice, Dublin,
1665; J. Prince, Worthies of Devon, Exeter, 1701; H.
Cotton, Fasti ecclesias Hibernicce, 5 vols., Dublin, 1845-
1860; T. Netter, Fasciculi Zizianiorum, ed. W. E. Shir-
ley, pp. xiii., liii., 284, 346, 355, London, 1858; G. Lech-
ler, John Wiclif and his English Precursors, i. 75-88, 117-
118, London, 1878; W. W. Capes, English Church in 14th
and 15th Centuries, London, 1900; G. M. Trevelyan, Eng-
land in the Age of Wycliffe, pp. 139, 143, 172, London,
1900.
RICHARD OF ST. VICTOR: French Augustinian;
b. probably in Scotland; d. at St. Victor 1173 (prob-
ably Mar. 10). At an early age he went to Paris and
entered the monastery of canons regular at St. Vic-
tor several years before the death of Hugo of St.
Victor (q.v.), whose pupil he was. In 1159 he
was subprior and in 1162 became prior, although
the incapacity of the abbot caused double responsi-
Bichard of St. Victor
Richelieu
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
26
bility to devolve on Richard. Richard was an im-
portant figure in the struggle of Thomas a Becket
with Henry II. of England. Together with a
certain abbot of St. Augustine he recommended
Thomas' cause to the pope, and, with Abbot Ervis-
ius, sharply admonished Robert of Melun, bishop
of Hereford, who had deserted his patron Thomas
for the king.
Like his teacher Hugo, Richard was one of the
theologians who sought to save traditional dogmas,
imperilled by the dialectic methods of Aristotelian
logic, by recourse to mysticism. Holding the ob-
jects of belief to be partly in accord with reason,
partly transcending reason, and partly contradic-
tory to reason, he taught that truth could be at-
tained only by him who should immerse himself in
them in believing mysticism, so that where reason
failed, meditation and contemplation might lead
to the truth. These views he advanced especially
in his Benjamin minor, or De prwparatione animi ad
contemplationem, and the Benjamin major, or De
gratia contemplationis, with the appendix Allegoria
tabernaeuli foederis. These sources are supplemented
by his De exterminatione mali et promotione boni, De
statu interioris hominis, De eruditione interioris
hominis, and De gradibus caritatis, as well as by his
interpretations of Ezekiel and the Apocalypse, the
Explicatio aliquorum passuum difficilium (Pauli)
apostoli, Declarationes nonnullarum difficultatum
script ur as, De Emmanuele, De super excellent! bap-
tismo Christi, Mystical adnotationes in Psalmos, Ex-
positio cantici Habacuc, In cantica canticorum, Quo-
modo Christus ponitur in signum populorum, and
the Easter sermon De missione Spiritus Sancti.
In the Benjamin minor Richard traces the psy-
chological development of man from his first dim
longings for purer knowledge to the highest con-
templation by an allegorical exegesis of the family
of Jacob (Gen. xxix. 16 sqq.). The wives of Jacob
represent the basal powers of the soul, Leah typi-
fying affection and Rachel reason, the two opera-
ting through their handmaids sensuality and imag-
ination (Zilpah and Bilhah). The births in Jacob's
house symbolize the progress of the soul to contem-
plation, Leah bearing first because the primal im-
pulse comes from affection. Reuben, the " son of
vision," typifies the fear arising from careful con-
sideration of faults; while the grief following fear
wherein man is heard, is symbolized by Simeon,
" hearing." To fear and grief are added the hope
(represented by Levi, " addition ") which leads to
forgiveness. The hope gained from fear and grief
results in loving praises of God (Judah, " confess-
ing "). Lest, however, one should now think him-
self at his goal, Leah, or affection, now ceases to
bear, and Rachel, or reason, longs for offspring, since
reason is unable to think through mere intelligence,
but begins with imagination. Bilhah, or imagina-
tion, accordingly bears two sons, Dan typifying the
formation of a mental image on the basis of visible
objects, and Naphthali symbolizing the endeavor
to rise from the visible to a knowledge of the invisi-
ble. The success of reason now rekindles affection,
and when Leah sees that Rachel bears children by
her handmaid, she could not rest until Zilpah also
bore, and from sensuality thus controlled proceeded
temperate life (Gad) and patience in adversity
(Asher). The way is thus prepared for new affec-
tion and Leah herself again bears. After departing
from false joys and idle commotions, affection gives
rise to true joy (Issachar), on which follows hatred
of all evil (Zebulon). The series of virtues is com-
pleted by shame (Dinah), which proceeds from ab-
horrence of sin.
All these affections can not bring man to his goal,
for virtues become vices unless controlled by medi-
tation. God accordingly gives fertility to Rachel,
since only through the interposition of divine grace
can man realize his capabilities. Thus Joseph and
Benjamin typify meditation and contemplation. But
the birth of contemplation is accompanied by the ex-
tremest pangs, yet reason, though knowing that this
birth transcends her powers, is insatiable in her long-
ing. After the birth of contemplation, therefore,
reason must die. Thus the goal is gained, but the
soul must still press on until at the last all darkness
shall vanish and eternal truth shall be revealed.
In the Benjamin major Richard, restricting him-
self to the intellectual factors, distinguished six
grades of contemplation: imagination alone; im-
agination according to reason; reason according to
imagination; reason alone; above, but not con-
trary to, reason; and above, and apparently con-
trary to, reason. The three first grades can not
dispense with the imaginative faculty, though they
gradually weaken it, so that in the second grade
imagination receives reason, and in the third rea-
son rises to an equality with imagination. The
fourth stage is pure reason, which in the sixth is
entirely transcended by true wisdom.
Richard appears in an absolutely different light
in a series of writings on the Trinity: De Trinitate
with its appendix, De tribus appropriates personis in
Trinitate; De Verbo incarnato; and Quomodo Spiri-
tus Sanctus est amor Patris et Filii. The argument
of the six books De Trinitate is conventionally scho-
lastic, but there seems to be no reason to doubt its
authenticity. In the philosophy and theology of
the Middle Ages Richard exercised considerable in-
fluence, as on Alexander of Hales, Bonaventura, and
Peter of Ailli (qq.v.), as well as on much later Ger-
man mysticism. He is also interesting for culture
history, as in his accounts of contemporary philoso-
phy and monastic life. (Ferdinand Cohrs.)
Bibliography: The best edition of the Opera is by J.
Berthelin, Rouen, 1650, reproduced in MPL, exevi.
Earlier eds. were Venice, 1506, 1592, Paris, 1518, 1550,
Lyon, 1534, Cologne, 1621.
A Vita is given in the ed. of Berthelin. Consult fur-
ther: Hist. litUraire de la France, xiii. 472—488; C. T. A.
Liebner, Richardi a S. Victore de contemplatione doctrina,
2 parts, Gottingen, 1837-39; J. G. V. Engelhardt, Rich-
ard von St. Victor und Johann Ruysbroek, Erlangen, 1S38;
M. Laforet, Coup d'oeil sur Vhist. de la theologie dogmatique,
Louvain, 1851; W. Kaulich, Die Lehren des Hugo und
Richard von St. Victor, Prague, 1864; W. Prefer, Ge-
schichte der deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter, i. 241 sqq.,
Leipsic, 1874; J. Bach, Dogmengeschichte des Mittelalters,
ii. 367 sqq., Vienna, 1875; L. Stein, in Archiv fur die
Geschichte der Philosophic, ii (1889), 193-245; B. Haureau,
Hist, de la philosophie scolastique, i. 509-514, Paris, 1872;
idem, Notices et extraits, iv. 256-259, ib. 1892; Harnack,
Dogma, vi. 100, 103, 179, 182; the works on the history
of philosophy, e.g., by J. E. Erdmann, 3 vols., London.
1893, and W. W. Windelband, ib. 1893; fschaff, Christian
Church, v. 1, pp. 647-648; DNB, xlviii. 188-190.
27
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Richard of St. Victor
Richelieu
RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN:
Cardinal; b. at Nantes Mar. 9, 1819; d. at Paris
Jan. 28, 1908. He was educated at the chateau of
Lavergne and at the Seminary of St. Sulpice, Paris,
and from 1849 to 1869 was vicar general of Nantes.
In 1871 he was consecrated bishop of Belley, and
four years later was made titular archbishop of
Larissa and coadjutor of the archbishop of Paris,
with the right of succession. In 1886 he succeeded
to this dignity, and in 1889 was created cardinal-
priest of Santa Maria in Via. He wrote Vie de la
bienheureuse Frangoise d'Amboise, duchesse de Bre-
tagne et religieuse carmelite (2 vols., Nantes, 1865),
and Les Saints de I'eglise de Nantes (1873).
RICHARD, TIMOTHY: Baptist missionary and
educator; b. at Ffaldybrenin, Carmarthenshire,
Wales, Oct. 10, 1845. He received his education at
Swansea Normal School and Haverfordwest College;
went out as missionary for the Baptist Missionary
Society to China in 1869, very early traveling in
Manchuria and in Korea; he was located for eight
years in the province of Shantung, then for the
same length of time in Shansi; was in Peking and
Tientsin, 1889-90; in 1890 he was chosen by the
missionaries on the field to make a presentation of
Christianity to the Chinese government, and in the
same year became editor of a daily and a weekly
paper in Chinese, both of which were influential in
wide circles; became secretary in 1891 for The So-
ciety for the Diffusion of Christian and General
Knowledge among the Chinese, now the Christian
Literature Society for China; in 1877-78 he was
chief almoner of the fund raised to relieve the great
famine in China; in 1901 he was called in to aid in
the negotiations for settling the indemnity for the
massacre of missionaries in Shansi, and through him
a university, of which he was made chancellor,
was established in the capital of the province, the
example of which led to a decree for like colleges in
each of the capitals of the separate provinces; in
1901 he was appointed religious adviser to the
Chinese government; in 1904 he assumed, in addi-
tion to his other duties, the position of secretary to
the International Red Cross Society in Shanghai; he
is in charge of the work for his denomination of
disseminating Christian literature among the Chi-
nese, and is president of the Educational Associa-
tion of China. His theological position is stated in
the words that he " desires to promote everything
which God has revealed or man discovered for the
progress of the human race in all departments."
He " believes that God has left none of the great
nations without light from Heaven, that those who
divide the religions of the world into true and false,
and go in for destructive criticism and attacks on
the native religions, do incalculable harm." Most
of his literary work has been done in Chinese (the
number of works rendered by him into Chinese num-
bers over fifty), and his labors have been recognized
by the Chinese government by an appointment as
mandarin of the first rank and religious adviser. In
English he has written Historical Evidences of
Christianity; Conversion by the Million (2 vols.,
published in the East); Guide to Buddahood: being
a standard Manual of Chinese Buddhism, translated
from the Chinese (London, 1908); and The New
Testament of Higher Buddhism (Edinburgh, 1910).
RICHARDS, WILLIAM ROGERS: Presbyte-
rian; b. at Boston Dec. 20, 1853; d. in New York
City Jan. 7, 1910. He studied at Yale University
(B.A., 1875), Columbia Law School (1875-76), and
Andover Theological Seminary (graduated, 1879);
was pastor of the Central Congregational Church,
Bath, Me., 1879-84; of the Crescent Avenue Pres-
byterian Church, Plainfield, N. J., 1884-1902; and
also of the Brick Presbyterian Church, New York
City, after 1902. He served on the Board of Foreign
Missions of his denomination, on the Board of Di-
rectors of Union Theological Seminary, New York,
and on the Council of the University of the City of
New York. He wrote : Ways of Wisdom (New York,
1886); For Whom Christ died (Philadelphia, 1902;
sermons) ; God's Choice of Men: a Study of Scripture
(New York, 1905); The Apostles' Creed in Modern
Worship (1906) ; and A Study of the Lord's Prayer
(1910).
RICHARDSON, ERNEST CUSHING: Congre-
gationalist; b. at Woburn, Mass., Feb. 9, 1860.
He was graduated from Amherst College (B.A.,
1880) and Hartford Theological Seminary (1883).
He was librarian of Hartford Theological Seminary
(1883-90); and associate professor (1885-90), and
since 1890 has been librarian of Princeton Univer-
sity. He is prominent in library work, especially in
the American Library Association, in which he has
held many offices. He has also been chairman of
the bibliographical committee of the American His-
torical Association since 1901 and vice-president of
the Bibliographical Society of America since 1906.
In theology he describes himself as " scientific, inde-
pendent, Biblical, Congregational," and as holding
" the deity of Christ, the Virgin birth, the organic
evolution of the Bible, regeneration by the Word, the
survival of the fittest for eternal life, and the climax
of the evolutionary progress of the universe in the
social and material headship of Jesus Christ in a sub-
stantial resurrected universe." He has revised the
translation of Eusebius' " Life of Constantine " for
the NPNF (New York, 1890) and the " Lives of
Illustrious Men " of Jerome and Gennadius for the
same series (1892), edited the same in Latin (Leip-
sic, 1896); prepared Bibliographical Synopsis of
the Ante-Nicene Fathers (New York, 1887) and An
Alphabetical Subject Index and Index Encyclopaedia
to Periodical Articles on Religion (1890-99) (1908);
and has written Classification, Theoretical and
Practical (1901).
RICHELIEU, rish-lyu' or rish'e-lQ.
Youth; Call to Public Office (§ 1).
Conflict with the Protestants (§ 2).
Struggle against Conspiracy (§ 3).
Constructive Policy (§ 4).
Achievements for Marine, Industry , and Commerce (§ 5).
Foreign Policy (§ 6).
Foreign Alliances (§ 7).
Characterization (§ 8).
Armand-Jean Duplessis, due de Richelieu, French
cardinal and statesman, was born at Paris Sept.
5, 1585, and died there Dec. 4, 1642. He was the
fourth son of a petty noble of Poitou. At first he
Richelieu
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
28
was intended for the army, but his eldest brother,
who was bishop of Lucon, having resigned his
dignity in order to enter a monastery, Richelieu en-
tered the Church in order to preserve this bishopric
in the family. He was educated at the
i. Youth ; Sorbonne and then returned, as he said,
Call to "to the poorest bishopric in France."
Public In 1614 he was elected a deputy of
Office. the clergy of Kiort to the States-
General, where he attracted the atten-
tion of the queen-mother, Marie de Medici, who
made him almoner to the young queen, Anne of
Austria, in 1616. In the mazes of intrigue that
prevailed at court Richelieu displayed from the
first a keen knowledge of men and great capacity for
dissimulation. Physically half an invalid, his energy
of mind and body was astonishing. It is said that
he required eleven hours' sleep. Nevertheless he
was capable of great physical endurance, as before
La Rochelle in 162S, and in 1630 in the war against
the duke of Savoy. The weakness of Louis XIII.
was Richelieu's opportunity, but the fondness of
Marie de Medici for him was also a factor. In
1622 he was niade cardinal and soon after entered
the king's council as secretary of state, of war,
and of foreign affairs (Apr., 1624), becoming prime
minister in Nov., 1629. In assuming office Richelieu
had a clear idea of his own purposes and the needs
of France. As he said: "When your Majesty re-
solved to give me, at the same time, both entrance
into your council and a great part of your con-
fidence in the government of affairs, I can truth-
fully say that the Huguenots divided France with
you; that the nobles conducted themselves as if
they were not subjects, and the powerful provincial
governors as though they were sovereigns in their
offices. I promised your Majesty to employ
all my industry and all authority that might be
given me to ruin the Huguenot party, to abase the
pride of the nobles, to reduce all subjects to duty,
and to raise your name among foreign nations to
the point where it ought to be." To the execution
of these purposes Richelieu brought an inflexible
and fierce energy justified, in his eyes, by the
grandeur of the purposes to be attained. At the
beginning of his ministry Richelieu summoned an
assembly of fifty-five prelates, nobles, magistrates,
financial officials, and others, in Dec, 1626. Fifteen
propositions were laid before them dealing with the
means to suppress corruption in the army, with
the development of commerce, the navy, and the
suppression of crimes against the safety of the state.
Richelieu was the enemy of the factional Hugue-
nots because, as he said, they tended " to form a
state within a state," and set himself "to ruin the
Huguenot party." It was accomplished in two
wars. In 1625 difficulties in connection with the
execution of the Treaty of Mont-
2. Conflict pellier provoked a rising of the Hugue-
with the nots in Brittany, Poitou, and Langue-
Protestants. doc. At the head of the movement
were Henri, duke of Rohan (see
Rohan-, Henri), and his brother Soubise. The
latter seized the Isle of Oleron. Richelieu sent
troops into Brittany and Poitou and obtained ships
and seamen from Holland and England. Oleron
was taken ; Soubise fled to England. But the car-
dinal was threatened by court intrigues and did
not follow up his advantage, renewing the settle-
ment of Montpellier (February, 1626). The Protes-
tant refugees in England resumed the conflict with
the aid of Buckingham, the favorite of Charles I.
An English fleet disembarked a force on the Island of
R6in July, 1627. Richelieu displayed a prodigious
activity in collecting vessels of war, munitions, and
provisions, and forced the English to withdraw.
Then began the protracted siege of La Rochelle,
the stronghold of the Huguenots. Rochelle was not
an easy place to take; on the land side it was pro-
tected by marshes and formidable fortifications,
and its harbor enabled it to reach the open sea.
Among the famous Huguenot leaders within the
city were the mayor Guiton, the admiral of the
Protestant fleet, the pastor Salbert, and the intrepid
dowager duchess of Rohan, who despite her eighty
years displayed amazing resolution and activity.
Richelieu, with a force of 25,000 men, blockaded
the place and threw up a line of entrenchments.
The greatest difficulty was to close the port to
outside assistance. In spite of the winter storms a
tremendous mole over 1,400 paces long was built
across the harbor. Two English relief fleets were
unable to force this colossal barrier. When all hope
of deliverance failed and the city was reduced to
starvation, Rochelle surrendered, on Oct. 28, 1628.
The historic city was condemned to lose its munici-
pal privileges and franchises and to have its walls
razed. The war continued in the Cevennes, where
Henri Rohan for a time held out with the moun-
taineer Calvinists and the aid of Spain — a most
anomalous alliance. The Edict of Nimes (q.v.) fixed
anew the situation of the Huguenots. The Edict
of Nantes (q.v.) was maintained in so far as it
guaranteed liberty of conscience and liberty of wor-
ship, but the Huguenot strongholds were sur-
rendered and their political assemblies forbidden.
The Protestants as a political party ceased to exist.
Since the death of Henry IV. in 1610 the chief
obstacle to the regular exercise of the royal au-
thority had been the factions and the hopes of the
noblesse. The whole ministry of Richelieu was
filled with the conflict against them.
3. Struggle The cardinal has been accused of hav-
Against ing been a bitter enemy of the privi-
Conspiracy. leged order, but this is a mistake.
" It is necessary to consider the no-
blesse as one of the chief sinews of the state," he
wrote in his "Political Testament." What he did
exact was obedience and the abandonment of
political activity by the nobles. Most of the in-
trigues and plots against Richelieu were hatched
at court, and the instigators or accomplices were
often members of the royal family. Gaston of
Orleans, who for a long time had cherished the
hope of succeeding his brother, was the soul of all
these conspiracies; another was the queen-mother,
Marie de Medici, who became an implacable enemy
of the cardinal after his elevation. A third was the
queen herself, Anne of Austria, whose secret cor-
respondence with Spain Richelieu stopped. Mother,
wife, and brother brought all the pressure they
could upon Louis XIII. to dismiss his minister.
29
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Richelieu
The first important conspiracy was that in which
the count of Chalais and Marshal Ornano were the
chief outward factors. It culminated in the death
of both of them. Nov. 11, 1630, was the famous
"Day of Dupes." The king, who never liked, but
who feared the cardinal, had been persuaded to
close his private cabinet to the minister. For a
moment Richelieu thought himself lost. But the
duke of St. Simon, father of the great writer, brought
about an interview between the king and Richelieu
at Versailles, where Louis XIII. had a shooting box.
The great palace was not yet built. In the pres-
ence of the cardinal, Louis XIII. 's opposition oozed
away. Richelieu's enemies paid dear for their short
triumph. Chancellor Marillac was deprived of office;
his brother, Marshal Marillac, was arrested in Italy
at the head of his command, tried before a com-
mission which sat in the cardinal's own house, and
put to death. Marie de Medici, exiled from court,
fled to Brussels, became a wanderer in Flanders and
England, and died miserably poor and despised at
Cologne. Gaston fled to Duke Charles IV of Lor-
raine, whose sister he married. He attempted, with
a small army, to reenter France and join the duke
of Montmorency, governor of Languedoc, who had
espoused his cause, but the royal army defeated
the rebels under the walls of Castelnaudary, Sept.
1, 1632. In spite of his wonderful popularity in the
country the duke was executed at Toulouse. Less
important plots were crushed in the ensuing years.
The most important of them was the conspiracy of
Cinq-Mars in 1642.
Similarly, the provincial governors who be-
haved like sovereigns in their governments were
rigorously crushed; e.g., the duke of Vend6me in
Brittany, Marshal Vitry in Provence, the duke of
Epernon in Guyenne. Richelieu reduced the
governors to mere military commandants and took
from them the administration of justice and the
finances. The offices of constable and grand ad-
miral, to which was attached a power which might
be dangerous, were suppressed. Two edicts abol-
ished some inveterate abuses; the first, the prac-
tise of dueling, which was remorselessly enforced;
the second required the destruction of the fortifica-
tions of towns, castles, and fortresses, unless situated
upon the frontier. A final step in the destructive
policy of Richelieu was the overcoming of the pro-
vincial parlements, the historic opposition of which
was crushed by an edict of 1641, which required
them to register all acts sent to them without
deliberation and without change.
In his conflict with the Huguenots and the nobles
Richelieu was not content to destroy; he also built
up. In the theory of the law the royal authority
was absolute; Richelieu made it so in fact. Ad-
ministration had become loose during
4. Construct- the wars of religion and the troubles
ive Policy, of the regency. Richelieu resumed
the unfinished monarchical policy of
Francis I. and Henry II. The council of state had
acquired a great importance during the sixteenth
century, but during the regency its organization
fell into confusion. A series of regulations rendered
during the ministry of Richelieu fixed its rank in the
administrative hierarchy, its competence, its com-
position. It became the center of all administra-
tion. The councilors of state no longer purchased
their seats like the officials of justice and finance.
They were chosen and held office at the pleasure of
the king. The secretaries of state, who executed
the decisions of the council, became the agents of
the cardinal and lost much of their independence.
Under Louis XIII. a permanent division began to
be made in their attributes. After 1619 general
affairs of war and correspondence with commanders
of the army corps were entrusted to a single secre-
tary of state. The same change was made in the
administration of foreign affairs in 1626. Before
that time the foreign affairs of each important
country had had each its particular secretary. In
order to execute the king's will in the provinces,
Richelieu made great use of agents chosen from
among the masters of requests (maitres des re-
quetes), ordinarily known as intendants. Riche-
lieu was not, as was once almost universally sup-
posed, the creator of the intendants. They first
appeared in the middle of the sixteenth century
as special commissioners of the crown in designated
provinces, but they did not then become a regular
institution, and recourse to them was only occa-
sional. Such as it was the institution went to pieces
during the Huguenot wars and was revived and
made universal for France by the cardinal. The
intendants were employed, sometimes in the gene-
ralites (revenue districts), sometimes in the armies,
where they were responsible for the commissariat,
the ambulance corps, and the pay of the soldiers,
and were required to suppress pillage and mutiny.
Richelieu found in these functionaries, who were
revocable at will, devoted agents of his policies.
Those who were permanently established in the
generalites took the title of intendants of justice,
police, and finance, and concentrated in their hands
a large part of the provincial administration. Under
Louis XlV the intendants became the regular and
omnipotent agents of the absolute monarchy.
Every part of the state was the object of Riche-
lieu's activity. He is one of the creators of the
French navy. In his "Political Testament" he
says: "The sea is the heritage over which all
sovereigns claim sovereignty," but that
5. Achieve- " one must be powerful to claim such a
ments for heritage." Again he says: "It seems
Marine, In- that nature has wished to offer the
dustry, and empire of the sea to France when we
Commerce, regard the position of its two coasts,
equally provided with harbors on two
seas, the Atlantic and the Mediterranean." Riche-
lieu sought to profit by the natural advantages of
the country to establish ports and arsenals, con-
struct vessels, recruit sailors. He improved the
harbors of Havre and Toulon; he created those of
Brest and Brouage, south of La Rochelle. He made
the French navy a material fact. The king, who in
1621 and in 1626 had been obliged to purchase
or to hire vessels from the Dutch in order to
combat the Huguenots, in 1642 possessed sixty-
three vessels of war and twenty-two galleys. The
French fleets, commanded by the archbishop of
Bordeaux, d'Escoubeau de Sourdis, met victor-
iously those of Spain. In regard to commerce and
Kichelieu
Richter
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
30
industry Richelieu was the forerunner and model of
Colbert. He outlined his project in his " Political
Testament.'' He wanted to develop the national
industry to such a point that the French might
become an export nation for cloth, velvet, taffetas,
and silks. His numerous occupations, his con-
tinual conflicts against enemies within and without,
the importance of the foreign politics of France,
prevented Richelieu from realizing all these proj-
ects. But at least he attempted much for French
commerce. He was an advocate of great commercial
companies, such as those of England and Holland.
"In order to become master of the sea," he said,
"it is necessary for us, like our neighbors, to form
great companies, to compel the merchants to enter
into them, to give them great privileges." In con-
formity with this idea Richelieu created and favored
various trading companies, notably those of Morbi-
han, of the West Indies (1628), of the American
Isles (1635), and of Africa. They were not suc-
cessful during his life, and failed after his death.
Nevertheless Richelieu was the founder of the
French colonial empire. He created Canada by
sending out Champlain.
In 1624 Richelieu came into power with a well-
formed design "of raising the name of the king
among foreign nations to the point at which it
ought to be." It was shortly after the beginning of
the Thirty- Years' War (q.v.). He found the em-
peror in conflict with the king of Denmark and
some of the German Protestant princes, but he
could not at once profit by the op-
6. Foreign portunity to revive the policy of Henry
Policy. IV. to debase the house of Austria
because of the troubles at home with
the great nobles, and especially with the Hu-
guenots. Xevertheless, he attentively followed
events in Germany and sustained with French
subsidies the enemies of the emperor — Mansfeld,
the king of Denmark, Gustavus Adolphus, and the
Swedes after Ltitzen. On two different occasions
he went to war to protect the interests of France.
When he came to power the Valteline, that is to
say, the upper valley of the Adda, had revolted
against the Grisons, and was occupied by papal
troops in alliance with Spain. It was important
not to let the Spaniards, who were masters of the
Milanais, seize the communications between the
upper Adda and the Tyrol, which belonged to
Austria. Richelieu threw an army into the region,
which drove out the papal troops and Spaniards
from the Valteline, and put the country again under
the domination of the Grisons (1626). Some years
later he intervened in upper Italy in the matter of
the succession to the duchy of Mantua. The duke
of Savoy, the Spaniards, and Emperor Ferdinand
sought to prevent the legitimate claimant, the duke
of Xevers, who was a French prince, from entering
into his heritage. Louis XIII., accompanied by
Richelieu, forced the Alps through the Pass of Susa
(1629). The territories of the duke of Savoy were
occupied by a French army and the Spaniards
beaten. At the same time the famous Jesuit diplo-
mat, Pere Joseph, was sent by Richelieu to the
diet of Regensburg, and succeeded in altering the
policy of the emperor. The duke of Nevers ac-
quired the duchy of Mantua and France retained
the important fortress of Pignerol on the eastern
side of the Alps (Treaty of Cherasco, 1631).
At the moment of intervening in Germany after
the death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, Richelieu
concluded alliances with the states of Germany
threatened by the fanaticism and ambition of the
house of Austria. To the German
7. Foreign princes in alliance against the emperor
Alliances, he promised men and money, condi-
tional upon the acquirement of Alsace
by France and imperial confirmation of French pos-
session of the "Three Bishoprics," which France
had possessed since 1552, but which the empire
had never confirmed. In 1635 he concluded a treaty
with the Dutch Republic for the partition of the
Spanish Netherlands; with the Swiss and the dukes
of Parma and Mantua, for the partition of the Mila-
nais, which Spain possessed. The alliance formed
with Gustavus Adolphus was renewed with Oxen-
stierna, the Swedish chancellor. Finally Richelieu
took into the pay of France the most famous general
of the Protestants after the death of Gustavus,
the brilliant Bernard of Saxe-Weimar. In pur-
suing these negotiations Richelieu revived the policy
originated by Francis I., actually begun by Henry
II., long interrupted by the wars of religion, re-
vived by Henry IV., and abandoned by Marie de
Medici. The general characteristics of this policy
consist (1) in the alliance of France, though a Roman
Catholic power, with the Protestant powers, as
Holland, Sweden, England, and with the German
Protestant princes and cities. Though a cardinal
of the Roman Church, a zealous Roman Catholic,
and victor over the Huguenots in France, Richelieu
had no scruples in making common cause with
Protestant powers when the interests of the State
demanded it. He did not confuse spiritual and tem-
poral interests. (2) In the protection accorded by
France to the petty states of Germany and Italy,
oppressed by Austria and Spain. It was not for
conquest that France intervened in Germany,
except in so far as she might realize her "natural
frontiers," that is to say, the Rhine, the Alps,
and the Pyrenees. The realization of these purposes,
in so far as they were realized, is a part of the his-
tory of the Thirty- Years' War, and the consumma-
tion of them came after Richelieu's death.
No better characterization of Richelieu has ever
been made than that of Montesquieu : " He made his
master the first man in Europe and the second man
in France." Richelieu kept the promise made to
Louis XIII. when he became minister.
8. Charac- He left the king master within, power-
terization. ful and feared without. The Huguenot
party was ruined, the nobles and pro-
vincial governors obedient, the parlements reduced
to silence. Abroad the two branches of the house of
Hapsburg had been reduced, and the French armies
occupied Artois, Alsace, and Roussillon. In spite
of his immense services to the king and to the State,
Richelieu was hated by his contemporaries, and has
been judged too severely by posterity. It is true
that he was harsh and hypocritical, but though he
may be criticized for the means and methods he
used, the verdict of history is clear as to the value
31
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Richelieu
Richter
of the results he achieved. It is not to be forgotten
that in the seventeenth century the French nobility
had long ceased to fulfil the duties corresponding to
their privileges; that the conduct of officials was too
often influenced by narrow self-interest; that the
position of France both at home and abroad was a
perilous one. The evils of the later monarchy are not
to be laid to his charge. In fine, Richelieu's great
policy was to unite France at home and make it
powerful and feared abroad. More than any of its
kings, he was the founder of the French monarchy.
James Westfall Thompson.
Bibliography: The first place in authority will be taken
by Memoires du Cardinal de Richelieu, PubliSs d'apres les
manuscrits originaux pour la societe de Vhistoire de France,
sous les atispices de Vacademie francaise, vol. i., Paris, 1907
Consult further: M. Topin, Louis XIII. et Richelieu,
Paris, 1876; W. Robson, Life of Richelieu, London, 1878
H. Cinget, Le Cardinal de Richelieu et son ministere, St
Denis, 1879; E. de Monzie, Le Cardinal de Richelieu,
Tours, 1879; G. Masson, Richelieu, London, 1884; G
d'Avenel, Richelieu et la monarchic absolue, 4 vols., Paris
1884-90; idem, La Noblesse francaise sous Richelieu, ib
1901; L. Dussieux, Le Cardinal de Richelieu, ib. 1885
J. B. Perkins, France under Mazarin, with a Review of the
Administration of Richelieu, 2 vols.. New York, 1886
idem, Richelieu and the Growth of French Power, ib. 1900
A. Pellisier, L' Apogee de la monarchic francaise. Etudes
historiques sur Richelieu et Louis XIV., Paris, 1889; J.
Michelet, Richelieu et la Fronde, in vol. xi. of his CEuvres
completes, ib. 1893—99; G. Hanotaux, Histoire du Car-
dinal de Richelieu, vols, i.-ii., ib. 1893-1903; G. Fagniez,
Le Pere Joseph et Richelieu (1577-1638) , 2 vols., ib. 1894
(crowned by the Academy); R. Lodge, Richelieu, Lon-
don, 1896; L. Lacroix, Richelieu a Lucon: sa jeunesse, son
episcopat, new ed., Paris, 1898; J. B. Perkins, Richelieu,
Growth of French Power, New York, 1900; Comte de Beau-
champ, Louis XIII., d'apres sa correspondance avec le car-
dinal de Richelieu (1622-42), ib. 1902; L. Dedouvres, Le
Pere Joseph et la siege de la Rochelle, ib. 1904; G. Passot,
Fancan et Richelieu, le probleme protestant sous Louis
XIII., ib. 1904; Cambridge Modern History, vol. iv., chap,
iv., New York, 1906; J. McCabe, The Iron Cardinal. The
Romance of Richelieu, ib. 1909.
RICHER, EDMOND: French Roman Catholic
and advocate of Gallicanism; b. at Chource, a vil-
lage of Champagne, 1560; d. at Paris 1631. After
completing his education in 1590, he was a parish
priest for four years, and was then made president
of the college of Cardinal Lemoine. Shortly after-
ward, he became a censor of the university, where
he was also professor in the theological faculty. In
1607 he published in three volumes at Paris, after
some opposition, an edition of the writings of J.
Gerson, and in the following year he was chosen
syndic of the theological faculty, in this capacity
opposing theses in defense of papal infallibility. In
1611 the brief summary of his De ecclesiastica et poli-
tico, potestate (2 vols., Cologne, 1629), defending the
superiority of councils over the pope and main-
taining the independence of the secular government
in things temporal, brought a storm of attack upon
him. His doctrines were condemned by several
provincial synods and the Curia, he was deposed
from office, and was saved from imprisonment and
being sent to Rome only by the appeal of the uni-
versity. In 1627, after years of struggle, he made a
forced recantation. Among his works, special men-
tion may be made of the posthumous Apologia pro
J. Gersonio (Leyden, 1674). (C. Schmidt)-.)
Bibliography: A. Baillet, La Vie d'Edmond Richer, doc-
teur de Sorbonne, Amsterdam, 1715; E. Puyol, E. Richer. |
Etude historiaue et critique sur la renovation du gallicanisme
du xvii. siecle, 2 vols., Paris, 1876.
RICHMOND, LEGH: Church of England; b. at
Liverpool Jan. 29, 1772; d. at Turvey (50 m. n.w. of
London), Bedfordshire, May 8, 1827. He was gradu-
ated at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1794 (M.A.,
1797). In the latter year he became a curate on the
Isle of Wight, and in 1805 rector of Turvey. While
a child he was lamed for life. He edited The Fathers
of the English Church (8 vols., London, 1807-12);
and wrote Domestic Portraiture, or the Successful
Application of Religious Principle in the Education of
a Family, exemplified in the Memoirs of Three of the
Deceased Children of the Rev. Legh Richmond (9th
ed., 1861). But the work by which he is best known
is The Annals of the Poor, 2 vols., 1814, which con-
tains the immortal tracts : The Dairyman's Daughter,
The Negro Servant, and The Young Cottager, pre-
viously published separately, of the first of which
millions of copies have been circulated in nineteen
languages.
Bibliography: T. S. Grimshawe, Memoir of the Rev. Leigh
Richmond, London, 1828 (many eds. during the first year
of publication); G. T. Bedell, Life of Legh Richmond,
Philadelphia, 1829; T. Fry and E. Bickersteth, Domestic
Portraiture, London, 1833; G. F. U. Munby and T. Wright,
Turvey and Legh Richmond, with an Account of the Mor-
daunts, Olney, 1894; DNB, xlviii. 258-259.
RICHTER, riH'ter, iEMILIUS LUDWIG: Prot-
estant canonist; b. at Stolpen (2 m. e. of Dres-
den) Feb. 15, 1808; d. at Berlin May 8, 1864. He
entered the University of Leipsic in 1826, studied
law, became privat-docent and associate professor
in 1835; and in 1839 regular professor of canon law
and civil procedure at Marburg. His first publica-
tion was Corpus juris canonici (Leipsic, 1833-39),
followed by Lehrbuch des hatholiscken und evan-
gelischen Kirchenrechts mit besonderer Rucksicht auf
deutsche Zustande (1842; 8th ed., 1886). Funda-
mental in importance was Die evangelischen Kir-
chenordnungen des 16. Jahrhunderts (2 vols., Weimar,
1846). In 1846 he went to Berlin, where he con-
tinued as teacher in the high school and author,
serving in the mean time in various ecclesiastical
positions, and displaying in all his tasks a deep
spirituality, devotion to the Evangelical church,
erudition, conscientious exercise of duty, and an
irenic reserve. His knowledge and counsel were in
demand in all Germany and Austria, and he served
no less Roman Catholics, by whom his stand-
point was often acknowledged to be liberal and un-
biased. He recognized in the historical churches
certain ethical quantities distinct from the State, to
be conducted by organs of their own, unhindered
by the sovereign State in the exercise of its function
of securing to the church associations autonomy
within legitimate spheres and defining its limits.
He denied the doctrine of state omnipotence and
vindicated for the Roman Catholic Church auton-
omy and self-administration, without, however,
acceding to the pretension of that church to an
imperium in imperio. Of much concern to him
were the conditions of laissez-faire that arose in
Prussia and continued until 1873, in relation to
the Roman Catholic Church, when a delimitation
of Church and State was attempted by constitu-
tional compliance with the Concordat and the
Bichter
Ridley
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
32
necessary supplementary legislation was delayed.
Richter insisted upon the necessity of enforcing by
repressive means the right of state supervision,
whereby the State insured its own safety, so that the
churches in their functions would confine themselves
within their limits ; and, especially, upon the neces-
sity of defining by statute the right of state self-
preservation.
In relation to the canonical sources are the fol-
lowing works: Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der Quellen
des canonischen Rechts (3 parts, Leipsic, 1834), and
De inedita decretalium (1836). In relation to the
particular sources of the Roman Catholic canon law
must be mentioned above all Richter and J. F.
Schulte s edition of Canones et decreta concilii Triden-
tini ex editione Romana ab 1834 repetiti (1853).
The special value of this work is the treatment of
the subject in its historic development. Die evan-
gelischen Kircfienordnungen des 16. Jahrhunderts (ut
sup.) has become an indispensable basis for the
study of Evangelical canon law. Its advantage con-
sists in the comprehensive appropriation of source-
material from the century of the Reformation.
Richter was imbued with the historical spirit, and
offered a prospective history of the canonical sources.
His labors in this connection are characterized by a
profounder basis, elaborate particularistic develop-
ment, and a broad grasp of the inner connection.
He falls back upon the cardinal principles of the
Reformation in his fundamental constructions, hav-
ing in mind to offset the fatal conditions due not only
to the territorial system (see Territorialism) of
Christian Thomasius (qv.), but to the neglect of
church organization during the Reformation period.
He none the less objected to church government in
the hands of the educationals using the sovereigns
as their mere agents. While declaring, in 1848,
church government by the sovereign ruler, as then
constituted, to be incompatible with a constitutional
monarchy, he opposed the error that they were ir-
reconcilable. He countenanced a representative
synod as an extreme necessity on extraordinary
occasions. The recognition of the right of self-
administration was to be followed by the gradual
formation of an ascending organization of congre-
gations and synods to represent the development of
the church constitution, without infringing upon the
historical right of the relation of the king to the
Church. Later he foresaw that the general synod
must occupy a larger sphere; for it became evident
to him that in the conflicts between Church and State
and between different churches, the constitutional
monarch could not occupy the same position in the
forefront as the former land sovereign. Other works
were, Beitrdge zur Geschichte des Ehescheidungsrechts
in der evangelischen Kirche (Berlin, 1858); Geschichte
der evangelischen Kirchenrerfassung in Deutschland
(Leipsic, 1851) ; and Der Stoat und die Deutschkatho-
liken (1840). (R. W DovEt.)
Bibliography: P. Hinschius, in Zeitschrift fur Kirchenge-
schichte, iv 0*64), 351 sqq.; J. F. Schulte, in ZKR, v
(1865), 259 sqq.; R. W. Dove, in ZKR, vii (1867), 273
sqq.
RICHTER, GREGOR: German Roman Catholic;
b. at Grusselbach (a village near Cassel) Apr. 29,
1874. He was educated at the philosophical and
theological institute of Fulda and the University of
Freiburg, and after the completion of his studies was
ordained to the priesthood and was city chaplain at
Fulda until 1899. Since the latter year he has been
professor of church history and canon law at the
philosophical and theological institute in the same
city. In addition to editing the Fuldaer Geschichts-
blatter and Quellen und Abhandlungen zur Geschichte
der Abtei und der Diozese Fulda since 1904, he has
written Die ersten Anfangc der Bau- und Kunst-
thatigkeit des Klosters Fulda (Fulda, 1900) and Sta-
tuta majoris ecclesice Fuldensis, ungedruckte Quellen
zur kirchlichen Rechts- und Vervassungsgeschichte
der Benediktinerabtei Fulda (1904).
RICKARD, HERBERT: Church of England;
b. at Derby Feb. 23, 1867. He received his education
at Derby School, King's College School, London, and
Jesus College, Oxford (B.A., 1886; M.A., 1889); was
made deacon, 1888, and priest, 1889; was curate
of St. Paul Lozells, Birmingham, 1888-90; assist-
ant organizing secretary of the Assistant Curates
Society, 1890-92; curate of Christ Church, Epsom,
1892-97; vice-principal of Chichester Theological
College, 1897-99; principal in 1899; perpetual cu-
rate of Sennicotts, 1897-1906; rector of St. Peter's
the Less, Chichester, 1903; and prebendary of
Chichester, 1905.
RIDDLE, JOSEPH ESMOND: Church of Eng-
land; b. at Bristol Apr. 7, 1804; d. at Cheltenham
Aug. 27, 1859. He was educated at Oxford (B.A.,
1828; M.A., 1831); was ordained priest, 1832, and
was incumbent of Leckhampton, near Cheltenham,
1840-59. In 1852 he was Bampton lecturer. He is
best known for his Latin-English Dictionary, founded
on W. Freund (London, 1849), and (with T. K.
Arnold) English-Latin Lexicon (1849); he also
wrote a commentary on I Peter (1834) ; Luther and
his Times (1837); Sermons Doctrinal and Practical
(1838); the valuable Manual of Christian Antiq-
uities (London, 1839); Ecclesiastical Chronology
(1840); Churchman's Guide to the Use of the English
Liturgy (1848) ; Natural History of Infidelity (Bamp-
ton lectures, 1852); History of the Papacy to the
Period of the Reformation (1854); Manual of Scrip-
ture History (1857); and Household Prayers (1857).
Bibliography: DNB, xlviii. 274.
RIDDLE, MATTHEW BROWN: Presbyterian;
b. at Pittsburg, Pa., Oct. 17, 1836. He was grad-
uated from Jefferson College, Canonsburg, Pa.
(A.B., 1852), and New Brunswick Theological Semi-
nary, New Brunswick, N. J. (1859). He was ad-
junct professor of Greek in Jefferson College in
1857-58 and chaplain of the Second New Jersey
Volunteers in the Army of the Potomac in 1861.
He then held Dutch Reformed pastorates in Hobo-
ken, N. J. (1862-65), and at Newark, N. J. (1865-
1869), and spent two years (1869-71) in travel and
study in Europe. He was professor of New -Testa-
ment exegesis in Hartford Theological Seminary
(1871-87), and since 1887 has filled a similar posi-
tion in the Western Theological Seminary, Alle-
ghany, Pa. He was a member of the American
Company of New-Testament revisers, and for many
years was an editor of the American standard edi-
33
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Kichter
Ridley
tion of the Revised Version of the Bible, besides be-
ing a member of the general assembly's committee
to revise the proofs of the Westminster Standards.
He translated and edited the sections on Romans
(except chaps, i.-v.), Galatians, Ephesians, and Co-
lossians for the American edition of J. P. Lange's
commentary (New York, 1869-70) ; contributed (in
collaboration with P Schaff) the portions on Mat-
thew, Mark, and Luke (1879), Romans (1882), and
Ephesians and Colossians (1882; these two independ-
ently) to P. Schaff's Illustrated Popular Commen-
tary; and the volumes on Mark (1881), Luke (1883),
and Romans (1884) to the same scholar's Interna-
tianal Revision Commentary; edited Mark and Luke
in the American edition of H. A. W. Meyer's Com-
mentary on the New Testament (New York, 1884);
revised E. Robinson's Harmony of the Four Gospels
in Greek (Boston, 1885), Harmony of the Four Gos-
pels in English (1886); and revised the Didache,
II Clement, Pseudo-Clementine Literature, and the
New-Testament Apocrypha for the American edi-
tion of The Ante-Nicene Fathers (New York, 1886-
1888), as well as Chrysostom's " Homilies on Mat-
thew " and Augustine's " Harmony of the Gospels "
for the first series of The Nicene and Post-Nicene
Fathers (1888) ; and wrote Story of the Revised New
Testament, American Standard Edition (Philadel-
phia, 1908).
RIDGEWAY, CHARLES JOHN: Church of
England bishop of Chichester; b. at High Roding,
near Dunmow (32 m. n.e. of London), July 14, 1841.
He received his education at Trinity College, Cam-
bridge (B.A., 1863; M.A., 1884; D.D., 1905); was
curate of Christ Church, Tunbridge Wells, 1866-
1868; vicar of North Malvern, 1868-75; rector of
Buckhurst Hill, 1875-80, being also diocesan in-
spector at St. Albans, 1876-80; rector of St. Paul's,
Edinburgh, 1880-84; vicar of Christ Church, Lan-
caster Gate, 1884-1905, serving also as select preach-
er at Cambridge in 1893, to which office he was again
called in 1905; Golden lecturer at St. Margaret's,
Lothbury, 1896-1905; prebendary of St. Paul's,
1899-1905; rural dean of Paddington, 1901-05;
commissioner to the archbishop of Capetown, 1900-
1905, to the bishop of North China, 1901-05, and
to the bishop of Shantung, 1904-05; dean of Car-
lisle, 1905-08; and was consecrated bishop of Chi-
chester, 1908. He is the author of: Foundation
Truths: a Course of Instructions (Edinburgh, 1884) ;
Holy Communion. Instructions and Devotions (Lon-
don, 1887); The Mountain of Blessedness (1888);
Is not this the Christ f A Course of Sermons (1889) ;
Confirmation; or, the Laying on of Hands (1898);
What does the Church of England Say f (1899) ; In
Paradise (1904); Story of the Prayer Book (1906);
The King and his Kingdom, and Other Sermons
(1906) ; Social Life (1907) ; and Short Family Prayers
(1908).
RIDLEY, NICHOLAS: English Reformer and
martyr; b. near Willimontswyke (30 m. w. of New-
castle), Northumberland, early in the sixteenth cen-
tury (1500?); d. at the stake at Oxford Oct. 16,
1555. After studying at the grammar-school at
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, he entered Pembroke Hall,
Cambridge, 1518, where he later became fellow.
X.— 3
In 1527 he took orders and went for further study
to the Sorbonne, Paris, and to Louvain. Return-
ing to England, he rose to the position of senior
proctor at Cambridge, 1533. As proctor he signed
the decree against the papal supremacy, 1534. He
was already much sought after as a preacher. Cran-
mer made him his domestic chaplain and vicar of
Heme, East Kent. In 1540 he was appointed king's
chaplain and master of Pembroke Hall, in 1541
canon of Canterbury, in 1545 canon of Westminster,
and in 1547 bishop of Rochester. During the reign
of Edward VI., Ridley was active in promulgating
the new views. In 1545, and partly in consequence
of the perusal of Ratramnus' De corpore et sanquine
Domini (Eng. transl., The Book of Bertram the Priest
Concerning the Body and Blood of Christ in the Sacra-
ment, London (1549, 1686, and often, latest, 1880)
he publicly renounced the doctrine of transubstan-
tiation. He was deputed to set forth the Reformed
views in York, Durham, and other dioceses, and in
1549 to place Protestantism on a firm basis at Cam-
bridge. He sat on the commission that deposed
Bonner, bishop of London, and Gardiner, bishop of
Winchester, and in 1550 was promoted to Bonner's
place. Foxe instances, as a sign of his goodness,
that for months he entertained Bonner's mother
at his palace, assigning to her the place of promi-
nence at the table, and contrasts Ridley's spirit
with the severity of Bonner. His deep interest in
the unfavored classes led him to make suggestions
to King Edward which found ultimate expression
in the foundation of three hospitals in London, St.
Thomas, Christ, and Bethlehem. Ridley's name is
indissolubly associated with the names of Cranmer
and Latimer as a foremost leader and a martyr of
English Protestantism. Mary, who had taken
offense at a visit Ridley had made her and his offer
to preach in her presence, on her accession to the
throne quickly ordered his deposition, reinstating
Bonner as bishop of London, July 20, 1553. Ridley
was committed to the Tower from which he was
removed to Oxford, where he was held a prisoner in
Bocardo jail and the mayor's house. On Apr. 17,
1554, he was called upon to stand trial in the Di-
vinity School, Oxford, and was declared a heretic.
The Spanish friar, Soto, labored in vain to turn him
back to the old faith. After the passage of the new
statutes on heresy, the prisoner was summoned
again, Sept. 30, 1555, by Archbishop Pole, and was
convicted and condemned to the flames. In com-
pany with Latimer, he was burned in " the ditch "
over against Balliol Hall. The night before his exe-
cution he said to some friends with whom he supped :
" I mean to go to bed, and, by God's will, to sleep
as quietly as ever I did in my life." Arrived at the
stake, he ran to Latimer, embraced him, and kissed
him. A " scant sermon, in all a quarter of an hour,"
as Foxe puts it, was preached by Dr. Smith, which
Latimer and Ridley were both ready to answer but
they were denied the opportunity. Promised life,
if he would recant, Ridley replied, " So long as
breath is in my body, I will never deny my Lord
Christ and his known truth." He gave his clothes
to the bystanders, and was bound to the stake by
an iron chain. When the faggots were being lighted,
Latimer spoke to Ridley the famous words, " Be of
Ridley
Rig-g-enbach
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
34
good comfort, Master Ridley. Play the man. We
shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace,
in England, as I trust shall never be put out."
The flames were slow in doing their work. Again
and again the martyr cried, " Let the fire come unto
me. I can not burn." His lower members were
first consumed, and the end came when the fire
reached a bag of gunpowder which Ridley's brother-
in-law had tied at his neck. Foxe has given the best
account of Ridley's life and martyrdom, and de-
scribes him as " a man beautified with excellent
qualities so ghostly inspired and godly learned and
now written, doubtless, in the Book of Life." In
his account of Ridley's administration of the epis-
copal office, this writer emphasizes his attention
to prayer, as well as his constant industry, relieved
after dinner and supper by a game of chess. His
most famous saying is the one recorded during his
interview with Mary before she became queen.
When the Reformer expressed the hope that she
would not refuse God's Word, the princess replied,
" I can not tell what ye call God's Word. That is not
God's Word now that was God's Word in my father's
days." To this Ridley answered: " God's Word is
one at all times, but hath been better understood
and practised in some ages than in others." Mary
in her response declared, " As for your new books,
I thank God I never read any of them, I never did,
nor ever will do." The few writings Ridley left be-
hind him have been published by the Religious
Tract Society, Treatise and Letters of Dr. Nicholas
Ridley (London, 1830?), and by the Parker Society,
Works of Nicholas Ridley, D.D. (ed. H. Christmas,
London, 1841). Among the writings are a Brief
Declaration against Transubstantiation, a Treatise
against Image Worship, and A Piteous Lamentation
of the Miserable Estate of the Church in England in
the Time of the Late Revolt from the Gospel. The
Parker Society volume also contains an account of
his disputations at Oxford prior to his death and a
reprint of Fox's account of his martyrdom. An
avenue in the yard of Pembroke Hall is still known
as Ridley's Walk. Quarles has a poem on Ridley
in which are the lines:
" Rome thundered death, but Ridley's dauntless eye
Star'd in Death's face, and scorned Death standing bye.
In spite of Rome, for England's faith he stood
And in the flames, he sealed it with his blood."
David S. Schaff.
In 1839 there was erected at Oxford a " Martyrs
Memorial," with statues of Cranmer, Latimer, and
Ridley, partly by way of protest against the Trac-
tarian Movement (see Tractarianism), one of the
characteristics of which was hostility to the Refor-
mation. A. H. N.
Bibliography: The original source is J. Fox's Actes and
Monuments (for editions see under Fox, John). An ex-
cellent memoir appears in H. Moule's ed. of the Brief
Declaration of the Lordes Supper, London, 1895. Consult
further: G. Ridley, Life of Dr. Nicholas Ridley, sometime
Bishop of London, London, 1763; the memoir in the
volume on Ridley in L. Richmond's Fathers of the English
Church, 8 vols., London, 1807-12; G. T. Ridlon, Hist, of
the Ancient Ryedales and their Descendants, pp. 419^24,
Manchester, N. H., 1884; W. Clark, The Anglican Refor-
mation, New York, 1897; J. Gairdner, English Church in
the 16th Century, passim, London, 1903; DNB, xlviii.
286-289; and, in general, the works on the history of the
period, secular and ecclesiastical.
RIEGER, ri'ger, GEORG KONRAD: Pietistic
preacher; b. at Cannstadt (4 m. n.e. of Stuttgart)
Mar. 7, 1687; d. at Stuttgart Apr. 16, 1743. After
studying theology he was private tutor at Tubingen,
1713-15; city vicar at Stuttgart and deacon at
Urach, 1715-31; and from that time continued in
educational and ministerial work at Stuttgart. He
was one of the most gifted preachers in the Evan-
gelical Church of Germany, and was of the school
of J. A. Bengel (q.v.). He excelled all other Piet-
ists in eloquence, emotional power, and freshness.
He knew how to employ simple colloquialisms with-
out losing in dignity and force. His preaching was
marked by clearness, interest, and fluency. His
imagination served him well in using illustrations.
Dogmatic subjects frequently received painstaking
treatment, though without pedantry. He placed
himself in immediate touch with his hearers, never
losing the thread of his discourse. He published
collections of sermons as follows: Herzenspostille
(Zullichau, 1742; Stuttgart, 1853-54); Herz- und
Hand-Postille (1746; Berlin, 1852); De cura mini-
morum in regno gratia (Stuttgart, 1733); and Rich-
tiger und leichter Weg zum Himmel (Stuttgart, 1744,
1844, and after). He published also Die Kraft der
Gottseligkeit (1732-36). (Hermann Beck.)
Bibliography: Biographic material is contained in Rieger's
Richtiger und leichter Weg (Stuttgart, 1844) ; C. G. Schmidt,
Geschichte der Predigt in der evangelischen Kirche Deutsch-
lands, pp. 196 sqq., Gotha, 1872; H. C. Stuckenberg,
Lutheran Quarterly Review, xix (1889), 564 sqq.
RIEGER, KARL HEINRICH: Son of the
preceding; b. at Stuttgart June 16, 1726; d.
there Jan. 15, 1791. After studying theology,
he was domestic tutor at Augsburg, 1747-49;
vicar, 1749-50; tutor at Tubingen, 1750; deacon
at Ludwigsburg, 1754-57; and until his death
preacher at Stuttgart. He left the impression
of a strong, firm character; and represented the
traditional teaching of the Lutheran Church in
opposition to the new rationalism. Through his in-
fluence the revision of the hymnal was moderate,
and of the old catechism (of 1681 and 1696) conserv-
ative. He was an active member of the Christen-
thumsgesellschaft, founded by J. A. Urlsperger
(q.v.). As a preacher, he was less spirited and
forceful than his father, but possessed rare pene-
tration, emphasis, and spirituality, moral earnest-
ness, a quiet, clear thoughtfulness, and ease, with
true Christian wisdom, and a winning grace and
mildness; but his form and presentation were
clumsy and awkward. After his death appeared
Predigten und Betrachtungen (Stuttgart, 1794);
Betrachtungen uber das Neue Testament (4 vols.,
1828; 1875); and Betrachtungen uber die Psalmen
und die zwblf kleinen Propheten (1835; 1859).
(Hermann Beck.)
Bibliography: Christen- Bote, ed. J. C. F. Burk, i (1832),
105 sqq.; C. Grosse, Die alten Troster. Wegweiser in die
Erbauungslitteratur der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche des
16. bis 18. Jahrhunderts, pp. 495 sqq., Hermannsburg,
1900.
RIEHM, rim, EDWARD KARL AUGUST: Bib-
lical scholar; b. at Diersburg, near Offenburg (17
m. s.s.w. of Carlsruhe), Baden, Dec. 20, 1830; d.
at Halle Apr. 5, 1888. He studied theology and
philology at Heidelberg, 1848-50; and at Halle,
35
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ridley
Rigrgenbach
1850-52; and again at Heidelberg, 1852; was ad-
mitted to the ministry in 1853; vicar at Durlach,
1853-54; and garrison chaplain at Mannheim after
1855. In 1858 he entered the theological faculty
at Heidelberg, where he was associate professor,
1861-62; and, 1862-66, associate professor of Old-
Testament exegesis at Halle, and professor, 1866-
1888. He was the author of: Die Gesetzgebung
Mosis im Lande Moab (Gotha, 1854); Der Lehr-
begriff des Hebrderbriefs (Ludwigsburg, 1858-59);
Die besondere Bedeutung des A. T. fur die religiose
Erkenntnis und das religiose Leben der christlichen
Gemeinde (Halle, 1864); Die messianische Weis-
sagung (Gotha, 1875); Der Begriff der Silhne im
Alten Testament (1877); and Handworterbuch des
biblischen Altertums (Bielefeld, 1875-84, and others).
After his death appeared Einleitung in das Alte
Testament (Halle, 1889); and Alttestamentliche
Theologie (1889). A pupil and afterward colleague
of H. Hupfeld at Halle, he revised the latter's com-
mentary on Psalms (Gotha, 1867-71); was one of
the editors of the TSK (Gotha), 1866-88; and was
a member of the commission for the revision of
Luther's translation of the Bible, 1865-88. In his
exegetical work he was scientific, thorough, and im-
partial, and emphasized the religion of the Old
Testament as one of revelation.
(K. H. Pahncke.)
RIESSLER, ris'ler, PAUL : Old-Testament
scholar; b. at Stuttgart Sept. 16, 1865. He received
his elementary education at Stuttgart and Rottweil,
and his advanced training at the University of Tub-
ingen and the theological seminary at Rottenburg;
was vicar at Mergentheim and Ellwangen, 1889-
1892; taught in the higher gymnasium at Ehingen,
1892-98; was city preacher at Blaubeuren, 1889-
1907; became professor of Old-Testament exegesis
at Tubingen in the Roman Catholic theological
faculty, 1907. He has written a critical commen-
tary on Daniel (Stuttgart, 1899), and another on
the same book in the Kurzgefasster wissenschaftlicher
Kommentar (Vienna, 1902).
RIETSCHEL, rit'shel, CHRISTIAN GEORG: Ger-
man Protestant, son of the sculptor of the famous
Luther monument at Worms; b. at Dresden May
10, 1842. He was educated at the universities of
Erlangen, Berlin, and Leipsic from 1860 to 1864, and
after being a member of the Domkandidatenstift at
Berlin in 1864-65 and of St. Paul's seminary for
preachers at Leipsic in 1866-67, was pastor at
Riidigsdorf, Saxony, in 1868-74, head pastor at Zit-
tau in 1874-78, second director of the preachers'
seminary at Wittenberg in 1878-84, and first director
of the same institution in 1884-87, superintendent
and district inspector of schools in 1878-87, and
pastor of St. Matthew's, Leipsic, in 1887-89. Since
1889 he has been professor of practical theology in
the University of Leipsic, and also first university
preacher and director of St. Paul's seminary for
preachers in the same city, while in 1904-05 he was
rector of the university. He has written Die Ge-
wahrung der Abendmahlsgemeinschaft an Reformierte
und Unierte (Leipsic, 1868) ; Martin Luther und
Ignatius von Loyola, eine vergleichende Charakteris-
tik ihrer inner en^ Entwicklung (Wittenberg, 1879);
Abschnitt vierzehn der Kirchen- und Synodal-Ord-
nung (1885); Luther und sein Haus (Halle, 1888);
Luther und die Ordination (Wittenberg, 1889) ; Dos
Wort vom Glauben (sermons; Leipsic, 1892); Die
Aufgabe der Orgel im Gottesdienst bis ins achtzehnte
Jahrhundert (1893); Der evangelische Gottesdienst
unter dem Gesichtspunkt der Anbetung im Geist und
in der Wahrheit (Halle, 1894); Die Frage des Zu-
sammenschlusses der deutschen evangelischen Landes-
kirchen zur Wahrung und Forderung ihrer gemein-
samen Angelegenheiten (Leipsic, 1900); Lehrbuch
der Liturgik (2 vols., Berlin, 1900-08) ; Weihnachten
in Kirche, Kunst und Volksleben (Bielefeld, 1901);
Die evangelische Kirche und die soziale Frage (Leip-
sic, 1904); and Zur Reform des Religionsunter-
richts in der Volksschule (Berlin, 1909).
RIGG, JAMES HARRISON: English Wesleyan
Methodist; b. at Newcastle-on-Tyne Jan. 16, 1821;
d. at London Apr. 17, 1909. He was educated at
Old Kingswood School, and, after being a teacher
from 1835 to 1845, entered the Wesleyan ministry.
In 1866 he was elected a member of the " Hun-
dred" (s^e Methodists, I., 1, § 6) and two years later
became principal of the Wesleyan Training College
for Day School Teachers, Westminster, London, a
position which he retained until 1903. He was
president of the Wesleyan Methodist Conference,
and in this capacity was instrumental in securing
the admission of laymen to that body in 1878. For
fifteen years he was editor of The London Quarterly
Review and was also on its editorial staff for several
years longer. He edited E. A. Rumbold's Vindi-
cation of the Character and Administration of Sir T.
Rumbold, Bart., Governor of Madras in 1778-80
(London, 1868), and was the author of: The
Principles of Wesleyan Methodism (London, 1850);
Congregational Independency and Wesleyan Connex-
ionalism Contrasted (1851) ; Modern Anglican Theol-
ogy (1857) ; Essays for the Times on Ecclesiastical
and Social Subjects (1866); The Sabbath and the
Sabbath Law before and after Christ (1869); The
Churchmanship of John Wesley (1868) ; National
Education, English and Foreign (1873) ; The Living
Wesley as he was in his Youth and in his Prime
(1875); Connexional Economy of Wesleyan Method-
ism (1879) ; Discourses and Addresses on Leading
Truths of Religion and Philosophy (1880); The
Character and Life-Work of Dr. Pusey (1883) ; Was
Wesley a High Churchman, and is Modern Method-
ism Wesleyan Methodism f or, John Wesley, the
Church of England, and Wesleyan Methodism (1883);
A Comparative View of Church Organisms, Primi-
tive and Protestant (1887); Oxford High Anglican-
ism and its Leaders (1895); Scenes and Studies in
the Ministry of Our Lord, with Thoughts on Preach-
ing (1902); and Reminiscences Sixty Years ago
(1904).
Bibliography: J. Telford, The Life oj James Harrison Rigg,
1821-1909, London, 1909.
RIGGENBACH, rig'en-baH, CHRISTOPH JO-
HANNES: Swiss Protestant theologian; b. at Basel
Oct. 8, 1818; d. there Sept. 5, 1890. He pur-
sued his studies at Basel, Berlin, and Bonn under
Peterman, Nitzsch, Bleek, Sack, and others. He
was ordained in 1842, became pastor in Bennwyl,
Bigg's
Righteousness
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
36
where his affiliations were at first with the radical
school of theology. His position later on became
more moderate. In 1850, he was called to the the-
ological facility at the University of Basel, teach-
ing New Testament, pastoral theology, giving pop-
ular lectures on the life of Jesus, and engaging also
in the study of church music and hymnology. He
became an earnest opponent of theological radical-
ism, combated the leaders of the modern school,
and helped to found the Kirchenfreund as the organ
of the conservative group. Even in this polemical
atmosphere, he never lost the personal friendship
of his opponents. He was one of the founders of
the Evangelisch-kirchlicher Verein, which worked
in conservative interests, and was interested in the
Evangelical Alliance. He was also a leader in the
extension of missionary work, becoming president
of the Basel missions committee in 1878. He pub-
lished: Vorlesungen uber das Leben Jesu (Basel,
1858) ; Die"mosaische Stiftshiitte (1862) ; Die Zeug-
nisse fur das Evangelium Johannis (1866); Der
Kirchengesang in Basel seit der Reformation (1870);
Hieronyynus Annoni (1870); Der sogenannte Brief
des Barnabas (1873); Eine Reise nach Paldstina
(1873); and the commentary upon I and II Thes-
salonians in Lange's commentary.
Bibliography: Detdsch-evangelische Kirchenzeitung, iv
(1890), 494-496; P. Wurm, in Allgemeine Missionszeit-
schrift, xvii (1890), 560-565; Oeri, in Basler Kirchen-
freund, 1893, nos. 2-5, cf. 1890, no. 19.
RIGGS, ALEXANDER BROWN: Presbyterian;
b. at Portsmouth, O., June 21, 1842. He was edu-
cated at Jefferson College, Pa. (A.B., 1863), and
after teaching mathematics at Western University,
Pittsburg, Pa., for a year, was admitted to the
Pennsylvania bar. He had practised only two
years, however, when, giving up law, he entered
Auburn Theological Seminary, where he spent two
years, and completed his theological training at
Union Theological Seminary (1870), after which he
held pastorates at the Reformed Church, Fort Plain,
N. Y. (1870-76), the Presbyterian Church, Water-
ford, N. Y. (1876-90), and the Seventh Presbyte-
rian Church, Cincinnati (1891-1902). From 1894
to 1897 he was instructor in Greek in Lane Theo-
logical Seminary, Cincinnati, and since 1897 has
been professor of New-Testament exegesis and in-
troduction in the same institution.
RIGGS, EDWARD: Presbyterian; b. at Smyrna,
Turkey, June 30, 1844. He was graduated from
Princeton College (A.B., 1865) and Union Theo-
logical Seminary, New York City (1869). In 1869
he was appointed a missionary of the American
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and
went at once to Sivas, Asia Minor, where he re-
mained seven years. Since 1876 he has been sta-
tioned at Marsovan, Turkey, where he has been
chiefly associated with the Theological Seminary of
the Western Turkey Mission, having been pro-
fessor of systematic theology for a number of years
and president since 1903. He has also been a man-
ager of Anatolia College, Marsovan, since its or-
ganization in 1886, and has given instruction in
various departments as a missionary. In theology
he describes himself as " a broad, progressive con-
servative, holding to the main tenets of the tra-
ditional evangelical theology, adhering strictly to
the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, but
subjecting everything to the most rigid tests of
genuine and careful scholarly examination." He
likewise holds " that an honest application of the
most searching criticism results in maintaining the
sound orthodox beliefs in all their essential points."
