Table of Contents Introduction ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 9 Part I Revolution and Evolution in Literature and Visual Arts Krzysztof Kosecki Cognitive Poetics: Revolution or Evolution in the Study of Literature? ������������ 21 Olha Bandrovska A Synergetic Perspective in Literary Studies: Towards Literary Anthropology ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 31 Paweł Kaptur he King is Dead, Long Live he King–Transition and Continuity in John Dryden’s hrenodia Augustalis ������������������������������������������������������������������ 41 Marek Błaszak he Evolution of Sailor Hero in the 18th-Century British Novel: A Study in Defoe and Smollett �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51 Katarzyna Strzyżowska Grub Street Literary Activity in 18th-Century London� A Flaw or an Asset of Augustan Literature? ���������������������������������������������������������� 61 Iryna Senchuk he Evolution of W� B� Yeats’s Idea of a Drama: from on Baile’s Strand to he Death of Cuchulain ������������������������������������������������ 71 Paulina Mirowska Harold Pinter’s (Anti-)Revolutionary Approach to Political Drama� Some Relections on Pinter’s Grim Political Sketches ������������������������������������������ 83 Monika Kozub he Final Gasps of the Catholic Big House in Brian Friel’s Aristocrats ������������� 95 Anna Pietrzykowska-Motyka Modern Appropriations of Shakespeare: Jane Smiley’s A housand Acres (1991) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 105 6 Table of Contents Sławomir Kuźnicki Women, Men and the Hope of Pregnancy/Motherhood in Margaret Atwood’s MaddAddam ��������������������������������������������������������������������� 119 Viktoriia Yaremchuk he Evolution of the Hero in C� S� Lewis’s he Space Trilogy ���������������������������� 129 Oksana Weretiuk Indian Endurance in Andrew Suknaski’s Poems and Allen Sapp’s Painting ���� 139 Mirosława Buchholtz Wars and (R)Evolutions: he Long Happy Life of Hannah Höch (1889–1978) ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151 Agnieszka Kallaus From a Sufering Victim to the ‘Final Girl’: Evolution of he Concept of the Gaze in Slasher Films: Psycho and he Silence of the Lambs ������������������ 167 Part II Evolution, Revolution and Endurance in the Socio-Political Context Joanna Durczak Protecting the Wilderness: How a Revolutionary Idea Evolved and Devolved, while the Wild World was Let to Endure ��������������������������������� 181 Ian Upchurch U-Turn if You Want to–on the Revolutionarily Evolutionary Nature of Britain ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 199 Donald Trinder he British Guarantee to Poland of 1939 as a Revolution in Anglo-Polish Relations �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 211 David Jervis “Insider” Accounts of Guantanamo: the Good, the Bad, and the Absurd ������ 221 Péter Gaál-Szabó Black Muslim Communication Strategy in the 1950s and 1960s From a Co-Cultural Perspective ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 231 Table of Contents 7 Małgorzata Martynuska Transculturality Exempliied by the Evolution of Salsa Dance in the USA ���� 241 Damian Pyrkosz Values in American Economy – he Changing Face of the Core �������������������� 253 List of Contributors ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 273 Introduction he present volume titled Revolution, Evolution and Endurance in Anglophone Literature and Culture is the outcome of both domestic and international academic cooperation of the Institute of English Studies at the University of Rzeszów, Poland� he volume was planned to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the Institute’s founding and the concepts of revolution, evolution and endurance were selected for the collection of essays as the common theme, which opens a discussion about a variety of revolutionary/evolutionary aspects observable in the theoretical approaches in literary studies, in individual literary works, in visual arts and ilm, and in the ield of culture studies� Élisée Reclus, a 19th-century French anarchist, in his 1891 work titled Evolution and Revolution, while elaborating upon the two terms and the phenomena they signify, provides the following deinitions of the two: he word Evolution, synonymous with gradual and continuous development in morals and ideas, is brought forward in certain circles as though it were the antithesis of that fearful word, Revolution, which implies changes more or less sudden in their action, and entailing some sort of catastrophe� And yet is it possible that a transformation can take place in ideas without bringing about some abrupt displacements in the equilibrium of life? Must not revolution necessarily follow evolution, as action follows the desire to act? hey are fundamentally one and the same thing, difering only according to the time of their appearance� he articles included in this volume, written more than a century–so full of evolutions and revolutions–later, provide a wide range of interpretations of the consequences and the atermath of both slow and abrupt change, with endurance being the third notion to be referred to� he opening chapter of Part I, authored by Krzysztof Kosecki and titled “Cognitive Poetics: Revolution or Evolution in the Study of Literature?,” argues that some tenets and techniques of analysis employed by Cognitive Poetics draw on methodologies advanced by structuralists in the second half of the 20th century� he author refers to Lakof and Turner’s (1989) analyses of metaphor-metonymy interaction in literary works, suggesting that those can be regarded as an extension and a reinement of Jakobson’s (1956) concept of metaphor-metonymy continuum in conventional and artistic language, while Hogan’s (2003) cross-cultural description of structures of stories, based on the concept of ‘frame’ (Fillmore 1985), resembles Propp’s (1968) account of the plots of Russian fables� he author concludes that the overlapping of structuralist and cognitive poetic ideas relects 10 Introduction homas Kuhn’s (1962, 168) view that each new paradigm in science must preserve the bulk of ideas and problem-solving activity that its predecessor had created� he metaphor-metonymy continuum, the structures of the narratives, and artistic novelty are the three points that hold both literary paradigms together, even though each of them approaches these ideas in diferent ways� Olha Bandrovska in “A Synergetic Perspective in Literary Studies: Towards Literary Anthropology” refers to an explosion of interest in interdisciplinary approaches to literary studies observable in the last decades� In this context, the synergetic approach she proposes is explained as a meta-methodology, because its principles open the way to the study of diverse phenomena of art, culture and civilization as complex systems, which are characterized by self-organization processes and states of instability� Such phenomena include iction, with literary modernism being a part of it� he cooperation between synergetics and literary anthropology is regarded as an example of a productive interdisciplinary approach in studying literary phenomena� Bandrovska argues that the synergetic analysis makes it possible to interpret man, his biological and social nature and unique personality by examining him in terms of dynamic integrity, self-organization, self-identity, creativity, instability, openness and his relationship with the outside world� In her opinion, in such a perspective British literary modernism vividly illustrates a new systematic understanding of the human condition, thus airming the anthropological turn in the humanities of the 20th century and artistic expressivity, which continues to be a source of research within present-day scholarship and of new ideas in contemporary literature� Paweł Kaptur’s “‘he King is Dead, Long Live the King’–Transition and Continuity in John Dryden’s hrenodia Augustalis” opens the group of chapters examining a selection of literary works� he author focuses on hrenodia Augustalis which was Dryden’s personal farewell to King Charles II Stuart and a welcoming oratory to the late King’s brother James� he text serves not only to express Dryden’s mourning ater the loss of his lord but it is also a chance for the poet to underline the transition and continuity of hereditary monarchy� Kaptur discusses those elements and passages of Dryden’s threnody in which the poet highlights the transition between the two reigns and the continuity of such values as peace, justice and order which James was supposed to guarantee and which Dryden advocated so zealously� In the author’s view hrenodia Augustalis was supposed to convince the people that the smooth transition from Protestant, popular Charles to his Catholic, unpopular brother, was the best solution to provide England with powerful authority based on hereditary succession rather than an elective system, which British people had not known before� Introduction 11 he next chapter, authored by Marek Błaszak and titled “he Evolution of Sailor Hero in the 18th-century British Novel: A Study in Defoe and Smollett,” examines the way in which the two British novelists used their sailor characters and attempts to determine their contribution to the creation and evolution of the sailor hero in the 18th-century British novel� Błaszak argues that in the case of the mercantile-minded Daniel Defoe the seafarer is typically a merchant and entrepreneur bent on making a fat proit in the spirit of Whig liberalism, fulilling expectations of contemporary middle-class readers, while Tobias Smollett, who had served in the Royal Navy in the capacity of a surgeon’s assistant for about a year and was a follower of the coarser variety of the picaresque novel typiied by Le Sage, distorted a couple of his seafaring characters so that they appear to be grotesque objects and caricatures rather than life-like sailors� Katarzyna Strzyżowska in the chapter titled “Grub Street Literary Activity in 18th century London� A Flaw or an Asset of Augustan Literature?” focuses on Grub Street literary productions which symbolically came to represent the growing opposition to polite and ordered literature of early 18th-century England� he author ponders upon the signiicance of the Grub Street writing and tries to answer the question of whether its literary activity was of no value, as many tended to claim, or perhaps its proliic output, oten introducing innovative techniques, did not degrade the Augustan literature, but rather contributed to it� Iryna Senchuk’s “he Evolution of W� B� Yeats’s Idea of a Drama: From On Baile’s Strand to he Death of Cuchulain” is the irst of the three chapters devoted to the discussion of revolution/evolution in drama� Senchuk analyses three Cuchulain plays, exploring the evolution of W� B� Yeats’s dramatic style from On Baile’s Strand to he Death of Cuchulain, with At the Hawk’s Well as a middle point� he study of these plays in chronological sequence shows Yeats searching for possible ways to bring his audience into deeper awareness of the inner drama of a personality, which is the focus of the author’s attention� Considering the changes in Yeats’s dramatic technique, Senchuk’s study deals with Yeats’s idea of drama and aims at asserting that Yeats developed drama theory and practice alike� “Harold Pinter’s (Anti-)Revolutionary Approach to Political Drama� Some Relections on Pinter’s Grim Political Sketches” by Paulina Mirowska addresses the expression of Pinter’s political and language concerns embodied in his overtly political work for the stage of the 1980s, and later, especially, in his provocative dramatic sketches that combine, with success, the narrow scope of presentation with the grim realities of worldwide political violence� he analysis includes Pinter’s late dramatic sketches, he New World Order (1991), Party Time (1991) and the more recent Press Conference (2002), in particular, which combine a narrow scope 12 Introduction of presentation with the grim realities of worldwide political violence� he dramatic pieces discussed are positioned in the context of Pinter’s social activism and his writing of the 1980s and 1990s concerned with the suppression of dissent and the moral bankruptcy of ruling elites� Mirowska addresses the playwright’s enduring attempts at impressing upon his audiences, against all odds, the need for countering the entrenched habit of moral apathy, examining critically the prevailing modes of self-justiication and recognising individual responsibility for what is done in our name� Monika Kozub’s “he Final Gasps of the Catholic Big House in Brian Friel’s Aristocrats” deals with the work of Brian Friel (1929-), who is regarded as the best Irish playwright living today� Aristocrats (1979), the play analysed in the chapter, is a revealing family drama which occurs at a diicult time in Ireland: the civil rights upheavals of the mid-1970s� Kozub focuses on the way in which Aristocrats depicts the gradual demise of the Catholic Big House in Ireland using the example of the once-prosperous O’Donnell family, and argues that the play addresses the issue of class more fully than any other of Friel’s works� Anna Pietrzykowska-Motyka in “Modern Appropriations of Shakespeare: Jane Smiley’s A housand Acres (1991)” discusses the modern appropriation of William Shakespeare’s King Lear in Jane Smiley’s novel, A housand Acres (1991)� One of the most recent of the critical responses to the novel shows Jane Smiley’s reworking of King Lear as (re)constructing an ‘alternate history’: “one that privileges the private, the domestic, the feminocentric, over the public, the national, the phallocentric” (Millard 2007, 67)� While fully conceding that to be true, the author of the chapter strives to prove how the appropriation retains the grandeur and magniicence of the original piece, but at the same time it also marginalizes, sidelines, or downgrades the source text� She concludes that the readers of Smiley’s novel can approach Shakespeare’s Lear story from a diferent angle: while bearing in mind the grandeur of the original, they can see that the potential of the source text lies not only in retaining its original power and size, but also in the way the source text enters into a contemporary context by negotiating with diferent geographical space, time continuum, or more ordinary characters� In Smiley’s novel Shakespeare’s original story becomes modiied in various dimensions, giving Lear’s story a new lavour and colouring, a mock-heroic one included� In “Women, Men and the Hope of Pregnancy/Motherhood in Margaret Atwood’s MaddAddam” Sławomir Kuźnicki discusses the Canadian writer’s novel, which concludes her 21st-century speculative trilogy and expands the concept of a peaceful existence of men and women, as well as “old” people and the perfect human clones in the post-apocalyptic world� Focusing on Nina Auerbach’s idea Introduction 13 of “women’s communities,” already signalled in the novel he Year of the Flood (2010), the essay investigates how the society of female and male survivors is supplemented in MaddAddam with the elements of motherhood and parenthood� It appears that having children is crucial to female solidarity in this novel� Furthermore, motherhood overcomes many an obstacle: from problematic relationships with men, through unambiguous female bonds, to trans-generic issues which allow for the coexistence of “old” human beings with the “new” clones� Consequently, in the post-apocalyptic reality, motherhood unites not only women with men, but also the representatives of “old” humanity with the genetically designed Crakers� As the author suggests, the trans-generic relations and their ofspring give hope for the future� he potential present in both “old” and “new” human beings allows for an almost utopian possibility of a society that is not driven by sexual, generic and racial discrimination� Viktoriia Yaremchuk’s “he Evolution of the Hero in C� S� Lewis he Space Trilogy” focuses on C� S� Lewis’s mythopoeic worldview embodied, long before he Chronicles of Narnia, in the creation of a speciic ictional fantasy world of he Space Trilogy (1938–1945)� In these polygeneric novels Lewis drew heavily on medieval texts of Christian literature and philosophy, criticized modern culture for its neglect of traditional values, articulated religious interests and brought forward an intellectually examined religious account of the world� he texts created throughout the period of World War II marked the evolution of the author’s oeuvre which manifested itself in the shaping of the synthetic and complex structure of a mythopoeic world model with a special type of hero, transforming in the course of the plot� For Lewis, the concept of evolution of the hero embraced every aspect of existence, from metaphysical and psychological notions of “becoming” to his role in social, cultural, cosmic and universal “change” and “transformation�” his has predetermined the Trilogy’s structure and mythopoeic background� he author discusses the way in which the protagonist of he Space Trilogy evolves and concludes that the religious symbolism of the hero’s evolution is combined with Celtic and Greek mythological sources in the creation of a speciically national English quest hero, which can be viewed as typical and exemplary for further generations of fantasy authors� Oksana Weretiuk’s “Indian Endurance in Andrew Suknaski’s Poems and Allen Sapp’s Painting” contains a comparative analysis of the artistic output of the two Saskatchewan-born artists� Both were painters looking up to the primitive art, but Suknaski was irst of all a poet� he essay focuses mainly on the way in which Suknaski’s poetic vision of the First Nations correlates with that found in Sapp’s paintings� Although the two men had probably never met, there are similarities in 14 Introduction the way they relected upon Indian endurance in Western Canada, as the author of the essay argues, although one tries to capture the spirit of West Canadian Indians on canvas and the other on the page� Mirosława Buchholtz in her chapter titled “Wars and (R)evolutions: the Long Happy Life of Hannah Höch (1889–1978)” examines the visual narratives from the long creative life of the relatively little-known German Dada artist Hannah Höch� he author begins her analysis with observations given by Hannah Arendt (1906–1975) in her book On Revolution (1963) in which she compares two outstanding examples of 18th-century conlict: the American Revolution and the French Revolution� Buchholtz points out that from Arendt’s perspective, the American Revolution seems to have been more of a success than the French Revolution because it did not jeopardise political freedom by focusing on the “social question” and the welfare of the people� Next, Buchholtz describes the evolution of the Dada movement as a reaction to the horrors of the First World War� Hannah Höch, known as “Dadasophin,” was the only woman among Berlin Dadaists and she used the photomontage technique in art as a useful medium for her political and social commentary� Her collages and photomontages evolved in the direction of abstract art and Höch herself transformed from a visual artist to become a poet, which, according to Buchholtz, may have been the price of survival, especially in the Nazi times� In the chapter closing Part I titled “From a Sufering Victim to the ‘Final Girl’: Evolution of the Concept of the Gaze in Slasher Films: Psycho and he Silence of the Lambs” Agnieszka Kallaus examines various modes of looking: voyeurism, fetishism, masochism and narcissism and their efect on the spectator in Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho (1960) and Jonathan Demme’s he Silence of the Lambs (1991)� Both ilms can be classiied as slashers, which Clover (1992, 21) deines as “the immensely generative story of a psychokiller who slashes to death a string of mostly female victims, one by one, until he is subdued or killed, usually by the one girl who has survived�” However, while in classic horror cinema (Psycho), the process of identiication with the female heroine ceases to exist when the woman becomes the designated victim, in the modern horror ilm (he Silence of the Lambs), the “Final Girl” becomes her own saviour, which turns her into a hero� he purpose of discussion is to show the evolution of the concept of the gaze from the male-oriented perspective in Psycho, which perceives the female as a sufering victim of the male violence, to the feminist position, which shows the female as an avenging heroine, who struggles against objectiication in he Silence of the Lambs� he analysis demonstrates how the presentation of masculinity and femininity in classic and modern slasher ilms afects the complexity of the spectator’s position, which relects the transformation of sex and gender categories in modern culture� Introduction 15 Part II opens with the chapter titled “Protecting the Wilderness: How a Revolutionary idea (d)evolved, While the Wild World was Let to Endure” by Joanna Durczak, which discusses how the idea that the wilderness should be protected evolved from sounding ridiculously extravagant in mid-19th century America, and how the proposition gradually gained wider support� he author stresses that much of that support came from the academic and the literary world, which however, as it turned out, could be a mixed blessing� At the end of the twentieth century, the idea of the wilderness vs� humanity came under much intellectual scrutiny to be dissected, deconstructed and revised as well as made an object of academic wars� he author indicates that both in academic discussion and in environmental practice, the original biocentric emphasis of the irst advocates of wilderness protection has been remarkably weakened as attention has been redirected anthropocentically onto cities, environmental justice and the morality of the biocentric perspective� While a few of the least pessimistic environmentalists may continue fantasizing about “rewilding” the cities, and environmental technocrats bet on green technological revolution, the old-timers speak of a battle lost and put their hope only in the depleted wild world’s evolutionary endurance� In his essay titled “‘U-turn if you want to’–On the Revolutionarily Evolutionary Nature of Britain,” Ian Upchurch examines the concepts of evolution and revolution as the two processes that have fought for dominance in British cultural and political life� he author focuses on the interplay between evolution and revolution in British history and culture, with particular reference to: the Civil War and the Glorious Revolution which followed, the scientiic revolution in Newton’s time, scientiic revolutions in evolution theory, the recent history of devolution in government and the Scottish independence movement, and inally attitudes to EU membership� According to Upchurch all these diverse examples point to a conclusion, which is that, in the British case, evolution plus time equals revolution. Many so-called ‘revolutions’ only appear as such due to our perspective looking back into the distant past� When investigated up close, these ‘revolutions’ look much more like ‘evolutions’ with a series of faltering steps towards a inal ‘goal’, which is only seen as the product of a revolution thanks to our desire to believe in some order and structure in history and to construct our creation myth� Donald Trinder’s chapter “he British Guarantee to Poland of 1939 as a Revolution in Anglo-Polish Relations” is devoted to the examination of Anglo-Polish relations preceding the outbreak of World War Two� Trinder presents an overview of events triggered on March 30th, 1939 when the British Government extended a unilateral and unsolicited guarantee of independence to the Polish Ambassador in London� he author indicates that when the ofer was accepted by the Polish Foreign Minister, Józef Beck, a chain of events was set in motion culminating in 16 Introduction the outbreak of World War Two� Traditionally, this event has been portrayed as a knee-jerk reaction by the Government of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain as his policy of Appeasement of Nazi Germany lay in ruins following the Prague Coup� According to Trinder it is true that there had been no previous plans of the British to enter into any form of alliance with Poland; however, this attempt to form a united front runs completely contrary to the history of Anglo-Polish relations� he author concludes that entering into agreement was the only viable policy for both the British and the Polish governments� In his essay “‘Insider’ Accounts of Guantanamo: the Good, the Bad, and the Absurd,” Dave Jervis focuses on the themes of revolution, evolution and endurance by referring to the war against so-called terrorism and the American prison at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba� he author indicates that the very nature of prisons means that outsiders have little information about life inside; however, the American prison at Guantanamo Bay is not only geographically isolated, but it is a place under the control of the American military where communication to and from detainees is censored, and the authorities make eforts to restrict the number and length of visits with the detainees� Jervis examines the perspectives and actions of a number of persons involved in the prison’s activities, including prisoners (Mohamedou Ould Slahi, Guantanamo Diary and Moazzam Begg, Enemy Combatant and perhaps others), a guard (Hickman, Murder at Camp Delta), and an Afghan-American lawyer who has represented some of the detainees (Khan, My Guantanamo Diary)� he author concludes that there are many good, bad, and absurd realities at Guantanamo; however, people will learn the truth only when there are no more insiders and those who have been imprisoned or worked there can freely tell their stories� he text titled “African American Speeches and Sermons in the 1950s and 60s from a Co-Cultural Perspective” by Péter Gaál-Szabó focuses on speeches and sermons delivered by major African American religious leaders in the 1950s and 1960s which both channelled and mirrored the evolution of a renewed African American (religio-)cultural identity� Gaál-Szabó suggests that much of the communication strategy employed blends into African American communication patterns, which proves to be entangled in an intercultural discourse, in which ingroup and outgroup members are equally addressed� he speeches and sermons ultimately relect upon the co-cultural embeddedness of the speaker, while the heterogeneity of the African American community further complicates a coherent view of communication strategies� One way to map them is ofered by Mark P� Orbe’s co-cultural theory, in which the diferent communication orientations, approaches, and practices enhance the preferred outcome; i�e�, assimilation, accommodation, and separation� It is the latter one that the author analyses in the sermons and speeches of Black Christian Introduction 17 (Martin Luther King, Jr� and Vernon Johns) and Black Muslim (Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X) leaders� he author concludes that separation as a communication strategy can bear importance for all the speakers as it does not necessarily highlight ideological alignment as oten presumed, but the practices associated with it may easily be employed to reach accommodationist goals� In her chapter “Transculturality Exempliied by the Evolution of Salsa Dance in the USA,” Małgorzata Martynuska elaborates on the rapid increase in the number of Hispanics in the USA which leads to the Latinization of many areas of American social life� he author examines the development of salsa dance in the USA as a transcultural movement in which people who migrated from the Caribbean islands to the American mainland express their hybrid identities through the dance� Salsa has origins in Afro-Spanish musical traditions of Cuba but it is the Puerto-Ricans of New York who popularized the style� Martynuska describes how in the process of transculturation salsa dance retains its Latin traditions and undergoes constant changes while incorporating new trends from American multi-ethnic culture� Moreover, the author focuses on the signiicance of US dancing studios and Latin artists that have promoted and popularized salsa music and dance to a broader ethnic audience than just the Latin community in the USA� Martynuska concludes that salsa has become a unique part of the American Latinidad that entered diferent spheres of American social life and still continues to transform� he text closing the volume, “Values and Relationships in American Economy – he Changing Face of the Core” by Damian Pyrkosz, discusses the relation between economic progress and American values� For most of the 20th century, and nearly the whole irst decade of the 21st, the USA was the example to follow with regards to economic progress� At the same time, the Americans have always been proud to follow a set of certain core values, among which are equality, liberty, individualism, competition, independence etc� Pyrkosz suggests that those values have afected the quality of human relationships that earned America the nickname of the land of opportunity� Yet in the wake of the economic straits beginning in 2008 voices of concern were raised which questioned the legitimacy of the core values� With reference to various surveys conducted by American and international institutions, the author aims to provide an answer to the question of whether the Americans’ perception of the core values constituting their society, and hence the economic system, has changed or not, which could shed some light on the causes of the inancial crises beyond the economic sphere and embedded in culture� Editors 18 Introduction References Clover, Carol J� 1992� Men, Women and Chain Saws: Gender in the Modern Horror Film� Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press� Millard, Kenneth� 2007� “Silence, Secrecy and Sexuality: ‘Alternate Histories’ in Jane Smiley’s A housand Acres, Carol Shields’ he Stone Diaries, and Jefrey Eugenides’ Middlesex.” In Coming of Age in Contemporary American Fiction by Kenneth Millard� Chapter 2� 61–81� Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press� Reclus, Elisée� 1891� Evolution and Revolution, London: W� Reeves, Seventh Edition� Accessed August 20, 2016� http://dwardmac�pitzer�edu/Anarchist_Archives/ coldothepresses/evandrev�html� Part I Revolution and Evolution in Literature and Visual Arts Krzysztof Kosecki Cognitive Poetics: Revolution or Evolution in the Study of Literature? Abstract: he article examines some of the tenets and techniques of analysis employed by cognitive poetics which draw on methodologies advanced by structuralists in the second half of the 20th century� he author focuses on such aspects of a literary work as: the metaphor-metonymy continuum, the narrative structures and artistic novelty� Introduction Apart from structuralism, cognitive linguistics of the second generation is another paradigm that has made an important contribution to the study of literature (Jameson 1972; Scholes 1976; Hawkes 1977; Lakof and Turner 1989; Stockwell 2002; Gavins and Steen 2003)� Most structuralist ideas in literary studies look back to Ferdinand de Saussure’s seminal book Course in General Linguistics (1915) and the relational structures in language that it has described� Most cognitive poetic ideas derive from George Lakof and Mark Johnson’s equally inluential book Metaphors We Live By (1980) and the theory of conceptual metaphor that it formulates� Lakof ’s (1987) exposition of the concepts of cognitive models, prototype-based categories, and the igure-ground distinction in language also provided some key ideas that found its way into the analyses of literature�1 Some elements of Cognitive Poetics draw on, extend, and re-interpret ideas advanced by structuralist poetics in the second half of the 20th century, for example the continuous relation between metaphor and metonymy, the “grammar” of the narrative structures of texts, as well as the principles of artistic novelty� As the new paradigm builds on many previously developed ideas, it should be viewed as a stage in the evolution of literary studies� 1. Structuralist poetics: major tenets he fundamental assumption of structuralism is that the arrangement of whatever entities must involve wholeness regulated by intrinsic laws (Hawkes 1977, 15–16)� he idea of a structured system is most evident in de Saussure’s (1915) linguistics, 1 See Stockwell (2003) and Gavins and Steen (2003) for the discussion of the application of these ideas in the analysis of literary texts� 22 Krzysztof Kosecki which sees language as a social fact–la langue–based on relational units, and each of its individual instantiations as la parole� hey always make use of only a part of the system, but each use is fully rule-governed� Structuralist poetics regards literary language as a form of verbal activity that should be studied following the principles of linguistics� Roman Jakobson, the key representative of the movement, writes: I have been asked for summary remarks about poetics in its relation to linguistics� Poetics deals primarily with the question, “What makes a verbal message a work of art?” Because the main subject of poetics is the diferentia speciica of verbal art in relation to other arts and in relation to other kinds of verbal behavior, poetics is entitled to the leading place in literary studies� Poetics deals with problems of verbal structure, just as the analysis of painting is concerned with pictorial structure� Since linguistics is the global science of verbal structure, poetics may be regarded as an integral part of linguistics� (Jakobson 1960, 350) Similar ideas were voiced by the linguist Jan Mukařovský (1932), who claimed that the poetic function of language “foregrounds” the form of utterance thanks to manipulation of various linguistic elements (Hawkes 1977, 75)� In his analyses of literary texts, Jakobson draws heavily on de Saussure’s (1915) indings concerning the relational structure of language, especially its paradigmatic and syntagmatic axes� he two axes also govern the selection and combination of language units in literary texts: “he poetic function projects the principle of equivalence from the axis of selection into the axis of combination” (Jakobson 1960, 358)� he process can be illustrated with the following example: When I say “My car beetles along,” I select “beetles” from a “storehouse” of possibilities which includes, say, “goes,” “hurries,” “scurries” etc�, and combine it with “car” on the principle that this will make the car’s movement and the insect’s movement equivalent. (Hawkes 1977, 79) he projection thus makes it possible to see the car’s movement in terms of animal-related metaphor� Because each sign has two layers–signiiant and signiié– “poetic texts require the reader to linger on the signiiant for a longer time than do non-poetic texts, before moving on to the signiié”; in other words, the automatic transition from one layer to another is delayed (Tsur 1992, 5)� he quality of the word becomes the central issue, and it is evaluated with respect to such parameters as meter, rhythm, rhyme, as well as the patterns as repetition, alliteration, assonance, and consonance� he analysis of the artistic quality of Edgar Allan Poe’s poem “he Raven” (1845) well illustrates the point: And the Raven, never litting, still is sitting, still is sitting On the pallid bust of Pallas just above my chamber door; Cognitive Poetics: Revolution or Evolution in the Study of Literature? 23 And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon’s that is dreaming, And the lamp-light o’er him streaming throws his shadow on the loor: And my soul from out that shadow that lies loating on the loor Shall be lited–nevermore! (Galloway 1977, 80) he inal stanza of the poem takes its efect, among many other elements, from repetitive alliteration, the “sonorous” paronomasia of the fragment “pallid bust of Pallas”, as well as the word raven being a linguistic image of never in terms of the allocation of consonants in an inversive paronomasia: r→v→n vs� n→v→r (Jakobson 1960, 371–72)� he poetic idea thus cannot be separated from the structure of the text in which it is expressed� In the process of semantization, the semantic-syntactic elements of an artistic text are inseparable because they create a given image of reality by means of multiple interrelations between them (Lotman 1977)� 2. Cognitive poetics: major tenets Cognitive linguistics of the second generation emphasizes the role of conceptual metaphor and metonymy in conventional communication (Lakof and Johnson 1980, 1999; Langacker 1993), the interaction between the two processes in the form of metaphtonymy (Goossens 1990), metonymic motivation for metaphors (Radden 2000), and the role of prototype-based categories in the linguistic worldview based on various cognitive models of the world (Lakof 1987, 68–90)� Cognitive poetic analyses of literary texts focus, among other elements, on the metaphor- and metonymy-based conceptual complexities of poetry and prose, the narrative structures of literary works and their relation to conceptual categories, as well as on the role of novelty in artistic texts (Lakof and Turner 1989; Stockwell 2002)� One of the fundamental assumptions of Cognitive Poetics is that conventional language and literature employ the same conceptual processes, categories, and tools� It is, however, in literary texts, that these mechanisms are used in novel and special ways: It is commonly thought that poetic language is beyond ordinary language–that it is something essentially diferent, special, higher, with extraordinary tools and techniques like metaphor and metonymy, instruments beyond the reach of someone who just talks� But great poets, as master cratsmen, use basically the same tools we use; what makes them diferent is their talent for using these tools, and their skill in using them, which they acquire from sustained attention, study, and practice� Metaphor is a tool so ordinary that we use it unconsciously and automatically, with so little efort that we hardly notice it … 24 Krzysztof Kosecki Great poets can speak to us because they use the modes of thought we all possess … � To understand the nature and value of poetic creativity requires us to understand the ordinary ways we think� (Lakof and Turner 1989, xi–xii) Tsur, whose psychology-oriented cognitive poetic analyses focus on the relation between literary structures and their artistic efect, takes a similar perspective: “poetry exploits, for aesthetic purposes, cognitive (including linguistic) processes that were initially evolved for non-aesthetic purposes”, which in extreme cases “may become ‘organized violence against cognitive processes’, to paraphrase the famous slogan of Russian Formalism” (1992, 4)� Both these statements mirror Jakobson’s (1960) view that poetics is a special branch of linguistics� he shit of attention from formal to conceptual properties of literary language, especially evident in the linguistics-oriented analyses of literary texts (Lakof and Turner 1989; Stockwell 2002), is the efect of the emphasis on the need to study the structure of human conceptual system, which inds its relection in language (Lakof and Johnson 1980, 3)� 3. Structuralist poetics vs. Cognitive Poetics Out of four major points of contact between the two approaches to the study of literature, similar ideas appear in the analysis of the status of metaphor and metonymy in artistic texts, the categories of narrative structures, and the role of novelty in literary language� Cognitive Poetics departs from the structuralist views of the status of literary text, but the break is not revolutionary� 3.1. he metaphor-metonymy bi-polarity and continuum Jakobson (1956, 58–82) extended the metaphor-metonymy bi-polarity, regarded as one of the fundamental principles of language, from linguistic analyses of aphasia to other sign systems, such as literature, painting, and social rituals� Certain literary movements and genres, for example the poetry of romanticism and symbolism, were metaphor-based; in contrast, realistic prose relied primary on metonymy for literary efect (Jakobson 1956, 77–78)� In neither of the sign systems, however, did the two processes–based, respectively, on similarity and contiguity–represent an absolute dichotomy� Cognitive linguistics sees metaphor and metonymy as fundamental structuring principles of human conceptual system and stresses the complementary presence of the two mechanisms in language and other sign systems, such as ilm, architecture, politics, and social institutions (Kövecses 2002, 57–66; Lakof 1996)� Cognitive Poetics, in turn, has recognized the equally fundamental role of metaphor and Cognitive Poetics: Revolution or Evolution in the Study of Literature? 25 metonymy in literary texts (Lakof and Turner 1989, 57–106; Stockwell 2003, 105–20)� he interaction of the two mechanisms very oten contributes to the overall artistic efect of a literary text, which is evident in the following stanza from Blake’s poem Milton (ca� 1804–10): And did the Countenance Divine Shine forth upon our clouded hills? And was Jerusalem built here, Among these dark Satanic Mills? (Abrams et al� 1975, 1342) In the irst line, “the Countenance Divine” refers to Jesus Christ by means of the common metonymy the face for the person� he verb “shine forth” at the beginning of the next line represents spiritual illumination that Christ was expected to bring–it is the source domain of the metaphor knowing is seeing� he combined efect is of Christ being the agent and image of a new moral order alluded to by the name of “Jerusalem”, which is the vehicle of the metonymy the place for the idea� 3.2. Narrative structures and prototypes he cognitive linguistic concept of frame or idealized cognitive model (ICM) imposes certain structural invariants that can be utilized to various extent in various linguistic constructions—they thus serve as an event-sequence potential (Evans and Green 2006, 222–27)� For example, Lakof ’s (1987, 83) analysis of various kinds of mother involves the frame of a female who “gave birth to the child, supplied her half of the child’s genes, nurtured the child, is married to the father, is one generation older than the child’s legal guardian”� Any deviations, for example genetic, biological, or foster mothers, are always deined with respect to a frame that serves as a prototype or the best example of a category (Rosch and Mervis 1975)� Because each sub-category utilizes only a part of the idealized model, it is based on the metonymy the part for the whole (Lakof 1987, 83–84)� Similar principles hold for linguistic expressions overtly related to actions: for example, the statement “I hopped on the bus” highlights only a part of the script of getting somewhere, but it evokes the whole of it in the minds of language users (78–79)� Vladimir Propp’s (1928) description of the plots of Russian fables emphasizes the common elements in the narratives of the respective texts, thus aiming at creating a “grammar” of their plots�2 In more than a hundred Russian folktales, 2 Tzvetan Todorov’s (1969) description of the structures of stories making up Boccaccio’s he Decameron (1350–53) follows similar principles� 26 Krzysztof Kosecki he discovered an underlying pattern of thirty-one functions or acts of various characters� he functions were divided into six groups: preparation, complication, transference, struggle, return, and recognition� Finally, there were seven character roles of the villain, the donor (provider), the helper, the princess (the sought-for person and her father), the dispatcher, the hero (seeker or victim), and the false hero� No tale had all thirty one functions in its structure, but those that it had always followed the same sequence� Also, more than one character could play each of the roles or a single character could play more than one role� his morphology or “grammar” of the Russian folktale thus serves as a system–the Saussurean la langue; each of its individual uses is la parole (Scholes 1974, 63–65)� he idealised narrative structure of the Russian folk tales can, however, also be regarded as a prototype that serves to deine all exceptions that function as subcategories related to it� Patrick Colm Hogan’s (2003) cross-cultural description of narratives related to emotion scenarios, for example a romantic union between the participants (Kövecses 2006, 88–91), follows a similar pattern because it aims to formulate idealised structures that to various extent are used in individual cases� If various tales use the prototypical narrative to various extent, then these instantiations form—like Lakof ’s (1987) mother—a radial category with a prototype in the centre� he category is based on the part-whole relation� Cognitive poetic analyses of narratives are thus not far removed from their structuralist counterparts� he reinement lies mainly in applying the concept of frame, which relects metonymy-based categorisations related to a prototype� 3.3. Defamiliarization and novelty he Russian Formalist Victor Shklovsky (1917) advanced the idea of defamiliarization (Rus� ostranenie; Eng� lit� making strange) as the key function of art: As perception becomes habitual, it becomes automatic� We see the object as though it were enveloped in a sack� We know what it is by its coniguration, but we see only its silhouette … � Habitualization devours objects, clothes, furniture, one’s wife, and the fear of war� “If all the complex lives of many people go on unconsciously, then such lives are as if they had never been�” Art exists to help us recover the sensation of life; it exists to make us feel things, to make the stone stony� he end of art is to give a sensation of the object as seen, not as recognized� he technique of art is to make things “unfamiliar,” to make forms obscure, so as to increase the diiculty and the duration of perception� he act of perception is an end in itself and must be prolonged� In art, it is our experience of the process of construction that counts, not the inished product. (Scholes 1976, 83–84) In prose, defamiliarization can be achieved by shits in the point of view and the plot of the story, as well as by changing its style (Scholes 1976, 84)� In poetry, images, rhyme, rhythm, and metre not only express senses but are meaningful on Cognitive Poetics: Revolution or Evolution in the Study of Literature? 27 their own—they serve “to defamiliarize that with which we are overly familiar, to ‘creatively deform’ the usual, the normal, and so to inculcate a new, childlike, non-jaded vision in us” (Hawkes 1977, 62)� Taking a psychological perspective of this concept, Tsur (1992, 4) says that “systematic disturbance of the categorization process makes low-categorized information, as well as rich pre-categorial sensory information, available to consciousness”� Cognitive Poetics ascribes similar functions to metaphor: “poetic thought uses the mechanisms of everyday thought, but extends them, elaborates them, and combines them in ways that go beyond the ordinary” (Lakof and Turner 1989, 67)� Extension means introducing new elements to the source domains of conventional metaphors; elaboration involves using the existing elements of metaphors in novel ways (Lakof and Turner 1989, 67–69; Kövecses 2002, 47–48)� Both can be illustrated by homas Ernest Hulme’s short imagist poem “Autumn” (1909): A touch of cold in the autumn night– I walked abroad, And saw the ruddy moon lean over a hedge Like a red-faced farmer� I did not stop to speak, but nodded, And round about were the wistful stars With white faces like town children� (Leeson 1980, 450) he personiication metaphor a celestial body is a person, present in such conventional expressions as “he moon rises” or “he moon walks over the evening sky,” is extended by attributing to the moon the properties of hair colour and the ability to speak� he movement of the moon, in turn, is elaborated into a more speciic form of “leaning over a hedge�” he process of combining or composing metaphors can be illustrated by the following stanza from Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s poem “he Rime of the Ancient Mariner” (1798): ‘And now the Storm-blast came, and he Was tyrannous and strong: He struck with his o’ertaking wings, And chased us south along�’ (Leeson 1980, 302) he quatrain combines two metaphors of the storm-blast: natural phenomenon is a person highlights the agent-related properties of action and power, evident in the elements of “coming” and being “tyrannous” and “strong”; natural phenomenon is an animal underscores the power of the storm by means of the element of “o’ertaking wings�” he novelty of the passage consists in the fact that 28 Krzysztof Kosecki personiication and animalization metaphors seldom overlap so closely in conceptualizing a single entity� An entirely novel metaphor can be illustrated by the following stanza of Emily Dickinson’s poem “My Life has stood–a Loaded Gun–” (1863): My Life has stood–a Loaded Gun– In Corners–till a Day he Owner passed–identiied– And carried Me away– (Baym et al� 1986, 1071) he metaphor of a loaded gun reiies the concept of life� Being less conventional than, for example, a reiication of life as a building (Kövecses 2002, 109), it has more potential to show the unpredictable and violent events in life� 3.4. he status of the text Focusing on the linguistic quality of the literary language, structuralism sees each text as a closed whole� It thus gives prominence to the position of the author and his skills in use of various literary devices� Cognitive Poetics also emphasizes the role of linguistic mechanisms used by the author, such as metaphor and metonymy, and various sound patterns (Tsur 1992, 111–206)� However, claiming that “all reading is reading in” (Lakof and Turner 1989, 106–10; Turner 1991, 13), it also exposes the role of the reader-efected construal of the text as a part of any experience of reading� It thus focuses not only on “the poetic language and form”, but also on and the way they “are constrained and shaped by human information processing” (Tsur 1992, 1)� Conclusions Both structuralism and Cognitive Poetics assume that linguistics is the key to understanding verbal art� Jakobson (1960, 356–63) places the artistic/poetic function on a par with the remaining functions of language� He goes on to explain that “the supremacy of poetic function over referential function does not obliterate the reference but makes it ambiguous” (Jakobson 1960, 371)� he overlapping of structuralist and cognitive poetic ideas relects homas Kuhn’s (1962, 168) view that each new paradigm in science must preserve the bulk of ideas and problem-solving activity that its predecessor had created� he metaphor-metonymy continuum, the structures of the narratives, and artistic novelty are the three points that hold both literary paradigms together, even though each of them approaches these ideas in diferent ways� Cognitive Poetics: Revolution or Evolution in the Study of Literature? 