He prepared the chapter on The Christian Forces
at Work in the Turkish Empire for W D. Grant's
Christendom Anno Domini MDCCCCI (New York,
1902).
RIGGS, ELI AS: American missionary in Turkey;
b. at New Providence, N. J., Nov. 19, 1810; d. at
Constantinople Jan. 17, 1901. He graduated at
Amherst College, Mass., 1829, and at Andover The-
ological Seminary, Mass., 1832; was missionary of
the American Board at Athens and Argos, Greece,
1832-38; later at Smyrna, Asia Minor; and at
Constantinople 1853-1901. He visited his native
country once, in 1856, and taught Hebrew in the
Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1857-58.
He was a remarkable philologist, having early ap-
plied himself to a mastery of the Semitic languages
and Greek. In 1844 he was assigned to the Arme-
nian branch of the Turkish mission and was en-
gaged in translating the Scriptures into Armenian,
1845-52. He was one of a committee engaged in
1873 by the American and the British and Foreign
Bible Societies to translate the Bible into Turkish;
and, as a result, the entire Bible was published both
in Armenian and Arabic characters in 1878. He
participated also in a revision of the same issued
in 1886. He is said to have had a working knowl-
edge of twenty languages and the mastery of twelve,
and to have produced either as originals or transla-
tions no less than 478 hymns in the Bulgarian lan-
guage alone. He was the author of A Manual of
the Chaldee Language containing a Grammar, Chres-
tomathy, and a Vocabulary (Andover, 1832; re-
vised ed., New York, 1858); Grammar of the
Modern Armenian Language, with a Vocabulary
(Smyrna, 1847) ; Grammar of the Turkish Language
as written in the Armenian Character (Constantinople,
1856); and Translation of the Scriptures into the
Bulgarian Language, completed with the aid of na-
tive scholars (Constantinople, 1871); Suggested
Emendations of the A. V of the Old Testament (An-
dover, 1873); Suggested Modifications of the R. V.
of the New Testament (1883) ; and Notes on Difficult
Passages of the New Testament (Boston, 1889).
RIGGS, JAMES FORSYTH: Presbyterian; b.
at Bournabat (a village near Smyrna), Turkey, Oct.
4, 1852. He was graduated from Princeton College
(A.B., 1872), where he was Boudinot fellow in his-
tory in 1872-73, and from Union Theological Semi-
nary, New York City (1878). He was then pastor
of the Presbyterian church at Cranford, N. J., in
1878-84, and of the Dutch Reformed church at
Bergen Point, N. J., in 1884-92; professor of New-
Testament Greek in the New Brunswick Theolog-
ical Seminary (1892-98), and during that time de-
livered lectures on historical subjects under the
auspices of the Rutgers College University Exten-
sion system. Since 1898 he has been pastor of the
Brick Presbyterian Church, East Orange, N. J. In
37
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Riggrs
Righteousness
theology he is a moderate Calvinist and has no sym-
pathy with revolutionary ideas in Biblical criticism.
RIGGS, JAMES STEVENSON: Presbyterian;
b. at New York July 16, 1853; graduated at the
College of New Jersey, Princeton, 1874; studied at
Leipsic, 1875; graduated at Auburn Theological
Seminary, N. Y., 1880; was pastor at Fulton, N. Y.,
1880-84; adjunct professor of Biblical Greek in
Auburn Theological Seminary, 1884-87; and pro-
fessor since 1887 He is author of a History of the
Jewish People: Maccabean and Roman Periods
(New York, 1899), and Messages of Jesus according
to the Gospel of John (1907).
RIGGS, STEPHEN RETURN: Presbyterian mis-
sionary to the Indians; b. at Steuben ville, O., Mar.
23, 1812; d. at Beloit, Wis., Aug. 24, 1883. He was
graduated at Jefferson College, 1834; studied for a
year in the Western Theological Seminary, Alle-
gheny, Pa.; was licensed in 1836; and was from
1837 till 1883 a missionary among the Dakotas. He
mastered their language and reduced it to writing
and into it translated nearly the entire New Testa-
ment, and also portions of the Old. He also pre-
pared a dictionary of the language and other aids
for its acquisition. He was the author of many
translations into it. In English he wrote his auto-
biography, Mary and I. Forty years with the Sioux,
Chicago, 1880; also Tah-koo Wah-kan; or, the Gos-
pel among the Dakotas, Boston, 1869.
RIGHTEOUSNESS, ORIGINAL.
Doctrinal Development till Augustine (§ 1).
The Scholastic Doctrine (§ 2).
Teaching of Reformers and Roman Catholics (§3).
Later Protestant Views (§ 4).
Conclusion (§ 5).
The older Protestant theologians designated by
the term justitia originalis, the Latin equivalent of
original righteousness, the condition of man as
made in the image of God, and before
i. Doctrinal the fall. It is found for the first time
Develop- in the writings of the Schoolmen, but
ment till the development of the doctrine was
Augustine, begun by Augustine, who uses the term
prima justitia, " first righteousness "
(De peccatorum meritis et remissione, II., xxxvii.).
While a condition of original integrity of man, and
of a subsequent breach of harmony and deprava-
tion, was generally presupposed in Christian be-
lief, Augustine was the first to bring this condition
into intimate connection with man's creation in the
divine image, and he arrived at a higher valuation
of both. Irenaeus, Theophylact, Justin, and Clem-
ent of Alexandria spoke of the first state as one of
childlike simplicity and innocence, but Athanasius
developed the doctrine (De trinitate, hi. 16) : " those
who mortify the deeds of the body and have put
on the new man which is created after God are after
his image; for such was Adam before his disobedi-
ence." The first state was not treated in its rela-
tion to the essential nature of man; prominence
was given, not to what he originally was, but to
what he was by nature, and the image of God was
sought chiefly in man's spiritual endowment with
reason and freedom, through which he is enabled
to attain perfection. Thus moral perfection was
denied for the first state, though nothing was said
of the actual condition therein, of a " superadded
gift," or of the " equilibrium " of Pelagianism.
With Augustine the image of God is the inalien-
able " rational soul." This includes the will, with a
positive inclination to holiness, though even the
first man needed the assistance of grace in order to
reach " full righteousness." At first man willed not
to sin, and by supernatural grace he was able not
to sin. It might seem as if the will not to sin was
not true righteousness, but " good will " in the
first man constituted righteousness in the same de-
gree as concupiscence in man after his fall consti-
tutes original sin. At the fall the concupiscence of
the flesh took the place of the " good will " and is
itself sin.
After Augustine's death, semi-Pelagianism pre-
vailed in the Church. Its opposition to Augustine
directed itself, indeed, against his doctrine of pre-
destination, but not on the basis of the
2. The conception of sin and salvation. It
Scholastic was really an opposition to inexorable
Doctrine, severity in the valuation of natural
corruption. In this respect, semi-
Pelagianism was successful at the Synod of Orange,
in 529, which asserted that " by the sin of Adam
the free will was so inclined and attenuated that no
one was afterwards able to love God as he should,
to believe in God, or to be influenced concerning
God, unless the prevenient grace of the divine
mercy acted upon him." Scholastic theologians
went further. They dated the discord between
flesh and spirit before the fall. It is true, "original
righteousness" as well as a sinful state resulting
from the fall would be impossible in this case, if
Augustine had not offered a way of escape in the
thought that divine grace subjected the flesh to
the spirit in the case of Adam, and thus a harmony
was effected which is not inherent in man per se.
But this harmony or subjection of concupiscence to
reason or the will of God is "original righteousness"
which consequently is a "superadded gift." The
proof was found in the alleged difference between
"likeness" and "image" (Gen. i. 26). The essential
attributes of the divine image were reason and will.
By the accidents which belong to it but do not con-
stitute it, and are added as a gift of grace, man is
enabled to acquire eternal life. Thus man after his
fall is still in his first pure state with the modification
that his senses and lusts are no longer held in check
by the assistant grace, and thus a state of disorder
has taken the place of subjection to reason. Then
original sin becomes a lack of "original righteous-
ness"; it is not, however, sin in the positive sense
of Augustine, but only in a negative sense.
The Reformers, with their deep sense of the gross-
ness of sin, were utterly unable to assume a naturally
pure condition; for nature was impure. Original
sin is a real and true sin, and not simply
3. Teaching a deficiency or infirmity, but such a
of Reformers sin as condemns and eternally separates
and Roman from God all men that proceed from
Catholics. Adam (cf. Augsburg Confession, ii.),
and thus the first state of man must
have included an opposite operation of the good.
But as this operation is an essential condition of life
Righteousness
Rimmon
THE NEW SCHAFF-IIERZOC
38
for him, it can not be regarded as a mere accident, it
must be something that originally and necessarily
belongs to man. The Formula of Concord, therefore,
in accordance with the view of the Reformers,
designated original righteousness not simply as
"concreate righteousness,'' but as the essential fact
of having been created in the image of God. Thus
the Lutheran Church, as well as the Reformed, ad-
vanced a step beyond Augustine. Scholasticism had
left a number of questions unsettled, such as whether
original righteousness was a " grace making accept-
able " (Thomas Aquinas) or a "grace given to those
acceptable" like the charismata (Duns Scotus).
The Council of Trent avoided pronouncing on this
point, and affirmed that Adam, "when he had trans-
gressed God's commandment in Paradise, immedi-
ately lost the holiness and righteousness in which
he had been placed," with the apparent intention of
excluding not scholastic deductions but the doctrine
of the Reformers. Bellarmine developed the Roman
Catholic doctrine in this opposition clearly and
adroitly. The Lutherans, according to him, agree
with the Pelagians because they deprive the first
man of supernatural gifts, adding the further error
that after the fall man lacks "a natural attribute"
— free will. In contrast to this doctrine, according
to him, the Roman Catholic Church distinguishes
between "image" and "likeness." The former
refers to nature, the latter to the supernatural, and
denotes some " ornaments of wisdom and righteous-
ness" which man received in creation but lacks
now. As man came forth from the creator's hand,
he consisted of flesh and spirit, and stood related
both to the animals and to the angels. On the
latter side he had intelligence and will; on the
former, senses and appetites. A conflict arose, and
from the conflict "a terrible difficulty in doing well."
This was the "disease of nature" which inheres in
matter, hence God added the gift of original right-
eousness. It was this perfection of the divine image,
and not the image itself, which man lost at the fall.
Among later Protestant theologians, the rational-
ists did not essentially change the doctrine concern-
ing the first state. Since the time of Schleiermacher
a certain necessity of original nature
4. Later has been attached to sin. Schleier-
Protestant macher expressly states that an incapac-
Views. ity for good works was in human nature
before the fall, located in the flesh,
that is, "the totality of the lower faculties of the
soul," and that consequently the sin which was
transmitted to his descendants was originally in the
first man. Sin, according to him, is not the first
actual condition; with the awakening of the con-
sciousness of God it was preceded by a state of per-
fection which was not without consequences per-
ceptible even after the fall. Subsequently, however,
a time was bound to come in which sensuousness in-
creased in some direction. Lipsius transformed
the "state of original perfection" as taught by
Schleiermacher into the "primitive form of ethical
religion," that is, into the immediate, but uncon-
scious and only relative, communion with God
which from the consciousness of its opposite ap-
pears as a lost paradise. Rothe considers man the
union of two elements of opposite qualities, bound
to strive after the right proportion between his ego
and his material nature, thus transposing man's
likeness to the image of God into the future. Bieder-
mann sees the basis of sin in the sensual nature of
man, which was created by God intentionally in
order to realize and develop his redeeming grace in
the history of salvation. Ritschl agrees with Bieder-
mann so far as to hold that the doctrine of the first
state should be replaced by that of the destiny of
man.
All these views correctly presuppose the identity
of the present substance of man with the original
substance, but they err in identifying man's present
condition with his original condition. It is an im-
probable assumption that anything lost by sin must
be "superadded" unless the condition is considered
something " superadded " to the substance. A sub-
stance must have its corresponding
5. Conclu- state or condition, it must have attri-
sion. butes ; but the question is whether man's
present condition corresponds to the
human substance. Lutheran theologians teach that
the human essence does not now possess that
condition which it requires; that man's actual con-
dition is not merely in a state of imperfect develop-
ment, it is opposed to the essence. The next ques-
tion is, whether man began with a state of absolute
moral perfection. Against this view, Julius M tiller
properly brings the objection that it excludes the
possibility of the fall. But neither Luther, the other
Reformers, nor the Lutheran confessions teach a
state of absolute moral perfection. It should be
asked rather, whether man might have begun with
goodness, and this question must be answered in
the affirmative; for it is the conviction of every
justified person that the moral condition must be
good before any good action can be done. The moral
condition must in the first man lie at the basis of his
conduct, and can exist only as an effect wrought by
God in the same way as in the justified and regen-
erate. In this respect there is no difference between
the primitive state of innocence and the restoration
of innocence in justification. The difference between
the first state and that of the redeemed lies rather in
the fact that the latter has reached the point where
the first man should have stood after his temptation ;
but the moral quality imparted by God has nothing
to do with this. The assumption of an original in-
difference presupposes a will without content or aim
and at the same time a preponderating capacity
for goodness; thus there would be a capacity which
in its quality would be superior to the will; such an
instinctive desire for goodness, overpowering the
will, would make sinning impossible. Moreover,
indifference annuls freedom; for indifference is not
freedom, but constraint of will; freedom is rather
the capacity for unhampered normal self-activity.
Man's original condition was not without positive in-
clination to goodness. His will had this disposition;
but while it was in harmony with God's will, it
might sin, and in the possibility of sinning consisted
its freedom. It was man's duty to preserve his
rectitude by voluntary choice, thus confirming God's
work. (H. T. CREMKRt.)
Bibliography: The pertinent literature is quite fully given
under Image op God. The earlier discussions are well
39
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Righteou snesa
Rimmon
represented by Augustine's " City of God," XII., i.-ix.,
xxiii.; Anselm, De casu diaboli, xii.; Aquinas, Summa,
II., xciii.-xcvii.; Z. Ursinus, Summe of Christian Religion,
Ques. 6, London, 1587; J. Edwards, Doctrine of Original
Sin Defended, II., i., in his Works, New York, 1808-09;
J. Howe, Oracles of God, lectures xvi.-xix., in his Works,
vols, vii.-viii., London, 1822. The subject is usually dis-
cussed under Anthropology in the systems of theology (see
in and under Dogma, Dogmatics), e.g., W. G. T. Shedd,
Dogmatic Theology, ii. 95-114, cf. the citations from earlier
authorities in iii. 288-302, New York, 1889-94, cf. also
his Hist, of Doctrine, ii. 54-65, 8th ed., ib. 1884; C. Hodge,
Systematic Theology, ii. 92-115, New York, 1871-73; H. B.
Smith, Systematic Theology, pp. 252-259, New York, 1884;
A. H. Strong, Systematic Theology, pp. 262-268, Rochester,
1886; H. E. Jacobs, The Book of Concord, consult index
under " Man," Philadelphia, 1893.
RIMING OFFICES: Liturgical offices in which
not only the hymns, but also all antiphons, respon-
sories, versicles, etc., are in rime and meter, the only
prose being the Psalms and lessons. Since the anti-
phons and responsories originally were concerned
with the history of a feast or a saint, these offices
were called histories rhythmicce. Some 900 of these
offices, only a small portion of the original number,
have been edited by Clemens Blume and Guido
Maria Dreves in their Analecta hymnica medii cevi, v.,
xiii., xiv. b, xvii., xviii., xxiv., xxv., xxvi., xxviii.,
xli. a, xlv. a (Leipsic, 1889-1904). First appearing
in the ninth and tenth centuries, the riming offices
reached their zenith between the middle of the
twelfth and the middle of the fourteenth centuries,
though specimens are known as late as the seven-
teenth century. This rich development finds its
explanation in the liturgical liberty allowed in the
Middle Ages, while the distinctly local character of
the riming offices is shown by the fact that the chief
sources are the breviaries of individual dioceses and
orders. On the other hand, wider circulation was
enjoyed by the offices contained in the breviaries of
such orders as the Franciscans and Dominicans; if
a riming office was incorporated in the Roman
Breviary, its wide use was assured; and the popu-
larity of the saint honored by a particular office,
as well as the literary merit of the office in question,
was yet another factor in the extension of its use.
The present Breviary (q.v.) contains no complete
riming office.
From a literary point of view the riming offices
run the entire gamut from perfunctory doggerel to
nights of genuine poetry. Among the best-known
are the offices in honor of Gregory the Great (Ana-
lecta hymnica, v. No. 64), Saints Anne (xxv. No. 18),
Benedict (xxv. No. 52), Elizabeth (xxv. No. 90),
James (xxvi. No. 42) Peter (xxvi. No. 48), and
Catharine (xxvi. No. 69), and the Virgin (xxiv. Nos.
25, 29, 30). The authorship of offices is known in
only a few cases, among these writers being Alfanus,
archbishop of Salerno (d. 1085) ; Goswin of Bossut
(d. after 1229); Origo Scaccabarozzi of Milan (d.
1293); John Peckham, archbishop of Canterbury
(d. 1292); Brinolph I., bishop of Scara (d. 1317);
Christian of Lilienfeld (d. before 1332); Birger,
archbishop of Upsala (d. 1383); and Lippold of
Steinberg (d. 1415). (P Drews.)
Bibliography: Consult the introductions to the offices
printed in the Analecta hymnica medii cevi, ut sup.; S.
Baumer, Geschichte des Breviers, pp. 356-364, Freiburg,
1895; Julian's von Speir liturgische Reimofficien, ed. H.
Felder, Freiburg in Switzerland, 1901.
RIMMON, rim'en.
I. The Deity.
The Name; Extent of the Cult (§ 1).
Ramman in Babylonia (§ 2).
In Assyria and Syria (§ 3).
Place of Origin (§4).
II. As a Place Name.
Rimmon is the name given to a deity and to
several places named in the Old Testament.
I. The Deity: According to II Kings v. 18,
Rimmon was a Syrian deity who possessed a temple
almost certainly located in Damascus; the name
occurs as an element in the personal name Tabrim-
mon, father of Benhadad (I Kings xv.
i. The 18); cf. also Hadadeimmon. The
Name ; pronunciation indicated by the Masoret-
Extent of ic pointing is certainly mistaken. This
the Cult, is suggested (1) by the variant readings
of the texts of the Septuagint (Remman,
Reeman, Remmath, with similar forms for the ele-
ment in Tabrimmon); (2) by the Syriac reading
Ramun; (3) by the fact that a god Ramman, who
is especially identified in the cuneiform writings
with the "Westland" (Syria), is known to have
been worshiped in Assyria and Babylonia from an
early period; (4) by the form Raman used by Philo
Byblius as preserved in a fragment (C. and T.
Miiller, Fragmenta historicorum Grcecorum, iii. 575,
Paris, 1841); (5) the Masoretic pointing is easily
accounted for by the fact that rimmon is the Hebrew
for "pomegranate," which (a) is common in Pales-
tine, probably giving rise to a number of place
names (see below, II.), and (b) has an important
position in religious symbolism (being an emblem
of fertility) and ornamentation (cf. Ex. xxviii.,
xxxix.; I Kings vii.; II Chron. iii. 16, iv. 13), and
this pronunciation might easily be transferred to a
deity by those who fixed the pointing of the text.
Assuming Ramman as the proper vocalization of the
name (derived probably not from rtim or ramam,
"to be high," but from rammanu, "to thunder"), it
appears that the ideograph used in the cuneiform
records is IM , and that this ideograph represents also
a deity Hadad (Adad, Addu, Daddu, Dada; cf.
Pinches in PSBA, 1883, pp. 71-73; Bezold, in
PSBA, 1887, pp. 174 sqq.) whose provenience is the
"Westland," i.e., Syria. It then appears that Ram-
man and Hadad are the same deity, that his cult
was wide-spread, and that other designations are
Ragimu (from ragam, "to cry aloud"), Mer and Bur
(these names being possibly those of earlier or local
deities whose personality and functions Ramman
absorbed and appropriated), Martu (from the name
for "Westland"), and many others; one list alone
is said to apply to him forty-one names. The wor-
ship of this deity can by many references in the cune-
iform documents be traced in Babylonia and Assyria,
also in Syria and Palestine through the Amarna
Tablets (q.v.) and through the discoveries at Taan-
ach (cf. Sellin in the publications of the Vienna
Academy, 1904, pp. 113, 118, 119; Macrobius,
Saturnalia, I., xxiii. 18, makes him chief deity of the
Assyrians), also in Arabia (CIS, ii. 117 gives an in-
scription from North Arabia of fourth or fifth cen-
tury in which appears Rmnnthn, "Rammon has
given" — cf. the Hebrew Jonathan, "Yah weh has
Simmon
Rinckart
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
40
given " ; CIS, iv. 140 gives an inscription of c. 24 B.C.
which knows a deity Rmn who is "Lord of Alman";
CIS, ii. 73 gives a reading zdkrmn, "Ramman is
just " or "Ramman justifies," cf. the Hebrew names
Zedekiah and Jehozadak). Attempts to find this
deity in the A vesta are as yet doubtful in their re-
sults. The Rama of Vendidad i. 1; Sirozah i. 7, 16,
ii. 7, etc., can be better accounted for on Indo-Aryan
grounds; moreover the extent of the indebtedness
of Zoroastrianism to Babylonian religion has not
been made out. Hence it can not be asserted cate-
gorically that this Rama is equivalent to the Ram-
man of Syria, Assyria, and Babylonia.
In Babylonia about Hammurabi's time Ramman
was associated, in a hymn which may be earlier than
Hammurabi, with Bel (not Marduk), Sin, Ninib,
Ishtar, and Shamash. In Babylonia the
2. Ramman ideograph already referred to is gener-
in Baby- ally used; possibly the deity was
Ionia. known also as Immeru (cf. the name
Mer); but Ramman is well authenti-
cated for Babylonia, especially in the region of
Shirpurla (Telloh). Ramman seems to have come
into prominence in the south in the time of the king
named, and after that period increased in popularity
(with some vicissitudes), especially under the Kas-
shites and later under Nebuchadrezzar I. An in-
scription from the Kasshite period calls him "lord
of justice," and in this function he was associated
with Shamash, with whom he was also consulted
as an oracle god. He was a storm-deity, a syllabary
designates him the god of thunder, and he carries
the thunderbolt and ax (cf . with this the expression
in no. 149 of the Amarna Tablets, Winckler's num-
bering: " he who thunders in the heavens like Addu,
so that the whole land trembles at his voice"); in
the omen tablets he is called the withholder and the
sender of rain. His connection with the rain is dis-
tinct from that with justice; he has a twofold aspect,
he sends rain to fertilize the fields and produce
crops in order to reward virtue, also to destroy crops
and thus to punish the sin of the impious. In this
latter relation he is brought into causative connec-
tion with the deluge, this being due to his anger.
He is also described as making weeds to grow and
so punishing the wicked. In the pictorial represen-
tations Ramman-Hadad is often accompanied by a
bull, and he at times wears the horns of that animal.
The eleventh month (January-February) was sacred
to him. His consort was Shala ("woman," "wife"),
whose part, however, is insignificant, like that of
goddesses generally in the Semitic world.
That in Assyria this deity was early of importance
is shown by the name of the king of c. 1825 B.C.
which may be read either Shamshi-Ramman or
Shamshi-Hadad (see Assyria, VI., 3, §1). For it is
now known that in at least some cases the element
in Assyrian royal names which has
3. In Assyria been transcribed Ramman must be
and Syria, read Hadad (cf., e.g., the Sitzungsbe-
richle of the Berlin Academy, 1899, p.
118). It is demonstrable that in Assyria Hadad
and Ramman were current as names for this deity
along with other designations as in Babylonia. He
appears to have been more popular in Assyria than
in the south. He shared with Anu in Asshur a
temple dedicated to him alone by Shamshi-Ram-
man, so that the connection with Anu seems later
than the dedication, Anu being received as a sort of
guest. The statues of Ramman and Shala were
carried away from Ekallate (a city — or temple? —
represented as in the south of Assyria) and restored
by Sennacherib. Tiglath-Pileser I. calls this god
Martu, and the connection with storms is still held,
his weapons being lightning, hunger, and death.
For Syria and Palestine the worship is indicated
by the personal names (probably not by the names
of places; see below, II.) compounded with Hadad.
Biblical passages are: (1) I Kirfgs xv. 18, 20; II
Chron. xvi. 2, 4, Benhadad a king of Syria contem-
porary with Asa; (2) I Kings xx. ; II Kings vi.
24, viii. 7, 9, another king of the same name con-
temporary with Ahab; (3) II Kings xiii. 3, 24, 25,
a son of Hazael; probably Amos i. 4 and Jer. xlix.
27 use the name as a title of the Syrian kings. The
name Adadi-rimani appears in an inscription of
the seventh century in Haran. The forms Addu
and the like occur frequently in the Amarna Tablets.
The origin of Ramman is still a matter of doubt.
Incidental expressions in the cuneiform records,
such as that which names him Martu, seem to in-
dicate that the Assyrians assigned to him an Ara-
mean origin. The resulting supposition
4. Place long was that contact of Assyria with
of Origen. Aram brought the god into the Assyrian
pantheon, and that Aramean immi-
gration carried him also into Babylonia, the result
being his adoption by the priests and people of the
two regions. But the early evidence of his worship
in both Babylonia and Assyria, his mention under
the ideograph IM , and a multiplicity of minor items
have raised at least the possibility that he was of
Sumerian origin, emerging into prominence only
in the period named. His character as a storm-god
is general and uniform. Dr. William Hayes Ward
presents the theory that Hadad was the prototype
out of which Yahweh developed. A Hittite deity
carried the same emblems as Hadad-Ramman, as did
Jupiter Dolichenus; in these cases the probability
is in favor of a borrowing.
II. As a Place Name: In this sense Rimmon oc-
curs frequently in the Old Testament: (1) a city in
Judah or Simeon (Josh. xv. 32; Zech. xiv. 10), prob-
ably to be read En-rimmon (Neh. xi. 29), the present
Um al-Ramamim; (2) a rock in Benjamin (Judges
xx. 45, 47, xxi. 13), the modern Rammun, four
miles east of Bethel; (3) a city in Simeon possibly
identical with (1) above (I Chron. iv. 32); (4) a
city in Zebulon (I Chron. vi. 77; cf. Josh. xix. 13
R.V.), the modern Rummaneh, north of Nazareth;
(5) a station on the exodus, Rimmon-parez (Num.
xxxiii. 19-20); (6) Gath-rimmon, a city of Dan
(Josh. xix. 45; cf. the Giti-rimmu of the Amarna
Tablets, no. 164 in Winckler's edition). In these
cases the probability is against any connection with
the deity, the name being better taken from rimmon,
"pomegranate." Geo. W. Gilmore.
Bibliography: Consult, besides the references given in the
text, the literature on the religion given under Assyria
and Babylonia, especially: M. "Jastrow, Jr., Religion of
Babylonia and Assyria, Boston, 1SS9, Germ, ed., Giessen,
1905 (best); W. von Baudissin, Studien zur srmitischen
Religionsgeschichte, i. 294 sqq., 306, sqq., Leipsic, 1S76;
41
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bimmon
Rinckart
P. Scholtz, Gotzendienst und Zavberwesen bei den alten
Hebraern, pp. 244-247, Regensburg, 1877; J. Halevy, in
Melanges de critique et histoire, p. 424, Paris, 1883; F.
Baethgen, Beitrdge zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, pp.
69, 75, 84, 255, Berlin 1889; P. D. Chantepie de la Saus-
saye, Religionsgeschichte, i. 287-288, Tubingen, 1905. For
epigraphic and other illustrative material consult: H. C.
Rawlinson, Inscriptions, iv. 28, no. 2, London, 1861; E.
Glaser, Die Abessinier in Arabien, p. 35, Munich, 1889;
P. Jensen, Kosmologie der Babylonier, pp. 488-489, Stras-
burg, 1890; idem, Die Hittiterund Armenier, pp. 171-173,
ib. 1898; A. H. Sayce, Higher Criticism and the Verdict of
the Monuments, London, 1894; H. Winckler, T 'el-el- Amarna
Letters, New York, 1896; idem, Der Thontafelfund, Berlin,
1896; C. W. H. Johns, Doomsday Book, Leipsic, 1901 ; idem,
Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, Contracts, and Letters,
Edinburgh, 1904; and the following magazine literature:
ZDMG, xxix (1875), 237 sqq., xxxi (1877), 734-736;
Gazette archeologique, ii (1876), 78-82; ZA, ii (1887), 331-
332, ix (1894), 310-314; JA, 1887, p. 461, 1895, p. 386;
American Journal of Semitic Languages, xii (1895-96),
159-162.
RINALDI, ri-nal'di, ODORICO (ODERICUS
RAYNALDUS): Italian Oratorian and church
historian; b. at Treviso (18 m. n. by w. of Venice)
1595; d. at Rome Jan. 22, 1671. He was educated
in his native city, the Jesuit college at Parma, and
Padua; and in 1618 went to Rome, where he en-
tered the Oratorian order, of which he was twice
general superior. A diligent Thomist, such was his
learning that he was chosen by his order to continue
the annals of Caesar Baronius (q.v.), beginning with
1198. Taking as his sources the notes of his prede-
cessor and the documents contained in the archives
and libraries of Rome, he completed a history of the
Church from the pontificate of Innocent III. to the
Reformation. His work is the best of all the con-
tinuations of Baronius, though not free from errors
and prejudices. His history, the last volume edited
and supplemented after his death by other Orato-
rians, appeared under the title Annates ecclesiastici
db anno 1198 ad annum 1565 (9 vols., Rome,
1646-77), and he also made an abridgment of both
Baronius' annals and his own in Latin (3 vols.,
Rome, 1667) and Italian (3 vols., 1670). In recogni-
tion of his services Innocent X. offered to place him
at the head of the Vatican library, but Rinaldi de-
clined the honor. A complete edition of the annals
of Baronius and Rinaldi was edited by J. D. and
D. G. Mansi (38 vols., Lucca, 1738-59), and, with the
continuation of Giacomo Laderchi and an extension
to modern times, by A. Theiner (23 vols., Bar-le-
Duc, 1864-73). (O. ZocKLERf.)
Bibliography: The preface to Mansi's ed. of the Annates,
vol. i., Lueca, 1747; G. Tiraboschi, Storia delta Letteratura
Italiana, vol. viii., 10 vols./Rome, 1782-97; H. Laemmer,
De Coesaris Baronii literarum commercio, Freiburg, 1903;
KL, x. 842-843.
RINCKART (RINKART), rink'Srt, MARTIN:
German dramatist and hymnist; b. at Eilenburg
(12 m. n.w. of Leipsic) Apr. 24, 1586; d. there Dec.
8, 1649. He was educated at the University of
Leipsic (1608-10), and in 1610-11 taught at Mans-
feld, besides being choirmaster at the church of
St. Nicholas. He was then called to be deacon
of St. Ann's at Eisleben, and there wrote in
1613 the Luther drama Der eislebische christliche
Ritier, in which the fable of the three rings, later
used by Lessing, is used to typify the contest of the
three confessions for the inheritance of Immanuel.
In the same year Rinckart was called to the pas-
torate of Erdeborn, where he remained four years
and wrote his second drama, Lutherus desideratus,
in which he treated the concepts and tendencies to
reform which prevailed from 1300 to 1500. A third
drama, the Indidgentiarius confusus, was written to
celebrate the jubilee of the Reformation, forming
the third part of the author's intended heptalogy on
Luther. In 1617 Rinckart was called to his native
city as archdeacon, and there until his death he
delivered weekly sermons on the catechism, the
result being his Die Katechismuswohlthaten (Leipsic,
1645). In 1621 he wrote his fourth drama, of which
the manuscript is lost, entitled Lutherus magnani-
mus. This was followed in 1624 by the fifth drama,
Monetarius seditiosus oder der muntzerische Bauern-
krieg. During this period, when the land was devas-
tated by the hosts of Tilly, Wallenstein, and Gus-
tavus Adolphus, and when Rinckart himself was
afflicted with domestic grief, he wrote Jobs christ-
liche, wirkliche und wunderbare Kreuzschule (1619),
Christbeschreibung an die herzliebste Mutter (1619),
and the brief Kreuz-Schule. Never losing courage,
however, he wrote in 1628 the comforting Der
evangelischen Pilgrim giildener Wander stab. This was
preceded in 1627 by the Novantiqua Eilenbergica, a
history of Eilenburg in Latin and German verse from
its foundation to 1545. To the same period of exile
belongs his Zehnfacher biblischer Lokal- und Gedenk-
ring oder Gedenkzirkel.
In 1630 Rinckart wrote the sixth drama of his
heptalogy, Lutherus Augustus, based on the proph-
ecy of Cardinal Cusanus that in 1630 John the
Baptist would rise again and show the lamb of God
to all the world. To this same period belong Rinck-
art's four "parodies," or remodelings of older
poems. The first of these is the song of the " Luther-
an Deborah" of 1636; the second the "extract from
Martin Rinckart 's jubilee comedy" of 1630, the
third the Latin-German poem Fera arundinis ! fer-
arum ferocissimarum ferocissima, and the fourth the
hymn by which Rinckart is best known, the " Nun
danket alle Gott," apparently written in its briefer
form in 1630 and expanded in its author's Jesu
Herzbilchlein (Leipsic, 1636). This hymn has been
called, not inaptly, "the German Te Deum." The
melody also is by Rinckart, who derived it from
an older composition by Lucas Maurentius, master
of the chapel at Rome (1581-99) . During the famine
of 1638 Rinckart composed the Deutscher Jeremias
und sein geist- und leihliches Hungerlied aus dem
vierzehnten und filnfzehnten Kapitel.
With the meeting of the envoys of the powers at
Miinster and Osnabriick in 1643 came hopes of peace,
marked by Rinckart in his Des teutschen Friedens-
Herolden guldenes Pacem und uberschones Freuden-
Kleinod (written about 1644). Rinckart himself,
the ardent lover of peace, was fortunately spared to
enjoy for a brief space the Peace of Westphalia.
(A. Freybe.)
Bibliography: The biographical work which uses in espe-
cially full and worthful manner a wealth of sources is
W. Biichting, Martin Rinckart, ein Lebensbild, Gottingen,
1903. Other noteworthy sketches are: L. Plato, Martin
Rinckart nach seinem ausseren Leben und Wirken, Leipsic,
1830; J. D. Vorkel, Martin Rinckart, ein evangelisches
Bildaus der Zeit des 30-jahrigen Krieges, Eilenburg, 1857;
J. Linke, M. Rinckarts Geistliche Lieder nebst einer Dar-
stellung des Lebens und der Werke des Dichters, Gotha,
Ring:
Kitschl
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
42
1S86; Graubner, Ein Beitrag zur Lebensgeschichte M.
Rinckarts. Inauguraldissertation, Halle, 1887. Consult
also: C. Miiller, Der Eislebische Ritter, ein Reformations-
spiel, Halle, 1SS4; S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp.
393-394, New York, 1SS6; E. Michael, Martin Rinckart
als Dramatiker, Leipsic, 1894; W Nelle, Martin Rinckart,
Hamburg, 1904; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 962-963.
RING, EPISCOPAL. See Vestments and In-
signia, Ecclesiastical.
RINGS. See Dress and Ornament, Hebrew.
RINK, MELCHIOR: German Anabaptist; b.
in Hesse in 1493 or 1494; d. after 1540. He matric-
ulated at the University of Leipsic in 1516, and in
1 523 was teaching in a school at Hersfeld, where he
helped introduce the Reformation, taking an open
stand in its favor in 1524. Soon afterward he came
under the influence of Thomas Miinzer (q.v.) and
removed to Thuringia, where he labored first at
Oberhausen (near Eisenach) and later at Eckardt-
hausen. He took part in the Peasants' War, acting
as leader in the battle near Frankenhausen. Neither
the defeat of the Anabaptists in this engagement nor
the death of Miinzer could change his course; and he
now proceeded to work for the propagation of Ana-
baptist tenets, and henceforth led the life of a wan-
derer. In 1527 he was at Worms, where, with other
Anabaptists, he challenged the Evangelical clergy
to a debate. In the following year he was again in
Hesse, where he gathered some adherents in the
vicinity of Hersfeld and attracted the attention of
the authorities. Landgrave Philip, though enfor-
cing no coercive measures, directed the theological
faculty of Marburg to confer with Rink, but the
negotiations, which were held on Aug. 17-18, 1528,
led to no result, and the landgrave merely dis-
ciplined Rink with public ecclesiastical penance.
It was not until this period of his career that
Rink's ability as an agitator was fully developed.
He now formed small communities in Hesse and
Thuringia, and saturated them so thoroughly with
Anabaptist doctrines that only in rare instances do
they seem to have recanted when brought to trial
for their beliefs before the civil magistracy. In
1531, Rink and twelve other Anabaptists gathered
for worship were discovered in the course of a
domiciliary visit at the village of Vacha on the
Werra. Henceforth the Anabaptist leader seems to
have been held in custody. Butzer interceded with
the landgrave in his behalf (Mar. 17, 1540), but since
he refused to recant, he probably did not recover
his freedom. The year of his death is unknown.
Rink was an opponent of infant baptism, and of
the doctrines of original sin, the real presence, and
the vicarious atonement, as well as of the literal in-
terpretation of Scripture; and stood for a mystical
and spiritualistic type of Christianity. At the out-
set, like Miinzer, he contested the legitimacy of civil
authority; but after the Peasants' War he re-
stricted himself to denying the Christian's right to
occupy a civil position and to demanding that the
churches have authority to elect civil magistrates.
The propaganda for these ideas met with great suc-
cess. Rink personally evinced the courage to stand
loyal to his convictions amid the gravest obstacles;
while his strict morality and his learning were
acknowledged. Carl Mirbt.
Bibliography: B. N. Krohn, Geschichte der fanatischen und
enthusiastischen Winlcrlimfcr, pp. 18 sqq., Leipsic, 1758;
J. Hast, Geschichte der Wirdertaufer, pp. 254-255, M du-
ster, 1S36; K. W. H. Hochbuth, in ZHT, xxviii (1858),
541-553, xxx (1860), 272; L. Keller, Geschichte der Wie-
dertaufer und ihres lleiehs zu Munster, pp. 127-128, Mini-
ster, 1880; M. Lenz, Briefwechsel Landgraf Philipps des
Grossmiitigen von Hesse mit Bucer, i. 156, 161, 164, 325,
Leipsic, 1880; F. H. Reusch, Der Index der verbotenen
Bucher, p. 120, Bonn, 1883; F. O. zur Linden, Melchior
Hofmann, pp. 171-185, Leipsic, 1885; A. H. Newman,
Hist, of Anti-Pedobaptism, pp. 274-276, Philadelphia,
1897; K. Rembert, Die " Wiedertaufer " im Herzoglum
Julich, pp. 170, 196, 453, Berlin, 1899; O. Clemen, in
Monatsschrift der Comenius-Gesellschaft, ix. 113-116, ib.
1900.
RIPHATH. See Table op the Nations, § 4.
RIPPON, JOHN: English Baptist hymnologist;
b. at Tiverton (47 m. n.e. of Plymouth), Devon,
Apr. 29, 1751; d. at London Dec. 17, 1836. He was
pastor at London, 1773-1836; and he edited the
Baptist Annual Register, 1790-1802. He is best
known as the compiler of Selections of Hymns from
the Best Authors (London, 1787; new ed. after the
30th, 1840; Comprehensive Edition, known as "The
Comprehensive Rippon," 1844). The earliest edi-
tion was intended as an appendix to Isaac Watts'
Psalms and Hymns. His final work has stood as one
of the first half-dozen of hymn-books of historical
importance, as a basis for subsequent compilation,
and through its immense sale is said to have gained
wealth for him. Among the few hymns of his own
was, "The day has dawned, Jehovah comes."
Bibliography: J. Ivimey, Hist, of English Baptists, iii. 452,
4 vols., London, 1811-30; J. A. Jones, Bunhill Memorials,
pp. 232-236, ib. 1849; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 963-964;
DNB, xlviii. 318-319.
RISHELL, CHARLES WESLEY: Methodist
Episcopalian; b. near Williamsport, Pa., Mar. 9,
1850; d. at Newburyport, Mass., Sept. 27, 1908. He
was educated at Drew Theological Seminary (1874-
1875), Wittenberg College, Springfield, 111. (A.B.,
1876), and the University of Berlin (1889-91).
In 1876 he entered the ministry of his denomi-
nation and held Ohio pastorates at Finley Church,
Cincinnati (1876-78), Winton Place (1878-80),
Delhi (1880-83), Avondale (1883-86), First Church,
Urbana (1886-89), Asbury Church, Cincinnati (1891-
1894), and Central Church, Springfield (1894-95).
After 1895 he was professor of historical the-
ology in the School of Theology of Boston University
and assistant dean after 1904. In theology he was
a progressive conservative. He wrote A History
of Christianity (Chicago, 1891 ; based on R. Sohm's
Kirchengeschichte) ; The Higher Criticism (1S92);
The Official Recognition of Women in the Church
(1894); The Foundations of tlic Christian Faith (New
York, 1899); and The Child as God's Child (1905).
RIST, JOHANN : German hymnist and dramatist;
b. at Ottensen, a suburb of Hamburg, Mar. 8, 1607;
d. at Wedel (13 m. w. of Hamburg), Aug. 31, 1667.
He was educated at the universities of Rinteln and
Rostock, and is also said to have studied at Leyden,
Utrecht, and Leipsic, though during this latter
period he seems actually to have lived at Ham-
burg and Ottensen. In 1633-35 he was private tutor
at Heide, but in 1635 accepted the pastorate of
Wedel, where he spent the remainder of his life-
43
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ring
Ritschl
Here he lived quietly, beloved by his people, and
attending to their physical ills by his knowledge of
medicine, until 1643, when Wedel was sacked by
Torstenson in the Thirty Years' War. These melan-
choly events he described in his Holsteina Klag-
und Jammerlied; another poem addressed to the
emperor in the following year, when the peace en-
voys convened at Minister, gained him the laureate-
ship. In 1653 he received a patent of nobility, and
later the title of imperial court- and palsgrave, thus
having the right to crown poets and to create doc-
tors, licentiates, masters, and bachelors. In 1656
he founded the Elb-Schwanenorden, and also en-
joyed the favor of princes, especially of Duke
Christian of Mecklenburg, who created him eccle-
siastical and consistorial councilor. Shortly before
his death he composed his Christliche Sterbekunst
(Hamburg, 1667) and Alleredelste Zeitverkurzung
(1667).
Rist published his hymns, which number 659,
in ten collections from 1642 to 1664. Though some
of the hymns are mechanical and of inordinate
length, Rist still remains, next to P Gebhardt,
both the most prolific German writer of hymns and
the one who has done most for Lutheran hymnol-
ogy. At the same time, he designed his com-
positions to serve for private worship as well as for
public services. The faults of tediousness and
pedantry appear prominently in his " historical
poems " and his eulogies. The former he collected in
his Musa Teutonica (1634) and Poetischer Lustgarten.
His short lyrics are in higher vein, being conceived
with true depth of feeling, though not entirely free
from mythological pedantry.
As a dramatist Rist is also important. He him-
self states that he wrote more than thirty dramas,
though only five were ever printed. These are as
follows : Irenaromachia, oder Friede und Krieg (pub-
lished under the name of his friend Stapel, 1630) ;
Perseus (1634); Das Friedewilnschende Teutschland
(1647, and often); Das friedejauchtzende Teutsch-
land (1653); and Dispositio Cornuti typographici
(1654, and often). Rist likewise states that he pub-
lished a tragedy entitled, Herodes. The Friedejaucht-
zendes Teutschland is written entirely in High Ger-
man, but the other four dramas are of value for a
knowledge of Low German, especially in their comic
interludes, as well as for contemporary records of
the period. At the same time he made a plea for
pure German in his Rettung der edlen teutschen
Hauptsprache (Hamburg, 1642). (A. Freybe.)
Among English translations of parts of his hymns
may be named " Lord Jesus Christ, the living
bread," by A. T. Russell; " Praise and thanks to
thee be sung," by Miss Winkworth; " O Jesu ! wel-
come, gracious name!" by A. T. Russell; "Now
God be praised, and God alone," by Miss Wink-
worth; and " Rise, O Salem, rise and shine," also
by Miss Winkworth.
Bibliography: T. Hansen, Johann Rist und seine Zeit,
Halle, 1872; K. Goedeke and J. Tittmann, Deutsche
Dichterdes 17. J ahrhunderts, vol. xv„ Leipsio, 1885 (the
introduction valuable, corrects Hansen); K. T. Gaedertz,
in Jahrbuch des Vereins fur niederdeutsche Sprachforschung ,
vii (1881), 104 sqq. Less important are H. A. Fick, Jo-
hann Rist, der Pfarrer von Wedel, Hamburg, 1907; and
Julian, Hymnology, pp. 964-966.
RITSCHL, ritsh'l, ALBRECHT BENJAMIN.
I. Life.
II. Theology.
Attitude toward Dogmatics and Philosophy (§ 1).
Theological Position and Biblical Theory (§ 2).
Faith's Relation to Justification and Atonement (§ 3).
Theory of the Church (§4).
The Work of Christ (§5).
Doctrine of God and Sin (§6).
I. Life: Albrecht Benjamin Ritschl, one of the
foremost German Protestant theologians of the
nineteenth century, was born at Berlin Mar. 25,
1822; d. at Gottingen Mar. 20, 1889. He was edu-
cated at the universities of Bonn (1839-41) and
Halle (1841-43), and during this period gradually
passed from Biblical supranaturalism to a critical
and speculative position, to the distress of his
father, Georg Karl Benjamin Ritschl (q.v.). Mean-
while he had also become interested in Hegelian-
ism and in the study of the doctrine of the atone-
ment, and his dissertation for the doctorate bore the
title Expositio doctrines Augustini de creatione
mundi, peccato, gratia (Halle, 1843). After leaving
Halle, Ritschl passed the winter in Berlin and then
spent almost a year with his parents at Stettin.
Desiring, however, to fit himself for the career of a
teacher, he studied for six months at Heidelberg in
1845, and then went to Tubingen, where he became
an enthusiastic follower of Ferdinand Christian
Baur (q.v.), seeking to prove that the apocryphal
gospel of Marcion, mentioned by Tertullian, was
the source of Luke, this theory being advanced in
his Das Evangelium Marcions und das kanonische
Evangelium des Lukas (Tubingen, 1846).
In 1846 Ritschl became privat-docent for New-
Testament theology at Bonn. Here independent
study led him further and further from the position
of the Tubingen school, although his monograph
entitled Die Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche
(Bonn, 1850) as yet marked no decisive break.
Soon, however, he rejected his own theory concern-
ing Luke, now maintaining the priority of Mark
over the other Synoptic Gospels; and in 1856 came
the open breach between him and Baur. In the fol-
lowing year Ritschl issued a complete revision of his
history of the early Church, in which he denied the
hypotheses of the Tubingen school, and maintained
that the alleged delimitation between Paul and the
original apostles (who were not to be considered
Jewish Christians) was non-existent. He likewise
held that Jewish Christianity was not a factor in
the development of the early Church, but that, on
the contrary, it was a specifically determined phase
of gentile Christianity, which must, however, be dis-
tinguished from the system of Paul. In 1852 Ritschl,
whose theological development was bringing him
back to close intellectual sympathy with his father,
was appointed associate professor, his work now
including systematic theology, even as he had al-
ready been permitted to lecture on church history
and the history of dogma since 1848.
In 1859 Ritschl was promoted to a full profes-
sorship at Bonn, but in 1864 accepted a call to the
University of Gottingen. Here he lectured not only
on the New Testament, but also on all branches of
systematic theology, and here, after years of pre-
liminary study and writing, he produced his great
Ritschl
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
44
work, Die christliche Lehre von der Rcchtfertigung
und Yersohnung (3 vols., Bonn, 1S70-74; 4th ed.,
1S95-1902; Eng. transl. of vol. i., Critical History
of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and Recon-
ciliation, Edinburgh, 1S72, of vol. iii., The Christian
Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation, New
York, 1900). A brief summary of the basal con-
cepts of tliis work was given by Ritschl in Ueberdie
christliche Volkommenheit (Gottingen, 1S74; 3d ed.,
1902); his judgment of the theological tendencies
of the nineteenth century was set forth in Schleier-
ynachers Reden uber die Religion und ihre Nach-
icirkungen auf die evangelische Kirche Deutschlands
(Bonn, 1S74); and he prepared a compend of his
theological system in Unterricht in der christlichen
Religion (1S75; 6th ed., 1903). His only impor-
tant later contribution to systematic theology was
the Theologie und Metaphysik (Bonn, 1881; 3d ed.,
1902). After 1876 he turned again to historical
problems, as in the Geschichte des Pietismus (3 vols.,
Bonn, 1880-86).
Between 1870 and 1874 Ritschl declined a call
to Strasburg and four calls to Berlin, as well as an
invitation to become a member of the supreme
ecclesiastical council of the State Church of Prussia.
In 1876-77 and in 1886-87 he was prorector of the
university, and in 1878 was elected a member of
the national consistory of Hanover, although he
seldom attended its sessions. After his death his
briefer contributions were collected under the title
of Gesammelte Aufsdtze (Freiburg, 1893).
II. Theology: Although Ritschl exercised a
profound influence at Bonn, the so-called " Ritsch-
lian school " did not rise till nearly a decade after
he had gone to Gottingen; and the movement was
led less by his students than by those who had been
impressed by bis writings, especially by his study
of the atonement. Ritschl himself,
i. Attitude however, was opposed to all forms of
toward Dog- partizanship, nor did he construct a
matics and formal system of dogmatics, the near-
Philosophy, est approach to this being the Un-
terricht mentioned above. At the
same time, in the middle portion of the third vol-
ume of his work on the atonement he found him-
self compelled to give an almost complete outline
of dogmatics to furnish the setting for the cardinal
doctrine of Protestant Christianity, though he felt
himself at liberty to omit some topics and to treat
others Briefly. To the latter category belong the
questions of general methodology and of the prin-
ciples of dogmatics, which border on the sphere of
philosophy. Later, however, in the Theologie und
Metaphysik he devoted attention to the problems
of epistemology as expounded by Kant and Lotze,
in so far as they were pertinent to theology, al-
though the science of epistemology always remained
to him one of subordinate importance. This very
attitude, however, led to many misinterpretations
of his system. Since he appealed to epistemology,
he was charged with making his dogmatics depend
on the solution of problems involved in the theory
of knowledge; and since in his later years he held
that religious knowledge finds expression in inde-
pendent or direct value-judgments, some of his
critics accused him of constructing a quasi-Feuer-
bachian theology. As a matter of fact, however,
Ritschl's " direct or independent value- judgment "
meant nothing more than that theoretical religious
knowledge is differentiated from the theoretical
knowledge of science simply by the fact that the
former is conditioned by the inherent practical in-
terests of the soul rather than by the impersonal
endeavor to offer an objective explanation of the
problem of existence. It is, therefore, entirely in-
correct to charge Ritschl with the constructive use
of a philosophy which he excluded on principle.
His entire system of thought was centered in, and
conditioned by, Christian revelation; and it applied
the interpretation of a distinctively Christian relig-
ion to all the great phenomena of the soul and of
the history of Christianity. It was quite charac-
teristic, then, that, in his work on the atonement
Ritschl should proceed from the history of the de-
velopment of the dogma in question back to the
Biblical teachings on the theme, thus reversing
the customary procedure. Maintaining that the
final revelation of God was given in the person
and works of Christ, and at the same time postu-
lating the inadequacy of the mere facts recorded
concerning him in the New Testament, Ritschl held
that the foundation of theological doctrines must be
sought in the primal consciousness of the Christian
community, the sole source here being the New
Testament.
While the position just outlined implies that
Ritschl was essentially a Biblicist, his attitude was
materially conditioned by the ecclesiastical charac-
ter which he ascribed to dogmatics. Like Luther,
moreover, he held that the Bible is the word of God
only in so far as it emphasizes Christ,
2. Theolog- so that, while all ordinances and be-
ical Position liefs of primitive Christianity are not
and Biblical binding on Christian theology and on
Theory, the Christian Church, every doctrine
of the salvation won through Christ
must be based in substance on the Bible. In addi-
tion, he maintained that the Pauline doctrine of
justification by faith was binding on theology; and,
unlike most modern theologians, who stress the new
and distinctive character of New-Testament con-
cepts, he maintained that, unless there is direct
proof to the contrary, the Biblical writers must be
supposed to be capable of expressing their thoughts
in orderly and methodical fashion. This theory,
however, presupposed an essentially modern type
of interpretation, which excluded sympathy with
the ancient modes of thought and feeling that are
evidently present in the New Testament; and
Ritschl's Biblical theology, developed early in his
career and changed but little in the course of his
life, represents the point of view of the middle of
the nineteenth century, and has been in great part
superseded by the results of the historical studies
of primitive Christianity. In addition to all this,
Ritschl came to appeal more and more to the ideal
of life of the Reformers and to the creeds of Lu-
theranism, ascribing more importance to the latter
than to the symbols of the early Church, which he
valued only in so far as they maintained religious
positions, especially the divinity of Christ. The
authority of the Protestant concept of religion con-
45
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ritschl
sisted, in his opinion, in its maintenance of the doc-
trine of justification by faith, lacking in the Eastern
Church, but established in the West by Augustine
and defended by the medieval representatives of
classical Roman Catholicism. On the other hand,
this very position led him to depreciate the work
of the " Reformers before the Reformation " and
of the mediating theology. Like the Reformers,
Ritschl made justification and atonement the car-
dinal doctrines of Christianity, and this fact is the
key to his chief theological teachings. So strongly,
moreover, did he consider that the sole basis for a
knowledge of God is in the divine revelation in the
works and person of Christ, that he rejected all nat-
ural theology and ignored its proofs for God's exist-
ence. Since, however, such an estimate of Christ
presupposes Christian belief, and since this belief
can arise in the Christian community only through
experience of justification and atonement, religious
comprehension of God and Christ necessarily has as
its sole foundation the personal faith which arises
through justification. In accordance with this posi-
tion, he reversed the usual method, and placed
the subjective elements of Christianity first, disre-
garding the ontology of the object of faith as a basis
of a religiously conditioned theological knowledge.
It thus becomes clear that Ritschl's concept of the
Bible was not one of a mere external standard, but
rather implied that the revelation of God in Christ,
in so far as drawn from the New Testament, pos-
sesses the character of revelation only for a faith
which comprehends and recognizes it as such.
Faith, according to Ritschl, is not a mere passive
service of man, but an active trust in God and di-
vine providence, directly displayed in humility,
patience, and prayer, and influencing
3. Faith's the development of the moral life.
Relation to The reconciliation of this religious and
Justification ethical independence of the Christian
and Atone- with his sense of absolute dependence
ment. on God was the cardinal problem of
Ritschl's theory of justification and
atonement. To solve the difficulty Ritschl advanced
the theory that the sinner who becomes a believer
is first passively placed by God in a state of justi-
fication, justification in turn being practically real-
ized in the atonement which perfects it, and the
atonement constituting the basis of Christian activ-
ity. Justification, which is synonymous with for-
giveness of sins, frees the sinner from the guilt that
separates him from God; the mistrust of God ari-
sing from consciousness of sin vanishes before the
promise of divine grace; and the old active oppo-
sition to the divine will gives place to an equally
active obedience to the commandments of God.
Though good works may be imperfect even when
the will of man has been renewed, yet, on the whole,
the exercise of trust, humility, patience, and prayer,
and the fulfilment of moral requirements in the
spirit of Christian love, constitute what was under-
stood and required by the New Testament and by
the Reformers as Christian perfection, though this
must be understood qualitatively, not quantita-
tively. Justification and atonement lay the foun-
dation for the transformed sinner's new status as a
child of God; but at the same time justification,
which finds its practical realization in the atone-
ment, is a creative act of the divine will, condi-
tioned by no human merits or circumstances, but
due to the fact that the sinner who comes to be-
lieve is held by God to be righteous despite his sin,
so that the Father takes the initiative by establish-
ing religious fellowship between himself and man,
the basis of this being, not the sinner, but the work
of Christ and its efficacy.
Like Luther, Ritschl made the concept of the re-
ligious community bear directly upon his theory of
justification, this religious community in question
connoting, not the Church as a visible
4. Theory organization, but the complex of all
of the justified believers and the permanent
Church, result of its lord and founder, Christ,
whose influence it ever preserves and
perpetuates. The agency which produces belief in
justification in the individual, and thus leads to re-
generation and divine sonship, is preaching; and
through this proclamation of the word of God
or of the Gospel the religious community comes
to be the mother of the individual believers.
Thus Ritschl was able to avoid the sectarian
theory of the Church as a voluntary association
of individual believers; and he could, on the con-
trary, maintain that the Church traces her origin
back to her founder Christ, and that her members
receive from a preexisting organization those powers
of the Holy Ghost within her which call forth their
faith and influence their subsequent lives. To es-
tablish the genetic bond between individual be-
lievers within the Church and Christ as its head,
Ritschl maintained that the Church, which is not
subject to the limitations of empiricism or time, is
an organic whole which, though visibly existing
only in its parts, logically posits the preexistence of
the whole. Accordingly, the Church was the object
of divine love before the individuals who belong to
it. At the same time, the experience of justifica-
tion and atonement is individual, not collective;
especially as the consciousness of guilt and the mis-
trust of God, which are removed by justification,
are considered by him to be individual defects.
These empirical personal experiences, however, do
not conflict with the logical construction of the
ideal relation of the Church to Christ (who founded
it for the salvation of its individual members) and
God (who chose it as the body of all future believers
and as the means for the realization of his kingdom
on earth). Only thus could he establish the prior-
ity of justification, as a supratemporal creative act
of God, to regeneration, as a personal experience of
the believer.
In conformity with this theory of the Church
Ritschl construed the work of Christ under the two
aspects of royal prophet and royal priest, the royalty
of both phases being derived from the
5. The spiritual kingship exercised by Christ
Work of throughout his life. The prophetic
Christ. office of Christ is exercised from God to
man, the priestly from man to God.
In the priestly function, which logically presup-
poses the achievement of his prophetic mission, is
found the essential reason why, for Christ's sake,
God grants regeneration to sinners — the fact that
Ritschl
Bitter
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
46
through faith they are united with Christ as mem-
bers of his Church. Christ does not, however, rep-
resent the believer in a juristic sense which sepa-
rates his righteousness from himself to impute it to
the believer, but in an inclusive sense, so that, witlv
out being himself dispensed from the obligation of
righteousness, the believer has imputed to him the
relation of Christ to the love of God. From this
estimate of the work of Christ Ritschl sought to
deduce his view of the person of Christ. He
taught an ideal preexistence of Christ as the ful-
filler of the divine plan of salvation in a world
which, like mankind, had been created for this
very end; and although the earthly Christ lacks
the traits of divine omnipotence, omniscience, and
omnipresence, he is recognized and honored as God
by the faithful.
Ritschl's Christology forms the transition to his
doctrine of God, who must be known not from meta-
physical speculations of natural religion or theology
but solely in religious faith from the works and the
person of Christ. Accordingly, God can be con-
ceived only as the Father, whose es-
6. Doctrine sence is love, the quality which all
of God other divine qualities serve merely to
and Sin. prove. Only those who sin against the
Holy Ghost by obstinately opposing
the good which God desires for them are doomed to
final destruction. All others are objects of the
fatherly training of God, so that the punishments
which he visits upon them are intended solely for
their correction and religious progress. All evil,
however, is not to be considered divine punishment
of sin, for the concept of evil is not theological and
is subjectively conditioned in each specific case.
The Christian must, through his faith in divine
providence, transform into good the evils which
beset him, regarding them as means whereby God
advances what is really best for him. The true
punishment of sin is guilt, which is removed by
justification, or the forgiveness of sins. From the
divine point of view sin is ignorance, but from the
human point of view it is guilt and rebellion against
God. The doctrine of original sin is, therefore, to
be rejected for the theory of a kingdom of sin which
impedes the freedom of the individual toward good,
and which is strengthened by the evil-doing of each
one. It is impossible to prove the general necessity
of sin, but its empirical probability is self-evident.
The kingdom of sin is, however, opposed by the
kingdom of God, which is distinguished from the
Church in that it promotes the moral welfare of the
believer, while the Church furthers his capacity for
worship. From this point of view Ritschl draws
an antithesis between the ethical duties of the
Church (prayer, profession of faith, and teaching)
and her religious functions (preaching and the sacra-
ments), the visible organization of the Church be-
ing but a means to these ends. In this the concept
of the kingdom of God has no immediate part, but
it enters vitally into Ritschl's interpretation of the
Christian ideal of life, which embraces, on the one
hand, all Christian duties and virtues, and, on the
other, the obligation to mutual love, to be mani-
fested in the conscientious discharge of the moral
calling. (O. Ritschl.)
Bibliography: The one biography is by O. Ritschl, 2 vols.,
Freiburg, 1892-96. On the theology consult: E. Luthardt,
in Zeitschrift fur kirchliche Wissenschaft und Leben, 1881
pp. 617-643; H. Weiss, in TSK, 1881, pp. 377-417; G.
A. Fricke, Metaphysik und Dogmatik in ihren gegenseitigen
Verhaltnisse, unter besond. Beziehung auf die Ritschl'sche
Theologie, Leipsic, 1882; L. Haug, Darstellung und Beur-
theilung der Ritschl' schen Theologie, Ludwigsburg, 1885-
O. Fltigel, A. Ritschl's philosophische Ansichten, Langen-
salza, 1886; M. Reischle, Ein Wort zur Kontroverse uber
die Mystik in der Theologie, Freiburg, 1886; J. Thikotter,
Darstellung und Beurtheilung der Theologie Albrecht Ritschls,
2d ed., Bonn, 1887; F. H. R. Frank, Ueber die kirchliche
Bedeutung der Theologie Albrecht Ritschls, Leipsic, 1888;
T. Haring, Zu Ritschl's Versohnungslehre, Zurich, 1888;
F. Lichtenberger, German Theology in the 19th Century,
Edinburgh, 1889; E. Bertrand, Une Nouvelle Conception
de la redemption, ha doctrine . . dans le systeme the-
ologique de Ritschl, Paris, 1891; O. Pfleiderer, Die Ritschl'-
sche Theologie kritisch beleuchtet, Brunswick, 1891; H.
Schoen, Les Origines historiques de la thiologie de Ritschl
Paris, 1893; R. Favre, Les Principes philosophiques de la
theologie de Ritschl, ib. 1894; G. Mielke, Das System Al-
brecht Ritschls, Bonn, 1894; G. Ecke, Die theologische
Schule A. Ritschls und die evangelische Kirche der Gegen-
wart, 2 vols., Berlin, 1897-1904; R. Wegener, Albrecht
Ritschls Idee des Reiches Gottes im Licht der Geschichte,
Leipsic, 1897; A. E. Garvie, The Ritschlian Theology,
Edinburgh, 1899; J. Wendland, Albrecht Ritschl und seine
Schuler, Berlin, 1899; F. Nippold, Handbuch der neuesten
Theologie, iii. 439 sqq., ib. 1901 ; A. T. Swing, The Theol-
ogy of Albert Ritschl, New York, 1901; F. Kattenbusch,
Von Schleiermacher zu Ritschl, 3d ed., Giessen, 1903; C.
von Kugelgen, Grundriss der Ritschl' schen Dogmatik, 2d
ed., Gottingen, 1903; J. Orr, Ritschlianism: Exposition
and critical Essays, London, 1903; W Herrmann, Faith
and Morals, London and New York, 1904; C. Stange,
Der dogmatische Ertrag der, Ritschl' schen Theologie nach
Julius Kaftan, Leipsic, 1906; C. Fabricius, Die Entwick-
lung in Albrecht Ritschls Theologie von 1874 bis 1889 nach
Werke dargestellt und beurteilt, Tubingen, 1909; J. K.
Mozley, Ritschlianism: An Essay, London, 1909; and
C. Fabricius, Die Entwicklung in A. Ritschls Theologie,
1874-89, Tubingen, 1909; E. A. Edghill, Faith and Fact;
a Study of Ritschlianism, London and New York, 1910.
An important periodical literature is indicated in Rich-
ardson, Encyclopaedia, pp. 939-940.
RITSCHL, GEORG KARL BENJAMIN: Ger-
man Lutheran, father of the preceding; b. at
Erfurt Nov. 1, 1783; d. at Berlin June 18, 1858.
He was educated at the universities of Erfurt (1799-
1801) and Jena (1801-02), where he came under
rationalistic influences, though later he returned to
positive Christianity. In 1804 he settled in Berlin
as a private tutor, also acting as an instructor at the
Gymnasium zum grauen Kloster, where he grad-
ually rose to be subrector. He also preached after
1807, and in 1810 was chosen third pastor of St.
Mary's, Berlin, where his simple and direct style of
preaching, based on the Bible only, made a deep
impression on all classes. On the reestablishmcnt
of the consistories in the Prussian provinces in 1816,
Ritschl was appointed assessor for Brandenburg,
and in the following year was made a councilor.
Here his duties were practically restricted to the
examination of theological candidates, but in 1818
he collaborated in the preparation of the Berlin
hymnal which appeared in 1829. In 1827 he was
appointed bishop of the Evangelical Church, gen-
eral superintendent of Pomerania, director of the
consistory, and first preacher at the castle church
of Stettin. These positions he filled for many yeara,
his service being interrupted only in 1829-30, when
he was sent to St. Petersburg to collaborate on the
agenda for the Russian Lutherans which was pub-
47
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ritschl
Hitter
lished in 1832. As general superintendent Ritschl
had to encounter much less opposition than as a
member of the consistory, although his coming had
been the signal for a general improvement in
religious and ecclesiastical conditions throughout
Pomerania. After 1847 he had new problems to con-
front, for while he was in sympathy with the intro-
duction of the union into his province, the measure
had resulted in the separatistic movement of Old
Lutheranism (see Lutherans, II.), the difficulty
being complicated by the revival sermons of indi-
vidual preachers. The attempt to obviate schism
brought about the counter-evil of Neo-Lutheran-
ism, which determinedly resisted union, especially
after 1848. These troubles embittered the closing
years of Ritschl's administration, despite his marked
success as general superintendent. Feeling himself
unable to cope, by reason of his age, with the new
questions which were now arising, he resigned his
offices in 1852 and retired to Berlin, and there he
passed the remainder of his life. In 1855 he was
made an honorary member of the supreme ecclesi-
astical council, where his ripe experience proved to
be of the greatest value. (O. Ritschl.)
Biblioghaphy: O. Ritschl, Albrecht Ritschls Leben, chaps,
i.-ix. et passim, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1892-96; idem, Die
Sendung des Bischofs Ritschl nach Petersburg im Jahre
1829, Bonn, 1890; H. Dalton, Zur Geschich'te der evangeli-
schen Kirche in Russland, pp. 1-35, Leipsic, 1893.
RITSCHL, OTTO KARL ALBRECHT: German
Protestant; b. at Bonn June 26, 1860. He was ed-
ucated at the universities of Gottingen, Bonn, and
Giessen from 1878 to 1884 (lie. theol., Halle, 1885),
and in 1885 became privat-docent for church his-
tory at the University of Halle. Four years later
he was called to Kiel as associate professor, whence
he went, in 1894, to Bonn in a similar capacity, where
he became full professor of systematic theology in
1897 He has written: De epistulis Cyprianicis
(Halle, 1885); Cyprian von Karthago und. die Ver-
fassung der Kirche (Gottingen, 1885) ; Schleiermach-
ers Stellung zum Christentum in seinen Reden uber
die Religion (Gotha, 1888); Das christliche Lebens-
ideal in Luthers Auffassung (Halle, 1889); Al-
brecht Ritschls Leben (2 vols., Freiburg, 1892-96);
Ueber Welturteile (1895); Nietzsches Welt- und
Lebensanschauung in ihrer Entstehung und Ent-
wicklung (1897); Die Causalbetrachtung in der
Geisteswissenschaft (Bonn, 1901); Wissenschqft-
liche Ethik und moralische Gesetzgebung (Tubingen,
1903); Die freie Wissenschaft und der Idealismus
auf den deutschen Universitaten (Bonn, 1905); Sys-
tem und systematische Methode in der Geschichte des
wissenschaftlichen Sprachgebrauchs und der philoso-
phischen Methodologie (1906) ; and Dogmengeschichte
des Protestantismus, vol. i., Prolegomena, Biblicis-
mus und Traditionalismus in der altprotestantischen
Theologie (Leipsic, 1908).
RITTER, ERASMUS: Reformer; d. at Bern
Aug. 1, 1546. The place and date of his birth,
like the details of his education, are unknown.
He had, however, acquired distinction as a preacher
at Rottweil, and in 1523 was invited to Schaff-
hausen to counteract the influence of the Franciscan
Sebastian Hofmeister (q.v.), whom Zwingli had
converted to Reformed doctrines. Though received
with great honor and made preacher at the Bene-
dictine abbey of All Saints, he met with no success,
and becoming convinced that he must meet Hof-
meister on his own ground, he began the studies
which resulted in his own conversion to Protestant-
ism. This remarkable change conspicuously ad-
vanced the Protestant cause, and Ritter and Hof-
meister were delegated by the council to accompany
the Baden deputation in 1526 and ably seconded
fficolampadius. In 1524, moreover, Michael Eg-
genstorfer, the last abbot of All Saints, changed the
abbey into a provostship and applied its revenues
to education and charity, as well as to the payment
of the clergy.
In 1525, however, conditions changed. In con-
sequence of a petty insurrection, Hofmeister was
dismissed, and his place was taken by the Roman
Catholic Gallus Steiger. The position of Ritter now
became more difficult. Though the nascent Refor-
mation was not forcibly suppressed, extreme cau-
tion became necessary. Nevertheless, the friends
of Ritter, who was ably counseled by Zwingli, stead-
ily increased in the great council, and they were
aided by the council of Zurich. With the triumph
of Protestantism in Bern (1528) and Basel (1529),
all opposition vanished, and in 1529 an embassy
from Zurich, Bern, Basel, and St. Gall, coming to
Schaffhausen at Ritter's instigation, was cordially
welcomed, so that on Sept. 29 both councils unani-
mously voted to accept the Reformation. With the
abolition of the mass celibacy was renounced, and
within the year Ritter had married an ex-nun, the
sister of Michael Eggenstorfer.
The years following were unfavorable to the fur-
therance of the work. Ritter was involved in futile
controversies with the Anabaptists, and, as an ad-
herent of Zwingli's views, he was in open conflict
with his colleague, Benedikt Burgauer of St. Gall,
who was as pronouncedly Lutheran in his eucharistic
doctrines. The struggle between the two dragged
on, nor could either the appeal of CEcolampadius to
Burgauer or the envoys from Zurich, Bern, and
Basel to the council produce any lasting peace.
Equally futile was the appointment of a committee
of three in Dec, 1530, to hear both sides, for though
Burgauer expressed himself as in error, and though
both he and Ritter signed a formula drawn up by
Butzer and agreed to keep peace, Burgauer's word
was quickly broken. Ritter desired to found a the-
ological school and advised the council to secure
Leo Jud as instructor, but the appointment was
never made, probably because Jud was from the
suspected city of Zurich. Burgauer and Ritter
were accordingly obliged, despite their differences,
to combine in their Biblical lectures for the instruc-
tion of the young, Ritter interpreting the Old Tes-
tament, and Burgauer the New.
In view of the complications arising from the re-
tention of certain usages of the old faith, and in
consideration of the decay of moral discipline, the
c.lergy, in 1532, presented to the council a memorial,
probably drawn up by Ritter, urging the necessity
of action. Burgauer alone refused to sign the me-
morial, which was without result. In the following
year, with the arrival of new assistance in the per-
son of Beat Gerung, the clergy of Schaffhausen de-
Hitter
Ritualism
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
48
termined to introduce a uniform liturgy, and their
unanimous outline for such a liturgy was approved
by the council. Burgauer now objected to some
unessential details and refused to yield, even
when urged by Bullinger and Blaurer. The clergy,
wearied by his obstinacy, finally requested the
council to remove him from his position; and the
council, after some hesitation, acquiesced. Bur-
gauer's partizans, in their turn, insisted on Ritter's
dismissal, and on Whitsunday, 1536, both received
their conge\
On May 8, 1536, Ritter was called to Bern, where
he soon became chief dean. Yet here again he was
involved in controversy. The rigid Zwinglianism
which had formerly prevailed in Bern had been dis-
turbed by the call to the city of two advocates of
the union urged by Butzer, Peter Kunz, and Sebas-
tian Meyer. The unionistic faction was now headed
by Kunz and the Zwinglians by Kaspar Megander
(q.v.). In the following year, however, Megander
left Bern on account of certain changes made with-
out his knowledge by Butzer in a catechism which
he had been commissioned by the council to frame,
Butzer seeing in the original draft obstacles to the
union between the Lutherans and the Reformed.
Ritter, having taken no active part in the affair,
felt able to obey the command of the council to sub-
scribe to the catechism under pain of dismissal,
but Megander, deeply offended by the successful
opposition of Butzer, left Bern for Zurich, soon
followed by bis friend Johannes M tiller (Rhelli-
canus). The compliance of Ritter, though sincere,
especially in view of the needs of the church
at Bern, was disapproved by his partizans; and
clerical dissatisfaction with the action and attitude
of the council led to violent demonstrations. At
this crisis Ritter labored successfully to secure
peace, and at the same time regained the confi-
dence he had forfeited.
In Mar., 1538, Ritter and Kunz were delegates
to the Synod at Lausanne, where the former formed
ties of friendship with Calvin, Farel, and Viret. He
was the only one of the Bernese clergy to welcome
the exiles from Geneva, later accompanying them
to Zurich, where their case was to be considered in
May; and when the council of Bern sent a delega-
tion to Geneva to bring the exiles back, Ritter was
one of the number at the special request of Calvin.
The places of Megander and Rhellicanus at Bern
were filled by the unionistic Thomas Grynseus and
Simon Sulzer, but Ritter, though now the only
Zwinglian among the city clergy, rapidly regained
his wonted sure footing, especially as he was sup-
ported by the majority of the dissatisfied clergy
of the countryside, and until his death he held his
position, unwearied in his polemics.
(G. KlRCHHOFER.)
Bibliography: J. Strickler, Aktensammlung zur schweizeri-
schen Reformaticnsgeschichte, Zurich, 1878-84; M. Kirch-
hofer, Sebastian Hofmeister, ib. 1809; idem, Schaffhauseri-
sche Jahrbucher 1619-29, Frauenfeld, 1838; C. B. Hundes-
hagen, Die Konflikte des Zuinglianismus, Luthertums und
Ca.lvinism.ua in der bernischrn Landeskirche 1632-58, Bern,
1S42; J. J. Mezger, G r-fsrhichle der deutschen Bibelubersetz-
ungen in der schweizerisch-reformierten Kirche, pp. 169
sqq., Basel, 1S76; K. Schweizer, in Theologische Zeit-
schrift aus der Schweiz, 1891; E. Bloach, Geschichle der
schweizerisch-reformierten Kirche, vol. i„ Bern, 1898.
RITTER, KARL: German geographer; b. at
Quedlinburg (31 m. s.w. of Magdeburg) Aug. 7,
1779; d. at Berlin Sept. 28, 1859. He received his
education at Halle; served as pr'vate tutor; be-
came professor of history in the Gymnasium at
Frankfort, 1819; and was appointed professor of
geography in the University of Berlin in 1820, and
gave a new and powerful impulse to that branch of
study. Those of his works which are of interest for
the student of the Bible are Der Jordan und die
Beschiffung des Todten Meeres (Berlin, 1850); Ein
Blick auf Palastina (Berlin, 1852); and Die Erd-
kunde in nineteen parts (1822-59; in part trans-
lated by W L. Gage and entitled The Compara-
tive Geography of Palestine and the Sinaitic Penin-
sula, 4 vols., Edinburgh, 1866).
Bibliography: W. L. Gage, The Life of Carl Ritter, 1867;
A. Guyot, Carl Ritter, Princeton, N. J., 1860; G. Kramer,
Carl Ritter, Ein Lebensbild, Halle, 1875; F. Marthe, Was
bedeutet Carl Ritter fur die Geographie? Berlin, 1880; F.
Ratzel, Beitrag zu K. Ritters 100-jahrigen Geburtstage, in
Kleine Schriften, vol. i., Munich, 1906.
RITUAL: A form of worship or other solemn
service, prescribed and established by law, precept,
or custom, in contrast with a more or less extem-
poraneous mode of worship that depends on the
discretion of the leader or the impulse of the wor-
shipers. Also the office-book of a ritualistic body.
See Ritualism.
RITUAL-EXAMINATION (Gebetsverhor) . From
the time when the Christian Church first developed
into an objective organized institution, certain
proofs of a knowledge of the faith have been exacted
from those accepted into its membership. The
Church has endeavored to guard, confirm, and
cherish the Christian life of its members, by preach-
ing, instruction, and the other instrumentalities of
the care of souls, but also by formal tests, and
admission to its honors and privileges, and even par-
ticipation in the sacraments have been conditioned
upon the result of such examination. Thus during
the Middle Ages sponsors had to show that they
knew at least the creed and the Lord's Prayer.
People gathered for confession before the Holy
Communion were examined, and even bride and
bridegroom had to undergo a test (Braulcxamen;
see Wedding Customs). The Protestant church
rituals of the second half of the sixteenth century
prescribe a public examination for all young people
and servants, which was in no way identical with
the catechetical tests for confirmation. The Pom-
eranian church ritual of 1593 appointed one Sunday
afternoon in each quarter for this purpose. Similar
orders and regulations are contained in the Branden-
burg ecclesiastical order (1572) and in that of the
electorate of Saxony (1580). The Thirty Years'
War abolished these catechetical institutions, and it
was not easy to restore them after the return of
peace. But with the advent of Pietism (q.v.) under
Spener they were revived.
These catechetical institutions underwent a pe-
culiar development in Sweden and East Prussia.
The Swedish ecclesiastical order of 1686 appointed
examinations on a large scale. There was (1) an
examination on the sermon on Sundays when the
Holy Communion was not celebrated; (2) of persona
49
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bitter
Ritualism
engaged to be married, covering the smaller cate-
chism of Luther; (3) church examinations consist-
ing of questions on the catechism and in the season
of Lent on the passion of Christ; (4) in the home,
in which the entire family participated, and lasting
for from five to eight hours. The subject was
usually the catechism, some passages of the Bible, or
the conduct of the people present. At the end a
simple meal was served. These home-examinations
were highly appreciated by the peasants, while in the
cities they were not always well attended, the well-
to-do especially keeping aloof. In East Prussia
the development of catechetical examination un-
derwent several phases. The first is characterized
by the order of Margrave Albert (1543), according
to which it was the duty of every pastor to examine
and instruct all his parishioners in every place of
his parish at least once a quarter. The order of
1633 marks a second phase according to which the
examination was to take place once a year in the
home of the burgomaster or village mayor. In the
course of time the institution was frequently dropped
altogether or maintained itself only sporadically.
After the middle of the nineteenth century these
examinations again came into vogue. The pastor
visited once a year, usually in the fall, every village
and hamlet of his parish. The parishioners pro-
vided for his conveyance and paid other expenses.
Each family had the conference held in the home in
turn and provided for a common meal. The pastor
also usually received a contribution in money and
products of the field. Later the people began to
refuse to provide the pastor with the facilities for
travel, and the conferences sometimes degenerated
into carousals. So they have in large part taken
the form of church services in places where there
is no church. (H. Jacoby.)
Bibliography: H. F. Jakobson, in Deutsche Zeitschrift fur
christliche Wissenschaft und christliches Leben, vi (1855),
nos. 43-45; idem, Das evangelische Kirchenrecht des
preussischen Staates, ii. 608, Halle, 1866.
RITUALE ROMANUM: A Roman Catholic
liturgical book containing the prayers and forms
for the administration of the sacraments, together
with directions for pastoral care, compiled for the
special assistance of parish priests. Books of this
type were drawn up as early as the twelfth century,
primarily for the monasteries, the secular clergy
having none until the fourteenth century. There
were at first no diocesan ritualia, but each parish
priest might compile his own according to local
usage. A book of the type in question was called
Manuale in the thirteenth century, Rituale or Liber
benedictionum in the fourteenth, and Agenda, Liber
obsequiorum, Parochiale, Pastorale, etc., in the fif-
teenth. The name Rituale, however, came into
general use through the introduction of the Rituale
Romanum, when the attempt was made to obviate
the wide divergencies of local usages and at least to
secure harmony in each diocese. It was not, how-
ever, until the Council of Trent that real headway
was made in securing liturgical uniformity; and
even then, though the Roman breviary, missal,
pontifical, and ceremonial were officially sanctioned,
there was no single rituale. Paul V (1605-21),
however, appointed a committee of cardinals who,
X.-
on the basis of the rituale of Cardinal Sanctorio
(1584), the Sacerdotale Romanum of the Dominican
Castellani (1537), and the Sacerdotale of the Lateran
canon Samarino (1579), drew up the Rituale Ro-
manum, which was officially confirmed by the con-
stitution Apostolicm sedis of Paul V (June 17, 1614).
So great, however, was the tenacity of local usages
that this rituale, based on the Roman use, made
slow progress, though it ultimately prevailed.
The Rituale Romanum of Paul V. was revised in
1752 by Benedict XIV., who added two formularies
for the papal blessing, and Leo XIII. had a definite
edition prepared (Regensburg, 1884). It is divided
into ten " titles," subdivided into chapters. The
first title contains general directions for the ad-
ministration of the sacraments; the second treats
of baptism; the third of penance; the fourth of
the Eucharist (the liturgy for which is given in the
missal); the fifth of extreme unction and all pas-
toral care of the sick and dying; the sixth of burial;
the seventh of marriage and churching; the eighth
of the various benedictions; the ninth of proces-
sions; and the tenth of exorcism, and the keeping
of parish records; the whole being concluded by an
appendix containing instructions for missionaries
with various benedictions. (P. Drews.)
Bibliography: On ritualia in general consult A. Franz,
Das Rituale von St. Florian aus dem 12. Jahrhundert, pp.
3-12, Freiburg, 1904 (contains useful bibliography). On
the Roman Rituale consult: G. Catalani, Rituale Romanum,
perpetuis commentariis exornatum, Rome, 1757; H.
Baruffaldi, Ad rituale Romanum commentarii, Venice,
1731; V. Thalhofer, Handbuch der katholischen Liturgik,
ed. A. Ebner, i. 1, pp. 51-52, 59-60, Freiburg, 1894; KL,
x. 1217-18.
RITUALISM, ANGLICAN.
Origin in Tractarianism (§1).
Logical Character of Transition (§ 2).
Parallel Movements (§ 3).
Legal Questions and the Source (§ 4).
Decision Favorable to Ritualism (§ 5).
Decision Adverse to Ritualism (§6).
Attempts to Relieve the Stress (§ 7).
The Work of the Commission (§8).
The Archbishop's Decision (§ 9).
Definitive Settlement not yet Reached (§ 10).
The New Commission's Report (§ 11).
Results; Present Status (§ 12).
" Ritualism " is used as a popular catchword to
describe the second stage of that movement in the
English Church which in its earlier condition had
been named Tractarianism (q.v.). The name first
appears, probably, in connection with the riots in
London at St. George's-in-the-East in 1859 (cf.
quotation from East London Observer of May, 1859,
in Bryan King, Sacrilege and its Encouragement
a Letter to the Lord Bishop of London,
London, 1860).
The revival of interest in Roman dogma, effected
by the Oxford writers of the Tracts for the Times,
was naturally suceeded by a revival of interest in
Roman observances. This practical
i. Origin revival carried the movement into
inTractari- novel circumstances and situations;
anism. for the earlier detection and exhibition
of that sacerdotal structure of the
church which had been secured to it by struggles of
the Elizabethan divines, was carried on, of neces-
sity, in the intellectual, academic region. The claim
Ritualism
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
50
asserted had, first, to make good its doctrinal status :
it had to begin by working its way into the mind
and the imagination. The Tractarian writers recog-
nized this necessary order; they anxiously held
aloof from precipitating those effects, which they,
nevertheless, distinctly anticipated from this teach-
ing. " We the old Tractarians," wrote Dr. Pusey
in the Daily Express, May 21, 1877, " deliberately
abstained from innovating in externals." " We
understood the ' Ornaments Rubric ' in its most
obvious meaning. — that certain ornaments were
to be used which were used in the second year of
King Edward VI.; we were fully conscious that we
were disobeying it ; but we were employed in teach-
ing the faith to a forgetful generation, and we
thought it injurious to distract men's minds by
questions about externals. We left it for the church
to revive " (Letter of Dr. Pusey to English Church
Union). Also, Letter to the Times, Mar. 28, 1874:
" There was a contemporary movement for a very
moderate ritual in a London congregation. We
(the Tractarians) wrere united with it in friendship,
but the movements were unconnected."
As soon as their teaching had secured believers,
it set itself to apply its principles in action; and
this active application of recovered belief in a
sacerdotal church inevitably took the form of re-
covering and reasserting that litur-
2. Logical gical structure which still underlay the
Character of Book of Common Prayer. The move-
Transition, ment, in making this fresh effort,
passed from the study to the street;
it became practical, missionary, evangelistic. It
insisted that its work upon the masses, in their
dreary poverty, demanded the bright attraction
and relief of outward ornament and the effective
teaching of the eye. This change from the univer-
sity to the town was signalized by the establish-
ment of, e.g., St. Saviour's, Leeds (to which the
Tractarian leaders lent all their authority), and of
the Margaret Street Chapel, under F. Oakeley, a de-
voted companion of J. H. Newman.
The transition to ritual was not only a practical
expediency, it was also the logical outcome of the
new position; for the doctrinal revival lay in its
emphatic assertion of the conception of mediation,
of mediatorial offering. This mediation was, it
taught, effected by the taking of flesh; i.e., of the
outward to become the offering, the instrument of
worship. The body of the Lord was the one ac-
ceptable offering, sanctified by the Spirit; and in
and through that mediatorial body all human na-
ture won its right to sanctification, to holy use.
The spirit needs, according to this teaching, an out-
ward expression to symbolize its inward devotion.
Its natural mode of approach to God is through
sacramental signs; and the use of special sacra-
ments justifies, of necessity, the general use of visi-
ble symbols. If grace comes through outward
pledges, then devotion will obviously be right in
using for its realization forms and signs and ges-
tures; love will be right in showing itself through
beauty; and prayer and praise will instinctively
resort to ceremonial.
Xor was the pressure toward ritual merely doc-
trinal. The double movement in the church had
its parallel in the secular world. The spiritual re-
vival of Wordsworth had its reflex in the emotional
revival of Walter Scott. The set ot
3. Parallel things was running counter to Puritan
Movements, bareness. The force and reality ol
imagination in the shaping of fife's in-
terests were recognized with the glad welcome of a
recovered joy. A touch of kindliness repeopled the
earth with fancies and suggestions, and visions and
dreams. This world was no longer a naked factory,
housing the machinery of a precise and unyielding
dogma; nor was it the bare and square hall in which
reason lectured on the perils of a morbid enthusiasm;
it was a garden once more, rich with juicy life, and
warm with color. This literary warmth mixed itself
in with the doctrinal movement toward the enrich-
ment of the churches. The emotions were making
new demands upon outward things; they required
more satisfaction. They had been taught by the
novelists to turn to the past, whether of cavaliers
with plumes and chivalry, or of the Middle Ages
with wild castles and belted knights, and praying
monks and cloistered nuns. All this world of strange
mystery and artistic charm had become alive again
to them, and the revival made them discontented
with the prosy flatness of common life. The churches
were responding to a real and wide need when they
offered a refuge and a relief to the distressed imag-
ination. Everywhere began the Gothic revival.
The restoration of the disgraced and destitute par-
ish churches, which had become practically neces-
sary, was taken up by men full of admiration for
the architecture which had first built them. They
were passionately set on bringing them back as far
as possible into their original condition. The archi-
tects thus were, indirectly, ardent workers on the
side of the ecclesiastical revival. They eagerly
studied liturgical correctness in restoring the beauty
of the chancels, in placing the altar at its proper
height and distance, in arranging the screen and
the stalls, the altar-rails and credence-table. This
combination of ecclesiastical and architectural sen-
timent was greatly furthered by the Cambridge
Ecclesiological Society, which did much to foster
antiquarian exactness, and to promote active efforts
at restoration (A. J. B. Hope, Worship in the Church
of England, London, 1874). This architectural
movement, which dated its earliest impulses from
J. H. Newman's church, built at Littlemore amid
much ferment and anxiety, culminated in the vast
achievements of Gilbert Scott and George Street,
whose handiwork has been left in restored churches
throughout the length and breadth of England.
[Worthy of mention here is the new Roman Catho-
lic cathedral of London, consecrated 1910. Even
though it does not belong to the Anglicans, it ema-
nates from the same source as that named in the
text and the aim was to make it primitive Byzan-
tine in style.] This general restoration of order and
fairness into the public services, which ran level
with the renewal of church fabrics, roused much
popular hostility, which made itself known in riot-
ous disturbances, chiefly directed against the use
of the surplice in the pulpit, following a direction
for its use given in a charge by Bishop Blomfield in
1842.
51
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ritualism
But just as the artistic movement deepened from
the external ornamentation of the Waverley novels
into the impassioned mysticism of Dante Gabriel
Rossetti and the pre-Raffaelite brothers, so the
architectural revival deepened into
4. Legal the symbolism of a more rapt sacra-
Questions, mentalism. This it was which pro-
and the duced the historical crisis; and this
Source, crisis became yet more critical by
forcing into sharp antagonism the civil
and ecclesiastical jurisdictions which were called
upon to deal with the renovating ministers. The
story of the movements turns around the various
legal judgments given to determine the sense of the
" Ornaments Rubric," i.e., the rubric inserted, in
its first form, into the Prayer-Book of Elizabeth,
and reinserted, in a slightly changed form, in the
Prayer-Book of the Restoration, prescribing the
ornaments of the minister and of the chancel during
all offices (see Ornaments) . The aim of the Eliz-
abethan divines had been to secure the main work
of the Reformation, and yet to protect the liturgy
from the " loose and licentious handling " of the
more eager of the Marian exiles. They had therefore
accepted, with some important alterations, the sec-
ond of the two Prayer-Books of Edward VI. as
the standard of the Reformed services; but, owing
to the strong pressure of the queen, they refused
to adopt it also as the standard of the ornaments;
and for this they went back to an earlier date, the
second year of King Edward VI., when much
ritual remained which the first Prayer-Book of Ed-
ward VI. had accepted, but which the second book
had rejected. There is no doubt that this in-
cluded and intended chasubles and copes, albs
and tunicles (see Vestments and Insignia, Ec-
clesiastical), with other details of altar fur-
niture. The question that arose was as to how
far this rubric, when reenacted in the Act of
Uniformity (see Uniformity, Acts of), was in-
tended by the divines of the Restoration to retain
its full original sense. In its earlier form it was
prescribed " until the queen should take further
order." Was that " further order " ever taken;
and, if so, does the later condition of the rubric, in
omitting any reference to this " further order,"
assume that order, or ignore it? If it ignored it,
why was it never acted upon? For certainly these
ornaments have never been in full use. But, if it
assumed it, how was it possible not to define what
the " order " was, or to prescribe still the second
year of Edward VI. as the standard, without a hint
of any qualification? Around this main issue a
swarm of complicated historical, legal, and litur-
gical arguments arose; and who was to decide among
them? Here started up a new difficulty.
The juridical relations between Church and State
were the result of a long and intricate history, which
at the Reformation had finally assumed this gen-
eral form. The old machinery of ecclesiastical
courts remained entire — consisting of the bishop's
courts of first instance, in which the bishop's
chancellor adjudicated; and the archbishop's court
of appeal, in which the dean of arches gave judg-
ment, as the embodiment of the archbishop.
But from this, again, there was to be an appeal to
the king; and for hearing such appeals a com-
posite court had been erected by Henry VIII.,
the court of delegates, the exact
5. Decision jurisdiction of which had never been
Favorable clearly defined. This had continued,
to Ritualism, rarely used, dimly considered, until,
without anybody's notice, a great legal
reform, carried out by Lord Brougham, was discov-
ered to have transferred, without intending it, all
the power of this court of delegates to a certain
committee of privy council, composed and defined
for other general purposes. When suddenly there
was need of a final adjudication on anxious and agi-
tating spiritual questions, it was this committee of
privy council which the rival parties found them-
selves facing. It dealt with the question of bap-
tism, in the case of George Cornelius Gorham (see
Gorham Case); and Bishop Blomfield of London
had in consequence, speaking in the house of lords,
protested against the nature and character of the
committee as a court of final appeal in ecclesiastical
questions. No change, however, had been effected;
and in Mar., 1857, the question of ritual was brought
before it, on appeal, in the case of " Westerton vs.
Liddell," in which case the ritualistic practises of
St. Barnabas, Pimlico, had been condemned in the
consistory court of London and in the court of
arches. Amid great excitement, the committee
pronounced that the rubric permitted generally the
use of those articles which were prescribed under
the first Prayer-Book, and therefore sanctioned the
use of credence-table, altar-cross, altar-lights, col-
ored altar-cloths, etc. From that moment the Rit-
ualists have acted steadily in the belief that this
legal decision was but affirming that which is the
plain, historical sense of the words in the rubric,
and have pressed, often with rashness, sometimes
with insolence, for the revival of all the ritual which
this interpretation justified. In accomplishing this,
they have been aided, advised, and sustained by
the elaborate organization of the English Church
Union, numbering now over 20,000 members,
formed for the defense and protection of those who,
in carrying out the rubric so understood, were men-
aced by perils and penalties. For however favor-
able single congregations might be, yet the work of
revival had to be carried on, (1) in defiance of the
long unbroken usage, which had never attempted
anything beyond that simpler ritual which had
been adopted and allowed as the practicable mini-
mum under Elizabeth and Charles II.; (2) in de-
fiance of the bishops, whose paternal authority was
generally exercised to suppress, by any pressure in
their power, any sharp conflict with this common
custom; (3) in defiance of fierce popular suspicion,
roused by dread of Romish uses, such as broke out,
e.g., in the hideous rioting at St. George's-in-the-
East (1858-60), which the weakness of the bishop
of London and the apathy of the government al-
lowed to continue for months, and finally to suc-
ceed in expelling the rector, Bryan King, and in
wrecking his service; (4) in defiance of the court of
final appeal, which in a series of fluctuating, doubt-
ful, and conflicting judgments, had created a deep
distrust of its capacity to decide judicially questions
so rife with agitated feelings and popular prejudices.
Ritualism
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
52
This distrust — strongly roused by the Mackon-
ochie judgment (1S6S) and the Purchas judgment
(see Puhchas, John), in which it was supposed, in
spite of obvious paradox, that everything not men-
tioned in the Prayer-Book was disallowed and illegal
— culminated in the Ridsdale judgment (1877), in
which it was declared that the " fur-
6. Decision ther order " allowed by the queen had
Adverse to been taken in the issuing of the adver-
Ritualism. tisements under Archbishop Parker
(see Advertisements op Elizabeth),
and that the divines of Charles II. therefore,
when they permitted the ritual of the second
year of Edward VI., really intended only so
much of it as was required in the Elizabethan ad-
vertisements. This startling decision the main block
of High-church clergy found it impossible to respect
or accept; and this repudiation of its verdict brought
to a head the protest that had been made ever since
the Gorham judgment against the validity of the
court itself as an ecclesiastical tribunal. This last
problem had been made critical by the famous Pub-
lic-Worship Regulation Act (1874), introduced in
the house of lords by the archbishop of Canterbury,
in disregard of the protests of the lower house of
convocation, and declared in the house of commons
to be a " bill to put down ritualism " by Disraeli,
then prime-minister, who, in spite of Gladstone's
impetuous opposition, carried it, amid intense ex-
citement, in an almost unanimous house. This bill
swept away all the process in the diocesan courts;
it allowed any three aggrieved parishioners to lodge
a complaint, which, unless stayed by the bishop's
veto, was carried before an officer nominated nor-
mally by the two archbishops to succeed to the
post of dean of arches on its next vacancy. From
him the appeal would be, as before, to the privy
council. Thus the scanty fragments of ecclesiastical
jurisdiction, which, under existent conditions, might
be supposed to balance the civil character of the
court of appeal, were all but wholly abolished. The
attempt to enforce this bill by the bishops was met
by absolute resistance, ending, after being chal-
lenged at every turn by technical objections, in the
imprisonment of four priests. In this collision with
the courts, the Ritualists had the steady support of
the mass of High-church clergy, who had held aloof
from their more advanced and dubious ritual. This
support evidenced itself in the " Declaration " of
over 4,000 clergy, headed by the deans of St.
Paul's, York, Durham, Manchester, and others
(1881).
The condition of things had become intolerable;
and in 1881 a royal commission was issued to con-
sider the whole position of ecclesiastical jurisdiction.
A similar mode of relief had been attempted in 1867,
when a royal commission on ritual had been ap-
pointed, which under the chairmanship of Arch-
bishop Longley, — after taking an im-
7. Attempts mense mass of evidence, and after
to Relieve prolonged discussions — had issued a
the Stress, report on the crucial point of the " Or-
naments Rubric," which recommended
the " restraint " of the use of vestments, " by pro-
viding some effectual process for complaint and
redress," but which, by the use of the word " re-
strain," declined to declare their illegality, and then
had found itself unable to attain anything like
unanimous agreement on the nature of the legal
process which it proposed to recommend. The inner
history of the commission will be found in A. R.
Ashwell and R. G. Wilberforce, Life of S.
Wilberforce, vol. iii. (London, 1882). No legislation
on the main subject followed this divided report.
But convocation in 1879, and the Pan- Anglican
Synod in 1880, had come to resolutions more or less
in accord with the commissioners' report, in the
sense of recommending a prohibitory discretion to
the bishop in any case where a change of vesture
was attempted. Such a recommendation seemed
naturally to allow and assume the abstract legality
of the change. Yet the courts of law had finally
decreed vestments illegal, and the majority of bish-
ops were prepared to accept their interpretation;
and, as long as they did so, no terms of peace could
be found on the basis of the proposal in convoca-
tion. For even though the bishops were willing to
abstain, in favorable cases, from pressing the legal
decisions, they were forced to set the law in motion
by the action of a society called the " Church As-
sociation," which exerted itself to assert and sup-
port the rights of any parishioners who might be
aggrieved by the ritual used in any church. Thus
the exercise of discretion was made all but impos-
sible to a bishop, who could only veto proceedings
brought against a clergyman by giving a valid rea-
son, and yet was forbidden to offer as a valid rea-
son the possible legality of the vestments.
The commission on ritual, therefore, had left the
conflict still severe and unappeased. Only the sig-
nal to relieve its stress had been given. For the last
act of Archbishop Tait, on his death-
8. The Work bed, was to suggest a truce to the fierce
of the legal prosecutions which had embit-
Commission. tered the long controversy, by bring-
ing about an arrangement which would
terminate the historic case of Martin vs. Mackon-
ochie, round which the contest had turned for eight-
een years. Thus the tension slackened; the pos-
sibility of peace seemed to have become conceivable.
The question had widened from the consideration
of ritual to the problem of the permanent adjusts
ment of Church and State. A wiser temper had
come over the public, which had, by the appoints
ment of the commission, allowed that the problem
of ecclesiastical jurisdiction was open to historical
examination. Bishop Temple had come to London
and was determined to avoid all legal measures. A
time for consideration was then secured, pending
the report of the commission. It did not report
until 1883. The report included the historic papers
prepared by Bishop Stubbs and Dean Church.
Under the weight of their authority it decided against
retaining the existing judicial committee of privy
council as the court of final appeal. It proposed a
reconstructed court which should obviously exhibit
its primary character, as a court of the crown and
not of the church, while, on all matters affecting
doctrine and discipline, it should act on the ad-
vise of the spirituality, which for this purpose is
represented by the bishops. No action was taken
on the recommendation of this report — a fatal in-
53
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ritualism
action, for the report had decisively confirmed the
protest of churchmen against the jurisdiction of the
privy council. The existing judgments, which con-
stituted the actual law, now, therefore, lost all
moral authority. No one could expect them to be
obeyed, when the case against the authority which
promulgated them had been formally justified.
This is the heart of all the difficulties that followed.
The appeal to the bishops to make the law obeyed
and the appeal to the clerical conscience to repudi-
ate breaches of law lost all force when once it was
allowed that the law itself was the chief matter in
question.
It was obvious that the bishops must secure obe-
dience by other methods than prosecution in court.
They must discover some basis of agreement other
than that provided by privy council
9. The judgment. At the crisis, providence
Archbishop's gave them the opportunity of finding
Decision, such a basis — an opportunity bravely
seized by the chief authority con-
cerned. In 1888, the Church Association instituted
legal proceedings against Dr. King, Bishop of Lin-
coln, in order to test the legality of certain usages.
The archbishop, after prolonged discussion as to
the legitimacy of his action, decided to hear the
case himself with the episcopal assessors. He gave
his judgment Nov. 29, 1890, sanctioning under de-
fined conditions the use of the mixed chalice, of
altar lights, the adoption of the eastward position,
and the singing of the Agnus Dei; and he forbade
the signing of the cross in giving the absolution and
the benediction. An appeal was made to the privy
council, but that judicial body was far too wise to
traverse a judgment of such intrinsic weight backed
by knowledge superior to their own. They con-
firmed it, even where it was against their former
decision.
Here, then, was a basis provided, on which a gen-
eral conciliation could take effect. The judgment
stood on its own merits as an ecclesiastical pro-
nouncement delivered by the highest authority in
the church. The clergy could afford to accept it, if
the bishops would limit their claims
10. Defini- within its lines. Under the broad as-
tive sumption of these'terms, ten years fol-
Settlement lowed of steady peace. Bishop Temple
not yet had resolutely used his power of veto
Reached, to prohibit legal measures being taken
against the reredos of St. Paul's cathe-
dral, and had been supported in his right by the
highest court of appeal. It was understood that he
had set his face against any appeal to force. He
honored good pastoral work in whatever form he
found it; and he trusted to his own personal influ-
ence to do the rest. It was a noble hope, and in-
deed it ought to have been met by a spontaneous
determination not to take advantage of his confi-
dence. But a great diocese like London can not,
ultimately, be expected to work on delicate under-
standings of this kind. New men come in who have
had no part in the understanding. The extreme
pressure of local work compels even the best men
to concentrate upon its immediate needs, as they
feel them, without regard to the wider political sit-
uation. The situation develops of itself without
anyone exactly intending it. So it was that while
Bishop Temple absorbed himself in the labors of
the diocese and left his clergy to themselves over
ritual, trusting to their honor to keep the terms, a
very wide license was gradually taken, and the in-
dividual divergences of use became perilous and
alarming. The leaders of the movement themselves
became aware that things were getting out of hand;
and, at a sudden crisis over some practises in a city
church, they refused to defend them, drew up a
statement which recognized the necessity for a
stricter supervision of special services, and expressed
their desire for a greater measure of submission to
authority as the first principle of Catholicism. The
bishops were prepared to take action, and they met
with signs of loyal response. Unluckily a storm
broke out, and swept away the opportunity for con-
ciliatory action. A Protestant speaker of the name
of Kensit aroused the passion of the crowd against
illicit practises, and Sir William Harcourt kindled
the flame in parliament by letters to The Times in
the summer of 1898. From this moment reasonable
treatment of a delicate and complicated situation
became impossible. In 1899 Archbishop Temple
made one notable attempt to rescue the cause of
reason and peace from the welter of passion. He
requested the bishop of London to bring before him
as supreme ordinary certain vexed questions about
the use of the incense, of portable lights, of the
practise of reservation, that he might give them a
" hearing "; not as before a court, but as a matter
for " an opinion." He and the archbishop of York
delivered a joint " opinion " on the first two points
and concurred in forbidding any form of reserva-
tion of the consecrated elements. This " opinion "
failed to secure complete compliance. The arch-
bishop, who had been driven back on the law, which
he had done his utmost to avoid, took a singularly
limited and unelastic view of what the law was;
and in the mean time Mr. Kensit, in town and coun-
try, and Sir William Harcourt, in parliament, had
made a peaceable solution impossible. A series of
church discipline bills introduced by Mr. McArthur
in the house of commons, even though they never
got beyond second readings, and not always so far
as that, nevertheless, raised the ultimate issues be-
tween Church and State; and these issues had to
be met. The result was a new royal commission on
ecclesiastical discipline, very strongly manned,
which was authorized to " inquire into the alleged
prevalence of breaches or neglect of the law, relating
to the conduct of divine service, and to the orna-
ments and fittings of the churches; and to consider
the existing power and procedure applicable to such
irregularities." It was appointed in Apr., 1904, and
reported in 1906. It will be noticed that it was to
consider " neglect " as well as disorder, and also to
report on the problem of the jurisdiction of the
courts. By including the last point it confessed
that the key to the ritual disorder lay in the doubt-
ful condition of the authoritative law. Obedience
to the law is possible only when moral confidence
in the law had first been secured.
The commission was faithful to its conception
of the task committed to it, and after taking an
enormous amount of evidence dealing with neglect
Ritualism
Rivius
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
54
and omissions, as well as with the excesses and
irregularities, it accepted the verdict given by
the earlier commission on the con-
n. The stitution of the present court of final
New Com- appeal. It declared that " the present
mission's structure of the ecclesiastical jurisdic-
Report. tion is, in our view, one chief cause of
the growth of ritual irregularities." It
pronounced the present court of final appeal to be
a civil court of the crown, not exercising any au-
thority from the church. It desires this character
to be made clear in a newly constituted court, which
should be obviously secular, and should be required
to refer any matter of doctrine or discipline to the
spirituality, in the persons of the bishops. Until
this new court of appeal has been secured, with its
correspondent church courts, it considers it inex-
pedient to press for coercive measures, excepting
in certain specified cases of special gravity, which
are inconsistent with the teaching of the Church,
and the illegality of which can not be held to de-
pend upon judgments of the privy council. These
include reservation of the sacrament, with a view
to its adoration; benediction with the sacrament;
hymns, prayers, etc., involving invocation of the
Blessed Virgin; the observance of the festival of
the Assumption of the Virgin; the veneration of
images and roods. These practises are to receive
no toleration. But for the other matters it is pro-
nounced desirable " to postpone proceedings until
the reforms recommended in connection with the
final court of appeal and the diocesan and provin-
cial courts can be carried into effect." The com-
mission, therefore, admits the case against the
courts, on which the ritualists have insisted. But
it considers that certain specified acts can be dealt
with as illegal because their illegality is separable
from any judgment of the existing court of appeal.
But the commission did more. It recognized
frankly the impossibility and the inexpediency of
the rigid uniformity of worship implied under the
Elizabethan settlement. Such a uniformity has
never been actually carried out in practise. It be-
longs as an ideal to a time when the ideas of relig-
ious liberty and toleration in Church
12. Results; and State were unknown. " In Church
Present and State alike, these ideas have now
Status. seen their way to undisputed preva-
lence. It is incongruous that the pre-
cise and uniform requirements which were in har-
mony with the Elizabethan ideas of administration
should still stand as the rule for the public worship
of the Church under altered conditions and amid
altered ways of thought." " A large comprehen-
siveness in matters of doctrine has grown up, while
it is sought to maintain a severe rigidity in rites
and ceremonies." This is inconsistent and incon-
ceivable. " It has proved impracticable to obtain
complete obedience to the acts of uniformity in one
direction, because it is not now, and never has been,
demanded in other directions." By these pronounce-
ments the commission has opened a new era. It
has abandoned the ideal of Elizabethan uniformity,
on which an appeal to coercion had rested. It asks
for elasticity or variety within the limits of the
church order, and under the direction of the ordi-
nary. It advises that letters of business be issued
to the convocations to consider (a) a new rubric
regulating the vesture of the ministers, and (b) to
frame modifications in the existing law which will
secure greater elasticity in the conduct of divine
service. It would give the bishops power to au-
thorize special services, etc. So the verdict stands.
The letters of business have been issued, the con-
vocations are engaged in the task of revision. No
action has as yet been taken on the matter of the
final court of appeal. Until this is done the ritual
details under dispute (other than the specified ille-
galities singled out for independent condemnation)
should, according to the report, be held over in sus-
pended judgment. On these lines a conciliatory
policy is made possible, and it is this which the
bishops are now attempting to work. If they are
hurried into immediate coercive measures by popu-
lar passion, at this juncture, they will be defying
the serious and wise conclusion of this powerful
commission. This consideration of the evidence
leads to two conclusions: first, the law of public
worship is too narrow for the religious life of the
present generation. Secondly, the machinery for
discipline has broken down.
Henry Scott Holland.
Bibliography: W. H. Frere, The Principles of Religious
Ceremonial, London, 1906; History of Ritualism, by Vox
Clamantis, London, 1907; P. Martin, Anglican-Ritualism
as seen by a Catholic and a Foreigner, ib. 1881; J. G. Nor-
ton, A Plea for the Toleration of Ritualists, ib. 1881; S. D.
White, Ritualism, ib. 1881; C. Wordsworth, On the Pres-
ent Disquietude in the Church, ib. 1881; Oxoniensis, Ro-
manism, Protestantism, Anglicanism, ib. 1882; Z. H.
Turton, High Churchmen and their Church, ib. 1888; W.
Nicholas, Ritualism, ib. 1890; J. C. Ryle, The Present
Crisis, London, 1892; Romanism and the Ritualism in
Great Britain and Ireland, Edinburgh, 1895; W. M. Sin-
clair, Words to the Laity on Contemporary Ecclesiastical
Controversy, London, 1895; Pere Ragey, La Crise reli-
gieuse en Angleterre, Paris, 1896; F. Peek, The English
Church and the Altar, London, 1897; J. Brown, The Pres-
ent Crisis in the Church of England, ib. 1899; H. W. Clarke,
Romanism without the Pope in the Church of England,
Beckenham, 1899; P. T. Forsyth, Rome, Reform and Re-
action: four Lectures, London, 1899; K. Ireton, Ritualism
Abandoned: or, a Priest redeemed, ib. 1899; A. W. Joliffe>
What is Ritualism f and who are Ritualists ? Shanklin,
1899; J. Meldrum, Lawbreaks in the Church, Singapore!
1899; H. H. Henson, Church Problems. A View of mod-
ern Anglicanism, London, 1900; F. Meyrick, Old Anglican-
ism and Modern Ritualism, ib. 1901; V. Staley, Studies in
Ceremonial, Oxford, 1901; J. Wenn, The Priestly Letters:
or, the Priest that is the Enemy, London, 1902; L. Heitland,
Ritualism in Town and Country, ib. 1903; E. W. Leach-
man, The Church's Object Lessons. Lessons on the Struc-
ture, Symbolism, and outward Worship of the Church, Ox-
ford, 1904; F. Meyrick, An Appeal from the Twentieth
to the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, London, 1905;
W. P. Swain, History and Meaning of the Ornaments Ru-
bric, Bath, 1905; H. Wace, An Appeal to the First Six Cen-
turies, London, 1905; J. Warren, Ritualism, its Leading
Tenets, ib. 1906; C. Walker, The Ritual Reason why, ed.
T. I. Ball, London, 1908; W. Preston, Anti-Ritualism. A
Catechism for Protestant Communicants, new ed., by C.
Neil, ib. 1910.
RIVER BRETHREN: A denomination of
Mennonite origin and peculiarities, dating from a
revival in Pennsylvania in 1770. The name is sup-
posed to be due to the fact that the original mem-
bers were baptized in the Susquehanna River, or,
because living near that stream, came to be known
to others as the " Brethren by the River." Jacob
Engle, the first minister among them, came with
55
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ritualism
Rivius
thirty Mennonite families from Canton Basel, Swit-
zerland, on account of long persecution. The voy-
age was disastrous, one of the ships with the goods
of the emigrants being lost. One company, inclu-
ding Jacob Engle and his brother John, settled near
the Susquehanna River in the southeastern part of
Lancaster County, Pa. A revival in 1770, conducted
by Lutherans, Mennonites, and Baptists, including
Philip William Otterbein (q.v.), Boehm, and the
Engles, resulted in many conversions. Differences
arose among the converts respecting the mode of
baptism and separate movements were the result.
The Engles held to trine immersion and those who
were of the same mind formed the denomination
known simply as the River Brethren, which grad-
ually spread to Ohio, Indiana, Kansas, New York,
and other states, and to Canada. In 1862 the de-
nomination sought a legal status as a body holding
to the principle of non-resistance. Some of its mem-
bers had been drafted for the army in the Civil War,
and a legal status was needed to protect them from
a violation of their principles. At the same time
they adopted the name " Brethren in Christ," which
is also claimed by a small Mennonite body. The
River Brethren have suffered division. Differences
on minor points led to the withdrawal of the Yorker
Brethren in 1843 and in 1852 of the " Brinsers " or
United Zion's Children.
The River Brethren have no formulated creed.
They accept the doctrines known as Evangelical, and
hold to Trine Immersion (q.v.) as the only proper
form of baptism, to confession of sins to God and
man, and to the ceremony of foot-washing in connec-
tion with the eucharist. Non-resistance is one of
their cardinal principles. There are bishops, minis-
ters, and deacons. The deacons have charge of the
business of the churches, serve at the communion
table, and do some pastoral visiting. Ministers are
the teaching body, do parish work, and in the absence
of the bishop administer the communion. The
bishops preside at all council meetings and exercise
all the functions of the ministry. District councils
and the general conference are composed of ministers
and laymen. The latter meets annually and has
charge of the missionary work of the Church. The
denominational headquarters are at Harrisburg, Pa.
The differences between the three bodies are
slight. In the United Zion's Children in the cere-
mony of foot-washing one person both washes and
wipes ; in the other branches one person washes and
another wipes. The three bodies in 1908 reported
201 ministers, 98 churches, and 4,114 communicants.
The Brethren in Christ, the main body, has 174
ministers, 65 churches, and 3,675 communicants.
H. K. Carroll.
Bibliography: Consult the literature under Mennonites.
RIVET, ri-v6', ANDRE (ANDREAS RIVETUS) :
Huguenot; b. at Maixent (27 m. s.w. of Poitiers),
France, Aug., 1572; d. at Breda (28 m. s.e. of
Rotterdam), Holland, Jan. 7, 1651. After com-
pleting his education at Bern, he studied theology
privately at Bern and La Rochelle, and from 1595
to 1620 was at Thouars, first as chaplain of the duke
of La Tremouille and later as pastor; in 1617 he
was elected president of the Synod at Vitr6; and
in 1620 he was called to Ley den as professor of the-
ology. In 1632 Frederick Henry appointed Rivet
tutor of his son, later William II., while the univer-
sity made him honorary professor. In 1641 he at-
tended the prince on his visit to England, and in
1646 was appointed curator of the educational in-
stitution in Breda, where he passed the remainder
of his life.
A rigid Calvinist and an uncompromising enemy
of the Roman Catholic Church, Rivet was in his
day the most influential member of the theological
faculty of Leyden; and together with his colleagues
he drew up, in 1625, the Synopsis purioris theologies,
which discussed the entire field of Reformed dog-
matics in fifty-two disputations. At Leyden Rivet
labored also in Old-Testament exegesis. His nu-
merous writings are divided among the provinces
of polemics, exegesis, dogmatics, and edification.
They were collected in three volumes (Rotterdam,
1651-53), the most important being the Isagoge ad
scripturam sacram Veteris et Novi Testamenti (Dort,
1616). (S. D. van Veen.)
Bibliography: J. Meursius, Athenw Batavm, pp. 315 sqq.,
Leyden, 1625; Les Dernieres Heures de M. Rivet, Delft,
1651, Eng. transl., The Last Houers of . Andrew Rivet,
The Hague, 1652; B. Clasius, Godgeleerd Nederland, iii.
180-186, 's Hertogenbosch, 1851-56; E. and E. Haag, La
France protestante, ed. H. L. Bordier, viii. 444-449, Paris,
1877 sqq.; Liehtenberger, ESR, xi. 238-241.
RIVIUS, riv'i-us, JOHANNES: German humanist
and theologian; b. at Attendorn (42 m. n.e. of
Cologne) Aug. 1, 1500; d. at Meissen (15 m. n.w.
of Dresden) Jan. 1, 1553. In 1516 he entered the
University of Cologne, and later, after studying
manuscripts in Rhenish monasteries, went to Leip-
sic, where he found friendly reception with Kaspar
Borner. After teaching at Zwickau for a short time,
he went to Annaberg, Marienberg, and Schneeberg,
and in 1537 was called to Freiberg as director of the
Latin school and tutor to Duke August. With the
latter, in 1540, he visited the University of Leipsic,
and he also accompanied his pupil to Dresden after
the death of Duke Henry. In the latter city Rivius
was employed in church and school administration,
and when Duke Maurice departed for the Turkish
war in 1542, he was made a member of the bureau
of spiritual affairs. In 1544 he was appointed in-
spector of schools at Meissen, where he evinced ex-
cellent administrative gifts. In 1545 he was made
assessor in the newly established consistory of Meis-
sen, and occupied this position until his death.
The literary activity of Rivius was directed pri-
marily to the humanistic sphere. Here belong col-
lections of notes on Terence, Cicero, and Sallust,
and an edition of the last-named, as well as the
long popular De Us disciplinis quce de sermone agunt,
ut sunt grammatica, dialectica, rhetorica libri duo-
deviginti (Leipsic, 1539). Far more important, how-
ever, were his theological writings, in which the
elegant diction, Biblical and ecclesiastical learning,
and hilosophic training make him appear a pupil
of Erasmus. He was sometimes regarded with sus-
picion by Luther. His polemic writings in behalf of
the new doctrines show an honorable and exact
mode of discussion of the problems involved, and
he did not hesitate to quote from his opponents in
the course of his arguments. To this class of works
belong his De instaurata et renovata doctrina eccle-
Robber Council
Robertson
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
56
siastica (Leipsic, 1541); De abusibus ecclesiasticis
sive erroribus pontificiorum (1546); De admirabili
Dei consilio in celando mysterio redemption is hu-
mance (Basel, 1545); De fiducia salutis -propter
Christum (1552); and De religions et quo pacto se in
hisce dissidiis gercrc jurcntus debeat. Some of his
ethical works are still worth reading, among them
De conscientia bona mentis (Leipsic, 1541); De per-
petuo in tcrris gaudio piorum (Basel, 1550); De
vita et moribus Christianorum (1552); and De stul-
titia mortalium in procrastinanda vitce correctione
(n.d.; Eng. transl. by J. Bankes, London [1550?],
and T. Rogers, London [1582]). To the department
of practical theology, finally, belong his De con-
solandis cegrotantibus (Basel, 1546) and De officio
pastorali (1549). One of his writings was translated
into English by W G(ace) as A Guide unto Godli-
7ics.se, moste worthy to bee followed of all true Chris-
tians (London, 1579). Georg Muller.
Bibliography: The Opera, vol. i., pp. a2 to b3. contain a
Vita by Georg Fabricius, Basel, 1562, new ed., 1614, and
this was often printed separately, e.g., Meissen, 1843.
Consult further: K. Kirchncr, Adam Siber, pp. 9-19, 39,
67, 151-164, Chemnitz, 1887; ADB, xxviii. 709-713.
ROBBER COUNCIL. See Etjtychianism, § 3.
ROBBINS, WILFORD LASH: Protestant Epis-
copalian; b. at Boston Aug. 7, 1859. He was grad-
uated from Amherst College (A.B., 1881) and the
Cambridge Episcopal Theological School (1884).
He was ordered deacon in the same year and priested
in 1885. He was rector of the Church of Our Re-
deemer, Lexington, Mass. (1883-87), and dean of
All Saints' Cathedral, Albany, N. Y. (1887-1903).
Since 1903 he has been dean of the General Theo-
logical Seminary, New York City. He has written
An Essay toward Faith (New York, 1900) and A
Christian Apologetic (1902).
ROBERT D' ARBISSEL. See Fontevrault, Or-
der OF.
ROBERT OF CITEAUX. See Cistercians, § 1.
ROBERTS, WILLIAM HENRY: Presbyterian;
b. at Holyhead (67 m. w. of Liverpool), Wales,
Jan. 31, 1844. He was educated at the College of
the City of New York (A.B., 1863); was statistician
in the United States Treasury Department (1863-
1865) and assistant librarian of Congress, Washing-
ton, D. C. (1866-71); graduated from Princeton
Theological Seminary (1873). He was then pastor
of the Presbyterian church at Cranford, N. J. (1873-
1877); librarian at Princeton Theological Seminary
(1878-86); professor of practical theology at Lane
Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, O. (1886-93);
acting pastor of the Fourth Presbyterian Church,
Trenton, N. J. (1895-1900); and since 1884 stated
clerk and treasurer of the General Assembly of the
Presbyterian Church in the United States of Amer-
ica. He has been American secretary of the Alli-
ance of the Reformed Churches throughout the
World since 1888, chairman of the Committee on
Church Cooperation and Union of the General As-
sembly since 1903, and secretary of the Inter-
Church Conference on Marriage and Divorce since
the same year. In addition to editing the Minutes
of the General Assembly (27 vols., Philadelphia,
1884-1910) and Addresses at the Two Hundred and
Fiftieth Anniversary of the Westminster Assembly
(1898), he has written, History of the Presbyterian
Church (Philadelphia, 1888); The Presbyterian
System (1895); Laws relating to Religious Corpora-
tions (1896); and Manual for Ruling Elders (1897).
ROBERTSON, ALEXANDER: Presbyterian; b.
at Edinburgh, Scotland, Nov. 30, 1846. He was
educated at the University of Edinburgh and has
held pastorates at South Ronaldshay, Orkney
(1875-81), San Remo, Italy (1881-90), and Venice,
Italy (since 1890). He has lectured extensively in
Great Britain on the religious condition of Italy,
the ancient republic of Venice, and similar topics,
and has written Count Campobello and Catholic Re-
form in Italy (London, 1891); Fra Paolo Sarpi, the
Greatest of the Venetians (1894); Through the Dolo-
mites from Venice to Toblach (1896) ; The Bible of
St. Mark: St. Mark's Church, the Altar and Throne
of Venice (1898); The Roman Catholic Church in
Italy (1902); Venetian Sermons (1905); and The
Papal Conquest: Italy's Warning — " Wake up, John
Bull " (1909).
ROBERTSON, ARCHIBALD: Church of England,
bishop of Exeter; b. at Sywell (6 m. n.e. of North-
ampton), Northamptonshire, June 29, 1853. He
was educated at Trinity College, Oxford (B.A.,
1876), where he was fellow from 1876 to 1886 and
dean from 1879 to 1883, and honorary fellow since
1903. He was ordered deacon in 1878 and ordained
priest in 1882. He was principal of Bishop Hat-
field's Hall, Durham (1883-97); principal of King's
College, London (1897-1903); fellow of the same
institution after 1899; member of the Senate of the
University of London (1899-1903); and vice-
chancellor of the same (1902-03). In 1903 he was
consecrated bishop of Exeter. He was examining
chaplain to the bishop of Bristol in 1897, Boyle
lecturer in 1900, and Bampton lecturer in the fol-
lowing year. Besides performing his duties as editor
of Handbooks of Theology from 1896 to 1903, he has
edited and translated the De Incarnatione of Atha-
nasius (2 vols., London, 1884-93) ; prepared Select
Works of St. Athanasius for The Nicene and Post-
Nicene Fathers, 2d series, vii. (London, 1892); and
written Regnum Dei (Bampton lectures; 1901) and
The Roman Claims to Supremacy (1902).
ROBERTSON, ARCHIBALD THOMAS: Baptist;
b. near Chatham, Va., Nov. 6, 1863. He was edu-
cated at Wake Forest College, Wake Forest, N. C.
(A.M., 1885), and Southern Baptist Theological
Seminary, Louisville, Ky. (Th.M., 1888). Since
1888 he has been connected with the latter institu-
tion, where he has been instructor in New-
Testament interpretation (1888-92), professor of
Biblical introduction (1892-95), and professor of
New-Testament interpretation (since 1895). He has
written Critical Notes to Broadus's Harmony of the
Gospels (New York, 1893); Life and Letters of John
A. Broadus (Philadelphia, 1900); Syllabus of New
Testament Greek Syntax (Louisville, 1900); Bibliog-
raphy of New Testament Greek (1903); Teaching of
Jesus concerning God the Father (New York, 1904);
Students' Chronological New Testament (1904); Key-
words in the Teaching of Jesus (Philadelphia, 1906);
Syllabus for New Testament Study (Louisville, 19;<G);
57
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bobber Council
Robertson
Epochs in the Life of Jesus (New York, 1907) ; Short
Grammar of the Greek New Testament (1908; 2d
ed., 1909) ; and Epochs in the Life of Paul; A Study
of Development in St. Paul's Career (1909).
ROBERTSON, FREDERICK WILLIAM: Eng-
lish preacher; b. at London Feb. 3, 1816; d. at
Brighton Aug. 15, 1853. He was the descendant
of a family of soldiers whose traditions afterward
became of decisive influence upon his inner life.
He was brought up under the strong Evangelical
impressions of his home, then studied at Beversley
grammar-school, the gymnasium of Tours, the New
Academy of Edinburgh, and the university of the
same place. His father had intended him for the
ministry, but he himself desired to become a sol-
dier. He was finally articled to a solicitor, but the
sedentary habits of his calling broke down his health.
He was then placed upon the list of dragoons in
India and prepared himself for that service in the
usual manner, but as he had to wait more than two
years for a call, the desires of his father became
urgent so that with self-sacrifice — a characteristic
trait — he entered, in 1837, Brazenose College, Ox-
ford (B.A., 1841; M.A., 1844), to study theology.
He occupied himself for a time with Platonic meta-
physics and Aristotle. As a theologian he clung at
that time to the Evangelical party in its strict Cal-
vinistic expression. The theological ferment at
Oxford impelled him to the study of the Bible, es-
pecially of the Greek New Testament, the most im-
portant portions of which he memorized. In 1840
he took orders and the curacy of the parish of St.
Mary Kalendar, Winchester. Breaking down under
the pressure of hard work and nervous affection, he
was compelled in 1841 to seek relaxation, and went
to Switzerland, meeting there Helen, a daughter of
Sir William Denys, whom he married the same year.
After his return to England he accepted, in 1843, a
position as curate at Christ Church, Cheltenham.
Discouraged by ill success in his official life, he
resigned his position and in 1846 sought rest in
Heidelberg. After a short rest he accepted the
charge at St. Ebbe's in Oxford, and, in 1847, the
incumbency of Trinity Chapel, Brighton, which he
held until his death.
Robertson's character was marked by great in-
tensity of feeling, which led him into an emphasis
of expression that sometimes partook of over-state-
ment. He was broad in his feelings, realizing some-
thing in each of the schools of theology in the An-
glican communion with which he was in sympathy.
He was especially successful in winning the con-
fidence of the working classes. His usefulness was
limited and his own life shortened by the absolute
seriousness of his temperament, which did not per-
mit the soothing and quieting influences of humor to
have their effect in the bearing of petty annoyances.
He was one of the foremost pulpit orators of his
people, excelling less in depth and learning than in
the power of his pathos, warm feeling, dignity, and
beauty of language. Most of his published works,
principally sermons, were issued posthumously.
The most important are : Sermons preached at Trin-
ity Chapel, Brighton (5 series, London, 1855-74,
often reprinted, e.g., 1906, in the later editions with
sketch of the life prefixed. This Is one of the most
remarkable and influential series of sermons ever
issued, and is marked by a fresh, strenuous, and
burning piety and a hunger for souls. They were
written out after delivery, and are much condensed) ;
Literary Remains (1876) among them Lectures on
the Influence of Poetry on the Working Classes. Less
influential were Expository Lectures on St. Paul's
Epistles to the Corinthians (1859), and Notes on
Genesis (1877).
Bibliography: S. A. Brooke, Life and Letters of F. W.
Robertson, new ed., 2 vols., London, 1873 (thorough, sym-
pathetic) ; W. Sawyer, Memoir of Rev. F. W. Robertson,
Brighton, 1853; G. Sutton, Faith and Science, and a
Critique upon Mr. Robertson of Brighton, London, 1868;
F. A. Noble, A Lecture on F. W. Robertson, ib. 1872; G.
MacCrie, The Religion of our Literature, ib. 1875; F. Arnold,
Robertson of Brighton, with some Notices of his Times and
Contemporaries, ib. 1886 (contains many interesting no-
tices of friends of Robertson); J. P. Edgar, Robertson of
Brighton, Edinburgh, 1887; L. Dumas, Un predicateur
anglais, Montauban, 1894; DNB, xlviii. 404-407; and
the list of literature in Richardson, Encyclopaedia, p. 941.
ROBERTSON, JAMES: The name of three Pres-
byterian divines.
1. Church of Scotland; b. at Ardlaw (36 m. n.
of Aberdeen), Aberdeenshire, Jan. 2, 1803; d. in
Edinburgh Dec. 2, 1860. After a brilliant career
at Aberdeen University (M.A., 1820) and study in
the divinity hall there from 1821 to 1824, he was
licensed by the presbytery of Deer and appointed
schoolmaster of Pitsligo, 1825, tutor and librarian
at Gordon Castle, the seat of the duke of Gordon,
headmaster of Gordon's hospital in Aberdeen, 1829,
and at last given a parochial charge, that of Ellon,
1832. In the troubles preceding the disruption of
the Church of Scotland, he took a prominent part on
the side of the moderates who opposed the rupture.
He also sided with the ministers of Strathbogie
presbytery who had been deposed by the general
assembly because they, constituting the majority
of presbytery, had acted contrary to the order
of the assembly in taking a presentee on trial, 1842.
When the disruption came the next year he stayed
in the Kirk, and was made professor of divinity
and church history in the University of Edinburgh,
and so remained till his death. In 1844 he demitted
his parochial charge.
He is remembered for two things, that in 1841
he advised the farmers, in accordance with Liebig's
suggestion, to use bones dissolved in sulphuric acid as
a manure ; and second, that he was the remarkably
efficient chairman of the committee in the Kirk on
the endowment of chapels of ease. In recognition
of his services he was elected moderator of the gen-
eral assembly in 1856.
His publications embrace Exposition of the Prin-
ciples, Operation, and Prospects of the Church of
Scotland's Indian Mission (Edinburgh, 1835); On
the Power of the Civil Magistrate in Matters of Re-
ligion (1835); Observations on the Veto Act (1840);
Statement for the Presbytery of Strathbogie (London,
1841); Answers to the Remonstrance (1841); Ap-
peal for the Advancement of Female Education in
India (Edinburgh, 1846) ; Remarks and Suggestions
relative to the Proposed Endowment Scheme (1846);
Letters to the Editor of the Northern Standard (1854);
Old Truths and Modern Speculations (1860).
Robertson
Robinson
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
58
2. Canadian Presbyterian; b. at Dull (25 m. n.w.
of Perth), Scotland, Apr. 24, 1839; d. in Toronto,
Canada, Jan. 4, 1902. He was born in poverty, at-
tended the school at Dull, but in 1855 removed to
East Oxford, Ontario, Canada, with the family and
then attended school at Woodstock, a neighboring
village; passed the teacher's examination and re-
turned to teach at Woodstock (1857), later near
Innerskip (1859), but in 1863 he matriculated at
the University of Toronto, from which he passed
to Princeton Theological Seminary in 1866 and after
two years entered Union Theological Seminary, New
York City, whence he graduated in 1869. For the
next six years he was pastor of Norwich, Windham,
and East Oxford in the Presbyterian Church of
Canada; in 1S74 he became pastor of Knox Church,
Winnipeg, Manitoba, and in 1877 lecturer in Mani-
toba college in the same place. In 1881 he became
superintendent of missions of his church for Mani-
toba and the Northwest, and so continued till his
death. In 1895 he was moderator of the general
assembly.
While a student in the university he belonged to
the Queen s Rifles and saw service in connection
with the Fenian raid of 1866. Thus early did he
show his courage and his fidelity to duty. When his
church called him to watch over and promote her
missions in the wilds of Canada he addressed him-
self to his task with a skill, devotion, boldness, and
tact which have seldom been equalled, and so he
passes into history as one of the master missionaries.
Those who would know what kind of a life he led
have but to read the tales of Ralph Connor (Charles
William Gordon, q.v.) for he was the " sky pilot "
who moves through them as the great friend of God
and man.
3. Church of Scotland; b. at Alyth (14 m. n.w.
of Dundee), Perthshire, Mar. 2, 1840. He was ed-
ucated at University and King's College, Aberdeen
(M.A., 1859), and St. Mary's College, St. Andrews;
was a missionary of the Church of Scotland at Con-
stantinople in 1862-64 and at Beirut in 1864-75;
minister of Mayfield Church, Edinburgh (1875-77) ;
and since 1877 has been professor of Hebrew and
Semitic languages in the University of Glasgow.