29 References Blake, William� (ca� 1804–10) 1975� “And Did hose Feet�” In he Norton Anthology of English Literature. Major Authors Edition, edited by Meyer H� Abrams et al�, 1342� New York: Norton� Coleridge, Samuel Taylor� (1798) 1980� “he Rime of the Ancient Mariner�” In he Golden Treasury of English Verse, edited by Edward Leeson, 301–20� London: Pan Books� Colm Hogan, Patrick� 2003� he Mind and Its Stories: Narrative Universals and Human Emotion� Cambridge: Cambridge University Press� Dickinson, Emily� (1863) 1986� “My life has stood–a Loaded Gun–” In he Norton Anthology of American Literature. Second Edition Shorter, edited by Nina Baym et al�, 1071� New York: Norton� Evans, Vyvyan, and Melanie Green� 2006� Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction� Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press� Goossens, Luis� 1990� “Metaphtonymy: he Interaction of Metaphor and Metonymy in Expressions for Linguistic Action�” Cognitive Linguistics 1(3): 323–40� Hawkes, Terence� 1977� Structuralism and Semiotics� Berkeley, CA: University of California Press� Hulme, homas Ernest� (1909) 1980� “Autumn�” In he Golden Treasury of English Verse, edited by Edward Leeson, 450� London: Pan Books� Jakobson, Roman� 1956� “Two Aspects of Language and Two Types of Aphasic Disturbances�” In Fundamentals of Language, by Roman Jakobson and Morris Halle, 55–82� he Hague: Mouton� Jakobson, Roman� 1960� “Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics�” In Style in Language, edited by homas A� Sebeok, 350–77� Cambridge, MA: MIT Press� Jameson, Frederick� 1972� he Prison-House of Language: A Critical Account of Structuralism and Russian Formalism� Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press� Kövecses, Zoltan� 2002� Metaphor: A Practical Introduction� Oxford: Oxford University Press� Kövecses, Zoltán� 2006� Language, Mind, and Culture: A Practical Introduction� Oxford: Oxford University Press� Kuhn, homas S� 1962� he Structure of Scientiic Revolutions� Chicago: University of Chicago Press� Lakof, George� 1987� Women, Fire, and Dangerous hings: What Categories Reveal about the Mind� Chicago: University of Chicago Press� Lakof, George� 1996� Moral Politics: What Conservatives Know hat Liberals Don’t� Chicago: University of Chicago Press� 30 Krzysztof Kosecki Lakof, George, and Mark Johnson� 1980� Metaphors We Live By� Chicago: University of Chicago Press� Lakof, George, and Mark Johnson� 1999� Philosophy in the Flesh: he Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western hought� New York: Basic Books� Lakof, George, and Mark Turner� 1989� More than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor� Chicago: University of Chicago Press� Langacker, Ronald W� 1993� “Reference-Point Constructions�” Cognitive Linguistics 4(1): 1–38� Lotman, Yuri� (1970) 1977� he Structure of the Artistic Text� Translated by Gail Lenhof and Ronald Vroon� Ann Arbor, MN: University of Michigan Press� Mukařovský, Jan� (1932) 1970� “Standard Language and Poetic Language�” In Linguistics and Literary Style, edited by Donald C� Freeman, 40–57� New York: Holt� Poe, Edgar Allan� (1845) 1976� “he Raven�” In Selected Writings of Edgar Allan Poe: Poems, Tales, Essays and Reviews, edited by David Galloway, 77–80� Harmondsworth: Penguin� Propp, Vladimir� (1928) 1968� he Morphology of the Folk-Tale� Translated by Lawrence Scott� Austin, TX: University of Texas Press� Radden, Günter� 2000� “How Metonymic Are Metaphors?” In Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads: A Cognitive Perspective, edited by Antonio Barcelona, 93–108� Berlin: Mouton� Rosch, Eleanor, and Carolyn B. Mervis� 1975� “Family Resemblances: Studies in the Internal Structure of Categories�” Cognitive Psychology 7: 573–605� Saussure, Ferdinand de� (1916) 1959� Course in General Linguistics� Translated by Wade Baskin� New York: Columbia University Press� Scholes, Robert� 1976� Structuralism in Literature: An Introduction� New Haven, CT: Yale University Press� Shklovsky, Victor� (1917) 1965� “Art as Technique�” In Russian Formalist Criticism: Four Essays, edited and translated by Lee T� Lemon and Marion J� Reis, 3–24� Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press� Steen, Gerard, and Joanna Gavins� 2003� “Contextualising Cognitive Poetics�” In Cognitive Poetics in Practice, edited by Joanna Gavins and Gerard Steen, 1–12� London: Routledge� Stockwell, Peter� 2002� Cognitive Poetics: An Introduction� London: Routledge� Todorov, Tzvetan� 1969� Grammaire de Décaméron [he Grammar of Decameron]� he Hague: Mouton� Tsur, Reuven� 1992� Toward a heory of Cognitive Poetics� Amsterdam: NorthHolland� Turner, Mark� 1991� Reading Minds: he Study of English in the Age of Cognitive Science� Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press� Olha Bandrovska A Synergetic Perspective in Literary Studies: Towards Literary Anthropology Abstract: he article suggests the synergetic approach as a meta-methodology, determining its principles for the study of diverse phenomena, including art and culture, and viewing its potential in literary studies, namely, in combination with literary anthropology� he author discusses the way in which selected anthropological categories are reconceptualised in the British modernist novel� 1. Synergetic Project in Literary Studies One of the most important features of science and the humanities in the second half of the 20th–the beginning of the 21st century is formulating complex, interdisciplinary problems in various areas� he dichotomy between the humanities and science has lately been questioned which logically leads to a search for invariant features that would remain constant for diferent branches of knowledge� Resolving this issue makes theoretical thinking necessary to combine ideas belonging to diferent ields of research into a complex whole� he eforts of contemporary scholars working in this direction are aimed at building special structural models that would consider the multi-disciplinary knowledge in a joint theoretical key� As the Russian specialist in epistemology Vyacheslav Stepin (2005) states, …severe demarcation between knowledge of sciences of nature and that of spirit was reasonable for the 19th century but in many aspects is not valid for the science of the last third of the 20th century� …in modern science the role of complicated developing systems is constantly increasing� Such systems have ‘synergetical characteristics’ and include people and their activity� Methodology of research of such objects draws sciences and humanitarian knowledge close, erasing strict boundaries between them� (46) hus, the great prospects are opened up for synergetics� he term synergetics was introduced by Hermann Haken, a German researcher and a professor in theoretical physics about forty years ago� Today it is widely used� A more traditional term for this ield of scientiic research is theory of selforganization� Over the last two decades, the terms studies in complexity and theory of chaos have been widely circulated� All these terms imply phenomena that inherently intersect and interact, and sometimes are used as identical� he key notions in synergetics are complexity, order and disorder, dynamics, nonlinearity, instability, openness� he collective behaviour of elements in the 32 Olha Bandrovska system—namely, the process of evolution, self-organization, dynamic chaos, in other words, qualitative transformation of systems—serves as the subject of synergetics, such general factors as multilevelness, autocreativity, relative limits of forecasting taken into consideration� hus, the basic questions in synergetics deal with issues about the creative role of chaos in the process of origin and evolution of complex structures, and about general principles of self-organization regardless of the nature of the individual parts of a system� Within transdisciplinary framework of synergenics there does not exist (and, obviously, cannot in principle be) a common scientiic language, because it brings together experts from diferent ields: physicists, chemists, mathematicians, biologists, sociologists, literary critics� Its vocabulary comes from terminology used in diferent ields of knowledge� herefore, each speciic version of synergetics implements its own concepts� he greatest success in developing synergetic model of knowledge was achieved by the Belgian school of Ilya Prigogine, a famous physical chemist and Nobel Laureate noted for his work on dissipative structures and complex systems� In his works (irst of all, co-authored with Isabelle Stengers Order out of Chaos: Man’s New Dialogue with Nature, 1984, and co-authored with Gregory Nicolis Exploring complexity: An Introduction, 1989) he studied the phenomenon of complexity and the principles of self-organization process in various ields of knowledge–from natural sciences to the humanities and art� According to Prigogine, instability and self-organization processes in a new scientiic picture of the world suggests the conclusion that the future is essentially unpredictable� hus, inability to build a dynamics of the universe leads to a new relationship to the world, and results in convergence of the scientist and artist’s activities: his world is unstable [complex]–this is not a capitulation but on the contrary an encouragement to combine new experimental and theoretical research which takes account of this unstable character� …We need to be aware that our knowledge is still a limited window on the universe; because of instability we must abandon the dream of total knowledge of the universe� …here is a close analogy with a work of literature: in its irst chapter a novel begins with a description of the situation in a inite number of words, but it is still open to numerous possible developments and this is ultimately the pleasure of reading: discovering which one of the possible developments will be used� (Prigogine 2009, 235–36) he new approach refuses all universalist claims as illusions inherent in classical science� Its central idea is the diversity of the world, evolutionary processes and instability phenomena� Such openness makes it possible to transfer knowledge from one area to another� he same way of thinking is common in the humanities, especially, in philosophical knowledge� If to trace the formation of postmodern philosophy in the A Synergetic Perspective in Literary Studies 33 20th century, one may state that from the beginning it had been developing the synergetic program� Friedrich Nietzsche, the most responsible thinker for transitioning philosophy into postmodernism, conceptualized the ideas of becoming and creativity, chaos as a creative basis in all processes in the world� “…one must still have chaos in one, to give birth to a dancing star”—this is his synergetic formula in hus Spoke Zarathustra (Nietzsche 1999, 6)� A Nietzschean project of human being is designated as an open metaanthropological programme in which the concept of man subordinates all philosophical issues� Moreover, the features of Nietzschean narrative also deined through the notions of “openness” and “incompleteness” prepare modernists and postmodernists’ linguistic and artistic experiments of the 20th century� A synergetic vision of a human being is also inherent in the philosophy of Max Scheler whose ideas of human incompleteness and openness to the world, intersubjectivity, a dialogue with the Other are convergent with modernist’s innovations of representing human beings, and their consciousness� According to Jean-Paul Sartre, the being of a person is never completed� In his lecture “Existentialism is a Humanism” (1946) he said: “…man is free, man is freedom…Man is the future of man…man, without any support or help whatever, is condemned at every instant to invent man”� As it is known, essential properties of man–spirit, becoming of personality, its freedom to choose the project itself–are explored by philosophical anthropology� Elaborated within it, the pluralist and open model of human being corresponds with synergetic approach� he combined methodology of anthropology and synergetics makes it possible to interpret man, his biological and social nature, and unique personality by examining him in terms of dynamic integrity, selforganization, self-identity, creativity, instability, openness as his relationship with the outside world� On the whole, problematisation of human existence limits, including physical and spiritual practices, social and cultural life, determines and justiies the concept of anthropological turn, which is a sign of modern scientiic thought and literature� he philosophical inquiry of a human being correlates to literary anthropology� he representatives of the latter believe iction to carry proto-knowledge about a man (P� de Man) and to be a total fact of culture (M� Mauss)� Wolfgang Iser, a German literary scholar, considered literature as the oldest means of communication that emphasizes anthropological character of each epoch� He investigated how literature depragmatises conventions and holds them up for inspection� In his opinion, the literary text ofers an anthropological view that is unavailable to other types of discourse: 34 Olha Bandrovska …what literature does is to stage a whole array of conventions more or less simultaneously in a text� Obviously if one wants to ind an anthropological implication in this particular exposition, one might say that human beings have an urge to look at their regulatory principles� Why is there such an urge? We appear to want to be with ourselves and simultaneously outside ourselves� If that seems to be a basic human situation–a way of extending ourselves–then this question of assembling an array of conventions horizontally in the literary text might be a way of looking at the regulatory functions according to which human beings conduct their lives� (qtd� in Oort 1997) hus, the type of ictionality which we encounter in literature is also a way of extending ourselves� Moses Kagan, a Russian specialist in cultural studies and aesthetics drew an analogy between the processes of artistic creativity and personality development, emphasizing the uniqueness of each individual and each artistic image� he following classes of systems are presented in complexity theory: simple (inorganic), complex (biological), and super-complex, which is anthropic-socio-cultural system (human society and culture)� Kagan proposed to allocate the fourth system rank, which he called ultra-complex system, that is—a person as an individual, and artistic images that relect the dynamic nature of the individual� He explained selecting this class by “the unique content of each individual and each artistic image”� Diiculty level and type of the complexity of these systems increased by several orders suggest the possibility of ininite variety of speciic conigurations (Синергетическая парадигма 2003, 219)� Methodologically, the idea about similarity between artistic creation and formation of personality, which are always marked by elements of nonlinearity and self-organization, is promising� In this anthropo-synergetic perspective, literature ceases to be only “iction writing” and becomes a herald of knowledge, ideas, projects of its time, turning them into literary artefacts� It is regarded as an anthropological knowledge� he combination of methodological potential of synergetics and literary anthropology can extend analytics of human being in literature, and, above all, explain how the understanding of man makes the structure of the plot, character, narrative strategies, a symbolic plan, that is the aesthetic whole of the artwork� 2. Anthropo-synergetic parameters of the Modern British Novel he key issue of synergetic anthropological approach is to explain how iction relects the structure of the individual (e�g�, dynamically or statically, linearly or nonlinearly), what type of human consciousness—mythological, religious, A Synergetic Perspective in Literary Studies 35 personalist—is relevant to the cultural epoch, and what are speciic modiications of a corresponding artistic image� Taking into account a long history of personality studies (Plato, Aristotle, Galen) the modern sense of individual personality is a result of the cultural shits originating in the Renaissance, Reformation, and a republic form of government� hus, “personality” attributive properties of which are freedom and spiritual self-airmation is a new European concept� In the second half of the 17th century René Descartes gave the individual’s consciousness supreme importance, John Locke deined personal identity through duration in time and then David Hume continued to elaborate science of man which he considered the only solid foundation for other sciences� As it is stated in Ian Watt’s he Rise of the Novel, in the 18th century “both philosophers and novelists paid greater attention to the particular individual than had been common before” (Watt 2000, 18)� Accordingly, the development of the novel as a leading literary genre coincides in time with philosophical actualization of the concept of “personality”� By itself, genre of the novel is a very interesting and appropriate object for synergetic analysis� As Mikhail Bakhtin wrote in “he Epic and the Novel”, “the novel is the sole genre that continues to develop, that is as yet uncompleted” (Bakhtin 1992, 3), or “in the process of becoming the dominant genre, the novel sparks the renovation of all other genres; it infects them with its spirit of process and inconclusiveness” (7)� It could be argued that the type of worldview and the plot, the mode of creating characters, and introducing biographical time in the English novel of the 18–19th centuries point the linear becoming of personality� he typical life story in the classic novels (Richardson, Fielding, Smollett, Dickens, hackeray and others) is based on physical maturation, the gradual assimilation of moral principles ofered by the older generation, and certain vital steps to perform the “social” destiny: birth, childhood, education, marriage, implementation of life principles, and death� In this unidirectional progression, taking into account all novel complications, the present is clearly caused by the past and, at the same time, determines the future� he principle of linearity in the understanding of human life, embodied by most British novelists of the 18th–19th centuries, is combined with modern understanding of the relationship between man and the world� Man is represented as the subject of cognition whose cognitive mind subordinates all other properties of consciousness, as in rationalism; nature becomes the object of cognition, improvement and conquest, as in Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe� Modernists made a transition to a new artistic level of complexity in analysis of human being, its individuality and personality� he relationship of man and 36 Olha Bandrovska the world was revaluated in the parameters of multiplicity, variability, instability and uncertainty� he writers focused on absolute integrity and uniqueness of the individual personality, its original self through which all human qualities, including socially meaningful ones, are refracted� For instance, Virginia Woolf ’s novels exemplify a new artistic modelling of human being� According to the novelist, man has an ininite ield of consciousness that goes beyond the three-dimensional space, linear time and causality� “Nothing exists outside us except a state of mind”, speculates Peter Walsh, a character of the novel Mrs. Dalloway (Woolf 1996, 55–56)� As it is known, Woolf ’s conception of consciousness is grounded on William James’s description of consciousness as a ‘river’ or a ‘stream’ that constantly is bombarded by external sensations, and on Henri Bergson’s conception of internal time which he deines as durée� Stratiied and mingled streams of consciousness and feelings, thoughts and emotions of the characters deprive her plots of linearity� Woolf sought for such narrative strategies that would allow rendering the mental event volumetrically� Her aim was “to go beyond the formal railway line of a sentence”� In Mrs. Dalloway not only streams of consciousness but, according to Paul Ricoeur, experiences and destinies of the characters intersect and create “a sort of underground network”, “a complex and unstable relationship”� In her diary Woolf wrote that she tried “to dig out beautiful caves behind the characters … � he idea is that the caves shall connect and each comes to daylight at the present moment” (Woolf 1980, 263)� As Ricoeur explains, “he two fates of Septimus and Clarissa essentially communicate through the closeness of the subterranean ‘caves’ visited by the narrator� On the surface, they are brought together through the character of Dr� Bradshaw, who belongs to two subplots” (Ricoeur 2010, 186)� In our view, the kinship between the destinies of Septimus and Clarissa at the depth of stream of consciousness represents Woolf ’s conception of identity, namely the concept of the Other as a constituent part of the human “self ”� For Woolf, another focus that moulds majority of her characters is the processual nature of self and identity� In the irst lines of Mrs. Dalloway “adult” Clarissa is presented, when she is going to buy lowers for her party� However, in the following lines the author provides broader dimension: the image of ity-two-year old heroine is doubled by “young” Clarissa from a distant past� Within this duality of “older” and “younger” Clarissa the writer constructs her manifold identities as a girlfriend, a wife, a mother, a lady, her isolation and fear of death� On the whole, luid, shiting identity, rhizomatic network of consciousness and, consequently, rhizomatic multiple narratives are Woolf ’s contribution to the 20th century anthropological knowledge� A Synergetic Perspective in Literary Studies 37 Aldous Huxley, another British modernist writer, examines human ability to remain a whole, in other words, the limits of inner integrity� In his novel Point Counter Point the artist created a multi-dimensional synergetic model of man: A man’s a creature on a tight-rope, walking delicately, with mind and consciousness and spirit at one end of his balancing pole and body and instinct and all unconscious and earthly and mysterious on the other� Balanced� Which is damnably diicult� And the only absolute he can ever really know is the absolute of perfect balance� he absoluteness of perfect relativity� Which is paradox and nonsense intellectually� (Huxley 1994, 403) In Huxley’s view, the integrity of a person is relative, not static; it is always an inevitable search for balance� At the highest level of generalization he conceptualizes a philosophical problem of impossibility to reduce man to preassigned schemes� As the author of intellectual novels, the writer explores a vastly deep nature of intellect, thereby expanding the analytics of individual personality� It is important that he treats intellect as being in progress, as an advantage of becoming over being� he novelist distinguishes between intellect and reason in the style of synergetic concepts� his distinction is deined by Canadian philosopher Jean Bédard: “…he fact that what is impossible for the reason, that is the coordination of contradictions, is a need for intellect� he fact that what is impossible for the reason, that is the advantage of becoming on being, is also a need for intellect … � he reason can achieve only possible, but there is something in the human soul, capable of impossible” (Bédard 2001, 291)� Accentuation on intellect as cognition of dualities–inite and ininite, unchanging and changing, discontinuous and continuous, and consciousness in parameters of processuality and nonlinearity get modernist artists closer to synergetic conception of by-unity “man–the world”� According to Bergson, we can understand the outside world by exploring our inner world� Physics also postulates the anthropic principle in the study of the universe, as Hawking and Hertog state, “anthropic reasoning aims to explain certain features of our universe from our existence in it” (Hawking and Hertog 2006)� he principle of inseparability of man and the world means nesting the subject (man) and the object (the natural world) in one another� his is one of the key diferences that sever modernist understanding of human being from classical interpretation with its emphasis on human capacity to subdue and alter the natural world� Ontogenesis of personality in the modernist novel is essentially nonlinear; it embodies essential dimensions of human experience (natural/accidental), as well as a wide variety of social and cultural spheres: a person can become anyone, her/ his destiny is not calculated in advance, depending on the random circumstances that occur in life� 38 Olha Bandrovska To sum up, synergetics as a new methodological strategy and a kind of scientiic worldview is well-suited to the analysis of literature� Working from the understanding of synergetics as an interdisciplinary research program, it may be stated that anthropological method in literary criticism is close to synergetic thinking� heir common theoretical background provides a means of interpreting man, his biological and social nature and his personality by means of synergetic analysis, i�e� by examining him in terms of dynamic integrity, self-organization, self-identity, creativity, and instability� From the viewpoint of systems theory, literary images relect the multilayered structure of unique individual personality� hey correspond to the proposed synergetic model of man in the level of complexity� Generally, the modernist problematisation of the concepts such as “man” or “personality”, and a new understanding of beauty as harmony that is being born and constantly transformed amid chaos and order paved the way for the aesthetic pluralism of contemporary literature� References Bakhtin, Michail� 1992� he Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays� Austin; London: University of Texas Press� Bédard, Jean� 2001� L’Incertitude D’Eckhart à Prigogine� In L’Homme Devant L’Incertain� Paris: Odile Jacob� Hawking, Stephen, and homas Hertog� 2006� Populating the Landscape: A Top Down Approach� Accessed February, 11, 2016, http://arxiv�org/pdf/hepth/0602091v2�pdf� Huxley, Aldous� Point Counter Point� (Flamingo, 1994)� Accessed February, 11, 2016, http://www�ebook3000�com/Aldous-Huxley-_-Point-Counter-Point-novel--English-_23627�html� Kagan, М. С. 2003� “Формирование личности как синергетический процесс”� In Синергетическая парадигма. Человек и общество в условиях нестабильности, 212–227. Москва: Прогресс-Традиция� Oort, Richard van� he Use of Fiction in Literary and Generative Anthropology: An Interview with Wolfgang Iser. (Anthropoetics III, no� 2 (Fall 1997/Winter 1998))� Accessed February, 11, 2016, http://www�anthropoetics�ucla�edu/ ap0302/Iser_int�htm� Nietzsche, Friedrich� 1999� hus Spoke Zarathustra� Translated by homas Common� Mineola, New York: Dover Publications� Prigogine, Ilya� 2009� “Complexity heory�” In Systems thinkers, edited by M� Ramage, K� Shipp, 229–237� London: Springer� A Synergetic Perspective in Literary Studies 39 Ricoeur, Paul� 2010� Time and Narrative� Vol� 2� Transl� by K� Mclaughlin and D� Pellauer� Chicago: University of Chicago Press� Sartre, Jean-Paul� 1946� “Existentialism Is a Humanism”� In Existentialism from Dostoyevsky to Sartre, edited by Walter Kaufman� Meridian Publishing Company, 1989� Accessed February, 11, 2016, https://www�marxists�org/reference/ archive/sartre/works/exist/sartre�htm� Stepin, Vyacheslav S� 2005� heoretical Knowledge. Synthese Library, Volume 326� Dordrecht: Springer� Watt, Ian� 2000� he Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding. 1957� London: Pimlico� Woolf, Virginia� 1996� Mrs. Dalloway. London: Penguin Popular Classics� Woolf, Virginia� 1980� he Diary of Virginia Woolf, Vol� 2: 1920–1924� New York: Harcourt Brace� Paweł Kaptur he King is Dead, Long Live he King– Transition and Continuity in John Dryden’s hrenodia Augustalis Abstract: he article aims at analysing those elements and passages of Dryden’s hrenodia Augustalis, in which the poet highlights the transition between the reigns of King Charles II and King James II, and focuses on the continuity of such values as peace, justice and order which James II was supposed to guarantee and which Dryden advocated zealously� Introduction hrenodia Augustalis was Dryden’s personal farewell to King Charles II Stuart and a welcoming oratory to the late King’s brother James� he poem is deeply set in a political context of the turbulent period in the history of England which was strongly preoccupied with the issue of succession� Ater Charles’s death, his throne was to be taken over by a Catholic successor which evoked nationwide dissatisfaction in a Protestant country� Many expected the new reign to be blatantly diferent, not to say worse, than the previous one which was represented by a merciful, tolerant, fun-loving and a slightly passive king� James II had not enjoyed much popularity even before he sat on the throne of England, hence John Dryden, being a staunch supporter of the Stuarts dynasty and a dedicated proponent of strong, hereditary monarchy, resolved to defend James II in verse� herefore, hrenodia Augustalis, one of Dryden’s least known poems, serves not only to express the author’s mourning ater his lord’s death but it is also a chance for the poet to underline the transition and continuity of hereditary monarchy, something that Dryden had always promoted� he poem may be also seen as the author’s attempt at preparing the public opinion to accept the new king regardless of his religious ailiations and lack of popularity� he present article aims at analysing those elements and passages of Dryden’s hrenodia Augustalis, in which the poet highlights the transition between the two reigns and the continuity of such values as peace, justice and order which James was supposed to guarantee and which Dryden advocated so zealously� 42 Paweł Kaptur 1. Setting the scene It was the time when the political arena in England was preoccupied with the issue of succession as there was no legal heir to his throne� Charles had a few sons but did not have a legal heir except his Catholic brother James, whom he did not want to reject� he English politicians were divided into two contrary groups: Tories and Whigs� he Tories, who considered themselves as successors of the Cavaliers, aimed at preventing Parliament from imposing its will in the matters of succession and royalty and they protected the rights of James� he Whigs (or Whiggamores) were led by a group of Protestant aristocrats� hey wanted to secure the high position of Parliament and, most importantly, exclude the igure of James from succession� he Whigs had their own candidate to the throne of England–James Crots alias James Scott (1649–1685), the First Duke of Monmouth� He was the oldest of the living sons of Charles II� he major obstacle concerned the infamous fact that James Scott was King Charles’s illegitimate son� he divisions among the politicians concerning the two candidates to the English throne led to violent and devious attempts at eliminating the monarch or undermining his credibility and, in this way, gaining power for Monmouth� In the context of Charles’s problems with succession which caused violent reactions and divisions among the politicians and noblemen, the igure of Anthony Ashley Cooper, the First Earl of Shatesbury appears to have most importance� It is said that his actions against the monarchy and his attempts to make Charles’s illegitimate son Duke of Monmouth an heir to the throne, made Shatesbury the King’s greatest enemy and inally led to the Rye House Plot� In 1677–78, ater attempting to force the dissolution of Parliament, Shatesbury was imprisoned� When he was released from prison he supported the Exclusion Bill–three bills that were introduced to exclude James, Duke of York, from succession� he irst bill (1679) was read but Parliament was dissolved ater the second reading, and the second bill (1680) was rejected by the Lords� he third one was introduced in the Oxford Parliament, which was dissolved by the King� To secure Exclusion, Shatesbury, supported by the Whigs, organized demonstrations and campaigns in three general elections� he Party failed and became divided over who should take James’s place—Monmouth or James’s Protestant daughter—Mary� Shatesbury’s failure was mainly due to the fact that the King had a total control over Parliament: “Charles could, and did, use his power to summon and dissolve Parliament to his own advantage; he had a solid majority in the House of Lords that would vote down the Exclusion Bill time ater time” (Morgan 2001, 383)� he King is Dead, Long Live he King 43 In 1678, Shatesbury “employed Titus Oates and his Popish Plot to whip up anti-Catholic feeling against the Government and…to exclude James…from succession…” (Hill 1988, 298)� Oates was a fanatic Puritan who pretended that he had converted to Catholicism and entered the Jesuit seminars in Vallodolid and St� Omer� On his return to England he submitted a sworn document proving that the English Catholics were planning to assassinate Charles II, kill Protestants, and place the Roman Catholic James on the throne� he government and the council believed in Oates’s “fusillade of fantastic accusations” and, as a result, some Catholics were arrested and sued (Fraser 2002, 463)� A few were executed, being in fact innocent� In 1683 a treacherous plot called Rye House was conceived� he plan was to assassinate Charles II and his brother James, duke of York, as they travelled from Newmarket races to London past Rye House in Hertfordshire� he plot was betrayed to the government and two prominent leaders of the plot were arrested and executed� hey were Algernon Sidney—a republican politician who fought for Parliament in the Civil War and was elected to the Long Parliament in 1646, and Lord William Russell—a member of the Opposition, the opponent of pro-Catholic inluences at Court� In spite of numerous attempts to eliminate James from succession, Shatesbury “failed to carry Exclusion through the Lords [as] men were unwilling to push the issue to the risk of civil war” (Hill 1988, 298)� In 1681 Shatesbury’s agitation was gradually weakening and the King was able to take advantage of the situation and send Cooper to the Tower accusing him of high treason� he case against him was inally dismissed as “London jury refused to ind a true bill against him” (298)� In 1682 ater unsuccessfully trying to organize a revolt against the monarch Shatesbury was forced to escape to Holland, where he died the following year� Despite numerous attempts to prevent the succession of a Catholic King, the Duke of York became King James II of England and James VII of Scotland on the day of Charles’s death–6 February 1685� 2. he King is dead, long live the king hrenodia Augustalis was Dryden’s farewell to the King whom the poet had so faithfully served for twenty ive years� Even though the threnody was his personal address to the dead monarch, the poet also made use of the occasion to welcome the new King on the throne� hus, the poem looks like an expression of Dryden’s hopes that the new monarch will continue the policy of mercy and respect for the nation� he poet also hopes that the reign of James II will inally put an end to the period of political chaos and social partition caused by the Monmouth Rebellion, the Exclusion Crisis and the controversies that developed around James’s 44 Paweł Kaptur succession� James Winn underlines that the words “Servant to his late Majesty, and to the present king” included in the title page of hrenodia Agustalis clearly indicate that Dryden emphasizes the issue of continuity between the two reigns (Winn 1987, 406)� his wish for royal continuity is best seen in those passages in the poem when Dryden uses mythological imagery comparing the dead King to Atlas and providing James with the attributes of Hercules: As if great Atlas from his Height Shou’d sink beneath his heavenly Weight, And, with a mighty Flaw, the laming Wall (As once it shall) Shou’d gape immense, and rushing down, O’erwhelm this neather Ball; So swit and so surprising was our fear; Our Atlas fell indeed; But Hercules was near� (29–35) Dryden suggests that the people of England should not fear losing their monarch as James “was near” to take over the power� Making use of such a metaphor, the poet seems to forget that a number of protestant Englishmen did not accept the succession of the Catholic King, and wished him quick dethronement� Nevertheless, Dryden decides to persuade the people, as he did in Absalom and Achitophel, that the succession of James is the best solution to bring peace and stability� Knowing that the King’s Catholic ailiation is not, in the people’s eyes, the monarch’s asset, Dryden stresses the monarch’s doubtless virtues–his vigour and military skills: So James the drowsy Genius wakes Of Britain long entranc’d in Charms’ Restif and slumbring on its Arms: ’Tis rows’d, & with a new strung Nerve the Spear already shakes� No neighing of the Warriour Steeds, No Drum, or louder Trumpet, needs T’ inspire the Coward, warm the Cold, His Voice, his sole Appearance makes ’em bold� (470–77) Here, James is pictured as a warrior whose strength and courage will inspire the people to ight� he poet also uses the imagery borrowed from the unperformed scene from King Arthur where James’s enthronement is supposed to melt the frozen kingdom of England� It reminds us of Dryden’s Restoration poems when Charles’s return was expected to dry the “slippery ground” that Cromwell’s Revolution had let behind� However, a critic notices that the overlapping of images applied to both monarchs shows some of the poet’s political perplexity: “he double emphasis he King is Dead, Long Live he King 45 on Charles and James, who were actually too diferent to accommodate the same metaphors, frequently forces Dryden into such conlation of images … � hrenodia Augustalis mourns for Charles, praises James, and betrays some of Dryden’s own confusions at this time” (Winn 1987, 408)� It is indeed diicult for Dryden to maintain a consistent tone of his statement in hrenodia Augustalis. Never before had he written a panegyric addressed to two monarchs at once� On the one hand he had to underline Charles’s mercifulness and ability to keep peace, on the other, he stresses James’s military skills� However, there is some consistency in the poet’s intention to refer to the two monarchs� Gaul and Batavia dread th’ impending blow; Too well the Vigour of that Arm they know; hey lick the dust, and Crouch beneath their fatal Foe� Long may be they fear this awful Prince, And not Provoke his lingering Sword; Peace is their only sure Defence, heir best Security his World� (478–84) Winn notices that in Astrea Redux Dryden hoped that the Lyon will “assail his Foes” and in hrenodia Augustalis the poet realizes that the metaphor “Lyon” is much more appropriate for James expressing the hope that “the well-known ‘Vigour’ of James’s military ‘Arm’ will make France and Holland afraid to ‘Provoke his lingering Sword’ and thus insure continued peace” (409)� In this sense, the juxtaposition of Charles’s peaceful nature and James’s military vigour resorts to the same wish: that peace will be achieved and maintained in the kingdom� hat proves that no matter which monarch the poet praised, it was always his intention to promote order and political stability� If one remembers that at the end of Absalom and Achitophel Dryden advised Charles not to employ excessive mercy and exaggerated forgetfulness, it appears obvious that the poet now expects James to be less lenient in making political or military decisions� So much thy Foes thy manly Mind mistook, Who judg’d it by the Mildness of thy look: Like a well-temper’d Sword, it bent at will; But kept the Native toughness of the Steel� (323–26) Even though Dryden does not deny the dead King’s “toughness of the Steel,” he reminds us of Charles’s “well-temper’d Sword” that “bent at will�” James, on the other hand, is a monarch compared to an “impenetrable Shield�” Such a juxtaposition of divergent images rests upon the poet’s hope in the new era of tough policies employed to maintain a long-lasting peace� 46 Paweł Kaptur 3. Instructing the monarch, convincing the people Apart from transferring his hopes and belief in the power of authority from Charles to James, Dryden uses hrenodia Augustalis to instruct the new King� he instructive character of the poem is suggested at the beginning where the author calls James “pious” three times� Garrison claims that the poet calls James “Pious Duke” and the “Pious Brother” “because the piety of the new King must be demonstrated before he inherits the royal power” (Garrison 1975, 180)� Dryden realizes that piety is James’s most important trait, and when it is combined with irm power it makes a perfect king� he deathbed scene is another sign of the poet’s educational purpose in writing the threnody where he stresses the signiicance of royal succession and inheritance: He took and prest that ever loyal hand, Which cou’d in Peace secure his Reign, Which cou’d in wars his Pow’r maintain, hat hand on which no plighted vows were ever vain� Well for so great a trust, he chose A Prince who never disobey’d: Not when the most severe commands were laid; Nor want, nor Exile with his duty weigh’d: A Prince on whom (if Heav’n its eyes cou’d close) he Welfare of the World it safely might repose� (229–38) Dryden irst of all illustrates the moment of taking over the symbolical power by James to stress the importance of hereditary authority� He once more underlines James’s virtues such as persistence and obedience to the King to persuade the people that he is the perfect successor� he passage is also an instructive message to the King sent by the poet� He wants to warn the monarch that if “he Welfare of the World” is to repose on him, the King must be strong and responsible� Garrison says that for the poet “being king entails responsibility as well as authority, piety as well as power” (Garrison 1975, 180)� By enumerating and underlining James’s assets, Dryden draws a model of a perfect king and a perfect reign that the subjects should expect to come� his model of perfection is strengthened by the element of divinity that accompanies James’s ascend to the throne: A Warlike Prince ascends the Regal State, A Prince, long exercis’d by Fate: Long may he keep, tho he obtains it late� Heroes, in Heaven’s peculiar Mold are cast, he King is Dead, Long Live he King 47 hey and their Poets are not formed in hast; Man was the irst in God’s design, and Man was made the last� False Heroes made by Flattery so, Heav’n can strike out, like Sparkles, at a blow; But e’re a Prince is to Perfection brought, He costs Omnipotence a second thought� With Toyl and Sweat, With herdning Cold, and forming Heat, he Cyclops did their strokes repeat, Before th’impenetrable Shield was wrought� It looks as if the Maker wou’d not own he Noble work for his, Before ‘twas try’d and found a Masterpiece� (429–45) Garrison notices that the divine aid depicted in the above stanza was added “to convince the people that James is indeed the perfect prince” (Garrison 1975, 181)� Dryden addresses the King’s subjects in a way which was already employed in Heroic Stanzas and the Restoration panegyrics� he poet supports his political ailiation with the intervention of divine providence to reiterate the Divine Right of Kings and to persuade the people that their political or religious preferences appear as needless in the light of God’s will to appoint kings� he poet again uses the image of the Maker as a creator of perfection, a masterpiece that cannot be criticized or denied� Dryden also suggests that God had already “try’d” his “Noble work” by subjecting him to numerous dangers which the future king had to overcome “With Toyle and Sweat�” If James “exercis’d by Fate” proved to God that he is strong and courageous enough to go through the hardships of the Exclusion Crisis, he must be accepted by the people of England as an ideal successor of Charles� In order to emphasize James’s heroism Dryden recalls the “False Heroes made by Flattery” to remind his readers of Monmouth� Winn reminds us that during the Exclusion Crisis “Monmouth’s supporters accused the Laureate of making the Duke of York a false hero by lattery” (Winn 1987, 411)� It is diicult to agree with the poet’s opponents� He did not latter James to promote him and make him a “false hero” but deeply and genuinely believed in the rightness of the Duke’s policy� Dryden thought he had the credential to elevate heroes by means of his poetry� In the second half of the above stanza the poet considers himself as “a poetic maker of heroes, like the Virgil of his epigraphs, who hopes that his verses can give immortality” (411)� Dryden seems to think that by means of his poetry he possesses a considerable ability to promote English authority� He believes that his poetry is powerful enough to indicate the heroes� By underlining James’s military dexterity, God’s providence in choosing James as Charles’s successor, and by stressing the importance of lineal inheritance as 48 Paweł Kaptur well as his aptness in supporting monarchs, the poet reiterates his message to the people that James must be accepted, praised, and defended� Like most of Dryden’s political poems, hrenodia Augustalis ends with a prophecy� For once, O Heav’n, unfold thy Adamantine Book; And let his wondring Senate see, If not thy Immutable Decree, At least the second Page of strong contingency; Such as consists with wills, Originally free: Let them, with glad amazement, look On what their happiness may be: Let them not still be obstinately blind, Still to divert the Good thou hast design’d, Or with Malignant penury, To sterve the Royal Vertues of his Mind� Faith is a Christian’s and a Subject’s Test, Oh give them to believe, and they are surely blest! (491–503) he prophecy, however, slightly difers from those Dryden articulated in Heroic Stanzas or Astrea Redux� It includes a prayer to express the poet’s hope that the King’s subjects will be obedient to the new monarch� Garrison notices yet another major diference in Dryden’s attitude towards the royalty: Although the invocation of the gods on behalf of the monarch is not in itself new, Dryden’s emphasis is strikingly diferent from what we ind in earlier poems� …Dryden deines disobedience to the king as disobedience to God and equates established government with divine providence� But the future of this government, and of the English nation, does not here rest directly on God but rather on the people’s “faith” in God, and “faith” has a strong adversary in the blind obstinance of the people� (Garrison 1975, 182) Garrison suggests that this time the future of England heavily relies on the Englishmen’s ability to believe both in God and the King� Dryden realizes that since multiple controversies emerged during the Exclusion Crisis and, as a result, the vast majority of the English society lost their hope and trust in the successful reign of the Catholic monarch, the only way to achieve social peace and political order is to believe in the King’s goodness that God himself “hast design’d”� According to Garrison, this “traditional analogy” between the King and God represents “a reconciliation challenged during the interregnum, recaptured at the Restoration and now during the reign of James II asserted with more hope than conviction” (182)� Dryden’s appealing voice “O give them to believe” appears as if the poet was persuading his countrymen that no matter what happens ater the King’s coronation, they should ind faith in themselves and accept the new monarch as God’s he King is Dead, Long Live he King 49 will� he prophecy at the end of hrenodia Augustalis and the panegyric itself is the poet’s attempt to prepare the readers for the new, but for many diicult, reign and most probably for his own impending shit� Conclusions hrenodia Augustalis exempliies one of Dryden’s political poems which conirms the poet’s political ailiations and his everlasting support for the Stuarts� hroughout his early literary career and his laureateship he proved to be a fervent proponent of strong royalty and hereditary succession� Contrary to numerous popular beliefs promoted by critics, Dryden’s aim in supporting James was not to secure his own private interest but to reiterate the need to maintain the continuity of British royalty which guarantees national stability and social order� hrenodia Augustalis was supposed to convince the people that the smooth transition from Protestant, popular Charles to his Catholic, unpopular brother, was the best solution to provide England with powerful authority based on hereditary succession rather than elective system, which British people had not known before� He believed in the historical continuity and legal succession of kings who, being chosen with the assistance of God’s providence, have an absolute right to rule England� References Dryden, John� 1959� “hrenodia Augustalis: A Funeral Pindarique Poem Sacred to the Happy Memory of King Charles II�” In he Poems of John Dryden, edited by John Sergeaunt, 107–114� London: Oxford University Press� Fraser, Antonia� 2002� King Charles II� London: Phoenix Press� Garrison, James D� 1975� Dryden and the Tradition of Panegyric. London: University of California Press� Hill, Charles Peter� 1988� Who’s Who in Stuart Britain� London: Shepheard-Walwyn� Morgan, Kenneth O� 2001� he Oxford History of Britain� New York: Oxford University Press� Winn, James Anderson� 1987� John Dryden and His World� New Haven and London: Yale University Press� Marek Błaszak he Evolution of Sailor Hero in he 18th-Century British Novel: A Study in Defoe and Smollett Abstract: he aim of the article is to highlight maritime experience of Daniel Defoe and Tobias Smollett, and to show how the two authors developed their sailor characters, specifying in this way their contribution to the creation and evolution of sailor hero in the 18th-century British novel� Introduction Neither of the prominent novelists named in the title of this article was a professional sailor and neither of them wrote sea novels� At the same time, both were interested–for diferent reasons–in maritime afairs and both were acquainted with sailing professionals; they even gained some personal experience of sailing� his explains how sailors found their way into their ictional works as protagonists and secondary characters� It is the aim of the following article irst to highlight maritime experience of the two writers, and then to show how they used their sailor characters, specifying in this way their contribution to the creation and evolution of sailor hero in the 18th-century British novel� 1. Daniel Defoe Daniel Defoe is practically the father of the fully-ledged English novel; as a middle-class merchant and entrepreneur, he pursued a writing career “in a mercantile culture, …principally interested in the making of money” (Peck 2001, 20)� His attitude both as an entrepreneur and writer was determined by the new economic order grounded on the idea of expansive individualism, whose chief propagators on the philosophical side were great empiricists of the 17th century such as homas Hobbes and John Locke� In the early 18th century, capitalist interest, activity and speculation centred on the sea, and maritime historians and critics emphasise the speciic “alliance between [the contemporary] mariner and entrepreneur” (Cohen 2013, 66)� It is no wonder that Defoe who was bent on making money and who was bursting with energy, should direct his attention to maritime enterprise: he engaged in international trade and travelled by sea to continental Europe, he acted as a shipping insurer who went bankrupt during the long war that King William III 52 Marek Błaszak fought against France, he invested money (which he ultimately lost) in a company formed to recover treasures from sunken ships, he played a part in starting the South Sea Company which came to be known as the South Sea Bubble, he kept in touch with one of his statesman patrons, Sir Dalby homas, who was governor of the African Company’s settlement in Guinea, he also propagated the idea of English expansion in South America whose exploitation had so much enriched Spain (Dottin 1928, 28; Freeman 1950, 205; Moore 1958, 85–6, 224–5, 293–8)� he eponymous hero of Defoe’s irst novel Robinson Crusoe (publ� in April 1719), who is presented in the long subtitle as a mariner of York, is in the irst place a merchant and entrepreneur, and only perforce a mariner, as international trade and the prospect of a quick gain at that time involved seafaring� Indeed, Robinson Crusoe goes to sea because he has no better option in life: being a third son of the family, he will not inherit his father’s estate due to the law of primogeniture� He is also poorly educated, having received only “a competent share of learning, as far as house-education and a country free-school generally goes” (Defoe 1979, 27)� At the same time he is intent on “raising [his] fortune” (38), which leads up to his irst investment (for which he borrows money from his relations) and personal engagement in the gold dust Guinea trade� he success of this irst enterprise, which yields 750% net proit, is marred by the failure of the second when Robinson’s ship is captured by a Moorish pirate� Later on in the story, when he is established as a sugar-cane planter and merchant in Brazil, it is the anticipation of a big and easy proit that pushes the hero on the water again� his time he undertakes a trading voyage for Negro slaves to the western coast of Africa in the capacity of a supercargo� his expedition ends up with a shipwreck in a stormy sea and the long desert island episode� It is characteristic that while he is on board, Robinson does not take much interest in the ship, its type or rigging, the manner of navigation or actions of the crew—indeed, he focuses on the ship’s cargo and in this respect manifests a striking book-keeping accuracy: “Our ship was about 120 tun burthen, carried 6 guns and 14 men, besides the master, his boy, and my self; we had on board no large cargo of goods, except of such toys as were it for our trade with the negroes, such as beads, bits of glass, shells, and odd triles, especially little looking-glasses, knives, scissors, hatchets, and the like” (61)� he sequel to Robinson Crusoe, entitled he Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, which came out only 4 months later, begins in the familiar mode: the hero who is now 62 years old, is determined to visit the colony of multi-national outcasts now living on his island with a view to–obviously enough–making another kind of proit� He brings skilled cratsmen and useful tools, and divides the island among the settlers for their individual plantations, arranging at the same time for he Evolution of Sailor Hero in he 18th-Century British Novel 53 himself to receive “a certain rent for every particular plantation ater 11 years” (Defoe 1959, 174)� What actually diferentiates the original from the sequel is that in the latter the hero passes from the stage of individual enterprise to the stage of partnership in business� his happens when—sailing as a supercargo to the coast of Coromandel—he is cast by the mutinous crew on land in Bengal� He meets here an English merchant who convinces him that India is “a country where, by us who understand trade and business, a great deal of money is to be got” (226)� Consequently they go into partnership and organise two very successful voyages to the Far East–the irst to Sumatra, Siam (hailand) and Susham (in all probability the archipelago of Chushan islands lying south of Shanghai), and the second to the Dutch Spice Islands (the Moluccas) and the Spanish Manillas (the Philippine Islands)� It is noteworthy that the partners employ an international complement of seamen, including English, Dutch, Portuguese as well as Indian� As in all previous cases, Robinson who is the narrator provides a detailed account of the commercial efects of these two voyages, neglecting their nautical side: “those things I leave to others, and refer the reader to those journals and travels of Englishmen, many of which, I ind, are published, and more promised every day” (227–8)� Defoe’s Captain Singleton, published a year later (in June 1720), presents another face of the ictional sailor hero� he novel can be classiied as a pirate romance and–accordingly–its protagonist and narrator Bob Singleton turns a pirate halfway through the story� his happens when the crew of a merchant ship, of which he is a member, stage a mutiny and take possession of the vessel� hey are determined to “make amends for all past misfortunes” (Defoe 1983, 125)� hough those misfortunes are not speciied, maritime scholars point to several principal reasons for mutiny among contemporary merchant and naval sailors: cruel captains, strict discipline, overwork, bad food, and considerable delays in the payment of wages (Novak 1962, 104)� Having become a pirate and in due time captain of a pirate frigate captured from the Spaniards, Bob Singleton conducts business whose essence is the same as in the case of Robinson Crusoe, that is the making of money� As one of the pirates in Captain Singleton explains, “our business was indeed ighting when we could not help it, but…our main afair was money, and that with as few blows as we could” (Defoe 1983, 139)� Put in other words, the novel makes the modern reader realize that distinctions between legal and illicit trade, as well as between privateering and piracy were oten blurred in those times� Consequently, Bob Singleton and his mates prey “chiely upon the Spaniards” (127) just like the contemporary English privateers who scoured the seas in privately armed ships and legally robbed England’s maritime enemies and rivals thanks to an oicial licence, the so-called letters of marque, issued by the government or one of its 54 Marek Błaszak colonial representatives, that is a governor� he hero and his men also engage in routine merchandise trade, for example with the Chinese merchants of the coast of Formosa (Taiwan), selling them cloves and nutmegs as well as European linen and woollen cloth, and buying from them tea and ine silks� Like ordinary merchants, the pirates hardly ever seem to have diiculty coming into foreign ports in order to replenish food and water supplies� Two more interesting points in reference to the pirate sailor presented in Captain Singleton deserve attention� he irst is that the pirates form a sort of corporate business organisation with Bob as their boss, but otherwise the ship and its cargo belong equally to the crewmen, and all decisions with regard to their actions are taken collectively� he second point is that in the conclusion of the novel Bob Singleton converts into a regular merchant and returns to England with his money� his seems to be a pragmatic solution to the problem of piracy as proposed by the author, who apparently believed that the best way to rid the seas of the pirates–at least English pirates–would be to have them return to the mother country and feed its market with their money� he unnamed protagonist-narrator in Defoe’s fourth work, a ictional travel book entitled A New Voyage Round the World by a Course never sailed before (1725), is a daring and far-sighted merchant who undertakes circumnavigation of the world in the easterly, and not in the customary westerly direction� It is worth observing that in reality such a voyage was successfully completed only half a century later by Captain James Cook� However, Defoe’s protagonist is not a discoverer or adventurer, but–again–a sailor merchant whose chief aim is “the advantage of trade or the hopes of purchase” (Defoe 1725, 3)� He succeeds in his commercial-oriented circumnavigation in at least two ways: irst, when he reaches the Philippines with his cargo of European goods, his prices appear to be far more competitive than those of the Spanish merchants who in those times transported their wares at an enormous cost in the westerly direction–across the Atlantic, then by land across the Isthmus of Darien (Panama), and by water again across the vast Paciic� Besides, having sold his European cargo in the Philippines, Defoe’s hero loads his ship with exquisite China ware which is in great demand in Spanish America� In this way he is able to earn twice during the voyage and “to double the advantage we had already made” (1725, 101)� 2. Tobias Smollett A quarter of a century ater Defoe, sailor characters appear in the novels of Tobias George Smollett, one of the so-called Big Four prominent writers who were active in the middle and the second half of the 18th century (the remaining three he Evolution of Sailor Hero in he 18th-Century British Novel 55 being Samuel Richardson, Henry Fielding and Laurence Sterne)� Smollett was a Scotsman who pursued medical studies and was apprenticed to an eminent Glasgow surgeon� As his countryman, Sir Walter Scott, observed in he Lives of the Novelists, Smollett was fond of frolic and practical jest, and already as a student “gave several indications of his talents and propensity to