In 1904 he was Murtle lecturer at the University of
Aberdeen. Theologically he is " Calvinistic by tem-
perament, and generally described (by others) as a
conservative theologian or conservative critic." He
prefers, however, " to be regarded as a critic of the
modern school of Old-Testament criticism." He
has edited Sabbath School Teachers' Book, Third
Grade (Edinburgh, 1890), translated the syntactic
portion of A. M tiller's Hebrdische Schulgrammatik
(Halle, 1878) under the title Outlines of Hebrew Syn-
tax (London, 1882) ; and written The Early Religion
of Israel (Edinburgh, 1892); The Old Testament and
its Contents (1893); The Poetry and the Religion of
the Psalms (1898); The First and Second Books of
the Kings in the Temple Bible (London, 1902); and
Five and Twenty Years in a Hebrew Chair (Edin-
burgh, 1903).
Bibliography: On 1: A. H. Charteris, Life of Rev. James
Robertson, Professor of Divinity, London, 1863; idem, A
Faithful Churchman: Sketch of the Life and Work of Pro-
fessor James Robertson, ib. 1897; DNB, xlviii. 410-411.
On 2: C. W. Gordon (Ralph Connor), The Life of James
Robertson, Missionary Superintendent in the North west
Territories, New York, 1908.
ROBERTSON, JAMES CRAIGIE: Church of
England; b. at Aberdeen 1813; d. at Canterbury
July 9, 1882. He was graduated at Trinity College,
Cambridge (B.A., 1834; M.A., 1838); was vicar of
Beckesbourne, near Canterbury, 1846-59; canon
of Canterbury, 1859-82; and professor of ecclesias-
tical history, Kings College, London, 1864-74. His
historical works take high rank. He wrote: How
shall we Conform to the Liturgy of the Church of Eng-
land? (London, 1843); History of the Christian
Church to the Reformation (4 vols., 1854-73; new
ed., 8 vols., 1874-75); Sketches of Church History
(1855-78); Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury (1859);
and Plain Lectures on the Growth of the Papal Power
(1876). He edited P. Heylyn's History of the Refor-
mation (2 vols., 1849); John Bargrave's Alexander
VII. and his Cardinals (1867); and Materials for the
History of Thomas Becket, in the Rolls Series (8
vols., 1875-83).
Bibliography: DNB, xlviii. 412-413.
ROBERTSON, WILLIAM: Church of Scotland;
b. at Borthwick (10 m. s.s.e. of Edinburgh) Sept.
19, 1721; d. in Edinburgh June 11, 1793. After
studying at the University of Edinburgh, he was
licensed and settled at Gladsmuir, 1743; was set-
tled over Lady Yester's Chapel, Edinburgh, 1758;
was translated to the Old Grayfriars Church, 1761.
He was reputed the most eloquent preacher in Scot-
land, but he published only one sermon, the one he
preached before the Society in Scotland for Propa-
gating Christian Knowledge, upon the state of the
world at the coming of Christ (1755). From 1763
till 1780 he was moderator of the general assembly;
from 1762 till 1792 principal of Edinburgh Univer-
sity. His fame with posterity does not come from
his pulpit or administrative ability, but from three
historical works which are now superseded because
later writers have had access to much better infor-
mation than he, but are noteworthy for their style
and their impartiality: The History of Scotland dur-
ing the Reigns of Queen Mary and of King James VI.
till his Accession to the Crown of England. With a
Review of the Scotch History previous to that Period,
and an Appendix containing original Papers (Lon-
don, 2 vols., 1758-59) ; The History of the Reign of
the Emperor Charles V., with a View of the Progress
of Society in Europe from the Subversion of the Ro-
man Empire to the Beginning of the Sixteenth Cen-
tury (3 vols., 1769); and The History of America
(4 vols., 1777-96, going down to 1652 for Virginia
and to 1688 for New England). There are numer-
ous collected editions of his Works (most of them
containing the Life by Dugald Stewart), e.g., 11
vols., London, 1800-02, 12 vols., 1812; 6 vols.,
Edinburgh, 1813; best, 8 vols., Oxford, 1S25, re-
prints often, e.g., 1865.
Bibliography: Besides the life by Stewart, ut sup., there
is An Account of the Life and Writings of William Robert-
son, by G. Gleig, Edinburgh, 1S12; and one in Lord
Brougham's Lives of Men of Letters and Science, 2 vols..
London, 1845^6. References to scattered notices are
given in DNB, xlviii. 425-430.
ROBINS, HENRY EPHRAIM: Baptist; b. at
Hartford, Conn., Sept. 30, 1827 He was educated
59
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Robertson
Robinson
at the Literary Institute, Suffield, Conn., Fairmount
Theological Seminary, and Newton Theological
Institution, from which he was graduated in 1861.
He held Baptist pastorates at the Central Baptist
Church, Newport, R. I. (1861-67), and the First
Baptist Church, Rochester, N. Y. (1867-73); was
president of Colby University (1873-82); and
professor of Christian ethics in Rochester Theological
Seminary (1882-1904). He has written Harmony
of Ethics with Theology (New York, 1891); The
Christian Idea of Education as distinguished from
Secular Education (Philadelphia, 1895); and
Ethics in Christian Life (1904).
ROBINSON, CHARLES HENRY: Church of
England; b. at Keynsham (5 m. s.e. of Bristol),
Somerset, Feb. 27, 1861. He was educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge (B.A., 1883), and was ordered
deacon in 1884 and ordained priest in 1885. He was
curate of Pateley Bridge, Yorkshire (1884-86) and of
St. Johns, Darlinghurst, Sydney, N. S. W. (1886-
1887). He became fellow and tutor of St. Augus-
tine's College, Canterbury (1889), and was vice-
chancellor of Truro Cathedral and vice-principal of
the Chancellor's School at Truro (1890-93) . In 1892
he visited Armenia to report to the archbishop of
Canterbury on the condition of the Armenian
Church. He was engaged in a first expedition to
Kano, the commercial capital of central Soudan
(1893-95), and since 1896 has been lecturer in Hausa
in the University of Cambridge, honorary canon of
Ripon since 1897, and in 1902 was made editorial
secretary to the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel. He has written The Church and her Teach-
ing (London, 1893) ; Hausaland: or, Fifteen Hun-
dred Miles through the Central Soudan (1896)
Specimens of Hausa Literature (Cambridge, 1896)
Grammar of the Hausa Language (London, 1897)
Mohammedanism, has it any Future? (1897); Dic-
tionary of the Hausa Language (in collaboration with
W. H. Brooks; 2 vols., London, 1899); Studies
in the Character of Christ (1900) ; Nigeria, our latest
Protectorate (1900) ; Human Nature a Revelation of the
Divine (1902) ; Studies in Christian Worship (1908) ;
and Studies in the Resurrection of Christ (1909).
ROBINSON, CHARLES SEYMOUR: Presbyte-
rian; b. at Bennington, Vt., Mar. 31, 1829; d. at
New York Feb. 1, 1899. He graduated at Williams
College, 1849; studied at Union (New York) and
Princeton Theological Seminaries; was pastor at
Troy, N. Y., 1855-60; Brooklyn, N. Y., 1860-68;
the American Chapel at Paris, France, 1868-71;
Madison Ave. Church, New York, 1871-88; and
of other churches at New York, 1890-92, and after.
He has published volumes of sermons entitled,
Christian Work (New York, 1874) and Bethel and
Penuel (1874); Studies of Neglected Texts (1883);
Sermons in Songs (1885); and Simon Peter: His
Early Life and Times (2 vols., 1889). He is espe-
cially famous as the compiler of books of hymns and
tunes, some of which are, Songs of the Church (New
York, 1862); Songs for the Sanctuary (18C5, 1889);
Psalms, Hymns, and Spiritual Songs (1874); and
Latides Domini (1884-90).
Bibliography: S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 472-
473, New York, 1886; Julian, Hymnology, p. 969.
ROBINSON, EDWARD: Biblical scholar, and
pioneer in modern explorations in Palestine; b.
at Southington, Conn., Apr. 10, 1794; d. in New
York City Jan. 27, 1863. He was graduated from
Hamilton College (1816), and after studying law at
Hudson, N. Y., returned to his alma mater as tutor
in mathematics and Greek (1817-18). In 1818, he
married Miss Eliza Kirkland, daughter of the Oneida
missionary, who died the next year. From his mar-
riage until 1821, he worked his wife's farm, but also
pursued his studies. In 1821 he went to Andover to
superintend the printing of his edition of part of the
Iliad (bks. i.-ix., xviii., xxii.), which appeared in
1822, and while there, under Moses Stuart's influence,
began his career as a Biblical scholar and teacher.
From 1823 to 1826 he was instructor in the Hebrew
language and literature at Andover Theological
Seminary, meanwhile being busily occupied with
literary labors. He assisted Professor Stuart in the
2d ed. of his Hebrew Grammar (Andover, 1823, 1st
ed., 1813), and in his translation of Winer's Gram-
mar of the New-Testament Greek (1825), and alone
translated Wahl's Clavis philologica Novi Testa-
menti (1825). In 1826 he went to Europe, and
studied at Gottingen, Halle, and Berlin, making the
acquaintance, and winning the praises, of Gesenius,
Tholuck, and Rodiger in Halle, and Neander and
Ritter in Berlin. In 1828 he married the youngest
daughter of L. A. von Jacob, professor of philosophy
and political science at the university of Halle, a
highly gifted woman of thorough culture, well known
before her marriage by her pseudonym of "Talvi."
In 1830 he returned to America, and from 1830 to
1833 was professor-extraordinary of Biblical litera-
ture, and librarian at Andover. In 1831 he founded
the Biblical Repository, subsequently (1851) united
with the Bibliotheca Sacra, to which he contributed
numerous translations and original articles. In
1832 he issued an improved edition of Taylor's trans-
lation of Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible, and in
1833 a smaller Dictionary of the Holy Bible, and a
translation of Buttmann's Greek Grammar (exten-
sively used as a text-book). In 1833 ill-health, in-
duced by his severe labors, compelled him to resign
his professorship, and he removed to Boston. In
1834 he brought out a revised edition of Newcome's
Greek Harmony of the Gospels; in 1836, a translation
of Gesenius' Hebrew Lexicon (5th edition, the last
in which Robinson made any changes, 1854), and the
independent Greek and English Lexicon of the New
Testament (revised ed., 1850). In 1837 he was called
to be professor of Biblical literature in Union
Theological Seminary, New York City. Prior to
entering upon his duties, he sailed in July, 1837, for
the Holy Land, and in conjunction with Rev. Dr. Eli
Smith, the accomplished Arabic scholar and faithful
missionary of the American Board in Syria, explored
all the important places in Palestine and Syria.
In Oct., 1838, he returned to Berlin; and there for
two years worked upon his Biblical Researches in
Palestine, Mount Sinai, and Arabia Petrma. This
great work, which at once established the author's
reputation as a geographer and Biblical student of
the first rank, appeared simultaneously in London,
Boston, and in a German translation carefully re-
vised by Mrs. Robinson, and carried through the
Robinson
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
60
press in Halle by Professor Rodiger (3 vols., 1841).
In recognition of his eminent services, he received
in 1S42 the Patron s Gold Medal from the Royal
Geographical Society of London, and the degree
of D.D. from the university of Halle, while in 1844
Yale College gave him that of LL.D. In 1852 he
visited Palestine again, and published the results of
this second visit in 18.56, in the second edition of his
Biblical Researches, and in a supplemental volume,
Later Biblical Researches in Palestine and the Adjacent
Regions (3d. ed. of the whole work, 3 vols., 1867).
Dr. Robinson regarded the work as only a prepara-
tion for a complete physical, historical, and topo-
graphical geography of the Holy Land. But re-
peated attacks of illness undermined his constitution
and an incurable disease of the eyes obliged him in
1S62 to lay down his pen. After his death, the first
part of the projected work, the Physical Geography
of the Holy Land, which was all he had prepared,
was published in English (London and Boston, 1865)
and in German translation by his wife (Berlin).
He also prepared a Greek Harmony of the Gospels
(1S45), which was far superior to anything of the
kind which had then appeared, and in 1846 an
English Harmony.
In May, 1862, he made his fifth and last visit to
Europe, but failed to receive any permanent benefit
to his eyesight. In Nov. he returned, and resumed
his lectures, but died after a brief illness.
Dr. Robinson was a man of athletic form and im-
posing figure, though somewhat bent in later years;
of strong, sound, good sense; reserved, though when
in congenial company often entertaining and humor-
ous. He was thorough and indefatigable in his
investigations, skeptical of all monastic legends,
reverent to God's revelation. Outwardly cold, his
heart was warm, and his sympathies tender. He is
probably the most distinguished Biblical scholar
whom America has produced, indeed, one of the most
distinguished of the nineteenth century. The
original manuscript of Dr. Robinson's Biblical Re-
searches and a part of his library are in the posses-
sion of the Union Theological Seminary.
P. ScHAFFf. D. S. SCHAFF.
Bibliography: The memorial addresses by R. D. Hitch-
cock and H. B. Smith are in Life, Writings, and Character
oj Edward Robinson, New York, 1863; A. P. Stanley, Ad-
dresses and Sermons in America, pp. 23-34, ib. 1879; G. L.
Prentiss, The Union Theological Seminary in the City o
New York, pp. 243-254 et passim, ib. 1889.
ROBINSON, GEORGE LIVINGSTONE: Presby-
terian; b. at West Hebron, N. Y., Aug. 19, 1864. He
was graduated from Princeton College (A.B., 1887),
Princeton Theological Seminary (1893), and studied
at the universities of Berlin (1893-94) and Leipsic
(Ph.D., 1895). He was an instructor in the Syrian
Protestant College, Beirut, Syria (1887-90); pastor
of the Presbyterian church at Roxbury, Mass.
(1896); professor of Old-Testament literature and
exegesis at Knox College, Toronto (1896-98); held
a similar position in McCormick Theological Semi-
nary, Chicago (1 SOS- 19(16); and was appointed pro-
fessor in the American School of Archeology at
Jerusalem (1906). He has made extensive explora-
tions in Palestine, particularly in the peninsula of
Sinai and Kadesh-Barnea. In theology he is a con-
servative liberal. He has written The Origin and
Date of Zechariah ix.-xiv. (Chicago, 1896); The
Biblical Doctrine of Holiness (1904); and Leaders of
Israel: History of the Hebrews from the Earliest
Times to the Downfall of Jerusalem, A.D. 70 (New
York, 1906).
ROBINSON, HENRY DOUGLAS: Protestant
Episcopal missionary bishop of Nevada; b. at
Lowell, Mass., Mar. 15, 1860. He was educated at
Racine College (B.A., 1884), and was assistant rec-
tor of the grammar-school of the same institution in
1884-85, and instructor in mathematics in San Mateo
Military Academy, San Mateo, Cal., in 1885-89.
Having been ordered deacon in 1886 and priested in
1888, he was also curate of St. Matthew's in the same
city until 1889, after which he was rector (1889-99)
and warden (1899-1908) of the grammar-school of
Racine College. In 1908 he was consecrated mis-
sionary bishop of Nevada.
ROBINSON, JOHN : English Separatist, the min-
ister of the Pilgrim Fathers ; b. probably at Lincoln,
about 1575; d. at Leyden Mar. 1, 1625. He entered
Corpus Christi (or Benet) College, Cambridge, in
1592 (B.A., 1596; fellow, 1598; M.A., 1599); was
curate of St. Andrew's, Norwich, 1602; married
1604; was compelled to leave his charge because
he had criticized prelacy and the ceremonies of
the Church of England, 1606; then is heard of in
many places anxiously endeavoring to find out
his duty as to leaving the church. Finally he
decided to leave and in 1606 became an officer
of the Separatist congregation meeting at William
Brewster's house, Scrooby, Nottinghamshire; he
went with the congregation to Amsterdam in 1608,
and in May, 1609, settled in Leyden, where he was
publicly ordained as pastor and Brewster became
ruling elder. In Jan., 1611, Robinson and three
others bought a house for 8,000 guilders, but, proba-
bly owing to difficulty in raising the money, did not
obtain possession till May, 1612; the building was
then used as a church and dwelling, and a score of
small houses were erected on the property for the
poorer members. In Sept., 1615, Robinson was
admitted a member of the university as a student of
theology and attended the lectures of Episcopius
and Polyander (Jan Kerckhoven). He is said to
have entered actively into the Arminian controver-
sies, taking the Calvinistic side. The determina-
tion to emigrate to America was formed as early as
1617, when John Carver, a deacon, and Robert
Cushman, a man of business experience, were sent
to London to negotiate with the London- Virginia
Company, carrying with them seven articles of be-
lief subscribed by Robinson and Brewster as evi-
dence of their orthodoxy and loyalty. The first
company of emigrants crossed the Atlantic in the
Mayflower and landed at Plymouth, Dec. 21, 1620,
under Brewster's guidance. Robinson remained in
Holland with the majority of the congregation, who
chose to defer their departure, and he died before
he was able to unite his divided flock. He was
buried Mar. 4, 1625, in St. Peter's Church, Leyden.
His congregation was broken up, some going to New
England and others to Amsterdam. In 1865 a
marble slab was placed on the building occupying the
61
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Robinson
site of Robinson's house in Ley den (taken down
about 1650), and in 1891 a bronze tablet was dedi-
cated on St. Peter's Church. Robinson was a man
of amiable character, of sound judgment and good
sense, and exercised a good influence over all the
English in Holland. See Congregationalists,
I., 1, §§ 5-7. His Works (nearly complete), with
memoir by Robert Ashton, appeared in 3 vols.,
London, 1851. The most important are A Justifica-
tion of Separation from the Church of England (Ley-
den, 1610); Of Religious Comunion, Private and
Public (1614), a reply to Thomas Helwys and John
Smyth; Apologia justa et necessaria quorumdam
Christianorum dictorum Brovmistarum sive Barrowis-
tarum (1619; in Eng., 1625); Observations, Divine
and Moral, essays on moral and religious topics
(1625; 1628; 1638).
Bibliography: The first source for a life is Robinson's own
writings, and next to that is W. Bradford, Hist, of Plym-
outh Plantation, in Collections of Massachusetts Historical
Society, 4 series, vol. iii., 1856, cf. A. Young, Chronicles
of the Pilgrim Fathers, 2d ed., Boston, 1844. The prin-
cipal external sources are conveniently and compactly
brought together by E. Arber in The Story of the Pilgrim
Fathers 1606-23 . as Told by themselves, their Friends,
and their Enemies, London, 1897. Consult further: O. S.
Davis, John Robinson, the Pilgrim Pastor, Boston, 1903;
H. M. Dexter, Congregationalism of the Last Three Hun-
dred Years, pp. 357-410 et passim, New York, 1880; D.
Campbell, The Puritan in Holland, England, and America,
■ ii. 240 sqq., ib. 1893; W. Walker, in American Church
History Series, iii. 57-72, ib. 1894; idem, Ten New Eng-
land Leaders, pp. 17-29 et passim, ib. 1901; A. E. Dun-
ning, Congregationalists in America, ib. 1894; John Brown,
The Pilgrim Fathers of New England and their Puritan
Successors, ib. 1897; C. Burrage, New Facts concerning
John Robinson, Pastor of the Pilgrim Fathers, Oxford, 1910
(used in the foregoing sketch); DNB, xlix. 18-22 (where
reference is made to scattering notices). Much of the
literature cited under Puritans, Puritanism will be
found to contain material on the subject.
ROBINSON, JOHN EDWARD: Methodist Epis-
copal bishop in Southern Asia; b. at Gort (28 m.
n. of Limerick), County Galway, Ireland, Feb. 12,
1849. He was graduated at Drew Theological
Seminary (1874), and in that year went to India as
a missionary. He was presiding elder of the Bur-
mah District (1884-88), the Bombay District (1888-
1896), the Asansol District (1896-1900), and the Cal-
cutta District (1900-04). He was elected bishop
in 1904. In theology he is a liberal evangelical. In
addition to editing the Burmah Evangelist from
1884 to 1887 and the Indian Witness from 1896 to
1904, he has written Apostolic Succession Refuted
(Rangoon, 1884) and The Rise and Progress of
Methodism (1899).
ROBINSON, JOSEPH ARMITAGE: Church of
England; b. at Keynsham (5 m. s.e. of Bristol),
Somerset, Jan. 9, 1858. He was educated at Christ's
College, Cambridge (B.A., 1881), and was ordered
deacon in 1881 and advanced to the priesthood in
the following year. He was then domestic chaplain
to the bishop of Durham (1883-84), curate of Great
St. Mary's, Cambridge (1885-86), Cambridge White-
hall preacher (1886-88), vicar of All Saints', Cam-
bridge (1888-92), Norrisian professor of divinity at
Cambridge (1893-99), and canon of Westminster
(1899-1902). Since 1902 he has been dean of West-
minster. He was likewise fellow of his college in
1881-99, of which he has been honorary fellow since
1904, and was dean of the same college in 1884-90.
He was examining chaplain to the bishop of Bath
and Wells in 1888-92, a prebendary in Wells Cathe-
dral in 1894-99, select preacher at Oxford in 1899,
and rector of St. Margaret's, Westminster, in 1899-
1900, while since 1902 he has been a chaplain-in-
ordinary to the king. He prepared the English
translation, with a preface and appendices, of S.
Lampros's Collation of the Athos Codex of the Shepherd
of Hernias (Cambridge, 1888) ; and edited the larger
portion of the Greek text of the "Apology" of Aris-
tides for J. R. Harris's edition of the Syriac version
of the same document (1891) ; The Passion of Saint
Perpetua (1891) ; and The Philocalia ofOrigen (1893) ;
besides editing Texts and Studies: Contributions
to Biblical and Patristic Literature (Cambridge,
1891 sqq.); and An Unrecognized Westminster
Chronicler, 1381-1394 (1907). As independent
works he has written The Gospel according to
Peter and the Revelation of Peter (Cambridge, 1892;
in collaboration with M. R. James) ; Euthaliana:
Studies of Euthalius (1895) ; Unity in Christ, and
other Sermons (London, 1901); Study of the
Gospels (1902); Some Thoughts on the Incarna-
tion (1903); St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians:
Revised Text and Translation, with Exposition and
Notes (1903); Some Thoughts on Inspiration (1905);
Some Thoughts on the Athanasian Creed (1905); The
Vision of Unity (1908; sermons); The Historical
Character of St. John's Gospel (1908); St. Paul's
Epistle to the Ephesians, an Exposition (1909);
The Manuscripts of Westminster Abbey (1909; with
M. R. James).
ROBINSON, ROBERT: Baptist; b. at Swaff-
ham (25 m. w. of Norfolk), Norfolk, Sept. 27, 1735;
d. at Birmingham June 8, 1790. From 1761 he was
pastor of a society at Cambridge, acquired consider-
able land, and engaged at the same time in business
as a corn and coal merchant; and, besides preach-
ing on Sundays at Cambridge, did Evangelical work
in as many as fifteen neighboring stations during
week-days. In his Plea for the Divinity of our Lord
Jesus Christ (Cambridge 1776; new ed., 1813) he
represented Sabellian views, was influenced by
Joseph Priestley (q.v.), and in a letter (1788) scouted
the idea of the doctrine of the Trinity and of the
personality of the Spirit. Deficient in training, he
taught himself four or five languages, possessed great
powers of speech, and his History of Baptism (Lon-
don, 1790) was strongly written, minute in learning,
and abounding in rustic witticism. His Posthumous
Works were issued in 1792; a volume of Sermons in
1804; his Miscellaneous Works, ed. B. Flower, in
4 vols., in 1807; and Select Works, ed. W Robinson,
1861. He wrote the two popular hymns "Come
thou Fount of every blessing" (1758) and "Mighty
God, while angels bless thee" (1774).
Bibliography: The funeral sermons by Joseph Priestley,
Abraham Rees, and Joshua Toulmin were all published
in 1790. The monograph is by G. Dyer, Memoirs of the
Life and Writings of Robert Robinson, London, 1796.
Memoirs by the editors were prefixed to the Miscella-
neous Works and Select Works, ut sup. Consult further:
S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 116-117, 352-357,
New York, 1886; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 969-970.
Robinson
Rode
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
62
ROBINSON, STUART: Presbyterian; b. at
Strabane (13 m. s.s.w. of Londonderry), Ireland,
Xov. 26, 1816; d. at Louisville, Ky., Oct. 5, 1881.
He was graduated at Amherst College, 1836; studied
theology at Union Theological Seminary, Va., and
at Princeton; was ordained, 1842; pastor at Kan-
awha Salines, W Va., 1841^7; at Frankfort, Ky.,
1847-52; at Baltimore, 1852-56; was professor of
church polity and pastoral theology in the Presbyte-
rian theological seminary at Danville, Ky., 1856-57;
and pastor at Louisville, Ky., 1858-81. He was one
of the most prominent clergymen of the South, and
published The True Presbyterian; but, his loyalty
being doubted, the paper was suppressed by the
military in 1S62, and he removed to Canada, preach-
ing at Toronto. In 1866 he returned to his pastorate
at Louisville and resumed his journal under the title
Free Christian Commonwealth. Expelled from the
general assembly in 1866 for signing the " Declara-
tion and Testimony " (a protest against political
deliverances by the official bodies of the church), he
induced the synod of Kentucky to unite with the
general assembly of the Southern Presbyterian
Church in 1869. Among his published works are,
The Church of God an Essential Element of the Gospel
(Philadelphia, 1858); Slavery as Recognized by the
Mosaic Law (Toronto, 1865); and Discourses of
Redemption (Xew York, 1866; Edinburgh, 1869).
ROBSON, GEORGE: United Free Church of
Scotland; b. at Glasgow May 8, 1842. He was edu-
cated at the university of his native city (M.A.,
1861), the universities of Erlangen, Berlin, Tu-
bingen, and Geneva (1862-65), and United Presby-
terian Hall, Edinburgh (1866). In 1866 he was or-
dained minister of Union Street Church, Inverness,
where he remained until 1895, when he accepted a
call to the pastorate of Bridgend Church, Perth.
He retired from the active ministry in 1903, and
since that time has resided in Edinburgh, although
he still remains senior pastor of Bridgend. He has
taken a prominent part in educational movements
and was one of the founders of the Northern Coun-
ties Institute for the Blind. In 1874 he visited
Norway to investigate recent religious movements
in that country, and fifteen years later paid a similar
visit to the Church missions in the West Indies. He
has been the editor of The Missionary Record since
1891. His theological position is essentially con-
servative, and he has a strong desire for union among
evangelical churches and for their cooperation in
evangelistic work. In addition to translating and
editing the first volume of the English version of
I. A. Dorner's Geschichte der protestantischen Theol-
ogie, besonders in Deutschland (Munich, 1867) under
the title History of Protestant Theology, particu-
larly in Germany (Edinburgh, 1871) and pre-
paring the English translation of the seventh edition
of G. A. Warneck's Abriss einer Geschichte der protes-
tantischen Missionen von der Reformation bis avf die
Gegenwart under the title Outline of the History
of Protestant Missions (Edinburgh, 1901), he has
written Tiie Story of tlie Jamaica Mission (Edin-
burgh, 1894).
ROCHELLE: A city on the west coast of France
in the department of the Charente^Inferieure,
having a population of about 28,000. It is a suf-
fragan bishopric of Bordeaux and a fortress of the
first class. Its origin dates from the tenth century
when the town grew up around a feudal castle built
upon a rocky escarpment (Rupella, Rochella) in the
midst of the marshes of the lower Charente. In the
twelfth century it became the chief place of the feu-
dal county of Aunis. The city and territory passed
to England with the marriage of Eleanor of Aqui-
taine to Henry II. (1151), and remained under Eng-
lish rule until 1224 when it was captured by Louis
VIII. During the Hundred Years' War, it was
taken by the English and formally ceded by France
in the Treaty of Bretigny (1360). But it continued
to remain French in spirit. In 1372 the Rochellois
refused to help the fleet of the Earl of Pembroke
which was destroyed by a Castilian fleet in the serv-
ice of France in the Bay of Biscay. In recognition
of this service Charles V. confirmed anew the city s
ancient municipal privileges. Its harbor became
an important roadstead of the French marine and
it was from Rochelle that the French discoverer
Bethencourt sailed in 1402 for the conquest of the
Canary Isles. The chief interest in La Rochelle,
however, is religious, in connection with the Hugue-
not wars. About 1534 Calvinism acquired an im-
portant following in the region round about, and
when the wars of religion began in 1562, Rochelle
became an important Protestant stronghold in the
west of France, rivaling Montauban and Mont-
pellier in the south. Its peculiar importance lay
in the fact that it was open to the sea and had ready
communication with its coreligionists in England
and Holland. During the third civil war (1572-74),
which was precipitated by the Massacre of St.
Bartholomew,.Rochelle was ineffectually besieged by
the Roman Catholic forces under command of the
duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX. The peace
which terminated this war had an important part in
shaping the ultimate settlement of the Huguenot
question by the Edict of Nantes. In 1624, when
the Huguenot troubles broke out anew, but under
radically changed conditions (see Richelieu),
Rochelle again was their chief stronghold. The situ-
ation was all the more dangerous to France because
the Huguenots were operating in connection with
the English under the duke of Buckingham, whoso
fleet had captured the Island of Re. Fortunately
for the king Cardinal Richelieu was at the helm. On
Aug. 15, 1627, the royal army invested the city.
The difficulties of the siege were great. The walls
were so strong that with the means which siege-
craft possessed at that time it seemed impossible to
force them. The chief difficulty, however, was the
ready assistance of England. Richelieu did not lay
siege to the place in regular form at once. He at-
tempted one or two surprises, but sapping and
mining were not effective and no assault was made.
Instead a long line of redouts, some three leagues
in length and connected by forts, was thrown up
from one side of the bay to the other. It was then
decided to close the bay. In accordance with the
plans of an Italian engineer and a Parisian architect,
an enormous dike was built. The work was be-
gun at the end of November, with a spur of masonry
from each side of the bay, which when completed
63
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Robin sou
Rode
was over 1,400 paces long. By May, 1628, the con-
struction of the mole was so well advanced that an
English relief fleet was unable to enter the harbor.
Meantime Rochelle was famishing. Everything
edible was devoured, even boiled parchment.
Finally, on Oct. 28, 1628, the city surrendered. Its
privileges were abolished, its property was attached
to the royal domain, its walls were leveled, and the
Roman Catholic religion was restored within it.
But Richelieu's opposition had been purely political.
Freedom of worship was still left to the Protestants.
Under the active commercial policy of Colbert
Rochelle shared with all the Huguenots of France in
the prosperity of the times. It had important com-
mercial connection with the French colonies in
America, with Santo Domingo, and the West African
coast. But the revocation of the Edict of Nantes
(q.v.; also see Nimes, Edict of) in 1685 was a blow
from which it never recovered. It is estimated then
to have lost 5,000 inhabitants. So low did it sink
that even during the French Revolution and Napole-
onic wars it had almost no history. To-day it is a
dull provincial town engaged in the fisheries and
having some South American trade. See Hugue-
nots; Richelieu; and Rohan, Henri, Due de.
James Westfall Thompson.
Bibliography: J. W. Thompson, Wars of Religion in France,
1669-76, Chicago, 1909 (with extensive bibliography; re-
lates to the siege of 1573-74); A. Barbot, Hist, de la
Rochelle, Paris, 1886; T. E. Kemmerer, Hist, de Vile de
Re, La Rochelle, 1888; G. Musset, La Rochelle et ses ports,
ib. 1890; P. Suzanne, La Rochelle pittoresque, ib. 1903;
Cambridge Modern History, iii. 10-11, 20-25, 32, New York,
1905; and the literature under Huguenots; Richelieu;
and Rohan, Henri.
ROCHET. See Vestments and Insignia, Eccle-
siastical.
ROCK, DANIEL: Roman Catholic; b. at Liver-
pool Aug. 31, 1799; d. at Kensington, London, Nov.
28, 1871. He was educated in the English College,
Rome; was ordained priest in 1824; served at St.
Mary's, Moorfields, London, 1825-26, then at the
Bavarian Chapel in Warwick St., 1826-27; was
domestic chaplain to the earl of Shrewsbury, 1827-
1840; then pastor at Buckland, near Farringdon;
and, on the reintroduction of the Roman Catholic
hierarchy, canon of Southwark, 1852-54. He was
an eminent antiquarian, and wrote, Hierurgia, or
the Sacrifice of the Mass Expounded (2 vols., London,
1833); Did the Early Church in Ireland acknowledge
the Pope's Supremacy f (1844); and The Church of
our Fathers, as seen in St. Osmond's Rite for the
Cathedral of Salisbury (3 vols., 1849-54).
Bibliography: J. Gillow, Literary and Biographical His-
tory . of English Catholics, v. 436-437, London and
New York, n.d.; DNB, xlix. 75-76.
ROCK, JOHANN FRIEDRICH. See Inspired,
The.
RODANIM. See Dodanim.
RODE, ro'de, HINNE (JOHANNES RHODIUS) :
B. in Friesland c. 1490; d. in East Friesland c. 1535.
He belonged to the Brethren of the Common Life (see
Common Life, Brethren of the) as their most
eminent member and the most conspicuous per-
sonal force, and was connected with the school they
had established under the patronage of St. Jerome.
Nothing is known of his early life, neither the exact
time nor place of his birth. He first comes into pub-
lic note as rector of the school named above, and
was held in high esteem for piety and learning. He
was no stranger to humanistic efforts, nor to the
movements that preceded the Reformation, espe-
cially as exemplified by Wessel. Whether Rode
made the acquaintance of Wessel, who died in 1489,
and so received some incitation from him directly,
is not ascertainable. At all events he was acquaint-
ed with Wessel's widely diffused, much read and
esteemed, influential writings. In this situation
Luther's advent was hailed with joy. His theses
were circulating in that region as early as 1518,
while his books found ready sale despite of or
perhaps because of much vehement zeal on the
opposing side (Erasmus, Epist., ccexvii., May 18).
The contest was also greatly reinforced by Lu-
ther's pupils, as by Henry of Ziitphen (see
MOLLER, HEINRICH).
The Lutheran movement at Utrecht had begun
in 1520, through the efforts of a Dominican, Worte
(Walther), who preached in Delft against the indul-
gence bestowed by the pope in favor of St. Law-
rence's Church at Rotterdam. , He was joined by
Master Friedrich Hondebeke (Canirivus); Georgius
Saganus, a scholastically cultivated man, with whom
Rode subsequently journeyed to Germany; and
the youthful Johannes Sartorius, or Snijders. Their
most important fellow-combatant was Cornelis
Henriks (Hinrichson) Hoen (Honius), advocate in
the court of justice at The Hague; but Rode was
the movement's leading spirit. Hoen objected
to the Roman doctrine, deviating, however, from
Wessel in construing the words of institution, which
Hoen explained: " this is a pledge, the symbol of my
body; it signifies my body." On all sides, how-
ever, there was a desire for Luther's view, upon
which rested all decisions as to Scripture. Rode
was sent to ask from Luther a decision upon this
matter and to request him to edit the writings of
Wessel. In spite of all researches, there is still de-
bate as to the year when Rode was at Wittenberg.
The majority favor 1520-21; Mbller and Loofs,
1522. After visiting Luther, Rode made a journey
by way of Basel to Zurich, to confer with Zwingli.
In 1522 he was condemned at home on the ground
of his Lutheran doctrine.
Leaving the Netherlands, Rode returned to Basel
some time before Sept. 1, 1522, his immediate pur-
pose being to supervise the issue of Wessel's Farrago,
which appeared in Sept., 1522. Rode could not
continue at home by reason of the hostile state of
mind there. So early as 1523, two Augustinians
were executed; also two young lads, Henricus Voes
and Johannes Esch. The new bishop, Henry of
Bavaria, continued the persecution with greater
vehemence. Johannes Pistorius, a pupil of Rode's,
was executed Sept. 8, 1525.
At this period Rode was in Strasburg with Butzer,
as witness the latter's letter to Martin Frecht, a
document of much significance in connection with
Butzer's attitude toward Rode and with the contro-
versy over the Lord's Supper. In this the follow-
ing passage occurs:
Bode
Roerdam
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
64
" Meanwhile, after Carlstadt's tract had appeared, pre-
senting his revised interpretation down to 1524, . there
came to me a strange man, Joh. Rodius, a heart so de-
vout, so illumined in deeds and words, that I know of no
one, not even excepting Luther, . whom I could prefer
to this man in insight and judgment. . He is a native of
the Netherlands, where he follows the same calling as
Paul among the Greeks. Although recognizing Luther as
his teacher, he owes more, in certain articles, to Wessel.
Moreover, I can note ease wondering that we profit so little
by this man. This Rodius was my guest (in the autumn
of 1524); and, Bible in hand, he conversed at much length
with me on the question of the Lord's Supper, wherein I
defended Luther's opinion against him with all my might.
But I then discerned that I was no peer to this man's mind,
nor equal to all his arguments; and that one can not con-
sistently maintain, by the Scripture, what I desired to
affirm. I had to waive the corporeal presence of Christ in the
bread; albeit I still hesitated concerning the certain ex-
planation of the words."
The foregoing sketch by a contemporary discloses
the significance of Rode, and likewise his influence
upon the Swiss Reformed theology. The Eucharis-
tic dispute emanated from Rode; Luther gaged
him correctly, and hence Luther's vigorous opposi-
tion. Just as the Strasburg and Swiss theologians
proved susceptible to Rode's influence in the doc-
trine as to the Lord's Supper, it was also due to him
that the Netherlands Church, and afterward the
East Frisian Church, became estranged from the
Lutheran trend. Rode later returned to Deventer,
in his home country, where Gerhard Geldenhauer
(Xoviomagus) met him in 1525. From data con-
cerning Rode in the letters of Butzer and Capito,
dated July 9 and Sept. 26, 1526, it appears that
he married in 1526. This was why, to escape
constant persecutions, he accepted a teacher's
position at Norden, in Ostfriesland. Owing to
Rode s aggressive intervention in the East Frisian
movement, the previously Lutheran sentiment now
took on a Reformed complexion. Rode, when de-
posed on account of his opposition to Luther, went
to Wolfhusen, protected by Count Enno.
Rode's widow died in 1557; the year of his own
death is not known. While nothing is certainly ex-
tant in the way of his writings, that he produced
none is hardly probable; it is not beyond reason
to suppose Rode the possible author of a work with
the title (Economia Christiana. Rode is still men-
tioned along with Gnapheus and Honius in connec-
tion with the translation of Luther's New Testament
into Dutch (Amsterdam, 1525). Yet there are
serious doubts in the matter. L. Schulze.
Bibliography: The first source is the Doesburg Chronicle,
in part published by W. Moll, in Kerkhistorisch Archie!,
iii. 108-115, Amsterdam, 1862; then A. R. Hardenberg'a
Vita Wesselii, prefixed to the Opera of Wessel, Groningen,
1614 (cf. the literature under Wessel); and D. Gerdes,
Introductio in hist. Evangelii seculo XVI., i. 228-331,
Groningen, 1744. Consult A. J. Van der Aa, Bio-
graphisch W oordenboek van der Nederlanden, xvi. 302,
Haarlem, 1852 sqq.; W. Moll, Kerkgeschiedenis van Neder-
land, 2 vols., Arnhem and Utrecht, 1864-71; J. G. de
Hoop-Scheffer, Geschiedenis der Kerkhervorming in Neder-
land, pp. 30, 90-91, 105-106, 263, 316 et passim, Amster-
dam, 1873; T. Kolde, Martin Luther, ii. 557-578, Gotha,
1884; O. Clemen, Hinne Rode in Wittenberg, Basel, Zu-
rich, . . , in ZKG, xviii (1898), 346 sqq.; J. Kostlin,
Martin Luther, ed. Kawerau, Berlin, 1903; ADB, vol.
xxix.
RODGERS, JOHN: Presbyterian; b. at Boston
Aug. 5, 1727; d. at New York May 7, 1811. He
received his education under Samuel Blair and
Gilbert Tennent (qq.v.); was licensed Oct., 1747;
pastor at St. George's, Del., 1749-65; and at New
York, 1765-76, and from the the close of the Revo-
lutionary War till his death. In 1789 he was
elected moderator of the first general assembly
of the Presbyterian Church, at Philadelphia. He
was a stanch patriot during the Revolution, and
served as chaplain in the continental army in 1776,
of the provincial congress of New York, of the
council of safety, and of the first legislature in 1777.
He was a prominent character in church and city life.
Bibliography: S. Miller, Memoirs of the Rev. J. Rodgers,
Late Pastor of the Wall Street and Brick Churches in the
City of New York, New York, 1813; W. B. Sprague, An-
nals of the American Pulpit, iii. 154-165, ib. 1858; E. H.
Gillett, Hist, of the Presbyterian Church, vol. i. passim,
Philadelphia, 1864; R. E. Thompson, in American Church
History Series, vol. vi. passim, New York, 1895.
ROEHM, rem, JOHANN BAPTIST: German
Roman Catholic; b. at Lauingen (26 m. n.e. of Ulm)
Jan. 6, 1841. He was educated at the University of
Munich, after which he was curate in Ettringen,
Thannhausen, and Oettingen in the diocese of Augs-
burg, and then an instructor in religion at Augsburg,
and curate and professor at the royal theological
seminary in Munich. Since 1899 he has been canon
of the cathedral at Passau.
He has written: Ausgewahlte Reden des heiligen Gregor von
Nazianz (Kempten, 1874); Ausgewahlte Schriften des Ori-
genes (1876) ; Predigten auf dem Feste der Heiligen (Augs-
burg, 1876); Das Glaubensprinzip der katholischen Kirche
(Vienna, 1877); Predigten auf dem Feste der seligsten Jung-
frau (Passau, 1879); Aufgabe der protestantischen Theologen
(Augsburg, 1882); Gedanken iiher die Union (Hildesheim,
1883); Confessionelle Lehrgegensatze (1883); Grobe Un-
wahrheiten von und uber Luther (1884); Der erste Brief an
die Thessaloniker (Passau, 1885) ; Ein Wort uber die deutsche
protestantische Schule (5 parts, Hildesheim, 1887); Zur
Charakteristik der protestantischen Polemik der Gegenwart
(1889) ; Zur Tetzellegende (1889) ; Protestantische Lehre vom
Antichrist (1891); Zur Charakteristik des Protestantismus in
Vergangenheit und Gegenwart (1892); Sendschreiben eines
katholischen an einen orthodoxen Theologen (Augsburg, 1895) ;
Der Protestantismus unserer Tage (Munich, 1897) ; Die Wie-
dervereinigung der christlichen Konfessionen (Mainz, 1900).
ROEHR, rfjr, JOHANN FRIEDRICH: German
Lutheran of the rationalistic school; b. at Ross-
bach (24 m. s.w. of Leipsic) July 30, 1777; d. at
Weimar June 15, 1848. After completing his educa-
tion at the University of Leipsic, he was appointed
assistant preacher at the university church of the
same city, and then taught for two years at Pforta
(1802-04). He was then pastor at Ostrau, near
Zeitz, until 1820, when he was called to become
chief pastor at Weimar, where he passed the re-
mainder of his life. He was likewise chief court
preacher, supreme consistorial and ecclesiastical
councilor, and general superintendent for the
principality of Weimar.
The importance of Rohr lies in his defense of pop-
ular rationalism, a position first consciously set
forth in his Brief e uber den Rationalism us (Aachen,
1813). This system was essentially the blending of
two religious truths, revealed and non-revealed
(reason), the final end of religion being pure moral-
ity; the divinity of Christ was categorically denied.
Rohr's views were received with so little favor
that in the second and third editions of his Grund-
und Glaubenssatze der evaiii/clisch-protcstantixchen
Kirche (Neustadt-on-the-Oder, 1834, IS 11) he was
65
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Rode
Roerdam
forced to modify the radicalism of his theories.
He continued his advocacy of rationalism in the
journal published by him under the successive
names of Predigerlitteratur (1810-14), Neue und
neueste Predigerlitteratur (1815-19), and Kritische
Prediger-Bibliothek (1820-48). He was at the
same time involved in polemics with all who dif-
fered from him, until the untenability of the posi-
tion of popular rationalism was effectually shown
by Hase after a bitter controversy. Rohr likewise
savagely assailed the school of Scheiermacher
after the death of its founder. The character of
Rohr, both as a theologian and as a man, is mir-
rored in his sermons, which appeared in several
collections, as in his Christologische Predigten (2
vols., Weimar, 1831-37), as well as in the Magazin
fiir christliche Prediger, which he edited after 1828.
He also wrote Lehrbuch der Anthropologie fiir
Volksschulen und den Selbstunterricht (Zeitz, 1815);
Palastina oder historisch-geographische Beschreibung
des judischen Landes zur Zeit Jesu (1816); Luthers
Leben und Wirken (1818); Kleine theologische
Schriften (Schleusingen, 1841); and Die gute Sache
des Protestantismus (Leipsic, 1842).
(G. FRANKf.)
Bibliography: B. Hain, Neue Nekrolog der Deutschen,
xxvi. 1 (1848), 451; G. Frank, Geschichte der protestanti-
schen Theologie, iii. 368, Leipsic, 1875; ABB, xxx. 92.
ROELL, rul, HERMANN ALEXANDER: Dutch
Reformed; b. at Dolbergh, Westphalia, 1653;
d. at Amsterdam July 12, 1718. He was edu-
cated at Hamm (1669-70), Utrecht (1670-71),
and Groningen (1671-72), but he was forced by the
siege to leave the latter city, and remained in Ger-
many and Switzerland until 1674, when he resumed
his studies at Hamm (1674-75), completing them
at Utrecht. He then lived for a time at Leyden,
after which he was chaplain of the Princess Pala-
tine Elizabeth (1679-80) and of Albertina Agnes,
widow of William Frederick, stadtholder of Fries-
land (1680-82). For four years he was pastor at
De venter, but in 1686 was appointed professor of
theology at Franeker, where he remained until 1704,
when he accepted a similar appointment at Utrecht.
Toward the end of his life he resided in Amsterdam.
Roell belonged to the school of Cocceius and Des-
cartes, and as a rigid critic, holding that reason
could not be in conflict with revelation, he sought
to harmonize the two, maintaining that revelation
had been given to supplement the inadequacy of
reason. Working along the lines of his inaugural
address at Franeker, De religione naturali (Franeker,
1686), Roell became the object of severe criticism,
particularly from the rigidly Calvinistic Ulrich
Huber, professor of jurisprudence. Before the con-
troversy was ended by the command of the estates
of Friesland, Roell, who was supported by his
Franeker colleagues J. van der Waeyen and R. ab
Andala, had written, in reply to the critiques of
Huber, his Kort onderzoek over de twaalf stellingen
van Ulr. Huber (Franeker, 1687) and Vindicice
examinis brevis duodecim positionum Ulr. Huberi
(1687). Meanwhile his deference to the importance
of reason and his non-Calvinistic views on the eternal
generation of the Son had aroused suspicion. He
taught that "generation" here implied merely that
X.— 5
the second person of the Trinity possessed the same
nature and essence as the first, coexisting with the
Father from eternity, appearing in the flesh, and
revealing the glory of the Father in his works. The
terms "Father" and "Son," moreover, connoted
simply an extremely close association of the two,
the relation between the divine sender and the divine
envoy. He also taught that the earthly death of the
righteous satisfies divine justice and is sufficient to
obtain forgiveness; and at the same time he was
suspected of entertaining heretical views on the eter-
nity of the divine decree and the divine obligation to
punish sin, as well as on satisfaction, justification,
and other doctrines.
These views were assailed by Roell's colleague, C.
Vitringa, in 1689, whereupon Roell defended a series
of Theses theologicce de generatione Filii et morte
fidelium (Franeker, 1689), following this up with
the publication of his own two dissertations De
generatione Filii (1689) in answer to the strictures
of Vitringa. The controversy was finally ended in
1691 and Roell, to prevent any further misunder-
standing, wrote the Kort en eenvoudig berigt van
het verschil over de geboorte des Soons (Amsterdam,
1691), while the senate forbade all professors, pas-
tors, and ecclesiastical bodies to occupy themselves
longer with the matter. Despite all this, the Synod
of South Holland condemned the teachings of
Roell in 1691, similar courses being pursued by the
synods of North Holland, Utrecht, and Groningen.
Even with Roell's death bitterness against him did
not disappear, for until the end of the eighteenth
century some synods issued an annual warning
against his doctrines. At the same time, though
condemned by his church, Roell enjoyed the support
of the civil authorities, and, thanks to his gentle
disposition, had an honorable career as a teacher.
Among his works not already mentioned, special
allusion may be made to his De theologice et theologice
supranaturalis prw naturali prmstantia (Utrecht,
1704); Commentarius in epistolam ad Ephesios (2
parts, 1715-31); and Explicatio cathecheseos Heidel-
bergensis (1728), as well as to his editions of the
writings of A. Gulichius, A. Rouze, and T. Nemethi.
(S. D. van Veen.)
Bibliography: A Vita is in Bibliotheca Bremensis, Class
II., pp. 707-723, Bremen, 1760-66; the Judicium eccle-
siasticum was published at Leyden, 1723; B. Glasius,
Godgeleerd Nederland, iii. 189-197, Bois-le-Duc, 1851-
1856; W. B. S. Boeles, Frieslands Hoogeschool en het
Rijks Athenaeum te Franeker, ii. 309-318, Leeuwarden,
1889.
ROERDAM, rur'dom, THOMAS SKAT: Danish
bishop; b. at Laastrup (15 m. n. of Viborg) Feb. 11,
1832; d. at Copenhagen Sept. 25, 1909. Having
acquired the degree of B.A. in 1848, he continued
study under his father and at the University of
Copenhagen (candidate in theology, 1855), speciali-
zing in the Semitic languages; as a result he pub-
lished Paul of Telia's Judges and Ruth in the Syriac
from the Septuagint (Libri Judicum et Ruth secun-
dum versionem Syriaco-Hexaplarem, Copenhagen,
1859-61), with Greek translation, notes, and disser-
tation. During 1858-69 he resided in Copenhagen,
studying and teaching, in 1866 publishing Historisk
Oplysning om den hellige Skrift, and in 1868 Den
kristelige Lcere fremstillet i Sammenhamg. He was
Boeubli
Kog-ers
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
66
minister in Sonderup and Xordrup (1869-73), in
Ronnebffik and Olstrup (1S73-SO), at Helligaands-
kirken in Copenhagen (1880-86); provost at Hol-
men (1865-95) ; and in 1895 was appointed bishop
of Zealand, being primus inkr pares among the
Danish bishops, and having after 1900 the title of
Ordensbiskop. As a preacher his influence was
wide, especially among the younger clergy, and his
sermons are widely read. As bishop he worked
indef atigably for the building of churches, did much
for the hymnal, and also influenced legal provisions
for Denmark. He translated the New Testament,
with explanatory notes (1887-1892).
John O. Evjen.
ROEUBLI, WILHELM. See Reublin.
ROGATION DAYS: Days appointed for public
supplication to God for a blessing on the fruits of the
earth and other benefits. Such special supplications,
known as litanioe rogationes, are found in the Church
at an early period (Sozomen, Hist, eccl., viii. 8).
Processions with litanies of two kinds took place, the
regular on St. Mark's Day (April 25) and in the
week before Ascension Day, and others on special
occasions for extraordinary needs. Sidonius de-
scribes the solemnities as consisting of fasting,
preaching, singing, and weeping. In the Frankish
kingdom the rogations before Ascension Day were
made of universal obligation by the first Synod of
Orleans (511); in Spain there were peculiar observ-
ances (second Synod of Braga, 563, can. xvi., cf.
Hefele, C onciliengeschichte, iii. 17-18, Eng. transl.,
iv. 383-384, Fr. transl., iii. 1, p. 178; fifth of
Toledo, can. i., cf. Hefele, ut sup., iii. 88, Eng.
transl., iv. 459, Fr. transl., iii. 1, pp. 277-278;
sixth, can. ii., Hefele, ut sup., iii. 90 [merely re-
affirms the finding of the fifth synod]). Those who
took part in the St. Mark's Day procession in Rome
were divided, according to the pattern set by
Gregory the Great, into seven classes, clergy, lay-
men, monks, virgins, married women, widows, the
poor, and children, and from this arose the "seven-
fold litany." The seventeenth Council of Toledo,
694 (can. vi.), decreed monthly rogations for the
Visigothic kingdom, and the same were ordered by
the Lateran Council under Innocent III. for the
deliverance of the Holy Land. In the Evangelical
Lutheran Church the ancient "week oftprayer"
before Pentecost has been retained in a number of
places, sometimes with the processions, as in Pom-
erania and Brandenburg. Even to-day solemn pro-
cessions are made through the fields for a blessing
on the fruits of the earth in the month of May or at
other times, on which occasions the ancient solemn
litanies (the Litania communis) in responsive form
are usually used. [In the Anglican communion the
Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday before Ascension
Day are counted as fast-days, " on which the Church
requires such a measure of abstinence as is more
especially suited to extraordinary acts and exercises
of devotion."] M. Heeold.
Bibliography*. Bingham. Origines, XIII., i. 10, XXI., ii.
8; A. J. Binterira, Denkwiirdigkeiten. iv. 555 sqq., Mainz,
1827; J. C. W. Augusti, Denkwiirdigkeiten, x. 7-72, Leip-
sic, 1829; T. F. D. Kliefoth, Liturgisrhe Abhandlungen,
vi. 155, 8 vols., 2d ed.. Schwerin, 1858-69; F. Proctor
and W. H. Frere, New Hist, of the Book of Common Prayer,
passim, London, 1905; J. H. Blunt, Annotated Book of
Common Prayer, pp. 221-222, 296-298, New York, 1908;
KL, ii. 894-897.
ROGERS, HENRY: Essayist and apologist; b.
at St. Albans (19 m. n.n.w. of London) Oct. 18, 1806;
d. at Pennal Tower, Machynlleth (53 m. n.e. of Car-
digan), North Wales, Aug. 20, 1877. He was edu-
cated at Highbury College, 1826-29; was Independ-
ent minister at Poole, Dorset, 1829-32; lecturer
on rhetoric and logic at Highbury College, 1832-36;
professor of the English language and literature,
University College, London, 1836-39; of English
literature and language, mathematics, and mental
philosophy, Spring Hill College, Birmingham, 1839-
1858; and principal of the Independent College,
Manchester, from 1858 until a few years before his
death. An incurable throat trouble compelled him
to abandon preaching so that he devoted himself to
literary pursuits. From 1839 to 1859 he was con-
nected with the Edinburgh Review, in the columns
of which he published much of his best work. He
particularly distinguished himself by his opposition
to the Tractarian movement. His reputation mainly
rests upon his Eclipse of Faith, or a Visit to a religious
Sceptic (London, 1852) and Defence (1854). His other
writings embrace, Essay on the Life and Genius of
Jonathan Edwards (prefaced to Edwards's Works,
1834); Life of John Howe (1836); Essays from
the Edinburgh Review (3 vols., 1850-55); Essay
on the Life and Genius of Thomas Fuller (1856);
Selections from the Correspondence of R. E. H. Grey-
son, the name Greyson being an anagram for Rogers
(2 vols., 1857); and The Superhuman Origin of the
Bible inferred from itself, Congregational Lectures
(1873).
Bibliography: A Memoir by R. W. Dale prefaces the 8th
ed. of The Superhuman Origin of the Bible, 1893; Congrega-
tional Year Book, 1878, p. 347; DNB, xlix. 121-123.
ROGERS, JOHN: 1. English Protestant martyr;
b. at Deritend in the parish of Aston (2 m. n. of Birm-
ingham) about 1500; burned at Smithfield, London,
Feb. 4, 1555. He was graduated at Cambridge
(B.A., 1526); received an invitation to Christ
Church, Oxford; about 1534 became chaplain to
the Merchant Adventurers at Antwerp, and there
made the acquaintance of Tyndale and became a
Protestant. In 1537 he issued (probably at Witten-
berg), under the pseudonym of "Thomas Mat-
thewe," a skilful combination of the Bible transla-
tion of Tyndale and Coverdale with preface and
notes, which has since been known as Matthew's
Bible. (See Bible Versions, B, IV., § 4.) He re-
moved to Wittenberg, where he was pastor until the
accession of Edward VI., when he returned to Eng-
land (1548). He was in 1550 provided by Bishop
Ridley with settlements in London, and in 1551
made prebendary of St. Paul's. On the succession
of Queen Mary (1553) he was arrested for his vigor-
ous denunciation of Romanism, and after months of
imprisonment was burnt — the first Marian martyr.
Bibliography: J. L. Chester, John Rogers, the Compiler of
the First Authorized English Bible, London, 1861; C. Au-
derson, Annals oj the English Bible, ed. Hugh Anderson,
pp. 268, 294, 295, 429-438, ib. 1862; J. I. Mombert, Hand-
Book to the English Versions of the Bible, pp. 176 sqq., New
York, 1883; H. W. Hoare, Evolution of the English Bible,
pp. 180-183, ib. 1902; I. M. Price, Ancestry of our Eng-
lish Bible, pp. 250-253, 262, Philadelphia, 1907.
67
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roeubli
Rogers
2. English Fifth-monarchy man; b. at Messing
(43 m. n.e. of London) in 1627; d. probably in Lon-
don in 1665. His father Nehemiah was a devout
Anglican minister, loyal to Charles I. and Arch-
bishop Laud. Religiously awakened when ten years
of age by the terrific preaching of the Puritan Will-
iam Fenner and later by Stephen Marshall, one of
the Presbyterian preachers to the Long Parliament,
and by the reading of H. Drexelius' Considerations
upon Eternity (in Latin, Cologne, 1631), his reason
was dethroned so that he had to be tied hand and
foot in bed where his continuous cry was, " I am
damned! I am damned! I am sure I can not be
saved! It is impossible! Oh, hell! hell! fire about
me ! The devils are at me ! " As dreams of torment
drove him mad, so a dream of heavenly mercy and
comfort restored his reason. After he had associa-
ted himself with the Roundheads (1642), his father
cast him off in the midst of winter. He made his
way by begging to Cambridge, where he had studied
for awhile before, hoping to support himself by
labor or to secure a scholarship. Failing in this he
came near starving, subsisting for some time on
refuse, and even eating leather, feathers, and grass.
He was sorely tempted to eat his own flesh and to
commit suicide. Just in the nick of time a position
as tutor in a gentleman's family was offered him
(1643). Soon afterward he felt called to preach
and realized that he possessed the necessary gifts
and graces in multiplied abundance. He was or-
dained as a Presbyterian minister (1647 or 1648)
and became rector of Burleigh. In less than a year
he renounced Presbyterianism and became Inde-
pendent lecturer at St. Thomas Apostle's in London.
In 1650 he was chosen by parliament one of six
ministers to preach in Dublin at a salary of £200
a year. Christ Church cathedral was assigned to
him and Governor Hewson was a member of his
congregation. He did not hesitate to join with
Hewson in military service when there was need.
His ministerial work was seriously disturbed by
Thomas Patient, also a parliamentary preacher,
who convinced many of Rogers' parishioners of the
unscripturalness of infant baptism and the duty of
believers' baptism. Rogers' defense of infant bap-
tism alienated half of his constituents and his ad-
vocacy of toleration and the rights of women the
other half. His position having thus become un-
tenable he returned to London after six months in
Dublin and resumed bis lectureship. In his Beth-
shemish: Epistle to the Churches (London, 1653) he
gives a highly colored account of the annoyances
and persecutions that he suffered in Dublin and re-
veals much of the spirit of his ministry. He also
polemizes sharply against the Presbyterian clergy,
whom he compares with Romanist priests in point
of bigotry and intolerance. In his Sagrir: or Domes-
day Drawing Nigh, with Thunder and Lightning to
Lawyers (1654), he denounces the lawyers as the
archenemies of true Christianity and sets forth his
views respecting the approaching end of the Fourth
Monarchy with its laws and lawyers and the inaugu-
ration of the Fifth Monarchy " with those godly
laws, officers, and ordinances that belong to the
legislative power of the Lord Jesus." The Sagrir
contains a letter " to the Right Honorable the Lord
General Cromwell, the People's Victorious Champion
in England, Ireland, and Scotland." He seeks to
convince Cromwell that he has been chosen by the
Lord to lead the hosts of the redeemed against the
Roman Catholic and Protestant persecutors of the
continent, " to break in pieces the oppressor and to
deliver the poor and needy." In the " Epistle to
the Reader " he declares himself the champion of
Christ against Antichrist and polemizes fiercely
against the tithing-law and any connection of Church
and State. He claims recently to have been treated
contemptuously and violently by a committee of
parliament while presenting his objections to tithing
and State-Churchism. He predicts that the Fifth
Monarchy, " where Christ and his saints shall rule
the world," will begin in 1656. "As in Noah's flood,
after the doors were shut up there was no mercy,
though they came wading middle-deep, so let this
be an alarum to all men to make haste while the
door of the ark is open. In a few years they will
find it shut, and then though they wade through
and through much danger, whether Parliament
men, Army men, Merchant men, Clergy men, Law-
yers, or others, they may find it too late." His de-
mand was that Cromwell first of all lead an English
army into France for the overthrow of the Bourbon
dynasty and the relief of the persecuted Huguenots.
Germany and Austria were to be conquered by the
English with the help of the Huguenots and the per-
secuted in those countries. Last of all Rome should
be taken and the hierarchy destroyed. He assures
the English army and statesmen that " if they will
not take their work abroad they shall have it at
home, as sure as God lives and is righteous. For
when the kingdom of Christ comes there is no such
thing as bounds, or limits, or rivers, or seas, that
shall cap up or confine the fervent zeal and flaming
affections of an Army, Representative, or People
spirited for the work of Christ." His exhortations
are based upon the most sanguinary passages in
the Old Testament and the Apocalypse. The forci-
ble dissolution of the Barebones Parliament by
Cromwell (Dec, 1653) because of its abolition of
tithes and of the court of chancery and other rad-
ical measures infuriated the Fifth-monarchy men,
one of whose leaders, Major-general Harrison, was
highly influential in this legislation. Harrison,
Rich, and Carew, lay members of the party, were
imprisoned or sent into involuntary retirement.
Rogers, Feak, Vavasor Powell, and Simpson, Fifth-
monarchy preachers, violently denounced Crom-
well and his supporters and were one by one on
various pretexts imprisoned, Rogers at Lambeth
in July, 1654. In February preceding he had pub-
lished his Fifth Epistle to Cromwell, entitled Mene,
Tekel, Perez: or a Little Appearance of the Hand-
writing against the Powers and Apostles of the
Times. While in prison at Lambeth Rogers pub-
lished Morning Beams: or the Vision of the Prison
Pathmos (1654). This writing throws much fight
on the spirit of the Fifth-monarchy movement. An
interview with Cromwell Feb. 6, 1655, resulted in
no better understanding. Two months later he
was removed to Windsor Castle. His sufferings at
Windsor he recorded in Jagar Sahadutha: An Oiled
Pillar. Released in Jan., 1657, he returned to Lon-
Rogers
Romaine
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
68
don and soon became involved in a Fifth-monarchy
conspiracy against Cromwell's government and was
sent with Harrison and others to the Tower. Crom-
well died the following September and was succeeded
by his son Richard. Rogers and other Fifth-mon-
arch}- men cooperated with Sir Henry Vane for the
overthrow of Richard Cromwell and enjoyed great
favor under the restored Long Parliament. At the
restoration of the Stuart dynasty (1660) Rogers
retired to Holland and studied medicine at Leyden
and Utrecht, proceeding to the degree of M.D. in
the University of Utrecht Oct. 17, 1662. Return-
ing to England soon afterward he practised medicine
at Bermondsey and was admitted ad eundem gra-
dum at Oxford June 13, 1664. He published med-
ical theses in 1662 and 1664, in connection with the
receiving of his degree. He seems to have taken no
further interest in religious questions after he be-
came interested in medicine. He is lost sight of after
1665 and probably died of the plague that prevailed
in London and its suburbs that year. See Fifth-
Moxarchy Men. A. H. Newman.
Bibliography: E. Rogers, Some Account of the Life and Opin-
ions of a Fifth-Monarchy-Man. Chiefly extracted from the
Writings of John Rogers, Preacher, London, 1667. J. L.
Chester, The Life of John Rogers, the Compiler of the first
Authorized English Bible, ib., 1861 (contains sketch of the
Fifth-monarchy man, who according to family tradition
was a descendant of the martyr); DNB, xlix. 130-132.
ROGERS, ROBERT WILLIAM: Methodist Epis-
copal, orientalist; b. at Philadelphia Feb. 14, 1864.
He studied at the high school of his native city, the
University of Pennsylvania (1882-84), Johns Hop-
kins University, Baltimore (graduated, 1887),
where he took post-graduate courses, the University
of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1895), and Haverford College, Pa.
(Ph.D., 1890); was instructor in Hebrew in Haver-
ford College, 1890; professor of English Bible and
Semitic History, Dickinson College, Pa., 1890-92;
and has been professor of Hebrew and Old-Testa-
ment exegesis in Drew Theological Seminary since
1893, also non-resident lecturer at the Woman's
College, Baltimore, 1896-1900. In the interest of
oriental studies he attended the congresses of orien-
talists at London in 1892, where he was honorary
secretary, Geneva in 1894, Paris in 1897, Hamburg
in 1902, and Copenhagen in 1908. He has prepared
Two Texts of Esarhaddon (Cambridge, Eng., 1889) ;
Catalogue of Manuscripts, chiefly Oriental (1890);
Inscriptions of Sennacherib (London, 1893); Outlines
of the History of Early Babylonia (Leipsic, 1895);
History of Babylonia and Assyria (2 vols., New York,
1900); and Religion of Babylonia and Assyria,
especially in its Relation to Israel (1909).
ROGGE, reg'e, BERNARD FRIEDRICH WIL-
HELM: German Protestant; b. at Grosstinz (a
village near Liegnitz, 40 m. w.n.w. of Breslau),
Silosia, Oct. 22, 1831. He was educated at the uni-
versities of Halle and Bonn, after which he was a
teacher in a high school for girls at Coblenz and a
vicar in Vollenden in 1854-56, a pastor at Stollberg
near Aachen in 1856-59, and a divisional pastor at
Coblenz in 1859-02. Since 1862 he has been court
chaplain at Potsdam, serving also as army chaplain
in the campaigns of 1866 and 1870-71. In theology
he belongs to the mediating school of Lutheranism.