satire” (Scott 1928, 73)� In his nineteenth year he came down to London with the hope of seeing his play, a tragedy entitled he Regicide, staged at the Drury Lane heatre� Disappointed in this plan and with no prospects for a theatrical career, the young man joined the navy in the spring of 1740 in the capacity of a surgeon’s mate on board of His Majesty’s ship of the line called Chichester (Jones 1942, 40–50)� At the beginning of the following year he sailed to the Caribbean and took part in the abortive Cartagena expedition whose aim was to capture that port (now in Colombia) from the Spaniards� According to Sir Walter Scott, Smollett let the navy in the West Indies being disgusted “alike with the drudgery and with the despotic discipline” (Scott 1928, 75)� Even though he spent only about a year in the service, the experience he had acquired and the information he had amassed proved useful when he embarked on a literary career as a novelist� he title character in Roderick Random, his irst novel published in 1748, follows in Smollett’s footsteps to some extent–like his creator, he is apprenticed to a surgeon and in the 24th chapter is appointed a surgeon’s third mate on board of a man-of-war called hunder� he ship is soon ordered to join the leet under the command of Rear-Admiral Sir Chaloner Ogle which is sent as reinforcement for the above-mentioned Cartagena expedition commanded by Vice-Admiral Edward Vernon� Notwithstanding this realistic naval setting, Roderick is not a sailor� His place in the ship is below deck–in the sick bay where his duty is to tend seamen sufering from tropical diseases and wounds received in battle� Nevertheless, the hero proves to be a keen observer who draws memorable portraits of the naval oicers� One of them is the irst captain of the hunder named Oakhum who appears to be a brutal tyrant, a vulgarian, and an incompetent oicer� At one point he becomes furious learning that 61 members of the crew are disabled by disease and injury, and orders his surgeon to bring them to the quarter-deck for inspection which poses imminent danger to their lives� When the poor wretches crawl to the appointed place, the captain irst verbally abuses them and then orders the boatswain to log them for their apparent feigning a disease� In stark contrast to Captain Oakhum, the next commander of the hunder, Captain While, is an efeminate dandy who comes on board “overshadowed with a vast umbrella” and wearing “a white hat garnished with a red feather”, his long hair lowing down in ringlets “tied behind with a ribbon�” But the oddest part of his outit is “a mask on 56 Marek Błaszak his face, and white gloves on his hands, which … were ixed with a ring set with a ruby on the little inger of one hand, and by one set with a topaz on that of the other” (Smollett 1988, 194–5)� he way naval oicers are presented in Roderick Random seems to have been determined, on the one hand, by the author’s “propensity to satire”, as observed by Sir Walter Scott, and on the other by the crude variety of the picaresque novel which Smollett chose to follow� In the preface to Roderick Random he makes it clear that the novel was modelled on Gil Blas by Alain René Le Sage� Like his French master, Smollett aimed to describe “the knavery and foibles of life”; however, unlike Le Sage who wanted to excite mirth, his Scottish follower sought to arouse “that generous indignation, which ought to animate the reader, against the sordid and vicious disposition of the world” (Smollett 1988, XXXIV–XXXV)� Consequently, Smollett reveals a marked tendency to caricature his naval creations� his is relected even in the names he chooses for them; thus, the churlish Captain Oakhum connotes oakum—pieces of old rope soaked with tar and used for caulking holes and cracks in the hull of a wooden ship, while the emasculate Captain While is inevitably associated with the scent of perfumes—in his presence “the air was so impregnated with perfumes, that one may venture to airm the clime of Arabia Felix was not half so sweet-scented” (195)� On the other hand, the portraits of naval oicers in the discussed novel may not have been so much exaggerated judging by the standards of the day� An eminent maritime historian provides a real-life model for Captain Oakhum–a certain William Hervey who commanded the Superb man-of-war which belonged to Admiral Vernon’s leet� He may have been known to Smollett by repute� One of his inhuman orders involved logging all the sick men in the ship to check whether they were malingering or not (Kemp 1970, 84)� As regards the extraordinary outit of Captain While, another naval authority observes that a uniform for oicers was introduced by the Board of Admiralty in 1748, the year of publication of Smollett’s novel; until then the way they dressed had been let much to the discretion of the oicers themselves (Lloyd 1961, 145)� It might appear that the only naval oicer presented in a favourable light is Roderick’s uncle, the jovial Lieutenant Tom Bowling� Indeed, he is the only relation who takes care of the orphaned and destitute title hero, but most importantly he is a brave and competent sailor, just and kind to ordinary seamen, and therefore their favourite oicer� He is obliged to quit the service ater challenging Captain Oakhum to a duel for his insults and abuse� he positive impression that Lieutenant Bowling makes on the reader, particularly modern reader, changes when he becomes a privateer and slaver further on in the story� He sails with Roderick to he Evolution of Sailor Hero in he 18th-Century British Novel 57 Guinea where they buy 400 black slaves whom they transport across the Atlantic and sell at a big proit in Spanish South America� It must be observed at this point that indignation of the modern reader at the slave trade would not have been generally shared by Smollett’s or Defoe’s readers, most of whom regarded it as just one of the forms of overseas mercantile activity� he slave trade which began in the early 15th century, continued until the second half of the 19th and involved the translocation of about ten million black Africans across the Atlantic to both Americas� Great Britain was “a foremost slaving power” and the biggest slave trading centres in Europe were the English ports in London, Bristol and Liverpool (Rawley 2003, 18 and 161)� Several retired naval ex-servicemen appear as secondary characters in Smollett’s second novel entitled Peregrine Pickle which came out in 1751� he most memorable of them is Commodore Hawser Trunnion who is now settled on dry ground and supposed to lead the life of a country squire, but continues to speak and behave as if he were still on board of his man-of-war� To his neighbours who are all landsmen he appears to be “altogether singular and odd”, as he calls his house garrison and obliges his domestics to sleep in hammocks and to keep watches round the clock (Smollett 1904, 14)� he house itself is surrounded by a ditch illed with water and the only access to it is via a drawbridge� In addition to that, the courtyard is planted with patereroes, that is small pieces of artillery used on warships, continually loaded with shot and ready for use� However, the most interesting feature of the old commodore is his idiolect, and more precisely his sailor’s jargon which inevitably puzzles his landsmen interlocutors� In the best scene of this kind Trunnion and his attendants are riding to a local parish church in a strange zigzag fashion, across the ields rather than straight along the road� A country man who is watching them in great surprise, advises the commodore to proceed straight on, to which the latter replies: “What! Right in the wind’s eye? …ahey! brother, where did you learn your navigation? Hawser Trunnion is not to be taught at this time of day how to lie his course, or keep his own reckoning� And as for you, brother, you best know the trim of your own frigate” (39–40)� Conclusions Concluding the article, sailor heroes are present in the British novel practically from its beginning� In the works of Daniel Defoe, the mariner is explicitly associated with a merchant and entrepreneur, and sailing with money making, which was grounded in the new economic order whose chief exponents in the Age of Enlightenment were extremely active and liberal-minded middle-class men� Defoe’s mariners also include privateers and pirates who sometimes form partnerships, 58 Marek Błaszak or a kind of corporate bodies� It is remarkable that their activity in those times did not difer too much from that of regular maritime traders� All of them propagate the idea of free commerce worldwide� he Scotsman Tobias George Smollett who served in the Royal Navy for a short time as a surgeon’s assistant, was the irst British writer to introduce naval sailors in his novels� In most cases, however, they are distorted and caricatured, mainly because their creator was a born satirist who oten used ridicule and irony in the presentation of his ictional characters (including landsmen), but also because naval service at that time was extremely hard and brutal� Nonetheless, Smollett’s noteworthy contribution to the literary portrait of the sailor is his use of the nautical jargon� It is worth adding that in the Romantic novel of the 19th century the sailor hero was portrayed by Jane Austen, who made him a paragon of patriotism, and by Sir Walter Scott, who depicted him in accordance with the contemporary literary fashion as an unhappy lover� hese Romantic sailor characters are never presented in their natural, that is aquatic, environment� Indeed, readers had to wait until the advent of Captain Frederick Marryat in the mid-Victorian Age for the sailor protagonist who is both a real professional and a fully convincing and credible literary creation� References Cohen, Margaret� 2013� he Novel and the Sea� Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press� Defoe, Daniel� 1725� A New Voyage Round the World by a Course never sailed before� London: A� Bettesworth and W� Mears� Defoe, Daniel� (1720) 1983� Captain Singleton� With a Biographical Note by Nicholas Mander� Gloucester: Alan Sutton� Defoe, Daniel� (1719) 1979� Robinson Crusoe with an Introduction by Angus Ross� Harmondsworth: Penguin� Defoe, Daniel� (1719) 1959� he Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe� London and Glasgow: Collins� Dottin, Paul� 1928� he Life and Strange and Surprising Adventures of Daniel Defoe [Vie et aventures de Daniel De Foe]� Translated from French by Louise Ragan� London: Stanley Paul and Co� Freeman, William� 1950� he Incredible De Foe� London: Herbert Jenkins� Jones, Claude� 1942� Smollett Studies� Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press� Kemp, Peter� 1970� he British Sailor. A Social History of the Lower Deck� London: J� M� Dent and Sons� he Evolution of Sailor Hero in he 18th-Century British Novel 59 Lloyd, Christopher� 1961� he Nation and the Navy. A History of Naval Life and Policy� London: he Cresset Press� Moore, John Robert� 1958� Daniel Defoe. Citizen of the Modern World� Chicago: he University of Chicago Press� Novak, Maximilian� 1962� Economics and the Fiction of Daniel Defoe� Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press� Peck, John� 2001� Maritime Fiction: Sailors and the Sea in British and American Novels, 1719–1917� New York: Palgrave� Rawley, James� 2003� London, Metropolis of the Slave Trade� Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press� Scott, Walter� (1821–24) 1928� he Lives of the Novelists, edited by Ernest Rhys, with an Introduction by George Saintsbury� London: J� M� Dent and Sons� Smollett, Tobias� (1748) 1904� he Adventures of Peregrine Pickle� London: he Daily Telegraph� Smollett, Tobias� (1751) 1988� he Adventures of Roderick Random with an Introduction and Notes by Paul Gabriel Boucé� Oxford: University Press� Katarzyna Strzyżowska Grub Street Literary Activity in 18th-Century London. A Flaw or an Asset of Augustan Literature? Abstract: he article refers to London Grub Street as a metaphor, presenting the geographical environs highlighted by the social character that the district bore in the 18th century, and establishing what Grub Street literary activity meant� he author examines who Grub Street writers were and what literary signiicance can be ascribed to their texts� Introduction Trying to ind Grub Street on the maps of contemporary London would be futile since, around 1830, the name was changed, and it is now Milton Street near Moorields� Nevertheless, the metaphorical sense of Grub Street lives on and its role in Augustan literature should be recognised� Naturally, topography must not be disregarded since it provided the context, without which Alexander Pope the most fervent critic of Grub Street, would not have made it notorious in his emblematic satire, he Dunciad� Ater all, the metaphor was based on the reality of the area of 18th-century London, and so its full force could hardly be grasped without some knowledge of the literal existence of the place� As Pat Rogers noted in his extensive study of Grub Street: “It [he Dunciad] is an almost topological poem: space and distance are part of its essential mechanics” (1972, 12)� hus, in order to fully understand the meaning of Grub Street as a metaphor, it is essential to present the geographical environs highlighted by the social character that the district bore at the time� More importantly, to establish what Grub Street literary activity means and whether it provides additional dimension of Augustan literature, it is necessary to examine who Grub Street writers were and what sort of texts were ascribed to them, that so many men of letters at the time criticised harshly� he economic and cultural eminence of London in eighteenth century Europe was undeniable� It had been steadily developing since the 16th century, and let its European competitors such as Paris behind� In England, every county contributed to the great national business of supplying London with food, coal and raw material in exchange for inished goods, luxurious and rare products obtained overseas� It became a symbol of national life, “… the popular pulse beat stronger 62 Katarzyna Strzyżowska there, in the turbulence of mobs, the enterprises of trade, the scheme of politics, the curiosity of intellect, the pursuit of amusement” (Ford 1982, 23)� Between 1660 and 1780, London underwent a transformation from a late medieval to an early modern city� “Aristocracy and gentry locked to London to be seen at court, to attend parliament, to settle their legal afairs, to enjoy the season and arrange marriages for their children, and to shop” (Waller 2001, 1)� Dorothy George also noticed that, “… it was rapidly growing in bricks and mortar than in population as people let the crowded lanes of the City for the newer parts of the town” (1966,15)� he importance of the ancient City (the area within the walls administered by the Lord Mayor) was diminishing� It was still the seat of power but industrial and residential London “… continued to grow outside her liberties and beyond her control” (George 1966, 16)� Long-established, traditional professions connected with the Church, law and medicine were no longer in the main stream since business and commerce, along with the well-developed port of London, were producing numbers of bankers, contractors, clerks and all types of new professions connected, e�g� with architecture or music, even with landscape gardening and journalism� Moreover, the vast hordes of workers from all walks of life lured by the opulence and unparalleled opportunities of London, not only provided the necessary workforce, but also changed the landscape of the city and its social composition, creating new public institutions, thus allowing the middle class to establish itself well on social scene and continue to prosper� Grub Street literary machine Undeniably, 18th-century literature was afected by the velocity of socio-economic changes, and the growth of the capital� he spirit of the time, governed by utilitarianism, feeling of responsibility, inquiry and reform of social evils, made many renowned Augustan men of letters turn their critical eyes to the reality of their contemporaries� Journalists, poets, and novelists dealt with this world of cofee-house and tavern, of church, theatre, and club, of book- and print-shop, of street-market, pleasure-garden, and residential square, until no territory seems more familiar; here, and in many personal record like the Journeys of Celia Fiennes, Boswell’s London Journal and Life of Johnson, Horace Walpole’s letters, and William Hickey’s Memoirs, is portrayed personality of an amply felt place� (Ford 1982, 23) It is out of the question that they did outstandingly well in their task of producing literature that criticised, instructed and hopefully corrected society� However, what they did not keep in the highest esteem, probably due to a diferent role they had assumed for literature to play, was the growing demand of the wide reading Grub Street Literary Activity in 18th-Century London 63 public, always hungry for news and entertainment� “he growth in prosperity and leisure throughout English society fuelled the consumption of literature” (Gollner 1989, 3)� Conveniently, Grub Street writers came to cater for these needs producing numerous texts of oten doubtful quality, but cheap and easily available for a vast public, adding not only another dimension to 18th-literature, but also signiicantly inluencing the status of a writer and the publishing industry� Philip Pinkus (1968) observed that the initiation of Grub Street literary activity was accompanied by a combination of circumstances, “…more readers, less enforcement, a compact market, powerful political parties who needed writers—created a new situation which became increasingly apparent by the last part of the 17th century…” (17)� he growing size of the reading public, as mentioned above, mainly comprised of wealthy, business-oriented Dissenters centred in London who created a new breed of readers with wide interests� Cofee-houses that were lowering all over the capital provided suitable premises where they could spend hours discussing freshly printed business, political and literary matters� It cannot be overlooked, that the lapse of the Licencing Act of 1695 gave writers more freedom, even though the government still felt responsible for safeguarding decency in what was printed� “But there was a sense of release, and writers had less fear about writing what they wished” (1968, 16)� According to Gollner (1989), the absence of the Act meant that “…irstly, the government lost direct control over what was published and, secondly, there was no efectual way of protecting the property of booksellers, known as copyright” (4)� Politicians of the highest ranks, like the First Secretary, Robert Harley were quick to realise the potential of far-reaching, free press and its impact on the public, “…they needed skilful writers, not scholars, who could ridicule and abuse and employ every blood-and-thunder tactic of paper warfare” (Pinkus 1968, 15)� Grub Street writers were oten their irst choice� However, one may question whether it was the right move, due to widespread, negative associations connected with Grub Street literary activity� he term “Grub Street” referred to the production of literary hack writers� “Hack” has a colloquial and pejorative meaning and describes a writer who is paid to produce a text� It derives from a word “hackney” which was used to describe a horse that was easy to ride and could be hired� In he Dunciad, Pope aptly describes hack writing as “…all the Grub-street race” (qtd� in Sowerby 1988, 198)� Interestingly, the etymology of the name Grub Street seems to be in line with what it came to be associated with� In modern German, the noun “die Grube” may stand for: pit, waste-disposal or open grave� Online Etymology Dictionary provides the following meaning: 64 Katarzyna Strzyżowska grub (v�)–c� 1300, “dig in the ground” from hypothetical Old English grybban, grubbian from West Germanic *grubbjan (cognates: Middle Dutch grobben, Old High German grubilon “to dig, search”, grub (n�)–larva of an insect perhaps from grub (v�) on the notion of “digging insect”� Similarly, Ronald Paulson suggests that: “…the derivation is from ‘grube’, a drain or ditch� Forms which are found in early records are ‘Grobstrat’ and Grubbestrate (twelth century)� he name therefore carried overtones of refuse-disposal; and suited the satirists’rhetorical aim of connecting vice and squalor with the sewerage of the town” (in Rogers 1971, 24)� It has to be noted that some references to Grub Street, in the literary sense, had been made as early as 1630 by John Taylor1 who might be classiied as a hack writer� However, the term became more current during the Civil War when a large number of political pamphlets were produced on demand� It is in the 18th century when Grub Street acquired its full identity and became a term of common usage� Much of what is known about Grub Street and hack writers, is presented by Alexander Pope in his contemptible poem, he Dunciad� One Cell there is, concealed from vulgar eye, he Cave of Poverty and Poetry� Keen, hollow winds howl thro’ the bleak recess, Emblem of Music caused by Emptiness� (in Sowerby 1988, 198) One of Pope’s concerns expressed in the poem was the uncontrollable growth of journalism and book production which he feared was becoming a marketable commodity� Ian Jack in his study of Augustan satire, observed that “he Dunciad…is not only an attack on bad writers and bad writing: it is Pope’s pessimistic commentary on an important development of his time� It is a bitter protest against the levelling-down of literary standards” (1971, 117)� In his picture of Grub Street and its denizens, Pope does not look far for metaphor or conceit, mere London streets and generally ill-reputed mob served his purpose� “he image of the City, in Augustan satire, is a sombre one� Pope impelled by his ‘rage for order’, ixes again and again on the thorough-fares of London in order to image disorder” (Rogers 1972, 21)� hus, it was not at all accidental that his choice of place, inhabitants or institutions brought vivid images� Street names were descriptive labels, very oten bearing symbolic meanings, e�g� people held a strong belief that the Great 1 John Taylor (1580–1653)–minor English poet of humble background and natural git of verse� A pamphleteer, and journalist who called himself ‘the Water Poet’ working as a boatman on the hames for forty years produced a number of satires, verse essays providing a picture of his own times� (Capp 1994) Grub Street Literary Activity in 18th-Century London 65 Fire of 1666 was God’s warning against gluttony since it started in Pudding Lane and ended at Pie Corner� Many, like Grub Street, could also indicate what one could ind there� Here she beholds the chaos dark and deep, Where nameless somethings in their causes sleep … Maggots half-formed in rhyme exactly meet, And learn to crawl upon poetic feet� Here one poor word an hundred clenches makes, And ductile dullness new meanders takes; here motley images her fancy strike, Figures ill paired, and similes unlike� She sees a mob of metaphors advance, Pleased with the madness of the mazy dance: How tragedy and comedy embrace; How farce and epic get a jumbled race … � (Pope in Sowerby 1988, 198) It has to be noted that Pope was neither original nor the only one to use unpleasant physical facts and the familiar topography of London� Many of the contemporary Augustan satirists “…saw the moral, comic and artistic possibilities ofered up to them by the accidents of urban ecology” (Rogers 1972, 21)� “…Swit reverts to the dirt and rubble of the streets; his is a world of garrets, night-cellars, prostitutes” (8)� he language of he Dunciad makes Pope’s view point of Grub Street literary activity conspicuous and puts it far from any sort of act of creation, clarity, coherence or polite idiom–ideals he expected to ind in a literary piece� Instead, “…there are poetic ‘Maggots’, crawling about the crannies of the Cave, along with ‘spawn’ waiting to be hatched by ‘a warm hird day’� here are showers of sermons, replenished like clouds ‘from some bog below’… � here is mention of ordure, evil vapours, a strange mutant ‘vast egg’: it is like a biological catastrophe brought about by the onset of Dulness” (Rogers 1972, 139)� It has to be irmly stated that it was neither Pope and his satire, nor any other Augustan wits with their ill opinions of Grub Street that brought about ill fame to the place� Pat Rogers clearly suggested that Grub Street had acquired its notoriety for a combination of reasons before it came to stand for the literary underworld� Studying the maps of 18th-century London, it is possible to localise Grub Street in the parish of Cripplegate Ward Without, “Grub Street was a mere stone’s throw from the City within the walls: but in sociological terms it was light-years distant” (Rogers 1972, 21)� It was situated at the heart of a district long known for its bad repute, poverty and disease� Grub Street was oten associated with the neighbouring Moorields and Bedlam� “It… had windows that looked out both on Bedlam and to a churchyard–on a madhouse and a burial ground” (1972, 44) evoking obvious connotations in people’s minds about its denizens� 66 Katarzyna Strzyżowska hus, it is not surprising that hack writers who would oten ind themselves lodging there, had to bear a stigma of being merchandising scribblers whose work was associated with mercenary practice rather than literary creation� Needless to say, 18th-century public opinion coined a harsh, and straightforward opinion of the Grub Street “… a place notable for literary crime, for poverty of invention, for the prostitution of poetry, and for the retailing of shoddy stolen goods” (Rogers 1972, 44)…and the writers that lived there� “… the hacks were drinking, whoring lot, abandoned to every vice–worse, they were a blasphemy against the sacred principles of thrit, industry and cash payment” (Pinkus 1968, 13)� Interestingly though, as mentioned above, the gentleman class and politicians, regardless of their contemptible attitudes towards the hacks, found them useful in their political wars� It was generally known that many of Grub Street writers dreamt of a better life for themselves and were thus forced to sell their skills, simply to survive and what Pinkus points at is the fact that many “…were just as learned, intelligent and witty as the best of their present day counterparts” (1968, 14)� Having found themselves on the verge of starvation, with family to support, as sympathetically illustrated by William Hogarth in his sketch entitled he Distressed Poet, they had nothing to lose, no inhibitions in writing on the most diicult and dangerous issues that could bring them trouble, pillory, imprisonment or even death� “hey were more daring, possibly because they took themselves less seriously, because they were poor, because, being less respectable, they had less to lose–and because the libel laws were lax” (14)� It is unquestionable that many had a right to frown angrily on hearing about Grub Street writing, since even hacks themselves did not abandon the awful truth about their existence and position� One of the most renowned, 18th-century hack, Tom Brown, whom many referred to as the prince of Grub Street, admitted that he wrote for a living� Believe me, sirs, as I am a sinner, I writ that satire for a dinner … All friends I tried, not one was willing To credit me with one poor shilling: In this distress, without advising, I fell to cursed satirizing� (qtd� in Pinkus 1968, 41) Hence, one may easily come to understand that the bone of contention between respectable writers and hacks was simply money� he situation of the former was slightly better, since very oten, they had some private income or were supported by wealthy patrons� Even though by the beginning of the 18th century an author’s relationship with his patron changed becoming less important and less attractive Grub Street Literary Activity in 18th-Century London 67 to the authors, Grub Street writers had no support at all, and usually had to depend solely on their writing and agility to escape debtor’s prison� However, it does not mean that hacks were fully independent since in order to earn their living they had to publish their work, turning to booksellers who at the time were a combination of modern publishers, wholesalers and retailers�2 Modern studies suggest that 18th-century booksellers were responsible for displacing the printers and the Stationer’s Company, taking control over the publishing trade, and applying “…commercial principles to the manufacture of literary goods” (Ford 1982, 153)� hey were business-men, whose strength was to be found in capital, thus they ruthlessly followed rules of trade, rather than Augustan aesthetics� Daniel Defoe, considered by many of his contemporaries as a literary tradesman rather than an artist, admitted that Grub Street was a part of this literary industry, with booksellers in charge: “Writing, you know, Mr Applebee, is become a very considerable Branch of the English Commerce…he Booksellers are the Master Manufacturers or Employers� he several Writers, Authors, Copyers, Subwriters, and all other Operators with pen and Ink are the workmen employed by the said Master Manufacturers” (in Ford 1982, 153)� Booksellers, like Grub Street where most oten they operated, evoked feelings of contempt and their activity was associated with literary piracy� he most prominent rogue bookseller of his time, immortalized by Swit and Pope, and whom the latter saw as a precise opposition to his own literary career, was Edmund Curll who was believed to represent Grub Street’s very spirit� Paul Bains and Paul Rogers introduce him as “…a self-made bookseller with reputation for piracy, deviousness, and obscenity” (2007, 1)� It is undeniable that Curll was not an honourable person, there even might be some truth in the rumour that was spread in his life time that “…he kept a stable of writers, slept them three to a bed, advanced them money for work which, it must be confessed, they sometimes, had no intention of completing…” (homas Amory in Pinkus 1968, 17)� hey do underline, however, that otentimes literary history is told from a point of view of people like Alexander Pope, who, representing high classical culture who demonize commercial publishers and ignore wider public and their needs� Consequently, in most minds, Edmund Curll survives as a scandalmonger who brings shame to 18th-century literature� However, to give him his due, it has to be admitted that whatever he decided to publish, regardless of the quality and literary value, was dictated by his wish to please and entertain 2 An in-depth study of complex diferences between bookselling and publishing, with reference to the position of the Stationers Company in the 18th century is provided by Marjorie Plant in he English Book Trade (1965)� 68 Katarzyna Strzyżowska the society� Dr John Arbuthnot, Pope’s fellow satirist, once joked that “…Curll had managed to add a new terror to death by his practice of rushing out cheap and inaccurate biographies of recently-dead celebrities” (in Bains and Rogers 2007,1)� He consciously thrived on controversy and scandal since he believed that it was good for business� Pinkus claims that his publishing tactics made him almost a myth and his name came to be closely identiied with Grub Street literary underworld� His idea was to gain publicity that, according to Curll, was to be guaranteed by the title page, not the content� Richard Savage, a Grub Street writer himself, in his satire of the hack entitled An Author to be Lett, portrays a hack with a number of references to Curll and his tactics� My pamphlets sell many more impressions than those of celebrated writers; the secret of this is, I learned from Curll to clap a new title-page to the sale of every half hundred; so that when my bookseller has sold two hundred and ity copies, my book generally enters into the sixth edition… � (Pinkus 1968, 78) Sadly, no matter which tactics were incorporated, many Grub Street writers and publishers were rarely rich, nor were able to change their wretched fate� heir life was never safe, and to date there are no extensive records of hacks who managed to escape Grub Street ghetto and enjoy a respectable life� Pinkus noted that the 18th century was not ripe enough for one to live by the pen� Roger L’Estrange, for all his former eminence, died a broken old man� John Dunton, for all his successes and prodigious activity, was hopelessly in debt� Tom Brown lived his last years in poverty and ill health and died relatively young, John Tutchin, editor of the Observator, was beaten up for a supposed libel and died soon ater� William King was diseased and in debt and was to die shortly� George Ridpath, of the Flying-Post, had to leave the country� (1968, 227) In 1712, the Stamp Act introduced by the government, mainly to restrain political propaganda slowed down Grub Street literary activity� Surprisingly, however, it did not silence the press, nor kill Grub Street trade totally� In one of his letters to Stella of 1712, Swit suggested that it was the end of hack writing� Do you know that Grub Street is dead and gone last week? No more ghosts or murders now for love or money� I plied it pretty close the last fortnight and published at least seven penny papers of my own, besides some of other people’s; but now every single half sheet pays a half penny to the queen� he Observator is fallen; the Medlays we jumbled together with the Flying Post, the Examiner is deadly sick; the Spectator keeps up and doubles its price; I know not how long it will hold� Have you seen the red stamp the papers are marked with? Methinks the stamping it is worth a half penny� (Swit 1841, 252) Once the shock wore of, pamphlets and poems continued to be published, but still, it was already a signal that Grub Street phenomenon is on its way out� In Grub Street Literary Activity in 18th-Century London 69 1755, Samuel Johnson, who in fact originated from Grub Street, immortalized it in his dictionary� he fate of Grub Street writers was also evoked by the Victorians who showed some sort of appreciation and recognition, dictated mainly by pity towards hacks who were perceived as suferers and victims of society� Conclusions Having briely examined the Grub Street literary activity, it is not at all easy to determine straightforwardly whether it was a law, a shameful episode in Augustan literature or a local colour which enriched it and gave it another dimension� Facts concerning dubious literary standards, tactics or objectives of Grub Street writers and publishers cannot be ignored� Alexander Pope, however much he despised them, could not restore to lies only when describing the place and its denizens in he Dunciad� On the other hand, however, one has to take into consideration the fact that the reality of 18th-century England, London in particular, started to be governed by the principles of commerce which many of the Augustan wits could accept in everyday life, but literature that was sacred for them� Grub Street hacks and booksellers could not aford to keep literature to the chosen; they grew sensitive to public taste and the requirements of the literary market� hey might have lacked the literary skill, but they were quick to make up for it by ingenuity and originality of their writing� It is thus possible to conclude, quoting Pinkus, that “Very little of enormous quantity of their writing deserves a permanent place in our literature, though much of it is good enough to deserve our interest” (1968: 17), and because Grub Street writers managed to please the public palate providing a new kind of writing, though not perfect, their activity should not be seen as a serious blow to Augustan literature� References Baines, Paul. and Rogers Pat� 2007� Edmund Curll, Bookseller. Oxford: Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press� Capp, Bernard� 1994� he World of John Taylor the Water-Poet 1578–1653� Oxford: Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press� Daiches, David� 1994� A Critical History of English Literature. he Restoration to the Present Day. Vol. II. London: Mandarin Paperbacks� Deutsch-EnglischWörterbuch� Accessed October 17, 2015� http://www�dict�cc/deutsch-englisch/ Grube�html� Ford, Boris� (ed�) 1982� he New Pelican Guide to English Literature: From Dryden to Johnson� London: Penguin Books� 70 Katarzyna Strzyżowska George, Mary, Dorothy� 1966� London Life in the Eighteenth Century� Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd� Gollner, Joe� 1989� he Natural History of Grub Street in Augustan England� Accessed October 17, 2015� http://jgollner�typepad�com/iles/natural_history_of_ grub_street_jgollner_1989�pdf� Jack, Ian� 1971� Intention and Idiom in English Poetry 1666–1750.Oxford: Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press� Online Etymology Dictionary� Accessed November 02, 2015� http://www�etymonline� com/index�php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=grub+street� Pinkus, Philip� 1968� Grub Street Stripped Bare� London: Constable and Company Limited� Rogers, Pat� 1972� Grub Street. Studies in a Subculture. London: Methuen & Co Ltd� Roger, Pat� (ed�) 2007� he Cambridge Companion to Alexander Pope� Cambridge: Cambridge University Press� Sowerby, Robin� (ed�) 1988� Alexander Pope: Selected Poetry and Prose. London: Routledge� Sutherland, James� 1962� English Satire� Cambridge: Cambridge University Press� Swit, Jonathan. Roscoe, homas� 1841� “Journal to Stella”� In he Works of Jonathan Swit Containing Interesting and Valuable Papers not Hitherto Published. With Memoir of the Author. 2 Volumes� London: Washbourne� Waller, Maureen� 2001� 1700, Scenes from London Life. London: Sceptre� Iryna Senchuk he Evolution of W. B. Yeats’s Idea of a Drama: from on Baile’s Strand to he Death of Cuchulain Abstract: he study, based on three Cuchulain plays, focuses on Yeats’s idea of a theatre and drama and traces the evolution of his dramatic style from On Baile’s Strand to he Death of Cuchulain, with At the Hawk’s Well as a middle point� It aims to emphasise the interaction between the dramatic theory Yeats developed throughout his career and his works� hough the reputation of William B� Yeats (1865–1939) as one of the major writers in English of the 20th century rests primarily on his poetry, he also identiied himself a dramatist: “I need a theatre; I believe myself to be a dramatist; … I seem to myself most alive at the moment when a room full of people share the one loty emotion” (Yeats 1917)� Yeats’s contribution as a playwright has been accepted and emphasized in a number of studies since the 1960-ies, to mention Helen Vendler’s Yeats’s Vision and the Later Plays (1963), Peter Ure’s Yeats, the Playwright (1963), Richard Taylor’s he Drama of W. B. Yeats (1976), James W� Flannery’s W. B. Yeats and the Idea of a heatre (1976), Katharine Worth’s he Irish Drama of Europe from Yeats to Beckett (1978), and Richard Ellmann’s Yeats: he Man and the Masks (1979)� More recent books on Yeats’s plays include Christopher Murray’s Twentieth-Century Irish Drama (2000) and Michael McAteer’s Yeats and European Drama (2010)� Yeats saw drama both as an appropriate visual medium for his self-expression and as the art mode that could appeal to “a deep of the mind” and make people “share the one loty emotion�” While forming his vision of modern theatre, Yeats rejected the realistic drama concerned with character and social problematics, the realistic staging with its “visual coherence of the stage scene,” and the realistic acting with its “charismatic force of bodily display” (Worthen 1991, 100, 54) and turned to diferent experiences� he Wagnerian idea of synthetic theatre, the symbolist drama of M� Maeterlinck and V� de l’Isle Adam, O� Wilde’s Salomé, the Nietzschean vision of the Greek tragedy, G� Craig’s advocacy of mask and marionette, as well as the ritual performances of the Japanese Noh plays were successively chosen as models which Yeats used and transformed in a new structure—a coherent mythological poetic drama of the interior, having no distinguished precedent in English: In poetical drama there is…an antithesis between character and lyric poetry…Yet when we go back a few centuries and enter the great periods of drama, character grows less and sometimes disappears, and there is much lyric feeling� …we call this art poetical, 72 Iryna Senchuk …because it delights in picturing the moment of exaltation, of excitement, of dreaming� (Yeats 1910, 175, 177) Like Wagner, Yeats considered poetic drama to be a perfect dramatic form where “the inal appeal was directly to the senses, and had meaning only when it was justiied by emotional necessity” (Styan 1983, 6)� However, using the blank verse line, Yeats, unlike the 19th-century verse playwrights, viewed it as an integral part of the internal structure of the play� In order to gain a formal coherence, the unity of language, gesture and scene, he successively abandoned such traditional aspects of the 19th-century mode of poetic drama as descriptive lyrical passages and artiicially “poetic” line constructions, realising the diference between a poetic theatre and verse drama which is to do “with the theatre’s ability to stage the text” (Worthen 1991, 101)� hus, the vehicle of Yeats’s poetic drama was verse, its key mechanism was imagery, and its substance was myth: he employed myth as a source of poetic imagery and the mythic method to structure his poetic universe� he venture into myth allowed Yeats to combine allegory and psychological symbolism, the venture into Celtic myth also allowed him to activate national consciousness, utilizing theatre as a vehicle to communicate the legend directly to the audience� hree one-act plays–On Baile’s Strand, At the Hawk’s Well and he Death of Cuchulain–are representative as for the evolution of Yeats’s dramatic style and technique from the conventional poetic mode to a more experimental form for verse drama� hough all three plays took as their source Cuchulain myth, Yeats treated it with considerable freedom: being not interested in recounting the legend of Cuchulain for informational motives, the playwright rather used it as theme to reveal moments of intense feeling and to communicate larger issues of nation and politics� hus, Cuchulain transforms into the “myth-founded Mask of Ireland which, being opposite to the modern world, was the Mask for the modern world” (Unterecker 1959, 17), contributing to his idea of the Unity of Culture� On Baile’s Strand (1904) is irst of Yeats’s plays to concentrate on the way heroic Cuchulain confronts his destiny and to realise the unity of tone, setting, character and image which is the distinguished feature of his later dance plays� J� Flannery considers it to be “the most perfect early realisation of his dialectical drama” (Flannery 1976, 307)� his play centres on the conlict between the physical world of imposed social norms and material values represented by Conchubar and idealistic, individualized mode of existence personiied by Cuchulain, the conlict between political mediocrity and heroism� he tragic dimension of the situation is that Cuchulain, despite his heroic and freedom-loving nature, is forced to surrender to Conchubar’s will: he Evolution of W� B� Yeats’s Idea of a Drama 73 And I must be obedient in all things; Give up my will to yours; go where you please; Come when you call; sit at the council-board Among the unshapely bodies of old men� I whose mere name has kept this country safe� (Yeats 1997, 54–55) his conlict between an individual and community eventually transforms into the inner conlict of Cuchulain, which drives the action of the play as tragedy— from the scene when, realizing his alienation, the hero swears Conchubar’s oath of obedience to the closing scene when he kills his unrecognized son, goes mad in his grief and turns to attack the sea which “masters him”� he structure of On Baile’s Strand depends on a double perspective� he irst perspective is mythical, representing Cuchulain, Conchubar and Cuchulain’s unrecognized son� he Blind Man and the Fool provide the second perspective� he Blind Man knows about Cuchulain’s past deeds and the fate that will befall father and son� Finally, it is he who reveals to Cuchulain the identity of the slain warrior: “It is his own son that he has slain” (Yeats 1997, 70)� Paralleling the argument between Cuchulain and Conchubar, the Blind Man and the Fool frame the heroic action and function as narrators to the main conlict, though they do not take part in it� It is curious to note that in a later version of 1921, ater Yeats had begun experimenting with Noh techniques, masks were used for the Blind Man and the Fool only, depersonalizing them as characters and transforming them into symbols of human destiny: “Life drits between a fool and a blind man / To the end, and nobody can know his end” (67)� hese two could also be interpreted as two facets of the trickster archetype� Yeats establishes a parallel between the Fool and Cuchulain, the Blind Man and Conchubar which is already apparent in the irst scene, when in the empty hall at Dundealgan, the Blind Man gets into Conchubar’s chair, predicts the future ceremony of putting the oath upon Cuchulain and enacts it, choosing the role of the High King, while the Fool is compelled to play Cuchulain� his juxtaposition of the Fool and the Blind Man as corresponding igures to the noble characters of mythological Cuchulain and Conchubar contributes to the unity of image in On Baile’s Strand� To confront diferent modes of being in On Baile’s Strand Yeats combined verse and prose: the Blind Man and the Fool, representing the world of common reality, speak in prose, whereas mythological Cuchulain and Conchobar, representing the heroic world, speak in verse� So the shits from prose to verse and vice versa seem to signal the changing of speakers and help the audience to identify the physical world and the heroic realm� he use of ritualistic scenes and objects as symbols is a feature which On Baile’s Strand shares with other Cuchulain plays� he most symbolic scene here is the 74 Iryna Senchuk ritualistic ceremony presided over by three women who guard the “threshold and the hearthstone” (Yeats 1997, 61)� Using occult forces and the bowl of ire, they bind Cuchulain’s strength as warrior to strengthen Conchubar’s authority� In this play, the bowl of ire, that is “tamed” ire, symbolizes the hearth and thus binds the hero to service and obedience to the High King, his children and the tribe� Another symbol, which destroys the illusion of equality within the community and signiies Conchobar’s superiority, is the High King’s chair which is much bigger than the other ones in the assembly-house� hus, the chair is not just the object of interior, but rather a symbol of social status� By 1916, Yeats had challenged the scenic priorities of stage realism and his discovery of the Japanese Noh plays was an important moment in his career� Yeats aimed at eliminating all traces of naturalistic or imitative acting and claimed the actor to be a depersonalized symbol pointing through the gestures and the movements of the body to a meaning beyond what was visible on the stage� In the Noh drama, he found certain proof of his own theory of drama and a clue to more meaningful coherence not available through the European theatrical tradition� With the help of Japanese plays, as the playwright claimed, he had “invented a form of drama, distinguished, indirect, and symbolic, …an aristocratic form” (Yeats 1916, ii)� Yeats praised the emotional “subtlety” and the simplicity of the Noh form, its fusion of word, gesture and music, its stylization of character achieved by the use of mask, and the ritualized performance� He adapted Noh scenery which provided him with the idea of a small intimate audience meeting in a drawing room and incorporated the use of masks, serving his idea of “impersonality” and “symbolism” in art� In his essay Certain Noble Plays of Japan Yeats wrote: A mask will enable me to substitute for the face of some commonplace player, or for that face repainted to suit his own vulgar fancy, the ine invention of the sculptor… A mask never seems but a dirty face, and no matter how close you go is still a work of art; nor shall we lose by staying the movement of the features, for deep feeling is expressed by a movement of the whole body� (Yeats 1916, vii) he mask allowed Yeats to objectify the personal, to give the impersonal “truth” to the appearance and to achieve the distancing which he desired for drama� To intensify the emotional appeal and to emphasize the psychological symbolism of his plays, Yeats incorporated into them such elements as musical accompaniment and stylized dance� Rhythmic music and the sounds of drum, gong or zither were intended to accompany the speciic rhythmic motions of the actors� But it is oten in the inal symbolic dance that the unity of emotion is resolved: “…the music, the beauty of the voice all come to climax in pantomimic dance” (Yeats 1916, i)� At the Hawk’s Well, for instance, is centred on and he Death of he Evolution of W� B� Yeats’s Idea of a Drama 75 Cuchulain is concluded by a ritual dance which intensiies the unity of image on stage and contributes to thematic meaning� Yeats’s adaptation of the Noh elements difers from play to play and his four Plays for Dancers (At the Hawk’s Well among them) as well as his later dramatic works represent a distinctive form, something completely new in the Western and Eastern traditions� At the Hawk’s Well (1916) is Yeats’s irst play the formal origin of which has been sought in the Japanese drama� Although the Noh inluence in this play can signify a departure from Yeats’s earlier crat, it also provides the playwright with a new venue to explore the story of Cuchulain which is evoked by the Musicians but, in fact, is not based on any of the Cuchulain legends� At the Hawk’s Well is also Yeats’s irst play to adapt Noh scenery and, as stage directions suggest, “he stage is any bare space before a wall against which stands a patterned screen” (Yeats 1997, 113)� he opening lyric sets up the tone and the scene of the play: the well represented by a black cloth, the withered tree, Cuchulain climbing the mountain: I call to the eye of the mind A well long choked up and dry And boughs long stripped by the wind, And I call to the mind’s eye� (113) he audience is immediately invited to participate, though not physically, in the action, because the verse actually calls upon the “eye of the mind”� So the audience is asked to imagine the setting� In the Noh, setting is an integral part of the text of the play� he stage itself is bare by Western standards and characters announce where they are and what their surroundings look like� hus language in its evocative role here takes precedence over representational background� In Yeats’s play, the scene is also built verbally and identiied ritualistically with the stylized gestures of unfolding or folding the black cloth, signifying the well� So in this play, we see the audience and setting as supporting igures to hero’s quest� While the irst stanza of the opening lyric sets the scene on a descriptive level, the second stanza, sung by Musicians as they ceremoniously unfold and fold the cloth, sets the scene on a thematic level, representing the point of view of the hero: a short heroic life is better than a long monotonous one: “What were his life soon done! / Would he lose by that or win?” (Yeats 1997, 114)� he ceremony of folding and unfolding the cloth, which opens and closes the scene, along with Musician’s utterance, “I call to the eye of the mind”, remind of some incantation and function as attributes of the ritual of passage from the real world to “the sacred time of myth” (Eliade), to eternity the entrance to which is guarded by a hawk-like woman, the Guardian of the Well, that appears on the stage� 76 Iryna Senchuk Along with the Young Man who names himself Cuchulain, Yeats introduced into his play the Old Man, “Who has been watching by his well / hese ity years” (Yeats 1997, 115), resentfully waiting for the well water to rise� He is used mainly as a plot device to unfold the action, a type of the omniscient narrator� It is the Old Man who describes the Guardian of the Well and narrates her curse to Cuchulain: …here falls a curse On all who have gazed in her unmoistened eyes; …hat curse may be Never to win a woman’s love and keep it; Or always to mix hatred in the love; Or it may be that she will kill your children, hat you will ind them, their throats torn and bloody, Or you will be so maddened that you kill them With your own hand� (119) he Old Man, thus, foreshadows not only the action that follows but the destiny Cuchulain encounters: his prediction connects this play to the earlier On Baile’s Strand, completing the Cuchulain cycle� As a character, the Old Man is like the setting which is desolate and motionless: “His movements, like those of the other persons of the play, suggest a marionette” (115); they are synchronized with the music and correspond to the principle of stylization that governs Yeats’s conception of the play� Harold Bloom claims the Old Man to be “an image of what Yeats fears to become”, the “degrading” mask of age (Bloom 1970, 297)� he two dramatic igures—the Old Man and the Young Man—however, lack psychological depth and are rather emblematic, representing two models of behaviour–that of a coward and a hero� Unlike the Old Man, Cuchulain dares to gaze into the Guardian’s eyes, though losing his peace of mind, and, therefore, makes his choice to be a hero� Raising his spear, he exclaims: “He comes! Cuchulain, son of Sualtim, comes” (Yeats 1997, 122)� his assertion is that of a man who has chosen his identity� However, it is in the third person: that is, in accepting his destiny of hero, he has depersonalized himself as an archetype� It is crucial to the interpretation of the play to realize that Cuchulain thinks of the Well as a source of immortality he quests for, though in Irish mythology and folklore, it is usually viewed as a source of foresight: “He who drinks, they say, / Of that miraculous water lives for ever” (Yeats 1997, 117)� Immortality acquires here mystical meaning and is understood as the possession of the sacred knowledge of the mysteries of the universe� Such interpretation inds common ground with the ideas of Gnosticism Yeats was interested in� Like Gnostics, Yeats regarded immortality as a mystical process of revelation experienced when “men heap his burial-mound and all the history ends” (121)� In the light of the Gnostic teaching, he Evolution of W� B� Yeats’s Idea of a Drama 77 the Old Man is, thus, the representation of the earthbound and materialistic beings (hyletics), who recognize only the physical reality; Cuchulain represents those who live largely in their psyche (psychics) and have little awareness of the spiritual world beyond matter and mind; the Well of immortality is a metaphor of the universe, that is a source of transcendent knowledge� (So, in this play, objects are symbols of symbols: a black cloth symbolizes a well which in turn symbolizes immortality and wisdom�) herefore, both Cuchulain and the Old Man, being not spiritual, fail to drink the waters of immortality� It is signiicant that in Yeats’s play the Well is hidden within three hazels� he Celts believed hazelnuts gave one wisdom and inspiration� he image of a hawk-like Guardian of the Well is also symbolic: being a part of the supernatural world, “the Woman of the Sidhe” (119), she serves as a mystical symbol of divinity and as a medium in the hero’s spiritual progress� So the Hawk-Woman guards the sacred knowledge of the universe, the divine wisdom, which is the Well covered with the fruit of knowledge–the hazelnuts–and illed with magic substance giving immortality–the “miraculous water”� At the Hawk’s Well is, probably, the most symbolic of Yeats’s plays� Along with such symbols as a “well” and a “hazelnut” as well as character symbolism, the playwright employs the symbols of “wind” and “withered