Among his numerous writings, special mention may
be made of his Die evangelischen Geistlichen im
Feldzug von 1866 (Berlin, 1867; Eng. transl., The
Chaplain in the Field of War, London, 1870); Die
evangelischen Feld- und Lazarethgeistlichen der konig-
lichen preussischen Armee im Feldzuge von 1870-71
(1872); Gott war mit uns, Predigten und Reden im
Feldzuge von 1870-71 (1872) ; Lutherbiichlcin (Leip-
sic, 1883); Feldmarschall Prinz Friedrich Carl
(Berlin, 1885); Kaiserbiichlein zur Erinnerung an
Deutschlands Heldenkaiser Wilhelm I. (1888); Fried-
rich III., deutscher Kaiser (1888); Kaiser Wilhelm
der Siegreiche (Bielefeld, 1889); Allezeit im Herrn
(collected hymns and poems; Leipsic, 1890; new el.,
1939); Christliche Charakterbilder aus dem Hause
Hohenzollern (Hanover, 1890); Vom Kurhut zur
Kaiserkrone (2 vols., 1891-92) ; Generalfeldmarschall
Graf Moltke (Wittenberg, 1891); Theodor Korner
(1891); Pfortnerleben (Leipsic, 1893); Furst Bismark
(Hanover, 1895); Sedanbiichlein (Dresden, 1895);
Bei der Garde, Erinnerungen aus dem Feldzuge
1870-71 (Hanover, 1895), Aus sieben Jahrzehnten
(autobiography; 2 vols., Hanover, 1895-99); Eine
Osterreise nach Jerusalem (1896); Illustrierte Ge-
schichte der Reformation in Deutschland (Leipsic,
1899); Johann Friedrich der Grossmiitige (Halle,
1902); Generalfeldmarschall Roon (Hanover, 1903);
and Unser Kaiserpaar (Goslar, 1906); Bildersaal
der christlichen Welt (1907 qq.); Religiose Charak-
tere aus dem 19. Jahrhundert (1908); and Das
Evangelium in der Verfolgung. Bilder aus den
Zeiten der Gegenreformation (Cologne, 1910).
ROHAN, ro"an', HENRI, DUC DE: Huguenot
leader; b. at the chateau of Blain (23 m. n.w. of
Nantes) Aug. 21, 1579; d. on the battlefield of
Rheinfelden (10 m. e. of Basel) Feb. 28, 1638. He
belonged to a famous Breton family which espoused
Protestantism in the sixteenth century, of which he
and his brother Benjamin, prince of Soubise, were
the most celebrated members. Each owed his abili-
ties to his mother, Catherine de Parthenay, who
educated them. At the age of sixteen under Henry
IV- Henri fought against the Spaniards and was
present at the siege of Amiens (1597). In the years
following he traveled through Italy, Germany, Hol-
land, England, and Scotland. He married a daughter
of Sully, the great minister of Henry IV. When the
troubles of the Huguenots (q.v.) broke out early in
the reign of Louis XIII., Rohan became their
leader. He commanded their forces in Upper Lan-
guedoc and Upper Guienne, and checkmated Mar-
shal Luynes at Montauban. As a result of the pence
of Oct. 9, 1623, in which the Edict of Nantes (q.v.)
was confirmed, Rohan was made a marshal of France
and invested with the governments of Nimes and
Uzes, with a compensation of 800,000 livres for the
loss of the government of Poitou and St. Jean
d'AngeTy. This peace was merely a truce, and in 1<>'_'7
the Huguenots, rebelling anew, made their last stand
at La Rochelle, in the defense of which Rohan and
his brother took part (see Rochelle). With the fall
of the Huguenot power in France Henri retired to
Italy, where he wrote his celebrated Le parfaict
Capilaine (1636; Eng. transl., The Complete Captain,
London, 1640). But Richelieu was loath to lose his
69
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Rogers
Bomaine
abilities, and in 1633 he took part in the war in the
Valteline (see Richelieu). He was also made com-
mander of the Swiss mercenaries in France, but the
cardinal, growing suspicious of his influence with the
Protestants, sent him into exile, and he retired to
Baden. Again he returned to France and for a
time fought against the Spaniards in the Alpine
passes, but soon fell out with the cardinal and
offered his sword to Bernard of Saxe- Weimar, the
greatest Protestant leader in the Thirty Years' War
(q.v.) after the death of Gustavus Adolphus. He
fell in the first engagement (at Rheinfelden) in
which he took part. Among other works he wrote
Memoires sur les chases advenues en France depuis
la mart de Henri TV jusqu'a la paix de Juin, 1629
(Paris 1630; 8th ed., 2 vols., Amsterdam, 1756;
Eng. transl., London, 1660) ; and Memoires et lettres
sur la guerre de la Valteline, ed. Zurlauben (3 vols.,
Geneva, 1758). James Westfall Thompson.
Bibliography: Fauvelet du Tor, Hist, de Henry Due de
Rohan, Paris, 1667; A. Laugel, in Revue des deux mondes,
1879 ; idem, Henry de Rohan, son rdle politique et militaire
sous Louis XIII., ib. 1889; M. G. Schybergson, Le Due de
Rohan et la chute du parti protestant en France, ib. 1880;
H. de La Garde, Le Due de Rohan et les protestants sous
Louis XIII., ib. 1884; J. Biihring, Venedig, Gustaf Adolf ,
und Rohan, Halle, 1885; F. Guillermet, Rohan et les Gene-
vois, Paris, 1891; J. de Bouffard-Madiane, MSmoires sur
les guerres civiles du due de Rohan, 1610-29, ed. C. Pradel,
ib. 1889; F. Pieth, Die Feldziige des Herzogs Rohan in
Veltlin und in Graubunden, Bern, 1905; Lichtenberger,
ESR, xi. 255-257.
ROHR, rer, IGNATZ: German Roman Catholic;
b. at Hochmossingen (a village near Oberndorf,
43 m. s.w. of Stuttgart) June 29, 1866. He was edu-
cated at the University of Tubingen (Ph.D., 1894;
D.D., 1899), where he was a lecturer on philosophy
from 1894 to 1899 and on dogmatics from 1899 to
1903. In 1903 he was appointed professor of New-
Testament exegesis at the University of Breslau,
where he remained until 1906, when he went in a
similar capacity to Strasburg. He assists in editing
Biblische Zeitfragen (Munster, 1908 sqq.); and has
written Paulus und die Gemeinde von Corinth auf
Grund der beiden Corintherbriefe (Freiburg, 1899);
Der Vernichtungskampf gegen das biblische Chris-
tusbild (Munster, 1908); and Die Glaubwurdigkeit
des Markusevangeliums (1909).
ROIJAARDS, rey'yards, HERMAN JOHAN:
Dutch Reformed; b. at Utrecht Oct. 3, 1794; d.
there Jan. 2, 1854. After completing his education
at the University of Utrecht in 1818, he became
pastor of the church at Meerkerk, and in 1823 was
appointed professor of theology at Utrecht. He was
one of the founders in 1839 of the Ar chief voor kerke-
lijke Geschiedenis, a journal, in which he began his
history of the Church in Holland, by an account of
the Reformation in Utrecht (1845). He published
Invoering en vestiging van het Christendom in Neder-
land (Utrecht, 1842), which was supplemented by
Geschiedenis van het gevestigde Christendom en de
christelijke kerk in Nederland gedurende de mid-
deleeuwen (2 parts, 1849-53), which as a principal
work is of permanent value. He also furthered the
study of canon law in Holland, by his Hedendaagsch
Kerkregt bij de Hervormden in Nederland (2 parts,
1834-37). (J. J. Van OosTERZEEf.)
ROKYCANA, rec"is-a'nQ, JOHN : Bohemian priest,
who was the central figure in the ecclesiastical his-
tory of Bohemia, 1430-70; d. 1471. He first became
prominent in 1427, by denouncing, in a sermon, the
policy of Sigismund Korybut, who was attempting
to bring about a reconciliation between Bohemia
and the pope, which led to the expulsion of Korybut.
After a temporary success at arms, Bohemia was in-
duced, from exhaustion, to enter the negotiations
of the Council of Basel (q.v.), which ended in the
acceptance of the compacts by the Bohemians,
Rokycana taking a chief part. Before the compacts
were signed (1435), the Bohemians secretly elected
Rokycana archbishop of Prague, with two suffra-
gans; but Sigismund did not recognize him as arch-
bishop without the consent of the council of Basel.
The Roman Catholic reaction in 1437 obliged
Rokycana to flee from Prague, but he resumed
his office when the influence of George of Podiebrad
(q.v.) became supreme, in 1444.
Bibliography: Monumenta conciliorum generalium soiculi,
xv., vol. i., Vienna, 1857; F. Palacky, Beitrage zur Ge-
schichte des Hussitenkrieges, 2 vols., Prague, 1872-73;
Creighton, Papacy, ii. 189, 238-246, 255 et passim, iii.
130, iv. 35-38; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vol. vii.
passim; and the literature under Basel, Council of;
Huss, John, Hussites; and Podiebkad and Kunstatt,
George of.
ROLLS. See Canon of Scriptuee, I., 6.
ROMAINE, ro-men', WILLIAM: English Evan-
gelical divine; b. at Hartlepool (17 m. s.e. of Dur-
ham), England, Sept. 25, 1714; d. at London July
26, 1795. He was educated at Hart Hall and Christ
Church, Oxford (B.A., 1734; M.A., 1737); was
ordained deacon, 1736, and priest, 1738; and was
curate for many years at Baustead, Surrey, and
Horton, Middlesex. While yet a deacon he made an
attack upon William Warburton's Divine Legation,
pursuing the subject in his first two sermons at the
University of Oxford (1739,1741). To critical study
he made the contribution of a Hebrew Concord-
ance, 1747-48, being an edition of that of Marius
de Calasso. Drawn into the Evangelical revival, he
first adhered to John Wesley, but in 1755 passed to
the side of George Whitefield; and remained the
ablest exponent among the Evangelicals of the
highest Calvinistic doctrine. He was appointed to a
lectureship at the united parishes of St. George's,
Botolph's Lane, and St. Botolph's, Billingsgate,
London, 1748; and to a double lectureship at St.
Dunstan's-in-the-West, 1749, in addition to which
he became morning preacher at St. George's, Han-
over Square. His extreme Calvinism and radical
manner, though popular with the masses, resulted
in turbulence; and he was limited to an evening
service at St. Dunstan's and deprived of St.
George's. In 1756 he became curate at St. Olave's,
Southwark; of St. Bartholomew the Great, in 1759;
and at Westminster Chapel, 1761. After a turbu-
lent career, he obtained the living at St. Anne's,
Blackfriars, and St. Andrew of the Wardrobe in
1764, where he continued as a great popular at-
traction till his death. As a preacher he exercised
great power, and his theology and views on the
spiritual life are best contained in the long-popu-
lar works: The Life of Faith (London, 1764); The
Roman Catholics
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
70
Walk of Faith (1771); and The Triumph of Faith
(1795).
Bibliography: W. B. Cadogan, Life of W. Romaine, pre-
fixed to Romaine's Works, 8 vols., London, 1796; C. E.
De Coetlogon, Life of the Just Exemplified in the Character
of W. Romaine, ib. 1795; T. Haweis, Life of W.
Romaine, ib. 1797; J. C. Ryle, Christian Leaders of the
Last Century, ib. 1868; G. T. Fox, Life and Doctrine of
Romaine, ib, 1876; DNB, xlix. 175-177.
I. In General.
1. Doctrine.
2. Government and Discipline.
3. Worship and Ceremonies.
4. History.
The Foundation (§ 1).
Greco- Latin Catholicism (§ 2).
Medieval Latin Christendom (§ 3).
Modern Romanism (§ 4).
Tridentine and Vatican Romanism
(§5).
Pius IX.; Leo XIII.; Pius X. (§ 6).
II. TJniate Churches.
1. In General.
ROMAN CATHOLICS.
Basis of Union (§1).
Acts of Union, 1267-1596 (§ 2).
Acts of Union after 1596 (§ 3).
2. The Individual Uniate Churches.
In Europe; Ruthenians, Ruma-
nians, Armenians (§ 1).
In Russia and Turkey (§2).
In Asia and Africa (§ 3).
III. In America.
Early Work in Greenland and Ice-
land (§ 1).
In Brazil (§ 2).
In Other Parts of South America
(§3).
Exploration (§ 4). t
The Colonies of North America
(§5).
Accession by Immigration (§ 6).
Services to Indians and Negroes
(§7).
Attitude of the American Govern-
ment and People (§ 8).
Charities, Architecture, and Schools
(§9).
Achievements of Roman Catholics
(§ 10).
Administration (§ 11).
I. In General: The Roman Catholic Church is
the largest of the three grand divisions of Christen-
dom (Greek, Latin, and Protestant), and in its own
estimation the only church founded by Christ on
earth. Bellarmin, one of its standard divines, de-
fines the Church as consisting of all who (1) profess
the true faith, (2) partake of the true sacraments,
and (3) are subject to the rule of the pope as the
head of the Church. The first mark excludes all
heretics, as well as Jews, heathen, and Mohamme-
dans; the second excludes the catechumens and
the excommunicated; the third, the schismatics
(i.e., the Greeks and Oriental Christians, who hold
substantially " the true faith " and the seven sacra-
ments, but refuse ooedience to the pope). The
Protestants, without distinction, are excluded as
being both heretical and schismatical. The mem-
bers of the Anglican communion and of the Protes-
tant Episcopal Church of the United States also
belong in this category of heretics by the decision
of Leo XIII. , in an Apostolical Letter of Sept. 13,
1896, pronouncing Anglican orders invalid (Eng.
transl. is given in The Great Encyclical Letters of
Pope Leo XIII., New York, 1903). But all who
hold those three points belong to the church mili-
tant on earth, without regard to their moral charac-
ter (etiamsi reprobi, scelesti et impii sint), though
only the good members will be saved. Thus de-
fined, the Church, says Bellarmin, is as visible and
palpable as the {quondam) republic of Venice or the
{quondam) kingdom of France. He denies the dis-
tinction between the visible and invisible Church
altogether.* A recent Roman Catholic writer on
canon law, Philipp Hergenrother {Lehrbuch des
katholischen Rechts, p. 2, Freiburg, 1905), defines
the Church as " the communion of those who are
united under one Head, Christ, and his visible vice-
gerent for the confession of one faith and the par-
ticipation in the same means of grace." One of the
fundamental qualities of the Church is visibility (p.
* De conciliis et ecclesia, lib. iii. c. 2: " Professio verm
fidei, sacramentorum communio, et svbjectio ad legitimum
pastorem Romanum pontificem. Ecclesia est catus homi-
num , xta msibihs et palpabilis, ut est ccetus populi Romani,
vet Regnum Gallia; out Respublica Venetorum " (the text is
given by Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 274 sqq.).
22). The full name of the Roman communion is the
" Holy, Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman Church."
It numbers over two hundred millions of souls, or
about one-half of the entire Christian population of
the globe.* It is found in all continents and among
all nations, but is strongest in southern countries,
and among the Latin and Celtic races in Italy,
Spain, France, Austria, Ireland, and South America.
It agrees in all essential doctrines and usages with
the Greek Church (except the papacy), but has
more vitality and energy; while it is behind the
Protestant communions in general culture, intelli-
gence, and freedom. The Roman Church has a rich
and most remarkable history, and still exercises a
greater power over the masses of the people than
any other body of Christians. It stretches in un-
broken succession back to the palmy days of heathen
Rome, has outlived all the governments of Europe,
and is likely to live when Macaulay's New-Zea-
lander, " in the midst of a vast solitude, shall take
his stand on a broken arch of London Bridge to
sketch the ruins of St. Paul's."
1. Doctrine: The Roman Catholic system of
doctrine is contained in the ecumenical creeds (the
Apostles', the Nicene with the Filioque, and the
Athanasian, qq.v., and also see Symbolics), in the
dogmatic decisions of the ecumenical councils
(twenty in number, from 325 to 1870), and in the
ex cathedra deliverances of the popes. The principal
authorities are the canons and decrees of the Coun-
cil of Trent (see Trent, Council of), the Profession
of the Tridentine Faith, commonly called the " Creed
of Pius IV " (see Tridentine Profession of
Faith), the Roman Catechism (1566), the decree of
the immaculate conception (1854), and the Vatican
decrees on the Catholic faith and the infallibility of
the pope (1870). A thesaurus of decisions on all
sorts of doctrinal and disciplinary questions is af-
* According to the statistics of 1907, the proportion stood
thus :
Roman Catholics 230,866,533
Protestants 143,237,625
Greeks 98,016,000
The number of Roman Catholics assigned to the United
States is 10,879,950, the enumeration being of the total
Catholic constituency, while the Protestant denominations
count only their communicants.
71
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roman Catholics
forded in the books of the canon law beginning with
the " Concordance " of Evatian (c. 1150), but this
has never been pronounced a final authority. The
best summary of the leading articles of the Roman
faith is contained in the Creed of Pius IV., which is
binding upon all priests and public teachers, and
which must be confessed by all converts. It con-
sists, of the Nicene Creed and eleven articles. To
these must now be added the two additional Vatican
dogmas of the Immaculate Conception (q.v.), of the
Virgin Mary and the Infallibility of the Pope (q.v.).
The Roman Catholic system of doctrine was pre-
pared as to matter by the Fathers (especially Ire-
naeus, Cyprian, Augustine, Jerome, Leo I., Gregory
I., qq.v.), logically analyzed, defined, and defended
by the medieval schoolmen (Anselm, Alexander
Hales, Peter the Lombard, Thomas Aquinas, Duns
Scotus, qq.v.), and vindicated, in opposition to
Protestantism, by Bellarmin, Bossuet, and Mohler
(qq.v.), and completed in the Vatican dogma of
papal infallibility, which excludes all possibility of
doctrinal reformation. A question once settled by
infallible authority is settled forever, and can not
be reopened. But the same authority may add new
dogmas, such as the assumption of the Virgin Mary,
which still remains only a " pious opinion " of a
large number of Catholics, as the immaculate con-
ception was before 1854.
2. Government and Discipline: The Roman
Church has reared up the grandest governmental
fabric known in history. It is an absolute spiritual
monarchy, culminating in the pope, who claims to
be the successor of Peter, and the vicar of Christ
and God on earth, and hence the supreme and in-
fallible head of the Church. The laity are excluded
from all participation even in matters of temporal
administration; they must obey the priest; the
priests must obey the bishop; and the bishops, the
pope, to whom they are bound by the most solemn
oath. This system is the growth of ages, and
reached its final statement at the Vatican Council
(q.v.). The claim of the bishop of Rome to univer-
sal dominion over the Christian Church, and even
over the temporal kingdoms professing the Roman
Catholic faith, goes back to the days of Leo I. (440-
461), and was renewed by Nicholas I., Gregory VII.,
Innocent III., Boniface VIII., Leo X., and by
other less prominent pontiffs. But this claim has
always been resisted by the Greek Church, which
has claimed equal rights for the Eastern patriarchs,
and by the German emperors and other princes,
who were jealous of the independent rights of their
sovereignty. The conflict between the pope and
the emperor, between priestcraft and statecraft,
runs through the whole Middle Ages, and was re-
vived under a new aspect by the papal syllabus of
1864, which reasserted the most extravagant claims
of the medieval papacy, and provoked the so-called
Kulturkampf in Germany and France (see Ultra-
montanism), and the recent movements in France
(q.v.) culminating in the complete separation of
Church and State.
The pope is aided in the exercise of his functions
by a college of cardinals limited to seventy. Arch-
bishop McCloskey (q.v.) of New York was the first
American cardinal, appointed in 1875, and Arch-
bishop Gibbons (q.v.) of Baltimore the second (1882).
The pope was at first chosen by the Roman clergy
and people; but since the time of Gregory VII. he
has been elected by the cardinals (for method of
election see Pope, Papacy, Papal System, II.).
The pope with the cardinals together form the
Consistory (q.v.). The various departments of ad-
ministration are assigned to Congregations (q.v.),
under the presidency of a cardinal, such as the Con-
gregation of the Index librorum prohibitorum, the
Congregation of Sacred Rites, the Congregation of
Indulgences, and the Congregation de propaganda
fide. The pope has regular nuncios in the princi-
pal Roman Catholic capitals of Europe except Paris,
namely, in Munich, Vienna, Lisbon, Madrid, and
Brussels. The greatest public display of the Roman
hierarchy was made in the Lateran Council of 1214
under Innocent III., and in the Vatican Council of
1870 under Pius IX.
3. Worship and Ceremonies : These are embodied
in the Roman Missal, the Roman Breviary, and
other liturgical books for public and private devo-
tion (see Breviary; Missal). The Roman Church
accompanies its members from the cradle to the
grave, receiving them into life by baptism, dismis-
sing them into the other world by extreme unction,
and consecrating all their important acts by the
sacramental mysteries and blessings. The worship
is a most elaborate system of ritualism, which ad-
dresses itself chiefly to the eye and the ear, and
draws aU the fine arts into its service. Cathedrals,
altars, crucifixes, madonnas, pictures, statues, and
relics of saints, rich decorations, solemn processions,
operatic music, combine to lend to it great attrac-
tions for the common people and for cultured per-
sons of prevailing esthetic tastes, especially among
the Latin races. Yet it must be noted that con-
verts from Rome often swing to the opposite ex-
treme of utmost simplicity. In this communion
every day of the calendar is devoted to the memory
of one or more saints. The leading festivals are
Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, the feast of the Im-
maculate Conception, the Annunciation (Mar. 25),
Purification (Feb. 2), Assumption of the Virgin
Mary, All Saints, and All Souls (Nov. 1, 2; see
Feasts and Festivals). The weekly Sabbath is
not nearly as strictly observed in Roman Catholic
countries as in Great Britain and the United States.
Roman Catholic worship is the same all over the
world, even in language, the Latin being its sacred
organ, and the vernacular being used only for ser-
mons, which are subordinate. Its throne is the
altar, not the pulpit (which is usually built at one
side). It centers in the Mass (q.v.), and this is re-
garded as a real though unbloody repetition of the
atoning sacrifice of Christ on the cross. At the mo-
ment when the officiating priest pronounces the
words, " This is my body," the elements of bread
and wine are believed to be changed into the very
substance of the body and blood of our Savior; and
these are offered to God the Father for the sins of
the living and the dead in purgatory. The Reform-
ers saw in the mass a relapse into Judaism, a re-
fined form of idolatry, and a virtual denial of the
one sacrifice of Christ, who, " by one offering hath
perfected forever them that are sanctified " (Heb.
Roman Catholics
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
72
x. 14). But Roman Catholics deny the charge, and
reverently regard the mass as a dramatic com-
memoration and renewed application of the great
mystery of redemption, and the daily food of the
devout believer (on the Roman Catholic worship,
cf. the literature under Breviary; Mass; and
Missal).
4. History. The earliest record of a Christian
Church in Rome is given in Paul's Epistle to the
Romans (58 a.d). Though not founded by Peter or
Paul, it may possibly be traced to those " strangers
of Rome, Jews, and proselytes," who
1* The witnessed the Pentecostal miracle on
Ftion the birthday of the Christian Church
(Acts ii. 10). It is probably the oldest
church in the West, and acquired great distinction
by the martyrdom of Peter and Paul. The Vatican
Hill, where the chief of the apostles was crucified,
became the Calvary, and Rome the Jerusalem, of
Latin Christendom. The Roman martyrdom of
Paul is universally conceded. The sojourn of Peter
in Rome has been doubted by eminent Protestant
scholars, and it can not be proved from the New
Testament (unless " Babylon " in I Pet. v. 13 be
understood figuratively of Rome) ; but it is so gen-
erally attested by the early Fathers, Greek as well
as Latin, that it must be admitted as a historical
fact, though Peter probably did not reach Rome
before 63 a.d., as there is no mention made of him
in the Epistle to the Romans, or in Paul's Epistles
of the Roman captivity, written between 61 and 63.
The metropolitan position of the city, whose very
name means " power," and which for so many cen-
turies had been the mistress of the world, together
with the wide-spread belief that Christ (Matt. xvi.
18) had instituted a perpetual primacy of the
Church in the person of Peter and his successors in
office, supposed to be the bishops of Rome, are the
chief secondary causes of the rapid growth of that
congregation to the highest influence. It inherited
the ambition and prestige of empire, and simply
substituted the cross for the sword as the symbol of
power. For fifteen centuries the fortunes of West-
ern Christendom were bound up with the Roman
Church; and even now, in its old age, it is full of
activity everywhere, but especially in Protestant
countries, where it is stimulated by opposition.
Three stages may be distinguished in the develop-
ment of Roman Catholicism.
The age of ancient Greco-Latin Catholicism, from
the second to the eighth century, before the final
rupture of the Greek and Latin communions. This
is the common inheritance of all
Lati600" c^urc^les- !* is the aSe of tne Fathers,
Catholicism.0^ *^e ecumenical creeds and councils,
and of Christian emperors. Many of
the leading features of Roman Catholicism, as dis-
tinct from Protestantism, are already found in the
second and third centuries, and have their roots in
the Judaizing tendencies combated by St. Paul.
The spirit of traditionalism, sacerdotalism, prelacy,
ceremonialism, asceticism, monasticism, was power-
fully at work in the East and the West, in the Ni-
cene and post-Nicene ages, and produced most of
those doctrines, rites, and institutions which are to
this day held in common by the Greek and Roman
3. Medieval
Latin
churches. There are few dogmas and usages of
Romanism which may not be traced in embryo to
the Greek and Latin Fathers: hence the close re-
semblance of the Greek and Roman churches, not-
withstanding their rivalry and antagonism. But,
alongside of these Romanizing tendencies, there are
found also, in the school of St. Augustine, the Evan-
gelical doctrines of sin and grace, which were, next
to the Bible, the chief propelling force of the Refor-
mation.
The age of Medieval Latin Catholicism, as dis-
tinct and separated from the Greek, extends from
Gregory I. (or from Charlemagne) to the Reforma-
tion (590-1517). It is the missionary age of Ca-
tholicism among the Celtic and Teutonic races in
northern and central Europe. Here
belong the conversion of the barbarians
Christen- °^ Europe, under the fostering care of
dom. *ne bishops of Rome; the growth of
papal absolutism, though in constant
conflict with the secular power, especially the Ger-
man empire; the scholastic theology, culminating
in the discussions of Anselm and the system of
Thomas Aquinas, and also the various forms of
mysticism, represented by St. Bernard, Richard and
Hugo of St. Victor (qq.v.), and Eckhart, Tauler
(qq.v.), and other German mystics (see Mysticism);
an imposing theocracy, binding all the nations of
Europe together, yet with strong elements of op-
position in its own communion, urging forward
toward a reformation in head and members. Here
occurred the Crusades (q.v.), lasting for two hun-
dred years (1096-1292), and here was born the
Gothic type of architecture and were reared the im-
posing cathedrals of the continent and Great Brit-
ain. In this period belongs the revival of monas-
ticism in the rise of the mendicant orders, with
Francis of Assisi and Dominic of Spain (qq.v.) as
their founders; and also the papal schism with
rival popes reigning in Rome and Avignon (1377-
1417). The Middle Ages cradled the Protestant
Reformation as well as the papal Counter-Reforma-
tion. Wyclif in England, Hus in Bohemia, Wessel
in Germany, Savonarola in Italy, the Waldenses,
the Bohemian Brethren, the Councils of Pisa, Con-
stance, and Basel (qq.v.), and the revival of letters
(see Humanism), prepared the way for the great
movement of the sixteenth century, which emanci-
pated Christendom from the spiritual bondage of
Rome.
The age of modern Romanism, dating from the
Reformation, or from the Council of Trent (1563).
This is Roman Catholicism, in opposition not only
4 M d to tbe Greek Church, but to Evangel-
Romanism *ca^ Protestantism. In some respects
' it was an advance upon the Middle
Ages, and experienced great benefit from the Ref-
ormation. No Alexander VI., who was a monster
of wickedness, ,nor Julius II., who preferred the
sword to the staff, nor Leo X., who had more inter-
est in classical literature and art than in the Church,
could now be elected to the chair of St. Peter. No
such scandal as the papal schism, with two or three
rival popes cursing and excommunicating each
other, has disgraced the Church since the sixteenth
century. On the other hand, the papacy has given
73
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roman Catholics
formal sanction to those scholastic theories and
ecclesiastical traditions against which the Reform-
ers protested. It has also again and again expressly
condemned their doctrines, and, by claiming to be
infallible, made itself doctrinally irreformable. In
1816 the first condemnation of Bible societies was
issued by Pius VIL, who declared them " a most
subtle invention for the destruction of the very
foundations of religion" (Mirbt, Quellen, p. 347).
Pius IV. in 1564 expressly condemned all versions
of the Scriptures by heretical authors, i.e., Luther-
ans, Zwinglians, Calvinists, and the like.
In modern Romanism, again, two periods must
be distinguished, which are divided by the reign of
Pope Pius IX. (a) Tridentine Romanism is di-
rected against the principles of the Protestant Ref-
ormation, and fixed the dogmas of the rule of faith
(Scripture and tradition), original sin, justification
by faith and works, the seven sacra-
5. Triden- men^gj the sacrifice of the mass, purga-
lne an tory, invocation of saints, the venera-
Bomanism ^on °^ reucs> an(i indulgences. The
" Old Catholics " (q.v.), who seceded
in 1870 and were excommunicated, took their stand
first on the Council of Trent, in opposition to the
Council of the Vatican, and charged the latter with
apostasy and corruption; although in fact, and as
viewed from the Protestant standpoint, the one is
only a legitimate, logical development of the other.
(&) Vatican Romanism is directed against modern
infidelity (rationalism), and against liberal Catholi-
cism (Gallicanism) within the Roman Church itself.
It created, or rather brought to full maturity and
exclusive authority, two new dogmas and two cor-
responding heresies, — concerning the Virgin Mary,
and the power and infallibility of the Roman pon-
tiff, questions left unsettled by the Council of Trent.
Gallicanism flourished in France during the golden
age of its literature, and was formulated by Bos-
suet in the famous articles of Gallican liberties; but,
since the restoration of the order of Jesuits in 1814,
the Ultramontane school, which defends papal ab-
solutism, has gradually gained the ascendency, and
secured a complete triumph— first in 1854, when
Pius IX. proclaimed the immaculate conception of
the Virgin Mary to be a dogma of faith; and in the
Vatican Council in 1870, which declared the pope
to be infallible. The same pope, in 1864, issued the
" Syllabus of Errors," — an infallible official docu-
ment, which arrays the papacy in open war against
modern civilization and civil and religious freedom.
The reign of Pius IX. (q.v.) was very eventful in
the history of the papacy: it marked the height of
6 _. __ _ its pretensions and the logical comple-
Leo XIII '•' ^on °f i*s doctrinal system, but also
Pius X. ' the loss of its temporal power. On the
very day after the passage of the papal
infallibility dogma (July 18, 1870), Napoleon III.,
the chief political and military supporter of the
pope, declared war against Protestant Prussia (July
19), withdrew his troops from Rome, and brought
upon imperial France utter defeat and contributed
to the rise of the new German Empire with a Prot-
estant head, and the downfall of the temporal power
of the papacy. Victor Emmanuel, supported by
the vote of the people, marched into Rome, fulfilled
the dream of centuries by making it the capital of
free and united Italy, and confined the pope to the
Vatican and to a purely ecclesiastical jurisdiction
(Sept. 20, 1870). History has never seen a more
sudden and remarkable revulsion. The rule of Pius
IX., lasting thirty-one years, broke the tradition
that no pontificate would exceed that of Peter, said
to have lasted twenty-five years. His successor,
Leo XIII. (q.v.), who gained the respect of all West-
ern Christendom by his culture and character,
walked in the way of his predecessors in again de-
nouncing Protestantism as the " Lutheran rebel-
lion, whose evil virus goes wandering about in al-
most all the nations " (Encyclical, Aug. 1, 1897)
and in exalting the scholastic theology by formally
pronouncing Thomas Aquinas the standard theo-
logian of the Roman Catholic Church and the pa-
tron of Roman Catholic schools {Mterni patris,
Aug. 4, 1879). He also took an almost impossible
position against Biblical scholarship in pronouncing
the passage about the three witnesses, I John v. 7,
genuine (Jan. 15, 1897). His successor, Pius X.
(q.v.), in his encyclical Pascendi gregis, 1907, has
taken a position against all freedom of Biblical and
theological discussion by condemning Modernism
(q.v.), forbidding all meetings of the clergy for the-
ological discussion except in rarest cases and under
severe restrictions, and ordering the appointment of
" councils of vigilance " in every diocese to condemn,
without giving reasons, all writings and teachings
containing the scent of " Modernism." He has
also shown his retrograde policy by forbidding
women to sing in churches and limiting church
music to the Gregorian chant. Both these popes
have been as emphatic as was Pius IX., who made
Alphonso da Liguori a doctor of the Church, in as-
cribing to the invocation of Mary infinite efficacy,
and in calling upon the Roman Catholic world to
pray to her.
The history of the Roman Church during the
nineteenth century shows the remarkable fact that
it has lost on its own ground, especially in Italy,
France, and Spain, but gained large accessions on
foreign soil, especially in England, by the secession
of Cardinal Newman, Cardinal Manning, and 400
Anglican clergymen, and, by immigration, from Ire-
land, in the United States, and, to mention a small
district, Geneva. Pius IX. reestablished the Ro-
man Catholic hierarchy in England in 1850 and in
Holland in 1853, and Leo XIII. in Scotland, 1878.
On the other hand, this gain has been more than
neutralized by the Old Catholic secession in Germany
and Switzerland, under the lead of Drs. Dollinger,
Reinkens, and von Schulte, and other eminent
Catholic scholars, whose learning and conscience
did not permit them to submit to the Vati-
can decrees of 1870 (see Old Catholics), and the
Los von Rom (q.v.) movement in Austria, and by a
growing spirit of enlightened Biblical discussion
within the church by such men as Loisy of France
and Father Tyrrell of England.
P. SCHAFFf. D. S. SCHAFF.
For the Roman Catholic Church in different lands
apart from the United States and the Uniates (for
which see below) see the articles on the separate
countries.
Roman Catholics
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
74
II. Uniate Churches. — 1. In General: Rome has
been successful in winning away from all the
churches of the orient greater or (more generally)
smaller fragments and subjecting them to obedience
to itself. In corporate form, though
1. Bases of -m m(jj vjjuaj cases under circumstances
mon. wnjcjj ^ js noi profitable to follow out
in detail, native churches in Europe, Asia, and
Africa have submitted to affiliation with Rome, and
so in the peculiar sense which that church attaches
to the word " Catholic " have gained the right to
apply the term to themselves. Officially these
churches are spoken of as having their own " rite."
As opposed to the " Latin " rite the rites of the
Uniates are said to be four in number, the Greek,
Armenian, Syrian, and Coptic. But there are with-
in these divisions, apart from the Armenian, sub-
divisions which are made partly upon national
grounds and partly upon the bases of customs of
cultus or of speech. The term " rite " is according
to Latin usage broader than in common accepta-
tion. Commonly the word denotes the form of
cultus, the usages of the church in its celebrations,
while the Latin sense includes every kind of eccle-
siastical custom and also descent or derivation.
Everywhere it may be said that a rite is " intro-
duced," so that a " rite " may spring up anywhere;
but ecclesiastically a rite must represent a tradi-
tion. The expression is akin to that conveyed by
" discipline," and so may include the idea of or-
ganization, but must exclude that of theory. The
Roman Church distinguishes between ordinances
of divine right and those of human right. What
is not of divine right is freer in its nature, over it
the Church exercises jurisdiction. To the sphere
of divine right belong dogma and the sacrament.
Hence every dogmatic teaching, everything that
belongs to the " essentials," must be taken into rec-
ognition where the " Catholic " church is. " Rite "
includes the external usages, customs, ordinances,
and institutions which are in the sphere of " human
right " and are consequently not necessarily uni-
form throughout the Church. Even in the sacra-
ment what is not of its essence is " rite." Hence
Rome suffers as a condition of affiliation, where in-
sistence upon the Latin rite would raise serious op-
position, the waiving of externals, provided that
submission is made to its dogma and " all " the
sacraments are admitted. Since 1870 one of the
requirements is acceptance of papal infallibility.
In the orient dogma lives in the celebration; what
is not liturgically expressed is dogmatically irrele-
vant ; conversely, there is seen in the permission of
individual mysterious usages a cheapening of the
customary special teachings. The oriental churches
are generally ready to grant that other churches
may have a eharism. Their demands in the matter
of propaganda and union are small. Having due
regard to the protection of their forms of cultus,
they are easily able to make approach to other
churches and therefrom receive leadership. Forms
of jurisdiction vary among oriental Christians.
The same councils which established " divine eccle-
siastical law " are recognized as ecumenical in the
East as in Rome. These churches even concede a
kind of primacy to the Roman bishop, according to
their own definition of it. Hence a sort of superi-
ority may be conceded by the orientals to the
Latin Church, which the latter may wield in a
way not to displease. Again, the latter may
waive the Latin rite in virtue of its own reception
as ruler and of the pope as the highest " regent."
Until 1870 illusions might be cherished respecting
the character of the Roman primacy. Since then
no union has been effected, nor is any likely to
occur.
A certain measure of theological, though not of
juristic, importance attaches still to the confession
of faith submitted, in accordance with the proposal
of Clement VI. in 1267, to Gregory X. (q.v.) at the
Council of Lyons in 1274 by the Em-
Union per0r Michael Pateologus (cf. H. Den-
1267-1596 zmSeri Enchiridion symbolorum et de-
' finitionum , no. LIX., Wttrz-
burg, 1900). It agreed to the filioque, the Roman
doctrine of the sacraments and purgatory, and,
above all, in blunt form, to the papal primacy.
Over against this document is to be noted the reser-
vation of the Decretum unionis of Florence in 1439,
proclaimed in the bull Lwtentur coeli of Eugenius
IV. In this latter there appears as assured to the
Roman Church only the recognition of the " right "
of its dogmatic position, particularly so far as litur-
gical forms were concerned; the filioque was recog-
nized as lawfully and rationally added to the creed,
but the Greeks were not obligated to embody it;
transubstantiation was practically admitted, though
not in explicit terms, and the controversy over
leavened or unleavened bread was regarded as deal-
ing with non-essentials, each church being per-
mitted to follow its own custom. The matter of
purgatory and of the value of masses for the dead
was " defined," as was the papal power of ruling
and governing the whole Church universal (Den-
zinger, ut sup., no. LXXIII.; A. Hefele, Concilien-
geschichte, vii. 724; see also Ferraka-Flokence,
Council of). With the bull Lcetentur caeli as the
basis of the expected union of the whole Greek
Church, or at least of certain fragments of it,
Eugenius could issue two further decrees of union,
the Exultate Deo of 1439 having reference to the
Armenians, and the Cantate Domino concerning the
Jacobites (Denzinger, ut sup., LXXIII., B and C).
The result of these last was only partial success, as
in the case of the Greeks. A brief of Leo X. (q.v.)
issued in 1521 confirmed to the Greeks not only
their cultic forms and usages, but also their hier-
archy. The bull Magnus Dominus of 1595 of Clem-
ent VIII. simply renewed the formula of Ferrara-
Florence and laid the basis for the Ruthenian union,
and the bull Decet Romanos pontifices of 1596 fol-
lowed, having relation to the hierarchy of the new
church.
The relation of Benedict XIV to union is of espe-
cial importance; through the bull Etsi pastoralis of
1742 he regulated the connection of the so-called
Italo-Greeks in Italy, and through the
TJiU n bul1 Demandatam coelitus he dealt with
after 1596 *ne patriarchs and bishops of the
' Melchites (q.v.). By the bull Inter
plures of 1744 he extended the conditions of the
preceding bull to the Ruthenians, a process carried
75
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roman Catholics
still farther, to the " oriental Church," by Leo XIII.
in the bull Orientalium dignitas of Nov., 1894. In
1755 Benedict XIV. confirmed formally the cor-
rectness of certain " rites." Pius IX. also has sig-
nificance here because of his two briefs of 1862,
Bomani pontifices and Amantissimus, creating a
central institution to deal with the churches of the
oriental rite, viz., the Congregatio de propaganda
fide pro negotiis ritus orientalis. He thought it time
to go farther into the matter of introducing " re-
forms " and organic changes in the hierarchical re-
lations of the oriental churches; hence there issued
the bull Reversurus in 1867 referring to the Arme-
nians and the Cum ecclesiastica of 1869 to the
" Chaldeans." But of all the popes Leo XIII. was
most earnest in his efforts for union. He wooed the
orientals incessantly, and employed to the full
measures of organization in order to strengthen the
Uniate churches and to enlarge them by accessions
(cf. L. K. Goetz, Leo XIII., pp. 221 sqq., Gotha,
1899). He followed the example of certain of his
predecessors in establishing colleges for the educa-
tion of the priesthood to serve among the Uniates,
carrying this movement out not only in Rome but
also in Constantinople and Athens. Among the
subjects which appeared in the encyclical Prmclara
gratulationis, issued at his episcopal jubilee in 1894,
which he said lay near to his heart, appeared that
of union. He promised the orientals both for him-
self and his successors that there should be no de-
duction from the rights, patriarchal privileges, or
the ritual customs of each church, and this was in
legal form confirmed by the bull Orientalium dig-
nitas already mentioned. He listened with patience
to the complaints of the orientals concerning the
persecutions which they had suffered, notwithstand-
ing the consideration due them because of their
long-established freedom. He was clever enough
and great enough to censure the attempts at Latin-
ization which were made; while he did not recall
the Latin patriarchates of the orient, he limited
the zeal which was being exercised in making
" Latins " of the orientals.
Were these intentions carried out fully in papal
policy, the essential aspect of the Uniates would by
no means be that of Roman Catholicism. It is well
remarked by Loofs (Symbolik, vol. i., Tubingen,
1902) that the non-use of Latin is not the only
privilege left to the Uniates. They have their own
liturgies and a series of festivals peculiar to them-
selves; while they must recognize the saints of the
Roman Church they do not celebrate the days sa-
cred to these saints, and of the celebrations of the
Western Church they have actually taken in only
Corpus Christi ; their monasticism has not the great
diversity of that of the West, there being in most
regions only the Basilian and the Antonian orders,
to which may be added that of the Mekhitarists
(q.v.) in Venice and Vienna; and above all they
retain in slightly modified form their own ecclesias-
tical law and church discipline. Indeed, it may be
said that the Western-Roman type of piety could
not in any case be made to grow in these churches;
for eastern piety is dependent upon other factors
than sheer dogma and external connection with
Rome.
2. TheIndividualTJniateChurch.es: The entire
number of Uniates may amount to five and a half
millions. Varied groupings may be made according
to the principle employed. One method has al-
ready been given above (1, § 1), depending upon the
" rite." Another is based upon the method of or-
ganization, resulting in three groups: (1) those
which have their own " rite " only in a subordinate
sense, and have not a separate hierarchy, being
under Latin bishops, of whom are the Greeks in
Italy, the few Bulgarians and Abyssinians, a part
of the Armenians, and the so-called Thomas Chris-
tians (see Nestorians) ; (2) those which have their
own bishops and sometimes a metropolitan, espe-
cially in Austria-Hungary; (3) the patriarchates
of the East. It must always be borne in mind that
there is a difference in the conception of ecclesias-
tical law in the Roman Church as applied to " prov-
inces of the apostolic see " and " mission lands,"
making it necessary to have in mind the organiza-
tion in force in the latter. The details regarding
the Uniate churches are under the Congregation de
propaganda fide. A practical method which will be
followed in this article is to consider the churches
in their geographical order.
In Europe the Uniate churches are oldest in their
connection with the Roman Catholic Church and
have attained the closest union. The Italo- Greeks
(cf. KL, vi. 1133^1) consist of isolated
1. In groups scattered throughout the king-
Europe; Ru-dom. There are more compact groups
thenians, in Calabria and giciiV) and the total
Arme^aanSS'number is about 50,000. A source of
'knowledge is the bull Etsi pastoralis,
referred to above. Though these Greeks are under
Latin bishops as ordinaries, yet there are special
bishops who administer consecration to the priests.
The Uniate churches of Austria-Hungary include
Rutnenians, Rumanians, and Armenians. The first
two belong to the Greek rite. Of the Ruthenians
there are now only remnants, comparatively speak-
ing, though they are still the most numerous of all
the Uniates, three millions in Galicia and half a
million in Hungary. The churches which use the
Old Slavic have a complete independent organiza-
tion in Galicia with archbishopric (established 1807),
with Halicz as see city, and two suffragan bishop-
rics, Przemysl and Stanislau. In Hungary there
are two bishoprics, Munkacs and Eperies, these
being under the Latin primate, the archbishop of
Gran. There is also an affiliated Servian bishopric
in Hungary, that of Kreutz in Croatia under the
Latin archbishop of Agram, representing about
25,000. This was an independent eparchy under
Maria Theresa. It may be classed under the Ru-
thenians, since all the Slavic churches use the same
ecclesiastical language, and the Uniates use this
written in the same alphabet, the Glagolitic; the
" Orthodox," or, as the Roman Catholics express
it, the non-Catholic or " schismatic " churches use
this language, but written with a different alphabet
called the Cyrillian. The Ruthenians are among the
peoples who have not yet come into their rights in
history. They first bore the name " Russian," and
in Kief possessed the first metropolis of the East
Slavs; even yet in Russia they are known as
Roman Catholics
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
76
Ukrains or Little Russians, and altogether they
number about 30,000,000. After the Tatar inva-
sion in the thirteenth century, their land fell partly
to the Poles and partly to the Lithuanians, and
after the union of the two kingdoms (1385) to the
Poles. They were an unsafe element in this king-
dom so long as they remained " orthodox." Par-
ticularly after " Great Russia " had won in Moscow,
by the elevation of the metropolitanate into a pa-
triarchate, a new center and new eclat, there existed
a great danger for the Poles. So there arose from
political motives a movement for a union between
the Ruthenians and Rome. The metropolitan of
Kief, Michael Rahosa (Ragoza), found them only
externally pliant; his successors, Hypatius Pociej
(1600-13) and Velamin Rutski (1613-37), were the
more eager; though in fact the negotiations had
been completed at the Synod of Brest in 1596, yet
actual union did not eventuate till the middle of
the seventeenth century, the dioceses of Lemberg
and Luzk, however, not coming in till 1700 and
1702. This union affected essentially that part of
the kingdom which eventually fell to Austria. The
Ruthenians have often complained of what they
have had to endure at the hands of Latin bishops,
and in Galicia complaints continue on both political
and ecclesiastical grounds. Even in Russia the
Ruthenians suffer under disabilities as a separate
nationality, and consequently the Orthodox Church
has little real attraction for them.
The church of the Rumanians exists only in Hun-
gary, especially in Transylvania, and it may be
traced back into the seventeenth century. The in-
cidents of its changing history are not without in-
terest. It was in connection with the Rumanians
that the idea of " personal dioceses " first arose,
under which it is possible to have several bishops
(for the separate " rites ") at the same place, and
of course the occasion was the existence in the same
region of churches having separate rites, etc. This
church came to possess its own ecclesiastical lan-
guage first in the seventeenth century. At present
it possesses an independent metropolitan at Fo-
garas in Transylvania, and three suffragans at
Lugos, Grosswardein, and Szamos-Uvjar, and its ad-
herents number about a million. For the church
of the Armenians there is an archbishopric at Lem-
berg, and a very large community at Vienna, and the
Armenians of Venice belong in this communion also.
The adherents number only about 5,000. The Mek-
hitarists (q. v.) are an important order of this branch.
The changes in fortune in the Ruthenian Church
were, as already seen, closely connected with the
Polish kingdom. At times it seemed as though this
church would be coextensive with the
2- In Russia kingdom. The Polish Latin clergy
was exceedingly zealous to transform
the union into annexation and to re-
duce the independent hierarchy to complete de-
pendence; on the other hand, the Poles were po-
litically too strong to permit the quashing of the
independence attained. But in Kief there was
established alongside of the Ruthenian or Latin an
" Orthodox " (i.e., Greek) metropolitanate as early
as 1620, and the political power of the Poles could
not hinder the perpetuation of this " schismatic "
and
Turkey.
series of bishops, the most noted of whom was Pe-
trus Mogilas (q.v.). After a great part of the re-
gion had been absorbed by Russia, Kief remaining
in Poland but becoming ecclesiastically insignifi-
cant, this place was established firmly as a Uniate
metropolitanate. Meanwhile, in 1775, 1793, 1795,
and 1815 successive parts of Poland were incorpo-
rated in Russia, and in Prussia there was absorbed
the Uniate diocese of Suprasl (1807). It became a
settled policy of Russia to recover the Ruthenians
for the Greek Church; the measures of Catharine
II. were direct and restrained by no scruples, and
she endeavored to have the see of Kief done away
with entirely. It is reported that she recovered for
the Greek Church no less than 8,000,000 Ruthe-
nians, though she still suffered the archbishopric of
Polotsk to continue. The next rulers, Paul I. and
Alexander L, were in comparison tolerant, and the
Uniates, especially in the northern Lithuanian dis-
tricts, were reorganized. But Nicholas I. resumed
the policy of Catharine, and by 1839 brought it
about that the Uniates in Russia proper " volun-
tarily " asked to be received into the Greek Church.
In 1875 the relatively small diocese of Chelm, which
until then remained in the ranks of the Uniates,
was also received into the national church, and this
ended the existence of a Uniate Church in Russia.
The " Easter decree " of 1905 issued by Nicholas
II., which proclaimed freedom as to worship in the
empire, apparently put it within the power of those
who have secretly remained Uniates in sentiment
to go over to Rome; but as yet. there is no recog-
nition of a Roman Catholic Church with the Greek
rite in Russia. There are, however, scattered Uni-
ates in Russia, belonging to the Armenian rite, and
these are under a Latin vicariate.
The only Uniates to be considered in Turkey in
Europe are those in the Balkan peninsula, and they
are in small groups, considered as belonging to the
" missions." There appeared to be hope for union
so long as they were politically under an alien gov-
ernment and ecclesiastically dependent upon the
ecumenical patriarchate. In 1860 a movement
toward union was begun, but it was too energetically
pushed by Pius IX., and it died out, especially after
the foundation of the " Bulgarian exarchate " in
1872. Bulgarians have been ever since their con-
version (see Bulgarians, Conversion of the) an
object of hope to the Roman Catholic Church, and
as continually a disappointment. Leo XIII. in
1883 divided the " United Church of the Bulga-
rians " into three apostolic vicariates; but the adher-
ents do not exceed in number 15,000. In Constan-
tinople there are a number of Uniate Armenians
and Melchites.
The Uniate churches in Asia and Africa have
especial historical and legal interest owing to the
fact that they are organized as patriarchates. But
the measure of independence of the
Uniate patriarchs with reference to
the pope lies in obscurity. The Ro-
man Church is prepared to protect the
old ecclesiastical rank and rights in definite meas-
ure so far as they are involved in the title of patri-
arch. The chief characteristic of this ecclesiastical
order is that the patriarchs have the right to name
3. In Asia
and
Africa.
77
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roman Catholics
their suffragans and may call specific synods (cf.
P Hinschius, Das Kirchenrecht, i. 538 sqq., 562
sqq., Berlin, 1869). There are six Uniate patri-
archates as follows: (1) Patriarchatus Cilicias Ar-
menorum. This has had its home in Constantinople
since 1862, and claims fourteen churches and about
16,000 adherents; the Armenian-Catholic communi-
ties in Russian Armenia and in the non-European
dominions of the Sultan belong to this patriarchate.
The title indicates the origin of the church among
Cilician and Syrian Armenians (until 1867 the
patriarch resided in the Lebanon). Under the
patriarch are nineteen dioceses, but the total num-
ber of souls in his jurisdiction can not much exceed
100,000. (2) There are three Antiochian patri-
archates: (a) Patriarchatus Antiochenus Graeco-
Melchitarum. This includes the Uniate Greek na-
tionals of the Turkish empire. The largest number
are in Syria. The Melchites are organized in fifteen
dioceses and number about 120,000 souls, (b)
Patriarchatus Antiochenus Syro-Maronitarum. This
represents the most compact Uniate church of
the orient, most of its adherents living in Leba-
non. It is organized with eight or nine dioceses,
and the number of adherents is about 250,000.
(c) The Patriarchatus Antiochenus Syrorum con-
sists of a fragment of the Jacobites (q.v.). The
patriarch resides in Mardin (near Diarbekr on the
upper Tigris), and governs nine dioceses with per-
haps 20,000 adherents. The inclusion of the name
of Antioch in the title of these three patriarchates
probably indicates a historical tradition of connec-
tion with that city. (3) The Patriarchatus Chal-
daeorum Babylonensis represents a Uniate church
won from the Nestorians (q.v.). The patriarch,
with Mosul as see city, is at the head of eleven
dioceses, and the estimates of adherents range from
40,000 to 70,000. They present an attractive sub-
ject for the historian on account of their past. The
erection of a sixth Uniate patriarchate is due to
the measures of Leo XIII. , and is known as Patri-
archatus Alexandrinus Coptorum. The seat of
the patriarch is Cairo, and he has two dioceses; the
number of adherents is in doubt, but does not ex-
ceed 21,000. In addition to the foregoing there are
to be taken into account the Abyssinians and
Thomas Christians (see Nestorians). The number
of the first who are in affiliation with Rome is very
small and they are under a resident vicar. Leo
XIII. in 1887 established for the Thomas Christians
three Vicariatus apostolici Syro-Malabarorum, the
vicars using the Syrian rite, and the vicar-general
having a council from the people to act as his ad-
visers. The number of Thomas Christians involved
here is about 100,000. (F Kattenbusch.)
( III. In America: By the conversion of the in-
habitants of Greenland early in the eleventh cen-
tury (see Egedb, Hans, § 2), Christian-
i. Early ity was first established in the western
Work in hemisphere. To the people of Iceland
Greenland (q.v.), which is situated in both hemi-
and spheres, the Gospel had been preached
Iceland, long before. The first incumbent of the
bishopric of Gardar, in Greenland, was
appointed in the year 1112, and thereafter, until
1492, there was a succession of bishops of Greenland
and Vineland (cf. Gams, Series episcoporum, p. 334).
As shown by the sagas, one of those ecclesiastics,
Bishop Eric, sailed in quest of Vineland in the year
1121, but of his having found it there is no mention.
In the sagas now extant there is no evidence that
any church was ever built in Vineland. It is only
known that the Norsemen who visited that country
were Christians. It is almost certain that the region
in which they traded for centuries was within the
present limits of the Atlantic States. No memorials
of Norse activity have ever been found in America,
and the discovery of any is hardly to be expected, for
those intrepid mariners were simply traders or at
most but the sojourners of a few seasons. The
skraelings or natives appear not to have been influ-
enced by the religion or the civilization of their visi-
tors. In the very year that Columbus discovered
America, Pope Alexander VI. confirmed the last
bishop appointed to the see of Gardar. After a long
struggle for existence that lonely outpost of Chris-
tianity was abandoned.
When Spain discovered the New World, her pop-
ulation, diminished by centuries of warfare, could
not have exceeded 6,500,000. Never-
2. In theless, she endeavored to achieve what
Brazil. no nation has ever attempted. Amid
the wildernesses of mighty continents
and in vast archipelagos the Spaniards sought to
civilize innumerable races of whom even the most
advanced had scarcely attained to the upper stages
of barbarism. In Brazil (q.v.), where the Jesuits
and other Portuguese missionaries engaged in work
similar to that undertaken by the Spanish friars,
the aborigines were, if possible, still more degraded.
In many parts of that vast country the practise of
cannibalism was common. It was on this foundation
that the first Christian missionaries were compelled
to begin the civilization of two continents. For
more than 2,000 miles along the Brazilian coast all
the natives were brought under the superintendence
of missionaries. They were taught to know God,
to comprehend something of the universal laws of
morality, and in many other ways prepared for civil-
ization. Joseph Anchieta, who labored among them
for forty-four years, composed a Brazilian grammar
and also a dictionary of that dialect. The canticles
prepared by him replaced the indecent songs of the
natives. Antonio Vieyra, an author and statesman,
continued in the succeeding century the splendid
work of Anchieta. In districts from which Portu-
guese soldiers had been expelled the zealous mis-
sionaries established themselves. In this noble work
the Franciscans and the Dominicans were also en-
gaged. At one time the Jesuits in South America
numbered 1,700. Their number is not to be ascribed,
however, to the pleasures of an apostolic career.
In his History of Brazil (part I., 2d ed., pp. 320,
321, London, 1810), Robert Southey states that in
the year 1570 sixty-nine missionaries set sail for
South America in Portuguese vessels, and encoun-
tered the British and French (Huguenot) pirates
off the coast of Brazil and were put to death. Mis-
sionaries had also been attacked by the Dutch.
Even Portuguese merchants, with whose slave-trade
they interfered, misrepresented the missionaries in
Lisbon and in 1573 hundreds of them were deported
Roman Catholics
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
78
and for eighteen years were allowed to languish in
Portuguese prisons. After the expulsion of the mis-
sionaries the industries established by them were
soon in ruins. The prosperity of the country was
destroyed, slavery was easily revived, and vice and
drunkenness became general. Notwithstanding this
succession of calamities it was estimated that in
1S50 there were S00,000 domesticated Indians in
Brazil.
With some modifications this outline of mission-
ary activity in Brazil will serve for a sketch of early
Spanish America. Everywhere there
3. In Other was the same apostolic zeal, the same
Parts of enlightened missionary methods, the
South same miraculous success, and the same
America, fatal interference by government. In
the Cordilleras, where no Spanish army
had ever penetrated, a successful college was estab-
lished by the missionaries. Indeed, the educational
progress of Spanish America was remarkable. The
late Prof. Edward Gaylord Bourne, of Yale, says that
the efficiency of Spanish colonial academies in the
sixteenth century was not equaled in the United
States until the nineteenth century was well ad-
vanced (Spain in America, p. 310, New York, 1906).
Long before the humane Quakers, of Pennsylvania,
began their agitation for the abolition of slavery a
South American Jesuit had denounced it. When
guilt}- traders brought their human cargoes from
Guinea or Angola, Blessed Peter Claver consoled the
wretched negroes on their arrival in Cartagena.
From the experience of Brazil the Due de Choiseul
had learned nothing. He, too, attempted to get
along without missionaries and endeavored to de-
velop Guiana along economic lines of his own. Per-
haps no political philosopher has ever surpassed
this particular act in stupidity. When he had ban-
ished the priests, the Indians fled to the forests and
his colony was practically destroyed. Prosperity
returned with the restoration of the missionaries.
The economist Rae, quoted by John Stuart Mill, gives
an interesting account of the celebrated Jesuit mis-
sions of Paraguay. For winning savages to the ways
of civilization they appear to have been ideal, but,
like those established elsewhere in South America,
they, too, were destroyed by government interfer-
ence. After the conqueror came the missionary.
Everywhere civilization was sustained by the priests,
and when they were expelled it began everywhere
to decline. The political science of a later day seems
to have regarded as antiquated the custom of adopt-
ing an enlightened system of taxation to obtain a
revenue for government and instead to have relied
chiefly upon confiscation. From the effects of this
new system of economics and from the selfish oppo-
sition to religion many parts of South America have
never completely recovered. In favored regions,
however, it is even now in the vanguard of civiliza-
tion, and almost everywhere there are evidences of
improvement. So rapid is the succession of changes
in that part of the globe that descriptions written
a decade ago are no longer correct.
It has already been stated that the contact of
Norse Roman Catholics with the natives of Vine-
land had no lasting consequences. Roman Catho-
lics did not revisit that country until 1497, when
John Cabot's expedition traced the eastern out-
line of North America. In the knowledge of the
New World brought to Europe by these Englishmen
there is something of the vagueness of
4. Explora- the sagas. When England resumed the
tion. work of exploration, her rulers had be-
come Protestant. Her claims to this
continent were based, however, upon the discovery
and exploration encouraged by Henry VII., her last
great Roman Catholic king. After the Cabots the
Spanish navigators explored the Atlantic seaboard
from Nova Scotia to Cape Horn and from Magellan's
Strait northward to the Oregon country. They also
explored Mexico and much of what is now the south-
western part of the United States. In the extension
of geographical knowledge the Portuguese had few
rivals; even in the New World they were distin-
guished explorers. The French, too, were interested
in discovery, exploration, and settlement. That
nation, however, confined its activity chiefly
to the country of the St. Lawrence, the region
of the Great Lakes, and the great basin of the
Mississippi.
From the preceding it is clear that with the dis-
covery and the larger exploration of America, the
Protestant states of Europe had nothing whatever
to do. With the settlement and development of
the northern continent the matter is quite different.
In the territory now comprised in the United States
so great was the activity and success of the people
of non-Catholic nations that Roman Catholics are
not popularly regarded as having been among the
founders of this republic.
Of those colonies that were destined to form the
United States, Maryland alone was settled by Roman
Catholics. Though they were in a minority at the
outset and in every later stage of its
5. The development, they shaped its policy as
Colonies completely as if they had been the only
of North people in that part of our planet. From
America, the beginning all its inhabitants en-
joyed religious liberty. It was not,
however, until Apr., 1649, that there was passed the
famous act of toleration. William Claiborne had
already invaded the province and it then seemed
necessary to enact into law the objective fact of free-
dom of worship. When religious strife had once
begun, it was not easy to restore tranquillity. In-
deed, until the era of independence Roman Catho-
lics were the victims of gross discrimination. On
the subject of the first establishment of religious
toleration in the United States, controversy may
wax and wane, but it is not probable that there will
ever be found for that honor any person with a
title so clear as that of George Calvert. In Penn-
sylvania and in other communities Roman Catholics
were also to be found. However, they formed only
a very small part of the population, and the chron-
icles of the time tell little concerning their numbers,
their social status, or their contributions to the in-
tellectual life of the colonies. It has been estimated
that at the time of the Revolution they numbered
about 25,000. Though the Roman Catholic popula-
tion of the United States was small at the time of
the War of the Revolution, members of that faith
were numerous on all its borders and everywhere
79
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roman Catholics
they were either neutral or friendly. When Colonel
George Rogers Clark was engaged in the winning of
the West, two Roman Catholic companies from the
Illinois country joined his gallant battalion of Vir-
ginians; a priest, Pierre Gibault, acted as his recruit-
ing officer at Kaskaskia and his treasury was
strengthened by the loan of one Francois Vigo. In
case of disaster Clark knew that he could find a haven
of refuge with the Spaniards beyond the Mississippi.
The Spaniards of New Orleans, too, were friendly
from the beginning of the war for independence.
This friendship was confirmed when, in 1779, Spain
declared an independent war on England. Though
the policy of Spain seemed hesitant, she finally
loaned a considerable sum to the young republic.
In the United Provinces were elements friendly to
America, but none more so than the Roman Catho-
lics. The friendship of Spain and of the United
Provinces, however, was completely overshadowed
by the generous assistance of France. So much so,
indeed, that their services are not popularly known.
A very few Roman Catholics took sides with Eng-
land, but there was probably no Christian church
unrepresented in the ranks of the American loyalists.
Roman Catholics were to be found in the army, in
the navy, and in the halls of legislation. In all the
later wars they have not been less loyal than in the
struggle for independence. Those who were not
qualified for military or naval service, the faithful
and patient sisters, rendered services not less useful
in a multitude of hospitals. In vain might
one scan the pages of our history for any
complete narrative of the nurses of the Civil War.
The veterans of that conflict, however, cherish
a vivid recollection of the fine services of those
gentle heroines.
At an early date the Roman Catholic Church in
the United States began to receive accessions from
immigration. These came chiefly from
6. Accession Europe and because of the operation
by Immi- of a variety of causes. Multitudes have
gration. come from Germany, Ireland, Poland,
Austria, Italy, Portugal, and Canada.
In some instances they were driven hither by op-
pressive laws; in others they came to escape relig-
ious discrimination, and in many cases to avoid
military service. The expectation of enjoying po-
litical liberty and industrial prosperity was not
the least powerful of the causes that have attracted
settlers to this favored nation. In shaping these
multitudes for citizenship many forces have op-
erated. One of the most important agencies in
making homogeneous this variety of ethnical ele-
ments has been the Roman Catholic Church. To
this end the influence of priests and prelates has
tended constantly. The services in this field of such
leaders as Archbishops Carroll and Hughes, Bishop
England and Father Hecker, Archbishop Ireland
and Cardinal Gibbons (qq.v.), is a matter of com-
mon knowledge. The list of patriotic clergymen,
from the Revolution to the Civil War, could be ex-
tended indefinitely. Only typical examples will be
given.
To the political institutions that they assisted
In founding, Roman Catholics have been zealously
attached. Indeed, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, the
public representative of their faith whom they hold
in highest esteem, was an honored signer of the Dec-
laration of Independence. They also cherish the
memory of Daniel Carroll, one of the framers of the
Constitution. Of that instrument Chief Justice
Taney was one of the ablest expounders. In a de-
mocracy an exponent of social authority is needed,
and the Roman Catholic Church supplies that need.
To regard Roman Catholicism as a sort of police
power, however, is puerile. It is infinitely more
than that.
It is greatly to be regretted that, as yet, no satis-
factory narrative exists of the services rendered by
the Roman Catholic Church to the
7. Services Indians of the United States. In its
to Indians nature that work is not spectacular
and and many a noble deed has passed
Negroes, without observation. This is a phase
of activity for which it will never be
necessary to apologize and a theme that is likely
some day to attract some competent historical
scholar. Few achievements of the Roman Catholic
Church or, for that matter, of any other church,
are more praiseworthy than the services to the
Indians. The Roman Catholic Church has been criti-
cized for alleged indifference to the negro. Doubt-
less more could have been done for him. Neverthe-
less, the negro had friends among Roman Catholics,
and a scrutiny of the list of anti-slavery men would
discover the name of an occasional priest. In the
Nashville diocese, situated in the very heart of the
slave states, Bishop Whalen and, except the poet,
Father Ryan, all his priests were anti-slavery men.
Notwithstanding the existence of the " black code,"
Roman Catholic masters very commonly taught
their negroes to read the catechism and the prayer-
book. Macaulay affirms that in Roman Catholic
countries slavery has always worn a milder aspect
than elsewhere. It should be remembered that in
the South, where slavery was established, Roman
Catholics were and still are few in numbers. The
utmost activity on their part could have accom-
plished little in the way of changing public opinion
in communities where they were themselves only
tolerated.
Toward the Roman Catholic Church the Federal
government has always maintained a friendly atti-
tude. In the beginning this was demanded both by
the sentiments of gratitude and the
8. Attitude teachings of political science. How-
of the ever, after the republic became great
American and powerful, it continued and there-
Govern- by proved the sincerity of its friend-
ment and ship. It has not always been so with
People, the American people. In the long in-
tervals of peace there have been a few
anti-Roman Catholic outbreaks. In the early
thirties the opposition to Roman Catholicism was
marked; again, in 1844, and thereafter till the Civil
War, the Know-Nothing party (see Know-Noth-
ing Movement) developed considerable strength.
The latest of these agitations was that organized by
those who were popularly known as A. P. A.'s. Not-
withstanding these symptoms of religious intoler-
ance, the American people are the most tolerant
and the most fair-minded on the globe. The con-
Roman Catholics
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
80
stant stream of Roman Catholic immigrants is suf-
ficient proof of this statement, if, indeed, any proof
is required.
The charity work of this church is immense.
Hospitals, orphan asylums, houses of the Good
Shepherd, and similar eleemosynary
9. Charities, institutions cover the face of the con-
Architec- tinent, and their administration is both
ture, and efficient and enlightened. For the
Schools, general absence of beauty in their
ecclesiastical structures American Ro-
man Catholics have been criticized with severity.
From this general censure, it is true, certain cathe-
drals, which are triumphs of architectural skill, are
commonly excepted. In contrasting Protestant
Episcopal churches with Roman Catholic churches
it should be remembered that many entire Roman
Catholic congregations are composed of the indus-
trial classes. The nature of their employments
leaves little leisure for the cultivation of esthetics.
Though American Roman Catholics are in advance
of European Roman Catholics in many things,
it may be admitted that in music, painting,
sculpture, and architecture their triumphs are yet
to come.
One of the grandest achievements of American
Roman Catholics is the fine system of parochial
schools (see Roman Catholic Parochial Schools)
that they have established. In good part this has
been accomplished during the past thirty years and,
of course, without assistance from any of the states,
as the latter have public schools of their own. In
these schools the instruction is even now efficient,
and when their organization and unification are
further perfected, it will be still more so. From the
earliest times academies, ecclesiastical seminaries,
and colleges have been in existence, and these have
long been sending forth cultured men and women.
The demand for higher education led later to the
establishment of a number of universities. These
are already doing scholarly work and are contrib-
uting rapidly to improve both secondary and
primary education. The appearance of Roman
Catholic pedagogical journals, the establishment of
summer courses, and the institution of normaland
other schools for the training of teachers are the
present evidences of Roman Catholic activity in
this important field.
What has been said of apostolic labors in South
America is equally true of the northern continent.
There was scarcely an achievement of
10. Achieve-Brazil or Paraguay that was not par-
ments of alleled by the Jesuits of North America.
Roman The nature of the task was the same
Catholics, and the training of those who at-
tempted it was similar. In those vivid
narratives known as the Jesuit Relations (see bib-
liography) there exists an early and an exceedingly
valuable contribution to American scholarship. As
historical documents they have great worth. There
is also contained in them a vast mass of facts of the
highest linguistic and anthropological value. In-
deed, there were few phases of human activity un-
touched by those trained observers. Since the
seventeenth century American Roman Catholics
have been contributors to pure as well as applied
literature. In the literature of power they are
creditably represented in poetry, fiction, oratory,
and criticism. It is true that there have been among
them no great poets. Indeed, in this country there
have been none of the first class among the mem-
bers of any creed. For the entertainment of the
reader, and that is a legitimate object for the poet,
John Boyle O'Reilly, Father Ryan, Maurice Francis
Egan, Father Tabb, Miss Eleanor Donnelly, and
Miss Guiney take high rank. As in the case of poets,
there have been no American Roman Catholics in
the first class among orators. A few, such as Daniel
Dougherty and William Bourke Cockran, have been
successful in political oratory, and many, like the
late Archbishop Ryan, were pulpit orators of rare
eloquence. In essay writing and in criticism Ro-
man Catholic names are familiar. In this depart-
ment are found Richard Malcom Johnston, Agnes
Repplier, and Bishop John Lancaster Spalding
(q.v.). Except to say that he was a prose writer
of ability it is not easy to classify the convert Orestes
Brownson. He was active in many fields. In the
literature of knowledge Roman Catholics have been
creditably represented. To say nothing of histor-
ical essays and monographs, of which many of ex-
cellence have appeared, Hughes, Shahan, and Shea
rank with the first historians of America. On the
subject of law, Dr. W- C. Robinson is an authority
of considerable reputation, and Dr. Murphy is not
unknown in the science of medicine. In economics
Roman Catholics have been interested from the
days of Matthew Carey to the time of Rev. John
A. Ryan, the author of A Living Wage. Perhaps
the best notion of the standing of Roman Catholics
in applied literature will be obtained from an ex-
amination of The Catholic Encyclopedia, a publica-
tion covering, if not the entire realm of knowledge,
at least many of its important provinces. In di-
dactic literature also American Roman Catholics
are well represented. In the ranks of translators
and prose stylists there are authors of the type of
Rev. Dr. Hugh T. Henry. There is not space even
to enumerate those who have been distinguished
in journalism. Many Roman Catholics may be
found in the medical and in the legal professions.
In a word, they are very rapidly rising into
those classes that may be considered the natural
leaders of society.
In the United States the affairs of the Roman
Catholic Church are administered by an apostolic
delegate, by fourteen archbishops, of
11. Admin- whom one has the rank of cardinal,
istration. and by upwards of eighty bishops.
These ecclesiastical superiors, acting
in perfect harmony with the Holy See, are assisted
by more than 16,550 priests in attending to the
spiritual needs of, perhaps, 15,000,000 Roman
Catholics. Frequent reports furnish the Holy See
with accurate information concerning American
conditions and needs. If Rome were not very
exactly acquainted with the institutions of America,
Pope Leo XIII. could never have obtained so firm
a grasp of its current problems and he never could
have manifested for the entire American nation so
enlightened and so profound a sympathy. His affec-
tion for this republic will be evident to even a casual
81
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roman Catholics
reader of his great encyclicals. The attitude of his
illustrious successor is the same.
In the minds of many non-Catholic Americans
there exists a distrust of Catholicism, but for this
suspicion there is no foundation in American his-
tory; it was imported, and it is about as old as the
Reformation in England. The privilege of living
in an enlightened state under a constitution of gov-
ernment such as the world has never seen, is appre-
ciated by Roman Catholics as fully as it is by men
of other creeds, and that fact begets as high a
degree of loyalty. If our Federal state is
ever menaced by socialism, one of its greatest
resources will be found in the patriotism of its
millions of Roman Catholics.
Charles H. McCarthy.
Bibliography: The literature on the Roman Catholic
Church prior to the Reformation is that on the Church at
large apart from that on the oriental churches, and the
works which stand out are cited in the article Church
History. Much relevant material is to be found in the
bibliographies to the articles to which cross reference is
made in the text, as well as in the articles on the popes
and the various notables and ecclesiastics found through-
out this work, as well as under such articles as Curia;
Pope, Papacy, Papal System; TJltramontanism, and
the like. A reference list in certain important depart-
ments is given in this work in vol. i., pp. xxii.— xxiv. The
literature, historical, apologetic, and polemic, is so vast
that only a comparatively small selection can be given
here. The history, dogma, and apologetics of the church
in all their branches are set forth in the KL, and in The
Catholic Encyclopedia, New York, 1907 sqq. A very large
list of books is given in G. K. Fortescue's Subject Index
of the British Museum, under " Roman Catholics,"
London, 1903-06. Other lists of literature are: J. M.
Finotti, Bibliographia Catholica Americana; List of Works
by Catholics Authors and Publishers in the U. S., 1784—
1820, New York, 1872; D. Gla, Systematisch geordnetes
Repertorium der katholisch-theologischen Litteratur
1700-1900, 2 vols., Paderborn, 1895-1904; A Complete
Catalogue of Catholic Literature; containing all Catholic
Books published in the United States together with a Selec-
tion from the Catalogues of the Catholic Publishers of Eng-
land and Ireland, Boston, 1910.
Among works to be named on Roman Catholic apolo-
getics and dogmatics is the fullest repository of Roman
Catholic theological learning, viz., Migne's Nouvelle ency-
clopedic theologique, 52 vols., Paris, 1850 sqq., to which are
to be added the KL, and the Catholic Encyclopedia, ut
sup. Consult further: R. F. R. Bellarmin, Disputaliones
de controversiis Christiana; fidei, 4 vols., Ingolstadt, 1581—
1593 (standard; often republished); J. B. Bossuet, Ex-
position de la doctrine de Veglise catholique sur les malieres
de controverse, Paris, 1671 (standard); B. J. Hilgers, Sym-
bolische Theologie oder die Lehrgegensdtze des Katholicis-
mus und Protestantismus, Bonn, 1841; J. L. Balmez, El
Protestantismo comparado con el Catolicismo en sus rela-
ciones con la civilizacion Europea, 2d ed., 4 vols., Barce-
lona, 1844-45, Eng. transl., Protestantism and Catholicity
Compared in their Effects on the Civilization of Europe,
London, 1849, 10th ed., Baltimore, 1868; J. J. I. von
Dollinger, Kirche und Kirchen, Papstthum und Kirchen-
staat, Munich, 1861; J. Gibbons (cardinal), The Faith of
our Fathers, New York, 1871, Baltimore, 1890, and often
(the circulation has run up into the hundreds of thou-
sands); J. Perrone, Prcelectiones theological, 36th ed., Re-
gensburg, 1881; R. Soeder, Der Begriff der Katholicitat
der Kirche, Wurzburg, 1881; J. P. Gury, Compendium
theologim moralis, New York, 1884; N. A. Perujo, El
Apologista catolico, 2 vols., Valencia, 1884; E. Sala, La
Religione cattolica esposta edifesa, Milano, 1884; G. Baluffi,
The Charity of the Church a Proof of her Divinity, Dublin,
1885; Faith of Catholics: confirmed by Scripture and at-
tested by the Fathers of the First Five Centuries of the
Church, 3 vols., New York, 1885, 4th ed., 1910 (J. Ber-
ington and J. Kirk, compilers) ; J. J. Moriarty, The Keys
of the Kingdom; or, the unfailing Promise, ib. 1885; C. F.
B. Allnatt, The Church and the Sects, 2 ser., London, 1887-
X.— 6
1890; P. Schanz, Christian Apology, 3 vols., New York,
1891; W. Byrne, The Catholic Doctrine of Faith and
Morals, Boston, 1892; D. Lyons, Christianity and Infalli-
bility; both or neither, London and New York, 1892; J. D.
G. Shea and R. H. Clarke, Our Faith and its Defenders,
New York, 1892; J. A. Mohler, Symbolik oder Darstellung
der dogmatischen Gegensatze der Katholiken, und Protes-
tanten, 9th ed., Regensburg, 1894, Eng. transl., Symbol-
ism; or. Exposition of the doctrinal Differences between
Catholics and Protestants as evidenced in their symbolical
Writings, 5th ed., London, 1906 (standard); L. Riving-
ton, The Primitive Church and the See of Peter, New York,
1894; C. Pesch, Prmlectiones Dogmatical, 9 vols., St. Louis,
1895-99; P. Bold, Catholic Doctrine and Discipline simply
Explained, London, 1896; W. W. Pounch, The Catholic
Church. An Explanation of her Faith, her Ministry and
her Sacraments, New York, 1896; G. Tyrrell, External
Religion; its Use and Abuse, St. Louis, 1899; A. de Salas y
Gilavert, Influence of Catholicism on the Sciences and Arts,
St. Louis, 1901; A. Ehrhard, Der Katholizismus und das
zwanzigste Jahrhundert im Lichte der kirchlichen Ent-
wickelung der Neuzeit, 12th ed., Stuttgart, 1902; W. De-
vivier, Christian Apologetics; Defense of the Catholic
Faith, 2 vols., New York, 1903; R. Merry del Val, Truth
of the Papal Claims, St. Louis, 1903; M. J. Scheeben,
Handbuch der katholischen Dogmatik, 4 vols., Freiburg,
1903; C. M. Schneider, Die fundamentale Glaubenslehre
der katholischen Kirche. Aus den papstlichen Kundgeb.
ungen, Paderborn, 1903; J. Burg, Kontroverslexikon.
Die konfessionellen Streitfragen zwischen Katholiken und
Protestanten, Esslingen, 1905 (combats Kohlschmidt) ;
J. Chapman, Bishop Gore and the Catholic Claims, London,
1905; M. Hebert, L' Evolution de la foi catholique, Paris,
1905; J. H. Newman, Addresses to Cardinal Newman with
his Replies, 1879-81, London, 1905; G. Reinhold, Der
alte und der neue Glaube. Ein Beitrag zur Verteidigung
des katholischen Christentums gegen seine modernen Geg-
ner, Vienna, 1908; H. E. Sampson, Progressive Redemp-
tion. The Catholic Church, its Functions and Office in
the World, London, 1909; especially the works of
Cardinals Newman and Wiseman (named in the articles
on them).
Some examples of anti-Roman polemics are: M. Chem-
nitz, Examen concilii Tridentini, 1565-73, new ed., by
E. Preuss, Berlin, 1861, there was an Eng. transl., Lon-
don, 1582 (damaging to papal claims); I. Barrow, Trea-
tise on the Pope's Supremacy, ib. 1680, new ed., 1881;
P. K. Marheineke, Das System des Katholicismus, 3 vols.,
Heidelberg, 1810-13; R. Whately, The Errors of Roman-
ism Traced to their Origin in Human Nature, London.
1830; F. C. Baur, Der Gegensatz des Katholicismus und
Protestantismus, Tubingen, 1836 (against Mohler); P.
Schaff, Das Princip des Protestantismus, Chambersburg,
Pa., 1845; idem, Creeds, i. 83-191, ii. 77-274; C. Words-
worth, Letters to Mr. Gordon on the Destructive Character
of the Church of Rome, both in Religion and Policy, London,
1847; J. Bragden, Catholic Safeguards against the Errors,
Corruptions, and Novelties of the Church of Rome; being
Discourses and Tracts selected from the Writing of Divines
. . who lived during the Seventeenth Century, 3 vols., ib.
1849-51; C. Elliott, Delineation of Romanism Drawn from
the Authentic and Acknowledged Standards of the Church of
Rome, 2 vols., New York, 1851; F. D. Maurice, The Re-
ligion of Rome and its Influence on Modern Civilization,
London, 1855; J. C. Hare, The Contest with Rome, ib.
1856; J. Cairns, Romanism and Rationalism as Opposed
to Pure Christianity, ib. 1863; E. B. Pusey, Irenicon, 3
parts, Oxford, 1856-70; H. L. Martensen, Katholicismus
und Protestantismus, Giitersloh, 1874; Proceedings oj the
Evangelical Alliance Conference of 1873, pp. 449-466. New
York, 1874; J. Delitzsch, Das Lehrsystem der rbmischen
Kirche, Gotha, 1875; W. E. Gladstone. Rome and the New-
est Fashions in Religion, London, 1875: E. de Laveleye,
Protestantism and Catholicism in their Bearings upon the
Liberty and Prosperity of Nations, ib. 1875; S. W. Bar-
num, Romanism as it is; an Exposition of the Roman
Catholic System for the Use of the American People, new
ed., Hartford, 1876; R. W "Thompson, The Papacy and
the Civil Power, New York, 1876; C. A. Hase, Handbuch
der protestantischen Polemik gegen die rbmisch-katholische
Kirche, 4th ed., Leipsic 1878, Eng. transl.. Handbook to
the Controversy with Rome, London, 1906, rev. ed., 1909;
R. Jenkins, Romanism, a Doctrinal and Historical Exam-
Roman Catholics
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
82
ination of the Creed of Pius IV., ib. 1882; P. Tschackert,
Evangelisch* Polemik gegen die romische Kirche, Gotba,
1885, 2d ed., 1888; E. Eisele, Jesuitismus und Katholizis-
mus, Halle, 1888; S. S. Wynell-Mayow, The Light of Rea-
son, London, 1889; R. F. Littledale, Plain Reasons against
Joining the Church of Rome, ib. 1880; T. Moore, Anglican
Brief against Roman Claims, ib. 1895; Graf P. von Hoens-
broech, Dot Paptttum in seiner sozialkutturellen Wirksam-
keit, vol. i., Leipsic, 1900; D. H. Falconer, The Errors of
the Roman Catholic Faith, ib. 1901; J. MacLaughlin, The
Divine Plan of the Church, ib. 1901; A. H. Galton, The
Church's Outlook, Our Attitude toward English Roman Cath-
olics and the Papal Court, ib. 1902; J. B. Nichols, Evangel-
ical Belief . Its Contrast with Rome, ib. 1903; J.M.Logan,
Six Anti-Papal Studies, ib. 1904; Kontrovers-Lexikon, Die
konfessionellen Streitfragen zwischen Katholiken und Pro-
testanten, Essen, 1904-05; O. Hermens and O. Kohlschmidt,
Protestantisches Taschenbuch, Leipsic, 1904; C. Gore, Roman
Catholic Claims, London, 1905; K. Sell, Katholizismus
und Protestantismus in Geschichte, Religion, Politik, Kultur,
Leipsic, 1908.
On the unfolding of worship and law consult: L. P.
Gueranger, L'Annee liturgique, 16 vols., Paris, 1841 sqq.,
Eng. transl., London, 1867 sqq.; R. von Lilieneron,
Ueber den Inhalt der allgemeinen Bildung in der Zeit der
Scholastik, Munich, 1876; B. Thalhofer, Handbuch der
katholischen Liturgik, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1883-93; H. von
Eicken, Geschichte und System der mittelalterlichen Weltan-
schauung, Stuttgart, 1887; J. J. I. von Dollinger and F.
H. Reusch, Geschichte der Moralstreitigkeiten in der rSmisch-
katholischen Kirche seit den 16. Jahrhundert, 2 vols., ib,
1889; J. Dippel, Das katholische Kirchenjahr, 6 vols.,
Regensburg, 1889-93; S. Baumer, Geschichte des Breviers,
St. Louis, 1895; P. Batiffol, Hist, of the Roman Breviary,
London, 1898; K. A. H. Kellner, Heortologie oder das
Kirchenjahr und die Heiligenfeste in ihrer geschichtlichen
Entwickelung, Freiburg, 1901; F. Fleiner, Entwickelung
des katholischen Kirchenrechts im 19. Jahrhundert, Tub-
ingen, 1902; F. von Tessen-Wesierski, Der Autoritatsbe-
griff in den Hauptphasen seiner historischen Entwicklung,
Paderborn, 1907; F. Acin, La iglesia catolica, su consti-
tucion interna y relaciones externas, Huesca, 1910.
For the general history of the church consult: The
Annates of Baronius (for bibliographical details see
Babonius); J. J. I. von Dollinger, Lehrbuch der Kirchen-
geschichte, Regensburg, 1833-38, 2d ed., 2 vols., 1843,
Eng. transl.. Hist, of the Church, 4 vols., London, 1840-
1842; J. A. Mohler, Kirchengeschichte, ed. P. B. Gams,
3 vols., Regensburg, 1867-70; F. X. Kraus, Lehrbuch der
Kirchengeschichte, 4 vols., Treves, 1872-76; J. B. Alzog,
Universalgeschichte der christlichen Kirche, 10th ed., 2 vols.,
Mainz, 1882, Eng. transl. of 9th ed., 3 vols., Cincinnati,
1874-78, new ed., 1903; E. Renan, Lectures on the Influ-
ence of Rome on Christianity (Hibbert Lectures), new ed..
New York, 1898; R. F. Rohrbacher, Hist, universelle de
Veglise catholique, 9th ed., 15 vols., Paris, 1899-1900;
F. Nippold, Handbuch der neuesten Kirchengeschichte, 4
vols, Berlin, 1901; C. Bougie, L'Eglise romaine. Drame
historique de xx. siecles, Paris, 1902; H. Briick, Geschichte
der katholischen Kirche im 19 Jahrhundert, 2d ed., 2 vols.,
Mainz, 1902; E. Pardo-Bazan, Par la Europa catolica,
Madrid, 1902; B. W. Aecher, Characteristics of the Ro-
mish Church, London, 1904; J. P. Kirsch and V. Luksch,
Illustrierte Geschichte der katholischen Kirche, Munich,
(1905); A. Baudrillart, The Catholic Church, the Renais-
sance and Protestantism, London, 1908; MacCaffrey, Hist,
oj the Catholic Church in the 19th Century, 2 vols., Dublin,
1909.
The literature on the history of the church in different
lands is to be looked for under the articles on those lands,
the following works being merely supplementary except
in the cases of Great Britain and the United States. On
the history of the Roman Catholic Church in Great Brit-
ain and colonies consult: J. Forbes, V Eglise catholique
en Ecosse a la fin du xvi. siecle, Paris, 1885; W. F. Leith,
Narratives of Scottish Catholics under Mary and James
VI., Edinburgh, 1885, A. Bellesheim, Geschichte der
katholischen Kirche in Schottland, 2 vols., Mainz, 1883,
Eng. transl., History of the Catholic Church in Scotland,
4 vols., Edinburgh, 1887-90, W J. Amherst, History of
Catholic Emancipation and Progress of the Church, 1771-
1820, 2 vols., London, 1886; Kenny, History of Catholic-
ity in Australia to 1840, Sydney, 1886; T. D. Ingram,
England and Rome: History of the Relations between
the Papacy and the English State, London, 1892; G.
Grabinski (Count), La Renaissance catholique en Angle-
terre et le Cardinal Newman, Lyon, 1893; W. Ward, W.
G. Ward and the Catholic Revival, London, 1893; De
Madaune, Histoire de la renaissance du catholicisme en
Angleterre au xix. siecle, Paris, 1896; Alexis, Histoire de
la province ecclesiastique d'Ottawa, 2 vols., Ottawa, 1879;
P. F. Moran, History of the Catholic Church in Austral-
asia, Sydney, 1897; idem. The Catholics in Ireland under
the Penal Laws in the Eighteenth Century, London, 1899;
P Thureau-Dangin, La Renaissance catholique en Angle-
terre au xix. siecle, Paris, 1899; P. H. Fitzgerald, Fifty
Years of Catholic Life under Cardinals Wiseman, Manning,
Vaughan and Newman, 2 vols., London, 1901; J. Forbes,
L'Eglise catholique en Ecosse a la fin du xvi. siecle, Paris
1901; S. J. Jones, England and the Holy See, London,
1902; M. J. F. McCarthy, Priests and People in Ireland,
Dublin, 1902; idem. Five Years in Ireland, 1895-1900,
London, 1903; idem, Rome in Ireland, ib. 1904; M.
O'Riordan, Catholicity and Progress in Ireland, ib. 1905;
J. R. Willington, Dark Pages of English History. Being
a short Account of the penal Laws against Catholics from
Henry VIII. to George IV., ib. 1902; F. A. Gasquet, Short
History of the Catholic Church in England, ib. 1903; J. B.
Nichols, The Advance of Romanism in England, ib. 1904
D. Williamson, Roman Catholic Orders in Great Britain,
ib. 1904; Mrs. Bryan Stapelton, History of the Post-
Reformation Catholic Missions in Oxfordshire, ib. 1905
J. A. Bain, The New Reformation. Recent Evangelical
Movements in the Roman Catholic Church, Edinburgh,
1906; idem, The Developments of Roman Catholicism,
London, 1908; W. Forbes- Leith, Historical Letters and
Memoirs of Scottish Catholics, 2 vols., London and New
York, 1908; B. Ward, The Dawn of the Catholic Revival
in England, 1781-1803, 2 vols., London, 1909; Report of
the 19th Eucharistic Congress, held at Westminster, Sept.
9-13, 1908, ib. 1909. For France, beside the literature
under that article and Gallicanism, consult: J. de Mag-
deleine, La France catholique et la France juive, 2 vols.,
Paris, 1888; J. B. Jeannin, L'Eglise et la fin de siecle, ib.
1891; P. Boyle, The Irish College in Paris, 1878-1901,
London, 1901; L. Bourgain, L'Eglise de France et Vetat
au dix-neuvieme siecle, 2 vols., Paris, 1901; M. P. Imbart,
L'Eglise Catholique, La Crise et La Renaissance, ib. 1909.
On Germany use: F. W. Woker, Aus norddeutschen Mis-
sionen des 17. und 18. J ahrhunderts, Cologne, 1884; Michel,
Die romische Kirche, ihre Einwirkung auf die germanischen
Stamme, Halle, 1889; J. May, Geschichte der Generalver-
sammlungen der Katholiken Deutschlands, 1848-1902,
Cologne, 1903; R. Seeberg, Die Kirche Deutschlands im
neunzehnten Jahrhundert, Leipsic, 1903; H. A. Krose,
Konfessionstatistik Deutschlands, Freiburg, 1904; G.
Gayau, L'Allemagne religieuse. Le Catholicisme, 1800-
1848, 2 vols., Paris, 1905. For Italy consult: Letino
Carbonelli, La Chiesa, la proprieta, lo stato, Naples, 1884;
S. Muenz, Aus Quirinal und Vatikan, Berlin, 1891; R.
Murri, Battaglie d'oggi, 3 vols., Rome, 1901; A. Robert-
son, The Roman Catholic Church in Italy, London, 1903;
R. de Cesare, The Last Days of Papal Rome, 1850-1870,
ib. 1909. On the church in the United States consult:
J. J. O'Connell, Catholicity in the Carolinas and Georgia
. . 1830-78, New York, 1879; B. J. Webb, Centenary
of Catholicity in Kentucky, Louisville, 1884; J. G. Shea,
History of the Catholic Church in the V. S. A., 2 vols.,
New York, 1886; idem, The Catholic Church in Colonial
Days, 1521-1763, ib. 1887; H. H. Heming, Catholic Church
in Wisconsin, Milwaukee, 1897; T. O'Gorman, in Amer-
ican Church History Series, vol. ix., New York, 1897;
Hist, of the Catholic Church in the New England States, 2
vols., Boston, 1899; J. O'K. Murray, Catholic Pioneers
of America, new ed., Philadelphia, 1901; G. F. Houck,
Hist, of Catholicity in Northern Ohio, 2 vols., Cleveland,
1903; J. M. Flynn, Catholic Church in New Jersey, Mor-
ristown, N. J., 1904; A. Houtin, V Americanisme, Paris,
1904; W. P. Tracy, Old Catholic Maryland and its Early
Jesuit Missionaries, Baltimore, 1906; The Catholic church
in the United States of America, vol. i., The religious Com-
munities, vol. ii., Province of Baltimore, New York, 1908
sqq.; W. H. Bennett, Catholic Footsteps in Old New York;
a Chronicle of Catholicity in New York, 1524-1808, ib.
1909; J. P. Conway, The Question of the Hour: a Survey
of the Position and Influence of the Catholic Church in the
83
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roman Catholics
U. S., ib. 1909; J. L. Kirlin, Catholicity in Philadelphia
from the Earliest Missionaries down to the Present Time,
Philadelphia, 1909; F. T. Morton, The Roman Catholic
Church and its Relation to the Federal Government, Boston,
1909; The Catholic Church in the United States, New York,
1908 sqq. On Other Countries consult: B. Wolferstan,
The Catholic Church in China 1880-1907, London, 1909;
P. Pierling, La Russie et la Saint-Siege. Etudes diplo-
matiques, Paris, 1896-1901; L. Lescceur, L'Eglise catho-
liques et le gouvernement russe, ib. 1903; P. H. Zachers,
Geschiedenis van het Herstel der Hierarchie in die Neder-
landen, 2 vols., Nijmegen, 1903-04; G. Verspeyen, Le
Parti catholique beige, Ghent, 1893; F. Deschamps, Catho-
liques actuels. Nos littiraires, Louvain, 1893; L. Schmitt,
Die Verteidigung der katholischen Kirche in Danemark
gegen die Religionsneuerung im 16. Jahrhundert, Pader-
born, 1899; J. P. Restrepo, La Iglesia y el Estado en
Colombia, London, 1885.
On the Uniate churches consult: L. Allatius, De eccle-
siw occidentalis atque orientalis perpetua consensione,
Cologne, 1648; P. P. Rodota, Del Origine . .. del rito
Greco in Italia, Rome, 1758-63; A. Theiner, Die neuesten
Zustdnde der katholischen Kirchen beider Ritus in Polen
und Russland seit Katharina II., Augsburg, 1841; O.
Meier, Die Propaganda, ihre Provinzen und ihr Recht, 2
parts, Gottingen, 1852-53; L. Lescoeur, L'Eglise catho-
lique en Pologne, Paris, 1860; J. Lelewel, Hist, de la Li-
thuanie et de la Ruthinie, Paris, 1861 ; M. von Malinowski,
Die Kirchen- und Staatsatzungen beziiglich des griechisch-
katholischen Ritus der Ruthenen in Galizien, Lemberg,
1861; J. Hergenrother, Die Rechtsverhaltnisse der ver-
schiedenen Riten, in Archiv fur katholisches Kirchenrecht,
vols, vii.-viii., 1862; L. Tolstoi, Le Catholicisme romain
en Russie, Paris, 1863; A. Pichler, Geschichte der kirch-
lichen Trennung zwischen dem Orient und Occident, 2 vols.,
Munich, 1864-65; J. B. Pitra, Juris ecclesiastici Grce-
corum historia et monumenta, 2 vols., Rome, 1864-68;
A. Theiner and F. Miklosich, Monumenta spectantia ad
unionem ecclesiarum Grcecae et Romance, Vienna, 1872; J.
Pelesz, Geschichte der Union der ruthenischen Kirche rn.it
Rom, 2 vols., Vienna, 1878-80; N. Nilles, Kalendarium
manuale utriusque ecclesice, 4 vols., Innsbruck, 1879—85, 2d
ed. of vols, i.-ii., 1896-97; E. Likowski, Geschichte des'all-
gemeinen Verfalls der unierten ruthenischen Kirche im 18.
und 19. Jahrhundert, 2 vols., Posen, 1885-87; O. Werner,
Orbis terrarum catholicus sive totius ecclesice catholicce .
conspectus geographicus et statisticus, Freiburg, 1890;
F. Kattenbusch, V ergleichende Konfessionskunde, Leip-
sic, 1892; G. M. Rae, The Syrian Church in India, Lon-
don, 1892; A. Arndt, Die gegenseitigen Rechtsverhaltnisse
der Riten in der katholischen Kirche, in Archiv fur katholi-
sches Kirchenrecht, lxxi (1894); W. Kohler, Die katholi-
schen Kirchen des Morgenlands, Darmstadt, 1896 (very
thorough); H. Denzinger, Ritus orientalium, 2 vols.,
Wiirzburg, 1863-64, 9th ed., 1900; M. Fowler, Christian
Egypt, London, 1901 ; K. Beth, Die orientalische Christen-
heit der Mittelmeerlander, Berlin, 1902; Cotroneo, II Rito
Greco in Calabria, Reggio, 1902; F. Loofs, Symbolik, i.
393 sqq., Tubingen, 1902; E. Likowski, Die ruthenisch-
romische Kirchenvereinigung, genannt Union zu Brest,
Cracow, 1904; A. Silbernagl, Verfassung und gegenwartiger
Bestand samtlicher Kirchen des Orients, 2d ed., ed. J.
Schnitzer, Regensburg, 1904; Prince Max, Duke of Saxony]
Vorlesungen iiber die orientalische Kirchenfrage, Freiburg-
in-Switzerland, 1907; Sesostris Sidarouss, Des Patriarcats.
Les Patriarcats dans V empire ottoman et specialement en
Egypte, Paris, 1907; Charon, Le quinziime centenaire de
S. Jean Chrysostome, pp. 258-264, Rome, 1909; KL, iii.
41-45, vi. 428-446, 1133-41, x. 1418-20; Hubner-Jura-
schek, Geographisch-statistische Tabellen aller Lander (an
annual); La Gerarchia Cattolica (an annual).
ROMAN CATHOLIC EUCHARISTIC CON-
GRESSES: Name given to assemblies of ecclesias-
tics and laymen convened for the purpose of glorify-
inge the Eucharist, and of devising means to
promote knowledge and love thereof among the faith-
ful. Because of the constant traditional doctrine
of the real presence (see Lord's Supper; and Tran-
substantiation), the Eucharist has always been
considered as the most precious treasure bestowed
by Christ upon his Church, and for long centuries it
has been the center of Roman Catholic worship, the
chief source of Christian piety. The latter half of
the nineteenth century was marked by a general
movement among Roman Catholics in the direction
of an increase of devotion toward the Eucharist;
confraternities of the Blessed Sacrament were or-
ganized, and works of adoration and the practise of
frequent communion became more wide-spread
(see Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed Sac-
rament). Of this general movement Eucharistic
Congresses became an important and stimulating
factor. The first of these gatherings was convened
at the instance of Bishop Gaston de Segur and was
held at Lille, France, in June, 1881. It was a local
event with a small attendance, but the idea rapidly
gained favor and from the year 1885 when the
fourth congress was held in Freiburg, Switzerland,
under the direction of Mgr. Mermillod, bishop of
Lausanne, the assemblies began to assume an inter-
national character. The eighth congress was held
in Jerusalem (May 14-21, 1893) and was presided
over by Cardinal Langemeux, archbishop of Reims,
who acted as papal delegate sent by Leo XIII. In
the mean time there had grown up, in all countries
where Roman Catholics were numerous, local gather-
ings of the Eucharistic leagues, and these too became
potent factors in the spread of the devotion. The
nineteenth congress was held in London Sept. 9-
13, 1908. It was attended by a vast number of
ecclesiastics and laymen from all parts of the world,
and it was considered to be in many respects the
most important congress yet held. Besides great
numbers of bishops and priests, there were present
seven cardinals, among whom was Cardinal Vin-
cenzo Vanutelli, who presided as special delegate of
Pius X. It had been planned to carry the host in
triumphal procession through the streets, but on
account of violent opposition on the part of many
English non-Catholics the project was abandoned
after a request to that effect had been addressed by
Premier Asquith to Archbishop Bourne of West-
minster. The twentieth congress was held in Mon-
treal, Canada, Sept. 7-11, 1910. It was the first
held in America, and in point of enthusiasm and
attendance on the part of the faithful it surpassed
all previous gatherings of the kind. Three cardinals
were present, one of them being Cardinal Vincenzo
Vanutelli, who again presided as papal delegate.
Among the salient features of the congress were a
monster procession in the streets, and an open-air
mass celebrated on the southeastern slope of Mount
Royal at which 40,000 persons assisted.
James F. Driscoll.
Bibliography : Thomas F. Meehan, in Catholic Encyclopedia,
v. 593-594, New York, 1909; official Reports of the differ-
ent congresses; The Narrative of the Eucharistic Congress,
Montreal, 1910; A. Segur, Biographie nouvelle de Mgr.
De Segur, Paris, 1885.
ROMAN CATHOLIC PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS:
Name given to the private schools maintained in
the United States chiefly by Roman Catholics inde-
pendently of support from the State. The reason
for the existence of such schools outside and inde-
pendent of the otherwise excellent public school
system of this country is simply a matter of religious
Roman Catholic
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
84
principle. Xo fault is found with the equipment
or efficiency of the public schools on the score of
secular instruction or ethical standing, but the
contention of Roman Catholics, and of some other
religious bodies as well, is that these schools are
wanting in an important respect, that they lack
an essential factor in the training of youth, viz., the
element of religious instruction and influence, and
for Roman Catholics, of course, religious influence
means the specific influence of the Roman Catholic
religion. Hence throughout the period of the rapid
growth of Catholicism in the United States the
school question has always been a matter of con-
cern and frequently of controversy. The practical
impossibility of giving religious instruction in the
public schools, frequented as they are by pupils
representing the various Christian denominations
and the Hebrew faith, is recognized by Roman
Catholics and Protestants alike, and though it has
been sometimes suggested that a general knowledge
of Christian truth might be imparted without giving
offense to the adherents of any of the sects, the idea
has been opposed especially by Roman Catholics
who contend that all religious instruction, to be of
any value or even safe, must be positive and doc-
trinal, and consequently denominational in charac-
ter. But the zeal of Roman Catholics for the es-
tablishment and maintenance of parochial schools
is not determined solely or even primarily by the
desire to secure for their children proper religious
instruction. This need can be, and often has to be,
provided for in other ways. Of still greater impor-
tance in their esteem is what may be termed the
religious atmosphere of the Roman Catholic school,
with its multifarious subtile influences, all tending
to foster reverence and love for the Church and all
things pertaining thereto. The schools are organ-
ized under the immediate direction of the parish
clergy, and are for the most part in charge of teach-
ing brothers and nuns whose lives, being models of
devotedness and self-sacrifice, can not fail to make
a deep and lasting impression on the minds of the
children. These and other influences create in the
parochial schools a feeling and attitude toward re-
ligion and things religious which is rarely, if ever,
met with in the public schools. The same secular
instruction is given as in these latter, but it is per-
meated throughout with a religious spirit, and Ro-
man Catholic ideals and practises are commended
by word and example. Doubtless Roman Catholics
are not alone in advocating the importance and
need of the religious element in the education of
our American youth. Like views have often been
proclaimed by representatives of other religious
bodies, and within the last few years an important
movement in this direction has been inaugurated
by an association of eminent educators, but it is
among Roman Catholics that the principle of re-
ligious education has been most widely and consist-
ently carried out especially as regards the elemen-
tary schools.
The origin of the parochial schools in the United
States dates from the early days of the Maryland
colony, about the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury, and the growth of the system ever since has
been intimately connected with the growth and
organization of Catholicism in the country. For
more than a century development was very slow,
but the American Revolution, by bringing about a
relatively greater freedom for Roman Catholics than
they had previously enjoyed, gave an impetus to
the cause of Roman Catholic education which was
later on powerfully aided by the great influx of
Roman Catholic immigrants with whom came also
many members of the various teaching orders.
Passing over in this connection the early work of
the Benedictines (see Benedict of Nuesia), Do-
minicans (see Dominic, Saint), Franciscans (see
Francis, Saint, of Assisi), and Jesuits (q.v.), who
generally combined educational activities with their
missionary labors, mention should be made of the
Christian Brothers (q.v.), and particularly of the
orders of women, for it is chiefly through their zeal
that the rapid development of the parochial system
has been made possible. As early as 1727 the Ursu-
line Sisters (see Uesulines) established the first
sisters' school in the then French-speaking colony
of New Orleans. In 1799 the founders of what was
destined to become the American branch of the
Visitation order (see Visitation, Nuns of the)
opened at Georgetown the first free school in the
District of Columbia, and by the year 1850 branch
houses and schools under the control of this center
had been established in Baltimore, Washington, St.
Louis, Mobile, and Kaskaskia, 111. Of still greater
importance was the work begun by Mrs. Elizabeth
Ann Seton (q.v.), who, being a convert to the Ro-
man Catholic Church, founded in Baltimore (1812)
the American branch of the Sisters of Charity of
St. Vincent de Paul (see Charity, Sisters of, 1).
This foundation proved remarkably successful, and
in 1908 the community, together with the branches
connected with it, comprised about 5,500 sisters
with over 120,000 pupils — being about one-tenth
of the total Roman Catholic school attendance in
the United States. Among the other orders which
have rendered important services in the cause of
parochial school education are the Sisters of Mercy
(see Mercy, Sisters of), the Sisters of St. Benedict,
the Franciscan Sisters, the Sisters of St. Dom-
inic, the Sisters of St. Joseph, and many others
(see Teaching Orders). Because of the great
expenditure involved in the establishment and sup-
port of the parochial schools, the Roman Catholics
of this country have frequently sought to obtain
state recognition for their educational work and
thus be relieved of the burden of taxes imposed for
the maintenance of the public school system which
for religious reasons they ''do not find satisfactory.
A notable effort in this direction was made in
1840 by the Roman Catholics of New York under
the leadership of Archbishop John Hughes (q.v.).
It was argued in a petition to the aldermen of the
city and to the state legislature that if the same
quality of secular instruction was given in the
parochial as in the public schools — a point of fact
to be controlled by state inspection and examina-
tions— the former were in justice entitled to a pro
rata share in the public funds set apart for school
purposes. But the proposal was bitterly assailed
by Protestants generally, and the project failed,
as have also all subsequent efforts on the part of
85
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roman Catholic
Roman Catholics to bring about a compromise in
the matter such as obtains in England and Canada.
Local concessions and arrangements have been
sometimes made, as, for instance, in Poughkeepsie,
and at Faribault, Minn., in the early nineties, but
they have been of short duration, and have gener-
ally failed to satisfy either party to the controversy.
In the mean time the Roman Catholics have gone
on building and equipping their schools, and accord-
ing to the official statistics of the year 1908 the
total number of such schools in the United States
was 4,443, the number of pupils 1,136,906, and the
number of professional teachers, lay and religious,
20,755. The amount of property invested was esti-
mated to be over $100,000,000, with an annual ex-
penditure for school purposes of about $15,000,000.
A few years previous to this date an important move-
ment was inaugurated for the better organization
and unification of the system throughout the coun-
try. This is a part of the work undertaken by the
Catholic Educational Association which aims at
carrying out a similar aim for all the Roman Catho-
lic educational establishments in the United States,
theological seminaries, colleges, academies, and
high schools, under the general supervision of the
Catholic University of America located in Wash-
ington, D. C. To aid in the accomplishment of this
general purpose the professors of the latter institu-
tion have begun the publication of a Catholic Edu-
cational Review. James F Dbiscoll.
Bibliography: J. A. Burns, The Catholic School System in
the\United States, its Principles, Origin and Establishment,
New York, 1908; Annual Reports of the Catholic Educa-
tional Association, 1903 sqq., Columbus, Ohio; The Offi-
cial Catholic Directory, published yearly by the M. H.
Wiltzius Co., Milwaukee and New York.
ROMAN CATHOLIC POSITION ON THE BIBLE
IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS: This topic has fre-
quently been a matter of controversy between
Protestants and Roman Catholics, particularly in
the United States. The custom of reading the Bible
as a part of the regular school exercises is doubtless
a survival from the earlier days when educational
institutions were in the main denominational, and
consistently imparted religious as well as secular
instruction. The attitude of Roman Catholics
toward the practise is determined not by hostility
to Bible-reading as such, but by certain considera-
tions of principle. In the first place, they are not
convinced of the utility or expediency of indiscrim-
inate Bible-reading especially for young children,
unless it be accompanied by suitable explanation,
and consequently this mode of imparting Scrip-
tural knowledge is rarely employed in Roman Catho-
lic elementary schools. It is judged preferable to
reduce the voluminous and often bewildering narra-
tive portions of the Bible to the simpler form of
Bible histories, while its dogmatic, ethical, and re-
ligious teaching finds expression in catechisms and
religious instruction. If it be proposed as an al-
ternative to have the Bible-reading in the public
schools accompanied by commentary on the part
of the teachers, Roman Catholics object, not only
because they question the authority of these ex-
ponents and their competency for such a task, but
also because such commentary is liable to be tinged
with sectarian bias.
Furthermore, Bible-reading in the schools is
sometimes connected with the recitation of prayers
and the singing of hymns, thus taking on the char-
acter of a religious service. All these elements may
be very good in themselves and free from any in-
herent denominational tendencies, but Roman
Catholics consistently, with that exclusiveness which
is traditional in their church, refuse to take part in
a non-Roman Catholic (or, as they claim) heterodox
act of public religious worship. This prohibitive
principle, logically reducible to what the theologians
term communicatio in divinis, obtained originally
in most of the Protestant denominations as well as
among the older branches of Christianity, but of
late, and for obvious reasons, it has been rapidly
disappearing from the various forms of Protestant-
ism, and though among Roman Catholics it is now
less acutely emphasized than formerly, it is never-
theless maintained as an integral element of the
Roman Catholic position — a principle which can
not consistently be sacrificed.
Exception has also been taken by Roman Catho-
lics to the fact that the Bible read in the public,
schools was the " Protestant " or King James ver-
sion, whereas a long-standing decree of ecclesias-
tical authority had made it obligatory for lay Ro-
man Catholics (unless otherwise permitted) to use
currently only those vernacular translations of Holy
Writ which had received the approbation of their
church, and were provided with suitable notes for
the proper understanding of certain passages. This
objection flows logically from the general Roman
Catholic principle according to which the Church
is held to be the divinely appointed guardian of the
Scriptures and their sole authoritative interpreter.
The prohibition in question, which is as old as the
Council of Trent, was based on the assumed danger
(now doubtless more remote than in the sixteenth
century) which, especially in those troubled times,
might result for the faith of Catholics from an in-
discriminate use of the various unauthorized trans-
lations then in vogue. It was assumed — and not
entirely without cause — that doctrinal bias had in-
fluenced the rendering of certain passages supposed
to have a bearing on the religious differences be-
tween Protestants and Roman Catholics. As in-
stances of this Bishop Kenrick (Theologia Dogmatica,
i. 427 sqq., Philadelphia, 1839) calls attention to
such passages in the Authorized Version as Matt.
ix. 11; I Cor. vii. 9, ix. 5, xi. 27; Heb. x. 38, etc.,
as being erroneous dogmatic renderings due to po-
lemical preoccupation. In this connection Roman
Catholics quote also the words of Robert Gell, the
chaplain to George Abbot (q.v.), Protestant arch-
bishop of Canterbury (one of the translators), who
says: " Dogmatic interests were in some cases al-
lowed to bias the translation, and the Calvinism of
one party, the prelatic views of another, were both
represented at the expense of accuracy." To this
may be added a recent Protestant admission, viz.,
that of Bishop Ellicott: " In spite of the very com-
mon assumption to the contrary, there are many
passages (in the version of 1611) from which erro-
neous doctrinal inferences have been drawn, but
where the inference comes from the translation, and
not the original " (Considerations on the Revision of
Roman Catholic
Romanticism
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
86
the English Version of the New Testament, p. 89, cf.
also p. 88, London, 1870). Be that as it may, it is
certain, on the other hand, that this phase of the
objection to the Protestant Bible has now lost much
of its interest and cogency. It is not here the place
to discuss the relative merits of the " Authorized "
and of the Douay version, which through episcopal
authority has become the accepted translation for
the use of English-speaking Roman Catholics. Each
has its points of superiority and its defects. It is
worthy of note, however, that some of the alleged
faulty renderings mentioned above have been
emendated by the revisers of 1881.
A further and more serious objection on the part
of Roman Catholics to the use of the Protestant
Bible is based on the difference as regards the Scrip-
tural canon. The so-called " apocryphal " or deu-
tero-canonical books, which Roman Catholics (on
the authority of the Church) accept as having the
same divine authority as the other portions of Holy
Writ, have been excluded from the King James ver-
sion since the edition of 1826, whence arises the
Roman Catholic contention that the Protestant
Bible is a truncated version and materially incom-
plete. Apart from the question of authority which
finally determines the Roman Catholic position in
such matters, it is pertinent to note that such an
eminent and independent scholar as Charles A.
Briggs (General Introduction to the Study of Holy
Scripture, chap, v., " The Canon of Scripture," New
York, 1899) is inclined to accept the larger tradi-
tional canon as defined by the Council of Trent.
But whatever the scientific merits of the contro-
versy, this and the above-mentioned reasons may
serve to render intelligible the attitude of Roman
Catholics who have opposed the reading of the Bible
in the public schools. James F. Driscoll.
ROMAN CATHOLIC RESTRICTION OF BIBLE-
READING BY THE LAITY: The traditional and
official attitude of the Roman Catholic Church
toward Sacred Scripture and its use was formulated
in the fourth session of the Council of Trent (Apr.
8, 1546) the main enactments of which were re-
affirmed by the Vatican Council (q.v.). After de-
claring the substance of divine revelation to be
contained in Holy Writ and in the unwritten (i.e.,
non-inspired) ecclesiastical traditions (in libris
scriptis, et sine scripto traditionibus) , the council form-
ally accepted the traditionally received books of
the Old and New Testaments with all their parts
as contained in the Latin Vulgate (decreeing at the
same time that a new, and as far as possible accu-
rate, edition of the same be prepared; see Bible
Versioxs, A, II., 2, § 5), and further enacted that
this version, which was declared a substantially cor-
rect translation of the original Scriptures, should
henceforth be considered as the official text to be
appealed to in all theological discussions, and for
general use in the Church. At that time, as for
centuries before, Latin was the official and liturgi-
cal language of the Church, and the Fathers of the
council, in thus making the Vulgate the standard
text, had no intention of declaring a preference for
it over the original Hebrew or Greek, but wished
simply to affirm its substantial conformity with the
latter, and to confer upon it for practical purposes
an official authority with reference to the other
existing Latin translations. Underlying these and
similar enactments is the fundamental Roman
Catholic doctrine that the authority of the living
Church — not the letter of Scripture — is the proxi-
mate rule of belief, and that the Church is the di-
vinely appointed custodian of Holy Writ, the sole
authoritative interpreter of its meaning in all mat-
ters pertaining to faith or morals. In her capacity
of guardian the Church assumes the duty of pre-
serving the substantial purity of the original text,
and likewise claims the right of supervision and di-
rection whenever it is question of translating the
Scriptures into any of the modern languages. As
these vernacular versions formed an important
factor of the controversies and the disturbed relig-
ious conditions of the sixteenth century, it was de-
creed by the Council of Trent that no such trans-
lation might be used by the laity unless it had the
sanction of ecclesiastical authority, and were pro-
vided with suitable notes for the proper understand-
ing of difficult and disputed passages. This re-
strictive legislation still retains force of law, though
the reasons justifying it are obviously less cogent
now than in the days of early Protestantism when
so much stress was laid by the Reformers on the
right of private interpretation. The Latin Vulgate
is still retained as the basis of all authorized trans-
lations, though free recourse may be had to the
Hebrew and Greek by way of comparison and eluci-
dation. In this as in similar matters, Roman Catho-
lic authority, while professing due respect for the
conclusions of critical scholars, seeks above all to
maintain the consensus of Christian tradition. See
Bible-Reading by the Laity, Restrictions on.
James F. Driscoll.
Bibliography: Acta et Decreta Concilli Tridentini, Sessio
IV. ; H. Denzinger, Enchiridion Symbolorum, Freiburg,
1908; The Catholic Church and the Bible, London, 1906.
ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE. See Paul the
Apostle, II., 3, §§ 5-7.
ROMANTICISM: The name of a movement
which especially affected literature, art, religion,
and theology in the last half of the eighteenth and
the first half of the nineteenth century. Lt arose on
a background of three other move-
The Back- ments which had much in common with
ground, one another, Classicism. Humanism,
and the Enlightenment?] (1) Classi-
cism, which has retained its place ever since the re-
vival of learning, has adhered to those forms of ex-
pression which prevailed in the creative periods of
Greece and Rome. It was an attitude of mind, a
method of literary and artistic activity formed on
the severe models of ancient thought, characterized
by energy, freshness, purity, proportion, restraint,
objectivity, i.e., subserviency to nature, and rever-
ence for the authority of long-established types.
(2) Humanism (q.v.) — another name for the Ren-
aissance in Italy, 1350-1425 — turned away from
metaphysics, from scholastic logical formulas as de-
fined by the Church, from the despotism of the
Church as claiming exclusive right to absorb human
interests, from the division of knowledge into that
of the " Two ways " — supernatural and natural, re-
87
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roman Catholic
Romanticism
ligious and scientific (see Alberttjs Magnus). It
studied afresh the literature of classic Rome;
through the revival of Platonism, Neoplatonism,
and Aristotelianism the freshness and freedom of
the Greek spirit were reawakened; and the ancient
Greek cosmology, doctrines of nature, philosophical
skepticism, and the eclectic mixture of incongruous
elements all came to life again. Owing to the new
scientific spirit discoveries and inventions of great
magnitude were on the threshold. With the redis-
covery of many splendid examples of Greek statu-
ary there was quickened the illimitable sense of
beauty and wonder associated especially with the
human form as the most perfect embodiment of the
ideal. In a word, Humanism drew attention once
more to man himself as a rational being with ca-
pacities of inexhaustible richness, susceptible of in-
finite culture (cf. J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in
Italy, 5 vols., new ed., New York, 1885). (3) The
Enlightenment (q.v., 1650-1800; also see Ration-
alish~3Nd Supernaturalism) . More than two
centuries after the decline of Humanism and when
the Protestant Reformation was well under way; in-
terest was again directed to man, this time centering
in his rational nature and its capacities as such. The
movement may be summarized as the sufficiency of
the human reason for all the problems of life. Hu-
manism had indeed implied this, but it had not pro-
ceeded far enough to become self-conscious, to re-
flect upon what would be required to justify its
attitude and activity, and to offer a rational defense
for the entire movement. The Enlightenment was,
however, the spirit of Humanism come to life again
in the English, French, and German consciousness^
Like Humanism it eschewed metaphysics; it con-
tinued the investigation into the inner nature of
man always from the side of experience, the valid-
ity of his knowledge of the world, and the meaning
of human fife both individual and social; and it
allied itself with the culture and literary activity of
the period. (JYet it was conscious of having awa-
kened in a new world, no longer that of the church or
of Greece and Rome, but of new discoveries, a new
scientific method, new economic and social values,
a new psychology, and new historical postulates.
In tne process of working out its essential principle,
however, there were disclosed its inevitable limita-
tions, and also its inadequacy to answer to one large
element in man's nature — the poetic and imagina-
tive and the more definitely personal. In its ab-
stract superficial intellectualism, its individualistic
and social utilitarianism, its denial of personal free-
dom, and its elimination of mystery it paved the
way for a profound reaction of consciousness in
which neglected regions of personality should re-
assert their abiding worth. The time was therefore
ripe for a movement in which intellect and theoretic
culture should give place to the esthetic side of
man's nature wherein this should find authentic
and luxuriant expression.
In a description of Romanticism the following
features require attention : (1) Subjectivity, -J. G.
Fichte (q.v.iheld that self-consciousness is deter-
mined by nothing outside of itself, and that every-
thing exists only by the activity of the Ego.* Ac-
cording to F. W. Schelling (q.v.) nature is the Ego
in process of becoming. _In English thought nature
was conceived as an analogon of spirit so that
nature and spirit answer to eac hother
Special (cf. S. T. Coleridge, Aids to Reflection,
Features. London, 1825, and often, e.g., ed. T.
Fenby, 1873; H. Bushnell, God in
Christ, "Dissertation on Language," New York,
1849, and often). Besides this philosophical basis,
there was a profound feeling that the soul it-
self was a mine of exhaustless treasure as yet
scarcely explored.7 Nor was this limited to the
normal consciousness, but in certain of the German
romanticists the weird, fantastic, capricious, and
morbid were developed to extreme proportions^ (cf.
Novalis, i.e., Baron F L. von Hardenberg, d. Mar.
25, 1801; and E. T. A. Hoffmann, d. July 24, 1822).
(2) Not so much the rational as the esthetic aspect
of the world and human life absorbed interest.
Thus appeal was made to imagination and fancy.
Duty was determined by feeling, and even religion
was resolved into the feeling of absolute depend-
ence (cf. Schleiermacher, q.v.). (3) Closely asso-
ciated with the esthetic element was the sense of
beauty, inot indeed that of standards derived from
Greece and Rome or even of the Middle Ages,
except in Scott. There was first the beauty of
the natural world which, slumbering for centuries,
awoke in the romantic spirit— not alone the beauty
of great mountains, of quiet or tumultuous seas,
but clouds, sunsets, moonlight, flowers. 'vTha
search became a passion. It was found in out-
of-the-way places, in outcast and neglected per-
sons, in common and trivial events. On the other
hand the most extravagant situations were created,
;jthe. personality subjected itself to the most ex-
traordinary experiences in order to discover and
extract a quintessence of beauty never before dis-
tilled. ; (4); Mystery arising not only from the un-
fathomed depths of the soul, from the infinite as-
pects of being, but also from an inner and insatiate
longing for the unexperienced and the unknown.]
For Novalis philosophy is homesickness — the wish
to find one's home in the Absolute. Johann Ludwig
Tieck was consumed with longing for something
which transcended the finite. Schelling thought of
beauty as the infinite appearing in finite form.
Wordsworth was haunted by the strangeness of
nature, which only reflected a deeper strangeness
in his own soul. (5) The relation of the inner to the
outer world is presented from two points of view.
First, so far as the outer world is a copy of the in-
ner world, this may be due to an idealizing panthe-
ism. For either the harmony of the external world
is the creation of the Ego, or both are partial ex-
pressions of the infinite and all-pervading Unity
(Novalis, Lehrlinge zu Sais) . , Or, secondly, the inner
world of individual consciousness is first depicted
with entire disregard of outer social conventions,
wherein two types of life are allowed to coexist
side by side, one, of untrammeled development
of those who are gifted with genius, the other,
the conventional order of such as have not th«
strength or courage to assert the independent free-
dom of self-realization. The first type is regarded
as the highest human ideal, and the actual world is
judged by its degree of correspondence with this
Romanticism
Romanus
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
88
'' unchartered freedom." In like manner by a proc-
ess of ideal selection even the natural world is con-
ceived as the seat of marvelous forces which rarely
come to manifestation. (6) The free unfolding of
each personality according to its genius involved
recognition and obedience of all individual impulses,
inclinations, and even idiosyncrasies. Various were
the outward conditions in which the great roman-
ticists developed their genius — Wordsworth in soli-
tude, Scott in historical study of medieval life, Byron
'-". wanderings and heroic devotion to the cause of
liberty, Schelling and Schlegel in speculative phi-
losophy, most of the French and German writers in
more or less indifference to social conventions. The
theory constantly reiterated is, that the genius must
be free to follow his star so as to give his artistic
powers free play Not only must no constraint be
permitted, but only in the pathway of perfect liberty
can the individual reach the goal of self-realization.
Instead of turning back to Greece and Rome or to
the Middle Ages for their material, they isolate
single aspects of their own experience and develop
these as if they were in truth of universal validity.
Whatever is vital in their writings is autobiographic.
Each one felt that he must himself first live the ro-
mantic life, since only then was he able by subtle
analysis and unsparing self-revelation of his inmost
consciousness to portray his ideal. Accordingly he
renounced conventions in his writings as he had al-
ready done in his life, he wrote as he felt and as he
thought, and dipped his metal white hot from the
seething cauldron of his own heart. (7) The roman-
tic writings are all with scarcely an exception tinged
with pantheism and mysticism. Philosophy, ethics,
religion, no less than conceptions of nature and hu-
man love, so far as these are self-conscious, are
frankly pantheistic. The infinite is not fully real-
ized save as every possible form of consciousness
and action and human relation finds expression. If
the English pantheism was on the whole more sober
and naturalistic than that of the German and
French, this may be referred to the quieter tempera-
ment and severer restraint of the English mind. As
related to mysticism, not all mystics are romanti-
cists, and not all romanticists are mystics, but the
two are commonly associated in the same person.
The romanticists believe that reality is revealed not
by rational thought, but through feeling, immedi-
ate experience, spiritual illumination). Accordingly
a part of the meaning of life eludes analysis. Any
portrayal of it, however concrete and vivid, is at
best partial and suggestive rather than complete
and final. On the other hand, in romantic experi-
ence ecstasy is never far away. The secret of gain-
ing truth is less by searching than by brooding, by
listening to the inner voices, by interpreting what
is " given " in moments of rare and exalted feeling
(see Wordsworth, William).
Authorities are not agreed'as to the exact begin-
nings of romanticism. One may, however, hold
that, in literature, the earlier traces of the move-
ment in Great Britain after Spenser, Shakespeare,
and Milton are in the eighteenth century found in
Thomas Gray, d. 1771, and William Blake, d. 1827
(cf. Arthur Symonds, The Romantic Movement
in English Poetry, New York, 1909); in France
in J. J. Rousseau, d. 1778; and in Germany in
Herder (q.v.). In philosophy, its ultimate vindica-
tion is to be referred to Kant's (q.v.)
Beginnings, primacy of the wilhj reaching its
metaphysical exposition in the doc-
trine of Schopenhauer (q.v.) that the essence of man
and world is will. ...In theology, one goes to Fichte
and Schleiermacher (qq.v.) for the subjective and
esthetic elements respectively!
The spirit of Romanticism has been active in
other fields than those described above: in music,
F P. Schubert (d. 1828), F. F. Chopin (d. 1849),
and R. Schumann (d. 1856); in paint-
Spirit, ing, J. M. W. Turner (d. 1851), and
F V E. Delacroix (d. 1863) ; in travel,
the inspiring motive of which since the latter part
of the eighteenth century has been to quicken the
feeling of beauty and sublimity in the presence of
impressive natural scenery; in social experiment,
as the Brook Farm episode, 1841-47, which sought
to put into practise the system of association or
phalanstery proposed by F. M. C. Fourier (d. 1837);
and, finally, in appeal to the chivalrous and heroic
in ministry to the suffering on the field of battle
(Florence Nightingale, q.v., in the Crimea, 1854-
1856) and in great cities (William Booth, q.v.).
The literature of Romanticism is of extraordi-
nary brilliancy — tales, poems, dramas, essays, psy-
chology, ethics, religion, and theology.
Literature. Only a tithe of this output can be here
referred to. In Great Britain: Lord
Byron (d. 1824); William Blake (d. 1826); S. T.
Coleridge (q.v.); W. Wordsworth (q.v.). In Ger-
many: Novalis (d. 1801), Die Lehrlinge zuSais, and
Heinrich von Ofterdingen in Werke (Leipsic, 1898),
and, in Eng. transl., Hymns and Thoughts on Relig-
ion (Edinburgh, 1888); H. von Kliest (d. 1811),
Werke (Berlin, 1826); E. T. A. Hoffmann (d. 1822),
Werke (Leipsic, 1899); J. P. F. Richter, "Jean
Paul" (d. 1825), Titan (Berlin, 1800-03; Eng.
transl., London, 1863; cf. T. Carlyle, Essays, vols.
i. and hi., ib. 1887); F. von Schlegel (d. 1S29),
Lucinde, in Aihendum, 1798-1800, cf. also Esthetic
and Miscellaneous Works (London, 1875) ; F. D. E.
Schleiermacher (q.v.), Reden ueber die Religion
(Berlin, 1799; Eng. transl., On Religion, London,
1893); A. W von Schlegel (d. 1845), Vorlesungen
ueber dramatische Kunst und Litteratur (Heidelberg,
1805-11; Eng. transl., Lectures on Dramatic Art and
Literature, London, 1861); Ludwig Tieck (d. 1853),
" William Lovell," Die Verkehrte Welt, in collected
works published in Berlin from 1828 to 1854 (for
Eng. transl. of several stories, cf. Translations from
Muswus, Tieck, and Richter, London, 1889). In
France: Madame de Stael (d. 1817), De I'Allenwgnc
(London, 1813, Eng. transl., Germany, 2 vols., Xew
York, 1871; cf. H. Heine, Romantischc Schule-,
Hamburg, 1836); Theophile Gautier (d. 1S72), Mad-
emoiselle de Maupin (Paris, 1835; Eng. transl.,
London, 1887), Fortunio (Paris, 1837); Alfred de
Musset (d. 1857), La Confession d'un enfant du siecle
(Paris, 1836) ; George Sand (d. 1876), Indiana (Paris,
1831), Ltlia (ib. 1833), Jacques (ib. 1S34), Lucrezia
Floriani (ib. 1846; Eng. transl. of Consuclo, London,
1847, and Little Fadette, b. 1849) ; Victor Hugo (d.
1885), Hernani (Paris, 1830; Eng. transl. in idem,
89
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Romanticism
Eomanus
Dramas, London, 1888), Les Miserables (Paris, 1862;
Eng. transl., London, 1862). C. A. Beckwith.
Bibliography: T. Carlyle, Critical and Miscellaneous Es-
says, Boston, n.d.; J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy:
The Revival of Learning, New York, 1885; W. Pater, Ap-
preciations, London, 1889; H. H. Boyesen, Essays in Ger-
man Literature, " The Romantic School in Germany,"
New York, 1892; George Brandes, Main Currents in
Nineteenth Century Literature; " The Romantic School in
Germany," vol. ii.; " Naturalism in England," vol. iv.;
" The Romantic School in France," vol. v., New York, 1902;
D. G. Mason, The Romantic Composers, ib., 1906; Cam-
bridge Modern History, vi. 822-837, ib., 1909; R. Eucken,
The Problem of Human Life, pp. 308-336, 345, 418, 447-
482, ib. 1910; I. Babbitt, The New Laokoon, Boston, 1910.
ROMANUS, ro-ma'nus: Pope, 897. Formerly
cardinal priest of St. Peter ad Vincula, he was
raised to the papal throne in the autumn of 897
on the murder of Stephen VII. His pontificate
lasted only four months, during which he con-
firmed the possessions of the Spanish churches of
Elna and Gerona at the request of their bishops.
(R. ZoPFFELf.)
Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. L. Duchesne, ii. 230,
Paris, 1892; Jaffe, Regesta, pp. 303 sqq.; Mann, Popes,
iv. 86-87; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iv. 566; Bower,
Popes, ii. 301; Platina, Popes, i. 239.
ROMANUS: Byzantine religious poet; b. at
Miseani (according to the Bollandists, at Emesa),
Syria; d. at Constantinople in the sixth century.
After being deacon at the church of St. Anastasia at
Berytus, he came to Constantinople during the reign
of Anastasius (probably in the last decade of the
fifth century), where he was attached to the church
of St. Mary's en tois Kyrou. Either here or in the
Blachernian church he received from the Virgin in a
vision the gift of poetry, and forthwith composed
his famous Christmas hymn, which was followed by
a thousand other hymns for various feasts. Accord-
ing to Nicephorus Callistus, the Greek Church later
discarded the hymns of Romanus, with the ex-
ception of one for each feast; while Metrophanes
Critopulus (De vocibus) states that in his time only
four hundred of the thousand hymns survived. The
scanty details concerning the poet are practically
restricted to a brief synaxarium (ed. most conve-
niently in the Analecta Bollandiana, 1894, pp.
440-442).
The titles of all the hymns of Romanus are known.
They contain no allusion that would imply a later
date than the reign of Justinian (527-65), the period
assigned Romanus by the author of the Synaxarium.
Thus, the passage in the first hymn to the ten virgins,
with its phrase, "Lo, the Assyrians, and the Ish-
maelites before them, have led us captive," needs not
refer to successive inroads by the Omayads of Damas-
cus and the Abbasids of Bagdad, thus referring
to the eighth century, but may equally well allude
to the Persians and Saracens who menaced Byzan-
tium in the reign of Anastasius I. Nor do the
doctrinal references in the hymns imply a later date
than Justinian's reign, for though Mary is termed
"ever virgin," her freedom from original sin is not
taught, though great reverence is shown her and she
is regarded as a mediator between God and Christ
for mankind — concepts which were held in the Jus-
tinian period. Again, the Christology of Romanus
seems to allude to docetic theories, to Arius, to
Apollinarius of Laodicea, and to the theopaschitic
controversy in the reign of Anastasius, but of refer-
ences to the monothelite heresy, for example, there
is no clear evidence. There are likewise probable
allusions to the Chalcedonian Creed. The question
of the date of the poet, who would thus seem to be
no later than the reign of Justinian, though some
have sought to place him in the period of Anastasius
II. (713-716), is of importance in that on its solu-
tion depends the setting of the acme of Byzantine
religious poetry in the sixth or the eighth century.
Until the second third of the nineteenth century
the poems of Romanus were scarcely known in the
West, and occidental knowledge of them was in-
troduced by Cardinal J. B. Pitra's edition of twenty-
eight hymns and four sticharia in his Analecta
Solesmensia, i. 1-241 (Paris, 1876). A faulty edi-
tion was later prepared by the archimandrite Am-
philochius in his Kondakarion (2 vols., Moscow,
1879), but chief knowledge concerning Romanus
and his work is due to four studies of K. Krum-
bacher in the Sitzungsberichte der Milnchener
Akademie (phil.-phil. Klasse, 1898, ii. 69-268, 1899,
ii. 1-156, 1901, pp. 693-766, 1903, pp. 551-691).