leaves”� he wind symbolizes the process of spiritual rebirth and traces the inluence of P� B� Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind� Yeats’s play also shares with Shelley’s ode an image of “withered leaves”: “he withered leaves of the hazel / Half choke the dry bed of the well” (Yeats 1997, 114)� hrough a metaphor of the natural cycle, “withered leaves” may symbolize future revival (a new birth)� On the other hand, “withered leaves” (decayed, dried-up) may symbolize the Old Man’s wasted life because of Cuchulain’s parallel—“You seem as dried up as the leaves” (119)� Besides, in At the Hawk’s Well Yeats made use of incorporeal elements such as dance, music and mask with symbolic dimension, even the marionette-like movements of the characters reinforce both the sense of unreality and the symbolism of predestination� In his book Yeats: he Man and the Masks, Richard Ellmann (1979) explains the symbolic method of At the Hawk’s Well and its relevance in Yeats’s dramatic evolution: hough the play is on Cuchulain, it has no single source in the Cuchulain legends and is purely symbolic, the kind of play Yeats had wanted to create in the nineties but for which he had then lacked method …Yeats had at last found an adequate medium for his dramatic talents; the collusion which we have observed in his earlier dramas between humanity and pattern no longer occurs when the actors wear masks, when they speak a highly specialized language, when a choras announces that all is set within the mind’s eye, and when the climax is a symbolic dance� (215) 78 Iryna Senchuk he stylized dance in this play is performed by a representative of the supernatural world� It has the integral function in the pattern of the action, because the Guardian of the Well dances to lure Cuchulain away from the rising of the immortal waters� Furthermore, to display the interplay between diferent levels of reality in At the Hawk’s Well, Yeats does not use shits between prose and verse: unlike On Baile’s Strand, it is all written in verse� his signalling function is here carried out by a combination of contrasts between music and its absence, and between masks and painted faces� According to the stage directions, the two recognisable human characters are wearing masks, while the musicians and the Guardian of the Well have their faces painted to resemble masks� he painted faces are there to give a physical element to the spiritual character of the Hawk-Woman and the Musicians who, being clearly human, live a life outside the conventional society and are engaged with the spiritual� he masks of the two human men have the efect of depersonalizing, suggesting the timelessness of myth in patterns of action and providing what Yeats called “separating strangeness” (distancing from life)� It is impossible to trace in detail all of Yeats’s adaptations of elements from the Noh tradition; the important thing is to recognize that in each case the materials of the play are controlled by the demands of the particular play� Yeats’s last play he Death of Cuchulain (1939) dramatizes the inal stage in the life of his hero� hough the saga serves as a basis for this Cuchulain play, Yeats made some alterations to suit his own purpose� His last dramatic production is very complex because of its fractured structure, of the special characteristics of its introduction and of the diicult allusions of the song closing it� Yeats combined here myth, history and present� he play begins with rather realistic prologue of the Old Man who has been “asked to produce a play”, then it moves into the mythical universe, in which the inner play takes place, and ends in the world of reality� he supreme Irish hero’s death is, therefore, afected by two realistic fragments framing it� As for the scenery, the stage directions indicate “A bare stage of any period” (Yeats 1997, 263) in the tradition of the Noh drama, which ofers a great possibility of interpretations: it may refer to all ages, all societies, all traditions, emphasising timelessness of action� However, the curtain falls and the stage gives way to Irish mythological past with Cuchulain, his mistress Eithne Inguba, and the war goddess Morrigu foreshadowing hero’s death� he Death of Cuchulain is in three scenes, each separated by the stage darkening and the curtain falling� As the stage is plunged into darkness, pipe and drum music begin and only then the lights come up and actors appear to commence the new scene� Such technique stresses the fragmented impact of the play and ixes each episode independently in an audience’s memory� he function of Musicians here he Evolution of W� B� Yeats’s Idea of a Drama 79 is cut down to music accompaniment which serves a pause between scenes� he irst scene shows Eithne under Maeve’s spell and Cuchulain who, notwithstanding bad signs, decides to join the battle immediately� he second scene is constructed of a series of “critical moments” in which various images from Cuchulain’s past are analysed, thus completing the Cuchulain cycle� he hero re-enters the empty stage wounded to death and tries to fasten himself to the stone so that he may die, like a hero, upon his feet� He is followed by Aoife� he moving dialogue between these two shapes the recollections of the tragedies they have endured in On Baile’s Strand and At the Hawk’s Well: “Aoife, the mother of my son� We met / At the Hawk’s Well under the withered trees� / I killed him upon Baile’s Strand /…/ You have a right to kill me” (Yeats 1997, 268)� And though Cuchulain admits that she has the right to kill him, the scene abruptly changes and Aoife leaves the stage� It is the Blind Man who enters the stage; the one who is called back from On Baile’s Strand to kill the hero for twelve pennies, using the knife with which he cuts his food� Cuchulain mocks at his condition, realising its absurdity: “Twelve pennies! What better reason for killing a man? / You have a knife, but have you sharpened it?” (270)� Peter Ure (1963) comments on the scene: his is an acceptance, but it is not a transiguration, and Aoife who had all the reason in the heroic world for killing Cuchulain is cheated� he story in which revenge would have meaningfully completed work, life, and death is carefully built up but does not resolve into its climax; the actual ending… embodies a resounding irony� (82) So the revenge play is undercut by a counter-structure which dissolves the revenge into travesty (Murray 2000, 33)� he basic split in this scene is that between the heroic (Cuchulain) and the anti-heroic (Blind Man), between the world airming the values of humanity and the calculating world of reason respectively: Cuchulain� I think that you know everything, Blind Man� … Blind Man� No, but they have good sense� How could I have got twelve pennies for your head If I had got not sense? (Yeats 1997, 270) Although the image of Cuchulain, as in Yeats’s earlier works, embodies the heroic ideal, here he is to confront neither the warrior nor the supernatural igure� His enemy is the human blindness and greed which “masters” the hero� C� Murray claims the Blind Man to be “the tool of determining history” (Murray 2000, 33)� However, in the moment of death, Cuchulain is rewarded with a mystical vision of his soul in the process of reincarnation: “a sot feathery shape / And is not that a strange shape for the soul / Of a great ighting man” (Yeats 1997, 270)� 80 Iryna Senchuk Tracing the development of Yeats’s dance plays from At the Hawk’s Well to he Death of Cuchulain, it is apparent that the role of dance gradually changes� While the stylized dance in At the Hawk’s Well shows its subordination to words and has the integral function in the action, the inal dance of Emer, Cuchulain’s wife, acquires supremacy over verbal expression� he dancer onstage also changes: Emer, having no magic about her and being representative of old age and domesticity, is diametrically opposed to the supernatural Guardian of the Well� he dance drives Emer into the state of spiritual identiication with the hero at his death� his dance is not a part of some stylized ritual, but rather an expression of emotional state� he inal stage directions mediate Emer’s dance: She so moves that she seems to rage against the heads of those that had wounded Cuchulain, perhaps makes movements as though to strike them, going three times round the circle of the heads� She then moves towards the head of Cuchulain… She moves as if in adoration or triumph� She is about to prostrate herself before it, …she seems motionless� here is silence, and in the silence a few faint bird notes� (271) here is a hint of immortality in the “few faint bird notes” which end the inner play� his statement might stand for Cuchulain’s inal shape-changing and signify his successful passage into immortality� As the stage darkens slowly, we leave the timeless mythological world and are brought back again to reality through the loud “music of some Irish Fair of our day”� hree Yeatsian musicians appear again, this time in “ragged street-singers’ clothes”, one of them singing� he song of the Street-Singer, originally sung by the harlot to the beggar-man, seems somewhat dissociated from the action of the play� Yet the irst stanza serves as rather a link with the inner play, since it introduces the mythical past by referring to relevant igures of the legendary Irish world: “I meet them face to face, / Conall, Cuchulain, Usna’s boys, / All that most ancient race” (Yeats 1997, 271)� he second stanza, through allusions to historical Pearse and Connolly, focuses on the recent past which revives the heroic past: “What stood in the Post Oice / With Pearse and Connolly? /…/ Who thought Cuchulain till it seemed / He stood where they had stood?” (272)� he third stanza links both periods with personal present time� So, by means of references to mythical heroes and historical and cultural realia of Ireland, the song is constructed upon the temporal juxtaposition of three diferent periods: the mythological past, the recent historical past and the personal present, which approach each other in the narrator’s voice� Yeats, thus, deconstructs the epic distance between the chronotope of the inner play and the Irish reality� In terms of the author’s voice mode of mediation, Cuchulain plays also difer� In all three dramatic texts both between and within the speeches, Yeats employed he Evolution of W� B� Yeats’s Idea of a Drama 81 didascaliae to describe the actions and introduce new persons� However, in On Baile’s Strand, Yeats used the descriptive introductory didascaliae to provide the setting and to introduce the characters, while in the introductory commentary to At the Hawk’s Well, the author rather focused on production elements (stage arrangement, lighting, musical instruments and the location of masked players) intended to emphasize “separating strangeness”, the division between audience and stage� he playwright also introduced here three Musicians that rather serve as mediating narrators or presenters whose function is very similar to that of an impersonal Greek chorus–to tell the pre-history and provide commentaries� As long as the Musicians are physically present, they are a type of an overt narrator� However, they do not interact with Cuchulain� Furthermore, additionally framing the play, they sing their opening and closing songs, changing the “voice” as if to speak for one character or another, as well as fold and unfold a cloth in place of the front curtain� his ceremony is not only a formal convention, but it also has the practical value of allowing the actors to enter or leave the stage area, so that it operates much as the curtain on a conventional stage� In he Death of Cuchulain, Yeats used another presentation device–he introduced the igure of the Old Man, “looking like something out of mythology” (Yeats 1997, 263), whose monologue, along with the following stage directions, raises audience’s awareness of the ictional nature of theatrical representation� he Old Man assumes the role of Yeats’s spokesman and could be regarded as his last “mask”� Providing essential clues for the comprehension of the whole work, the Old Man’s words anticipate a summary of what will happen in the inner play in terms of its formal and structural elements, rather than plot� hus, three Cuchulain plays under analysis, showing a playwright continually experimenting with dramatic form, content and style of presentation, enunciate aspects of his dramatic theory and reveal the evolution of Yeats’s idea of a drama� Its direction of development was toward a simplicity and clarity: in Yeats’s theatre, the verbal dynamics of communication between the actors and the audience takes precedence over the visual representation� Unlike On Baile’s Strand, Yeats’s late plays are more compressed and preoccupied with limiting the time and space in which the action unfolds; they completely rely on the techniques of “separating strangeness”, the use of mask, dance, music, rhythm, structural and ritual repetition� Visually the late plays are restrained, condensed and focused� However, a feature which all three plays share–along with others by Yeats–is their symbolism� Considering changes in dramatic technique, we can assert that Yeats reconciled theory with practice and developed theory and practice of playwriting alike: he experimented and explored his ideas through staging� His substantial theatrical achievement has provided his successors with a model of modern minimalist 82 Iryna Senchuk poetic theatre of word, mind and fancy� And Yeats’s result cannot be compared to the Noh plays while they provided him only with an idea for drama and not with a ixed scheme� References Bloom, Harold� 1970� Yeats� Oxford: Oxford University Press� Ellmann, Richard� 1979� Yeats: he Man and the Masks. Oxford: Oxford University Press� Flannery, James W� 1976� W. B. Yeats and the Idea of the heatre� London: Yale University Press� Murray, Christopher� 2000� Twentieth-Century Irish Drama: Mirror up to Nation� Syracuse: Syracuse University Press� Styan, J. L� 1983� Modern Drama in heory and Practice. Vol. 2: Symbolism, Surrealism and the Absurd� Cambridge: Cambridge University Press� Unterecker, John E� (1959) 1996� A Reader’s Guide to William Butler Yeats� Syracuse: Syracuse University Press� Ure, Peter� 1963� Yeats the Playwright: A Commentary on Character and Design in the Major Plays� New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc� Worthen, W. B� 1991� Modern Drama and the Rhetoric of heater� Berkeley; Los Angeles; Oxford: University of California Press� Yeats, William Butler� 1916� Introduction to Certain Noble Plays of Japan: From the Manuscripts of Ernest Fenollosa, Chosen and Finished by Ezra Pound, i–xix� Churchtown: he Cuala Press� Yeats, William Butler� 1997� Selected Plays� Ed� with an Introd� by A� Cave� London: Penguin Books� Yeats, William Butler� (1910) 2007� “he Tragic heatre”� In he Collected Works of W. B. Yeats. Vol. IV: Early Essays, edited by Richard J� Finneran and George Bornstein, 174–179� New York: Scribner� Paulina Mirowska Harold Pinter’s (Anti-)Revolutionary Approach to Political Drama. Some Relections on Pinter’s Grim Political Sketches Abstract: he article addresses the expression of Pinter’s political and language concerns embodied in his overtly political works written for the stage of the 1980s and later on, his provocative dramatic sketches in particular, since they combine the narrow scope of presentation with the grim realities of worldwide political violence� In a speech he gave in 1995 at the University of Soia in Bulgaria, Harold Pinter pointed to a vital intersection between his dramatic writings and his political preoccupations: It probably won’t surprise you to hear that words have dominated my life� In my own work, I’ve always been aware that my characters tend to use words not to express what they think or feel but…to mask their actual intentions, so that words are acting as a masquerade, a veil, a web, or used as weapons to undermine or to terrorise� But these modes of operation are hardly conined to characters in plays� In the world in which we live, words are as oten employed to distort or to deceive or to manipulate as they are to convey actual and direct meaning� So that a substantial body of our language is essentially corrupt� It has become a language of lies� hese lies in themselves can become so far-reaching, so pervasive, so consuming that even the liar thinks he is telling the truth� As has also been demonstrated many times, when words are used with a fearless and rigorous respect for their real meaning, the users tend to be rewarded with persecution, torture and death� (qtd� in Billington 1996, 371) Pinter stresses in the speech that his prime, unswerving interest has always been in language and expresses his keen awareness of the alarming relationship between the creative possibilities of language and political manipulation� He stigmatises oicial mendacity in particular—the political rhetoric that fosters the fabrication of illusions used by oppressive systems to justify their operations and maintain power� he article addresses the expression of Pinter’s political and language concerns embodied in his overtly political work for the stage of the 1980s and later, and especially in his provocative dramatic sketches that combine, with success, the narrow scope of presentation with the grim realities of worldwide political violence� 84 Paulina Mirowska * In British and Irish Political Drama in the Twentieth Century, David Ian Rabey deines political drama as follows: “Political drama” emphasises the directness of its address to problematic social matters, and its attempt to interpret these problems in political terms� Political drama communicates its sense of these problems’ avoidability, with implicit or explicit condemnation of the political circumstances that have allowed them to rise and continue to exist (just as Brecht identiies he Rise of Arturo Ui as Resistible)� In perceiving social problems as avoidable, political drama is necessarily diverging from the worldview that the agents of the status quo would seek to impose for the continued smooth running of society in its present form� (1986, 1–2) Pinter’s political playwriting clearly meant to provoke� Whereas political drama, as traditionally deined, seeks to ofer an expressed and constructive critique of problematic social matters it addresses as well as to reform audience opinion and behaviour, Pinter’s approach seemed somewhat revolutionary, or, perhaps, antirevolutionary, in its overt rebellion against the prevailing assumptions and practices of the political theatre oriented towards change�1 His political texts, with their geopolitical vagueness and rather sketchy nature of oppositional values, indicated the artist’s distance from other committed playwrights of his generation and betrayed his deep-rooted political pessimism, or scepticism, as to the possibility of transforming his audiences and achieving an improved civilisation� He did not seem to regard socio-political problems of the kind he dramatised as “avoidable”, nor did he prescribe any positive ideologies or radical methodologies of change� here appears to be little, if any, hope for resistance and subversion in Pinter’s political vision, only the call for it� In his political works of the 1980s and 1990s, such as he Hothouse (1980), Precisely (1983), One for the Road (1984), Mountain Language (1988), Party Time (1991) or he New World Order (1991), one inds overwhelming power structures that are unreceptive to critique and successful in containing and muting protest� he plays and sketches imply the acute insigniicance and fragility of dissent in confrontation with determined, morally bankrupt elites; they challenge their audiences to contemplate the failure of revolutionary impulses and progressive action� Crucially, the self-satisied ruling elites in Pinter’s late political work control and arbitrarily distort political discourse� Above all, those empowered groups erode opposition by censoring and marginalising its voices and postulates, oten 1 For an illuminating discussion of numerous problems of classiication posed by Pinter’s oeuvre, and in particular the controversies surrounding Pinter’s kind of political theatre, see, for example, Merritt (1990, 170–209)� Harold Pinter’s (Anti-)Revolutionary Approach to Political Drama 85 in a brutal fashion� In Pinter’s brief political dramas, language is the attribute of authority, “the voice of God” (1998c, 227), deined by those in power who do almost all the talking while dissidence is debased, criminalised and, efectively, quelled� Furthermore, the powerful subdue dissent also in a diferent way: agents of repressive regimes commonly invoke well-respected notions to justify tyrannical acts� Such positive terms as freedom, democracy, patriotism, justice, order or morality are deployed in ways contradicting their received meanings and become rhetorical alibis for perpetuated injustice and brutal tactics used against political adversaries� In fact, it is precisely due to the popular appeal of these admirable terms—shamelessly appropriated and corrupted by the oicial power—that the repressive status quo becomes legitimised and consolidated� he article focuses on Pinter’s late minimalistic political playwriting, in which exercising authority is inextricably linked to language use (notably the lagrant perversion of language), persecution of social others and mistreatment of women, and where the reigning power strengthens its hold by crushing resistance to the status quo and muling those who “never stop questioning received ideas” (Pinter 1998b, 276)� It examines in detail the most recent political sketch, Press Conference, which sheds light on how rhetorical validation of injustice proceeds through distortion of language to rationalise, even redeem, oppression and torture� It is argued that the dramatist’s succinct pieces reveal his scepticism about the possibility of escaping or subverting the silencing force of entrenched self-righteous regimes whose geopolitical locations are purposefully imprecise, intimating the perennial nature of existing inequities of power� Finally, attention is paid to the ethical dimension of Pinter’s work� he article addresses the ways in which the playwright—distrustful of inherited dogmas and of drama providing “a reductive social analysis” that emulates the oversimpliied rhetoric of politicians (Quigley 2009, 9)—urged his audiences to re-examine the truth of their lives and their societies, always guarding against facile us-versus-them divisions� he central character of Press Conference, which iercely tackles political violence and the narrowly delineated and precarious status of critical dissent, is a government Minister in an unnamed state, once the head of the Secret Police and now the Minister of Culture, whose main responsibility is, as the oicial puts it, “to protect and to safeguard our cultural inheritance against forces…intent upon subverting it” (Pinter 2002)�2 Intriguingly, Pinter himself played the role of the Minister when the sketch premiered at the Royal National heatre, London, in February 2002� Here is how the Minister deines his new function: 2 he brief script in the Faber and Faber edition of the play has no page numbers� 86 Paulina Mirowska PRESS� How do you understand your present role as Minister of Culture? MINISTER� he Ministry of Culture holds to the same principles as the guardians of National Security� We believe in a healthy, muscular and tender understanding of our cultural heritage and our cultural obligations� (Pinter 2002) “hese obligations,” the man immediately adds, “naturally include loyalty to the free market” (Pinter 2002)� he brief play ofering “a chilling performance of the totalitarian iron hand,” as Mary Luckhurst has put it (2009, 116), consists of the smug Minister’s egregious responses to questions put forward by the Press and illuminates the grim workings of repressive regimes in which renegade, oppositional voices are silenced while the privileged in-group are free to speak their mind with horrifying openness� At the beginning of the conference, the Minister presents, with barefaced arrogance, the government’s policy towards “subversive families” which involved kidnapping and murdering children as well as sexually violating women� Similarly to One for the Road, Mountain Language and Party Time, in Press Conference, too, the state regards the family as “a threat” since it has the potential to disrupt loyalties, undermine the sense of patriotic obligation and instil destabilising values� When probed by the Press about the children of dissident families, the man explicates: “We abducted them and brought them up properly or we killed them” (Pinter 2002)� How? What was the method adopted? “We broke their necks,” he speciies� he subversive women, he continues, were raped� “It was all part of an educational process, you see� A cultural process”, the oicial insists (Pinter 2002)� he Minister’s unreserved, impudent manner demonstrates how the oicial power perverts terms of political discourse� Abduction, victimisation and murder are, appallingly, part of civilised education and humane culture� “What was the nature of the culture you were proposing?” the Press inquire, to which the man responds: “A culture based on respect and the rule of law” (Pinter 2002)� As in Pinter’s earlier brief political works, the government represented by the Minister in Press Conference also advocates adherence to moral principles and authorises unimaginable atrocities in their name� he monstrous statements in the Minister’s rhetoric of cultural heritage are bound to disturb not only because of their homicidal content but also due to their form: the blunt ostentation with which they are presented to the public� he values of social stability, respect and justice cited by the speaker do not obscure the facts of repression, execution and terror sanctioned by the oicial authority� he government’s propaganda does not even attempt to whitewash or euphemise the stateinlicted acts of infanticide and rape� In a sense, as suggested by Charles Grimes, the omnipotence of the ruling regime is such that it need not bother with self-validation and ofering any persuasive rhetoric of legitimation, except as a pro forma gesture Harold Pinter’s (Anti-)Revolutionary Approach to Political Drama 87 or “for the fun” of launting oppression in the faces of the media, “whose function is supposedly to protest it” (2005, 136)� And, indeed, the ostentatious fashion in which the Minister expatiates on his government’s ruthless agenda is compounded by the sycophantic responses of the Press, whose subservience and laughing on cue at his bullying comments only assist in perpetuating the tyranny� he oicial’s outspokenness about the principles of the Ministry of Culture, alarmingly identical with those of the state’s secret police force, attests to his unchecked authority: apparently, he can say, and do, what he wants without fear of censure and retaliation� he total control over public discourse and freedom from subversion enjoyed by the Minister in this apparently “unshakably homogenous and monolithic” regime (Silverstein 1993, 142) allows for an uncritical embrace of the blatant disparity between act and justiication which points to an intriguing paradox about the workings of reactionary states dramatised by Pinter� While the empowered elites in plays and sketches such as Party Time and Press Conference champion the need for peace, the rule of law and strict moral codes, they also resort to language manipulation to misrepresent reality, ostensibly in complicity with the media� he unnamed vicious regimes refer to a set of apparently transcendental values— “unshakeable, rigorous, fundamental, [and] constant” (Pinter 1998d, 311)—while, in postmodern manner, playing with language and reality; and yet, according to Grimes, such a peculiar “syncretic combination” should not be perceived as a disqualifying internal contradiction but rather as “the greatest strength of the fascist states” in the playwright’s work (2005, 137)� he Minister’s closing comments seem particularly despicable, as the oicial preaches to the servile Press obliged for his “frank words”: “Under our philosophy…he that is lost is found� hank you!” (Pinter 2002)� he proselytising tone of his unsettling address serves to play up the ambiguity inherent in the term “minister,” which resonates with both governmental and religious associations� he Minister in Pinter’s sketch—who believes in “the innate goodness of your ordinary Jack and your ordinary Jill” and is “determined to protect them from corruption and subversion with all the means at [his] disposal”—fashions himself as an agent of a merciful doctrine which allows for “confession [and] retraction” and brings “redemption” to all erring citizens (Pinter 2002)� In other words, this state victimises and executes its subjects for their own beneit� Indeed, one of the most provocative insights Pinter afords in his torture plays is that the perpetrators of brutal deeds present, and regard, themselves not as inhumane tyrants but as agents of legitimate and righteous political doctrines, even when the measures taken to implement them are evidently cruel� he Minister in Press Conference has much in common with Nicolas, a verbose and complacent interrogator in 88 Paulina Mirowska One for the Road, who does not authorise infanticide, rape and torture but is one of the “patriots” who “share a common heritage” and whose “business” is “to keep the world clean for God” (Pinter 1998c, 232, 246)� He is also reminiscent of Lionel and Des, two henchmen of a despotic regime dramatised in the more recent sketch he New World Order, who do not inlict torture on their mute and blindfolded victim but, drawing upon the language of cleansing, self-righteously pride themselves on “keeping the world clean for democracy” (Pinter 1998b, 277)� Since what Pinter’s late political work, including his last sketch, Press Conference, repeatedly brings to the fore is the potency and durability of the oppressive status quo ostensibly impervious to oppositional critique, one might wonder how such transgressive, oppositional voices can exist at all� he query could clearly be related to the dramatist’s own biography� Pinter was well aware of the puzzling contradictions informing his life: on the one hand, he was an acclaimed, awardwinning artist and an aluent member of the establishment, and on the other, he passionately censured that established order for its intellectual conformity and intolerance� As noted by his biographer, Michael Billington, Pinter’s adversaries in Britain claimed that his artistic profession and comfortable upper-middle-class lifestyle called into question his political expertise as well as the credibility of his professed let-wing political convictions� He was disparagingly dismissed by the press as a “champagne socialist” and his impassioned political stances were generally patronised or treated with derision (Billington 1996, 308–09, 334)� Not surprisingly, Pinter was deeply exercised by the scorn poured by the British mainstream media on his public statements and activism, and strongly objected to such derisive attacks, seeing them as an establishment tendency towards sabotaging intellectual dissent and suppressing any views incompatible with the prevailing orthodoxy� He even hypothesised that such hostility witnesses to a dangerously symbiotic relationship between the government and the corporate media which results in iltering out inconvenient news items and banishing protest (Pinter 2000b)�3 Nevertheless, Pinter did realise the potential paradox in his position as a privileged citizen of the state whose domestic and foreign policies he restlessly 3 In the extensive interview “Unthinkable houghts” published in 2000 by Media Lens, Pinter and David Edwards discuss, among other things, the compromised neutrality of corporate press, strategies of marginalising dissent and iltering out news “it to print,” referring to the propaganda model of media control proposed by Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky in their classic work Manufacturing Consent—he Political Economy of the Mass Media (New York: Pantheon, 1988)� Harold Pinter’s (Anti-)Revolutionary Approach to Political Drama 89 challenged� As he argued in an interview with David Edwards: “[I am] an outsider in society because I simply use my critical intelligence”, but he simultaneously admitted that he was also “very much part of the world in which [he] lived” (Pinter 2000b, n�p�)� Press Conference, like Pinter’s earlier dystopian political drama Party Time or the more recent black comedy Celebration (2000), succinctly addresses such puzzling paradoxes of dissent� If, for instance, the existing power structures are as oppressive as his late work dramatises it, at times resorting to biting humour, it seems legitimate to consider why such non-conformist artists as Pinter are permitted to voice their protest in the irst place� he Minister’s response explicates the role of dissent, carefully delineating its position: MINISTER� Critical dissent is acceptable—if it is let at home� My advice is—leave it at home� Keep it under the bed� With the piss pot� He laughs� Where it belongs� PRESS� Did you say in the piss pot? MINISTER� I’ll put your head in the piss pot if you’re not careful� He laughs. hey laugh� Let me make myself quite clear� We need critical dissent because it keeps us on our toes� But we don’t want to see it in the market place or on the avenues and piazzas of our great cities… � We are happy for it to remain at home, which means we can pop in at any time and read what is kept under the bed, discuss it with the writer, pat him on the head, shake him by his hand, give him perhaps a minor kick up the arse or in the balls and set ire to the whole shebang� By this method we keep our society free from infection� (Pinter 2002) “Critical dissent” is “acceptable”, we learn, only because it is kept in check, or, metaphorically, “domesticated” (Grimes 2005, 138)� In other words, established society tolerates oppositional thought and behaviour provided that they can be contained and rendered largely abortive� he situation could be related to Herbert Marcuse’s relection on the functioning of advanced technological civilisation and its capacity to isolate, absorb and appropriate subversive impulses� In OneDimensional Man, Marcuse suggests that even though technologically developed capitalist society, characterised by “a comfortable, smooth, reasonable, democratic unfreedom” (1968, 1), needs the critique of art, art and culture have been integrated into the “technological universe” and institutionalised to such a degree that their potential to efect revolutionary change withers away (xvi)� Although disruptive energies and tendencies directed against the status quo are granted space in the established universe of discourse, they are quickly digested by the reigning order, constrained and made void� he writers mentioned by the Minister in Press 90 Paulina Mirowska Conference are subject to a similar dynamic: while allowed to express themselves, they nonetheless culminate in futility� “We subscribe to cultural diversity,” the government agent brazenly stresses, “we have faith in a lexible and vigorous exchange of views; we believe in fecundity” (Pinter 2002)� Importantly, critical thinkers are apparently believed to be capable of devising alternative visions to existing political structures—“critical dissent … keeps us on our toes”, as the Minister points out—but they are not supposed to meddle in public life, nor temper with “the market place,” that is, the economic sphere� In his political comments, Pinter indeed oten blamed economic factors, corporate interests and the policy of maximising proit for censoring the freedom of expression and curbing free reporting (2005, 201–205; 2000b)� hus, theoretically, diversity of opinions, artistic exploration and free speech are permitted, if constantly vulnerable to pressure, intimidation, even persecution, to ensure that “our society is free from infection�” Authors are avowedly allowed to create; they may be patted on the back, held in high esteem and awarded prizes� Practically, however, this high regard does not cancel out the futility of their stances and thus becomes indistinguishable from oppression� Whatever such unorthodox free-thinkers might say, the operations of the wellentrenched status quo are ostensibly unsusceptible to reform� Social critics, artists and the media may not be literally mute, but, reduced to impotence, they have been virtually silenced nevertheless� According to Luckhurst, “Pinter’s zealous abusers of freedom of expression seem to gain increasing control as his plays progress, and by Press Conference even the broken and the traumatised have disappeared under the swell of state controls”� And yet, the critic further perceptively notes, “though the battle may have intensiied, and political spin continues to engulf policy-making,” Pinter never stopped pressing his case (Luckhurst 2009, 117)� * It is diicult to say for sure why Pinter, who since the 1980s consistently campaigned against censorship and torture openly supporting organisations such as Amnesty International and PEN, opted to exclude from his late political drama certain identiiable facts and details—including contentious human rights issues concerning Great Britain, the US, Latin America, Turkey, Serbia, the Palestinian Authority or Iraq that he addressed with clarity and ierce resolution in numerous speeches, essays and articles�4 One plausible explanation might be the playwright’s 4 For a representative sample of articles, essays, speeches, letters and interviews presenting Pinter’s political views, see, among others, the section “Politics” in his Various Voices: Prose, Poetry, Politics 1948–2005 (Pinter 2005, 181–248)� Harold Pinter’s (Anti-)Revolutionary Approach to Political Drama 91 declared long-established mistrust of “deinite statements” and “explicit moral tags” (Pinter 1989b, 10, 12)� Pinter seemed to believe that rejecting equivocality in favour of meticulous particularity would insult the intellectual capacity of theatregoers and inevitably lead to unfair oversimpliications, placing his writing on a par with the reductive and moralising propagandistic theatre that he frowned upon at the outset of his writing career in the 1960s� Pinter audiences are expected to pick up the deployed allusions and deduce their relevance to the easily obtainable, yet consistently neglected, facts regarding systematic manifestations of political violence and injustice happening worldwide� Evidently, a number of vital questions as to how to approach and evaluate political theatre arise here� For instance, one could speculate whether Pinter’s signature ambiguity—marking also the post-1980 “political” works, which notoriously lack geographical, temporal and political speciicity or, alternatively, very subtly allude to familiar English contexts (Batty 2001, 113)—does not detract from the intended political message of Pinter’s theatre� According to Benedict Nightingale, by insisting on generality in his “political” writings, Pinter runs the risk of dissipating point and impact: “A play can easily end up by being about everywhere, and therefore nowhere at which we are able to direct our feelings of outrage” (1990, 151)� he absence of explicit commitment was deplored also by Pinter’s fellow-playwrights, notably Edward Bond, John McGrath and John Arden, who criticised Party Time precisely for its being too abstract, “unconcretised”, “taken out of context”, and thus precluding a politically viable interpretation (Billington 1996, 333–34)� On the other hand, it might well be suggested that if Pinter’s audiences fail to connect his characters and settings to concrete individuals and states accepting the erosion of civil liberties and violent acts in the name of order and stability, they have not missed the plays’ main political import at all� he dramatist apparently trusted their judgement� he deliberate, unsettling obscurity is bound to prompt one to question, and, possibly, to begin to pursue answers� It is tempting to see the enguling silences in Pinter’s dark political pieces as the conclusive, if paradoxical, message of Pinter’s political drama� Even if the existence of individual protest and resistance is theoretically acknowledged by the playwright, the disruptive, revolutionary potentialities of dissent in his political plots are consistently and efectively contained, difused, ruthlessly subjugated� Pinter’s political plays and sketches of the 1980s and 1990s, such as he Hothouse, Precisely, One for the Road, Mountain Language, he New World Order, Party Time and, ultimately, Press Conference, conclude in muteness and in the impending extinction of subversive voices questioning the existing power structures� According to Charles Grimes’ study of Harold Pinter’s Politics: A Silence Beyond Echo, which 92 Paulina Mirowska perceives the brute victory of power over dissidence as the central image of the artist’s political work, Pinter’s political theatre could be summed up as “a warning to respect human rights, paired with a lament that such a warning may never be heeded” (2005, 220)� Admittedly, Pinter never hid his sceptical attitude towards a writer’s capacity to change political moralities and efect an intellectual, or ethical, conversion in an audience at least partly implicated, through their myopic complacency, in established oppressive practices� And yet, clearly separating the act of questioning from the possibility of ofering pat panaceas for political injustice, he also remained stalwart in his conviction that subversive critique, even if seemingly unavailing, must be attempted� Conceding that “the theatre afect[s] the world in which we live” only a little, Pinter insisted: “But that little is something” (1994, 92), and did not cease to confront his audiences with the sufering they would rather conveniently overlook� As he stated in his provocative Nobel lecture “Art, Truth and Politics” calling for intellectual endurance despite the odds and stressing the grim alternative: I believe that despite the enormous odds which exist, unlinching, unswerving, ierce intellectual determination, as citizens, to deine the real truth of our lives and our societies is a crucial obligation which devolves upon us all� It is in fact mandatory� If such a determination is not embodied in our political vision we have no hope of restoring what is so nearly lost to us—the dignity of man� (Pinter 2008, 17) Similarly to the thought-provoking, conscience-pricking Nobel acceptance speech, Pinter’s political theatre addressed citizens of modern civilised states— whose governments publicly, although sometimes inaccurately, profess their staunch adherence to ideals of democracy, pluralism, justice and freedom of expression—and sought to shake them out of their self-righteous contentment with “a vast tapestry of lies, upon which [they] feed” (Pinter 2008, 8)� Efectively reconciling the small scale of presentation with a much larger scope of implication, Pinter’s late political pieces deeply preoccupied with human rights abuses, especially state-sanctioned terror and brutality, invariably prompt one to relect upon the wider relevance of the compressed dramatic situations and sensitise against yielding blindly to glib political rhetoric, adopting a simplistic, polarised, us-versus-them mindset as well as against the tendency to conveniently shit the blame for the evils of ongoing inequities elsewhere� Even through his shortest works, such as the terse but powerful political sketch Press Conference, the playwright attempted to impress upon his readers and theatregoers an unremitting need for countering the habit of moral apathy, for looking critically at the prevailing modes of (self-)justiication and recognising individual responsibility for what is done in their, or our, name� Harold Pinter’s (Anti-)Revolutionary Approach to Political Drama 93 References Batty, Mark� 2001� Harold Pinter� Horndon: Northcote Publishers� Billington, Michael� 1996� he Life and Work of Harold Pinter. London: Faber� Gillen, Francis, and Steven H. Gale, eds� 2008� Pinter Review� Nobel Prize/Europe heatre Prize Volume: 2005–2008� Tampa, FL: University of Tampa Press� Grimes, Charles V� 2005� Harold Pinter’s Politics: A Silence Beyond Echo. Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press� Herman, Edward S., and Noam Chomsky� 1988� Manufacturing Consent—he Political Economy of the Mass Media. New York: Pantheon Books� Luckhurst, Mary� 2009� “Speaking Out: Harold Pinter and Freedom of Expression�” In he Cambridge Companion to Harold Pinter, edited by Peter Raby, 105–20� Cambridge: Cambridge University Press� Marcuse, Herbert� 1968� One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society. Boston: Beacon� Merritt, Susan Hollis� 1990� Pinter in Play: Critical Strategies and the Plays of Harold Pinter� Durham: Duke University Press� Nightingale, Benedict� 1990� “Harold Pinter/Politics�” In Around the Absurd. Essays on Modern and Postmodern Drama, edited by Enoch Brater and Ruby Cohn, 129–54� Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press� Pinter, Harold� 1985� “A Play and Its Politics: A Conversation between Harold Pinter and Nicholas Hern�” In One for the Road, by Pinter, 5–24� London: Methuen� —� 1989a� he Hothouse� In Plays One, 201–77� London: Methuen Drama� —� 1989b� “Writing for the heatre�” In Plays One, 9–16� London: Methuen Drama� —� 1994� Conversations with Pinter� By Mel Gussow� London: Nick Hern Books� —� 1998a� Mountain Language. In Plays Four, 249–68� London: Faber and Faber� —� 1998b� he New World Order� In Plays Four, 269–78� London: Faber and Faber� —� 1998c� One for the Road� In Plays Four, 221–48� London: Faber and Faber� —� 1998d� Party Time� In Plays Four, 279–314� London: Faber and Faber� —� 1998e� Precisely� In Plays Four, 213–20� London: Faber and Faber� —� 2000a� Celebration� In Celebration & he Room, 1–72� London: Faber and Faber� —� 2000b� “Unthinkable houghts: An Interview with Harold Pinter,” by David Edwards� Media Lens, January 13: n�p� Accessed April 4, 2015� http://www� medialens�org/index�php/alerts/interviews/76-unthinkable-thoughts-aninterview-with-harold-pinter�html� —� 2002� Press Conference� London: Faber and Faber� 94 Paulina Mirowska —� 2005� Various Voices: Prose, Poetry, Politics 1948–2005. London: Faber and Faber� —� 2008� “Nobel Lecture: Art, Truth & Politics�” In Pinter Review� Nobel Prize/ Europe heatre Prize Volume: 2005–2008, edited by Francis Gillen and Steven H� Gale, 6–17� Tampa, FL: University of Tampa Press� Quigley, Austin E� 2009� “Pinter, Politics and Postmodernism (I)�” In he Cambridge Companion to Harold Pinter, edited by Peter Raby, 7–26� Cambridge: Cambridge University Press� Rabey, David Ian� 1986� British and Irish Political Drama in the Twentieth Century� Basingstoke: Macmillan� Silverstein, Marc� 1993� Harold Pinter and the Language of Cultural Power. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press� Monika Kozub he Final Gasps of he Catholic Big House in Brian Friel’s Aristocrats Abstract: he article discussed Aristocrats (1979) by Brian Friel, focusing on the way in which the play depicts the gradual demise of the Catholic Big House in Ireland� he author argues that the play addresses the issue of class more fully than any other of Friel’s works� “And this was always a house of reticence, of things unspoken, wasn’t it?” (Friel 1996, 279) From Philadelphia, Here I Come! (1964) to Translations (1980) and Dancing at Lughnasa (1990), Friel’s plays have delighted generations of theatre audiences in Ireland and abroad� Aristocrats is a revealing family drama, which occurs at a dificult time in Ireland: the civil rights upheavals of the mid-1970s� First premiered at the Abbey heatre in 1979, Aristocrats returned to the Abbey stage again in the summer of 2014� his time the play was directed by Patrick Mason,1 an acclaimed freelance director of theatre and opera, who has had a long association with the Abbey heatre. One way of looking at Friel’s Aristocrats would be to say that it is an elegiac play in the sense that it chronicles the demise of the “Catholic Aristocracy” in Ireland� he play depicts the story of the once inluential O’Donnells, who have convened for the wedding of the youngest daughter, Claire, in their crumbling home, Ballybeg Hall, and end up facing the death of their patriarch, the Father, also known as District Justice O’Donnell� he family ind themselves on the brink of dissolution and dispersal, Murray (1997, 170) in his book entitled TwentiethCentury Irish Drama: Mirror Up To Nation has rightly commented on Aristocrats by saying that in the play “[o]nce again the centre cannot hold, a condition Friel sees running like a faultline through Irish society”� Aristocrats centres on the gap between the O’Donnells’ view of themselves and the bleak reality of their lives� he protagonists have totally isolated themselves from their surroundings, that is, from the peasants of the village of Ballybeg, 1 Patrick Mason (born 1951 in London) was Abbey’s Artistic Director from 1993 to 1999, and he has directed the plays of such Anglo-Irish playwrights as Brian Friel, Hugh Leonard, Frank McGuinness, Tom Murphy, Tom Kilroy, and Tom MacIntyre� Mason’s production of Friel’s Dancing at Lughnasa won him an Olivier nomination in 1991 and a Tony Award for Best Director in 1992� 96 Monika Kozub but also from the Protestant landowner class, so, in a sense, they are caught between two social and political worlds of the 1970s� he play also shows how the O’Donnells have lost touch with their history and how they have replaced it with a personal mythology that helps them inlate their sense of signiicance� Being one of Friel’s inest achievements, Aristocrats, is, at the same time, one of Friel’s least didactic plays and it ends on a note of indeterminacy� he playwright seems to ask how much of the O’Donnells’ plight is inevitable and whether alternative solutions are possible� hese upper-class Irish Catholics have survived wars and famine, but the old order is collapsing� he question is: Can they forge a new future for themselves? Before I analyse the play, I would like to explain the term the “Big House,” as it is a key concept in the play� In fact, Friel himself deines the term and makes the visiting American academic, Tom, articulate it (Friel 1996, 281); however, for the purposes of this paper I am going to familiarise the reader with a more detailed deinition provided by Corbett� he critic, in his book entitled Brian Friel: Decoding the Language of the Tribe, deines the “Big Houses” as being the houses and mansions that belonged to the Anglo-Irish class, a privileged social class in Ireland whose members were the descendants and successors of the Protestant Ascendancy� he houses stood for the Anglo-Irish political dominance of Ireland from the late 16th century, and many were destroyed or attacked during the Irish Revolutionary Period (the 1910s and early 1920s)� Corbett underlines the importance of the “Big Houses” in Irish literature and says that they have become a popular theme among Anglo-Irish authors: he “Big House” was the symbol of the English Protestant ascendancy and has its own place in Irish literature, chronicled by Somerville and Ross, Elizabeth Bowen, Jennifer Johnston, and others� Squiredom was a factor of life in Britain also, but in Ireland there was the added factor that the Big House tended to be emblematic of a dominant alien presence� hey were largely Protestant, gentriied, and separated from locals by class and wealth� Ater independence, the decline of the Big House was seen as an index of the rise of the ordinary citizen� In many cases the land surrounding the houses was acquired by the Land Commission and distributed to local farmers� hose members of the ascendancy who were able to maintain their lifestyle in the new regime watched their inluence dwindle in the Republic� (Corbett 2002, 74–75) he critic adds as well that in Aristocrats, Friel depicts the last generation of Big House inhabitants, and intentionally chooses his characters to be the representatives of the Catholic gentry� he choice of Catholic over Protestant seems obvious, as it frees Friel from the charges that he is attacking upper-class Protestants or writing a politically charged text on the consequences of British rule in Ireland (75)� he Final Gasps of he Catholic Big House in B� Friel’s Aristocrats 97 Aristocrats has oten been described as being one of Friel’s most Chekhovian plays and indeed one can draw many parallels between Friel’s Aristocrats and Chekhov’s last play, he Cherry Orchard� Both plays concern aristocratic families who on their return to their crumbling country “Edens” ind out that they will soon have to sell them, as they do not have suicient funds to keep them running� he families teeter on the brink of insolvency, but, at the same time, they do nothing to save their estates and maintain their status; in both plays the theme of cultural futility dominates over other themes� Aristocrats was in fact based on and developed from Friel’s earlier short story called Foundry House.2 he play repeats much of the story’s situation, yet compared with its prototype, it changes the thematic considerations by moving the aristocratic family from background (the Hogans of Foundry House) to foreground (the O’Donnells of Aristocrats)� he play also examines the historical changes from within the Big House and it seems that in the play Friel attempts a more private statement on political and social issues� It could be said that the rapid descent of the O’Donnell family is caused by two factors� he irst one is the gradual degradation of several generations of the O’Donnells who, by allowing this to happen, have caused their own downfall� he second one is external and historical circumstances, that is, the Irish Revolutionary Period, the period of political and social change on the island in the early 20th century� he irst reason is summed up by Eamon, Alice’s husband, in a conversation which he has with Tom in Act 2� Eamon is being very ironic when he is talking about the O’Donnell’s legal tradition; he calls their story a gripping saga (Friel 1996, 294), a great big block-buster (294) which could sell well under the following title: Ballybeg Hall–From Supreme Court to Sausage Factory (294)� Eamon also shows how the family’s lawyers have degraded themselves over the years: Casimir’s Great Grandfather was Lord Chief Justice and Casimir himself is a failed lawyer–he did not even manage to complete his studies� Perhaps I should add here as well that Eamon is an interesting character, as he functions as a kind of bridge between the peasants of Ballybeg and the Big House� When marrying Alice, he moved from the village up to the Hall, so in a sense he personiies the levelling forces of modern democratization, and as the play develops, he is witnessing the inal breakdown of the class he married into: 2 Foundry House was collected in Friel’s collection of short stories known as A Saucer of Larks (1962)� 98 Monika Kozub Eamon: And of course you’ll have chapters on each of the O’Donnell forebears: Great Grandfather–Lord Chief Justice; Grandfather–Circuit Court Judge; Father–simple District Justice; Casimir–failed solicitor� A fairly rapid descent; but no matter, no matter; good for the book; failure’s more lovable than success� D’you know, Professor, I’ve oten wondered: if we had had children and they wanted to be part of the family legal tradition, the only option open to them would have been as criminals, wouldn’t it? (295) As far as the structure of the play is concerned, the play consists of three acts, all the acts are one-scene acts� As far as the characters are concerned, there is the visiting American academic, Tom Hofnung (in his mid-ities), there are the members of the O’Donnell family, and there are the villagers, Eamon (in his thirties) and Willie Diver (in his mid-thirties)� From the O’Donnell family probably the most important characters are the Father and his son Casimir (in his thirties), who also happens to be the only son of the house� But apart from his son, Justice O’Donnell also has four daughters; three of the daughters, Judith (almost forty), Alice (in her mid-thirties) and Claire (in her twenties) appear onstage, and Anna (in her late thirties) is the one ofstage daughter whose voice can only be heard� he American academic, Tom Hofnung, has come to Ireland to conduct research into the Big House gentry, and his very presence there is a clear sign that their time is already gone� To Hofnung, the Irish gentry are merely a subject of study, he treats them as if they were an endangered species, and in a way they are� Also the title of Hofnung’s study: “Recurring cultural, political and social modes in the upper strata of Roman Catholic society in rural Ireland since the act of Catholic Emancipation (265) links the family more with the past and the countryside than with the present” (Corbett 2002, 75)� When talking about Hofnung one should also say that he is a useful character as far as plot development is concerned although in the play plot is of secondary interest to the interplay between the various cultures� Hofnung does not control the plot in the way, for example, the artiicial narrator, Sir, does in Friel’s Living Quarters, but through his skilful questioning he guides the responses of the other characters and elicits details about their lives� Below there is an example of the academic’s interrogation, during which he attempts to discover the family’s political views: Tom: What was your father’s attitude? Alice: To Eamon? Tom: To the civil rights campaign� Alice: He opposed it� No, that’s not accurate� He was indiferent: that was across the Border – away in the North� Tom: Only twenty miles away� Alice: Politics never interested him� Politics are vulgar� he Final Gasps of he Catholic Big House in B� Friel’s Aristocrats 99 Tom: And Judith? What was her attitude? Was she engaged? Alice: She took part in the Battle of the Bogside� Let Father and Uncle George and Claire alone here and joined the people in the streets ighting the police� hat’s an attitude, isn’t it? hat’s when Father had his irst stroke� And seven months later she had a baby by a Dutch reporter� Does that constitute suicient engagement? (Friel 1996, 272) he character of the Father, a former judge, is the igure of patriarchal authority in the play� He is a bedridden, incontinent victim of a stroke, who does not recognise the people around him and mumbles incoherently� He is one of the unseen characters in the play, conined to an ofstage space and reduced to his voice� Murray (2014, 127) has aptly described the protagonist by saying that “[h]e resembles a dying king, but one more feared than loved�” Because the Father’s voice is broadcast through a sound system on to the stage, one gets the impression that the voice comes, as it were, from the fabric of the building, which automatically links the igure of the Father with the house itself, a symbol of authority in the play� It is only at the end of Act 2 that the Father appears on stage and that happens only seconds before he dies; he basically staggers onstage to die� In the light of the above, it would probably be the right thing to say that Justice O’Donnell can be perceived as yet another indication of impending extinction� It is only ater his death that we are told of the state of despair into which the family has fallen–the loss of the Father’s pension has made the diference between getting by and having to leave Ballybeg Hall forever: “[w]e can’t aford it� You’ve forgotten–no, you’ve never known–the inances of this place� For the past seven years we’ve lived on Father’s pension� hat was modest enough� And now that’s gone” (Friel 1996, 317)� he Father’s daughters are afected in varying degrees by his authoritarian manner� Judith is the strongest of the four daughters and she is also the strongest character in the play� Judith is the Father’s only carer and she does her job to the best of her ability despite the fact that he has disowned her for having had a child out of wedlock� Anna is the daughter who managed to cut of ties with her family; being a nun in Zambia, her knowledge of how things are in Ballybeg Hall is very limited� Claire is childlike, fragile and incapable of functioning on her own despite the fact that she is an accomplished classical pianist� She is soon to be married for inancial reasons to a much older, widowed, local greengrocer� In doing so she becomes part of a prevailing pattern of Irish life, but one which her class had previously been exempt from� Alice is an alcoholic and her marriage to Eamon has not worked out� She does not openly blame her Father for her lot, yet she seems to be as emotionally damaged as her mother was� Although it is not said directly in the play, one can infer it from the exchanges between the characters that Alice’s mother committed suicide and that happened when she was still a young woman, only about forty-six or forty-seven years of age� 100 Monika Kozub More than any other character, Casimir is the embodiment of the Catholic ascendancy although we are told in the play that he has moved to live and work in Germany (Friel 1996, 271–72)� Perhaps it will be interesting for the Polish reader to ind out as well that when Casimir explains the reason why he was given such a peculiar irst name (Casimir is an English form of the Polish name Kazimierz), he says that it was his mother who favoured it and pressed for it: “Father wanted me to be christened Gilbert Keith but Mother insisted on Casimir–he was a Polish prince–Mother liked that” (266)� he stage directions give Casimir a number of strange physical mannerisms, in particular his ungainly walk and his facial tics: “[o]ne immediately gets a sense that there is something diferent about him–as he says himself, ‘peculiar’� But what it is, is elusive: partly his shyness, partly his physical movements, particularly the way he walks … partly his erratic enthusiasm, partly his habit of suddenly grinning and giving a mirthless ‘ha-ha’ at unlikely times, usually when he is distressed” (Friel 1996, 255)� Yet, Friel insists that Casimir is not ‘disturbed’, he is simply ‘peculiar,’ and his reactions and mannerisms do not belong to the modern world� he thing that I would like to draw the reader’s attention to is the fact that Casimir perceives himself as nothing but a member of the upper classes� What he does is in fact in line with the approach represented by his family who, as Eamon rightly put it, seemed to “[exist] only in its own concept of itself ” (Friel 1996, 294)� he family used to live a life of total isolation and they showed no interest in maintaining contact with either their Protestant counterparts (294) or with the local Irish community� When Casimir reminisces about Ballybeg, his thoughts tend to focus on his family’s house: “[w]hen I think of Ballybeg Hall it’s always like this: the sun shining; the doors and windows all open” (Friel 1996, 256), and on the music that pervaded it as well as his sister, Claire, playing Chopin: “[a]lways Chopin–the great love of her life� She could play all the nocturnes and all the waltzes before she was ten� We thought we had a little Mozart on our hands� And on her sixteenth birthday she got a scholarship to go to Paris” (258)� It is really interesting that Friel makes Chopin Claire’s favourite composer and through Casimir’s narrative he reveals a few details about his life, for example, the fact that he was Polish and that he died in Paris: “Chopin died in Paris, you know, and when they were burying him they sprinkled Polish soil on his grave� …Because he was Polish” (Friel 1996, 307)� Altogether, there are two Polish references in the play: irstly, we are told that Casimir owes his name to the fact that there was a Polish king called Casimir, and secondly, Chopin is mentioned a few times in the course of the play� On page 251 we learn that the musical background in the play he Final Gasps of he Catholic Big House in B� Friel’s Aristocrats 101 is “all works by Chopin” and Casimir mentions the Polish composer when he talks about Claire’s musical preferences (258) and when he describes Balzac’s birthday party in Vienna (306)� Also, in his interview with Hofnung, Casimir’s memories are strictly connected with the house� He shows Tom the items in the study that were associated with the period of prosperity in Ireland and with the time when the house itself was in its heyday� According to Casimir, “everything has some association” (Friel 1996, 266) in his grandiose dwelling� On the long list of the important people who have visited the house, there are Cardinal John Henry Newman, an important igure in the religious history of England in the 19th century, the Irish political leader, Daniel O’Connell, and a number of renowned European writers, such as Gerard Manley Hopkins, Gilbert Keith Chesterton, George Moore, Tom Moore (Byron’s friend), Hilaire Belloc and William Butler Yeats� Among other things, Casimir claims that Cardinal Newman married his grandfather and grandmother in their house in Ballybeg (263)� He also contends that one can still see a stain on one of the chairs which was let by the tea cups which Hopkins used to hold in his hand (264–65), and apparently there is also a mark of Daniel O’Connell’s riding-boots on the chaise-longue (266)� Roche in his book entitled Brian Friel: heatre and Politics, describes Casimir as being “[t]he supreme fantasist in Friel’s dramatic oeuvre” (Roche 2012, 58), and it is Alice who for the irst time in the play undermines the validity of Casimir’s memories by pointing it out to him that she does not remember Cardinal O’Donnell because he had died before she was born (Friel 1996, 265–66)� Following Casimir’s exchange with Alice about Cardinal O’Donnell, the reader begins to perceive Casimir’s memories as being less reliable� Accordingly, the protagonist’s claim to remember Yeats raises doubts� Friel allows just enough leeway in the dates to make it possible, yet highly unlikely� he play takes place in the mid-1970s, Casimir is in his thirties and Yeats died in 1939, which basically means that Casimir was a very young boy when he met Yeats if he ever did� In the play, Friel makes a direct reference to Yeats’ self-penned epitaph: “Cast a cold eye/On life, on death�/ Horseman, pass by!,” which was later inscribed on his gravestone in the cemetery of Drumclife Parish Church, Drumclife, County Sligo� Friel plays on the wording a cold eye, which is a key phrase in Yeats’ epitaph, and the reader may well treat it as a joke that Casimir remembers Yeats’ cold eyes: “[o]h, he was – he was just tremendous, Yeats, with those cold, cold eyes of his� Oh, yes, I remember Yeats vividly” (Friel 1996, 267)� In the middle of Act 3, Tom makes Casimir confront his lies in a fairly blatant manner and he proves it to him that Yeats and he cannot have met, because the 102 Monika Kozub poet died two months prior to Casimir’s birth (Yeats died on 28th January, 1939 and Casimir was born on 1st April, 1939): Tom: Well, you were born on 1st April, 1939� Casimir: Good heavens – don’t I know! All Fools Day! Yes? Tom: And Yeats died the same year� Two months earlier� I’ve double checked it� (Friel 1996, 309) Now, it would be wrong to assume that Casimir was deliberately trying to misinform Tom and, at least at some level, he means what he says (Corbett 2002, 78)� And indeed Casimir might have simply convinced himself that he took part in the stories that constitute his fantasies� Yet another way of looking at Casimir would be to say that he performs the role of the spokesperson for Ballybeg Hall, or perhaps even for the Catholic Big House itself, and as his narratives develop, he familiarises the reader with the past of these places, real and imagined� A similar attachment to the past can be observed at the very beginning of Act 2 where one can see Casimir on his hands and knees looking in the grass of “the vanished tennis-court” (Friel 1996, 283) for the holes let by croquet hoops� Having found them, Casimir and Claire play an imaginary game of croquet in which they use neither balls nor mallets� Corbett (2002, 78) comments on this scene by saying that “[t]here is a kind of desperate archaeology at work here and that Casimir is driving his ingers into the ground in an attempt to ind the past”: Claire: Come on–who’s for a game? … (Casimir has inished his call� He comes outside� He is uneasy but tries to hide it�) Casimir: Well� hat’s that job done� Glad to get that of my mind� What’s been happening out here? (Friel 1996, 292–301) In conclusion, Aristocrats depicts the gradual demise of the Catholic Big House in Ireland using the example of the once-prosperous O’Donnell family� It is highly doubtful that the O’Donnells will ever be able to get over the crisis they are going through unless, as Alice says, they make “a new start” (324)� And indeed one way of looking at the play would be to say that it calls for the debunking of the myth of the Big House and a rethinking in society� I would also like to draw the reader’s attention to one important detail, namely, that the play ends with the death of the family’s patriarch, the tyrannical Justice O’Donnell, a living reminder of the oppressive past� It seems that his death is assigned a symbolic meaning in the sense that it puts an end to the old order and paves the way for a new beginning, a new dispensation� Another important aspect of the play is that it addresses more fully than other Friel’s plays the issue of class� Note that Ballybeg Hall takes its name from the village that it “overlooks” (Friel 1996, 251), yet in no way is it a part of it� he choice of he Final Gasps of he Catholic Big House in B� Friel’s Aristocrats 103 the word “overlook” is noteworthy, as it implies that the house surveys the village from a height� Moreover, in the play there are two peasants from the village who manage to enter the Big House of the O’Donnells; they are called Willie Diver and Eamon� While Willie remains on the outside, Eamon has married into the family� he interesting thing about Eamon is that despite the snide remarks that he makes about the inhabitants of Ballybeg Hall, he is most emotional about abandoning it� On the last pages of the play he admits openly that it is very diicult for him to leave the estate, as “in a sense it has always been [his] home” (324)� All in all, in the play, Friel is not making any kind of moral judgement as far as the respective social classes are concerned� Rather, he gives vent to his continuing obsession with the decline of Irish identity and the complicated nature of Irish history, note that these themes also pervade Philadelphia, Here I Come, Translations and Dancing at Lughnasa� he title of the play is obviously ironic, as the O’Donnell family, just like the estate that they occupied, is on its last legs, and the occasion that they all gathered for begins as a wedding celebration and ends as a wake� And it seems as well that Casimir’s tall tales of the hall’s glory days are nothing more than a igment of his imagination, nothing more than a fantasy, which is no more real than the croquet game he plays with imaginary mallets, balls and wickets� References Friel, Brian� 1996� Plays One [formerly Selected Plays]; includes Philadelphia, Here I Come!, he Freedom of the City, Living Quarters, Aristocrats, Faith Healer, and Translations� London: Faber and Faber� Corbett, Tony� 2002� Brian Friel: Decoding the Language of the Tribe� Dublin: he Lifey Press� Murray, Christopher� 2014� he heatre of Brian Friel: Tradition and Modernity� London: Bloomsbury� Murray, Christopher� 1997� Twentieth-Century Irish Drama: Mirror Up To Nation� Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press� Roche, Anthony� 2012� Brian Friel: heatre and Politics� London: Palgrave Macmillan� Anna Pietrzykowska-Motyka Modern Appropriations of Shakespeare: Jane Smiley’s A housand Acres (1991) Abstract: he article discusses the modern appropriation of William Shakespeare’s King Lear in Jane Smiley’s novel A housand Acres (1991)� he author strives to prove how the appropriation retains the grandeur and magniicence of the original piece, at the same time also marginalizing, side-lining, or even downgrading the source text� Introduction It is no coincidence that the Shakespearean canon has provided a crucial touchstone for the scholarship of appropriation as a literary practice and form� he aim of the article will be to discuss the modern appropriation of King Lear in Jane Smiley’s novel, A housand Acres (1991)� One of the most recent of the critical responses to the novel shows Jane Smiley’s reworking of King Lear as (re)constructing an ‘alternate history’: “one that privileges the private, the domestic, the feminocentric, over the public, the national, the phallocentric” (Millard 2007, 67)� While fully conceding that to be true, the author of the present article shall strive to prove how the appropriation retains the grandeur and magniicence of the original piece (Shakespeare’s King Lear), but at the same time it also marginalizes, sidelines, or downgrades the original source� 1. Literary adaptation/ appropriation To start with the deining terms, Julie Sanders (2006) introduces an important distinction between the loosely used terms: adaptation and appropriation� he notions of adaptation and appropriation are encompassed by a broader practice of intertextuality. Intertextuality proves that texts refer back to the other texts and rework them� Although both modes of reworking texts are similar in the adaptive process “appropriation frequently afects a more decisive journey away from the informing source into a wholly new cultural product and domain” (Sanders 2006, 26)� Shakespearean appropriations have been made with reference to many of his plays, adapting them for the stage or the screen, or by involving them in a generic shit (e�g� from drama to the novel)� Moreover, the Shakespearean canon has been subject to all possible alterations–“as long as there have been plays by Shakespeare, there have been adaptations of those plays” (Fischlin and Fortier qtd� in Sanders 106 Anna Pietrzykowska-Motyka 2006, 46)� he history of the reworking, re-telling of King Lear in the twentieth century is almost endless, and the most of these appropriations concern plays and ilms rather than the novels (Foakes 1997, 85)�1 Let us not forget that Shakespeare himself was “an active adaptor and imitator, an appropriator of myth, fairy tale and folklore, as well as of the works of speciic writers as varied as Ovid, Plutarch and Holinshed” (Sanders 2006, 46)� Most of Shakespeare’s characters or storylines were borrowed from other sources� King Lear, for example, borrows from the old Leir play, an old play of unknown authorship, which lourished at the court in the early 1590s� However Shakespearean version difers from the original source by primarily the tragic ending (Bate and Rasmussen 2007, 2007)� It is interesting to note that most adaptations may arise from some dissatisfaction with the original source� For instance, Jane Smiley explains why the story of Shakespeare’s Lear served for her as the background for her novel A housand Acres (1991). She says that her acceptance of the tragedy was pro-forma and she did not like either Lear or Cordelia� She says: Beginning with my irst readings of the play in high school and continuing through college and graduate school, I had been cool to both Cordelia and Lear� … he struck me as the sort of the person, from beginning to end, that you would want to stay away from – selish, demanding, humourless, self-pitying … I didn’t like Cordelia either� She seemed ungenerous and cold, a stickler for truth at the beginning, a stickler for form at the end� (Smiley qtd� in Cakebread 1999, 85) A housand Acres (1991) transposes the King Lear story to the modern day and in so doing at once illuminates Shakespeare’s original and subtly transforms it� his astonishing novel won both of America’s highest literary awards, the Pulitzer Prize for iction and the national Book Critics’ Circle Award� he novel focuses on Larry (Lawrence Cook) and his family (three daughters—Ginny, Rose and Caroline) and transplants the story to the Cook family farm in Zebulon County, Iowa, 1979� he Lear story is retold through the eyes of Lear’s oldest daughter, Goneril (Ginny)� Smiley, long dissatisied with the interpretation of Lear which privileged the father’s needs over the daughters’, felt inclined to rewrite the original story 1 he author of the present article wants to stress two stage appropriations of Shakespeare’s King Lear, namely Edward Bond’s Lear (performed 1971) and Howard Barker’s Seven Lears (1986)� Both plays are the main concern of the article entitled “Appropriations of Shakespeare’s King Lear in modern British drama: Edward Bond’s Lear (1971) and Howard Barker’s Seven Lears (1989),” to be published� Modern Appropriations of Shakespeare 107 with the aim to understand and explain the motivations of the daughters which she felt were largely unexamined in Shakespeare’s play� he transposition of Lear’s story in Smiley’s work involves the crossing not just of historical and geographical but also of generic and gender boundaries (Millard 2007, 64)� In the irst place the story is rewritten by an American writer in the 20th century who is rewriting a seventeenth-century play written by a man� he rewriting also involves a generic shit (from drama into novel): “Against the apparently objective mode of direct dramatization she sets the apparently subjective mode of the irst person narrative” (64)� Ginny relates the events retrospectively and in her narrative “it becomes clear that decisions not just about how to tell a story, but about which bits of it (or, to put it in adversarial terms, whose side of it) to tell, can never be anything but subjective, and by implication and in the broadest sense of the word, political” (64)� he novel parallels many pivotal scenes from King Lear such as the storm scene, Gloucester’s blinding (paralleled by Harold Clark’s blinding), the reconciliation between Lear and Cordelia (here: Larry and Caroline), and Lear’s death� Jess Clark (the Edmund igure) has afairs with both Ginny and Rose, Tyler (Ginny’s husband recalls the Albany igure, and Pete—Rose’s husband—recalls Cornwall)� Many themes are also paralleled2 such as the infertility theme (evident in Ginny’s ive miscarriages), the insanity theme (Larry’s erratic behaviour), women and nature theme, appearance and reality theme, and the ingratitude theme as well� What is a completely new addition to Lear’s story is the incest theme, recalled by Rose in the midst of the storm scene: “I don’t mean when we got strapped or spanked�” (Rose) “Came ater us”? (Ginny) “When we were teenagers� How he came into our rooms”� (Smiley 1992, 188) Ginny cannot recall this incident at irst because, as she claims later on: “One thing Daddy took from me when he came to me in my room at night was the memory of my body” (Smiley 1992, 280)� When she is back in her old room in their family house, she recalls the scene which she has for long repressed in her memory: “And so my father came to me and had intercourse with me in the middle of the night� …I remembered his weight, the feeling of his knee pressing between my legs, while I tried to make my legs heavy without seeming to defy him” (280)� As Millard observes, “the storm of Smiley’s novel, like that of Shakespeare’s play, 2 King Lear Parallels are studied in many critical essays on Jane Smiley’s novel A housand Acres, and in particular in Susan Farrell’s (2001)� 108 Anna Pietrzykowska-Motyka has an allegorical aspect: it represents the external manifestation of the internal, psychological tempest precipitated by Rose’s revelation” (2007, 72)� he reason why Smiley incorporated this theme was to account for the evil nature of Lear’s daughters (Goneril and Regan) in Shakespeare’s play� Her intention was to break from the conventional readings of the play which would locate sympathies with Lear and Cordelia (Sanders 2001, 198)�3 Furthermore, part of her motivation for writing A housand Acres “was to make the invisible visible, particularly the reasons why Goneril and Reagan treat their father the way they do” (Farrell 2001, 47)� 2. Fathers and Daughters’ heme Angela Carter’s novel Wise Children (1991) is prefaced by the following quotation: “How many times Shakespeare draws fathers and daughters, never mothers and daughters” (Terry qtd� in Carter 1991)� his is really true when it comes to both Shakespeare’s King Lear and Smiley’s A housand Acres� In both texts mothers are absent from the family: in King Lear the mother of the daughters is mentioned only once in passing by Lear, and in Smiley’s novel the mother of the girls had died when they were not even teenagers (Caroline, the youngest was six)� Nevertheless, in the latter text, the image of their mother does appear quite frequently in Ginny’s narrative, and her attempt to recollect her mother from scraps and shreds of memories forms an important part in Ginny’s search for her own identity� In Coppélia Kahn’s most quoted essay “he Absent Mother in King Lear” (irst published in 1986), the author argues that in both families headed by Lear and Gloucester the patriarchal system is preserved: “the only source of love, power and authority is the father–an awesome, demanding presence” (2000, 257)� Mothers in such patriarchal families are only necessary in procreation, but later on their role is diminished; the father is the rule giver, he represents the power and he wishes to subdue others to his will, in particular his children� It is exactly the issue of paternal power that surfaces in both texts: the source text and its appropriation, Lear curses Cordelia in the opening scene of the play: “Better thou// Hadst not been born than not t’have pleased me better” (I�1� 228–229)� In Smiley’s novel pleasing the father starts irst with feeding Daddy, preparing his breakfast and dinner: “Daddy ate at our house on Tuesdays, Rose’s on Fridays” (Smiley 1992, 47)� In Chapter 16 of the novel Ginny 3 In accordance with such conventional interpretations, Lear’s redemption is accomplished through the agency of the holy igure of Cordelia� Among others, see Introduction to King Lear by R� A� Foakes 1997, p� 31� Modern Appropriations of Shakespeare 109 goes early in the morning to prepare breakfast for her father: “I knew Daddy would be annoyed at having to wait for his breakfast� Now that I was no longer cooking for Rose, he wanted it slap on the table at six, even though there were no ields he was hurrying to get to” (112)� On arriving at her Daddy’s house, she realizes that there are no eggs for breakfast and that the father is irritated by the fact that “nobody shopped over the weekend” (114)� She has a choice: either to keep him waiting and go back and fetch the eggs from her own house, or to fail to give him his eggs� Ginny knows that her decision is a test of her obedience and submissiveness to her father’s whims� In the long last, she brings him the eggs and fries his usual breakfast� his incident is really an exercise in will power–the father is relentless in demanding absolute subservience from his daughter even in such minute things as what he eats for breakfast or the time of his meal� he daughter has an opportunity to fail him, to ignore his likes or dislikes, yet she is not ready to do it� All throughout the novel and prior to the storm scene, Ginny is aware of her father’s power over her: “When my father asserted his point of view, mine vanished� Not even I could remember it” (Smiley 1992, 176)� Ginny’s earliest memories of her father consist in “being afraid to look him in the eye, to look at him at all” (19)� Her father was to her a fearsome igure: “If I had to speak to him, I addressed his overalls, his shirt, his boots� If he lited me near his face, I shrank away from him� If he kissed me, I endured it, ofered a little hug in return” (19)� At the same time Ginny admits that this fearsomeness was reassuring because the father protected his family well from what her childish imagination feared most: robbers and monsters� hey lived on the best farm, “the biggest farm farmed by the biggest farmer” (20)� “hat it, or maybe formed, my own sense of the right order of things” (20)� Reversing roles between the father and the oldest daughter seems to please Ginny a lot� Ater the car accident, Ginny feels it her duty to reprimand her father for his foolishness which resulted in drunk driving� She recalls: It was exhilarating, talking to my father as if he were my child, more than exhilarating to see him as my child� his laying down the law was a marvelous way of talking� It created a whole orderly future within me, a vista of manageable days clicking past, myself in the foreground, large and purposeful� (148) A couple of days later, however, her power disappears and she is very disconsolate to see that “where was the power I had felt only a few days before, the power of telling rather than being told?” (173)� Ater the storm scene in which Ginny is called by her father a number of invectives such as “a dried-up whore bitch” (181), she is wondering why her father addressed her like that and at the same time she 110 Anna Pietrzykowska-Motyka thinks that her father has had some knowledge of her adulterous relationship with Jess Clarke� She admits that: “Certainly, a child raised with an understanding of her father’s power like mine could not be surprised that even without any apparent source of information he would know her dearest secrets� Hadn’t he always?” (185)� Rose thinks that Daddy overwhelms them (Ginny and herself), but Caroline is free from his inluence on her� Actually, Caroline is Larry’s favourite daughter and fortunate enough not to have been involved with Larry in the incestuous afair� hat she was untouched by incest she owes it to Rose, who confesses to Ginny that Larry told her that if she went along with him, “he wouldn’t get interested in her” (Smiley 1992, 190)� Rose continued the relationship with her Daddy mainly because she did not want him to seduce Caroline, who was then only 8 or 10� But at the same time, Rose was lattered, too, by Larry’s interest in her: “I thought that he’d picked me, me, to be his favourite, not you, not her” (190)� Rose also states that her father did not rape her, but seduced her, which implies that she also accepted the rules of the relationship between them: “He said it was okay, that it was good to please him, that he needed it, that I was special� He said he loved me” (190)� 3. A housand Acres as a downgraded version of King Lear’s story Although Smiley’s novel shares with King Lear primarily the tragic ending: the family breaks apart (Larry dies, Rose dies of cancer, Pete dies in a car accident, Ginny and Ty separate, Jess Clarke leaves Rose, Ginny leaves for the city and works there as a waitress, the farm is sold to he Heartland Corporation), the appropriation could be also seen as a downgraded, downscaled version of the source text� In the following pages, I shall suggest such reading of Smiley’s novel bearing in mind which particular elements of A housand Acres delate the seriousness of the original� Following the method of interpretation suitable for a heroi-comical poem, I wish to transfer some of the interpretative strategies for the use in the present article� In a heroi-comical enterprise several techniques are adopted to help us understand the message within the text: a� Placing of a text within a line of descent (the Lear’s story has been handed down for centuries), b� Grand actions and grand gestures are amusingly scaled down, c� Mock-heroic works by setting up one igure, event, situation, term against another, so that we both get a sense of similarity and diference (we alternate between the source and its appropriation in the mode similar to mock-heroic strategies of interpretation)� However the efect of such an interpretation is more complex than that: Modern Appropriations of Shakespeare 111 i� Our judgment is challenged by the delight we take in the incongruity itself; ii� he shits in scale make us think how we see and evaluate things; iii� he surprising appositions cause us to look freshly and perhaps see unexpected links between situations and ideas�4 In the irst place, the main diference between the source text and its appropriation lies in the shits in scale; that is we observe the sudden transition from the macrocosmic view of the world to a microcosmic one� here’s no denying the fact that everything in King Lear is on a grand scale: its philosophical reach, its preoccupation with the condition of man, in particular “unaccommodated man”� However, Smiley stresses that “the play’s dynamics are essentially familial, microcosmic; that its central conlicts are between siblings, genders and generations, rather than between rival political factions” (Millard 2007, 67)� For this reason, Smiley’s book its into “the genre of domestic realism” (Strehle qtd� in Farrell 2001, 30) —“conventional in form and style and told by an average, reliable, middle-American narrator” (Farrell 2001, 30)�5 It amounts to saying that Lear’s mythical kingdom (England) is metonymically transformed into a farm (a mere thousand acres), and the king is turned into a farmer: “In Zebulon County, though, my father’s thousand acres made him one of the biggest landowners” (Smiley 1992, 131)� Likewise, Lear’s train of followers is reduced to two men (Ken la Salle) (Kent) and Marv Carson (the Fool)� Further downsizing the story of Lear concerns the division of the farm (in Shakespeare’s—the kingdom) which is a starting point for a rit between the close members of the family� Caroline is “disinherited” (similarly as Cordelia is) because she does not seem to accept the plan: We are going to form this corporation, Ginny, and you girls are all going to have shares, then we are going to build this new Slurrystote, and maybe a Harveststore, too, and enlarge the hog operation� … You girls and Ty and Pete and Frank are going to run the show� You’ll each have a third part in the corporation� (Smiley 1992, 18–19) he consequences of division of the farm start to be apparent very early on and Ginny observes that “it was freshly evident that he had impulsively betrayed himself by handing over his farm” (Smiley 1992, 112)� As the plot unfolds we observe 4 5 he terminology is borrowed from he Poetry of Alexander Pope by David Fairer� Penguin Critical Studies� London: Penguin Books, 1989� pp� 55–66� However, Farrell further claims that the events by the end of the novel grow more preposterous and more terrifying than in the typical domestic novel, they are out of proportion, and the characters attain almost mythical status as their actions become excessive and monstrous at times (30)� his view, although contradictory to the interpretative path in the present article, cannot be refuted� 112 Anna Pietrzykowska-Motyka further dismemberment and portioning of the land Larry owned� Ater Pete’s death, Ty’s departure to Texas and Ginny’s departure to St� Paul, Rose (on her deathbed) transfers the property of the farm to Ginny and Caroline� Since the farm is already in debt, Caroline and Ginny sell it to he Heartland Corporation� he day before the sale they both come to the estate to take whatever is precious to either of them� Each of the girls wants to divide the stuf between them: the pictures, the kitchenware, towels, sheets, linen, dishes, glassware, cake plates and napkins, all that forms the real essence of the family life� Ginny and Caroline have no clear plan how to divide the things among them; Ginny assumes that Caroline wants to take all that belonged to Mommy and Daddy; however the youngest daughter cannot recognize those things easily� Ginny observes: “How can we divide up the stuf without knowing what it means?” (Smiley, 361) Caroline, as the youngest of the three, has spent the least time on the farm; she cannot even recognize family members in the photos hanging on the walls� hat is why Ginny is unwilling to divide the things between them: to Caroline most of the things do not carry their meaning as family precious belongings; she is a stranger to them� Ginny is well motivated to exclaim to Caroline: “So why do you want these things? Pictures of strangers, dishes and cups and saucers that you don’t remember? It’s like you’re just taking home somebody else’s farm childhood� You don’t know what it means!” (362) By contrast, to Ginny everything that is part of the farm means a lot; all the objects are familiar to her, carry their meaning with them, the history of her family and her ancestors� he farm, an eponymous thousand acres, becomes in the long run a collection of utensils, unnecessary objects such as those that Ginny inds on inspecting the barn: “three hurricane lamps, old buckets, and feed pans nested precariously together, rakes� A pile of rusted bailing wire� On the workbench, some C clamps, a hammer, which I picked up, a band saw, a spare ax handle” (Smiley 1992, 365)� Larry Cook’s little kingdom is reduced to a number of tools, objects, things which are no longer used� What once to used be a pride of place in the whole neighbourhood (the best and biggest farm) is now neglected, rusty and dusty� Another example by which the delating of the seriousness of the original is accomplished is the way in which the oldest girls try to stand up to their father� For instance, executing their power over him is being delated to Ginny’s coming too late to prepare his breakfast (Smiley 1992, 114), or taking away his car keys to prevent him from drunk driving (148): I looked him square in the eye� It was my choice, to keep him waiting or to fail to give him his eggs� His gaze was lat, brassily relective� Not only wasn’t he going to help me decide, my decision was a test� I could push past him, give him toast, cereal and bacon, Modern Appropriations of Shakespeare 113 a breakfast without a center of gravity or I could run home and get the eggs� My choice would show him something about me, either that I was selish and inconsiderate (no eggs) or that I was incompetent (a lurry of activity) where there should be organized procedure)� I did it� I smiled foolishly, said I would be right back, and ran out the door and back down the road� (114) In this way the mythical tragedy of King Lear is here reduced to domestic, routine activities such as preparing breakfast for Daddy and Ginny’s concern about the eggs: whether to bring them from her own house and cater to the father’s whims or ignore him altogether� Millard calls this situation “a test not just of obedience, but of her ability to please him” (2007, 71)� Ginny is faced here “with what is apparently the most mundane of dilemmas” (71), but which “takes on a retrospective poignancy” (71)� Ginny has always been mastered by Daddy, even sexually, and she is used to complying with his orders� Although she hesitates for a while what to do, the more submissive and vulnerable part of her personality fails the test of assertiveness and independence� As Farrell observes, “Ginny constantly negotiates between this outer, conforming self and her interior, more rebellious self ” (2001, 31)� Ginny’s ultimate act of deiance and non-conformist behaviour (contrary to the carefully controlled public image of herself as obedient daughter, wife, and a loyal sister) (Farrell 2001, 31) is when she sleeps with Jess Clarke and when she plans to poison Rose� Interestingly enough, the killing of Rose by Ginny is reduced to preparing a few jars of pickles with a poisonous plant within� he hemlock root I had minced inely with a paring knife� I decided to use it all� he leaves and the stems I had let at the river� he root now sat on the piece of paper on the counter� I washed the knife and the fork I’d used to hold the root while I chopped it� … ater grinding the mince into the meat along with pepper, garlic, onion, cumin, red pepper, cinnamon, allspice, a dash of cloves and plenty of salt, I illed the sausage casings and tied them of every six inches� hey were about as thick as a man’s thumb� No telling which of them were lethal and which weren’t� … It was not unlike the feeling you get when you are baking a birthday cake for someone� hat person inhabits your mind� So I thought continuously of Rose� (Smiley 1992, 313) Ginny cherishes the very moment of preparing the poison for Rose, she is very particular about the ingredients of the fatal sausages and she is sure that the taste must appeal strongly to Rose and that her “own [Rose’s] appetite would select her death” (Smiley 1992, 313)� On one hand, Ginny compares her sausages to a lethal weapon, which are to kill her sister, but on the other hand she compares the situation to baking a birthday cake for someone� he mention of “birthday” is very uncommon in this context and may suggest the mixing of values in Ginny’s world� Furthermore, according to Nakadate: 114 Anna Pietrzykowska-Motyka he sausage in particular constitutes an elaborate exercise in secrecy and disclosure that combines the novel’s key themes� Ginny’s sausage can be read as a “domestic” gesture, … a marker in her love-hate relationship with Rose …; a symbolic containment of male power and domination; an exorcism and objectiication of the emotional poison of incest that impinges on the present and future� (1999, 177–178) Ironically, the jars with pickles were untouched by Rose; Ginny inds them all safely seated on Rose’s shelves and completely forgotten� Ater inding the jars “shoved in helter skelter owing to the jumble of passionate events, than later pushed back, pushed aside, forgotten” (Smiley, 366), she carries them to the cellar, closes the door, and there in the dark eyes her most intimate secret–the poisonous sausages–which in fact let Rose unharmed� In this way, Ginny retains her clandestine, double-faced identity, the interior self which operates side by side with her outer self� he only way in which Ginny may express her wishes and desires is by “displacing them onto a second, submerged self, kept carefully hidden from her family and neighbours” (Farrell 2001, 31)� Judging Ginny, Nakadate observes that she works in terms of equivocation, indirection and delay (1999, 178)� Ginny gets rid of the sausages, again in the privacy of her city apartment, leaving the poison drip down the sewage, and in this way in iteen minutes, she washes her hands clean of the evil deed which she intended but missed altogether due to her prevarication and procrastination� In the subplot of King Lear a signiicant role is played by Gloucester and his two sons (the bastard son, Edmund, and the rightful one, Edgar)� In Smiley’s novel Gloucester is paralleled by Harold Clarke, the father of Jess and Loren� What happens to Gloucester in the play (blinding), becomes also Harold’s painful experience; however it is accomplished in a totally diferent way, by means of Harold’s new tractor� In Book 1, Chapter 4 a reader learns that Harold bought a brand new International Harvester tractor, which became the envy of all neighbours� At the pig roast, Harold proudly displays his new acquisition (the machinery), and also welcomes his prodigal son, Jess, who has just come back home� he thing that is meant to increase productivity of the land and a greater accumulation of wealth becomes a tool of torture for poor Harold� One day, Harold decides to get on his new tractor and work on the corn ield� he tractor breaks down, and Harold gets down of the tractor to see why one of the knives got clogged� Maybe he was in a hurry, … No one knows why he jiggled the hose� Possibly he only touched it while bending down, brushed against it with his hand or his sleeve� At any rate, the hose jerked of the knife, and with the last puf of pressure remaining in the line, sprayed him in the face� He wasn’t wearing goggles� (Smiley 1992, 231) When he goes to the water tank to lush his eyes, the water tank is empty: “At this point Harold was overcome, and he simply keeled over in the ield” Modern Appropriations of Shakespeare 115 (Smiley 1992, 232)� When the incident takes place, there is no one around who could prevent this from happening because everyone else is doing their usual duties: Jess is out running, Rose is helping her daughters, Lawrence is busy talking on the porch, Ginny is dropping Pammy of, Ty is working and Pete is buying cement� As a result, Harold loses his eyesight instantly and although he is taken to hospital by Loren, doctors cannot do anything to help him regain his eyes: “the corneas are eaten away” (232) and only transplants could do the job, but they usually do not work too well� Harold’s blinding is then scaled down to self-annihilation, self-murder or self-injury caused by a desire to show of in the neighbourhood and by a mere bad luck� he tragedy of the man is deinitely aggravated by the fact that he self-inlicted this injury� Another downscaling the original concerns Larry Cook and how the daughters try to rationalize their Dad’s behaviour� Interestingly, the youngest of them, Caroline, was long before trying to research into her father’s psychological composition when she was in college and doing a psychology major for a while� he narrator (Ginny) comments on it and mocks all those glib generalizations involving psychological personality tests and the psychological jargon, too: she burbled with plausible theories about why he drank, what his personality structure was, how we ought to administer “the Luscher Color Test,” or what we could do to break down the barriers in his whole oral structure” (he couldn’t cry and therefore express pain, because in fact he couldn’t bite because no doubt he had been breast fed and forbidden, probably harshly, to bite the nipple), or he had been potty trained too early, which made him retentive of everything� (Smiley 1992, 118) On hearing that, Rose responds: “He’s a farmer, Caroline� hat is a personality structure that supersedes every childhood inluence” (Smiley 1992, 118)� he girls’ attempts at rationalizing their father’s behaviour certainly ill in the omissions in the original story of Lear� In Shakespeare’s play there were no attempts to look at the motivation of King Lear and why he acted this way or that� Smiley’s appropriation of the story of Lear has the potential to explain and research into Lear’s true motives behind his insanity and his hatred against women� Larry Cook is the subject of the test as well, and through such lens Lear’s behaviour may be ampliied and approached� 4. he absent mother he novel shares with feminist critics an interest in the absent mother of Shakespeare’s play (Foakes 1997, 89)� he girls (Rose and Ginny) try to trace the mother they never knew and they fantasize about her: “she was a waitress at the restaurant of a nice hotel, and we lived with her in a Hollywood-style apartment 116 Anna Pietrzykowska-Motyka (Smiley 1992, 187),” or “I used to fantasize that Mommy had escaped and taken an assumed name and, someday she would be back for us” (187)� he mother’s looming presence in her oldest daughter’s life and the memories of her are still inefectual enough to solve the old mysteries� Ginny feels she could go and ask people about her mother, to become her biographer, to be drawn into her life, but she inds the task “an impractical, laborious and failing substitute for what she had missed in the last twenty two years” (94)� When her father leaves his house and goes to live with Harold Clarke ater the storm, Ginny feels it is the right moment to ind her mother with the departure of her father (225)� It seems then that she wants to trace the memories of her mother to patch up what has been long silenced, unmentioned and untold� his opinion is in keeping with the underlying interpretation of the world of the novel as “one of occlusion and efacement, and one of the great strengths of the novel is the skill, and timing, with which it withholds and reveals its secrets” (Millard 2007, 65)� he downgrading, downsizing efect of Smiley’s appropriation of King Lear’s story concerns also major shits in the narrative� For example, whereas Shakespeare has made both older daughters dead at the end of the play, Smiley keeps Ginny alive� he woman has to leave the farm behind and move to the city, where she starts her new life as a single, working woman (Farrell 2001, 29)� Other characters are similarly reduced or undermined: ater Harold’s blinding, Loren, disappears from the text (Sanders 2001, 195)� Larry’s wife in the novel is also “a tangible absent presence” (Smiley 1992, 200)� Verna Clarke, the mother of Jess and Loren, had died of cancer before Jess came back home� Ginny’s ive miscarried children also ill in the void of the unmentionable, the secret, and the absent in the narrative� As she recalls once: “hen there was the image that things always looped back to, those ive miscarried children” (147)� And last but not least the greatest secret of incest is sheltered from Caroline by Ginny when they meet at the end of the novel prior to the sale of the farm� Ginnny realizes that she should have told Caroline the truth, but she abstained from it: “Rose would have� I didn’t” (363)� Caroline is let believing that the older sisters are evil and that they have “a thing against Daddy” (363)� Ginny, in turn, is let with the realization that “each vanished person let me something, and that I feel my inheritance when I am reminded of one of them” (370)� he fact that Smiley takes the woman’s part in revisioning the story of Lear may be also interpreted as the downsizing of the original by shiting the perspective of events from masculine (King Lear) to feminine (A housand Acres)� As Millard concludes, “Smiley ofers no consolation, no happy ending; what she does ofer, however, is an alternative, feminocentric reframing of the Lear story which is also a compelling work in its own right” (2007, 79)� Other critics, like Modern Appropriations of Shakespeare 117 Susan Farrell, admit that the ending is at least ambiguous; however, there is hope for Ginny to reconstruct her new, maybe better, life� Conclusions he aim of the present article was to highlight the relationship between the source text and its appropriation; in this case the appropriated text was Shakespeare’s King Lear� Appropriating canonical literary texts has become a much-used practice for many modern writers, including Jane Smiley and other women novelists; e�g� Angela Carter� In Jane Smiley’s novel A housand Acres one can observe striking resemblances to the original text as well as note disparities and modiications between the two texts� One of them involves the downgrading or downsizing of the original source achieved by shits in scale, quality and quantity� For example, Lear’s kingdom becomes transposed to a thousand acres’ farm in Iowa, Lear’s division of his kingdom becomes delated to the hog operation, Ginny’s miscarriages are ascribed to water pollution in the area, Larry’s insanity is described in terms of personality disorder, Harold Clarke’s blinding (parallel to Gloucester’s blinding) is scaled down to self-annihilation and the absent mother in Ginny’s imagination is reduced to the image of a waitress who has run out to Hollywood and taken a disguised name� In efect, readers can approach Shakespeare’s Lear’s story from a diferent angle: while bearing in mind the grandeur of the original, they can see that the potential of the source text lies not only in retaining its original power and size, but also in the way the source text enters into a contemporary context by negotiating with diferent geographical space, time continuum, or more ordinary characters� In Jane Smiley’s novel Shakespeare’s original story becomes modiied in various dimensions, giving Lear’s story a new lavour and colouring, for example a mock-heroic one� References Bate, Jonathan and Eric Rasmussen� 2007� William Shakespeare. Complete Works. Macmillan: Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire� Cakebread, Caroline� 1999� “Remembering King Lear in Jane Smiley’s A housand Acres�” In Shakespeare and Appropriation� Edited by Desmet, Christy and Robert Sawyer� 85–102� London: Routledge� Farrell, Susan� 2001� Jane Smiley’s A housand Acres. A Reader’s Guide. New York/ London: Continuum� Fairer, David� 1989� he Poetry of Alexander Pope� London: Penguin Books� Foakes, R. A� 1997� “Introduction�” In King Lear edited by R� A� Foakes� 1–148� London: homson Learning� 118 Anna Pietrzykowska-Motyka Kahn, Coppelia� 2000� “he Absent Mother in King Lear�” In A Shakespeare Reader: Sources and Criticism� Richard Danson Brown and David Johnson (eds)� 255–266� Great Britain: Macmillan Press Ltd� Millard, Kenneth� 2007� “Silence, Secrecy and Sexuality: ‘Alternate Histories’ in Jane Smiley’s A housand Acres, Carol Shields’ he Stone Diaries, and Jefrey Eugenides’ Middlesex.” In Coming of Age in Contemporary American Fiction by Kenneth Millard� Chapter 2� 61–81� Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press� Nakadate, Neil� 1999� “A housand Acres�” In Understanding Jane Smiley edited by Neil Nakadate� 157–181� University of South Carolina Press� Raposo, Dantas Marluce Oliveira� “King Lear and Materialist Feminism Criticism�” Accessed 30th April 2015� http://200�144�182�130/revistacrop/images/stories/ edicao01/v01a02�pdf� Sanders, Julie� 2001� Novel Shakespeares. Twentieth-Century Women Novelists and Appropriation. Manchester University Press� Sanders, Julie� 2006� Adaptation and Appropriation� London and New York: Routledge� Smiley, Jane� 1992� A housand Acres. London: Flamingo� Sławomir Kuźnicki Women, Men and the Hope of Pregnancy/ Motherhood in Margaret Atwood’s MaddAddam Abstract: he article investigates how the society of female and male survivors is supplemented in Margaret Atwood’s MaddAddam with the elements of motherhood and parenthood� As the author suggests, the trans-generic relations and their ofspring give hope for the future� Concluding the 21st century speculative trilogy that also includes Oryx and Crake (2003) and he Year of the Flood (2010), MaddAddam (2013) concentrates on the concept of a peaceful existence of men and women, as well as “old” people and the perfect human clones in the post-apocalyptic world� Consequently, motherhood and parenthood enable Atwood a drit from feminisms of her previous novels towards a more universally understood humanism� On the one hand, the writer’s picture of women’s communities provides the main female characters of the novel with some kind of a framework wherein they can realise their femininity� his parallels Nina Auerbach’s deinition: All true communities are knit together by their codes, but a code can range from dogma to a lexible, private, and oten semi-conscious set of beliefs� … in female communities, the code seems a whispered and a leeting thing, more a buried language than a rallying cry… � (1978, 8–9) On the other, Atwood extends the scope of this notion to include men, too, as they also inluence the way females view themselves� Additionally, the new transgenic context plays an important part here, as the inter-speciic children, the Crakerhuman splices, surprisingly make some sort of survival and prolongation of life in general possible� hus, the concluding remarks of MaddAddam are rather optimistic: the experiences of motherhood and pregnancy unite a woman with a man, as well as the old humankind with its genetically enhanced version� In brief, MaddAddam is very tightly connected to the two novels preceding it, also presenting life before and ater the biological apocalypse triggered by the character of Glenn/Crake� he “present” story of the novel focuses on the plague survivors, the former scientists belonging to the MaddAddam group—including Zeb and Toby� hey are all forced to struggle not only with the adverse 120 Sławomir Kuźnicki living conditions, the direct outcome of the pandemic, but also with the highly dangerous representatives of their own species� At the same time, the remaining MaddAddamites learn how to reach some kind of a cultural symbiosis with the peace-loving Crakers, the humanoids created by Crake Oryx and Crake to replace self-destructive people in the post-apocalyptic world� Given the survival of the whole