The material of the poems is drawn chiefly from
the Bible, especially from the great events of sal-
vation such as Christ's nativity, epiphany, passion,
crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension, and the
outpouring of the Holy Ghost. Romanus was like-
wise attracted by Biblical accounts of the Virgin
and by leading events in the lives of the apostles,
such as the denial of Peter and the conversion of
Thomas. Beautiful parables, as that of the ten
virgins, afforded welcome material to the poet.
Some fifty of his poems are concerned with Biblical
themes, thirty with the saints, while the remainder
are penitential hymns and the like. In his exegesis
he showed the influence of Chrysostom and Ephraem,
and in his hymns to the saints he followed well-
known lives. The purpose of his poems Romanus
expressly states to be didactic. Strangely enough,
his hymns were almost totally abandoned by his
church some centuries later, when, in the ninth
century, the Greek liturgies were remodeled and
the canons took the place of the hymns. Only a
few of the poems of Romanus were then retained,
such as the Christmas hymn and the so-called
requiem. Of the other hymns only single stanzas
were retained in the liturgies, chiefly introductory
and closing verses of general character.
The beauty of the poems of Romanus is evident
even in their external form. In Byzantine poetry
rhythm took the place of the classical metrical
scheme, thus giving a characteristic form with pecu-
liar rhythmic melody. After one or more proems
follows the poem proper, which may have more than
twenty stanzas. Each strophe closes with a refrain
which repeats the chief thoughts of the poem, and
the name of the author is usually given in an acros-
tic. This form of poetry was developed to its per-
fection by Romanus, the greatest hymn-writer of
the Greek church. His verse is easy and euphonious,
and varied by antitheses, assonances, paronomasias,
and rime plays. The refrain is used by Romanus
with admirable effect. The poems are preponder-
atingly dramatic in form, consisting of conversa-
Roman us
Roos
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
90
tions between the characters introduced, as in the
dialogue between Satan and Hades, when they learn
that the cross of Golgotha is destined to crush their
power. On the other hand, Romanus occasionally
becomes unnecessarily dogmatizing, moralizing, and
prolix.
Romanus was a noble poet in matter as well as
in form, beautifully expressing the spirit of the Gos-
pel and seeking to lead man to believe that for him
personally salvation exists. He frequently praises
the free grace of God and Christ, declaring that the
reward which the Lord shall give in the life to come
is the reward of grace. Through sin mankind falls,
but rises through righteousness and faith, and is
saved through grace. Above asceticism and or-
thodoxy Romanus ranks love of man, though he
praises asceticism highly. He likewise lauds celi-
bacy, but at the same time does not unduly de-
preciate marriage. Finally it may be noted that
his view of life was strongly eschatological, some
of his most beautiful poems being devoted to the
last judgment and to the life to come. In him By-
zantine poetry comes to its fullest bloom.
(Philipp Meyer.)
Bibliography: A complete edition of the works is prom-
ised by Krumbacher. Twenty-nine poems, ed. J. B.
Pitra, are in Analecta Sacra, i (1876), 1-241; three others,
in Sanctus Romanus veterum melodorum princeps, Rome,
1888; a prayer, ed. Papadopulos Kerameus, in Analekta
Ierosolumitikes, i (1891), 390-392. Consult: Krum-
bacher, Geschichte, pp. 663-671; idem, in the Sitzungs-
berichte of the Bavarian Academy, philologic-philosoph-
ical and historical class, 1898, vol. ii. 69-268, 1899, vol.
ii. 1-156, 1901, pp. 693-766, 1903, pp. 551-691; idem,
Miscellen zu Romanos, Munich, 1907; J. B. Pitra, Hym-
nographie de Veglise grecque, Rome, 1867; idem, Analecta
sacra spicilegium, i. 1-241, Paris, 1876; idem, Al Sommo
Pontifice Leone XIII. omaggio givbilare della Biblioteca
Vaticana, Rome, 1888; W. Christ and M. Paranikas, An-
thologia Grceca, Leipsic, 1871; Jacobi, in ZKG, 1882, pp.
177-250; W. Meyer, in the Abhandlungen of the Bavarian
Academy, philosophic-historical class, 1886, pp. 268-
449; H. Gelzer, in the Abhandlungen of the Saxon Acad-
emy, xviii. no. 5, p. 76; Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 1893,
pp. 559-605 (by Papadopulos Kerameus), 1900, pp. 633-
640 (by De Boor), 1903, pp. 153-166 (by Van den Ben),
1902, pp. 358-369 (by S. Petndes), 1906, pp. 1-44,
337, 1907, pp. 257, 565-587, and 1910. 285-306 (all by P.
Maas); Vailhe, in Echos d' orient, 1902, pp. 207-212; T.
M. Wehofer, Untersuchungen zum Lied des Romanos auf
der Wiederkunft des Herrn, ed. A. Erhard and P. Maas,
Vienna, 1907.
ROMESTIN, AUGUST HENRY EUGENE DE:
Church of England; b. at Paris May 9, 1830; d.
at London May 18, 1900. He was a scholar of Win-
chester College, 1843^8; of St. John's College, Ox-
ford (B.A., 1852; M.A., 1854); was ordained deacon
1852, and priest 1854; was curate of Mells, Somer-
set, 1853-54; of St. Thomas Martyr, Oxford, 1854-
1855; English chaplain at Freiburg-im-Breisgau,
1863-65; and at Baden-Baden, 1865-68; chaplain
of Woolland, Dorset, 1868-69; perpetual curate of
Freeland, Oxford, 1874-85; rural dean of Wood-
stock, 1879-85; vicar of Stony Stratford, Bucking-
hamshire, 1885; warden of House of Mercy, Great
Maplestcad, Essex, 1885-91; rector of Tiptree,
1891-96; and vicar of Sledmere, 1896-1900. Bis
theological standpoint was that of the school of E.
B. Pusey. He was the author or editor of Teaching
of the Twelve Apostles, Text, with Introduction,
Translation, and Xotes (London, 1884); Saint
Augustine, On Instructing the Unlearned; Concern-
ing Faith of Things Unseen; On the Advantages
of Believing; The Encheiridion to Laurentius;
and Concerning Faith, Hope and Charity, Latin
and English (1885); The Five Lectures of Saint
Cyril on the Mysteries (1887); An Inquiry into the
Belief of the Church from the Beginning until Now
as to the Limitation of Our Lord's Knowledge (1891);
and Saint Ambrose in the Select Library of the
Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers (1895).
ROMUALD, SAINT. See Camaldolites.
RONGE, JOHANNES. See German Catholi-
cism, §§ 1, 6.
RONSDORF, rens'derf, SECT: A chiliastic and
communistic sect founded at Elberfeld in 1726
by Elias Eller and the Reformed pastor Schleier-
macher. Eller (b. at Ronsdorf, 5 m. s.e. of Elberfeld,
early in the eighteenth century; d. there May 16,
1750) went, while still a lad, to the neighboring
city of Elberfeld, where he became foreman of a
factory for a rich widow named Bolckhaus. Pietis-
tic, chiliastic, and communistic influences had been
rampant in the district, and with these Eller came
in contact. He began to read the Bible and all
accessible writings of the enthusiasts and pietists,
and evolved an apocalyptic, chiliastic system of his
own, blending it with communistic elements. The
reception accorded his teachings attracted the at-
tention of Frau Bolckhaus, whom he soon converted
to his tenets and married, thus becoming a man of
wealth. Eller now came in contact with Schleier-
macher, and the pair held frequent meetings of the
faithful, who called themselves the awakened and
the elect. Among their number was a certain Anna
van Buchel, the daughter of an Elberfeld baker, a
girl of remarkable beauty. She was converted by
Eller, who instructed her how to undergo ecstasies
and receive revelations from heaven, taught her the
Apocalypse, and inspired her with chiliastic ideas.
Somewhat later, accordingly, she was seized with
religious ecstasy, prophesying and describing in
glowing colors the coming of the chiliastic kingdom
in 1730, also declaring that the Lord had frequently
appeared to and spoken with her. Henceforth Anna
van Buchel was regarded as a prophetess. Before
long, Eller's wife died, and he soon married Anna
van Buchel with whom he had maintained for some
time illicit relations; as he alleged, to protect her
innocence. He now resolved to advance his doc-
trines more openly. His wife's visions became still
more frequent. She and her husband were of the
tribe of Judah and the lineage of David; and were
to found the New Jerusalem. Kings and princes
were to descend from them; they were the two
witnesses (Rev. xi.), she was the woman clothed
with the sun (xii.), the tabernacle^tif God among
men (xxi. 3), and thebri de of the lamb (Cant.).
These revelations being received with trust and awe,
Eller now declared that God had revealed to his
wife that she was the mother of Zion who should
give birth to the savior of the world a second time,
who would be the king of the chiliastic reign. Un-
fortunately Anna gave birth to a daughter. Eller,
however, explained this by the fact that sufficient
91
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Romania s
Roos
faith had not been shown him and the mother of
Zion, and bade his followers wait in patience. In
1733 the mother of Zion gave birth to a son, who
was baptized as Benjamin, on the basis of Ps. lxviii.
27. The child was reverenced in his cradle as the
future great prophet and savior of the world, and
Eller declared that his children were divinely be-
gotten, and consequently born without sin.
By this time the number of his adherents had so
increased that Eller could think of establishing a
church. He accordingly divided his adherents into
three classes; those of the court, the threshold, and
the temple. Only the initiate were allowed to re-
ceive the complete doctrine, and they must first
swear to maintain inviolable secrecy. The distinct-
ive tenets were as follows: (1) the fulness of the
Godhead dwells in Eller alone; (2) though the Bible
is the Word of God, the divine annunciation to the
mother of Zion that a new epoch is to begin necessi-
tates a new revelation, this being in the booklet
called Hirtentasche which was granted in secret to
the select alone; (3) not only will the saints appear
again on earth, but the Savior must be born again ;
(4) Eller is the counterpart of Abraham, but greater
than he. The person of the Father is in Abraham,
of the Son in Isaac, and of the Holy Ghost in Sarah;
but in Eller is the fulness of the Godhead. Hence,
except through him there is no blessing or happiness
from above, and those who do not follow him must
face the wrath of God; (5) Eller, circumcised by
God, must bear sickness and pain for the sins of the
world; (6) Moses and Elijah were not only proto-
types of Christ, but also of Eller, as were David and
Solomon; (7) the children of Eller are begotten
directly of God. Eller now sent apostles throughout
Germany, Switzerland, and the northern countries;
but somewhat to the detriment of his doctrine
"little Benjamin" died when barely a year old.
Though able to restore the confidence of his fol-
lowers, the practises of his community attracted
suspicion and silent investigation by the consistory
from 1735, so that in 1737 he left Elberf eld, which he
declared to be a second Sodom and Gomorrah ; and
removed to Ronsdorf, where God had bidden the
mother of Zion to build the New Jerusalem. Many
of his adherents followed him, so that soon fifty
houses had been erected, all facing the East toward
Zion, which, as the tabernacle, was Eller's house,
and his wife was the ark, the Urim and Thummim.
So many funds poured in from various portions of
Germany, as well as from Holland, England, and
Switzerland, that not only could a new church be
built at Ronsdorf, but in 1741 the Reformed
preacher Schleiermacher was called from Elberfeld
to be the preacher of the sect. Schleiermacher
and Eller worked in harmony, and when the mother
of Zion again bore a daughter, instead of the prophe-
sied Benjamin, it was Schleiermacher who held the
doubting believers together, until Eller had as-
sembled the chief members of the sect and informed
them that God had revealed to the mother of Zion
that her daughter was called to do masculine deeds.
Hardly had this child reached the age of two, before
it received divine homage.
Meanwhile the growth of the sect in Ronsdorf
rendered it possible for Eller to gain absolute con-
trol of the government; and the most unlimited
license held sway in connection with the rites of the
sacraments or on birthdays, Eller justifying him-
self boldly by the transgressions of the patriarchs,
David, and Solomon. In 1744 the mother of Zion
died mysteriously, after giving birth to another
daughter; and Eller now declared that all which
had previously applied to his wife must henceforth
be understood as referring to himself, the prophet,
high priest, and king. Schleiermacher, however,
becoming suspicious of Eller, and horrified at his
licentiousness, finally was convinced of his leader's
vileness. In bitter repentance, he acknowledged
his errors openly, charged Eller with wilful deceit,
and sought in his sermons to undo the mischief
he had wrought. Eller, in alarm, unsuccessfully
forbade attendance at Schleiermacher's addresses;
and then called one of his fieriest adherents, Wulffing
of Solingen, to Ronsdorf as second preacher. For a
time Wulffing and Schleiermacher remained on
peaceable terms, but in 1749 the latter was forced to
leave Ronsdorf. Rudenhaus of Ratingen was chosen
in his stead, at the instance of Eller to whom he,
like Wiilffing, rendered blind submission. At Eller's
death the sect began to decline. Wiilffing vainly
endeavored to carry on Eller's practise, aided by
Johannes Bolckhaus, the son of Eller's first wife.
Shortly afterward, however, Wulffing himself died,
and the great majority of the villagers of Ronsdorf
quickly returned to the Evangelical faith.
(G. H. KLIPPELf.)
Bibliography: Sources are: J. W. Knevel, Grauel der
Verwiistung an heiligen Statte, oder die Geheimnisse der
Bosheit der Ronsdorfer Sekte, Frankfort, 1750; P. Wiilff-
ing, Ronsdorffischer Katechismns, Diisseldorf, 1756; idem,
Ronsdorffs silberne Trompete oder Kirchenbuch, ib. 1761;
J. Bolckhaus, Ronsdorf s gerechte Sache, ib. 1757; P. Wulff-
ing and J. Bolckhaus, Das j-ubilierende Ronsdorf, Miihl-
heim, 1751. Consult: J. A. Engels, Versuch einer Ge-
schichte der religiosen Schwarmerei in Herzogtum
Berg, Schwejm, 1826.
ROOS, ros, MAGNUS FRIEDRICH: German Lu-
theran and devotional writer; b. at Sulz (40 m. s.w.
of Stuttgart) Sept. 6, 1727; d. at Anhausen (about
20 m. s.e. of Tubingen) Mar. 19, 1803. He was
educated at Tubingen, and in 1767 became pastor at
Lustnau and dean of the diocese of Bebenhausen,
also lecturing on theology at Tubingen. He was
later transferred, in accordance with his own wish,
to Anhausen, where he could have more leisure for
writing. In 1788-97 he was also a member of the
national committee of Wiirttemberg. Theologically
Roos was a moderate Pietist and essentially a pupil
of Johann Albrecht Bengel both in his life and his
writings. Among the latter, which were very numer-
ous, special mention may be made not only of his
commentaries on Daniel, Galatians, Romans, the
Johannine Epistles, etc., but also of his Einleitung
in die biblischen Geschichten (Tubingen, 1774; Stutt-
gart, 1876) and Christliche Glaubenslehre (Stuttgart,
1786; Basel, 1867). He likewise wrote much on
eschatology, as Beleuchtung der gegenwdrtigen gros-
sen Begebenheiten durch das prophetische Wort Gottes
(Tubingen, 1779) and PriXfung der gegenwdrtigen
Zeit nach der Offenbarung Johannis (Stuttgart,
1786); while his strictly devotional works include
his Chrisiliches Hausbuch (2 parts, Stuttgart, 1790;
Roots
Rosary
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
92
1871); Kreuzschule (1799; 8th ed., 1896), and
Beicht- und Kommunioribuch (4th ed., 1805).
(Hermann Beck.)
Bibliography: An autobiography with notes by his son
and his grandson is contained in the Einleitung, ut sup.,
ed. of 1S76. Consult: Christenbote, 1831, pp. 1 sqq., 1832,
pp. 53 sqq.; C. Grosse, Die alten Troster, pp. 484 sqq.,
Hermannsburg, 1900.
ROOTS, LOGAN HERBERT: Protestant Episco-
pal missionary bishop of Hankow, China; b. near
Tamaroa, 111., July 27, 1S7U. He was educated at
Harvard (A.B., 1MH), and, after a year as graduate
secretary of the Harvard Christian Association and
traveling secretary of the college department of the
Y. M. C. A., entered the Episcopal Divinity School,
Cambridge, Mass., from which he was graduated in
1896. He was ordered deacon in the same year and
was advanced to the priesthood in 1898. In 1896
he went to China, and, after studying at Wuchang
until 1898, was stationed as a missionary at Hankow
until 1904, when he was consecrated (second) mis-
sionary bishop of Hankow.
ROPES, CHARLES JOSEPH HARDY: Congrega-
tionalist; b. in St. Petersburg, Russia, Dec. 7, 1851.
He was educated at the City of London School
(1862-67). the gymnasium of Arnstadt, Germany
(1868-69). the Sorbonne, Paris (1869), Yale College
(A.B., 1S72), the University of Tubingen (1872-73),
Andover Theological Seminary (1873-75; resident
licentiate, 1875-76), and L'nion Theological Semi-
nary (1S76-77). He was pastor at Ellsworth, Me.
(1877-1881); and professor of New-Testament lan-
guage and literature in Bangor Theological Semi-
nary (1881-1908). He was also librarian of the
same institution from 1SS7-1901, and resumed this
office in 1906. He has written The Morality of the
Greeks as shown by their Literature, Art, and Life
(New York, 1872), and has translated G. Uhlhorn's
Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism (in collabora-
tion with E. C. Smyth; 1879).
ROPES, JAMES HARDY: Congregationalist ; b.
at Salem, Mass., Sept. 3, 1866. He was graduated
from Harvard (A.B., 1889), Andover Theological
Seminary (1893), and studied at the universities of
Kiel, Halle, and Berlin (1893-95). He was instruc-
tor in New-Testament criticism and exegesis at
Harvard (1895-1903), and has been Bussey profes-
sor of the same subjects since 1903, as well as Dexter
lecturer on Biblical literature since 1904. He has
written Die Spriiche Jesu die in den kanonischen
Evangelien nicht uberliefert sind (Leipsic 1896).
ROSARY: A string of beads, each eleventh one
larger than the rest, used in the Roman Catholic
Church to aid in the reciting of a fixed number of
Our Father's and Hail Marys; also the devotion
in which such a string of beads is employed. Quasi-
analogues may be traced in non-Christian religions,
as among the Tibetan Buddhists, who use strings of
beads, generally 108 in number, and made of jewels,
sandal-wood, mussel-shells, and the like, according
to the status of their owners; while the Mohamme-
dans, in like manner, have a tasbih, or string of
thirty-three, sixty-six, or ninety-nine beads, to be
counted as the corresponding names of Allah in
the Koran are recited.
The custom of repeatedly reciting the Our Father
arose in the monastic life of Egypt at an early time,
being recorded by Palladius and Sozomen. The
Hail Mary, or Ave Maria, on the other hand, first
became a regular prayer in the second
Origin half of the eleventh century, though it
and was not until about the thirteenth that
History, it was generally adopted. The ad-
dition of the words of Elizabeth,
"blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus'' (Luke i.
42), to the Angelical Salutation, " Hail, Mary, full of
grace; the Lord is with thee; blessed art thou
among women " (Luke i. 28), is first mentioned
about 1130; but Bishop Odo of Paris (1196-1208)
requires the recitation of the Hail Mary together
with the Our Father and the Creed as a regular
Christian custom. The closing petition, "Holy
Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners, now and at
the hour of our death," developed gradually in
the sixteenth century, and was regarded even by the
Council of Besancon (1571) as a superfluous but
pious custom. These facts show that the traditions
which ascribe the invention of the rosary to Bene-
dict of Nursia, Bede, or Peter the Hermit are un-
trustworthy, and the same statement holds of the
Dominican tradition which makes Dominic receive
a vision of the Virgin commanding him to introduce
the use of the rosary. At the same time, the rosary
was originally an essentially Dominican mode of
devotion, though first arising long after the death
of the founder of the order; but while some in-
fluence may have been exercised by the ac-
quaintance of oriental Christians with the Moham-
medan tasbih, all the characteristics of the recita-
tion of the Our Father, like the meditations con-
nected with it, can be explained only from the
operation of specifically Christian ideas.
The devotions of the rosary are some twenty in
number, of which the most important now call for
consideration. The complete, or Dominican, rosary
discovered, according to tradition, by Dominic about
1208, consists of fifteen decades of small beads
(Hail Marys), each separated by a large bead (Our
Father). This is also called the
Chief rosary (or psalter) of the Blessed
Types and Virgin Mary, the alternative title im-
Derivation plying that the 150 Psalms may like-
of Name, wise be regarded as so many prayers
to the Virgin. The ordinary rosary,
traditionally ascribed to Peter of Amiens about
1090, contains five decades of Hail Marys and five
Our Fathers, the former shaped (toward the end
of the Middle Ages) like white lilies to symbolize
the purity of the Virgin, and the latter like red roses
to typify the five wounds of Christ. The rosary of
St. Bridget consists of sixty-three Hail Marys,
representing the traditional number of years of the
V'.rgin's life (or seventy-two among the Francis-
cans), and seven Our Fathers. The Crown of our
Savior is a rosary traditionally ascribed to a
Camaldolite monk of the early sixteenth century,
and consists of thirty-three Our Fathers (represent-
ing the thirty-three years of the life of Christ) and
five Hail Marys (typifying the five wounds of Christ).
A similar devotion is the "little rosary," with three
decades of Hail Marys and three Our Fathers, and
93
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Boots
Rosary
the angelical rosary likewise has thirty-three beads.
In the latter, however, the Hail Mary is recited only
at the first bead of each decade, the Sanctus, fol-
lowed by the lesser doxology, being repeated at
each of the nine others.
The origin of the name rosary for an object bear-
ing no resemblance whatever to a garland of roses
is problematical. Some Roman Catholic authors
derive the term from the Virgin's appellation of
"mystic rose" in the Church; or from St. Rosalie
(twelfth century), who is represented sometimes
with a string of beads and sometimes with a crown
of gold and roses; or from the roses which, legend
says, bloomed on the lips of those who paid true
homage to the Virgin and the Angelical Salutation,
and which she plucked and twined into a garland
about their brows. It is more probable, however,
that, in the spirit of the mystic piety of the Middle
Ages, the devotion itself was conceived as a garden
of roses, each of which, as a separate prayer, un-
folded in honor of the Blessed Virgin, especially as
this corresponds in meaning with the English
"chaplet," Lat. corona ("crown"), etc., asa designa-
tion of the rosary or of separate decades of it.
On beginning the rosary the sign of the cross is
made, the small cross attached to the center of the
string of beads is held, and the Creed, one Our
Father, three Hail Marys, and one Gloria are recited,
as they also are on the completion of the devotion.
The recitation of the rosary also involves meditation
on the five joyful, the five sorrowful,
Mode of and the five glorious mysteries. The
Recitation, five joyful mysteries are the annuncia-
tion, the visitation, the nativity, the
presentation, and the finding of Jesus in the Temple;
the five sorrowful mysteries are the agony and
bloody sweat of Christ in the garden, the scourging,
the crown of thorns, Christ carrying his cross, and
the crucifixion; the five glorious mysteries are the
resurrection, the ascension, the coming of the Holy
Ghost, the assumption of the Virgin, and the corona-
tion of the Virgin. The joys, sorrows, and glories
of Mary are thus linked in an ascending scale with
the great facts of redemption. The rosary is gen-
erally connected with a single group of the mysteries
at a time: the joyful mysteries on Mondays and
Thursdays, and the Sundays of Advent and from
Epiphany to Lent; the sorrowful mysteries on
Tuesdays and Fridays, and the Sundays in Lent;
and the glorious mysteries on Wednesdays and
Saturdays, and the Sundays from Easter to Advent.
A tradition of the Church, first fully developed in
the nineteenth century, grants indulgences for the
recitation of the rosary. The indulgence attaches,
moreover, to individual beads as well as to the
entire rosary, and only when more than half are
lost at the same time, or when the medal with the
picture of the Virgin is mutilated or become unrec-
ognizable, does the indulgence become invalid.
The Confraternity of the Holy Rosary was
founded a* Cologne by the famous Dominican
Jakob Sprenger in 1475, and was privileged by
Sixtus IV. on condition that the rosary be recited
on the five great feasts of the Virgin (Purifica-
tion [Feb. 2]; Annunciation [Mar. 25]; Visita-
tion [July 2]; Assumption [Aug. 15]; and
Nativity [Sept. 8]), as well as on other days,
each time with an indulgence of 100 days. Suc-
ceeding pontiffs extended the confra-
Confrater- ternity and its privileges, and its
nity of the prestige was increased during the
Holy Turkish wars of the sixteenth century.
Rosary. The success of the Christian arms at
the battle of Lepanto (Oct. 7, 1571;
the first Sunday in October) was attributed to
the intercession of the Virgin for the prayers of
the confraternity, and Pius V- accordingly made
that day the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary (trans-
ferred by Gregory XIII. in 1583 to its present place,
the first Sunday in October). The limitation of the
feast, by Gregory XIII., to churches containing a
chapel or altar in honor of the rosary was gradually
extended by his successors until the Austrian
victory at Temesvar on the feast of Our Lady of the
Snows (Aug. 5) and the raising of the Turkish siege
of Corfu on the feast of the Assumption of the
Blessed Virgin Mary (Aug. 15) were deemed such
conclusive proofs of her power of intercession that
Clement XL, in the following year, commanded
that the feast be observed throughout Christendom.
The members of the Confraternity of the Holy
Rosary are bound to recite the rosary at least once
daily. Recently, however, there has been a tend-
ency to form "Living Rosaries," each of fifteen
members, each reciting a decade daily. These
fifteen members constitute a "rose," fifteen "roses"
a "tree of God," and fifteen "trees of God" a "di-
vine garden of the Blessed Virgin." Leo XIII. was
an especially fervent promoter of the devotion of the
rosary, no less than eight of his encyclicals touching
upon it.
The monks of the Greek Church, particularly on
Mount Athos, have a quasi-analogue to the rosary
in their kombologion or komboschoinion, a cord with
a hundred knots, each of which, when told, must
be accompanied with the sign of the cross. Some
of the monks of Athos are required to repeat this
office twelve times daily, accompanying these 1,200
prayers with 120 genuflections. (O. ZockleeI.)
Bibliography: H. Alt, Das Kirchenjahr des christlichen
Morgen- und Abendlandes, pp. 72 sqq., Berlin, 1860; V.
Morassi, II Rosario della B. V Maria, Casalis, 1867; M.
Chery, La Theologie du saint rosaire, 2 vols., Paris, 1869;
K. Martin, Die Schonheiten des Rosenkranzes, Mainz, 1876;
H. Duffant, TJne hypothese sur la date et le lieu de Vinstitu-
tion du rosaire, Freiburg, 1878; M. Plues, Chats about the
Rosary, London, 1881; T. Leikes, Rosa aurea, Diilmen,
1886; L. C. Gay, Entretiens sur le rosaire, 2 vols., Paris,
1887; W. Lescher, The Rosary, its Hist, and Indulgences,
London, 1888; idem, St. Dominic and the Rosary, Leices-
ter, 1901; T. Esser, Unserer lieben Frauen Rosenkranz,
Paderborn, 1889; A. Konig, Officium des heiligen Rosen-
kranzes, Breslau, 1890; Acta sanctce sedis . pro so-
cietate s. rosarii, 4 vols., Leyden, 1891; T. Esser, in Katho-
lik, 1897, pp. 346 sqq., 409 sqq., 515 sqq.; O. Zockler,
Askese und M bnchtum, passim, Frankfort, 1897; S. Knoll,
Maria die Kbnigin des Rosenkranzes, oder vollstandige Er-
klarung der heiligen Rosenkranz Geheimnisse, Regensburg,
n.d.; Manual of Prayers for the Use of the Catholic Laity,
pp. 368-382, New York, n.d. (gives English prayers,
meditations, etc.) ; J. J. Roche, Short Explanation of the
Rosary, London (Duffy and Co.), n.d.; Canon Ryan, The
Holy Rosary, in vol. iv. of Collected Publications, Catholic
Truth Society, London, n.d.; Graf Hoensbroech, Das
Papsttum in seiner social-kulturellen Wirksamkeit, i. 277—
283, Leipsic, 1901; J. Procter, Rosary Guide for Priests
and People, London, 1901; D. Dahm, Die Briiderschaft
vom heiligen Rosenkranz, Treves, 1902; H. Holzapfcl, St.
Roscelinus
Kosenmueller
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
94
Dominikus und der Rosenkranz, Munich, 1903; W. Schmitz,
Das Rosenkranzgebet im 15. und im Anfange des 16. Jahr-
hunderts, Freiburg, 1903; K. D. Beste, Rosa mystica; the
Mysteries of the Rosary, London, 1904; ASB, Aug., i. 422-
437; DCB, ii. 1819-20; KL, x. 1275-80. For ethnic
rosaries consult: Monier Williams, in Athenaeum, Feb. 9,
1S7S; I. M. Casanowicz, The Collection of Rosaries in the
V. S. Xatwnal Museum (Washington Gov't Pub.), 1909.
ROSCELINQS, res-e-lai'nus (ROSCELLINUS,
ROZELINUS, RUCELINUS), JOHANNES: Nomi-
nalist and tritheist of the eleventh century; b. in
northern France, probably in the diocese of Sois-
sons. Of his life almost nothing is known, and it is
difficult to define his theological and philosophical
views. He received his education at Soissons and
Reims, and then taught at Tours and
Life. at Locmenach near Vannes in Brit-
tany. Shortly before 1092 he was
canon at Compi&gne, but since he taught views on
the Trinity that seemed heretical, and since he ap-
pealed to Lanfranc and Anselm as supporting his
position, the latter addressed a letter of complaint
to Bishop Fulco of Beauvais immediately before
the synod of Soissons (1092). The synod bade
Roscelinus to recant, and as not only the members
of the S3*nod, but apparently the whole people, had
been aroused against him, he obeyed from fear.
The form of recantation, which seems to have been
merely an abjuration of tri theism, must have
enabled him to adhere to his doctrine without
directly violating his word, for he was soon once
more defending his old opinions. He lost his
canonry and sought refuge in England where, as an
opponent of Anselm, he expected a favorable recep-
tion from William Rufus. He was compelled to
leave, however, after the reconciliation of the king
with Anselm, especially as he had attacked Anselm's
teaching concerning the incarnation. He returned
to France and became canon of Tours and Besancon.
While at Locmenach he had been the first teacher
of Abelard, but the pupil came to despise his
master, and in his De trinitate (1119) Abelard very
emphatically defended the unity of God in the
trinity of persons, with unmistakable reference to
the opinions of Roscelinus which had been con-
demned at Soissons. Roscelinus determined to
charge his pupil with heresy in regard to the Trinity
before Bishop Gisbert of Paris, whereupon Abelard
addressed a letter to the bishop, defending himself
and offering to hold a disputation with Roscelinus,
at the same time making a sharp attack on his errors
and his private life. The letter in which Roscelinus
replied to Abelard is the sole product of his pen
which is now extant (ed. J. A. Schmeller, in AM A,
philosophisch-philologische Klasse, 5 ser., iii. 189-
210, 1849; also in Abelard's Opera, ed. V. Cousin,
ii. 792-80:;, Paris, 1859). In this letter he haughtily
ignored the attacks upon his character, but referred
to Abelard's career, and expressed himself cautiously
but clearly on the theological points in controversy.
He reveals himself as ready to submit to the author-
ity of both the Bible and the Church, and as fully
recognizing the prestige of such a theological op-
ponent as Anselm. After this episode Roscelinus
disappears from history.
In considering the doctrine of Roscelinus, his
deviation from the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity
may first be discussed, then his nominalism, and
finally the connection between the two. He re-
garded the three persons of the Trinity as " three
self-existent beings," who, however, are united by
unity of power and will, thus endeavoring to avoid
the deductions that in the Son the Father and the
Holy Ghost were also incarnate. Anselm, in his
polemic against Roscelinus, asked
Trinitarian what he meant by the expression
Doctrine, "three self-existent beings"; if he re-
ferred simply to the relations by which
the Father and the Son are distinguished in God,
his doctrine would not be in disagreement with the
doctrines of the Church which teaches that the
Father as Father is not the Son, and the Son as
Son is not the Father. This, however, in his judg-
ment, could not be the opinion of Roscelinus, since
he says that the three Persons are " three essen-
tially separate beings," which would imply a stronger
distinction, the assumption of three different Gods.
This was likewise evident, according to Anselm,
from Roscelinus' comparison of the Trinity with
three angels or three souls, these evidently being
three substances, and not merely three relations
of one and the same being, whereas the Church
teaches that the three persons of the Trinity are not
three substances (i.e., three Gods), but one God.
Furthermore, if the " three beings " bore the name
of God in virtue of one and the same power and will,
as three men bear the name of king, God would not
be something substantial, but accidental, and the
" three beings " would then be three Gods as cer-
tainly as three men could not be one king. If
Roscelinus divides the whole God into three indi-
viduals, he would have to extend the incarnation,
according to Anselm, to all three persons if this is
to be true and perfect. The doctrine of the Church,
however, is not compelled to assume this because it
sees in the one being, which is God, three distinct
persons, so that it sees the same God in the Father
as in the Son, only in another relation, and is, ac-
cordingly, not forced to ascribe to the Father every-
thing that belongs to God in the Son, e.g., the incar-
nation. Anselm derived the error of Roscelinus from
his excessive stress on the concept of personality
in reference to God. When he states that Roscelinus
" either wished to set up three gods or did not know
what he did mean," he was half right and half wrong.
Roscelinus posited three gods in so far as he clearly
perceived the difficulty of simultaneously conceiv-
ing of numerical unity and triple and true person-
ality in the Trinity; but he was no tritheist in the
heretical sense of the term, and he thought that
tritheism was fully avoided by his union of the per-
sons in power and will. Herein he was wrong, and
the rigid dialectics of Anselm clearly proved how
inevitably his phraseology led to tritheistic con-
clusions.
In philosophy Roscelinus was a nominalist,
maintaining that universals are not real and self-
existent, but are mere abstract names which exist
in and for thought. He, therefore, taught that a
whole cannot have parts in the sense that the
whole really exists while the parts proceed from it ;
on the contrary, only the parts are real, their
synthesis forming a whole that can be distinguished
95
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roscelinus
Rosenmueller
as a unit from them only logically, not really. If,
now, the whole, or " thing," comprised parts, then,
since the whole is nothing but the
Nominalistic parts, the part would be part both of
Foundation, itself and of the other parts; and again,
since each part is necessarily prior to
the whole, this whole, if it is comprised of parts, must
be prior to them, so that the part is prior to itself.
This paradox is solved by the fact that Roscelinus
attached to " whole " (or " thing ") the connota-
tion of a concrete and existent individual, which is
consciously delimited from other objects, and ceases
to be itself when one of its elements is withdrawn.
The heresy of Roscelinus condemned by the Synod
of Soissons was not based ostensibly upon his nom-
inalism; but it is probably incorrect to argue that
he proceeded from a theological to a nominalistic
point of view in order to reconcile philosophy and
theology, for he was primarily a dialectician, and
considered theological problems from his philosoph-
ical standpoint. Regarding the universal as a mere
logical, nominal abstraction of particulars, he could
conceive God to exist only as an individual, and
could construe the " three beings " only as three
individuals, not as " one being " in the realistic
sense, so that the unity of the three could consist
only in their common power and will. In reaching
this conclusion he seems to have concealed his nom-
inalistic basis, lest, from its use in advancing a theo-
logical innovation, he should bring both theory and
basis into discredit. According to Anselm, Rosce-
linus declared that " we must defend the Christian
faith." On the surface this implies a purely apolo-
getic interest, but it has also been construed as a
plea for dialectic elucidation of the faith, and even
for relative freedom of reason in the interpretation
and development of ecclesiastical doctrine, espe-
cially as nominalism was generally associated with
a more rationalistic tendency than was realism.
The data are, however, too scanty to pronounce a
decision. (A. Hauck.)
Bibliography: Anselm, De fide trinitatis, contra blasphe-
mias Roscellini, in MPL, clviii.; F. Picavet, Roscelin, phi-
losophe et theologien, Paris, 1896; Histoire UttSraire de la
France, ix. 358 sqq.; J. M. Chladen, De vita et hceresi
Roscellini, Erlangen, 1756; J. M. de Gerando, Hist, com-
paree des systemes de philosophic, ii. 446, Paris, 1804; V.
Cousin, Fragments de philosophic scolastique, pp. 119 sqq.,
Paris, 1840; H. Bouchitte, Le Rationalisme chritien a la
fin du onzieme siecle, Paris, 1842; C. de Remusat, Aboard,
2 vols., Paris, 1845; B. Haureau, De la philosophic sco-
lastique, i. 175-179, Paris, 1850; C. Prantl, Geschichte der
Logik im Abendlande, ii. 77 sqq., Leipsic, 1861 ; A. Stockl,
Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelallers, i. 135 sqq.,
Mainz, 1864; C. S. Barach, Zur Geschichte des Nominalis-
mus, in Kleine philosophische Schriften, Vienna, 1878; F.
Ueberweg, Geschichte der Philosophie, ed. M. Heinze, vol.
ii., Berlin, 1905, Eng. transl. of earlier ed., i. 364, 372-
376, 380, New York, 1874; Schaff, Christian Church, v.
1, pp. 592, 600, 613; Neander, Christian Church, vol. iv.
passim; KL, x. 1272-73; Harnack, Dogma, vi. 34, 151-
162, 182; the works on the history of philosophy by J. E.
Erdmann, 3 vols., London, 1892-98, and W. Windelband,
New York, 1893.
ROSE, THE GOLDEN. See Golden Rose.
ROSE, HENRY JOHN: Church of England; b.
at Uckfield (15 m. n.e. of Brighton) Jan. 3, 1800;
d. at Bedford Jan. 31, 1873. He was graduated
from St. John's College. Cambridge (B.A., 1821;
M.A., 1824;. B.D., 1831; fellow, 1824-38); rector of
Houghton Conquest, Bedfordshire, 1837-73; and
archdeacon of Bedford, 1866-73. He was joint edi-
tor of the Encyclopedia Metropolitana (London,
1817—45) from 1839, from which he reprinted, with
additions, his History of the Christian Church from
1700 to 1858 (1858). He was a member of the Eng-
lish Old-Testament company of revisers, and wrote
in part the notes on Daniel in The Bible Commen-
tary (London, 1872-82). He was author of The
Law of Moses in Connection with the History and
Character of the Jews, Hulsean lectures, 1833 (Cam-
bridge, 1834) ; and Answer to the Case of Dissenters
(1834). He was a conservative churchman, an in-
defatigable collector of books, and a voluminous
miscellaneous editor and writer.
Bibliography: J. W. Burgon, The Lives of Twelve Good
Men, pp. 284-295 et passim, 2 vols., London, 1888; E.
M. Goulburn, John W. Burgon: a Biography, 2 vols.,
London, 1891; DNB, xlix. 232-233.
ROSE, HUGH JAMES: Church of England,
brother of the preceding; b. at Little Horsted (14
m. n.e. of Brighton) June 9, 1795; d. at Florence,
Italy, Dec. 22, 1838. He was graduated at Trinity
College, Cambridge, 1817; was vicar of Horsham,
1822-30; prebendary of Chichester, 1827-33; Chris-
tian Advocate in the University of Cambridge, 1829-
1833; rector of Hadley, Suffolk, 1830-33; incum-
bent of Fairsted, Essex, 1834-37, and of St. Thomas,
Southwark, 1835-38; professor of divinity at the
University of Durham, 1833; and principal of
King's College, London, 1836. He was a very
learned man, and a High-churchman of the most
pronounced type. He early established relations
with J. H. Newman and others of the Oxford move-
ment, and the celebrated Hadleigh conference, which
bore fruit later in crystallizing that movement, was
held at his rectory, although later Rose took but
little part (see Tractarianism). He founded the
British Magazine and Monthly Register of Religious
and Ecclesiastical Information, 1832; was editor of
the Encyclopedia Metropolitana (29 vols., London,
1817-45) in 1836-38; and projected the New Gen-
eral Biographical Dictionary (12 vols., London,
1848). He published Christianity always Progress-
ive (London, 1829); and The Gospel an Abiding
System (1832).
Bibliography: J. W. Burgon, The Lives of Twelve Good
Men, 2 vols., London, 1888; J. H. Newman, Apologia pro
vita sua, chap, ii., ib. 1864; H. P. Liddon, Life of Ed-
ward Bouverie Puscy, passim, 3 vols., ib. 1893-94; DNB,
xlix. 240-242; and literature under Tractarianism.
ROSENIUS, KARL OLOF. See Bornholmers.
ROSENMUELLER, ro'zen-mul"ler, ERNST
FRIEDRICH KARL: German Lutheran and orien-
talist; b. at Hessberg (a village near Hildburg-
hausen, 17 m. s.e. of Meiningen) Dec. 10, 1768; d.
at Leipsic Sept. 17, 1835. He was educated at the
University of Leipsic, where he was privat-docent
(1792-96), associate professor of Arabic (1796-
1813), and full professor of oriental languages (1813-
1835). His life was the uneventful one of a quiet,
earnest student. Besides reediting S. Bochart's
Hierozoicon (3 vols., Leipsic, 1793-96), he wrote
Scholia in Vetus Testamentum (16 parts, 1788-1817;
excerpted in five parts, 1828-35); Handbuchfiir die
Litteratur der biblischen Kritik und Exegese (4 parts,
Kosenmueller
Roskoff
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
96
Gottingen, 1797-1800); Institutiones ad funda-
menta lingua Arabics: (Leipsic, 1818); Das alte und
neue Morgenland, oder Erlauterungen der heiligcn
Schrift aus der naturlichen Beschaffenheit, den Sagen,
Sitten und Gebrduchen des Morgenlandes (6 vols.,
1S1S-20); Handbuch der biblischen Altertumskunde
(4 vols.. 1S23-31); and Analecta Arabica (1824).
Portions of his Handbuch were translated by N.
Morren under the titles Biblical Geography of Asia
Minor, Phenicia, and Arabia (Edinburgh, 1836),
and Biblical Geography of Central Asia (2 vols.,
1S36-37), and by X. Morren and T. G. Repp under
the title Mineralogy and Botany of the Bible (Edin-
burgh, 1840). (G. FRANKt.)
Bibliography: Xeuer Nekrolog der Deutschen, XIII., ii.
766-769; ADB, xxix. 215.
ROSENMUELLER, JOHANN GEORG: German
Lutheran, father of the preceding; b. at Ummer-
stadt, near Hildburghausen (17 m. s.e. of Meinin-
gen), Dec. 18, 1736; d. at Leipsic Mar. 14, 1815.
After completing his education at the University of
AJtdorf , he was for several years a private tutor and
teacher; then pastor at Hildburghausen (1767-
1768), Hessberg (1768-72), and Konigsberg in Fran-
conia (1772-75); professor of theology at Erlangen
(1775-83); first professor of the same at Giessen
(1783-85) ; and professor of theology, pastor of St.
Thomas', and superintendent at Leipsic (1785-
1815). In theology he was an opponent of the
Kantian exegesis and an adherent of the mediating
school, regarding the principles of the unbiased
reason to be as authoritative as the clear expres-
sions of Scripture. The fruit of his activity as
teacher and preacher appeared in writings on exe-
gesis, hermeneutics, practical theology, and, above
all, in books of edification. Special mention may be
made of his Scholia in Novum Testamentum (6th
ed., 6 vols., Nuremberg, 1815-31); Historia inter-
pretationis librorum sacrorum in ecclesia Christiana
(5 vols., Hildburghausen, 1795-1814) ; Morgen- und
Abendandachten (1799); Betrachtungen uber die
vomehmsten Wahrheiten der Religion auf alle Tage
des Jahres (4 vols., Leipsic, 1801); Auserlesenes
Beicht- und Kommunionbuch (1799); and Christ-
liches Lehrbuch fur die Jugend (1809).
(G. FEANKf.)
Bibliography: Notizen aus Rosenmuller' s Leben, Leipsic,
1815; J. C. Dolz, Rosenmiillers Leben, ib. 1816; G. Frank,
Geschichte der protestantischen Theologie, iii. 102, ib. 1875;
ADB, xxix. 219.
ROSENZWEIG, ro'zen-tsvaig, ADOLF: German
rabbi; b. at Turdossin (52 m. s.s.w. of Cracow),
Hungary, Oct. 20, 1850. He was educated at the
rabbinical seminary at Pressburg, the Lehranstalt
fur die Wissenschaft des Judentums, Berlin, and
the University of Berlin. In 1874 he became rabbi
at Pasewalk, Pomerania, whence he was called, a
few years later, to Birnbaum, Posen, where he re-
mained until 1879. From 1879 to 1887 he was
rabbi at Teplitz, Bohemia, and since 1887 has been
rabbi and preacher of the Jewish community at
Berlin. He has written Zur Einleitung in die Bucher
Esra und Nehemia (Berlin, 1875); Zum hunderten
Geburtstage des Nathan der Weise (Posen, 1878);
Das Jahrhundert nach dem babylonischen Exile mit
besonderer Rucksicht auf die religiose Entwicklung
des Judentums (Berlin, 1885) ; Kunstlcr und Jugend-
bilder (Neuhaus, 1886); Der politische und religiose
Charakter des Josephus Flavius (Berlin, 1889);
Jerusalem und Cwsarea (1890); Das Auge in Bibel
und Talmud (1892); Geselligkeit und Geselligkeits-
freuden in Bibel und Talmud (1895) ; and Klcidung
und Schmuck im biblischen und talmudischen Schrif-
ten (1905).
ROSETTA STONE. See Egypt, I., 6, § 1; In-
scriptions, I., § 3.
ROSICRUCIANS: An alleged mystical order of
the early seventeenth century, whose origin is sup-
posed to be given in the Allgemeine vnd General
Reformation, der gantzen weiten Welt. Beneben der
Fama Fraternitatis, dess Loblichen Ordens des Rosen-
kreutzes Auch einer kurtzen Responsion, von
dem Herrn Haselmeyer gestellet, welcher desswegen
von den Jesuitern ist gefdnglich einge-
The zogen, vnd auffeine Galleren geschmiedet
Apocryphal (Cassel, 1614). The Fama is the most
Sources, important section of the work, the
General Reformation being a satire on
crazy reforms translated from an Italian original,
and the Responsion (which had been printed sepa-
rately two years previously) likewise deviating
widely from the style of the Fama. The alleged
author of the Responsion, Adam Haselmeyer, is de-
scribed as a notary of the archduke or an ordinary
imperial judge in a Tyrolese village near Hall, but
how far these assertions are authentic is unknown.
The Fama professes to give information concern-
ing a secret society founded some two centuries be-
fore, by a German of noble birth called Fr. R. C.
( = Frater rosea? crucis, or " brother of the rosy
cross "), who, placed in a monastery at the age of
five, had started on a pilgrimage to the Holy Sepul-
cher. At Damascus he had become acquainted with
the lore of the Arabs, and there he had translated
into Latin " the book and the book M " ( = mundi).
After three years he was sent by his hosts to Egypt
and Fez, but in the latter city he learned the superi-
ority of his own faith and that man is a microcosm.
Two years later he sought to promulgate his new
wisdom in Spain, but to no purpose, and finally he
returned to Germany. Here, in a special " house
of the Holy Spirit," he formed a little band who
were to go into all lands, wearing no special habit,
freely healing the sick, reporting annually in per-
son or by letter to their founder, seeking worthy
successors, having as their seal and symbol " R. C."
( = Rosea Crux, "Rosy Cross"), and concealing
the existence of the fraternity for a hundred years.
A hundred and twenty years after the death of the
founder, a secret door was discovered in the " house
of the Holy Spirit," behind which was a vault with
an altar covering the uncorrupted body of the
founder, who held in his hand a little parchment
book with letters of gold. This disco very showed
that the Rosicrucians could now publicly proclaim
themselves; the Fama was published in five lan-
guages; the learned were invited to test it; and the
hope was expressed that some might be led to join
the fraternity. The Rosicrucians explicitly de-
clared their belief in Christ, also implying that they
were Protestants, and particularly disavowing all
97
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Rosenmueller
Boskoff
connection with heretics, sectarians, and false
prophets. Their philosophy was to be " Jesus on
every side." They opposed the accursed transmu-
tation of metals as a petty thing in comparison with
the real glory of the true philosopher, who is able to
see the heavens open and the angels of God ascend-
ing and descending, and to know that his name is
written in the book of life. The Fama was supple-
mented in 1615 by the Confessio fraternitatis R. C.
ad eruditos Euro-pee, printed at Cassel, both in Latin
and German. While in general harmony with the
Fama, it is more strongly apocalyptic and opposed
to Roman Catholicism; and it suggests positive re-
forms and advocates a practical Biblical piety which
would transcend the denominational barriers of
Protestantism. Its fanciful history occupies a minor
place, but at the same time it states that the name
of the founder of the Rosicrucians was Christianus
Rosenkreutz, and that he was born in 1378 (d., ac-
cording to the Rosicrucian system, 1484).
These two works, the Fama and the Confessio, are
the sole original sources for the Rosicrucians. They
both had a phenomenal popularity, and evoked a
flood of writings on, for, and against
Sensational them. Some doubted the very exist-
Results. ence of the fraternity, and Descartes
and Leibnitz vainly sought to make
the acquaintance of a real Rosicrucian. From Ger-
many the Rosicrucian excitement spread to Eng-
land, France, and Italy; they were identified with
the Spanish Alombrados (q.v.); under the pseu-
donyms of Irenaeus Agnostus and Menapius a pre-
tended adept (probably really named Friedrich
Grick) wrote again and again in pretended defense
of the Rosicrucians, though really in mockery of
them; and Johann Valentin Andrea added his seri-
ous warnings against them. Finally the outbreak
of the Thirty Years' War centered attention on other
matters, and more discerning minds at least per-
ceived that the whole fraternity was nothing but a
gigantic hoax. Henceforth the name Rosicrucian
proved an attraction for secret societies and many
sorts of impostures, and a century after its origin
Rosicrucianism underwent a recrudescence in con-
nection with freemasonry, which not only deemed
Rosicrucianism genuine, but even borrowed usages
and customs from the writings of those who had
satirized the fraternity.
The Fama and Confessio have been ascribed to
the most divergent sources, including Luther and
Tauler, but it is now generally agreed that the real
author was Johann Valentin Andrea (q.v.) . Though
intended externally as a satire, the underlying mo-
tive of the works was, as in most sa-
Authorship tires, serious; and though later Andrea
and Motive saw himself forced to attack the unruly
of the spirits he had unwittingly unloosed, he
Fraud, never denied his authorship of the two
writings in question. Moreover he
criticized with equal severity his own Chymische
Hochzeit Christiani Rosencreutz (Strasburg, 1616),
which is analogous in style, phrase, and content
(even to the name of the hero) with the Fama and
the Confessio. According to his own statement, the
Hochzeit was written about 1603, and was, there-
fore, Andrea's first essay in that development of the
X.— 7
Rosicrucian hoax which was to lead to results so
unwelcome to its author. The fantastic elements
were drawn from romances of knighthood and
travel, and from cycles of alchemistic legend, and
were designed to arouse interest in the serious por-
tions. The very name of the hero contains allusions
to the author, " Christian " obviously referring to
Andrea's Reipublicm christianopolitance descriptio,
and " Rosenkreutz " to his coat of arms, a St. An-
drew's cross, gules, between four roses, gules,
shadowed by two wings, argent. Under all this fan-
tasy lay, as already noted, the most serious pur-
poses: the combating of alchemy and Roman Ca-
tholicism, and the promotion of Christian truth as
revealed in the Bible and the maintenance of the
principles of the Reformation. The intermingling
of jest and earnest finds its parallel in Andrea's own
Menippus, which appeared in 1618. As early as
1617, however, Andrea was obliged to attack his
creation in his Invitatio ad fraternitatem Christi ad
amoris candidatos, but his attempt to found a Chris-
tian brotherhood, together with his introduction
of Calvinistic elements into his own church, aroused
suspicions of his orthodoxy on the part of strict
Lutherans, especially when it became known that
he was the author of the Hochzeit. In his own de-
fense he pleaded that he was not a Rosicrucian in
the accepted sense of the term, but his peculiar
position in the Church of Wiirttemberg, as well as
his personal vicissitudes, forbade him either to deny
or to admit the authorship of the Fama and Con-
fessio, the first of which seems to have been in his
mind as early as 1604 and was in manuscript by
1610, or about the time when the Confessio appears
to have been taking shape. (H. Hermelink.)
Bibliography: For lists of the older literature consult: G.
Kloss, Bibliographic der Freimaurer, pp. 174 sqq., Frank-
fort, 1844; and F. Katsch, Die Enstehung und der wahre
Endzweck der Freimaurerei, pp. 116 sqq., Berlin, 1897.
Consult: A. E. Warte, The Real History of the Rosicru-
cians, London, 1887; G. Arnold, Unparteiische Kirchen-
und Ketzerhistorie, part II., chap, xviii., Frankfort, 1729;
J. S. Semler, Unparteiische Sammlungen zur Historie der
Rosenkreuzer, Leipsic, 1786-88; C. G. de Murr, Ueber den
wahren Ursprung der Rosenkreuzer und Freimaurer, Sulz-
bach, 1803; J. G. Buhle, Ueber 'den Ursprung und die
vornehmsten Schicksale der Orden der Rosenkreuzer
und Freimaurer, Gottingen, 1806; G. E. Guhrauer,
in ZHT, 1852, pp. 298-315; F. C. Baur, Geschichte
der christlichen Kirche, iv. 351 sqq., Leipsic, 1863;
E. Sierke, Schwarmer und Schwindler zu Ende des 18. Jahr-
hunderts, Leipsic, 1874; J. G. Herder, Samtliche Werke,
xv. 57 sqq., xvi. 298 sqq., 591 sqq., Berlin, 1877-99; H.
Kopp, Die Alchemie, 2 vols., Heidelberg, 1886; F. Hart-
mann, The Secret Symbols of the Rosicrucians, London,
1888; idem, Among the Rosicrucians, ib. 1888; idem, In
the Pronaos of the Temple of Wisdom, ib. 1890; idem, With
the Adepts, ib. 1909; W. Begemann, in Monatshefte der
Comeniusgesellschaft, viii (1899), 145 sqq.; J. Kvacala,
in Acta et commentationes imperialis universitatis Jurievien-
sis, Dorpat, 1899; F. B. Dowd, The Temple of the Rosy
Cross, Salem, 1906; R. S. Clymer, The Fraternity of the
Rosicrucians; their Teachings and Mysteries according to the
Manifestoes issued at various Times, Allentown, 1906;
H. Jennings, Rosicrucians, their Rites and Mysteries, 1870,
4th ed., London and New York, 1907; KL, x. 1283-90;
literature under Andrea, Johann Valentin.
ROSIN BIBLE. See Bible Versions, B, IV., § 9.
ROSKOFF, GEORG GUSTAV: German Protes-
tant; b. at Pressburg Aug. 31, 1814; d. at Ober-
tressen, near Aussee (40 m. s.e. of Salzburg), Styria,
Oct. 20, 1889. He was educated at the University
Rosmini-Serbati
Rosweyde
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
98
of Halle and the Evangelical theological faculty at
Vienna (1839^6); and was privat-docent of Old-
Testament exegesis in the latter institution (1846-
1S50); and professor from 1850. He was the author
of Die hebraischen Altertumer in Brief en (Vienna,
1S57); Die Simsonssage und der Heraclesmythus
(Leipsic, I860); Die Geschichte des Teufels (2 vols.,
1869); and Das Religionswesen der rohesten Natur-
volker (1880). (G. Frank")".)
Bibliography: Evangelische Kirchenzeitung fur Oesterreich,
1SS5, no. 3, 1889, no. 21; Protestantische Kirchenzeitung,
1889, no. 45.
ROSMINI-SERBATI, res-mi'ni-sar-ba'ti, AN-
TONIO: Italian Roman Catholic and philosopher,
and founder of the Institute of Charity, or Con-
gregation of Rosminians; b. at Roveredo (13 m.
s.w. of Trent), Tyrol, Mar. 25, 1797; d. at Stresa
(3 m. s. of Pallanza), Italy, July 1, 1855. He was
educated at the University of Padua and was or-
dained to the priesthood in 1820, after having al-
ready pursued the studies in mathematics and
philosophy which were later to result in his Nuovo
saggio sull' origine delle idee (3 vols., Rome, 1830;
Eng. transl., Origin of Ideas, 3 vols., London, 1883-
1886). He now took up his residence at Milan,
where he became acquainted with the French mis-
sionary, J. B. Lowenbruck, and with him estab-
lished at Domodossola, on the road from Lago Mag-
giore to the Simplon, the Instituto di carita as a
center for a congregation of clergy who would de-
vote themselves both to learning and to practical
Christian piety. At Rome, in 1628, Rosmini was
cordially welcomed by Cardinal Bartolommeo Al-
berto Capellari (afterward Pope Gregory XVI.),
although the Jesuits were later to oppose him with
the weapons placed in their hands by his own Cinque
piaghe della santa chiesa (Lugano, 1848; abridged
Eng. transl., Five Wounds of the Holy Church, Lon-
don, 1883). Nevertheless, the years immediately
following were devoted by Rosmini to the elabora-
tion of his epistemology. As a genuine realist, he
held that ideal being is the ultimate cause behind
phenomena, and maintained that such being is cog-
noscible through immediate perception; but while
thus opposing the prevailing sensationalistic philoso-
phy, he diverged equally from the pantheism of
Vincenzo Gioberti, who based perception on purely
natural grounds, thus positing a natural intuition
of God. In the literary controversy which ensued
the Jesuit Joseph Aloysius Dmowski shifted the
issue to theology and charged Rosmini with Jan-
senistic errors, so that in 1843 Gregory XVI. found
himself obliged to command both parties to be
silent. Rosmini now restricted himself to practical
duties, especially as the Institute of Charity had
spread widely, particularly in England and Ireland.
Rosmini himself went in 1837 to Stresa, where he
labored for some years in his college for novices
until he saw himself involved in the excitement
which pervaded all classes in Italy at the accession
of Pius IX. He submitted to the new pontiff an
outline of a constitution for the States of the Church,
but it was unheeded, and he then published the
Cinque piaghe, which he had written sixteen years
before, the " five wounds " in question being de-
clared to be the suppression of the vernacular in
the liturgy, the false training of the clergy, the false
position of the bishops, the exclusion of the lower
clergy and the laity from the election of the popes,
and the arbitrary use of the property of the Church.
The work evoked bitter opposition from the ultra-
montanes and was naturally placed upon the Index,
whereupon Rosmini made his submission. The at-
tempt was also made to condemn Rosmini's other
writings, but the Congregation of the Index, in
1854, officially declared that they might be read.
Nevertheless, opposition to them was still main-
tained, and by a decree of 1887 Leo XIII. expressly
condemned forty propositions of Rosmini. The in-
stitutions founded by him, however, still exist both
in England and in Italy.
A collection of Rosmini's works, although not
absolutely complete, has appeared under the title
Opere edite e inedite dell' abbate A. Rosmini-Serbati
(31 vols., Milan and Turin, 1837-57). Among these
special mention may be made of the following, all of
which have been translated into English: Massime
di perfezione cristiana (13th ed., Milan, 1883; Eng.
transl., Maxims of Christian Perfection, London,
1849); Catechismo disposto secondo Vordine dclle
idee (latest ed., Rome, 1898; Eng. transl., Catholic
Catechism, methodically Arranged, by W. S. Agar
London [1849]); Psicologia (2 vols., Novara, 1846-
1848; Eng. transl., Psychology, 3 vols., London,
1884-88); Sistema filosofico (Lucca, 1853; Eng.
transl., Philosophical System of Antonio Rosmini
Serbati, London, 1882); and the posthumous Del
Principio supremo della metodica e di alcune sue ap-
plicazioni in servigio dell' umana educazione (Turin,
1857; Eng. transl., The Ruling Principle of Method
applied to Education, by Mrs. W Grey, Boston,
1887) and Schizzo sulla filosofia moderna (Turin,
1881; Eng. transl., Short Sketch of Modern Philoso-
phies, London, 1882). A number of his letters have
also been translated by D. Gazzola under the title
Letters on Religious Subjects (London, 1901).
K. Beneath.
Bibliography: On the life consult: W. Lockhardt, Life of
Antonio Rosmini-Serbati, 2 vols., 2d ed., London, 1886;
V Garelli, Biografia di Antonio Rosmini, Turin, 1861; F.
Angeleri, Antonio Rosmini, Treves, 1871; E. H. Dering,
The Philosopher of Rovereto, London, 1874; T. Davidson,
The Philosophical System of A. Rosmini-Serbati, with
Sketch of Author's Life, etc., London, 1882; G. S. Mac-
waiter, Life of A. Rosmini-Serbati, London, 1883; S. E.
Jarvis, Rosmini, a Christian Philosopher, Market Weigh-
ton, 1888; A. Dyroff, Rosmini, Mainz, 1906; G. B. Pagani,
Life of Antonio Rosmini-Serbati, London and New York,
1907.
On his philosophy consult: G. Ferrari, Essai sur le
principe et les limites de la philosophie de Vhistoire, pp.
184-202, Paris, 1843; A. Pestalozza, Le Dottrine di Ros-
mini, 2 vols., Milan, 1851-53; idem, La Mente di Rosmini,
ib. 1855; T. Roberti, Della Spirito filosofico di A. Ros-
mini, Bassano, 1855; G. Bertazzi, Sistema ideologico di
Antonio Rosmini, Verona, 185S; M. Debrit, Histoire des
doctrines philosophiques dans Vltalie content pornine, Paris,
1859; C. M. Ferre, Esposizione del Principio filosofico di
Antonio Rosmini, Verona, 1859; J. Bernardi, Oiovane
rta e primi Studii di Antonio Rosminii, Pinerolo. lSt>l>;
S. Frati, A Rosmini: cenni sull' Immortalita dell' Anima,
Parma, 1861; L. Ferri, Essai sur Vhistoire de la philoso-
phie en Italic, Paris, 1869; V Lilla, Kant e Rosmini, Turin,
1869; L. Palatini, Del Principio filosofico di Antonio Ros-
mini, Verona, 1869; G. Buroni, Rosmini e S. Tommaso,
Turin, 1878; idem, Antonio Rosmini e La Civilth Cattolica,
ib. 1880' G. Petri, A. Rosmini e i Neo-Scolastici, Rome,
1878; K. Werner, A. Rosmini's Stcllung in der Geschichte
99
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Rosmini-Serbati
Rosweyde
der neueren Philosophie, Vienna, 1884; idem, Die italieni-
sche Philosophie des 19. Jahrhunderts, Vienna, 1884; E.
Avogadro, La Filosofia delV Abbate Antonio Rosmini
esaminata, Napoli, 1885; F. H. Reusch, Index der ver-
botenen Biicher, ii. 1139 sqq., Bonn, 1885; F. X. Kraus, in
Deutsche Rundschau, 1888; P. Montagnani, Rosmini, San
Tommaso, e la Logica, Bologna, 1890; G. Vidari, Rosmini e
Spencer, Milan, 1890; F. de Sarlo, La Logica di A. Rosmini,
Rome, 1893 ; idem, Le Basi della Psicologia e della Biologia
secondo il Rosmini, ib. 1893; H. C. Sheldon, in Papers of
the American Society of Church History, first series, viii.
41-66, New York, 1897; G. Gentile, Rosmini e Gioberti,
Pisa, 1898; C. Calzi, Rosmini nella presente Quistione
sociale, Turin, 1899.
On the order: Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen,
iii. 522.
ROSS, JOHN: Presbyterian missionary to China;
h. at Easter Rarichie, Nigg (138 m. n. of Glasgow),
Scotland, Aug. 6, 1842. He received his education
at the village school at Nigg, through private in-
struction, at Glasgow University, and at the United
Presbyterian Theological Hall, Edinburgh; and has
been a missionary in Manchuria since 1872, during
recent years serving also as principal of the Theo-
logical Hall for Manchuria. In 1873 he visited the
Korean Gate, at that time the only place where
Koreans could come into contact with foreigners,
and he became in this way a pioneer in the work of
introducing Protestant Christianity into the Korean
peninsula. He states his theological position as fol-
lows: "Mankind, being alienated from the unself-
ish goodness which is the character of God, has
brought loss and misery unlimited upon itself. God
being the All-loving as he is the All-righteous, it is
reasonable that he should by abnormal means reveal
this his character to his handiwork man, such rev-
elation being beyond the normal. Jesus in his life,
by word and deed culminating in the cross, revealed
the fact that God pities man, desires his salvation
from the state of alienation, and pleads with the
alienated to become reconciled and thus eradicate
the cause of his misery. By this reconciliation and
imitation of the unselfish good-doing of God, the
reign of peace for which Jesus came will be estab-
lished on earth." By his writings he has contributed
to the success of missions, enabling later comers to
the field to acquire through his works acquaintance
with the languages of the parts adjacent to Man-
churia. Of his works mention may be made of:
Mandarin Primer (Shanghai, 1876); C or ean Primer
(1877); History of Corea, Ancient and Modern
(Paisley, 1879) ; The Manchus, or the Reigning Dy-
nasty of China (1880) ; Old Wang, the First Chinese
Evangelist in Manchuria (London, 1889); Mission
Methods in Manchuria (1903); and The Original
Religion of China (Edinburgh, 1909). He also trans-
lated the New Testament into Korean (Mukden,
1882-84); and was a member of the committee to
provide a commentary on the Bible in Chinese, in
connection with which he furnished the parts on
Isaiah i.-xxxix., Job, the latter half of Matthew, and
James.
ROSSI, rSs'si, GIOVANNI BATTISTA DE: Roman
Catholic archeologist; b. at Rome Feb. 23, 1822;
d. there Sept. 20, 1894. He was educated at the
Collegium Romanum. Under the impulse from the
Jesuit Marchi he devoted himself to archeology,
particularly the catacombs, laying the foundation
of his work by collecting antiquities in Italy, Swit-
zerland, France, Germany, and England. In this
department he became the chief by universal ac-
knowledgment and the founder of Christian arche-
ology. In 1854 he became one of the collaborators
of the Inscriptiones urbis Roma Latino; for the Ber-
lin Academy of Sciences, Corpus inscriptorum, vol.
vi (Berlin, 1863 and after). In the Spicilegium
Solesmense of J. B. Pitra were published De chris-
tians monumentis ichthun exhibentibus, vol. iii
(Paris, 1855), and De christianis titulis Carthagini-
ensibus (1858). His great work, which he began in
1843, was Inscriptiones christians urbis Romas sep-
timo saculo antiquiores (vols. i. and ii., Rome, 1861-
1888). This was followed by the Roma sotteranea
Christiana (3 vols., 1864-77; Eng. adaptation, Lon-
don, 1869), leaving the materials for vol. iv. almost
complete. He made the Bulletino di archwlogia
sacra, which he issued quarterly, 1863-94, a treas-
ure store of material from the excavations of cata-
combs and archeology in general. He succeeded,
during forty years, in investigating the most im-
portant cemeteries, relocating most of the martyrs'
tombs, and bringing them to light. From 1872-
1894, he published the Musaici cristiani with its
chromo-lithographic plates (Spithoever ed., Rome,
1872-1900). For fifty years secretary at the Vati-
can, he published with copious notes Index codicum
latinorum Bibliothecm Vaticanm, vols, x.-xiii (1886,
and after), treating over 2,600 codices; and, with
other scholars, issued the CEuvres completes de Bar-
tolomeo Borghesi (9 vols., 1862, and after). Rossi
was professor at the University at Rome and after
1851 a member of the Accademia pontificia di
archseologia, and before his death its president. He
promoted a common bond between Roman Catholic
and other archeologists, and passed the influence
of his spirit to a school of successors.