humankind, this symbiosis has to result not only in peaceful co-existence, but also in genetic mingling of these two versions of human beings� Consequently, the relationships between the sexes, so frequently approached by Atwood from a critical perspective fuelled by the patriarchal system, have to evolve and be reestablished on a completely new basis� When discussing both women’s communities and women-men relationships, the character of Toby seems central to Atwood’s considerations� One of the two protagonists in he Year of the Flood, in MaddAddam she provides the readers with her perspective on most of the events in the novel� Jeet Heer describes her: “[t]hanks to Toby, the trilogy gains that human dimension which only the best iction possesses�” What appears to be deining to her characteristic is her relationship with Zeb, the group’s informal leader, that has started in the previous volume of the trilogy, but becomes the greatest concern in MaddAddam� At the beginning of the novel, however, Toby still does not seem to believe that such a relationship is possible in the long run� When Zeb is outside the survivors’ camp, doubts dominate Toby’s thoughts: “Her strongest desire is to have Zeb come back safe, but if he does, she’ll have to face up once again to the fact that she’s neutral territory as far as he’s concerned� Nothing emotional, no sexiness there, no frills� A trusted comrade and foot soldier: reliable Toby, so competent� hat’s about it” (Atwood 2013, 27)� he absence of her lover, then, intensiies her doubts and exerts a direct inluence on her self-esteem, as now the emotional and physical bond between them appears to be of greatest importance for her� hat is why, when he is back, the relief she feels has all the characteristics of a physical experience: “Toby feels her body unclench, feels air lowing into her in a long, soundless breath� Can a heart leap? Can a person be dizzy with relief?” (46)� And indeed, the bond they manage to establish is both physical and emotional� his can be visible in the way Toby perceives their intimate contacts: “She’d waited so long, she’d given up waiting� …But now how easy it is, like coming home must have been once, for those who’d had homes� Walking through the doorway into the familiar, the place that knows you, opens to you, allows you in� Tells the stories you’ve needed to hear� Stories of the hands as well, and of the mouth” (49)� She describes their intimate relationship in terms of the safety characteristic of a family home, a home that she has longed for so long� his implies a possibility of permanence� In fact, in this Women, Men and the Hope of Pregnancy/Motherhood 121 relationship Toby can fully realise herself and her femininity� hat is why, when long ater the main events described in the book Zeb eventually gets killed, Toby does not see any other reason to live� Blackbeard, her Craker pupil and another very important character of MaddAddam, narrates: hen Toby took very old packsack, which was pink; and into it she put her jar of Poppy, and also a jar with mushrooms in it that we were told never to touch� And she walked away slowly into the forest, with a stick to help her, and asked us not to follow her� (390) here is no life without Zeb for Toby, which is even emphasised by Toby and Zeb’s alternate narrations of the novel, where “Zeb’s cool, ironic, show-of monologues…are balanced by the tone of Toby’s introspection: warmer, more sensual, less relentlessly knowing” (Roberts 2013)� In broader terms—as Atwood seems to suggest—there is no possibility for women to exist without men and vice versa, especially in a post-apocalyptic world in which a very small number of survivors must struggle not only to endure, but also to prolong their species’ existence� At the same time, women’s communities as such appear to be as dissimilar as any single-sex group may be� In MaddAddam this is shown with the example of the complicated bonds Toby establishes with Pilar, a mother-like igure for her, and Swit Fox, one of the former MaddAddamite scientists whom she initially views as her antagonist� And this is the latter relationship, as well as the way it evolves, that seems more interesting in the context of the plurality of the communities women make� As the protagonist summarises the scientist’s character: “Fox by name, fox by nature, she thinks� Handle a spraygun, indeed” (Atwood 2013, 144)� he language she uses imposes her own negative perspective on how Fox is viewed� From the irst moments Toby meets her in the MaddAddamites’ camp, she cannot help feeling some unidentiied reluctance towards the younger woman: “She must have been over thirty, but she was wearing what looked like a twelve-year-old’s rule-edged nightie� Now where had she picked up that? Toby wondered� Some looted HottTottsTogs or Hundred-Dollar Store?” (19)� What most disturbs Toby is not just the clothes Fox wears, but the atmosphere of sexual innuendo that she spreads around her� hat is why Toby views her as an aged Lolita, a post-apocalyptic femme fatale whose main goal is to use her feminine sexuality to provoke men, with complete disregard for other women: “[Swit Fox] makes a show of yawning, stretching her arms up and behind her head, thrusting her breasts up and out� Her straw-coloured hair is pulled into a high ponytail, held in place by a powder-blue crocheted scrunchie” (44)� For Toby, this unsophisticated tactics of sexual display is directly connected with Zeb and the fact that she herself is older than Fox� According to Michele Roberts, “… the gender politics of MaddAddam remains fairly conventional� In this fallen 122 Sławomir Kuźnicki world of hierarchical diference, men and women stand for separate values even as they are equal in corruption”� Indeed, in viewing Fox as a typical example of a female predator, Toby unconsciously follows the patriarchal pattern that forces one woman to perceive another in highly unfavourable terms (i�e� as enemies), which only helps to sustain such a system� Moreover, she actually falls victim to the patriarchal system, which, consequently, leads her to develop some kind of an obsession with Swit Fox, and also underestimate her own femininity� As a result, she imagines the younger woman in Zeb’s arms� When a group comprising Zeb, Swit Fox and a few other MaddAddamites go on a two-day long expedition, Toby cannot suppress the bouts of irrational jealousy, which at the same time lowers her self-esteem: “You’ve lost, she tells herself� You’ve lost Zeb� By now Swit Fox must already have him, irmly clamped in her arms and legs and whatever oriices appeal” (151)� Additionally, such thoughts have a very negative inluence on the idea of female communities, weakening the bond the women should feel for one another� his disturbing tendency reaches its peak when Toby allows herself to formulate a shockingly sincere opinion on Swit Fox: She consciously suppresses the word slut: a woman should not use that word about another woman, especially with no exact cause� Really? says her inner slut-uttering voice� You’ve seen the way she looks at Zeb� Eyelashes like Venus lytraps, and that sideways leer of the irises, like some outdated cut-rate prostibot commercial: Bacteria-Resistant Fibres, 100% Fluid-Flushing, Lifelike Moans, ClenchOMeter for Optimal Satisfaction� (97) What is emblematic here, however, is the fact that she realises that calling Fox a slut is equally degrading to her� hinking this way, she accepts the invitation to the game that Fox proposes, and she accepts the position that patriarchy imposes on her� herefore, this moment of free expression passes very quickly, and Toby simply proves more clever than the provocative Fox: “‘Gender roles suck,’ says Swit Fox� hen you should stop playing them, thinks Toby” (342)� Even though Toby cannot escape playing them from time to time, either, eventually she reassures herself about the groundlessness of her accusations� his is a positive solution both for her relations with other women and her relationship with Zeb� As a matter of fact, even though viewed as a deep, true and mutual bond, Toby and Zeb’s relationship can also appear a strange, or even controversial example of pure love under the given circumstances� As the reader already knows from he Year of the Flood, in her early years diicult conditions deprived Toby of the chance to have children� Now she is barren, and there is no possibility of motherhood, or no chance to contribute to the community’s future� his fact becomes a source of doubts concerning her usefulness to the other survivors� Such thoughts also inluence the way she perceives her relationship with Zeb� First of all, he is Women, Men and the Hope of Pregnancy/Motherhood 123 not only the informal leader of the MaddAddamites, but also a macho-type man (the story of him being forced to kill and eat a bear is already a legend)� herefore, Toby imagines he is desired by many a female survivor, mainly by Swit Fox, whom she initially perceives as her enemy, a kind of a femme fatale of the entire story� In the most desperate moments, she even views her own relationship with Zeb as something reprehensible: …[Zeb] should be doing what alpha males do best…So why is he wasting his precious sperm packet? they must wonder� Instead of, for instance, investing it wisely in the ovarian oferings of Swit Fox� Which is almost certainly that girl’s take on things, judging from her body language: the eyelash play, the tit thrusts, the hair-tut linging, the armpit display� She might as well be lashing a blue bottom, like the Crakers� Baboons in spate� (Atwood 2013, 89) hese opinions of Toby’s, emotional as such, fuel her low self-esteem, and the way she views herself as a woman� She considers herself useless to the female community� hat is why she develops such a close bond with the aforementioned Craker child, Blackbeard� She teaches him to read and write, and unconsciously prepares for the function of the survivors’—both the people and the Crakers—annalist� One can even say that, unable to have her own biological children, Toby compensates by transferring her maternal feelings on to Blackbeard� She realises this on one occasion: “She doesn’t think she could live with herself if little Blackbeard got killed…” (343)� She almost allows herself to plunge into a kind of dangerous illusion: “If I’d had a child, thinks Toby, would he have been like this [i�e� like Blackbeard]? No� He would not have been like this” (138)� Eventually, she stays rational and reasonable, which has a healing inluence on her own evaluation of herself as a woman� Even if she cannot give birth to her own (and Zeb’s) ofspring, by providing unselish love for Blackbeard, by taking care of the Crakers (which triggers the process of their and the MaddAddamites’ rapprochement), and by serving the group as their chronicler, she contributes to the survivors’ society at least as much as those women who get pregnant� Simultaneously, she enriches the variety of women’s community, since—as Nina Auerbach describes this phenomenon—“…communities of women have no one oicial banner to wave� …he strongest community we can perceive is one with many voices…” (12)� When it comes to motherhood and pregnancy, they both constitute the most important issue in MaddAddam� It is so, because pregnancies act in the novel not only as a sign of hope for the human race, but also as a factor that cements the survivors’ society and reinforces the combination of power and dignity in the female characters� his last element is mostly visible in the case of Amanda, Ren’s closest friend and Jimmy/Snowman’s former girlfriend already known from the irst two 124 Sławomir Kuźnicki volumes of the trilogy� When MaddAddam begins, she is still in the shock from the multiple violent rapes performed on her by the two dangerous Painballers; as Toby describes her: “She used to be so strong: nothing used to frighten her� …Whatever has happened to Amanda—whatever was done to her by the Painballers—must have been extreme” (Atwood 2013, 96)� As a consequence of this terrible assault, Amanda is broken, absent and passive� She does not participate in the social life of the MaddAddamites� No wonder that once it becomes clear that she is pregnant, the information is not met with enthusiasm� Toby recalls: “Poor Amanda� Who could expect her to give birth to a murderer’s child? To the child of her rapists, her torturers?” (215) However, there is one more possibility as far as the father of Amanda’s child is concerned as there had also been an opportunity for sexual contact between the Craker men and Amanda� As Ruth Scurr puts it: “MaddAddam revisits the subject of female fertility in the brave new world of gene splicing�” Although it is comforting to Amanda to believe her child has not been fathered by one of the Painballers, the prospect of carrying a human-Craker splice seems disturbing, too� Toby reasons: “What if Amanda is harbouring a baby Craker? Is that even possible? Yes, unless they’re a diferent species altogether� But if so, won’t it be dangerous? he Craker children are on a diferent developmental clock, they grow much faster� What if the baby gets too big, too fast, and can’t make its way out?” (215) In broader terms, there appears the possibility of a transgeneric hybrid, with not only consequences for the mother, but also for the entire community of the MaddAddamites—and, more universally, for humanity� Additionally, it soon turns out that Amanda is not the only pregnant woman in the survivor’s camp, as there are two other females who are also carrying Craker children� he irst one to realise she is pregnant is Ren� Just like Amanda, initially she is worried about the situation� She does not know what to expect if the inter-species pregnancy is conirmed� Unlike Ren and Amanda, when Swit Fox learns about her pregnancy, her reaction is much more optimistic: “‘hree’s a company, says Swit Fox� ‘Count me in� Bun in the oven, up the spout� Farrow in the barrow’” (Atwood 2013, 273)� Surprisingly, and not for the irst time, Swit Fox, consciously or not, plays the gender roles she detests so much� he language she uses to describe her pregnancy indicates this, as it is typical of the patriarchal approach� Still, aware of the various possibilities such an unusual biological situation can bring, Swit Fox fully realises gravity of the situation as far as the future of the MaddAddamites is concerned� his is visible in her conversation with the still rather desperate Ren: “Who’d bring a baby into this?” [Ren] sweeps her arm: the cobb house, the trees, the minimalism� “Without running water? I mean…” Women, Men and the Hope of Pregnancy/Motherhood 125 “Not sure you’ll have that option,” says Swit Fox� “In the long run� Anyway, we owe it to the human race� Don’t you think?” (157) For Swit the prospect of a hybrid child is both fascinating from the scientiic point of view—she cannot hide her excitement and curiosity about the potential of the child she is carrying—and promising as far as the survival and future existence of the human race is concerned� She views it as a kind of a new beginning, full of unexpected options� Consequently, the three pregnancies and their outcome are presented as the irst manifestations of a new life that is born within the MaddAddamite group in the post-apocalyptic world until then characterised by destruction and death� When the deliveries eventually take place, it turns out that four instead of just three babies are born, all of them human-Craker hybrids, all of them total enigmas: “What…features might these children have inherited? Will they have built-in insect repellent, or the unique vocal structures that enable purring and Craker singing? Will they share the Craker sexual cycles?” (380) Even though their future existence, as well as their co-existence with the representatives of the old human race, still remains an open question with numerous alternatives, the very fact of the births ills the survivors with hope� Janet Christie comments, referring to the entire trilogy: “[t]he books hint at salvation and survival through evolution”� hus, the four babies can be viewed as a transitional phase between old humanity and its new version that will eventually emerge in the future� Moreover, apart from helping the survivors realise that there actually is a future for human race, regardless its inal shape, the births of the four human-Craker children have a direct impact on the MaddAddamite community’s present situation� he newly-born children not only boost the human beings’ morale, but also play a crucial role in cementing their group, with the essential roles of women as mothers� he appearance of new life seems to reawaken the long-forgotten communal practices of the old world, as now there is a necessity to raise these children� herefore, one can observe the return to the family as a social unit: “Crozier and Ren appear united in their desire to raise Ren’s child together� Shackleton is supporting Amanda, and Ivory Bill has ofered his services as soi-disant father to the Swit Fox twins� ‘We all have to pitch in,’ he said, ‘because this is the future of the human race’” (Atwood 2013, 380)� he MaddAddamites seem to be aware of the signiicant role they are to play, as their community is to serve as a birthplace for generations of human beings� his parallels Helena Michie’s statement: “he question of responsibility is articulated through a collapsing of boundaries, not only between mother and foetus but between mother and father” (67)� As a consequence, the survivors’ community in which men and women decide to raise children on equal bases is neither women’s nor men’s, and these children help 126 Sławomir Kuźnicki the human beings to realise it� Additionally, the diferences among the women appear of minor importance now, when such grand aims are at stake� his is visible when, long ater Toby’s departure from the MaddAddamites and her reputed suicide, Swit Fox gets pregnant for the second time� Blackbeard says: “hen Swit Fox told us that she was pregnant again and soon there would be another baby� …And Swit Fox said that if it was a girl baby it would be named Toby� And this is a thing of hope” (390)� In the face of a common good, all the past animosities become unimportant and futile� At the same time, the female role of mother is rehabilitated� All three mothers understand how important their role is, giving the community they belong to a chance at a new beginning� Consequently, MaddAddam, the inal volume of Margaret Atwood’s speculative trilogy, ofers some positive prospects for the future� his is especially visible in reference to women’s role, whose signiicance lies in conscious participation in building communities to which women and men can contribute on equal bases, without any patriarchal prejudices� hese are no longer communities “…united by their necessary oddity…”, as Nina Auerbach deines them (Atwood 2013, 32)� Instead, both the experiences of pregnancy and motherhood enhance women’s importance, as they are indispensable to the future of humanity� To state that women ind self-realisation in motherhood would be an obvious overstatement, but to link this state with their female awareness and to underline its necessity in the process of the human beings’ survival seems justiied� In other words, Atwood appears to reformulate the ideas of the second-wave feminism that could be summarised by Simone de Beauvoir’s opinion that “…pregnancy is above all a drama that is acted out within the woman herself ” (512)� In a rather postfeminist mode, Atwood understands that women are immersed in the worldly issues, and thus, the male element has to be included in their endeavours to subvert the still dominating legacy of patriarchy� Together, taking equal part in the matters of the world, women and men are able to ensure the entire humankind’s future� And this—however uncertain it may be—is some kind of hope� As Atwood herself comments: “‘I think the pleasure [of anticipating the end of the world] is we like to walk it through in advance, with a consciousness that’s still human� So you can’t actually wipe out the human race and then tell a story about it’” (qtd� in Brockes 2014)� References Atwood, Margaret� 2013� MaddAddam� London: Bloomsbury� Auerbach, Nina� 1978� Communities of Women: An Idea in Fiction. Cambridge: Harvard University Press� Women, Men and the Hope of Pregnancy/Motherhood 127 Beauvoir, Simone de� 1986� he Second Sex, translated by H� M� Parshley� Harmondsworth: Penguin Books� Brockes, Emma� 2013� “Margaret Atwood: ‘I Have a Big Following among the Biogeeks�” he Guardian, August 24� Accessed August 11, 2014� http://www� theguardian�com/books/2013/aug/24/margaret-atwood-interview� Christie, Janet� 2013� “Interview: Margaret Atwood on her Novel MaddAddam�” he Scotsman, August 31� Accessed August 11, 2014� http://www�scotsman� com/lifestyle/culture/books/interview-margaret-atwood-on-her-novelmaddaddam-1-3069846� Heer, Jeet� 2013� “Review of MaddAddam, by Margaret Atwood�” he National Post, August 30� Accessed August 11, 2014� http://news�nationalpost�com/aterword/ book-review-maddaddam-by-margaret-atwood� Michie, Helena� 1997� “Coninements: he Domestic in the Discourses of UpperMiddle-Class Pregnancy�” In Feminisms: An Anthology of Literary heory and Criticism, edited by Robert R� Warhol and Diane Price Herndl, 57–69� Houndmills: Macmillan Press Ltd� Roberts, Michele� 2013� “Review of MaddAddam, by Margaret Atwood�” he Independent, August 16� Accessed August 11, 2014� http://www�independent�co�uk/ arts-entertainment/books/reviews/book-review-maddaddam-by-margaretatwood-8771138�html� Scurr, Ruth� 2013� “Clear-Eyed Margaret Atwood� Review of MaddAddam, by Margaret Atwood�” he Times Literary Supplement, August 14� Accessed August 11, 2014� http://www�the-tls�co�uk/tls/public/article1300066�ece� Viktoriia Yaremchuk he Evolution of the Hero in C. S. Lewis’s he Space Trilogy Abstract: he article focuses on C� S� Lewis’s mythopoeic worldview presented in he Space Trilogy (1938–1945)� he author discusses the way in which the protagonist of he Space Trilogy evolves and she concludes that the religious symbolism of the hero’s evolution is combined with Celtic and Greek mythological sources, hence leads to the creation of a speciically national English quest hero� While the complex of social, ethical, biological aspects and ideas concerning the hero has been changing with time, his literary portrait has morphed and evolved throughout history, becoming even more varied and multidimensional� It especially concerns the so-called “crisis periods” of human history, with the irst half of the 20th century being one of the brightest/gloomiest examples as illustrated by the Anglophone literary texts of the time� Apart from the classical Realist and Modernist texts representing the ideas of decay, change, rebirth, evolution, there is also the scope of marginal trends in the English literature of the epoch dwelling upon and researching those ideas following the multilevel quests, ways, adventures of their ictional worlds’ heroes, e�g� “he Inklings” and their associates, responsible for rebirth of the Romantic tradition of the English literature in the 20th century� C� S� Lewis, oten viewed as one of the key igures of “Christian Romanticism”, was not only one of the most active members of this literary society but he also developed, both theoretically and practically, the idea of the importance and even the inevitability of myth evolution, alongside the hero evolution, which makes its impact eternal: he central idea of the Myth is what its believers would call “Evolution” or “Development” or “Emergence,” just as the central idea in the myth of Adonis is Death and Re-birth� …“Evolution” (as the Myth understands it) is the formula for all existence� To exist means to be moving from the status of “almost zero” to the status of “almost ininity�” To those brought up on the Myth nothing seems more normal, more natural, more plausible, than that chaos should turn to order, death into life, ignorance into knowledge� … Another source of strength in the Myth is what psychologists call its “ambivalence�” It gratiies equally two opposite tendencies of the mind, the tendency to denigration and the tendency to lattery� In the Myth, everything is becoming everything else: in fact, everything is everything else at an earlier or later stage of development–the later stages being always the better� (Lewis 1974, 103–105) 130 Viktoriia Yaremchuk he diversity of C� S� Lewis’s oeuvre, its cultural engagements, rhetorical style, and contributions to such phenomena as fantasy, science iction and children’s literature long predetermined the multiple directions of literary analysis as applied to his major achievement in fantasy subgenres and Christian apologetics� His mythopoeic worldview was embodied, long before he Chronicles of Narnia, in creation of a speciic iction fantasy world of he Space Trilogy (1938–1945), in which the author drew heavily on medieval texts of Christian literature and philosophy, criticized modern culture for its neglect of traditional values, articulated religious interests and brought forward an intellectually examined religious account of the world� he texts created throughout the period of World War II marked the evolution of the author’s oeuvre which manifested itself in shaping of the synthetic and complex structure of mythopoeic world model with a special type of hero, transforming in the course of the plot� For Lewis, the concept of evolution of hero embraced every aspect of existence, from metaphysical and psychological notions of “becoming” to his role in social, cultural, cosmic and universal “change” and “transformation”� his has predetermined the Trilogy’s structure and mythopoeic background� Each part of the trilogy, written in diferent prose genre and style, follows formally the same main stages of the quest-myth (Frye 1963, 17) or the monomyth in the maturation of an individual as identiied by the activities of imitation, the rejection of imitated models, the discovery of new models, the testing of identity, the reshaping of beliefs, the confrontation of death and the rebirth� In he Hero with a housand Faces James Campbell presents the universally recurring Myth of the Hero as a magniication of the formula of separation, initiation and return enacted in the rites of passage: “A hero ventures forth from the world of common day into a region of supernatural wonder; fabulous forces are there encountered and a decisive victory is won: the hero comes back from this mysterious adventure with the power to bestow boons on his fellow men” (Campbell 2008, 30), which also respectively corresponds to the parts of the trilogy� While the main structural elements of the three novels are the quest motif, the myth about the Fall, the image of the “secondary world”, it is the protagonist, the hero—Dr Elwin Ransom—whose personage unites these works into a trilogy� he author’s triune mythopoeic space falls into ictional Malacandra, Perelandra, hulcandra—planet-worlds that relect the stages of spiritual history of mankind and the hero� In denomination of these planets the writer, inspired by the example of fellow “Inkling” J� R� R� Tolkien, having a great interest in the construction of artiicial languages, outlined the vector of the story of each part of the trilogy� While the irst chapters of the novel Out of the Silent Planet, the main he Evolution of the Hero in C�S� Lewis’s he Space Trilogy 131 events of which take place on Mars (Malacandra, while “andra” means “planet”, “earth”) and the plot of which is based on the confrontation of the planet, as well as of the whole universe, with hulcandra or the Silent planet – the Earth, are reminiscent of the classic “Wellsian” science iction novel, it is the third chapter of the novel that changes the form in relation to the content and it now recalls Plato’s dialogues or medieval dialogues of Soul and Body, decorated with fantastic literary pictures of William Morris’s and George Macdonald’s type� Jared Lobdell detected medieval pastoralism in such a manner of ictional world depiction, constructed according to the laws of quest (Lobdell 2004)� In the case of he Space Trilogy, the quest of the protagonist, which begins with a light to Mars, is incorporated into a storyline of a sci-i novel; however, with a number of scientiic and technical discrepancies in the text of the novel that were noted by the writer’s contemporaries� he scientiic accuracy of the texts was not the main objective of C� S� Lewis’s as he came out against the “anti-spirituality and horror” of the novels by H� G� Wells and alike in the irst part of the trilogy, which he also discussed in the essay On Stories� In the novel Out of the Silent Planet, Professor Ransom’s quest starts accidentally and typically for folklore quest legends and medieval dream vision narratives: “THE LAST drops of the thundershower had hardly ceased falling when the Pedestrian stufed his map into his pocket, settled his pack more comfortably on his tired shoulders, and stepped out from the shelter of a large chestnut tree into the middle of the road” (Lewis 1938, 9)� At irst, we come across an allegorical igure of the Pedestrian, the so-called medieval Everyman who hears a certain “Call to Adventure,” using Campbell’s term� However, soon Lewis adds up certain autobiographical features of his appearance: He was tall, but a little round-shouldered, about thirty-ive to forty years of age, and dressed with that particular kind of shabbiness which marks a member of the intelligentsia on a holiday� He might easily have been mistaken for a doctor or a schoolmaster at irst sight, though he had not the man-of-the-world air of the one or the indeinable breeziness of the other� In fact, he was a philologist, and fellow of a Cambridge college� (Lewis 1938, 10) as well as of his occupation which would be later a key factor in his evolution� he commonplace concern in a simple household business along with the desire to get acquainted with a mysterious professor living in the wilderness bring Ransom onto a path to “he Rise”—a truly Gothic mansion—where the antagonists, Weston and Devine, were experimenting on their space travel pursuits� his period of hesitation before entering the mysterious household, the period of doubts in the mind of a very self-conscious man could be easily correlated with the stage of “Refusal of the Call”, which goes on through the phases of his being lured into the 132 Viktoriia Yaremchuk house and into drinking a certain sedative drink so that his kidnapping should be successful� hen the hero’s departure takes place on the “Supernatural Aid” stage, where he’s transported by some unknown spacecrat from on planet to another� It begins with his abduction by two pseudo-scientists–Weston and Devine, the latter of which is depicted as Ransom’s former classmate, and the former is regarded by the many researchers as an exaggerated satire on evolutionism of H� G� Wells, Olaf Stapledon, J� B� S� Haldane� It’s worth mentioning the function of the proper names in the novel: while the name Ransom (Eng� “Ransom”–“Atonement”) is a biblical allusion to Jesus Christ, the protagonist of the novel was transported in a spaceship to Mars (Malacandra) to be sacriiced to fantastic beings that inhabit the planet for the two criminals to achieve their goals� During the journey Ransom sees a prophetic dream in which something warns against aiding the other earthlings� Weston is a Scientist igure, whose main aim is the achievement of eternity and ininity of actions, striving for eradication of all the other living organisms and settling the humankind in space, rendered as the right of the strong one, the wiser one, i�e�, Lewis’s contemporary “West”: “We have learned how to jump of the speck of matter on which our species began; ininity, and therefore perhaps eternity, is being put into the hands of the human race� You cannot be so small-minded as to think that the rights or the life of an individual or of a million individuals are of the slightest importance in comparison with this” (Lewis 1938, 29)� Another antagonist of the novel, Devine, whose surname fully corresponds to his moral values and inclinations (devil-devine), lies to Malacandra in order to collect more of the blood of the Sun, which is the Malacandrian phrase for “gold”� Obviously Weston unites the images of vicious scientist of late Victorian science iction with the Renaissance image of a magician as his creation seems to get a life of his own� his is a period of the hero’s greatest fear or even horror, the period of neverending nightmare, of hallucinations and feats of nervous breakdown within which the author manages to include his philosophizing on the nature of the outer space, clearly of the late medieval and Renaissance manner: here was some kind of skylight immediately over his head–a square of night sky illed with stars� …Pulsing with brightness as with some unbearable pain or pleasure, clustered in pathless and countless multitudes, dreamlike in clarity, blazing in perfect blackness, the stars seized all his attention, troubled him, excited him…here were planets of unbelievable majesty, and constellations undreamed of: there were celestial sapphires, rubies, emeralds and pin-pricks of burning gold; far out on the let of the picture hung a comet, tiny and remote: and between all and behind all, far more emphatic and palpable than it showed on Earth, the undimensioned, enigmatic blackness� (Lewis 1938, 33) he Evolution of the Hero in C�S� Lewis’s he Space Trilogy 133 Another autobiographic element of his hero’s journey was Lewis’s including his own recollections on the nature of the Great War, the participant of which he was: Ransom was by now thoroughly frightened–not with the prosaic fright that a man sufers in a war, but with a heady, bounding kind of fear that was hardly distinguishable from his general excitement: he was poised on a sort of emotional watershed from which, he felt, he might at any moment pass either into delirious terror or into an ecstasy of joy� (Lewis 1938, 25) In his essay “he Quest Hero”, W� H� Auden claims that the real quest “means the search for something not yet known; we can only imagine, the way it may go on but we are going to comprehend the truth only in the end” (1962, 91)� Ransom in the irst novel of the trilogy is a character who is not familiar with the spiritual side of life, because, according to the author, he is a modern Cambridge scientist, a linguist far away from the old values and morals� Apart from the hero’s enduring a range of potent emotions, he goes on to the irst step of spiritual revelation while ighting with the horror and the visions, the idea of spiritual beings surrounding him everywhere even in presumably dead Space� Only ater his arrival to an alien planet, “he Crossing of the First hreshold” stage begins, Ransom comprehends his aim—to ind the sense of the planet existence, as well as its inhabitants and his own, his new self, as quest always “can be dangerous; and it will change you” (Le Guin 1980, 93)� Since the light from the spacecrat ater the arrival, through familiarity and fascination with beautiful scenery to exploration of living intelligent beings that inhabit Malacandra, the “hnau”–hrossa, sorns and eldils, which corresponds to the last stage of Departure, “he Belly of the Whale”, the acceptance of the loss of the original purity of mankind, the hero transits into the Initiation phase—the perception of his way, his spiritual, even religious quest—which will be held in all parts of the trilogy, the hero of which survives the terrible trials to save the world or rather Worlds� he moment of Professor’s meeting with Hyoi, one of the hrossa, the “he Road of Trials” stage begins, depicting Swit’s efect on C� S� Lewis creativity; even linguistic means help to understand the relation: hrossa–horse–Houyhnhnm� In fact, the creature resembles by description of a mixture of a seal, an otter and a pony: It had a coat of thick black hair, lucid as sealskin, very short legs with webbed feet, a broad beaver-like or ish-like tail, strong fore-limbs with webbed claws or ingers…the slenderness and lexibility of the body suggested a giant stoat� he great round head, heavily whiskered, was mainly responsible for the suggestion of seal; but it was higher in the forehead than a seal’s and the mouth was smaller� (Lewis 1938, 55) and, in spite of this, it surprises the earthling with high intelligence, the language: “he creature, which was still steaming and shaking itself on the bank and had 134 Viktoriia Yaremchuk obviously not seen him, opened its mouth and began to make noises� his in itself was not remarkable; but a lifetime of linguistic study assured Ransom almost at once that these were articulate noises� he creature was talking� It had language” (Lewis 1938, 56)� Elwin began to study it as well as the songs in which the memory of the race was tangible, hiding in the village� he linguistic aspect is extremely important in the hero’s evolution as it is his main instrument of dwelling with unknown, of initiating his spiritual maturity� Hyoi teaches Ransom self-respect, courage, dreaminess and explains his amazing calm with the acceptance of the fact that without harm it would be impossible to understand happiness: “I do not think the forest would be so bright, nor the water so warm, nor love so sweet, if there were no danger in the lakes” (Lewis 1938, 76)� He reveals again to the human character the truths that have always existed but became unclear on the Earth, explaining at the same time the therapeutic functions of language and thinking cooperation: A pleasure is full grown only when it is remembered� …What you call remembering is the last part of the pleasure, as the crah is the last part of a poem� When you and I met, the meeting was over very shortly, it was nothing� Now it is growing something as we remember it� But still we know very little about it� What it will be when I remember it as I lie down to die, what it makes in me all my days till then–that is the real meeting� (Lewis 1938, 74) “he Meeting with the Goddess” stage comes into efect as soon as Ransom lies the hrossa tribe ater Hyoi’s being killed by Weston and Devine and comes into contact with the world’s spiritual beings–the eldils, reminiscent of Tolkien’s elves, whose main function is also to protect the beauty and the wisdom of the world� hey can be also deined as the author’s mythopoeic embodiment of the Christian mythology’s angels� hese ethereal beings, ruled on each planet of Lewis ictional world by an Oyarsa—the main eldil, are designed invisible for a human eye as long as they wish to remain this way which is explained by the level of their spiritual perfection Ransom is yet to reach: Body is movement� If it is at one speed, you smell something; if at another, you hear a sound; if at another, you see a sight; if at another, you neither see nor hear nor know the body in any way� …If movement is faster, then that which moves is more nearly in two places at once� …Well, then, that is the thing at the top of all bodies-so fast that it is at rest, so truly body that it has ceased being body at all� (Lewis 1938, 94) he moment when the hero, having come into the close contact with nature and lore, is able inally to hear an eldil, symbolizes the beginning of his spiritual maturity which goes hand in hand with never ceasing horror of the Oyarsa he is to meet, mastering the impossibly steep rock covered with ice: he Evolution of the Hero in C�S� Lewis’s he Space Trilogy 135 But death could be faced, and rational fear of death could be mastered� It was only the irrational, the biological, horror of monsters that was the real diiculty: and this he faced and came to terms with…Like many men of his own age, he rather underestimated than overestimated his own courage; the gap between boyhood’s dreams and his actual experience of the War had been startling, and his subsequent view of his own unheroic qualities had perhaps swung too far in the opposite direction� (Lewis 1938, 98) He undertakes this next piece of the way in order to survive but there is this ever resounding desire of saving the unprotected hrossa from the other earthlings which singles him out as the Hero and he meets up with the Oyarsa, which can be marked as “Atonement with the Father” stage of his evolution in quest� Both spiritual and physical sufering he had already endured enabled him to apply his linguistic talents to ind the way to communicate with the Oyarsa who gives the hero a chance to understand the order of the universe and help to liberate hulcandra (he Earth) from the unnamed sinful Oyarsa (Lucifer allusion), who had closed the heavenly ether from the rest of the planets, turning Andra into the hulcandra� hus, Malacandra, as well as Perelandra later, acts as a locus of spiritual puriication and formation, as the result of which Ransom is able to see: ‘…the human form with almost Malacandrian eyes’ at the scene of the eldils’s trial of Weston and Devine for their deeds at the “Apotheosis” stage (Lewis 1938, 124)� he planet is a static world where three races of completely sinless creatures, who once rejected the temptation, dwell, and their holiness remained with them and inluenced the hero� he hero’s Return phase starts typically with the “Refusal of the Return”� However, the hero is appealed to by the Oyarsa to be transformed from the Pedestrian he was in the beginning into a Messenger, warning him: “You are guilty of no evil, Ransom of hulcandra, except a little fearfulness� For that, the journey you go on is your pain, and perhaps your cure: for you must be either mad or brave before it is ended” (Lewis 1938, 141)� “he Magic Flight” stage shows the hero’s way back to earth in the space crat now partially operated by the eldils in the outer space, while the anti-heroes Weston and Devine struggle to disable the hero’s return, he is miraculously returned on the Earth while in another prophetic dream, which corresponds to the “Rescue from without” stage� “Crossing of the Return hreshold” stage of the hero’s quest is the bridge between this novel and the next part Perelandra, in the story of which the hero has a possibility to fulil his promise on yet another planet, Venus, which he is magically transported onto by the Oyarsa of Malacandra� Both the second and the third parts of the trilogy follow the same basic stages of the hero’s departure-initiation-return, though Perelandra roughly follows Ransom’s spiritual puriication included into a literary form reminiscent of William Blake’s 136 Viktoriia Yaremchuk polygeneric works of communicating the nature of good and evil� Perelandra is Lewis’s “personal Avalon”, as he noted in a letter to his brother, his attempt not to lose the Paradise; his account of the Blessed Islands, where outstanding heroes seek refuge; and yet it is his Jerusalem, a place with which the writer tried to show man before the Fall, and where other worlds’ sinners come to atone for their sins, among which the writer’s main Sinner is Ransom but there are also allegoric-autobiographic igures of “Lewis” and an anthroposopher B� (meaning obviously an “Inkling” Owen Barield)� Ransom of this novel evolves considerably, becomes a man who believes, but still doubts, but all the doubts are rejected ater the inal ight with the Serpent— embodied in another familiar character, Weston—which is an allusion to Beowulf ’s ight with a monster and, at the same time a tribute to the national myth� he doubts as to the existence of Meldil the Younger (allusion to Jesus Christ) and the Senior (God the Father) retreat in the Big Dance of nature, symbolizing victory over temptation and strengthening paradise on Perelandra� he successful completion of the Ransom’s celestial mission symbolizes the triumph of light eldils on Perelandra and leads the protagonist to the main task of his quest–hulcandra’s puriication from sinful spirits and the installation of utopia and harmony on the Earth� he last trilogy novel, hat Hideous Strength, according to George Orwell, “shares his (Lewis’s) horror of modern machine civilisation and his reliance on the “eternal verities” of the Christian Church, as against scientiic materialism or nihilism” (Orwell 1945, 250–51)� he author’s description of the N�I�C�E� (National Institute of Co-ordinated Experiments), with its private army, secret torture chambers and its inner ring of agents ruled over by a mysterious character known as he Head, concludes the setting of hero’s further evolution and serves as a warning against the possible outcomes of the new theories following a horrible picture of the humankind moral decay� Unlike the previous parts of the trilogy, the events take place on hulcandra, the Earth, which stands on the brink–between democracy and totalitarianism, good and evil, spirituality and scientiic-technical development� he ight takes place not in the “secondary world” but in the fantasy world’s “primary” one� Unifying Christian and Celtic myths in this part, the author presents a new interpretation of King-Fisherman legend, with Professor Ransom embodying the latter� Having passed the stages of inter-planet quest he turns into a new Pendragon/Melchizedek, also living on only bread and wine, blessed by Oyarsas� Having acquired new features of a wounded king-priest, Ransom performs as a healer of bodies and souls, and receives the privilege to evoke the powerful force, the core of mythopoeic Britain–Merlin� hus, Elwin Ransom, undergoes major stages of evolution in the process of the author’s visionary England (in Out of the Silent Planet) metamorphosis into the he Evolution of the Hero in C�S� Lewis’s he Space Trilogy 137 pastoral utopia (in Perelandra) and then into dystopia (in hat Hideous Strength), which can be understood as fundamental in conveying Lewis’s theological message: 1) the realistic hero experiencing and ighting against the inluence of scientiic prosperity and spiritual decay as well as general decadent atmosphere ater the Great War; 2) the Renaissance romance hero going through the symbolic quest; 3) the archetypal hero of the Apocalypse era, a new Prophet for the distressed mankind ater the two World Wars’ dehumanization phase� References Auden, W. H. 1962� “he Quest Hero�” he Texas Quarterly 9: 91–92� Campbell, Joseph� 2008� he Hero with a housand Faces� New World Library� Frye, Northrop� 1963� Fables of Identity: Studies in Poetic Mythology� New York: Harbinger Books� Le Guin, Ursula K� 1980� “From Elland to Poughkeepsie�” In he Language of the Night: Essays on Fantasy and Science Fiction, edited by Susan Wood, 83–96� Ultramarine Publishing� Lewis, C. S. (1938) 1968� Out of the Silent Planet� New York: Macmillan� Lewis, C. S. (1943) 2003� Perelandra� Simon & Schuster� Lewis, C. S. (1945) 1996� hat Hideous Strength� Simon & Schuster� Lewis, C. S. (1974) 2014� “he Funeral of a Great Myth�” In Christian Relections, edited by Walter Hooper, 102–16� Wm� B� Eerdmans Publishing� Lobdell, Jared� 2004� “he Scientiiction Novels of C� S� Lewis: Space and Time�” In he Ransom Stories� McFarland� Orwell, George� (1945) 1998� “he Scientist Takes Over� Review of C� S� Lewis, hat Hideous Strength.” Manchester Evening News� Reprinted as No� 2720 (irst half) in he Complete Works of George Orwell, edited by Peter Davison� XVII, 250–51� Oksana Weretiuk Indian Endurance in Andrew Suknaski’s Poems and Allen Sapp’s Painting Abstract: he article contains a comparative analysis of the artistic output of two Saskatchewan-born artists, Andrew Suknaski and Allen Sapp, focused on the similarities in the way they relected upon Indian endurance in Western Canada� he present article will show the artistic meeting of two prominent and honourable Canadian men at the point of Indian endurance� Both of them—Allan (later Allen) Sapp and Andrew (later Andy) Suknaski—were born in the prairies of Saskatchewan� Allen Sapp was born to his Indian parents in 1928 on Red Pheasant Reserve, a reserve of Cree Nation that is located 33 km south of North Battleford (West Central Saskatchewan), in an area known as Eagle Hills; Andrew (Andy) Suknaski (1942–2012)—was born to his Polish mother and Ukrainian father on a small homestead just outside the village of Wood Mountain, in South West Saskatchewan, in the place where the European Second Nations deprived the Indians of their ancestral homes and built their new homesteads (incidentally, the newcomers were widely represented by Ukrainian and Polish peasants)� Only 450 km (a short distance in the vast territories of Canada) separated the places of their birth� Both of them: the eldest child of some of the irst emigrants from Eastern Europe and the orphan at the reserve (Allen’s mother died of tuberculosis when he was young and he was raised by his grandparents)—grew up in severe poverty� he biographical sources inform: Allen Saposkum, who later shortened his last name to Sapp, was a sickly child who spent most of his childhood in bed as the result of spinal meningitis� As the result of his illness, Sapp’s formal education was limited and he could barely read or write in English (hompson 2004, 119)� Similarly, Andrew Suknaski, in the close homestead in which he grew up he experienced only Polish and Ukrainian, and fulilling farming duties in his childhood, compounded by a hard domestic atmosphere, did not favour his education� Nevertheless, it seems to me that Saposkum had a happier and more appealing childhood� Ater all, the artist states this in his autobiographical book: “I was lucky: I was born into a loving family, whose roots gave me a strong sense of identity” (Sapp 1996, 4)� He never learned to read or write but found refuge and satisfaction in drawing pictures� His Nokum (grandmother) a very warm and caring, moreover, she taught him to value his heritage and always encouraged him 140 Oksana Weretiuk to continue his painting� She believed that one day he would become a real artist and imparted in him this faith in his talent� Being bound by illness to his bed at the reserve, Sapp received a more traditional education, and was taught his Cree language1 and culture; he could speak very little English even when he became adult� It was from his grandmother, Maggie Soonias, that Sapp developed his sense of self, his values, his spiritual guidance, and his respect to his Cree heritage� As a child, his favourite activity was drawing and sketching� Maggie Soonias made Sapp’s small conined world a place of traditional storytelling that aided the development of his inherent love for drawing (hompson 2004, 119)� Traditionally, the Cree Indians do not name a child when he or she is born� Instead the community waits until that child does something unique or special, or the child is in exceptional circumstances, and then gives him or her a name to represent that habit or that event� he Red Pheasant Cree gave a real Indian name to Sapp when he was eight years old and sufering from a childhood illness� he future artist was given his Indian name through detailed information received during the spiritual experience of an old matriarch, his grandmother’s sister Notookaso/Nootoka—this name was Kiskayetum� In English the name is translated as “he perceives it�” Perhaps this name (to perceive—to become aware of (something) through the senses, especially the sight; recognize or observe) heralded his special powers of imagination and expression� Subsequently, the artistic way of the self-educated artist began at the reserve� As an adult, in 1960, seeking better living conditions for his wife and his son of-reserve, he moved to North Battleford, to pursue a career as a professional artist� As luck would have it, one day he met Dr A� B� Gonor� In 1966 the doctor arranged for him to be tutored by Wynona Mulcaster, an art professor at the University of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon� Gonor continued to work with Sapp, encouraging him to paint the reserve life as he knew it� Andrew Suknaski let home when he was not yet seventeen in order to study the word and his own I� He travelled, worked across Canada and the whole world, from England to Australia, before returning home seventeen years later, to stay� All along he wrote as he travelled� He also acquired knowledge and skill at art institutions� To develop his interest in visual arts, he studied at the Kootenay School of Art in Nelson, BC and at the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts’ School of Art and Design, receiving a diploma of Fine Arts from the Kootenay School in 1967� Moreover, 1 Cree language is the Algonquian language of the Cree, closely related to Montagnais� Many words in English have been adopted from Algonquian languages, e�g� moccasin, moose, and toboggan� Origin: from Canadian French Cris, abbreviation of Cristinaux, from Algonquian kiristinō� ABBYY Lingvo 3x. Electronic Dictionary. Indian Endurance in A� Suknaski’s Poems and A� Sapp’s Painting 141 he attended the University of Victoria, Notre Dame University in Nelson, the University of British Columbia, and Simon Fraser University (see Sweeney 2006)� His creative activity resulted in the production of original paintings, drawings and carvings, but the magical power of the word fascinated him more and more� As Kemeny Babineau, a Canadian poet, writer and essayist from Ontario noticed: “Beginning his career as a ine artist (painting, drawing, clay, wax sculpture) Suknaski soon found he was writing haiku and pressing them into clay pots� he writing started late but it had begun� here would be many more words to follow and, just like in grade one, when Suknaski heard English for the irst time, he had some catching up to do�” So we see: both began as visual painters, both possessed special powers of imagination and expression, both were looking up to the realistic pictures and events of their childhood and green years, but Suknaski was above all a poet and Sapp is above all a painter� Both were recipients of many prestigious Saskatchewan and national awards� Did they ever meet in real life? Probably no, but they met, remaining in existence the First Nations in their creative works� he life at the reserve was that Sapp knew best of all� It is no wonder that Dr� Gonor recommended him painting the things he knew and remembered from the reserve� hese Indian realities were the basic nature of his identity� Dr� Gonor noticed this earlier than Sapp himself noticed� he artist needed his great success on his irst show which Mulcaster and Dr� Gonor arranged in 1968, and where he sold most of his paintings� he public response of Sapp’s pictures extending his showings to other major Canadian and American cities as well as to England even more strengthened his Cree I� Sapp more and more returns to his prior Indian identity, which was partly “shortened” by him in Battleford–at any rate, in his outward appearance, customs� As Sapp’s biographer recalls: Moving to North Battleford, they [he and his wife] rented the upper story of a house, and Sapp re-created himself into an image he felt would be accepted in the white culture� He cut his hair short, and wore an ill-suiting ill coat and horn-rimmed glasses� He began to paint� He painted simple scenes of mountains, streams, and animals and sold them for a few dollars apiece on the street … � (hompson 2004, 119) he beginner in visual art, Sap tried to satisfy a white culture in order to survive, in some way to the detriment of his Cree ancestry� But ater his irst successes Sapp … reunited himself to his heritage, as not only the descendent of chiefs Red Pheasant and Poundmaker, but as the grandson of Maggi Soonias� He braided his hair and again wore boots and jeans, except when at powwows in his colourful beaded regalia� Dancing at powwows and participating in traditional ceremonies was Sapp’s way to remain true to himself and his grandmother’s teachings� (hompson 2004, 120) 142 Oksana Weretiuk Sapp’s paintings in realistic way reconstruct his life at the reserve� Mostly made in acrylics, sometimes in oil, very colourful and bright, they center on family and community� A lot of his canvases form a Child Cycle� Among them are the following: Native Child with Feather, N� D�, acrylic, 10x8 (Portrait of an aboriginal child with braids and a feather in her hair);2 Nice Day to Play, 1983, acrylic, 10x12 (Summer scene, blue sky, four kids playing ball� here is a well in the middle ground, and a house with three people and a dog in the background); Kid Has Two Dogs, 1981, acrylic, 24x36 (Winter, mostly grey colour scene, house and horses and dogs in background; a dog is a habitué of Sapp’s paintings); Brother and Sister Playing, 1976, acrylic, 16x20 (Winter scene� A boy and a girl, presumably siblings, are playing outside of a house); One Boy Climbing a Tree, acrylic, 40�6x30�5; Playing hockey, acrylic, 60x78; Lil’ Fellow Watching His Dad, 1994, acrylic, 55x85 (Winter scene, a man cutting wood, a little boy and a dog watching); Playing Hockey at Sundown, 1995, acrylic, 60�96x60�96 (“A little bit of ice behind the house would be all that was needed for a few children to play hockey” (Sapp 1996, 52)� An amusing sundown, a cabin in the background, two dogs not far from the children); Two Lil’ Kids Sliding/ Boys sledging, 1993, acrylic, 40,6x50,8 (Beautiful carefree childhood! One boy is knee-deep in snow and holding his sleigh, the second is happily sliding); Lil’ Fellows Playing, 1990, acrylic, 40x50 (A little Indian boy with a little sled and a dog)� he last two were chosen by UNICEF to be a part of the 1996 card series, celebrating its itieth anniversary�3 All of them are presented from the child’s perspective� he overwhelming majority of Sapp’s paintings relect Cree activities at Red Pheasant� First of all, the author presents his closest people: Granny, mother, father, siblings, but also neighbours, acquaintances, friends or anybody he ever met� For example, Springtime at Red Pheasant Reserve, 1972, acrylic, 24x18, shows his beloved Granny, Maggie Soonias, feeding chickens in her yard� She is wearing a red shirt, with one black, one brown, and two white chickens at her feet� here is a forest in the background� My Grandfather Stretching a Weasel Skin, 1993, acrylic, 40�6x50�8 (A brown-grey scene� An old Indian man sitting and working in a cabin with a hammer, stretching the skin which could be used to make clothing and 2 3 Sapp’s paintings can be found in Allen Sapp, I Head the Drums, Toronto, Bufalo: Stoddart 1996, as well as at http://www�allensapp�com/about/the_life_and_art_of_ allen_sapp�html� Allan Sapp’s life-long love for children and his desire to help them was recognized by UNICEF (the only organization within the United Nation system dedicated exclusively to the welfare of children), when, ater UNICEF’s careful selection processes for greeting card designs four of his paintings were selected: Puppis (in 1986), Nocum Coming to Visit, Lil’ Fellows Playing, Two Lil’ Kids Sliding (all in 1996)� Indian Endurance in A� Suknaski’s Poems and A� Sapp’s Painting 143 moccasins); Father Bringing in Groceries, 1970, acrylic, 20x16, apparently presents his father standing at night-time in the doorway of a house� here is a sledge to the let of him� his is a typical winter scene at Red Pheasant� A part of Sapp’s paintings relects the Cree traditional activities: hunting, ishing, cutting wood, gathering roots, berries, and seeds, knitting, cooking etc� Bringing Jumping Deer Home, 1969, acrylic, 18x24, is one such canvas� It is a winter scene with a clouded sky� A man on a horse is dragging a deer with a rope attached to the horse towards a house on the horizon line� As the historical source informs: Prior to signing treaty [Treaty 6, between the Queen and bands of Cree in 1876] Chief Wuttunee (Porcupine) and his Cree band hunted and ished along the Battle River, and as settlers moved into the Battleford region where they conducted trade� … � In 1878 the band settled on their reserve in the Eagle Hills, where the land was good and there was enough forest to enable them to hunt�4 Nokum Making Bannock, 1988, acrylic, 60x91 (Nokum is sitting near the ire and making round bannock; there are few versions of this motif);5 Finished Cooking Bannock, 1971, acrylic, 60�9x45�7 (An old woman, Sapp’s Nokum is sitting near the ire and baking bannock); Making Beadwork, 1974, acrylic, 40�6x50�8 (A woman sitting and doing beadwork with native motifs)–all present traditional cooking� A great number of paintings present new activities which were cultivated at the reserve by newcomers� It is worth mentioning that an Indian Reserve was (and remains) a tract of land set aside under the treaty agreements for the exclusive use of an Indian band� Band members possessed the right to live on reserve lands, but the European colonizers tried to “civilize” Aboriginal peoples by introducing them to agriculture, Christianity and a sedentary way of life� he reserve system was, in fact, a government-sanctioned displacement of the First Nations� At the time of Sapp’s childhood these changes were stable� hat is why we see Sapp’s fellow tribesmen harvesting, cutting and drying hay, threshing, milking cows etc� Getting the Cows a Cold Drink, 1968, Acrylic, 16x20 (Winter scene� A man holding an axe near a small pool of water� Multiple cows surround the man); Loading Hay, 1991, Acrylic, 12x16 (Winter scene, a man is loading hay into a hayrack with a pitchfork; Taking Water Home, 1975, Acrylic, 24x36 (Winter scene, a man on a sleigh with 4 5 Christian hompson, Red Pheasant First Nation [in:] Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan� Bannock, native Cree bread, made from lour and baked on a camp ire or in an oven� In Northern America, the dish was quickly adopted by indigenous peoples ater it was introduced by fur traders� In order to free up cooking equipment for other jobs, the Cree and other First Nations utilized the less common technique of cooking their bannock skewered on a stick� 144 Oksana Weretiuk two horses and a water barrel on the back� he man is wearing a traditional red shirt); Milking a Cow, 1968, Acrylic, 20x16 (Indoor scene� A man crouched down milking a cow� here is a lantern hanging from the ceiling – a sign of civilization); Men hreshing, 1970, Acrylic, 24x36 (Summer scene, blue clouded sky� Golden ield, with a hay rack and thresher� A man is standing on top of the hay rack feeding hay into the thresher); Planting Potatoes, 1986, acrylic, 45x60 (A man working with a hand plough pulled by a horse, an old woman (Nokum) and a child (Allen as a child) have buckets in their hands; beautiful spring sky with clouds, Sapp is the master in painting the sky); Paintings of Red Pheasant Reserve. Collage, 1971, acrylic, 18x24 (A compound of small paintings surrounding a slightly larger painting, relecting everyday life at Red Pheasant)� he Indian painter preserved in colours the traditional entertainment at the reserve� Dance Hall at Stoney Reserve, 1969, Acrylic, 30x48 (Winter scene, Indian people entering a dance hall) relects the traditional Indian inclination for dancing, even on snow or in a primitive log cabin; Getting Ready to Sing, 1990, acrylic, 18x24 (Summer scene with summer dance, line of tents and tipis (Indian tents), with four dancers standing nearby� Next to them there is a man holding a drum� In the immediate foreground there is a woman with a blue scarf sitting next to a pot hanging over the ire); Pow Wow at the Battlefords, 1971, Acrylic, 30x48 (Summer scene, cloudy sky with light green forest background; tipis set up from the foreground to the background with people milling around; a woman cooking by a ire in the foreground� A man dressed in ceremonial feathers in middle ground)� It must be mentioned that Allen Sapp himself for a very long time (as long as his feet allowed) continued to dance at powwows�6 he Round Dance, 1987, acrylic, 101�6x152�4 (hree men with hand drums in the foreground, dancers with joined hands in a circle in a log cabin in the background)� he Round dance is usually held indoors in diferent homes� Sun Dance on the reserve, 1992, acrylic, 121�9x182�8 (People are praying, at tall centre pole (sacred) in the foreground)� Sun Dances are sacred to the Cree� As Sapp notes, “At Sun Dance, prayers are said for all people and vows to Manito, the Great Spirit� hose participating will fast for two days and nights, and there is also singing and dancing” (Sapp 1996, 3)� Allen Sapp’s paintings give us an intimate portrait of his own people and their determination to survive� he artist strives to capture and preserve these forgotten scenes of the Saskatchewan First Nations’ heritage for us and subsequent generations� Moreover, Sapp himself has become a testimony to Indian endurance, showing a great ability to continue with an unpleasant and diicult situation� 6 Powwow—a North American Indian ceremony involving feasting and dancing� Indian Endurance in A� Suknaski’s Poems and A� Sapp’s Painting 145 A white man, Suknaski, in a similar way, with the help of art, preserved the Indian endurance in many of his poems; but his volume Wood Mountain Poems (1976), with a portrait of an Indian on the cover, has changed the way of approaching the Aboriginal people in white Canadian literature� For a long time there have been two traditional ways of literary presentation of Indians, or a dual pattern of their image, named by Margaret Atwood “Victor/Victim” (Atwood 1991, 91). he Indian-as-victim of white men (e�g� George Ryga’s play, he Ecstasy of Rita Joe, 1967) and the Indian-as-victor of white men (e�g� E� J� Pratt’s long narrative poem, Brébeuf and His Brethren, 1940), both were straight and monochrome and eliminated the mixing of diferent qualities, a rich palette of colours� A new settler, Suknaski could perceive Indian predestination, sufering and weakening, but at the same time their great will for life, and to ight for their existence� His concern for the First Nations and their place in Wood Mountain feature strongly in his literary works� Like Sapp’s painting, Suknaski’s poetry is realistic, regional� Wood Mountain Poems are based on the cultural history of this prairie region� he adaptability of the Aboriginal People to their natural environment made them good hunters� For several thousand years, bufalo hunting was conducted primarily with the use of spears and atlatls, on the plains of southern Alberta and Saskatchewan� In the new era they continued to rely primarily on nomadic bufalo hunting� When almost all the bufaloes were killed as the result of uncontrolled hunting by newcomers, the First Nations hunted other game� “Traditionally, the Woodland Cree, also called Swampy Cree or Maskegon, relied for subsistence on hunting, fowling, ishing, and collecting wild plant foods� hey preferred hunting larger game such as caribou (reindeer), moose, bear, and beaver… �”7 At the reserves deer (as Sapp showed), elk (a large deer), wolves, coyotes, lynx (a wild cat), rabbits, gophers, ducks and prairie chickens (as Sapp showed) were hunted for food� hey continue the traditional way of life, based on hunting, ishing and trapping� Very oten in Wood Mountain Poems the Indian hunters are tracking— noiselessly, light and shrewdly, as in the following poem: mishmish and hunter’s sons Crawling soundlessly through grass – Only the sound of wind Only the song of the cricket While mustahyah Crushes crisp leaves and berries … Mishmish. (Suknaski 2006, 46) 7 Cree http://www�britannica�com/topic/Cree� 146 Oksana Weretiuk In another poem, on cold winter days the endless and white plain, formerly the prehistoric “Indian deserted house,” uninhabited at present, not intruded on by any sound, seems to whisper in the persona’s imagination, expressing sympathy with the returning to their homes of the Sandia Man, one of the precursors of Plains People,8 and voicing the inevitability of the loss: SANDIA MAN Silent ancestor of a people who travelled over Northern trails beaten by mammoths and later bufalo And then inally by one another henday Sharing brazile tobacco with the blackfoot…9 Sandia Man. (Suknaski 2006, 70) Both of them–Suknaski and Sapp are the documentarians of their own past� While the Native artist is concentrated on his private “territory” and “time”, and recreates the intimate facts of living at the Cree reserve, the regional poet combines intimate space-time with historical deepness and latitude, which goes beyond his private Woodmountain� He painted realistic portraits of his multicultural community, with the Indian past and present� Dakota (Sioux), Blackfoot, Cree, Assiniboine, Nez Percé and many other Indian tribes and people take up residence on the pages of Suknaski’s volume� Well-known historical igures are the heroes of his poems� he history of Sitting Bull10 and his Sioux tribe has become a recurrent motif in such poems as: he Teton Sioux and 1879 Prairie Fire, he Sun Dance at Wood Mountain, Poem to Sitting Bull and His Son Crowfoot, he Bitter Word. 8 9 Sandia Man, a prehistoric Indian group that is thought to date to 23,000 B�C� he Blackfeet were the closest neighbours, rivals and enemy of the Cree� he Blackfoot nation is made up of four tribes� hey include the Piegan, Siksika, Northern Piegan, and Kainai or Blood Indians� 10 “Sitting Bull (c� 1834?- 90), was a chief of the Hunkpapa Sioux, whose success as a medicine man and as a ighter against the white men made him a great leader of his people� Sitting Bull (in Idian Tatanka Yotanka), bore the same name as his father, a subchief� … Sitting Bull’s refusal to go to a reservation in 1876 resulted in the sending of military force against his camp on the Little Bighorn River in Montana� housands of warriors in the Sioux confederacy joined in the defense against the white troops� Before the battle, Sitting Bull reported a vision of soldiers falling into the Indian camp� It was interpreted as a portent of victory over the Army and was an inspiration to the Indians” (he Encyclopedia Americana 1993, vol� 24, 852)� Sitting Bull led the Sioux in the ight to retain their lands; this resulted in the massacre of Lt� Col� Custer and his men at Little Bighorn� He went to Canada with a band of followers� In 1881 he returned to the United States� Sitting Bull was killed by reservation police during the Ghost Dance turmoil� Indian Endurance in A� Suknaski’s Poems and A� Sapp’s Painting 147 hese lyric pieces of writing talk about the great chief–conined to the Standing Rock reservation in North Dakota, Sitting Bull remained a symbol of he First Nations opposition to the whites� Sapp’s canvases are calm and peaceful: even in poverty his childhood was bright and beautiful; rituals and traditions emitted the power of the eternal Cree spirit� Suknaski’s poems blame point-blank white newcomers for the fact that local Cree, Dakota–widely First Nations–peoples were in a cruel way displaced from their land and forced to give up their traditional way of life� he poet speaks on this in colloquial language, mostly in the form of an oral story, related by the descendants of the witnesses and participants of these events, very oten of an Indian origin, as in the following example: In 1871 the father dies and chietainship passes to young son joseph who shares his father’s hospitality toward white men – white man later lust for gold in nearby mountains and inally rustle nez percés’ cattle and ponies (white bird’s unheeded warning Becoming a bitter reality) gold seekers and politicians twist truth turning nez percés’ honour and name into a jingle – the truth being that the gold seekers are the rustlers and of course the great father of America gives nez percés the usual ultimatum: move to lapwai reserve or sufer the ensuing fate – the bloodthirsty bluecoats (original emphasis, Nez Percés11 at Wood Mountain. (Suknaski 2006, 54) Giving the voice to Aboriginal People, Suknaski, a white man, rewrote the history written by the newcomers (colonizers)� It is not surprising, that Tim Lilburn deined Suknaski’s volume as “an act of courage�” He wrote: he irst publication of Wood Mountain Poems in 1976 marked a beginning in the decolonization of the West Canadian literary imagination … � A few people hope for some sort of alliance with a reviviied Cree nation; Suknaski himself in the ’70s might have gone along with something like this� (Liburn 2006, 9–10) 11 Nez Percés [ˈpɜːsız; French pɛrse] (or Nez Percé) a member of a North American Indian people of the Paciic coast, a tribe of the Sahaptin� 148 Oksana Weretiuk Like Sapp, the poet created a work with the Sun Dance motif, the sacred custom and ritual for local Indian tribes� he Sun Dance at Wood Mountain (1879) relects not only the history, culture and the language of the Dakota and Cree, but it also bares the soul of the Indian� his narrative poetry, written–as usual–in free verse, tells a story about the tragic Sun Dance of 1879, the last dance of the starving tribe� Just at the beginning, the entity telling the story introduces us to the events with a sarcastic comment: the plains cree called it the thirst dance but the teton12 might have renamed it the hunger dance (both original emphasis) as they began to eat their starving ponies – they must be praised for rebuilding� (Suknaski 2008, 62) hen picturing the sacred ritual, he conveys experiences, ideas and emotions of the participants of the Sun Dance in a vivid and imaginative way, more and more becoming one of them� He not only “lives inside” the poem, but he lives inside the dance circle, deeply imbued with the irreversibility of Indian fate: … and wakatanka rightfully honoured By the dance Was still powerless in the tide of White man’s greed (and unable to save the sacred tatanka13) he Sun Dance at Wood Mountain (1879). (Suknaski 2008, 63) Such a transformation could not be observed by Canadian literary critics� Liza Grekul, a researcher of Suknaski’s poetry, was one of the irst who took note of this process: As he explores First Nations history and mythology, Suknaski implicitly situates himself as more than a sympathetic outsider – he presents himself as someone who understands the Sioux people intimately enough to be a member of their community� By claiming Sioux culture and language as his own, Suknaski makes a transition from the poet as historian to the poet as shaman, a transition illustrated emphatically by “he First People”� (Grekul 2005, 100) In the aterword to the irst edition of Wood Mountain Poems, in many poems of this volume, the author underlined the presence of his great “vaguely divided guilt”: the feeling of a newcomer who has committed wrong towards the First 12 Teton [‘tiːt(ə)n] (also Teton Sioux) another term for Lakota Origin: the name in Dakota, literally “dwellers on the prairie�” 13 tatanka: bufalo in Dakota (the author’s comment and spelling)� Indian Endurance in A� Suknaski’s Poems and A� Sapp’s Painting 149 Nation (depriving the Indians of their ancestral homes and enclosing them on reservations, rooting them out), as well as of having failed in an obligation towards his own Polish-Ukrainian ethnicity� He was the irst to write in the 1970s about European settlers’ guilt towards Aboriginal peoples� In such a way Suknaski, like Sapp, relected Indian endurance in Western Canada: one tries to capture the spirit of West Canadian Indians on canvas, the other, on the page� References ABBYY Lingvo 3x. Electronic Dictionary. Build: 14� 0�0� 715� Atwood, Margaret. 1991� Survival. A hematic Guide to Canadian Literature� Concord, Ontario: Anansi� Babineau, Kemeny� 2006� “A Bridge to Naridive: he Poetry of Andrew Suknaski�” In Poetics. SA Canada� Summer No 6� Accessed October 21, 2015� http://www� ottawater�com/poetics/poetics06/06Babineau�html� Cree� http://www�britannica�com/topic/Cree� he Encyclopedia Americana. 1993� Deluxe Home Edition� Complete in thirty volumes, Vol� 24� Grekul, Lisa� 2005� Leaving Shadows: Literature in English by Canada’s Ukrainians. Edmonton� Alberta: he University of Alberta Press� Liburn, Tim. 2006� “Preface�” In Wood Mountain Poems, Andrew Suknaski, 9–10� Saskatoon: HAGIOS PRESS� Sapp, Allen� 1996� I Head the Drums. Toronto, Bufalo: Stoddart� Suknaski, Andrew� 2006� Wood Mountain Poems� Saskatoon: HAGIOS PRESS� Sweeney, Shelley� 2006� “Suknaski, Andrew�” In he Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan Accessed November 10, 2014� http://esask�uregina�ca/entry/suknaski_ andrew_1942-�html� hompson, Christian (ed�)� 2004� Saskatchewan First Nations: Lives Past and Present� University of Regina� Canadian Plains Research Center� hompson, Christian� 2006� “Red Pheasant First Nation�” In Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan� Accessed October 15, 2015�http://esask�uregina�ca/entry/red_ pheasant_irst_nation�html� Mirosława Buchholtz Wars and (R)Evolutions: he Long Happy Life of Hannah Höch (1889–1978) Abstract: he article examines the works of the German Dada artist Hannah Höch, who used the photomontage technique in art as a medium for her political and social commentary� he author discusses the way Höch’s collages and photomontages evolved in the direction of abstract art while the artist transformed herself from a visual artist to a poet� Introduction Hannah Arendt (1906–1975) opened her 1963 book On Revolution with the following observation: “Wars and revolutions …have thus far determined the physiognomy of the twentieth century” (11)� he disastrous conlicts of her time led the political theorist to probe beneath the surface� he “physiognomy” is what can be seen, but a deep thinker does not take conlicts at their face value� She looks back to and compares two outstanding examples of the 18th-century conlict: the American Revolution (also known as the American War of Independence) and the French Revolution� Her aim in sweeping across two continents and the formative decades in the history of the Western hemisphere is to deine mechanisms of politics and to predict (as far as possible) what is still in store for people in the modern world� Her ideas, confronted with theories of war by Panajotis Kondylis and his antecedent Claus von Clausewitz, serve in the present article as a point of departure and background to the study of visual narratives from the long creative life of the relatively little known German Dada artist Hannah Höch� 1. Make Revolution, not War he prominence Hannah Arendt gives to revolution in her book is a political statement, and a form of credo� She admits that both war and revolution hinge on violence, which is the reason “why wars have turned so easily into revolutions and why revolutions have shown this ominous inclination to unleash wars” (1984, 18)� Since “violence itself is incapable of speech,” she argues further, both war and revolution “occur outside the political realm, strictly speaking, in spite of their enormous role in recorded history” (19)� It is “speech and articulation,” Arendt insists, following Aristotle’s deinitions, that allow political phenomena to transcend “mere physical visibility as well as sheer audibility” (19)� he central 152 Mirosława Buchholtz issue addressed by Arendt is the one “most ancient of all, the one, in fact, that from the beginning of our history has determined the very existence of politics,” that is “the cause of freedom versus tyranny” (11)� his cause brings out diferences between war and revolution� Whereas “the aim of revolution was, and always has been, freedom” (11), “the aim of war was only in rare cases bound up with [this] notion” (12)� War, perhaps the older of the two political phenomena, may bring with it liberation, but, as Arendt argues, liberation is not identical with freedom� Liberation “may be the condition of freedom but [it] by no means leads automatically to it” (29)� War, which is linked with the concepts of state and nation, “poses the threat of total annihilation,” whereas revolution brings “the hope for the emancipation of all mankind” (11)� Modern revolutions, Arendt claims, “are not mere changes” (21), but radical new beginnings that seek to bring freedom understood as “participation in public afairs, or admission to the public realm”(32)� Celebrating people’s “capacity for beginning” (221), for joint efort (174), and for establishing a public space for freedom (124, 249, 255), Arendt also exposes the limits of revolutionary impulse, which are drawn by the “fear of men, even of the most radical and least conventional among them, of things never seen, of thoughts never thought, of institutions never tried before” (258)� From Arendt’s perspective, the American Revolution seems to have been more of a success than the French Revolution because it did not jeopardize political freedom by focusing on the “social question” and the welfare of the people (60, 75)� he American Revolution accepted class diference, which on the whole did not seem so exorbitant in the New World as it was in the Old, and opted for public, rather than private, happiness (127, 255)� Arendt observes, however, that “the absence of the social question from the American scene was, ater all, quite deceptive, and that abject and degrading misery was present everywhere in the form of slavery and Negro labour” (70)� Both revolutions failed to create a lasting space for debate and concerted efort (258), and this lost opportunity was followed by the “failure of post-revolutionary thought to remember the revolutionary spirit and to understand it conceptually” (232)� “Popular councils”—“a new public space for freedom which was constituted and organized during the course of the revolution itself ”—came to be viewed as “nothing more than essentially temporary organs in the revolutionary struggle for liberation” (249)� Arendt, who clearly privileges public happiness and involvement of the people in political action–objects to the parliamentary system, for its “approach to the people [which] is from without and from above”(248)� Parliamentary democracy reduces the people’s involvement to voting, which is mere supporting, “while action remain[s] the prerogative of government” (271)� Arendt points to the council system as the form of government that is best suited to the revolutionary ideal, though its task is to reconcile two Wars and (R)Evolutions 153 contradictory endeavours: the one “of devising the new form of government” and the other of providing “the stability and durability of the new structure” (223)� She thus describes this ideal when referring to Jeferson’s comparable ward system1 If the ultimate end of revolution was freedom and the constitution of a public space where freedom could appear, the constitutio libertatis, then the elementary republics of the wards, the only tangible place where everyone could be free, actually were the end of the great republic whose chief purpose in domestic afairs should have been to provide the people with such places of freedom and to protect them� he basic assumption of the ward system, whether Jeferson knew it or not, was that no one could be called happy without his share in public happiness, that no one could be called free with- out his experience in public freedom, and that no one could be called either happy or free without participating, and having a share, in public power� (255) At no point in her book does Hannah Arendt mention the famous theoretical study by Carl von Clausewitz, whose very title, On War (1832), parallels her own efort to pinpoint political mechanisms of revolution� he respective historical and political contexts of the two studies probably explain Arendt’s reticence� In the post-WWII times, von Clausewitz seemed to stand for Prussian militarism, though he died in 1831 and thus did not live long enough to witness German uniication and rise to power later in the 19th century� he observations gathered in his book are based on his military career in the Prussian army during the Napoleonic Wars� However, his massive study has since its publication been put to a number of uses by a wide readership that includes Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky, Mao Zedong, Dwight Eisenhower, George Patton, and many others� His book served as a manual for practicing politicians at a time when Arendt, still pondering the disaster of the recent global wars, hoped for interventions of educated people (and not just “masses”) to create a space of freedom, rather than merely waiting for liberation granted by political powers� he turn of the 1950s and 60s witnessed the escalation of the Cold War, and bifurcation of intellectual and military reactions� In 1961, when Arendt was working on her book, the Clausewitz Society was established in Berlin as “an independent, non partisan and non-proit organization�” Fity years later its 1,000 members include mostly “oicers, active, retired and reserve; increasingly also personalities professionally active in politics, advanced study, economy and the media” (Olshausen 2014, 9)� he military and the intellectual worlds still remain separate� 1 Wards were “small republics” through which “every man in the State” could become “an acting member of the Common government, transacting in person a great portion of its rights and duties, subordinate indeed, yet important, and entirely within his competence” (Arendt 1984, 253)� 154 Mirosława Buchholtz Clausewitz did not live long enough to revise his text� Even von Clausewitz scholars admit that “wading through” the volume is diicult (Holmes 2010, 1), but, as they insist, it is worth the trouble� Exhibiting unprecedented depth of military thinking, the book contains, as Holmes asserts “gems hidden deep inside the detail” (2)� Uninished as the volume is, it has given rise to a variety of (mis) interpretations� For example, von Clausewitz has been associated with the concept of the total war, even though he actually never used this phrase� It is still debated whether or not he was a paciist� As Christopher Bassford (2016) points out in his summary, von Clausewitz distinguishes the following three aspects of war “1) primordial violence, hatred, and enmity, which are to be regarded as a blind natural force; 2) the play of chance and probability, within which the creative spirit is free to roam; and 3) its element of subordination, as an instrument of policy, which makes it subject to pure reason”� Bassford ofers a number of visual metaphors to illustrate the interplay of passion, reason, and chance in a given political entity involved in war� His (as he insists, idiosyncratic) “ordering of some other Clausewitzian concepts under the categories of the Trinity” captured in Fig� 12 is of particular interest� Grouping von Clausewitz’s concepts under the rubrics of “Violent emotion,” “Chance and probability,” and “Rational Calculation,” Bassford pinpoints such tensions in conceptualizations of war as: the interplay of art and science, or moral forces and operational concepts� He juxtaposes real war and absolute or ideal war� He points to the interrelation of political and military objectives,2 “the inherently greater strength of the defensive form of warfare”, and war’s fundamental location in the social realm� Von Clausewitz’s book had been viewed primarily as a military manual until in 1988 one of his most insightful readers Panajotis Kondylis efected what Christoph von Wolzogen calls an interpretive revolution (1992, 35)� First of all, Kondylis distinguishes between von Clausewitz’s descriptive approach and the normative intent attributed to him by his critics� Second, following in von Clausewitz’s footsteps, Kondylis observes that a human society can neither live in a permanent state of war without falling to pieces nor avoid conlict altogether (Horst et al� 2015, 83)� hird, Kondylis argues that von Clausewitz does not valorise Politik (and this German concept subsumes both “policy” and “politics”), while condemning war, but sees 2 He is best remembered for his saying “Der Krieg ist eine bloße Fortsetzung der Politik mit anderen Mitteln” (“War is a mere continuation of policy with other means”)� For a discussion of this claim and its mistranslation see James R� Holmes’s “Everything you Know about Clausewitz is Wrong� he Diplomat November 12, 2014� http://thediplomat� com/2014/11/everything-you-know-about-clausewitz-is-wrong/� Wars and (R)Evolutions 155 both as subcategories of conlict� Unlike his predecessors who studied On War in search of advice on military expediency, Kondylis celebrates von Clausewitz’s book as a theory whose universality depends on its sound anthropological foundation (Horst et al� 2015, 89)� From Kondylis’s perspective, On War is universal not only in the sense that it applies to diferent wars fought in diferent times and places, but also in the sense of covering social phenomena other than war� 2. Unterdada he Dada movement sprang up in Zurich in 1916 as a reaction to the horrors of the First World War� It soon spread across Europe� Dada communities emerged in European capitals, including Paris and Berlin� he Dada Club was established in Berlin in 1918 and included such artists as George Grosz, Kurt Schwitters, Max Ernst, John Heartield, Raoul Hausmann, Richard Huelsenbeck, and Johannes Baader� In 1920 the group organized the First International Dada Fair in Berlin� he architect Johannes Baader was the self-appointed leader of the movement� He called himself “Oberdada” (“Overdada”), apart from using other high-lown and wildly exaggerated names (e�g� “Präsident des Erdballs”–President of the Globe)� He also assigned “Dada” names to his companions� For example, Hausmann was “Dadasoph,” Huelsenbeck–“Weltdada” (world dada), and Grosz–“Propagandadamarschall” (marshal of propaganda) (Baader 1977, 75)� he military nickname, such as marshal, is signiicant� It sounds comic (quite intentionally), but it also (quite seriously) indicates that the war waged by artists is not over yet� Berlin Dadaists became involved in the social and political turmoil of their time, including the German Revolution (Spartacist Uprising) of 1919, and that not only through their subversive and iconoclastic art, but also by means of direct political activism� When listing his companions, Baader does not mention Hannah Höch, who was the only woman among Berlin Dadaists, but he occasionally mentions her by her Dadaist name: “Dadasophin�” A collection of his writings includes “Liebesbriefe des Oberdada an die Dadasophin” (Love Letters of Oberdada to Dadasophin)� Composed of Baader’s typical witticisms and disconnected words and phrases, they are not traditional love letters that would be comprehensible to the third party (interceptor) (Baader 1977, 74–75)� he strange cryptic missive proves that Baader was very much aware of her presence among Dadaists and her intellectual capacity to understand� he name “Dadasophin” is not an unequivocal homage to her wisdom� She was no doubt exceptional, but from other Berlin Dadaists’ macho point of view, she was irst and foremost Hausmann or Dadasoph’s lover� hus she was not a “Dadasophin” by virtue of her own perspicacity, but because of her association with a male Dada artist called “Dadasoph�” 156 Mirosława Buchholtz Until recently Hannah Höch was largely overlooked by traditional art history, even though she igured prominently in the Dada movement of the 1920s� It has been argued that she was admired by her contemporaries, such as George Grosz, heo van Doesburg, and Kurt Schwitters (Whitechapel Gallery Website3)� According to a diferent account, however, Grosz and Helmut Herzfeld neglected her work, and sought to exclude it from he First International Dada Fair that took place in Berlin in the summer of 1920� She was allowed to participate only when her partner Raoul Hausmann, who was a major igure in the group, threatened to withdraw (Fig� 1)� heir tempestuous relationship, which had begun in 1915 ended seven years later� Fig. 1: Raoul Hausmann and Hannah Höch at the opening of the First International Dada Fair held at the Otto Burchard Gallery, Berlin, June 30, 1920. Höch’s photomontage Cut with the Kitchen Knife igures prominently on the let. Photograph by Robert Sennecke (http://www.dadart.com/dadaism/dada/022-dada-berlin.html) 3 http://www�whitechapelgallery�org/about/press/hannah-hoch/, Accessed January 7, 2016� Wars and (R)Evolutions 157 Male Dadaists opposed Höch for a number of reasons� First of all, they objected to her conventional training in the applied arts� From 1912 to 1914 she had studied glass design in the School of Applied Arts in Berlin-Charlottenburg� When the Great War broke out, the school closed and Höch returned to native town Gotha, where she worked for the Red Cross� Since 1915 Höch continued her studies in Berlin, this time focusing on graphic arts at the School of the Royal Museum of Applied Arts, which, following Kaiser Wilhelm II’s abdication in 1918, had to be renamed as the State Museum of Applied Arts (National Gallery of Art Website, Washington, D� C�4)� Another reason for the male colleagues’ contempt was Höch’s involvement in commercial illustration� From 1916 to 1926, she worked for the Berlin magazine and newspaper publisher—the Ullstein Verlag� She designed patterns for housewives’ knitting, crocheting, and embroidering, which appeared in such women’s periodicals as Die Dame and Die praktische Berlinerin� Many undervalued her work simply because she was a woman (Dillon 2014)� Few male artists of the 1920s were willing to accept and appreciate the work of a female colleague� In other words, Höch faced as an artist not only the dilemmas of post-war Europe and more speciically of the Weimar-era in Germany (which afected representatives of both sexes), but also the misogyny that was evident even among the apparently open-minded community of Dada-artists� Berlin Dadaists seemed to have created what Hannah Arendt hailed some four decades later in an entirely diferent context as the council system� he “ultimate end” of their revolution, which followed the Great War, “was freedom and the constitution of a public space where freedom could appear�” he Dada Club in Berlin established the place where if not everyone, then at least the Club members could be free and where “no one could be called happy without his share in public happiness, that no one could be called free without his experience in public freedom, and that no one could be called either happy or free without participating, and having a share, in public power” (Arendt 1984, 255)� Arendt does not make much of gender identity and accepts the fact that the American Founding Fathers were men�5 To Höch, however, gender identity became an important issue that paralleled, or at times crossed, the aims of her male colleagues� Like all councils set up in the wake of revolutionary endeavours studied by Arendt, the 4 5 http://www�nga�gov/exhibitions/2006/dada/artists/hoch�shtm� Accesssed February 16, 2016� Recent research shows that there were bright and powerful women behind the American Founding Father, e�g� Abigail Adams� See Diane Jacobs, Dear Abigail: he Intimate Lives and Revolutionary Ideas of Abigail Adams and Her Two Remarkable Sisters (2014)� 158 Mirosława Buchholtz Dada Club was short-lived, and fraught from the beginning with inescapable internal conlicts�6 In view of the history of Höch’s involvement in the Dadaist movement in Berlin, I would like to claim for her the title of the “Unterdada” (Underdada or inferior dada), who nevertheless exempliies Arendt’s ideal of bottom-up revolutionary efort� 3. Violence he Great War shattered Höch’s small-town bourgeois complacency and shaped her political consciousness� he Dada movement she joined in Berlin made political involvement both possible and meaningful� Exposing the inadequacy of traditional art’s attempt to represent reality, Dadaists sought to relect the chaos of the post-war times in their anti-art inventions that highlighted the nonsensical fragmentation of reality� he foundational myth of Höch’s art was her claim that she and Hausmann discovered the photomontage in the summer of 1918 when they were on vacation at the Baltic Sea7� hey found inspiration in “the cut-andpaste images that soldiers on the front sent to their families” (National Gallery of Art Website)� Photomontage was indeed a ground-breaking discovery for Höch, who remained faithful to this technique throughout her life� It was a particularly useful medium for her political and social commentary in the 1920s� While other Dadaists also availed themselves of this medium to comment on politics, Höch gave her photomontages a self-relexive, provocative twist by occasionally “incorporat[ing] lace and handiwork patterns into her montages, thus combining the traditional language of women’s crats with that of modern mass culture” (National Gallery of Art Website)� Her famous Cut with the Kitchen Knife Dada hrough the Last Weimar BeerBelly Cultural Epoch of Germany (Fig� 2), which she exhibited in 1920, is both womanly and unwomanly� It is panoramic like a strategist’s map� It contains no lace or other handiwork that would immediately tie it to the feminine sphere� It abounds in images of cogwheels and other machine parts that appear huge in comparison with human igures� hese images, apart from the obvious industrial connotations, suggest—because of their shape—the perfection of a circle, and the concept of the wheel of fortune� Male igures seem to outnumber the female ones, but this count is deceptive as Höch makes fun of gender identity by frequently 6 7 heir inescapability is a lesson learned from von Clausewitz and mediated by Kondylis� It was a isher village on the island of Usedom� hey saw the image of a grenadier on which their host had pasted his own photographic portrait (Zui 2008, 114)� Wars and (R)Evolutions 159 pasting stern male heads on top of frail or frivolous female bodies (or the other way around)� Women’s presence in the artwork may well be camoulaged, but the centrepiece of the photomontage is the dancing body juggling the head of the outstanding German artist, realist and expressionist Käthe Kollwitz� One may argue that female igures zigzag through the photomontage (and history) from top to bottom� he title of the piece draws the viewer’s attention to the technique and literally to the instrument used to make the artistic statement� Words do appear occasionally, but they are used sparingly, whereas images in their ambiguous, apparently nonsensical topsy-turviness are allowed to say much more� he opening phrase of the title, “Cut with the Kitchen Knife” deines the tool and the artist’s sphere of activity� he rebel with a knife comes from the kitchen� Her utensil may be a deadly weapon, even though it is primarily used to prepare meals� Fig. 2: Hannah Höch, Cut with the Kitchen Knife Dada hrough the Last Weimar BeerBelly Cultural Epoch of Germany, collage, mixed media, 1919–1920 (http://www. dadart.com/dadaism/dada/022-dada-berlin.html) 160 Mirosława Buchholtz he photomontage has been discussed lately on the internet by Beth Harris and Steven Zucker (2015), who see it as a map of political and cultural life in the postwar Germany� hey distinguish four rectangular sections, and ofer a name for each of them� Beginning with the upper-let corner and proceeding clockwise, they view the sections as “Dada Propaganda,” “Anti-Dadaists,” “Dada World,” and “Dada Persuasion�” hese names no doubt simplify the analysis and need not be entirely adequate, but what matters, from artistic and conceptual standpoint, is—as I would like to add—the diagonal opposition of two “dense” sections in the upper-right and lower let corners, and the link between the lighter, freer “Dada Propaganda” and “Dada World”� he disigurement of the empowered men (e�g� Kaiser Wilhelm II, whose face is decorated with legs in lieu of moustache, and General Hindenburg, who has the body of a belly dancer) testiies to strong emotion, but as in von Clausewitz’s conlicts (whether military or political), Höch’s emotion is coupled with rational calculation (there is some order in chaos) and chance/probability (connected with her use of clippings, which convey associations beyond what meets the eye)� he woman’s revolution in response to (state)men’s war, takes place in the private space of the kitchen� Whereas the war is threatening, the woman’s revolution brings hope for freedom, if none other, then at least freedom of expression� Höch shows but she does not take sides with either of the political stances in the post-war Germany: her sarcasm is just as scathing towards representatives of the falling monarchy and of the rising communism� Speaking in public about personal feelings brings with it a sense of empowerment, but Höch—as well as other Dadaists in Berlin– was aware of the political limitations of their art of protest� “Ask[ing] themselves ‘What is the bourgeois?’” they “‘made the sad discovery that we were all bourgeois,’ which kept the group from the Communist ailiation of their Surrealist successors” (Jacques 2014)� he bourgeois artists of the Dada movement did not understand “the masses,” any better than Hannah Arendt understood them a few decades later� Käthe Kollwitz did understand them, however, and made artistic statements on their behalf� Perhaps this is the reason why she is the pivot of Höch’s panorama� he photomontage was too fragile to travel from Berlin to the irst Höch retrospective in Britain organized at the Whitechapel Gallery in 2014� Nearly one hundred years before this “canonization” of Höch, her art was fragile in the metaphorical sense: her political statements did not have much weight in political debates of her time, and her position was further complicated by her status as a woman and a bourgeois artist� In 1920 she joined the radical letist November Group and participated in their exhibitions throughout the decade, but her own artistic aims and means were evolving in a diferent direction� Wars and (R)Evolutions 161 4. Freedom In the 1920s Höch became the epitome of the “New Woman�” She bobbed her hair, she worked and thus enjoyed some inancial independence, she had the newly acquired right to vote, and she felt free to live her life as she saw it� She was soon done with men in both art and life� Her photomontages began to focus on the lives of women as she embarked on a nine-year-long lesbian relationship with the Dutch writer Til Brugman� Juliet Jacques looks at two portraits of Hannah Höch dated 1926 and 1929, and claims that although the artist looks “like the New Woman, with her short hair and androgynous dress,” she is “far from satisied, let alone liberated” (2014)� It is worth pondering the issue of Höch’s freedom and liberation in the context of Hannah Arendt’s claim that liberation is not identical with freedom� he former comes from the outside, and the latter—from the inside� From this perspective, one may argue, in response to Jacques’s intuition, that Höch’s (alleged) doubt about her liberation did not prevent her from seeking freedom of expression on women’s behalf� he New Woman was a reader of the mass press, “which became a venue for the expression of desires and anxieties associated with women’s rapidly transforming identities” (National Gallery of Art Website)� Popular magazines belonged to the main sources of the clippings that Höch used in her photomontages� She seemed to endorse the cultural standards the mass media promulgated, but the playful distortion of the givens, ranging from benign humour to scathing satire, brought into her art the element of critique, questioning, and subversion� Fig. 3: Hannah Höch, he Bride, collage, mixed media, 1933 http://artandwomenfa2011. blogspot.com/2011/12/quiet-girl-with-big-voice-hannah-hoch.html 162 Mirosława Buchholtz he Bride (Fig� 3) is one out of many photomontages by Höch which look back to the tradition of female portrait� heir strangeness derives from reassembling of portrait fragments that belong to diferent contexts and conceptualizations of feminine beauty� he result of startling juxtapositions is disquieting� Although he Bride is a two-dimensional piece of work, Höch achieves dynamism by juxtaposing the disparate angles of the long neck (proile), the eyes with the nose (en face) and the mouth (three-quarter proile)� hese belong in addition to three diferent women of diferent cultural backgrounds� he Negroid upper part of the face contrasts with the overlong snow-white neck� he prominent mouth in between is black but the skin around it is pink, which means that the mouth belongs neither to the face above nor to the neck below� he pasted mouth(piece) is thus an elaborate muzzle� he motif of covered mouth is also present in other photomontages by Höch which thematise the silencing of a woman�8 he greater part of the portrait is taken up by the elaborate headdress and veil, which deine the woman’s role� he message of the piece is far from straightforward� Is the woman white or black? What makes her white or black? Is the woman beautiful? Is she ugly? What makes her ugly or beautiful? What does it mean for her to be a bride? What makes her a bride if the bridegroom is so obviously absent? From today’s perspective the conlation of gender and race issues points to the juxtaposition of white male privilege and black female lack of it, but at the time when Höch created this and other photomontages, the dividing lines ran elsewhere; “the racial ideology…prevailed almost everywhere in the Western world in the 1920s and…would become Germany’s oicial ideology under the Nazis” (Weitz 2007, 291)� In this and other photomontages Höch parodies the fascination of white Europeans (both men and women) with “uncivilized” people� At the same time she exposes the violent manner of maintaining gender roles� Men are absent in the photomontage, and the real issue for Höch seems to be whether women fashion themselves to defy or to buy into the existing patriarchal system, which ruthlessly imposes absurd standards of feminine beauty (e�g� overlong neck and oversized mouth)� In he Bride and other photomontages built out of female portraits, Höch exposes violence experienced 8 I discussed Half Breed (1924) and Indian Female Dancer (1930) in “Disigurement and Defacement in (Post)World-War-I Art: Francis Derwent Wood, Anna Coleman Ladd, Hannah Hoch, and Kader Attia�” World War I from Local Perspectives: History, Literature and Visual Arts, eds� Mirosława Buchholtz and Grzegorz Koneczniak� Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Verlag, 2015� 185–207� Wars and (R)Evolutions 163 by women� Making women aware of symbolic violence9 was the irst step towards rendering them free� Announcing the exhibition at the Whitechapel Gallery, he Guardian presented “Artist Hannah Höch” as “armed and dangerous,” and as “the woman who took a kitchen knife to misogyny�”10 hat indeed she did� No wonder that the Nazis had declared her works degenerate (“entartet”), excluding her from artistic circles� She was one of the few artists who stayed near Berlin from 1936 to 1945, choosing inner emigration� During World War II, the rebel was once again relegated to the kitchen� 5. Happiness he visual message of her works became less and less overt as she gravitated from the political to the mock-ethnographic sphere� he motif of a beautiful or seductive mouth pasted onto the face of a tormented woman was prophetically autobiographical� Until the end of her life Höch was seen as the Dadaist Muse of the 1920s� Her subsequent work in the remaining ity years of her life was just an appendix to her early Dadaist photomontages� In popular books on art, she is viewed irst and foremost as a Dadaist� Only one short sentence and in it only one epithet “poetic” is used to describe her post-World War II work in Meisterwerke der Kunst. Malerei von A-Z (1994, 329)� In Jahrhunderte der Kunst (vol� 7) Höch is mentioned merely as Hausmann’s companion (Zui 2008, 114)� Juliet Jacques writes a little more when reviewing the exhibition at the Whitechapel Gallery� She claims that “he collection of post-war works in Gallery 8 shows how Höch irst borrowed elements of Dalí or Magritte’s Surrealism, and then turned towards a more abstract style, in her ‘Fantastic Art’ which explored the ‘tension…between the world of ideas and the real world’”� Jacques does not ind this part of Höch’s artistic activity particularly successful� Her collages, the critic observes, become more colourful than her Dadaist montages (which is also true about Little Sun, Fig� 4), but—as Jacques hastens to add—they “become repetitive, being most successful when Höch revisits her inter-war social concerns”� 9 his concept appeared decades later in the works of Pierre Bourdieu� 10 January 9, 2014� http://www�theguardian�com/artanddesign/gallery/2014/jan/09/ hannah-hoch-cutting-edge-art-whitechapel� Accesed March 3, 2016� 164 Mirosława Buchholtz Fig. 4: Hannah Höch, Little Sun, collage, 1969. http://www.theguardian.com/ artanddesign/2014/jan/09/hannah-hoch-art-punk-whitechapel In contrast to Cut with the Kitchen Knife, which contains more topical details than can be grasped all at once, Little Sun, though brighter and at least on the face of it more serene, is almost austere in its use of elements� It seems apolitical� It seems to leave aside the question of gender equality or inequality� It juxtaposes elements of nature (a bird’s eye and a woman’s open mouth) with geometrical forms that also connote natural environment (the sun, leaves of grass, the horizon, sandy background)� he red strip in the upper-right corner seems metadiscursive, as if it were a means of attaching the image to its place, or ixing it� he contiguity of the animal eye and the open mouth, as if they belonged to one sunny face, makes the viewer think of the open mouth with two rows of white teeth as an apt symbol of a predator� hese teeth can bite� Unlike other images of women, including he Bride, Little Sun features a mouth that is not a muzzle blocking speech and self-defence� he little sun only seems to be sweet and innocuous� he iery leaves of grass between the sun and the viewer threaten the latter rather than the former� And yet, viewers seem to overlook the rebelliousness of this collage� Its bright colours imitate (or mock) happy complacency� It looks “pretty” rather than revolutionary, and hence has provoked very few comments� What is more, it seems to be a prime illustration of the claim that Höch traded public happiness of political participation (which Hannah Arendt eulogized) for private happiness of the artist’s personal freedom to choose messages and means of expression according to her own wish� Wars and (R)Evolutions 165 6. Evolution / Endurance Höch’s evolution as an artist has not been studied in detail� Art historians who acknowledge her role in the Dadaist movement have become used to remarking ruefully on the loss in the post-WWII era of the talent and revolutionary impetus typical of her early works� Her collages and photomontages evolved in the direction of abstract art, which meant private rather than public (i�e� straightforward) message� he visual artist who seems to have dissipated the “treasure of revolution” eventually became a poet� his may have been the price of survival, especially in the Nazi times� Höch survived and evolved as an artist, but she endured merely as a fossil of the short-lived Dadaist revolution of the 1910s and 20s� In the inal pages of her study on revolution, Hannah Arendt bewails the loss of “the spirit of revolution—a new spirit and the spirit of beginning something new [which] failed to ind its appropriate institution� here is nothing,” she announces, “that could compensate for this failure or prevent it from becoming inal, except memory and recollection” (1984, 280)� Such “compensating” is, as Arendt argues, the task of poets� Höch may have become a poet precisely for this reason: to store memories of past wars and revolutions, which were (and are) both inescapable and temporary� References Arendt, Hannah� (1963) 1984� On Revolution� Harmondsworth: Penguin Books� Bassford, Christopher� (2005) 2016� “Tip-Toe through the Trinity: he Strange Persistence of Trinitarian Warfare�” http://www�clausewitz�com/mobile/ trinity8�htm� Dillon, Brian� 2014� “Hannah Höch: art’s original punk�” he Guardian, January 9� Accessed March 3, 2016� http://www�theguardian�com/artanddesign/2014/ jan/09/hannah-hoch-art-punk-whitechapel� Harris, Beth, and Steven Zucker� 2015� “Hannah Höch, Cut with the Kitchen Knife Dada hrough the Last Weimar Beer-Belly Cultural Epoch of Germany,” Smarthistory, November 25� Accessed March 1, 2016� http://smarthistory�org/ hannah-hoch-cut-with-the-kitchen-knife-dada-through-the-last-weimarbeer-belly-cultural-epoch-of-germany/� Holmes, Andrew� 