Bibliography: F. B. Leitner, Leben des . . Johannes
Baptista de Rossi, Regensburg, 1899. A valuable period-
ical literature is indicated in Richardson, Encyclopaedia,
p. 958.
ROSWEYDE, ros-vai'de, HERIBERT: Jesuit
hagiographer, originator of the idea afterward car-
ried out by Bolland and his associates in the Acta
Sanctorum Bollandistarum (see Bolland, Jan, Bol-
landists); b. at Utrecht Jan. 21, 1570; d. at Ant-
werp Oct. 4, 1629. He entered the Society of Jesus
in 1588, and was ordained priest in 1598. He was
professor of rhetoric at Brussels, 1592-95, of phi-
losophy 1598-1600, and of controversial theology
1605-07, then for four years head of the colleges of
Courtray and Antwerp. From about 1614 he de-
voted himself with increasing exclusiveness to his-
torical studies, especially the lives of the saints, for
which the Belgian abbeys offered a vast mass of
manuscript material. He formed the plan of a
comprehensive collection of such lives which should
surpass the existing ones in extent and critical ac-
curacy; but official duties and the controversies in
which he became engaged with Scaliger, Casaubon,
and others took up too much of his time for him to
do more than begin the vast labor. He published
the Martyrologium parvum Romanum which he had
discovered, together with that of Ado (Antwerp,
1613) ; the first edition of the Windesheim Chronicle
Roswitha
Rothe
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
100
of Johann Busch (1621); an edition of the " Imita-
tion of Christ " (1617); and one of the Vita patrum
(1615). His faithfulness to duty was no less ad-
mirable than his scholarly activity, and his last
illness was due to disease contracted at the bed-
side of the dying.
Bibliography: ASB, Jan., i., preface, § 6, and Mar., i.,
preface to the life of J. Bolland, § 4; [V. de Buck], in
Analectes pour servir a Vhistoire ecclisiastique de la Bel-
gique, v (1868), 261-270; KL, x. 1314-15; Lichtenberger,
ESR, xi. 301-302.
ROSWITHA, ros-vi'ta (ROSWITH, HROS-
WITHA, HROTSUIT) : Nun of Gandersheim in the
duchy of Saxony in the last third of the tenth cen-
tury; the years of her birth and death are not
known. Her abbess Gerberga (959-1001) asked her
to write a heroic poem in honor of the Emperor
Otho I. It was finished in 968 and is entitled Hrot-
suitha carmen de gestis Oddonis I. imperatoris, but
is not preserved entire. As the authoress drew her
material from members of the imperial family, dip-
lomatic considerations influenced her work; yet her
representation is an important source of history.
Later she wrote the history of her monastery, De
primordiis ccenobii Gander sheimensis, and also com-
posed many poems on saints. Her Christian come-
dies, modeled after those of Terence, are well known.
Ebert has disputed with good reason the earlier
view that these plays were written with the inten-
tion of suppressing the immoral plays of Terence.
(A. Hatjck.)
Bibliography: Roswitha' s works were edited by K. A.
Barack, Nuremberg, 1858; and K. Strecker, Leipsic, 1906;
and are in MPL, cxxxvii. 971-1196. The two historical
poems are in MGH, Script., iv (1841), 302-335. There
are German translations of the Otto by W. Gundlach,
Innsbruck, 1894, and others. Consult A. Ebert, Littera-
tur des Mittelalters, iii. 285 sqq., Leipsic, 1887; A. H.
Hoffmann, De Roswithce vita et scriptis, Wratislaw, 1839;
O. Rommel, in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, iv
(1864), 123-158; R. Kopke, Hrotsuit von Gandersheim,
Berlin, 1869; idem, Die alteste deutsche Dichterin. Kul-
turgeschichtlich.es Bild aus dem 10. Jahrhundert, ib. 1869;
R. Steinhoff, in Zeitschrift des Harzvereins fur Geschichte
und Alterthumskunde, xv (1SS2), 116-140; a notable series
of contributions by O. Grashof are to be found in Studien
und Mittheilungen aus den Benediktiner- und Cistercienser-
Orden, 1884-88; Wattenbach, DGQ, i (1885), 4, 313-316,
i (1893), 334-336; W. H. Hudson, in English Historical
Review, 1888, pp. 431-457; ADB, xxix. 283-294; Mary
Reed, in Free Review, i. 269-282, London, 1893-94; Hauck,
KD, iii. 301 sqq.
ROTA ROMANA. See Curia, § 3.
ROTH, rot, KARL JOHANN FRIEDRICH: Ger-
man Lutheran; b. at Vaihingen (5 m. s.w. of Stutt-
gart), Wurttemberg, Jan. 23, 1780; d. at Munich
Jan. 21, 1S52. He studied law at the University
of Tubingen (1797-1801), and was then consul for
Nuremberg at Paris, Vienna, and Berlin. When
Nuremberg came under Bavarian control, Roth en-
tered the service of the state, first as financial coun-
selor for the circle of Pegnitz at Nuremberg, then
(1810) as chief financial counselor at Munich, and
finally (1817) as ministerial counselor in the royal
ministry of finances. His De bello Borussico com-
mentarius (1809) proved his unusual scholarship.
Meanwhile he had passed from the point of view of
\ oltaire and Rousseau to orthodoxy, as was shown
by his selections from Luther's writings, Die Weis-
heit Dr. Martin Luthers (1817), and his editions of
the works of J. G. Hamann (Leipsic 1821-25). As
president of the supreme consistory of Bavaria
(1828-48) he exercised rare tact and administrative
skill, in guiding the Church through the troublous
reaction against rationalism, in cultivating the per-
sonal acquaintance of the clergy, and in executing
the existing order, thus elevating the moral and the
intellectual status of the clergy. He established a
stated supervision of theological students at Er-
langen, which was soon given up, and a seminary
for the training of the Evangelical clergy at Mu-
nich, which was soon obliged to reduce its number
of students from eight to six annually. During the
period 1837-48, the Roman Catholics were in the
ascendency with the government, and Roth was
blamed for being remiss in not insisting upon the
Protestant claims, though, perhaps, without jus-
tice. Nevertheless, in 1848 he was retired in order
to allay the agitation against him. Soon after, he
was made a member of the council of state, in
which he continued almost till his death.
(Karl Burger-)-.)
ROTHE, rS'te, RICHARD: Theologian; b. at
Posen (100 m. e. of Frankfort-on-the-Oder) Jan.
28, 1799; d. at Heidelberg Aug. 20, 1867 His
father was characterized by strong fidelity to duty
and patriotic devotion; his mother by
Early Life fervent piety. The latter was of a
and rationalistic type, as was also the
Education, wretched religious instruction obtained
from the side of the school and the
Church. However, he was led into a supernatural
vein of thought by the imaginative works of Novalis
and other leaders in the Romantic movement, and by
his own reading of the Bible. He thus acquired a
living Christianity. Accordingly, against his par-
ents' inclination, he resolved to study theology,
and, at Easter, 1817, betook himself to Heidelberg.
Here he was influenced anew by Romanticism, so
that he came to entertain warm sympathies with
Roman Catholicism. At Berlin, whither he re-
moved in 1819, there prevailed, in part, a Pietistic
type of religion, together with a very conservative
spirit in matters of State and Church, and a prefer-
ence for the Hegelian philosophy. Rothe listened
to Hegel's lectures on natural law and political sci-
ence with enthusiasm, and was but little attracted
by Schleiermacher's lectures and sermons. He ac-
quired growing reverence for August Neander (q.v.),
through whose good offices he found entrance to the
circle that gathered about Baron von Kottwitz.
Yet he felt not at all content, but tired of academic
life and yearned for home. Cheered and refreshed
by a brief visit to his parents, he went to the Theo-
logical Seminary at Wittenberg in the autumn of
1819. Most influential over him here was the third
director H. L. Heubner (q.v.); nevertheless Rothe
aimed to preserve his individuality and mental free-
dom. He also here, as formerly at Berlin, at first
vigorously withstood the attempts of the new semi-
nary adjunct Rudolf Stier and of Baron von Kott-
witz and the licentiate Tholuck on a visit from
Berlin to win him over to a Pietistic form of relig-
ion; but before long his sensitive temperament
yielded. On May 9, 1821, he reports of the inward
101
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Roswitha
Rothe
change produced in him, as though it were the en-
trance of a new spiritual spring. For a considerable
time thereafter his letters were couched in the un-
natural mode of utterance in vogue among Pietists,
and abounded in the bluntest expressions respecting
everybody of a different opinion and all worldly
pursuits. He even condemned all scientific treat-
ment of theology. The Evangelical attempts in
the cause of church union merely aroused his ab-
horrence, and served only to enhance his inclina-
tion toward Roman Catholicism. He manifested
special predilection for the quietistic mysticism of
the extravagant Francis of Sales (q.v.). Although
he then assured his distressed parents that he had
won inward rest and blessedness, he nevertheless
later admitted in retrospect that he had not been a
happy Pietist, but had been without joy. Grad-
ually he felt the lack of satisfying, solid work at the
Wittenberg Seminary, though he had often preached
and studied much there, and, in the autumn of 1822,
he left Wittenberg, not without satisfaction, to re-
turn home. Here, thanks to the good offices of
Heubner, he was called to be chaplain to the Prus-
sian embassy at Rome. He now passed his second
theological examination, was ordained at Berlin,
married Louise von Bruck, a sister-in-law of Heub-
ner, and journeyed with her to Italy.
He reached Rome early in 1824. What usually
attracted people he regarded with indifference, de-
siring simply to serve his congregation faithfully,
and thereby the kingdom of God. But
Career, owing to the peculiar constituency of
that body, the conscientious execu-
tion of this task was bound to enlarge his field of
vision. The nucleus of the Prussian congregation
at Rome comprised some finely cultivated Evan-
gelical families of the embassy, and a number of
artists of idealistic taste. He soon discerned that
Christianity was not to be presented before these
circles in the form of a narrow-minded Pietism.
Not a few of the members, above all the highly
talented, eager personality of Josias Bunsen (q.v.),
counselor of the legation, evinced by their combi-
nation of a vital Christian intelligence with political,
scientific, artistic, and other spiritual and secular
interests, that the two do not exclude each other.
Hence the Pietistic forms, foreign as they always
were to Rothe's individuality, fell gradually away
from his habit of life and thought. In his modesty,
his inner devoutness, his fellowship with Christ, his
preference for quiet, he had much in common with
Pietism, and these he retained enduringly. His style
of correspondence now became more natural, and
his judgment of Pietism more and more critical.
At the same time, being at the very center of Ro-
man Catholicism, he was radically cured of his pre-
dilection for that system, and perceived that a
stanch ecclesiasticism still affords no warrant of
Christian piety. Thus his own Christianity grew
more liberal toward the world, and, stimulated by
his official activity, he awakened more keenly to the
need of scientific studies. Before conferences of cul-
tivated members of his congregation, in response to
the request of some artists, he discussed topics in
ecclesiastical history. This Roman sojourn, how-
ever, had also its dark sides. Rothe's wife ap-
peared unable to bear the climate. Then the
frequent changes in the constituency of the Prus-
sian congregation rendered the fruits of his activity
insecure. With increasing diffidence toward pub-
licly disclosing his inmost mind, he began to
doubt bis qualification for a practical church
career, and his desire for active scholarship grew
apace. Under the circumstances a call to be
professor at the theological seminary at Wit-
tenberg in 1828 was gladly accepted, and this
was followed by the appointment to be second di-
rector and ephor, 1832. In 1837 he became uni-
versity preacher, and professor and director of the
new seminary at Heidelberg. To be released from
the latter office he accepted a call to Bonn in 1849.
Feeling too much weighed down by the practical
duties of preaching in connection with the public
worship of the university, he returned to Heidel-
berg, 1854, where he now lectured on ecclesiastical
history, exegesis, systematic theology, the life of
Christ, encyclopedia, and, occasionally, on practical
theology till his death.
From the beginning of his independent theolog-
ical research, his deepest interest turned to the sci-
entific knowledge of the ideal truth of Christianity.
But in distinction from the dialectics of Schleier-
macher, which seemed to him too formal and ab-
stract, he strove after a more replete speculation,
rendering more justice to the realities
Work in of the world and of historical Chris-
Exegesis tianity. Hence his theological studies
and were applied, first, to Biblical exegesis
History, and ecclesiastical history. His exe-
getical studies were taken up at Rome,
and pursued with special zeal during the later period
of his sojourn there, since Biblical writings formed
the topics of discussion in the conferences of culti-
vated church-members. This gave rise to Rothe's
first literary publication, his monograph on Rom.
v. 12-21, prepared at Ischia, and published under
the title, Neuer Versuch einer Auslegung der Paulini-
schen Stelle Romer V., 12-21 (Wittenberg, 1836).
However, purely exegetical interest was not very
lively with ■him, and he published nothing further
in scientific exegesis. Still, his official tasks at Wit-
tenberg led him to produce edifying elucidations of
Scripture; and his exposition of I John is one of the
best of its kind, Der erste Brief Johannis (Witten-
berg, 1878). His studies next turned to the his-
torical field. Already at Breslau, after Neander had
inspired him at Berlin to the academic vocation, he
had devoted himself to studies in ecclesiastical his-
tory. At Rome association with the versatile and
scholarly Bunsen gave him new impetus. Coinci-
dent with his own interest the Roman artists be-
sought him for information on the history of Roman
Catholicism. The reaction which then took place
in his critical estimation of Romanism also occa-
sioned the need of some independent historical ex-
amination on this topic. His deep study of the
sources thus prepared him for the course of lectures
on " Church Life " that he was pledged to deliver
at Wittenberg, in which he treated the nature and
history of the Christian religion and Church. An-
other fruit of this labor was his much-noted work,
Die Anfange der christlichen Kirche and ihrer Ver-
Rothe
Rousseau
THE NEW SCHAFF-HKRZOG
102
fassung (,1S:>7). Inherent in the nature of all re-
ligions, he asserts, there is the radical impulse of
self-expression. In the Christian religion, the proc-
ess of such manifestations has for its goal the con-
summation of the kingdom of God on earth, as
promised by Christ. But the State, as the most
comprehensive structure wrought by mind into
matter, is the actual realization of all moral life,
which, in its final perfection, must immanently in-
volve religion. In contrast, the Church, by virtue
of its intrinsic character, shall ever serve purely
religious ends. Therefore the kingdom of God on
earth can present itself only in the form of a per-
fected state or organism of states, wherefore the
Church becomes gradually superfluous. For the
present, however, the Church still has a lofty sig-
nificance. The idea of the Church sprang from an
internal necessity, and began to achieve its fulfil-
ment. As a matter of fact, the formation of the
Church followed soon after the destruction of Jeru-
salem, when the surviving apostles instituted the
episcopate as an organic expedient for the outward
unity of Christian fellowship. Incipiently, the idea
of the Church was vaguely identified with this em-
pirical Church. As all sorts of contingencies arose
to make this identification less congruous, there de-
veloped, over against the heresies, with increasing
certainty, the recognition of the papal Church of
Rome. This fiction, however, was bound ere long
to give rise to a contradiction resting fundamentally
upon the fact that the Church, as a whole, is not
the form of the Christian life in correspondence
with it. For the first time was the question funda-
mentally involving the transition from Apostolic
Christianity to the hierarchical Roman Catholic
Church so definitely raised. In comparison with
Xeander's treatment of church history, whereby
the inner life of the individual Christian personal-
ities received a one-sided emphasis, there was a
distinct advance with Rothe, when he placed due
importance upon the general development of Chris-
tianity in its social forms. A reciprocal defect ap-
peared, however, in that, according to Rothe, the
idea of the Church realized itself essentially only by
the adoption of constitutional forms; and that this
abstraction of a constitution did not appear to be
evolved from the inner life of the Church, but was
externally instituted by the apostles. In this view
a reaction from his earlier admiration of Roman
( 'utholicism can not be mistaken, while his thought
of a gradual resolution of the Church into the State
becomes clear in the light of his impressions in child-
hood, and his subsequent transition from narrow
Pietism to the wider sphere of life at Rome. Rothe
did not publish any further historical development
of this view, and his lectures were published in
fragmentary form, Yorlesungen iiber Kirchenge-
schichtp (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1875-76).
Rothe's first production in church history im-
pelled him to a purely systematic work. Only then
did he approach the task for which he was best
fitted, by which he most amply developed his gifts.
He sought to arrive at an explanation of his views
on Christianity, Church, and State on the basis of
the clear representation of the relation between the
religious and the ethical. This was the purpose of
his ethics. While he assigned dogmatics to histor-
ical theology, ethics, as the conclusive part of specu-
lative theology, was to unfold its sub-
Theological ject only in accordance with the law
Ethics. of logical thought. It was to take its
point of departure from the conscious-
ness of God; and this, contrary to Schleiermacher,
from its objective content. Rothe thus proceeds
deductively from God to the creation of the world
as the necessary means whereby he is distinguish-
able, and from the infinite process of creation to
its continuation in the ethical process, which sub-
sists in the unity, fixed in the human mind, of
personality and material nature. Inasmuch as this
concept of the ethical appears in the threefold form
of moral good, virtue, and duty, Rothe's ethics falls
under three main heads. The first sets forth the
ethical process, namely, the original unity of mor-
ality and religion; its disturbance by the evil which
subsists in the predominance of the nature of sense
over personality; the redemption from evil through
the second Adam; the primarily religious, then
moral efficacy of this redemption upon individual
men, through the kingdom of God, first resolved in
the form of a church and finally fulfilled in a Chris-
tian state organism; and the end of all things.
Compared with this comprehensive thought outline
of the first part, all else in his ethics, although
containing many beautiful details, is like a super-
fluous appendix.
Concerning the fundamental views of his religious-
ethical system in the first part, his effort to derive
the entire organism of Christian truth by logical de-
duction from a single concept can not
Estimation, be upheld. It proved itself incapable
of logical conclusion, and led to the
tendency of a pantheistic confusion of God and the
world; of conceiving the divine and the moral in
natural terms ; of thinking of the spiritual as a mere
product of matter; and of denying, in determinist
fashion, all freedom of divine and human action.
Yet this tendency was contradicted by Rothe's
strong ethical and theistic temperament, as well as
by his positive supernaturalism, such as he exhibited
in his admirable Zur Dogmatik (Gotha, 1863). This
inconsistency occasioned many palpable contradic-
tions and defects in his system. His identification
of religion with morality, whence emanated his evi-
dently erroneous ideas on the relation of Church
and State, was also involved with a pantheistic
inclination. A practical consequence of these views
was his mode of participation during his closing
years in the affairs of the State Church of Baden.
In the liberation of culture and of its exponents from
domination by the Church, he saw nothing short of
an operation by his Savior. Therefore he believed
that he was serving him best when he cooperated
in the plan of introducing the congregational prin-
ciple in constitutional polity, whereby cultivated
laymen, with their " unconscious Christianity."
were to be associated in congregational autonomy,
and when by the " Protestant Union " (q.v.) Chris-
tianity became effectually emancipated from its
ecclesiastical restrictions, offensive as these were
to the cultured. Thus Rothe, though abhorring all
partizan tactics, himself proved a partizan. Finally,
103
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Rothe
Rousseau
it should be borne in mind that the defects in Rothe's
ethics are, to some extent, involved with insoluble
antinomies, and they are compensated in his work
by superior merits; such as his dialectical adapta-
bility and his skill in the grouping of his matter,
let alone his affluence of significant and useful ideas,
even of elements of truth in his most vulnerable
representations. F Sieffert.
Bibliography: F. Nippold, Richard Rothe, 2 vols., Wit-
tenberg, 1873-74; A. Hausrath, Richard Rothe und seine
Freunde, 2 vols., Berlin, 1902-06; J. Cropp, in Protes-
tantische Monatshefte, 1897, 1899; E. Achelis, Dr. Richard
Rothe, Gotha, 1869; W. Honig, Richard Rothe. Charak-
ter, Leben und Denken, Berlin, 1898; H. Bassermann,
Richard Rothe als praktischer Theologe, Freiburg, 1899;
O. Flvigel, Richard Rothe als spekulativer Theologe, Lang-
ensalza, 1899; P. Mezger, Richard Rothe. Ein theo-
logisches Charakterbild, Berlin, 1899; K. Sell, in Theo-
logische Rundschau, 1899; H. Sporri, Zur Erinnerung an
Richard Rothe, Hamburg, 1899; E. Troeltsch, Richard
Rothe. Gedachtnisrede, Freiburg, 1899; R. Kern, Dr.
Richard Rothe, Cassel, 1904; L. Witte, Richard Rothe uber
Jesus als Wunderthater, Halle, 1907; J. Happel, Richard
Rothes Lehre von der Kirche, Leipsic, 1909.
ROTHMANN (ROTTMANN), BERNHARD. See
Muenster, Anabaptists in.
ROTHSTEIN, rot'stain, JOHANN WILHELM:
German Protestant; b. at Puhl, a village of Rhen-
ish Prussia, Mar. 19, 1853. He was educated at the
universities of Bonn (Ph.D., 1877; lie. theol., 1878)
and Halle, where he devoted himself to theology
and Semitics (1872-78). He was a teacher in the
gymnasium at Elberfeld until 1884 and at the girls'
high school in Halle until 1889, when he was ap-
pointed associate professor of Old-Testament exe-
gesis at the University of Halle, and in 1910 became
professor in the same branch at Breslau. Theo-
logically he bases his work on a belief in Biblical
revelation, and, though favoring earnest historical
criticism, is opposed to rationalistic interpretations
of the Old and New Testaments from the point of
view of comparative religion. He has written : De
chronographo Arabe anonymo qui codice Berolinensi
Sprengeriano tricesimo continetur (Bonn, 1877) ; Das
Bundesbuch und die religionsgeschichiliche Entwick-
lung Israels (Halle, 1888); Das Hohe Lied (1893);
Der Gottesglaube im alien Israel und die religions-
geschichtliche Kritik (1900) ; Bilder aus der Geschichte
des alten Bundes in gemeinverstdndlicher Form, vol.
i. (Erlangen, 1901); Die Genealogie des Konigs von
Juda Jojachin und seiner Nachkommenschaft in I
Chron. Hi. 17-24 (Berlin, 1902) ; Geschichte und Offen-
barung mit Bezug auf Israels Religion (Stuttgart,
1903); Juden und Samaritaner. Die grundlegende
Scheidung von Judentum und Heidentum. Eine
kritische Studie zum Buche Haggai und zur jud-
ischen Geschichte im ersten nachexilischen Jahrhundert
(Leipsic, 1908) ; Grundziige des hebraischen Rhythmus
und seiner Forrnenbildung, nebst lyrischen Texten mit
kritischem Kommentar (1909); Psalmentexte und der
Text des Hohen Liedes (1909; reprinted from the
Grundziige des Rhythmus); and Die Nachtge-
sichte des Sacharya (1910). He has translated into
German W. R. Smith's The Old Testament in the
Jewish Church (Freiburg, 1894) and S. R. Driver's
Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament
(Berlin, 1896), and contributed Jeremiah and Ze-
phaniah to E. Kautzsch's Das Alte Testament (Frei-
burg, 1894; in the 3d ed., 1910, Jeremiah, Ezekiel,
and Chronicles), the apocryphal portions of Daniel,
as well as Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah to
the same scholar's Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen
des Alten Testaments (1900), and Jeremiah and Eze-
kiel to R. Kittel's Biblia Hebraica (Leipsic, 1906).
ROUS, raus, FRANCIS: Puritan; b. at Dittisham
(25 m. e. of Plymouth) in 1579; d. at Acton (7 m.
w. of London) Jan., 1658-59. He was educated at
Oxford (B.A., 1596-97), and the University of Ley-
den (1598-99); was a member of parliament dur-
ing the reign of Charles I., of the Long Parliament,
and others (1625-56); was appointed lord of par-
liament by Cromwell (1657); and became provost
of Eton (1643^4). The Westminster Assembly ap-
pointed him one of its lay assessors (1643) ; and he
was chairman of the committee for ordination of
ministers after its organization (1643-44). In 1649
Rous went over to the Independents and served on
the committee for the propagation of the Gospel,
which framed an abortive scheme for a state church
on the Congregational plan, revived without suc-
cess by the Little Parliament of which he was
speaker (1653). When that body dissolved itself,
he was sworn on the protector's council of state.
He was placed on the committee for the approba-
tion of public preachers 1653-54, and with Crom-
well on that of discussion of the kingship (1656).
He was author of Psalms Translated into English
Metre (1643; 1646), a version approved by the
Westminster Assembly, authorized by parliament
for general use, and adopted by the committee of
estates in Scotland, where its popular use has con-
tinued till the present day. During a period of re-
tirement from the Middle Temple to Landrake,
Cornwall (1601-25), he wrote Meditations of Instruc-
tion, of Exhortation, of Reproof (London, 1616); The
Arte of Happiness (1619); Diseases of the Time
(1622); and Oyl of Scorpions (1623). His piety was
of an intensely subjective kind, as illustrated in
Mystical Marriage (1635), and Heavenly Academie
(1638). A number of his works were collectively
republished in Treatises and Meditations (London,
1656-57).
Bibliography: A. a Wood, Athence Oxoniensis, ed. P. Bliss,
iii. 467, 4 vols., London, 1813-20; D. Neal, Hist, of the
Puritans, ed. J. Toulmin, 5 vols., Bath, 1793-97; J. A.
Alexander, Lives of the Speakers of the House of Commons,
London, 1850; S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, p. 533,
New York, 1886; W. A. Shaw, History of the English
Church 1640-60, 2 vols., London, 1900; Julian,
Hymnology, pp. 918, 979, 1023; DNB, xlix. 316-317
(where many scattering references are given).
ROUSSEAU, nis"so', JEAN JACQUES: French
deistic philosopher and author; b. at Geneva June
28, 1712; d. at Ermenonville (28 m. n.e. of Paris)
July 2, 1778. His mother died at his birth, and his
father, a dissipated and violent-tempered man, paid
little attention to the son's training, and finally de-
serted him. The latter developed a passion for
reading, with a special fondness for Plutarch's
Lives. Apprenticed first to a notary and then to
a coppersmith, he ran away (1728) to escape the
rigid discipline, and, after wandering for several
days, he fell in with Roman Catholic priests at Con-
signon in Savoy, who turned him over to Madame de
Rousseau
Rowe
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
104
Warens at Annecy, and she sent him to an educa-
tional institution at Turin. Here he duly abjured
Protestantism, and next served in various house-
holds, in one of which he was charged with theft.
After more wanderings he was at Chamb6ry (1730),
whither Madame de Warens had removed. In her
household he spent eight years diverting himself in
the enjoyment of nature, the study of music, the
reading of the English, German, and French phil-
osophers and chemistry, pursuing the study of
mathematics and Latin, and enjoying the play-house
and opera. He next spent eighteen months at
Venice as secretary of the French ambassador,
Comte de Montaignu (1744-45). Up to this time,
when he was thirty-nine, his life, the details of
which he publishes in his Confessions (Geneva,
17S2; Eng. transl., The Confessions of J J Rous-
seau, London, 1891), may be styled as subterra-
nean. He now returned to Paris, where his opera
Les Muses galantes failed, copied music, and was
secretary of Madame Dupin. Here he came into
association with Diderot, Grimm, D'Alembert, Hol-
bach, and Madame d'Epinay, and was admitted as
a contributor to the Encyclopedic (see Encyclope-
dists) ; and his brilliant gifts of entertainment, reck-
less manner, and boundless vanity attracted atten-
tion. With the Discours sur le sciences et les arts
(Paris, 1750), a prize essay in which he set forth the
paradox of the superiority of the savage state, he
proclaimed his gospel of " back to nature." His
operetta Devin du village (1752) met with great
success. His second sensational writing appeared:
Discours sur I'inegalite parmi les hommes (1753),
against the inequalities of society. His fame was
then assured. In 1754 he revisited Geneva, was
received with great acclamation, and called him-
self henceforth " citizen of Geneva." In 1756, upon
invitation of Madame d'Epinay, he retired to a cot-
tage (afterward " The Hermitage ") in the woods
of Montmorency, where in the quiet of nature he
expected to spend his life; but domestic troubles,
his violent passion for Countess d'Houdetot, and his
morbid mistrust and nervous excitability, which
lost him his friends, induced him to change his resi-
dence to a chateau in the park of the duke of Lux-
embourg, Montmorency (1758-62). His famous
works appeared during this period: Lettre a d'Alem-
bert (Amsterdam, 1758); Julie ou la nouvelle He-
loise (1761); Du contrat social (Amsterdam, 1762;
Paris, 1795; Eng. transl., The Social Contract, 2
vols., New York, 1893, new transl., 1902); and
Emile ou de V education (Amsterdam, 1762; Eng.
transl., Emilius; or an Essay on Education, 2 vols.,
London, 1763, and again, 1895). The last-named
work was ordered to be burned by the French
parliament and his arrest was ordered; but he
fled to Neuchatel, then within the jurisdiction of
Prussia. Here he wrote his Lettres ccrites de la
Montague (Amsterdam, 1702), in which, with refer-
ence to the Geneva constitution, he advocated the
freedom of religion against the Church and police.
Driven thence by peasant attacks (Sept., 1765), he
returned to the Isle St. Pierre in the Lake of Bienne.
The government of Berne ordered him out of its
territory, and he accepted the asylum offered him
by David Hume in England (Jan., 1766). But his
morbid misanthropy, now goaded to an insane sense
of being persecuted, made him suspicious of plots,
and led him to quarrel with his friends for not ma-
king his opponents their own enemies, and he fled to
France (1767). After wandering about and de-
pending on friends he was permitted to return to
Paris (1770), where he finished the Confessions
begun in England, and produced many of his best
stories. Here he copied notes, and studied music
and botany. His dread of secret enemies grew upon
his imagination, until he was glad to accept an in-
vitation to retire to Ermenonville (1778), where his
death came suddenly.
Rousseau was possessed with an overmastering
love of nature, and reacted against the artificiality
and corruption of the social customs and institu-
tions of the time. He was a keen thinker, and was
equipped with the weapons of the philosophical
century and with an inspiring eloquence. To these
qualities were added a pronounced egotism, self-
seeking, and an arrogance that led to bitter antag-
onism against his revolutionary views and sensi-
tive personality, the reaction against which resulted
in a growing misanthropy. Error and prejudice in
the name of philosophy, according to him, had
stifled reason and nature, and culture, as he found
it, had corrupted morals. In Emile he presents the
ideal citizen and the means of training the child for
the State in accordance with nature, even to a
sense of God. This " nature gospel " of education,
as Goethe called it, was the inspiration, beginning
with Pestalozzi, of world-wide pedagogical meth-
ods. The most admirable part in this is the creed
of the vicar of Savoy, in which, in happy phrase,
Rousseau shows a true, natural susceptibility to
religion and to God, whose omnipotence and great-
ness are published anew every day. The Social
Contract, on the text that all men are born free and
equal, regards the State as a contract in which in-
dividuals surrender none of their natural rights, but
rather agree for the protection of them. Most re-
markable in this projected republic was the provi-
sion to banish aliens to the state religion and to
punish dissenters with death. The Social Contract
became the text-book of the French Revolution,
and Rousseau's theories as protests bore fruit in
the frenzied bloody orgies of the Commune as well
as in the rejuvenation of France and the history of
the entire Western world. Among many editions
of Rousseau's complete works are those by P A.
Du Peyron (35 vols., Geneva and Paris, 17S2) fol-
lowed by (Euvres posthumes (12 vols., 17S2-S3);
and by V. D. Musset-Pathay, with biography and
notes (26 vols., Paris, 1823-27). His Lettres in-
cdites, ed. H. de Rothschild, appeared Paris, 1S92.
Also see Deism, II., § 4.
Bibliography: Recent issues of some of the works of Rous-
seau in English are: Emile; or. Treatise on Education,
London, 1895; The Social Contract; or, Principles of
Political Right, ib. 1902; Confessions, 2 vols., ib. 1907:
Morals, ib. 1908; Humane Philosophy, Maxims and Prin-
ciples, selected . by Frederika Macdnnald, ib. 190S.
Studies of Rousseau's life and works are: J. Morley,
J. J. Rousseau, 2 vols., London, 1SSS; A. J. Barruel-
Beauvert, Vie de J J. Rousseau, ib. 1789; V D. Musset-
Pathay, Histoire de la vie et des ourrages de J. J ■ Rous-
seau, 2 vols., Paris, 1822; M. G. Ktreckoisen, J. J- Rous-
seau, ses amis et ses ennemis, 2 vols., ib. 1805; F. Brocker-
105
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Rousseau
Eowe
hoff, J. J. Rousseau, sein Leben und seine Werke, 3 vols.,
Leipsic, 1863-74; T. Vogt, J. J. Rousseau' s Leben, Vienna,
1870; H. Beaudouin, La Vie et les ceuvres de Jean Jacques
Rousseau, 2 vols., Paris, 1872; A. Chuquet, Jean Jacques
Rousseau, ib. 1893; Saint-Marc-Girardin, J. J. Rous-
seau, sa vie et ses ouvrages, ib. 1875; A. Meylan,
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, sa vie et ses osuvres, ib. 1878; H.
Gehrig, Jean Jacques Rousseau, sein Leben und seine
padagogische Bedeutung, Neuweid, 1879; H. G. Graham,
Rousseau, London, 1882 ; A. Bougeault, Etude sur Vetat men-
tal de J. J. Rousseau, Paris, 1883; L. Ducros, J. J. Rous-
seau, ib. 1888; R. Wahrenholtz, Jean-Jacques Rousseau:
Leben, Geistesentwicklung und Hauptwerke, Leipsic, 1889;
idem, Jean Jacques Rousseau, New York, 1907; E. Asse,
J. J. Rousseau, Paris, 1900; J. Lemaitre, Jean Jacques
Rousseau, ib. 1907, Eng. transl., London, 1908.
On the philosophy and ideas of Rousseau consult: E.
v. Hohenhaussen, Rousseau ein kritisch-literarischer
Umriss, Cassel, 1847; L. Moreau, J. J. Rousseau et le
siecle philosophique, Paris, 1870; C. Borgeaud, J. J. Rous-
seau's Religionsphilosophie, Leipsic, 1883; G. Maugras,
Querelles de philosophes Voltaire et J. J. Rousseau, Paris,
1886; O. Schmidt, Rousseau und Byron, Leipsic, 1890;
A. Spitzner, Natur und Naturgemassheit bei J. J. Rous-
seau, Leipsic, 1892; L. Claritte, J. J. Rousseau, Paris,
1896; H. Hoffding, Rousseau und seine Philosophic Stutt-
gart, 1897; T. Davidson, Rousseau and Education accord-
ing to Nature, New York, 1898; E. Fahrmann, Rousseau's
Naturanschauung, Leipsic, 1901 ; W. H. Hudson, Rousseau
and Naturalism in Life and Thought, Edinburgh, 1903;
Frederika Macdonald, Jean Jacques Rousseau, a New
Criticism, 2 vols., London and New York, 1907(7); G.
Compayre, Jean Jacques Rousseau and Education from
Nature, London, 1908.
ROUSSEL, ru-sel', GERARD (GERARDUS RU-
FUS or TOLNINUS): French Roman Catholic; b.
at Vaquerie (a village near Amiens) about 1500;
d. at Mauleon (25 m. s.w. of Pau) in the early part
of 1550. At the age of twenty he went to Pau,
where he attended the lectures of Jacobus Faber
Stapulensis (see Faber, Stapulensis, Jacobus) ; but
his teacher was suspected of heresy by the Sorbonne,
and Roussel accordingly followed him to Meaux,
where they found refuge with Bishop Guillaume
Briconnet (q.v.). Under this prelate's patronage
Roussel was appointed vicar of St. Saintain, later
becoming canon and treasurer of the cathedral of
Meaux, where for some months he preached with-
out interference. Though he held that the time had
not yet come to break with the Roman Catholic
Church, nevertheless, on Dec. 13, 1524, Bishop
Briconnet, alarmed by the warning that he might
be summoned before parliament, suspended Rous-
sel, who, at the instigation of Farel, endeavored to
set up a printing-office at Meaux for the publication
of Protestant tracts, but was forced to take refuge
in Strasburg, where the new teachings had become
supreme. At the invitation of Francis I., he went,
in 1535, to Paris, where he delivered sermons of a
Protestant character at the Louvre, but was for-
bidden by the Sorbonne to continue. Neverthe-
less, he enjoyed the patronage of Margaret of Na-
varre, and in 1536 was consecrated bishop of Oleron.
Roussel's dream was the reformation of the Church
without breaking with it. He preached three and
four times daily, administered the Eucharist in both
kinds, and his clergy were required to recite each
Sunday in the vernacular the Ten Commandments,
the Lord's Prayer, and the Apostles' Creed. His
two main doctrines were that God can be known
only through the study of the Bible and that sal-
vation is won only through grace. The dialogue in
which he set forth these views, the Familiere ex-
position du symbole, de la loi et de Voraison domini-
cale, was, however, condemned by the Sorbonne
and was never published, although it is preserved
in manuscript in the Bibliotheque Nationale, to-
gether with its continuation, the Forme de visites de
diocese. Before this action on the part of the Sor-
bonne had become known to him, the bishop died
from injuries received while preaching at Mauleon,
where a fanatic had hacked away the pulpit with an
ax. The only works of Roussel, besides those just
noted, were editions of the Arithmetica of Boethius
(Paris, 1521) and of the Moralia magna of Aristotle
(1522). G. Bonet-Mauky.
Bibliography: Sources are: Beza's Hist, ecclesiastique des
eglises reformAes, 1580, new ed. by J. W. Baum and A. E.
Cunitz, 3 vols., Paris, 1883-89, also, ed. P. Vesson, 2
vols., Paris, 1882-83; and A. L. Herminjard, Correspon-
dance des Reformateurs, vols, i., iii., v.-vii., ix (consult in-
dex), Geneva, 1878-97. Consult: C. Schmidt, Gerard
Roussel, Strasburg, 1845; Toussaint du Plessis, Hist, de
Veglise de Meaux, vol. i., Paris, 1731; H. Graf, Essai sur
la, vie et les ecrits de Lefevre d'Etaples, Strasburg, 1842 ;
E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, ed. H. L. Bordier,
Paris, 1877 sqq.; E. Doumergue, Jean Calvin, Lausanne,
1899; L. Delisle, Notices et extraits de la Bibliotheque
nationale, vol. xxxvi., Paris, 1899; G. Kawerau, in TSK,
1902 (on the letters of Sturm to Butzer) ; V. L. Bourilly
and N. Weiss, in Bulletin du protestantisme francais, 1903
(on the Protestants and the Sorbonne); cf. also the Bul-
letin, xiv., p. cli., and 2 ser., x. 415; Lichtenberger, ESR,
xi. 334-35.
ROUTH, rauth, MARTIN JOSEPH: Church of
England; b. at South Ehnham (90 m. n.e. of Lon-
don), Suffolk, Sept. 18, 1755; d. at Oxford Dec. 22,
1854. He was educated at Oxford (B.A., 1771;
M.A., 1776; B.D., 1786). In 1791 he succeeded to
the presidency of Magdalen College, Oxford. He
published the Reliquia sacra, fragments of the lost
Christian authors of the second and third centuries,
one of the most important and useful works upon
patristic literature, revealing the finest English
scholarship (4 vols., Oxford, 1814-18; 2d ed., 1846,
supplementary vol., 1848); and Scriptorum ecclesi-
asticorum opuscula (2 vols., 1832) ; and edited Bishop
Burnet's History of his Own Time (7 vols., 1823).
Bibliography: J. W. Burgon, Lives of Twelve Good Men,
2 vols., London, 1888; T. Mozley, Reminiscences, chiefly
of Oriel and the Oxford Movement, 2 vols., ib. 1882; DNB,
xlix. 324-326.
ROW, THOMAS: English Baptist hymnist; b. in
1786; d. at Little Grausden, Cambridgeshire, Jan.
3, 1864. He was pastor at Hadleigh, Suffolk, and,
after 1838, at Little Grausden. He published Con-
cise Spiritual Poems (London, 1817), containing 529
hymns; and Original and Evangelical Hymns (1822),
containing 543 hymns. They are Calvinistic in
type, and possess little poetic merit, but some have
found their way into well-known collections.
Bibliography: Julian, Hymnology, p. 979; DNB, xlix. 331.
ROWE, HENRY KALLOCH: Baptist; b. at
Dorchester, Mass., Nov. 30, 1869. He was educated
at Brown University (A.B., 1892; A.M., 1895),
Harvard (1892-93), and Boston University (Ph.D.,
1905). From 1893 to 1903 he was a teacher in
academies and private schools, after which he was
instructor in history in Boston University until
1906, since when he has been assistant professor of
church history in Newton Theological Institution,
Newton Center, Mass.
Howe
Rudelbach
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
106
ROWE, PETER TRIMBLE: Protestant Episco-
pal missionary bishop of Alaska; b. at Meadow ville,
Ont., Xov. 20, 1S56. He was educated at Trinity
University, Toronto (B.A., 1S78); was a mission-
ary at Garden River, Ont. (1876-82) ; a missionary
at Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. (1882-95); and a com-
missioner of schools in Chippewa County, Mich.
(1890-94). In 1895 he was consecrated bishop of
the newly created missionary diocese of Alaska.
ROWLANDS, DANIEL: Welsh Methodist; b. at
Pantybeudy, parish of Nautcwnlle (40 m. n.n.w.
of Swansea), Cardiganshire, Wales, in 1713; d. at
Llangeitho (41 m. n.w. of Swansea) Oct. 16, 1790.
Of his youth and early manhood nothing is known,
except that he studied at the grammar-school of
Hereford. Ordained deacon in London, 1733,
whither he traveled on foot, and priest in 1735, he
became curate to his brother at Llangeitho. Some
time before 1736 he became curate at Ystrad Ffin,
Carmarthenshire, and presently began to organize
Calvinistic Methodist societies. His Methodistic zeal
cost him his curacy of Ystrad Ffin, but he received
instead that of Llanddewi Brefi, Cardiganshire. In
1763 Bishop Squire suspended him from clerical func-
tions, and henceforth he preached in an improvised
building at Llangeitho, thronged for twenty-five
years by pilgrims from all parts of Wales in addition
to his congregation. He exercised an immense power
as a preacher, ranking next to George Whitefield.
Once in his history a revival began with his reading
of the litany of the Church of England. At the
words, " By thine agony and bloody sweat, good
Lord, deliver us," the congregation began to weep
loudly. Eight Sermons, translated from the Welsh,
were published (London, 1774); and Three Ser-
mons (1778; new ed. in Welsh, 1876, with
memoir) .
Bibliography: The best memoir is thatjn the 1876 ed. of
the Sermons (ut sup.) in Welsh. Consult further: J.
Owen, Memoir of the Rev. Daniel Rowlands, London,
1840; E. Morgan, Ministerial Records; or, brief Account
of the great Progress of Religion under . D. Rowlands
. , London, 1840; J. C. Ryle, Christian Leaders of
the Last Century, London, 1869; Owen Jones, Some of the
Great Preachers of Wales, London, 1885; DNB, xlix. 350-
351.
ROWLANDS, DAVID: Welsh Congregationalist ;
b. at Geufron, Rhosybol, Anglesea, Mar. 4, 1836.
He was educated at the Independent College, Bala,
New College, London (B.A., University of London,
1860), and the Congregational Memorial College,
Brecon. He was ordained in 1861, and held Con-
gregational pastorates at the Welsh church in Llan-
brynmair, Montgomeryshire (1861-67), and the
English churches in Welshpool, Montgomeryshire
(1867-71), and Carmarthen (1871-72). Since 1872
he has been connected with the Congregational
Memorial College, Brecon, Wales, where he has been
professor of mathematics (1872-82), professor of
Greek Testament exegesis and church history
(1882-90), and principal and professor of Greek
Testament exegesis and practical theology (since
1896). He has been for many years adjudicator in
poetry and prose at the National Eisteddfod, and
has also been a member of the Gorsedd of the Bards
of the Isle of Britain, with the degrees of Druid
and Bard under the pseudonym of Dewi Mon, since
1863, and a member of the Honorable Society of
Cymmrodorion since 1874. In theology he is a
liberal conservative. He was associate editor of
Yr Annibynwr ("The Independent"); Y Dysge-
dydd ("The Instructor"; the monthly journal of
the Welsh Congregationalists) ; Cambrian Minstrel-
sie, a collection of Welsh airs, to which he contrib-
uted the notes and most of the Welsh and English
lyrics (6 vols., Edinburgh, 1893); and Caniedydd
yr Ysgol Sul (" Sunday School Songster "), to which
he contributed many hymns (1898); and also ed-
ited Telyn Tudno (" Tudno's Harp "), the poetical
works of Tudno (Wrexham, 1897). In addition to
twelve volumes of sermons and his Men and Women
of the Old and New Testaments (6 vols., Manchester,
1904), special mention may be made of his Cania-
dau Serch (" Songs of the Affections," Bala, 1854);
Sermons on Historical Subjects (London, 1870);
Gramadeg Cymraeg (" Welsh Grammar "; Wrex-
ham 1874); Gwersi mewn Gramadeg (" Lessons in
Grammar"; Dolgelly, 1876); the librettos of the
late Joseph Parry's Emmanuel, Arianwen, Blod-
wen, Joseph, and Paul; and the notes on I and II
Thessalonians in the Bibl y Teulu (" Bible for the
Family "; Denbigh, 1906).
ROYCE, JOSIAH: Layman, philosopher; b. at
Grass Valley, Nevada Co., Cal., Nov. 20, 1855. He
was graduated from the University of California
(1875); was instructor in English literature and
logic in the same institution, 1878-82; instructor
and assistant professor at Harvard University,
1882-92; and has been professor of the history of
philosophy there since 1892. He is the author of:
Religious Aspect of Philosophy: Critique of the Bases
of Conduct and of Faith (Boston, 1885); California,
from the Conquest of 184-6 to the Second Vigilance
Committee in San Francisco (1886) ; Spirit of Mod-
ern Philosophy (1892); Conception of God: philo-
sophical Discussion concerning the Nature of the Di-
vine Idea as a demonstrable Reality (in collaboration
with others; New York, 1897); Studies of Good
and Evil: Essays upon Problems of Philosophy and
of Life (1898); Conception of Immortality (1900);
The World and the Individual (2 series, Gifford lec-
tures; London and New York, 1900-01); Outlines
of Psychology (1903) ; Herbert Spencer; an Estimate
and a Review (New York, 1904); Philosophy of
Loyalty (1908); and Race Questions, Provincialism,
and Other American Questions (1908).
ROYSTON, PETER SORENSON: Church of
England; b. in London June 6, 1830. He was edu-
cated at St. Paul's School, London, and at Trinity
College, Cambridge (B.A., 1853; M.A., 1861; D.D.,
1872) ; was resident tutor in the Church Missionary
College, London, 1853-55; corresponding secretary
for the Church Missionary Society and incumbent of
that society's church at Madras, India, 1855-62 and
1866-71, during the same period editing the Mad-
ras Church Missionary Record; fellow of Madras
University, 1858-73; incumbent of St. Thomas'
Mauritius, 1865; was chosen bishop of Mauri-
tius, 1872, resigning because of ill-health in 1891;
was assistant bishop to the bishop of Liverpool,
1891-1905; vicar of Childwall, 1896-1903, and rural
dean of Childwall, 1896-1903. He was also one of
107
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Rowe
Rudelbach
the editors of the Proceedings of the South Indian
Missionary Conference held in 1858.
RUBRICS (Lat. rvbrica, from ruber, "red"): In
the ecclesiastical sense, the directions in service
books which show how, when, and where the vari-
ous parts of the liturgy should be performed. The
name was derived from the fact that rubrics were
originally written in red, a custom which is now
almost obsolete. The word was borrowed from the
legal usage, according to which it was applied
to the titles or headings of chapters in certain
law-books.
RUCHAT, ru-sha', ABRAHAM: Historian of the
Reformation in French Switzerland; b. at Grand-
cour (28 m. n.n.e. of Lausanne) Sept. 15, 1678; d.
at Lausanne Sept. 29, 1750. He was educated at
Lausanne, and after b^ing ordained in 1702 was for
several years a teacher in Bern. In 1705 he se-
cured a scholarship which enabled him to travel,
and he accordingly studied for a time in Berlin, and
still longer in Leyden, during this period preparing
his Grammatica Hebraica facili methodo digesta
(Leyden, 1707). Returning to Switzerland, he
made his first essay in what was to prove his future
field in his Abr6g6 de Vhistoire ecclesiastique du pays
de Vand depuis V etablissement du christianisme
jusqu'a notre temps (Bern, 1707; Lausanne, 1838).
After being vicar in his native district, he was ap-
pointed minister at Aubonne in 1709, and in 1716
was called to the pastorate of Rolle, where he re-
mained more than twelve years. The sole produc-
tion of his pen during this period was his Delices de
la Suisse (4 vols., Leyden, 1714), a work which won
high praise and evoked equally strong opposition.
In 1721 Ruchat was appointed professor of elo-
quence at Lausanne, a position which carried with
it the rectorate of the Latin school. The success
which his own talents should have gained was, how-
ever, frustrated by the theological animosities of
the time, and he accordingly plunged into the his-
torical studies for which he had been collecting
materials for two decades. He now published the
first half (1516-36) of his Histoire de la reformation
en Suisse (6 vols., Geneva, 1727-28); but political
conditions forbade the publication of the entire
work, which extended to 1566, until a century
later, when the complete history was edited by
L. Vulliemin (7 vols., Lausanne, 1835-38; abridged
Eng. transl. by J. Collinson, London, 1845). In
1733 Ruchat became second professor of theology,
and was promoted to the first professorship fifteen
years later. During this period of his career his
writings were mainly theological and in the do-
mains of polemics and Old-Testament theology.
To the former category belong his Examen de Vori-
genisme (Lausanne, 1733) and the anti-Roman
Catholic Lettres et monuments de trois pbres apos-
toliques (2 vols., Leyden, 1738; translations of the
epistles of Clement, Ignatius, and Polycarp and
the martyrdoms of the two latter, with excursuses
attacking the Roman Catholic Church); to the
latter, among others, his Traite des poids, des mesures
et des monnoyes dont il est parte dans Vicriture sainte
(Lausanne, 1743). He took an active interest in
missions to the Jews, while his leisure was devoted
to studies in Swiss history, especially of the medi-
eval period, the results being contained in manu-
script in the libraries of Bern and Lausanne.
Ruchat's Devices de la Suisse and Histoire de la
reformation en Suisse were placed on the Index, and
two unnamed Jesuits sought, in 1724, formally to
refute his history of the Reformation in Vaud. In
addition to the works already noted, mention may
be made of his anonymous French translations from
the English and Spanish of works of J. Beeverell
and J. Alvarez de Colmenar under the respective
titles Dilices de la Grande Bretagne et de Vlrlande
(8 vols., Leyden, 1707) and Delices de I'Espagne et
du Portugal (5 vols., 1707).
(H. VuiLLETJMIER.)
Bibliography: Bridel, in Conservateur Suisse, vol. xiv (1828);
the sketch by L. Vulliemin in his ed. of the Hist, de la
reforme de la Suisse, vii. 423-448, 1838; E. Secretan,
Galerie Suisse, i. 586-590, Lausanne, 1874; P. Godet,
Hist, litteraire de la Suisse francaise, pp. 178—179, Paris,
1889; V Rossel, Hist, litteraire de la Suisse romande, ii.
53 sqq., ib. 1890; Lichtenberger, ESR, xi. 342-346.
RUCHRATH, JOHANN. See Wesel, John of.
RUDELBACH, ru'del-baH, ANDREAS GOTTLOB:
Dano-German Lutheran; b. at Copenhagen Sept.
29, 1792; d. at Slagelse (50 m. s.w. of Copenhagen),
Zealand, Mar. 3, 1862. He was educated at the
university of his native city, where he became
privat-docent. During this period he edited, in col-
laboration with N. F. S. Grundtvig, the Theologisk
Maanedskrift (13 vols., 1825 sqq.), and in 1829 was
called to the pastorate of Glauchau, Saxony, where
he powerfully aided religious awakening and revolt
against the rationalism of the period, though at the
same time he opposed any formal separation from
the Lutheran Church. In 1830 he aided in found-
ing the Muldenthal pastoral conference, but oppo-
sition gradually developed against him, largely on
account of his uncompromising Lutheranism, and
in 1845 he gladly resigned his pastorate and re-
turned to Denmark. From 1846 to 1848 he lec-
tured at the University of Copenhagen on dog-
matics and introduction, but the death of his royal
patron in the latter year exposed him to the at-
tacks of those who regarded him as a German and
a traitor. He accordingly accepted a call to the
pastorate of Slagelse, where he passed the remain-
der of his life.
He edited the Zeitschrift fur die gesammte luther-
ische Theologie und Kirche (in collaboration with
H. E. F Guericke, Leipsic, 1839 sqq.) and Christ-
liche Biographie, i (1849), and wrote, in addition to
the works already mentioned and several volumes
of sermons: Hieronymus Savonarola und seine Zeit
(Hamburg, 1835); Reformation, Luthertum und
Union (Leipsic, 1839); Historische-kritische Ein-
leitung in die Augsburgische Konfession (Dresden,
1841); Amtliches Gutachten ilber die Wiederein-
fuhrung der Katechismus-Examina im Kbnigreich
Sachsen, nebst historischer Erorterung der Kathechis-
mus-Anstalten in der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche
Deutschlands (1841); and Om Psalme-Literaturen
og Psalmebogs-Sagen, historisk-kritiske Undersogelser
(Copenhagen, 1856). (Oswald Schmidt)-.)
Bibliography: An autobiography was projected, and its
publication as " Confessions " begun in the Zeitschrift filr
lutherische Theologie und Kirche, 1861, i. 1 sqq., ii. 601
Rudln
Eueetschi
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
108
sqq., 1862, iii. 401 sqq., and continued (ed. C. R. Kaiser
from author's manuscript) in NKZ, 1902, pp. 163-180,
522-545 (goes to end of university period). Consult:
C. R. Kaiser, Andreas Gottlob Rudelbach, Leipsic, 1892;
J. R. Stockholm, in Kirkelig Kalendar for Norge, pp. 36-
230, Christiania, 1S77 (in Norwegian); and for a list of
the writings, E. A. Zuchold, Bibliotheca Zuchold, ii. 1094-
1095, Gottingen, 1S64.
RUDIN, ERIC GEORG VALDEMAR NAPOLEON:
Swedish Lutheran; b. at Oesterryd, Oestergotland,
July 20, 1S33. He was educated at the University
of Upsala, being graduated from the philosophical
course in 1S57 and from the theological two years
later. He was then secretary of the National Evan-
gelical Society at Stockholm (1859-62), and direc-
tor of the Foreign Missionary Society in the same
city (1862-69), after which he was vice-chaplain
of St. Clara's, Stockholm, until 1872. In 1872 he
became privat-docent at the University of Upsala,
where he was made adjunct in theology in 1875;
was associate professor of exegetical theology
(1S77-93), and from 1893 until his retirement as
professor emeritus in 1900 was full professor of the
same subject. He was appointed court preacher
in 1S73 and in 1886 was made provost. In 1883
he became a member of the committee for the re-
vision of the Swedish translation of the Old Testa-
ment. In theology he is a moderate Lutheran,
friendly to the Biblical theology of Beck and to the
mystics. He has written " Intimations of Eter-
nity " (Stockholm, 1872); " Biblical Psychology,"
i (Upsala, 1875); "Life of Soren Kierkegaard"
(1880); " Synopsis of the Gospels " (1881); " Gos-
pel of Mark " (1883); " Introduction to Old Testa-
ment Prophecy" (1884); "Commentary on the
Minor Prophets" (1884); "Discussions on Theo-
logical and Ecclesiastical Subjects " (2 parts, 1885-
1886); and " Survey of the Scriptural History of
the Old Testament " (1886).
RUDOLF OF EMS: German poet and writer of
the thirteenth century. The details of his life are
unknown, except that he was probably a Swiss by
birth and that his death occurred between 1250 and
1254 at some place unknown while he was in the
company of Emperor Conrad IV He was, how-
ever, one of the most fruitful poets of his period,
and also entered the field of historical writing, be-
sides working in the field of Biblical history (see
Historical Bibles). Among his poems are Der
gute Gerhard (ed. M. Haupt, Leipsic, 1840; Germ,
transls. by Lersch, Bonn, 1847, and K. Simrock,
2d ed., Stuttgart, 1864), which exalts the grace of
Christian humility; and Baarlaam und Josaphat
(ed. F K. Kopke, Berlin, 1818, and F. Pfeiffer,
Leipsic, 1843), a retelling of that story (see Baar-
laam and Josaphat for analysis and literature).
Of his historical works the two of interest are Wil-
lehalm von Orlens (ed. V. Junk, Berlin, 1905), and
Weltchronik, dedicated to Conrad IV (only frag-
ments have been published for this — for a list of
these cf. Potthast, Wegweiser, pp. 986-987), which
told the story of the Old Testament as far as the
death of Solomon. This was much used for a time,
but was combined with the much poorer work of
an unknown writer to its own detriment.
Bibliography: A. F. C. Valmar, Die zwei Recensionen und
Handschriftenfamilien der Weltchronik Rudolphs von Ems,
Marburg, 1839; Zacher, in Zeitschrift fur deutsche Philol-
ogie, ix (1877), 461^71; O. Doberentz, in the same, xii
(1880), 257-301, 387^54, xiii (1881), 29-57, 165-223;
V Zeidler, Die Quellen von Rudolfs von Ems Wilhelm von
Orlens, Berlin, 1894.
RUDOLPH, ROBERT LIVINGSTON: Reformed
Episcopal bishop-coadjutor of the New York and
Philadelphia Synod; b. in New York City Dec. 29,
1865. He was educated at New York University
(B.A., 1892) and the Reformed Episcopal Theolog-
ical Seminary, Philadelphia, from which he was
graduated in 1894, also taking a post-graduate
course at Princeton Theological Seminary, and later
studying at Erlangen. He became assistant pastor
of the First Reformed Episcopal Church, New York
City, in 1895, and in 1903 was appointed professor
of systematic theology and Christian ethics in the
Reformed Episcopal Theological Seminary, Phila-
delphia, still retaining his pastorate. In 1896 he
was made secretary of the New York and Phila-
delphia Synod and held this position until 1908,
when, without resigning his professorship, he was
made bishop of the same synod.
RUECKERT, ruc'kert, KARL THEODOR: Ger-
man Roman Catholic; b. at Beckstein (a village
near Konigshofen, 17 m. s.e. of Wertheim), Baden,
Feb. 2, 1840; d. at Freiburg Nov. 8, 1907. He
was educated at the University of Freiburg from
1859 to 1862 (D.D., 1865), and, after being engaged
in pastoral and state duties from 1863, was a pro-
fessor at the gymnasia of Tauberbischofsheim and
Freiburg until 1880, when he became privat-docent
at the University of Freiburg, still retaining his
gymnasial professorship, however, until 1890, when
he was appointed associate professor of New-Testa-
ment literature at the University, where he was
promoted to a full professorship of the same sub-
ject in 1895. He wrote Die Quellen der Apostelge-
schichte (Freiburg, 1865); Die Religion vom apolo-
getischen Standpunkt (Tubingen, 1874); Nach
Palastina und uber Libanon (Mainz, 1881); Nach
Nordafrika (Wiirzburg, 1898); and Die Lage des
Berges Sion (Freiburg, 1898).
RUECKERT, LEOPOLD IMMANUEL: German
Lutheran; b. at Grosshennersdorf (a village near
Herrnhut) Feb. 1, 1797; d. at Jena Apr. 9, 1871.
His first education was received from the Mora-
vians and was completed at Leipsic (1814-17).
After being a private tutor in Niederlausitz and
Juterbog, and after preaching at Berlin, he became
deacon of his native village in 1819. He earnestly
desired an academic position, but as this was im-
possible for the time being, he set forth his ideals
of a teacher in a series of works which included
Christliche Philosophic, oder Philosophic, Geschichte
und Bibel nacli ihren wahren Bcziehungcn zu einan-
der (2 vols., Leipsic, 1825). In 1825 Ruckert was
appointed a teacher in the gymnasium at Zittau.
There he taught Hebrew, French, history, mathe-
matics, and science, and studied not only Plato,
whose Symposium he edited (Leipsic, 1828), but
also the New Testament, especially the Pauline
writings, publishing commentaries on Romans,
Galatians, Ephesians, and Corinthians (5 vols.,
Leipsic, 1831-37). After having been suggested,
109
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Rudin
Rueetschi
but not accepted, as a professor in Erlangen in 1832
and at Greifswald in 1836, he became the successor
of F. L. O. Baumgarten-Crusius at Jena in 1844.
Here, besides his academic duties, he preached fre-
quently, some of his sermons being collected in his
Sechs Zeitpredigten in den Jahren 18 48 und 18/fi
gehalten (Jena, 1850) and Kleine Aufsatzefiir chrisl-
liche Belehrung und Erbauung (Berlin, 1861). After
the stormy year of 1848 Rtickert wrote his Theo-
logie (2 parts, Leipsic, 1851), which was essentially
a scientific picture of the ideal life, practical life,
and the life revealed and rendered possible to man
through Christ, and not the conventional dogmatic
or ethical theological treatise. Certain portions of
this work were further elucidated in his Dos Abend-
mahl, sein Wesen und seine Geschichte in der alten
Kirche (Leipsic, 1856), and his Buchlein von der
Kirche (Jena, 1857). His theological point of view
receives its full expression in his Der Rationalismus
(Leipsic, 1859). It should also be noted that
in his Luthers Verhaltnis zum augsburgischen
Bekennntis (Jena, 1854) he sought to prove that
the Augsburg Confession could not truly be called
Luther's.
Riickert held in exegesis that a prime factor was
the ability of the scholar so to identify himself with
his subject as to have no idea of his own which
should diverge from the subject in question; he
denied the existence of any evidence beyond the
sphere of morals; and he regarded Christ merely
as a man of surpassing goodness who gave his life
for the moral regeneration of his race. His ration-
alism, however, was regarded by him as ethical, or
Christian, and as opposed to the older empirical
system. He deemed it to consist solely in search
for facts and their truths, and to be hindered by no
authority from clinging to the truths thus ascer-
tained. He accordingly advocated a critical proc-
ess of simple investigation, neither believing nor
denying, but accepting what seemed to be credible
and rejecting all else. Portions of Ruckert's com-
mentary on I Cor. were translated into English by
B. B. Edwards in the Selections from German Litera-
ture prepared by him and E. A. Park (Andover,
1839). (G. FRANKt.)
Bibliography: H. Doering, Jenaischer Universitats-Al-
manach, p. 64, Jena, 1845; J. Giinther, Lebenskizzen der
Professoren der Universitat Jena, p. 42, ib. 1858; G. Frank,
Die jenaische Theologie, p. 125, Leipsic, 1858; C. Schwarz,
Zur Geschichte der neuesten Theologie, p. 482, ib. 1869.
RUEDINGER (RUEDIGER), ru'ding-er, ESROM:
German Protestant theologian and educator; b. at
Bamberg May 19, 1523; d. at Nuremberg Jan. 2,
1590. He was educated at Leipsic, and after being
tutor to the children of Joachim Camerarius (q.v.)
was privat-docent at Leipsic in 1546-47 and second
teacher at Schulpforta in 1547-48, reassuming
his position at Leipsic that he might marry the
eldest daughter of Camerarius. From 1549 to 1557
he was rector of the school at Zwickau, but his
theological position as a firm Philippist brought him
into conflict with strict Lutherans, especially as he
taught the necessity of good works. It was a wel-
come change, therefore, when he was called in
1557 to be professor of physics at Wittenberg, where
he also lectured on ethics and the interpretation of
Latin authors. In 1570 he became professor of
Greek, and was dean of the philosophical faculty
in 1559 and 1570 and rector in 1562. He became
involved, however, in the eucharistic controversy
between the Lutherans and the Philippists in 1574,
and was imprisoned for a short time at Torgau for
refusing to sign the " Torgau Articles." He was
permitted to return to Wittenberg, and then, though
forbidden to leave the city, he fled to Berlin. De-
clining offers from Basel and Heidelberg, he ac-
cepted the rectorate of a school newly erected at
Eibenschitz (12 m. s.w. of Brunn) for young nobles
of the Bohemian Brethren and Moravians. The
school finally became offensive to the nascent Ro-
man Catholic reaction, and though in 1578 an im-
perial command to close the institution was disre-
garded, a sharper order, issued on Jan. 22, 1583,
directing that Riidinger be arrested and placed in
the custody of the bishop of Olmutz, caused him to
take refuge with Frederick of Zerotin. There he
remained until 1588, when his widowed sister in-
vited him to spend the remainder of his life with
her at Nuremberg.
Riidinger's principal theological works were the
following: Libri Psalmorum paraphrasis Latina
(Gorlitz, 1581); Endexion, tunica funebris ex tela
Paradisi ad dextram crucis Christi (Nuremberg,
1591); De origine ubiquitatis pit et eruditi cujusdam
viri tractatio (Geneva, 1597); and De/ratrum ortho-
doxorum in Bohemia et Moravia ecclesiolis narra-
tiuncula, in the Historica narratio de fratrum ortho-
doxorum ecclesiis in Bohemia, Moravia et Polonia
of J. Camerarius (Heidelberg, 1605). A number of
theological works (especially on predestination, the
" Torgau Articles," and the De Jesu Christo mar-
tyre) are contained in the Collectio Camerariana in
the Royal Library at Munich. (E. Fabian.)
Bibliography: A. Strobel, Neue Beitrage zur Litteratur des
16. J ahrhunderts, vol. ii., part 1, 5 vols., Nuremberg,
1790—94; M. Adamus, Vitce Germanorum philosophorum,
pp. 372-373, Heidelberg, 1615; J. F. Kohler, in Dresdener
Gelehrten Anzeigen, 1790, parts xx v.— xx viii. ; 
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