2010� Carl von Clausewitz’s On War: A Modern-Day Interpretation of a Strategy Classic� Oxford: Ininite Ideas� Horst, Falk, Konstantin Verykios, and Lech Zieliński� 2015� “Obserwacja rzeczywistości a tworzenie teorii w myśli Panajotisa Kondylisa�” Studia z historii ilozoii 3�2� Accessed March 15, 2016 arhttp://dx�doi�org/10�12775/szhf�2015�032� 166 Mirosława Buchholtz Jacques, Juliet� 2014� “he New Woman: Berlin’s feminist, Dadaist pioneer Hannah Höch�” New Statesman, January 18� Accessed March 10, 2016� http://www� newstatesman�com/juliet-jacques/2014/01/new-woman-berlins-feministdadaist-pioneer-hannah-h%C3%B6ch� Kondylis, Panajotis� 1988� heorie des Krieges. Clausewitz-Marx-Engels-Lenin� Klett-Cotta-Verlag, Stuttgart� Meisterwerke der Kunst. Malerei von A-Z� 1994� Chur: Isis Verlag� Olshausen, Klaus� “A Golden Anniversary with Bright Prospects for the Future�” In Clausewitz Goes Global: Carl von Clausewitz in the 21st Century, edited by Reiner Pommerin, 9–10� Berlin: Carola Hartmann Miles-Verlag� Pommerin, Reiner� (ed�) (2011) 2014� Clausewitz Goes Global: Carl von Clausewitz in the 21st Century� Berlin: Carola Hartmann Miles-Verlag� Weitz, Eric D� 2007� Weimar Germany: Promise and Tragedy� Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press� Wolzogen, Christoph von� 1992� “Phänomenologie des Krieges� Zu Panajotis Kondylis’ Clausewitz-Studie�” Neue Zürcher Zeitung 15�1:35� Accessed March 10, 2016� http://www�kondylis�net/rezensionen/wolzogen�pdf� Zui, Stefano� (ed�) (2005) 2008� Jahrhunderte der Kunst 7� Vol� 7� Trans Irmengard Gabler and Karl Pichler� Berlin: Parthas Verlag� Agnieszka Kallaus From a Sufering Victim to the ‘Final Girl’: Evolution of he Concept of the Gaze in Slasher Films: Psycho and he Silence of the Lambs Abstract: he article shows the evolution of the concept of the gaze from the male-oriented perspective in two selected ilms� he analysis demonstrates how the presentation of masculinity and femininity in classic and modern slasher ilms afects the complexity of the spectator’s position, which relects the transformation of sex and gender categories in modern culture� Introduction he concept of the “male gaze”1 was irst introduced by a feminist critic Laura Mulvey, in her ground-breaking essay “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema” (1975), where she applied Freud’s notion of scopophilia, the pleasure of looking, to the relationship between the spectator and the onscreen image in the classic cinema of the 1940s and 1950s� Mulvey argues that there are three ways of looking at a woman: the camera, the male characters gazing at women in the ilm and the male spectators watching the movie� She maintains that the woman is a passive object of the man’s desirable look, which is active� According to Mulvey, man’s and woman’s roles in ilm are determined by the two modes of pleasurable looking, voyeurism and fetishism� Voyeurism involves a controlling gaze and has associations with sadism: “pleasure lies in ascertaining guilt…asserting control and subjecting the guilty person through punishment or forgiveness” (Mulvey 1999, 840)� Fetishism, by contrast, involves the “substitution of a fetish object or turning 1 he “classic gaze theory” and its modern interpretations were discussed at length by the author in the articles “Classic Gaze heory and Its Modiications in Modern Cinema: Eyes Wide Shut (1999), he Hours (2002) and A Single Man (2009)�” In he Subcarpathian Studies in English Language, Literature and Culture, Volume 2 Literature and Culture, edited by Małgorzata Martynuska, Barbara Niedziela, Elżbieta Rokosz-Piejko� 141–152� Rzeszów: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, 2014 and “Voyeurism in Alfred Hitchcock’s Films and Its Impact on Modern Cinema: Rear Window and Manhattan Murder Mystery�” In Podkarpackie Forum Filologiczne, Seria: Literatura i Kultura, edited by Lucyna Wille and Maria Malinowska� 19–30� Jarosław: Wydawnictwo Państwowej Wyższej Szkoły Zawodowej, 2014� 168 Agnieszka Kallaus the represented igure itself into a fetish so that it becomes reassuring rather than dangerous” (840)� Consequently, women appear to men either as madonnas or whores—both ways of looking reduce women to passive objects of male desire, without agency of their own� Mulvey’s article triggered the discussion on female spectatorship among the feminist critics� Mary Ann Doane in her essay “Film and the Masquerade� heorizing the Female Spectator” (1982) poses a question whether a woman can participate in spectatorship and ind pleasure in cinema� She argues that the female spectator is unable to feel the voyeuristic pleasure for the lack of distance she feels when watching her own sex on the screen� Following Mulvey’s argument, Doane (1990, 48) points to the tendency “to view the female spectator as the site for an oscillation between a feminine position and a masculine position, invoking the metaphor of a transvestite”� Consequently, there are two possibilities for the female viewer to experience pleasure in looking: “the masochism of over-identiication or the narcissism entailed in becoming one’s own object of desire, in assuming the image in the most radical way” (Doane 1990, 54)� Modern criticism diverges from the traditional gender-based interpretation based on binary oppositions, which renders the spectatorship as either male/active or female/passive� Carol J� Clover observes that both male and female spectators can identify bisexually� In her discussion of horror ilms, she introduces the notion of the “Final Girl”: a heroine who encounters the mutilated bodies of her friends, perceives the horror of her own peril as she is chased, cornered and wounded, but who inally pulls herself together and inds enough strength to ight back against the attacker (Clover 1992, 35–36)� he “Final Girl”, the female victim–hero, reverses the look by—what Clover (1992) calls—the “active investigating gaze” (48), which transforms her from a passive spectacle into an active spectator� he following article examines various modes of looking: voyeurism, fetishism, masochism and narcissism and their efect on the spectator in Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho (1960) and Jonathan Demme’s he Silence of the Lambs (1991)� Both ilms can be classiied as slashers, which Clover (1992, 21) deines as “the immensely generative story of a psychokiller who slashes to death a string of mostly female victims, one by one, until he is subdued or killed, usually by the one girl who has survived�” However, while in classic horror cinema (Psycho), the process of identiication with the female heroine ceases to exist when the woman becomes the designated victim, in the modern horror ilm (he Silence of the Lambs), the “Final Girl” becomes her own saviour, which turns her into a hero (Clover 1992, 59)� he purpose of discussion is to show the evolution of the concept of the gaze from the male-oriented perspective in Psycho, which perceives the female as a sufering victim of the male violence, to the feminist position, which shows the female as From a Sufering Victim to the ‘Final Girl’ 169 an avenging heroine, who struggles against objectiication in he Silence of the Lambs� he analysis will demonstrate how the presentation of masculinity and femininity in classic and modern slasher ilms afects the complexity of the spectator’s position, which relects the transformation of sex and gender categories in modern culture� 1. Psycho (Alfred Hitchcock, 1960) Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho (1960), based on Robert Bloch’s novel (1959), is a complex study of the split personality as the ilm’s villain, Norman Bates (Anthony Perkins), sufers from schizophrenia while his psyche is dominated by his overpossessive mother� It is Bates who is the ilm’s main voyeur, but the idea of being watched is apparent throughout the plot and involves diferent characters, including the female protagonist, Marion Crane (Janet Leigh), who is an object of the gaze but also the subject of the narrative� Mulvey attributes power to the male gaze and associates voyeurism with sadism, while the female is presumed as guilty and must be punished� Following Mulvey’s argument, Doane (1990, 48) states that in classic narrative cinema “the woman who identiies with the female character must adopt a passive or masochistic position while identiication with an active hero… refers to a certain ‘masculinization’ of spectatorship”� he ilm starts with a bird’s-eye view of the city from a helicopter, which is followed by the camera’s entrance to the hotel room through the window seeing a young couple of lovers, Marion Crane and Sam Loomis (John Gavin), embracing and kissing each other on a bed� he irst shot of the lovers shows the upper view of Marion as seen from Sam’s perspective, which points to Mulvey’s notion of the (active) male gaze regarding a woman as its passive object� Marion is lying on the bed gazing upward upon the bare-chested Sam who is standing and gazing down at her, which signals the male dominance� Marion insists on their getting married, which annoys Sam, who is divorced and has to pay alimony to his exwife and is not able to support a woman inancially� his further forces Marion to steal $40�000 from her employer’s client in order to solve Sam’s inancial problems and move forward their relationship� When Marion is running away with the stolen money, she pulls of the highway to rest� As she is sleeping in the car, she is intruded by a police oicer whose voyeuristic gaze is a violent assault on her privacy� According to Mulvey, the look is associated with power – whoever wields the gaze has the power over the one who is being watched: “he power to subject another person to the will sadistically or to the gaze voyeuristically is turned on to the woman as the object of both� Power is backed by a certainty of legal right and the established guilt of the woman” (Mulvey 1975, 841)� Mulvey argues that 170 Agnieszka Kallaus true perversion is concealed under the mask of ideological correctness: “the man is on the right side of the law, the woman on the wrong” (ibid�)� hose who watch are men representative of the symbolic order: policemen, guards of law� he dark, opaque sunglasses the oicer is wearing block Marion and the spectator a chance to see his eyes� Marion’s unease at being questioned shows how easily guilt has manifested itself in the way she behaves� She wants to hide her secret from others, therefore she averts the policeman’s gaze� As the spectators know Marion’s secret, they also share Marion’s unease about the oicer’s invasive behaviour which implicates the viewer in the crime as well� Once Marion reaches her inal destination of the Bates Motel she is under constant male surveillance as the owner, Norman Bates, is always around� He gives Marion the room next to his parlour, which allows him to watch her from his oice� In his parlour, she is being watched not only by Norman, but also by his stufed birds� he bird is the central metaphor in the ilm and puts the woman in the position of prey� Marion’s surname is Crane, which makes her prey to Norman, whose hobby is stuing birds (he also killed and stufed his mother in a similar fashion)� Norman (whose mind is also female) associates himself with a bird as well� As Robin Wood (1977, 41) observes, “Norman Bates, sitting in his room beneath stufed birds of prey, becomes, simultaneously, the bird (from his resemblance to it) and its victim (from his position under it)�” hus Norman holds a psychotic position—of both an aggressor and a victim� He is an aggressor who kills women, but he is also a victim of his over-possessive mother who represents his castration threat� As Barbara Creed (1993, 140) remarks, “he wants to become the mother in order to prevent his own castration–to castrate rather than be castrated�” He thus employs the two strategies described by Mulvey: voyeurism and fetishism� He kills his mother and by stuing her body he turns it into a fetish so it gets harmless, and then dresses in her clothes to make her absence present� In this way, a woman, who would have appeared to Norman as a castrating monster, turns into a fetish, which becomes “reassuring rather than dangerous” (Mulvey 1999, 840)� Norman watches Marion through a peep-hole in the wall for fear of being watched himself� he peep-hole is covered by a picture depicting classical nudes and rape scenes� As Norman observes Marion undress for a shower, his desire is revealed through the paintings� He is now in control of the gaze while Marion becomes its passive object� he scene recalls their conversation in the parlour and Norman’s reference to “the cruel eyes studying you”2 he used to describe the experience of being under surveillance in the madhouse� He then creeps into Marion’s 2 Unless a reference is given, all dialogues in this article are quoted from the ilm footage� From a Sufering Victim to the ‘Final Girl’ 171 bathroom dressed in his dead mother’s clothes and stabs her with a knife� Here the female is objectiied by showing her body as naked and vulnerable while he repeatedly stabs her to death� he repeated shots of slashing, ripping and tearing of Marion’s body with a knife make an impression of a direct attack on the ilm audience� he director’s intention to violate the spectator can be inferred from the remark Hitchcock added to Saul Bass’s shooting instructions for the shower scene in Psycho “he slashing� An impression of a knife slashing, as if tearing at the very screen, ripping the ilm” (quoted from Clover 1992, 52)� Carol Clover observes that “Hitchcock explicitly located thrill in the equation victim = audience…Not just the body of Marion is to be ruptured, but also the body on the other side of the ilm and screen: our witnessing body” (ibid�)� An extreme close-up of Marion’s dead eye staring at the spectator poses a challenge to voyeurism� By killing Marion Norman punishes her not for what she did (stealing the money) but for what she was—an attractive woman, a vehicle of his repressed desire� he idea of simultaneous watching and being watched in Psycho, which is central to horrors, is made most apparent in the mirror scenes “for the mirror is not only a prop suitable for a representation of the split personality� It also marks the need for introspection” (Spoto 1976, 317)� Marion oten stands before the mirror: in the opening scene in hotel room when she is with Sam, the mirror splits her image in half, which symbolically relects her double life� hen she uses her compact mirror in the oice to correct the make-up just before the client comes with the money she will decide to steal� When she is packing in her house, she is looking in the mirror and then at the money she has stolen—behind we can see an open bathroom with a shower, which foreshadows the fatal shower scene in the Bates Motel� On her journey, she counts out the cash for her new car in the salesman’s washroom and then she watches the policeman following her in the rear view mirror of her car� Finally, in the Bates Motel as she checks in, she is relected in the mirror which doubles her image� Her mirror image is also doubled in her hotel room as she is talking to Bates� People who do the investigation in the Bates Motel ater Marion’s death, detective Arbogast (Martin Balsam) and Sam Loomis with Marion’s sister Lila Crane (Vera Miles), are relected in the mirror in Bates’s oice in the same way as Marion� he mirror images are multiplied and superimposed on each other in the spectator’s mind, which makes the audience aware of the thin border between illusion and reality� One of the most scary moments is the scene when Lila sees a double relection of herself in the mirror in Mrs Bates’s bedroom� What she (and the audience) ind frightening “is the alarming impression of a split or double personality” (Spoto 1976, 317)� he scene precedes her discovery of the impression of Mrs Bates’s body on the bed and further uncovering of Norman’s secret, the stufed body of Mrs Bates in the basement� Hitchcock 172 Agnieszka Kallaus constantly alludes to watching by showing images of eyes, shadows and windows which give the audience an insight into the unconscious� In the inal scene, the camera shows Norman sitting in an empty prison cell, his eyes suspiciously looking around while we can hear the mother’s voice as a voice-over� “hey’re probably watching me now� Let them� As if I could do anything but just sit and stare”� he two ideas of watching and being watched are now integrated into a single image, just as Norman’s split personality is devoured by the mother� As Autumn Miller (2009) remarks, classic cinema, which Psycho represents, puts the female viewer in a diicult position of cross-gender identiication: she “is let to either become the victim as a passive recipient to male violence (Marion) or she transgenders herself placing herself in the position of the masochistic aggressor (Norman)”� Raymond Bellour (1986, 319–20) states that the story contains two separate narrative structures, Marion-cantered and Norman-cantered� hese two narratives relect a confrontation of “two psychic structures: man and woman, the latter destined to be the prey of the former�” As he observes, their Christian names are in mirror-relation to one another, which encourages the audience to see in them two complementary psychic structures, psychosis (Norman) and neurosis (Marion): “woman the subject of neurosis, becomes the object of the psychosis of which man is the subject” (Bellour 1986, 317)� Also, the name “Nor-man” means: “he who is neither woman… nor man” (Bellour 1986, 329)� Norman has a confused sexual identity, and his name supports this fragmented state� he spectator’s position is also confused, as the viewer drits between the male and the female� S/he needs to piece together the components of the split mind to reconstruct the coherent image� he inal image shows Norman’s face superimposed with his mother’s skull and then the camera shits to the car with Marion’s body emerging from the black waters of the marsh� As Spoto (1976, 374) concludes: “All the characters of this ilm are indeed one character, and through the use of alternating subjective camera technique, that character is the individual viewer”� While on the surface Psycho is about the psychosis of Norman, it also comments on the split in the spectators’ minds� 2. he Silence of the Lambs (Jonathan Demme, 1991) Both Psycho and he Silence of the Lambs deal with cross-gender issues and show the female as an object of the (male) voyeuristic pleasure as well as the subject of discourse� he ilms challenge the processes of audience identiication as they force the viewers (male and female) to cross the boundary between biological sex and gender (socially construed role)� However, while in Psycho, the female is presented as a passive recipient to male violence, Demme’s ilm shows the woman’s active struggle against that violence in defence of her position in the male-dominated From a Sufering Victim to the ‘Final Girl’ 173 world� he ilm poses a challenge to a conventional conception of women as passive objects, as it presents the female as an active agent of the gaze, the one who identiies with the victims of a serial killer, but at the same time stands in their defence� According to Mary Ann Doane, a gazing woman constitutes a threat to a man� “For the female spectator there is a certain over-presence of the image–she is the image� Given the closeness of this relationship, the female spectator’s desire can be described only in terms of a kind of narcissism–the female look demands a becoming” (Doane 1990, 45)� he female protagonist, an aspiring FBI adept Clarice Starling (Jodie Foster), subverts the concept of “the male gaze” by turning from the prospective victim of the male violence into an avenging heroine, who by chasing, ighting and inally killing the serial killer, Bufalo Bill (Ted Levine), dominates the action and acquires the gaze� Jonathan Demme’s he Silence of the Lambs (1991) is an adaptation of homas Harris’s 1988 novel of the same title, which won the Bram Stoker Award for Best Novel� he opening sequence shows Clarice Starling running alone through the woods� he irst impression about the girl is that she is running away from something, but the audience soon realize that she is a student on the FBI exercise course� his scene determines the viewer’s perception of Clarice as a female who is running to overcome obstacles on her way to career in the masculine profession� Clarice is surrounded with men who regard her not as much as a professional, but as an attractive woman� he fact that Clarice is a woman in the male-oriented world makes her an object of sexual harassment and exposes her to the male gaze� he next shot shows the girl in the elevator, surrounded with male FBI trainees, their strong masculine bodies posing a sharp contrast to Starling’s frail physicality� he girl’s embarrassment about the situation is easily observable; she is gazing up at the ceiling as she feels the men’s eyes on her tiny body� By showing Clarice’s perspective, the camera allows the viewer to identify with the female position but reveals it as ambiguous, shiting between the subject and object of the gaze� he following shot depicts Clarice in the oice of an FBI Special Agent Jack Crawford (Laurence Fishburne), as she is looking at the photos of skinned women, victims of a serial killer, Bufalo Bill� She then assumes an active position of the subject who gazes at the victims� Although her probing gaze is powerful as she intensely examines the mutilated bodies, it is also full of compassion, since she identiies with the victims� She thus displays the qualities of narcissism as she recognizes herself in the images of the victims, but at the same time she acquires an active status of their protector that grants power to her gaze� he ambiguity of Starling’s position as both an object of the male gaze and a subject who strives to escape objectiication by reciprocating the gaze is exempliied by Clarice’s relationship with Dr� Hannibal Lecter (Anthony Hopkins), a forensic 174 Agnieszka Kallaus psychiatrist and cannibalistic serial killer kept in the state asylum, whom she is tasked to question in hope to get some information on Bufalo Bill� During their irst meeting in prison, Lecter points to Clarice’s experience both as an object of visual desire—“Don’t you feel the looks coming over your body?”—and as one who desires to watch—“And don’t your eyes seek out the things you want” (Brill 2006, 37)� heir quasi romantic relationship is based on Lecter’s looking at Clarice through the glass panel of his cell, which depicts an air of voyeurism as it marks the physical distance between them� Lecter regards Starling as an object of scopophilic pleasure and feels strong attraction to her; however, he is attracted not so much to her physicality, but to her feminine weakness and vulnerability, which is revealed in his sensual drawing of Clarice holding the lamb� On the other hand, Starling strives to break away from the male gaze in her struggle to become a police oicer� In her conversations with Lecter she looks him straight in the face as they are playing the “quid pro quo” game which involves ofering clues about Bufalo Bill in exchange for insights into Starling’s traumatic childhood� Nevertheless, her behaviour, however masculine she wants to appear, oten reveals her vulnerability� She cries at the car park ater one of the patients lings fresh semen onto her face on her irst visit to the asylum� In contrast to her, Lecter displays strong masculinity that allows him to exert power not only over her professional career, but also over her personal life� As opposed to Lecter’s perception of her, Clarice sheds her femininity and adopts a masculine role to get along with the masculine world� She does not wear clothes that would accentuate her womanliness and behaves like a man in order to gain respect among the oicers� Working for the FBI puts Clarice in the position of power, which places the female on the right side of the law as the one who punishes criminals and protects victims� She chases Bufalo Bill and struggles to save his victim, Catherine Martin (Brooke Smith)� Unlike Marion Crane in Psycho, who is punished by death as a victim of male’s repressed desire, Clarice Starling is a protector of the innocent� he link between the heroines is symbolically established through their surnames, names of birds� As Lesley Brill (2006, 35) argues, “Neither in Psycho nor in he Silence of the Lambs, do birds serve exclusively as victims� hey can be predators, as well as prey, and some are both”� While Marion falls prey to male aggression, Clarice uses aggression as a defence weapon� Her strong desire to save the innocent, which stems from her childhood trauma as she was hearing the scream of lambs being slaughtered on a farm, drives her towards the protection of the vulnerable� herefore, she saves Bill’s victim Catherine Martin and inally shoots the serial killer� She thus performs a role ascribed to the masculine hero in the classic cinema� Both Clarice and Catherine show the features of the “Final Girl”: the one who ights, resists and inally defeats the killer-monster� “he Final Girl is boyish, in a word� Just as the From a Sufering Victim to the ‘Final Girl’ 175 killer is not fully masculine, she is not fully feminine—not, in any case, feminine in the way of her friends� Her smartness, gravity, competence in…practical matters, and sexual reluctance set her apart from the other girls” (Clover 1992, 40)� Unlike Clarice Starling, who adopts the masculine role in the male-dominated world, a serial killer Jame Gumb, known as Bufalo Bill, makes a strong attempt to become a woman� According to Clover (1992, 28), he is the most recent incarnation of Norman Bates, “a mother-ixated would-be transsexual who, having been denied a sex change operation, is sewing his own woman-suit out of real women’s skin”� Both ilms draw inspiration from the crimes of a real-life serial psycho-killer Ed Gein�3 Like Bates, whose hobby is to stuf birds, and who kills and stufs his mother to preserve her body as a harmless fetish, Bill objectiies women by skinning them for his female suit� Both Starling and Bill make an attempt at cross-dressing as they use external costumes to cover up their inner trauma� Gumb wants to transform into a woman, so he kills and skins women for punishment that he is not one of them; the violence of the act relects his obsessive desire to transform� He treats women as objects for their skin hence he reduces the feminine to a supericial aspect� In his project of transformation Bill reveals his obsession with the body: “he is obsessed with changing the surface of the body to conform to supericial appearances� For him, identity is about the externals” (McEntee 1999, 182)� He displays his own body to view in an exhibitionist way as he is dressing up and dancing to his camera� He is at the same time the spectator and the spectacle, which reveals the ambiguity of the gaze� As a sexually enigmatic igure, he also relects the complexity of identiication processes involved in the cinematic discourse� His night vision goggles, through which he observes his victims, connect him with the spectator, who perceives the women through Gumb’s eyes� Bill’s victims appear to the audience as moving images, artiicially enhanced, a relection of his own distorted perception� His approach to women is contrasted with Lecter’s, who explores the interior psychology of his subjects for the material upon which he could feed� In the ilm climax, when Starling pursues Bufalo Bill in the dark basement of his 3 Edward heodore “Ed” Gein (1906–1984) was an American serial psycho-killer and grave robber� He was obsessively devoted to his mother, a religious fanatic� Ater her death, Gein began robbing graves – he exhumed corpses from local graveyards and fashioned trophies from their bones and skin� He was also notorious for practicing necrophilia and experimenting with taxidermy� He then turned to murder, killing at least two women–Mary Hogan, a tavern owner, on 8th December, 1954, and Bernice Worden, a Plainield hardware store owner, on 16th November, 1957� Gein served as a model for several book and ilm characters, such as Norman Bates (Psycho), Jame Gumb (he Silence of the Lambs) and Leatherface (Texas Chainsaw Massacre)� 176 Agnieszka Kallaus hideout, she is caught in his gaze as he is watching her through his night vision goggles� He perfectly its the role of a voyeur, as the camera shows his perspective while he is stalking her in the basement� He keeps Clarice at a distance, which allows the voyeur to feel unrecognised in the act of watching� We can see his hand reaching out as if he wanted to touch his prey, but he soon retracts it as touching would dispel the illusion of distance necessary for voyeurism� When Starling hears the noise made by Gumb’s revolver, she swivels around and shoots him� While shooting Bufalo Bill, Clarice is gazing straight into his eyes (hidden behind the goggles) and in the camera’s eye� Her shooting of the monster-killer poses a direct attack on voyeurism, as the camera shows her from his point of view, which relects the attempt of the female spectator to ight back against voyeurism in cinema� Conclusion he analysis of the concept of gaze in Hitchcock’s Psycho and Demme’s he Silence of the Lambs shows the role-transgressing potential of both the male and female characters� he idea that appearance and behaviour do not necessarily indicate sex is based on the understanding “that sex is life, a less-than-interesting given, but that gender is theater” (Clover 1992, 58)� It may be the “theatricalisation of gender” that feminizes the audience in classic ilms� Classic cinema, which Psycho represents, tends to victimise the spectators by placing them in the positions of (passive) recipients of male violence (Marion) or masochistic aggressors (Norman) with confused sexual identity� More recent ilms, such as he Silence of the Lambs, challenge the controlling male gaze through narcissism (Clarice Starling), which accounts for the masculinization of the audience by granting the female spectator the status of an active subject of discourse� If Psycho, like other classic horror ilms, solves the femininity problem by obliterating the female and replacing her with representatives of the masculine order (mostly but not inevitably males), the modern slasher solves it by regendering the woman� We are, as an audience, in the end “masculinized” by and through the very igure by and through whom we were earlier “feminized�” he same body does for both, and that body is female�” (Clover 1992, 59) he modern feminist heroine escapes victimization through turning against her oppressor and becoming her own and/or other victims’ saviour (Clarice Starling)� By challenging the conventions of patriarchal order, female characters in modern slasher ilms reveal the role-transgressing potential to reverse the traditional modes of looking in cinema� On the other hand, voyeurism of the monster-killers (Norman Bates, Bufalo Bill) poses a direct attack on the audience as it uncovers the nature of desire, which is constantly shiting between the two psychic structures: From a Sufering Victim to the ‘Final Girl’ 177 the male and the female, the aggressor and the victim� heir confused identity transcends the normative sex and gender categories based on binary oppositions� his proves Mulvey’s model insuicient in the analysis of spectatorship� By deconstructing the orthodox categories of male/female, active/passive and heterosexual/ homosexual both ilms provide an insight into the subject’s inner complexity� References Bellour, Raymond� 1986� “Psychosis, Neurosis, Perversion�” In Hitchcock Reader, edited by Marshall Deutelbaum and Leland Poague, 311–331� Iowa: Iowa State University Press� Brill, Lesley� 2006� “Hitchcockian Silence� Psycho and Jonathan Demme’s he Silence of the Lambs�” In Ater Hitchcock. Inluence, Imitation, and Intertextuality, edited by David Boyd and R� Barton Palmer, 31–46� Austin: University of Texas Press� Clover, Carol J� 1992� Men, Women and Chain Saws: Gender in the Modern Horror Film� Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press� Creed, Barbara� 1993� “Dark Desires: Male Masochism in the Horror Film�” In Screening the Male: Exploring Masculinities in the Hollywood Cinema, edited by Steve Cohan and Ina Rae Hark, 118–133� London and New York: Routledge� Doane, Mary Ann� 1990� “Film and the Masquerade� heorizing the Female Spectator�” In Issues in Feminist Criticism, edited by Patricia Erens, 41–57� Bloomington: Indiana University Press� McEntee, Joy� 1999� “‘Did He Smile His Work to See?’ he Compelling Aesthetics of Murder in he Silence of the Lambs�” In Extensions: Essays in English Studies from Shakespeare to the Spice Girls, edited by Susan Hosking and Dianne Schwerdt, 172–185� Adeliade: Hard Park Press� Miller, Autumn� 2009� “An analysis of Psycho as a Freudian Psychological hriller: Psychoanalysing Psycho.” http://voices�yahoo�com/an-analysis-psycho-asfreudian-psychological-3232885�html?cat=72� Mulvey, Laura� 1999� “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema�” In Film heory and Criticism: Introductory Readings, edited by Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen, 833–44� New York: Oxford University Press� Spoto, Donald� 1976� he Art of Alfred Hitchcock. New York: Hopkinson and Blake� Wood, Robin� 1977� Hitchcock’s Films. New York: A� S� Barnes� Filmography Psycho. Directed by Alfred Hitchcock� USA� 1960� he Silence of the Lambs. Directed by Jonathan Demme� USA� 1991� Part II Evolution, Revolution and Endurance in the Socio-Political Context Joanna Durczak Protecting the Wilderness: How a Revolutionary Idea Evolved and Devolved, While the Wild World was Let to Endure Abstract: he article discusses how the idea that the wilderness should be protected evolved and how the proposition gradually gained wider support� he author indicates that the original biocentric emphasis of the irst advocates of wilderness protection has been weakened as attention has been redirected onto cities and environmental justice� As a long-time reader of American environmental literature and environmental journalism, I became aware in the last ive or six years that the word “wilderness” had almost disappeared from environmental discourse� So had, for that matter, the concept of “wilderness protection”� In environmental debates and environmental magazines there’s a great deal of emphasis these days on “averting climate catastrophe”, “preventing habitat fragmentation”, or “ighting environmental injustice”, but somehow the two older concepts, once so absolutely central to American conservation rhetoric and conservation eforts, seem to have slipped beyond the horizon of environmental concern� I would like to relect here on how and why the idea of wilderness protection, once truly revolutionary, has devolved, or—let me use the word as a transitive one—has been devolved almost out of existence, and what this devolution signiies for the physical spaces we used to call “wilderness”� But a few historical facts irst� he extravagant idea that the wilderness should be protected was born in the middle of the 19th century in the minds of a few visionaries� he irst recorded proposition that some patches of the as yet uncivilized American West should be legally made exempt from development was formulated in George Catlin’s North American Indians (1841)� Catlin, a painter, began in 1829 a series of trips West during which he sketched western landscapes and painted his now precious portraits of American Indians� Genuinely impressed by his encounters with the last tribes not yet decimated and disorganized by contact with the whites, he quickly understood that their lifestyle was inseparable from the environment they inhabited� So he envisaged “a magniicent park” where the land and the Indian could be protected against white civilizational zeal, frozen in time as it were, and made exempt from the designs of Manifest Destiny� In the park, comparable to a gigantic contemporary outdoor museum, the Indians—he imagined—would continue hunting and sun-dancing, permitting a glimpse of 182 Joanna Durczak their culture, eternally arrested in its development, to the white hunter, the artist and the connoisseur of the exotic� Catlin’s fantasy, though by contemporary terms ethnocentric and colonialist, was a revolutionary proposition in 1841 to which, of course, few gave a thought and nobody took seriously� he idea of protecting the wilderness resurfaced some twenty years later in the writings of H� D� horeau� At irst, he essentially rephrased Catlin’s proposition� In “Chesuncook”, the second essay in he Maine Woods (1864), he wrote the much quoted words: “why should not we…have our national preserves…in which the bear and panther, and even some of the hunter race, may still exist, and not be ‘civilized of the face of the earth’…not for idle sport or food, but for inspiration and our true recreation” (horeau 1988, 212–13)� But then, in “Walking”, an essay written at roughly the same time though irst published in 1862, he speciied a reason much more profound for creating those wild preserves: he saw the signiicance of wildness (and wilderness) as wellsprings of all human creativity and so of every culture’s vitality� Hence in “Walking” he pleaded for “wildness [in which] is the preservation of the World” (horeau 1975, 609)� Basically, like Catlin, horeau spoke for protecting the wilderness primarily for anthropocentric reasons—for human enjoyment, spiritual sustenance, and creative inspiration� Yet, now and then in his thinking about nature another novel idea would also get hinted on—that wild nature had value of its own, and therefore deserved protection irrespective of anthropocentric considerations (e�g� horeau 2000, 66)� A generation later, the idea of preservation for non-anthropocentric reasons found its irst prophet in John Muir� His books and publicity campaigns were instrumental in establishing in 1890 the national park in Yosemite, and then in 1892 the Sierra Club, a politically inluential organization of wilderness lovers and advocates� An acquaintance of heodore Roosevelt, accompanying him on some of his wilderness expeditions, Muir had a big share in persuading the president to declare in 1908 some 800,000 acres in the Grand Canyon a National Monument� By then, the educated American elite on the East Coast, raised on a diet of Romantic literature and painting, as well as increasingly besieged by millennial doubts about the beneits of the industrial civilization, had considerably warmed up to the idea of wilderness protection� If the wilderness was God’s country (which notion was emphatically articulated in Muir’s books and articles) it deserved the treatment accorded to temples� However, the general public remained rather lukewarm about conservation projects; the common assumption was that they should not conlict with human economic designs (Runte 1997)� his was especially the understanding in the West of the country� Much to the public’s surprise, it soon turned out that the assumption was not necessarily shared by the conservationists, John Muir among them� Protecting the Wilderness 183 In 1908 Muir became one of the most vocal spokesmen for the wilderness and against the conventionally understood public interest when the two conlicted in the Hetch Hetchy Valley� In response to the plan of the increasingly water-thirsty city of San Francisco to secure for itself a dependable supply of good water by damming the Tuolumne river in the Sierra, Muir stood up as spokesman for the wild valley, arguing his proposition that not only people, but all of creation, including rocks and rivers, had rights (Nash 1982, 129)� “Given the intellectual climate of the nineteenth century”, Max Oelschlaeger comments in his book he Idea of Wilderness “any premise that the land, plants and animals had rights bordered on lunacy” (Oelshlaeger 1991, 98)� So, as Roderick Nash writes in his study of American attitudes to the wilderness “San Francisco was “bewildered and incensed” at the Eastern public’s support for Muir rather than the city� “Was not supplying water to a large city a worthy cause, one that took priority over preserving wilderness?” San Franciscan newspapers and magazines of the period asked, shocked by the resistance the project generated (Nash 1982, 169)� Ater a prolonged battle, Muir inevitably lost and the valley was dammed� However, he did manage to plant in the American mind the idea of “the absolute, unrelational value of wild things” (Nash 1982, 181)� Following the Hetch Hetchy controversy, public sentiments in the United States began to rapidly tip in favour of wilderness protection even at economic or social costs� Nash observes: “Indeed the most signiicant thing about the controversy over the Valley was that it occurred at all� One hundred or even ity years earlier a similar proposition to dam a wilderness river would not have occasioned the slightest ripple of public protest” (181)� In the years between 1910 and 1930 pro-wilderness sentiments in the United States reached their irst peak� Nash writes about “the wilderness cult” as characteristic of those irst decades of the twentieth century (Nash 1982, 141)� In their enthusiasm for the wild country, white middle class Americans embraced religious, moral, aesthetic, scientiic, psychological and recreational arguments for its preservation� he closing of the frontier and the newly awakened sense that the wilderness had been the cradle of American national character contributed yet another argument� If American spirit was forged in the wilds, then in order to sustain it, every American should have an opportunity to periodically immerse himself (less so, herself) in that primordial environment� Meanwhile, the non-anthropocentric rationale for wildlands protection was gestating in the mind of Aldo Leopold� Leopold was an experienced forester and in the 30 and 40s a professor of game management and the new science of ecology at the University of Wisconsin� He was also soon to debut as an excellent nature writer� What many years of working in the Forest Service, prior to his university appointment, had taught him was “thinking like a mountain,” as he phrased it in 184 Joanna Durczak his most famous essay by the same title (Leopold 1970, 137)� To do so was to think about any environment not in terms of immediate human interests, but in terms of the health of the ecosystem� What hunters want in the wilderness environment, he’d explain his point, is abundance of deer; but this is not at all what the mountain “wants�” he more deer, the greater the assault on the vegetation and the greater the erosion of mountain slopes� he mountain “wants” only as many deer as it can house without detriment to its soil and other life forms, and the “wish” of the mountain should be a factor in human decisions� hus Leopold prepared the ground for his central concept of “land ethic,” a proposition that we must “examine each question [of land use] in terms of what is ethically and aesthetically right, as well as what is economically expedient� A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community� It is wrong when it tends otherwise�” (258) To Leopold, wilderness areas were models of such perfect, stable, and healthy natural communities� As a scientist, he wanted them preserved for scientiic reference and as biological reserves where the evolution could take its course untrammelled� At the same time, as an experienced forester, all too well aware of the national history of ruthless exploitation of natural resources of the continent, he saw wilderness protection as “ ‘an act of national contrition’ on the part of people who had been so careless in the past…‘a disclaimer of the biotic arrogance of homo americanus’ ” (qtd� in Nash 1982; 199)� While not precluding economic use, he envisaged it controlled by a land ethic which would balance the environment’s against human interests� Leopold’s concepts of land ethic and wilderness protection were inspiration for American lawmakers when in the early 1960s they drated the most important legal document that regulates until this day the status of wilderness areas in the United States—he Wilderness Act� he Act, passed in 1964, opens with a curious mixture of ostensibly anthropocentric and surprisingly ecocentric rationalizations for the law: he two twine around each other in a manner that suggests the lawmakers’ awareness that they were walking a tightrope and breaking a new ground in the country’s legal history: In order to assure that an increasing population, accompanied by expanding settlement and growing mechanization, does not occupy and modify all areas within the United States and its possessions, leaving no lands designated for preservation and protection in their natural condition, it is hereby declared to be the policy of the Congress to secure for the American people of present and future generations the beneits of an enduring resource of wilderness� For this purpose there is hereby established a National Wilderness Preservation System to be composed of federally owned areas designated by Congress as “wilderness areas”, and these shall be administered for the use and enjoyment of the American people in such manner as will leave them unimpaired for future use as wilderness, and Protecting the Wilderness 185 so as to provide for the protection of these areas, the preservation of their wilderness character, and for the gathering and dissemination of information regarding their use and enjoyment as wilderness� (http://www�wilderness�net/nwps/legisact) Ostensibly, the rationale for wilderness protection speciied in this document is anthropocentric� he wilderness is designated an object of protection for the use an enjoyment of American people, now and in the future� But their use and enjoyment must not conlict with maintaining the “wilderness character” of the preserved areas� he wilderness character is thereby identiied as valuable per se, a quality that deserves protection even against the designs and appetites of the American people� he opening sentence of the document makes it perfectly clear that these lawmakers are aware they’re working against the tide; they harbour no illusion that the expanding population of the country will curb its appetite to turn the resources the wilderness stands for into capital� So they see it as proper that that appetite be curbed by a legal measure in the name of a greater good� In 2014, looking back at this document at its itieth anniversary, Terry Tempest Williams, a nature writer, praised it as “the act of loving beyond ourselves” (Williams 2014, 52)� An environmental journalist, Christopher Ketcham, described it as absolutely “unique” in the history of American legislation� Downplaying the lawmakers’ rhetorical caution, he described the Act as “nonambiguous about whose interests it was protecting—certainly the human interests were secondary to the needs of ecosystems themselves�” From the long term perspective of national history, he saw the Wilderness Act as “expressing values fundamentally antithetical to the American Way…an insult to the dictates of Manifest Destiny, a slap in the face of American Dream” (Ketcham 2014, 44)� No wonder then, that from the start the Act generated much resistance from the industrial lobby and that for the last half century lawyers have been paid fortunes to ind in it the loopholes that would open the protected areas to a whole range of economic activity� On the other hand, the Act boosted the preservationist spirits both in the Government and at the grassroots level� When a proposition was announced in the early sixties that two new dams be built in the Grand Canyon, the announcement caused, as Roderick Nash writes, “the largest outpouring of public sentiment in American conservation history”, a public resistance so ierce that, unlike the Hetch Hetchy project, the Grand Canyon one was eventually not only abandoned; in 1968, a bill was passed speciically prohibiting dams on the Colorado River between the already existing Hoover and Glen Canyon dams (Nash 1982, 230)� hus, what originated in mid-nineteenth century as a private fantasy in the minds of Catlin and horeau evolved within more or less a century into a legislative act and into an attitude embraced by an inluential segment of American 186 Joanna Durczak society—mostly white, middle-class, and educated� But then, the road started going downhill� And it is this curious downhill process that I would like to relect on now� I cannot possibly present a complete picture of the devolution that has taken place subsequently, but I want to at least point out some of the more interesting moments in that half-a-century-long process� Paradoxically, the irst setback was caused by the growth of environmental awareness in the last four decades of the twentieth century� What the growing understanding of environmental problems—irst, pollution, then acid rains, then depletion of the ozone layer and, eventually, of global warming—has done to the idea of wilderness protection was ousting it from the center of the environmental movement’s concern� he older, checkerboard vision of the world as divided into the privileged, primordial and unpolluted areas deserving of care and preservation and the human-inhabited spaces undeserving of the environmentalist’s attention simply collapsed� It collapsed under the weight of visible evidence of, for instance, the LA smog pouring over the Sierra mountain passes into the Joshua Tree National Park, or the documented evidence of mercury levels so high in the lake ish in the remote and “pristine” Glacier National Park as to render them unsafe for consumption (“Contaminants” n�d�, 2)� Gradually, it became clear that the well-being of American wilderness areas was inseparable from the well-being of the hitherto neglected spaces surrounding them� hus by the late 1970, attention of American environmentalists had become partly refocused on polluted industrial environments, cities, toxic dumpsites� hen the ield of vision became even wider as news of the ozone hole and irst diagnoses of global warming reached the American public in the early 80s and late 80s respectively� he old rhetoric of “saving the wilderness” began to give way to the new one of “saving the planet” or “preventing global ecological catastrophe”� Imperceptibly, the wilderness simply began to lose its central position on the environmental agenda� In this process of repositioning of wilderness in the environmental movement’s sphere of concerns, a signiicant role was played by revisionist historians and cultural critics of the 1990s� One of them, William Cronon, threw an especially crippling bombshell into the world of American environmentalism� In 1996 he published a collection of critical essays Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature� Included in the volume was also his own article “he Trouble with Wilderness, or Going Back to the Wrong Nature,” published several months earlier also in he New Yorker� hus, the article reached a relatively large number of readers, also from outside the strictly academic circles� What he argued in the article was that “the wilderness” was in fact an idea, not a de facto existing physical phenomenon� he concept was time-, place- and culture-speciic� It evolved Protecting the Wilderness 187 in the nineteenth century to give center to American sense of identity (forged in the wilderness) and to justify American expansionism (the notion of the land as “virgin” and uninhabited opened it to appropriation)� On top of that, Cronon pointed to the mythology of the wilderness as responsible for the long history of American abuse of the inhabited environments� Idealizing a distant wilderness too oten means not idealizing the environment in which we actually live, the landscape that for better or worse we call home� Most of our most serious environmental problems start right here, at home, and if we are to solve those problems we need an environmental ethic that will tell us as much about using nature as about not using it� (Cronon 1996, 85) Cronon’s legitimate criticism of the idea of wilderness opened the loodgates� Within the following few years from all corners of the academy came a deluge of articles and studies exposing the wilderness idea (not always rigorously distinguished from its designate) as “ethnocentric, androcentric, phallogocentric, unscientiic, unphilosophical, impolite, outmoded, even genocidal” (Callicott 2008, 356)� Feminist scholars focused on the concept as catering to the male fantasy of a womanless world where American males, enfeebled by civilizational comforts, could recover basic survival skills and the manly virtues of courage and self-reliance� Environmental historians would document many abuses committed in the name of wilderness protection, especially the practice of evicting tribal peoples from their homelands to make room for proposed national parks� Ecologists would expose as scientiically inaccurate the belief that wilderness enclaves were separate ecosystems� In the academic circles, “the wilderness” became a word used selfconsciously and with utmost caution� To represent “the wilderness” as Cronon did as a cultural construct, moreover, as one abused for political ends and responsible for the abuse of non-wilderness spaces, was to pull the rug from under the environmentalists’ feet� Not only was the reality of their constituency being questioned (or so they thought); the entire preservationist tradition was being discredited for its complicity in the abuses of American history� It took a while before irst responses to Cronon’s claims began to break the shock� A frequent reaction was that one has to be a secluded academic who’s never set his foot in a wilderness to claim that it does not physically exist� Even the always composed Gary Snyder contributed some venom to the debate: “I’m getting grumpy” he wrote, “about the slippery arguments being put forth by high-paid intellectuals trying to knock nature and knock the people who value nature and still come out smelling smart and progressive” (Snyder 2008, 351)� he outraged Dave Foreman, a co-founder of the militant environmental organization Earth First!, retorted: “his Received Wilderness Idea [Cronon’s 188 Joanna Durczak term for the historical wilderness concept] is a straw dog, it does not exist on the ground” (Foreman 2008, 381)� What does exist on the ground is “the self-willed land… land beyond human control [which] is the slap in the face of the arrogance of humanism” (Foreman 2008, 383), and which “has led thousands of people to devote their time, money, and sometimes their freedom, even lives to protect [it] from exploitation” (381)� And yet, despite such ierce denouncements of Cronon’s proposition, the new awareness he generated of the historical abuses committed in the name of wilderness preservation, of the elitist, white fantasy which it catered to for at least a century, and of the costs of thinking in terms of the wilderness/ civilization binary did produce a change in the tone of environmental debates� Cronon’s argument about the constructedness of the concept of wilderness encouraged similar assertions about the even more slippery concept of “nature�” “Nature” was soon deconstructed as likewise socially and culturally constructed, as well as time speciic� Furthermore, questions about the late twentieth century nature’s “naturalness” began to proliferate� Cultural critics of the 1990s zeroed in on the illusoriness of the “naturalness” of many natural-looking phenomena— including American wilderness—and proceeded to debunk them as in fact no longer “natural” but created, turned through acts of human engagement with them into natural/artiicial hybrids� As spectacular illustrations of the “second nature” as it came to be known, cultural critics evoked the Yosemite Valley, landscaped for the maximum “wilderness” efect by Frederick Law Olmsted in the 1880s� Another much quoted example was the Columbia River� Several stretches of the Columbia may be quite “natural looking,” but the river is, in fact, a feat of modern hydro-engineering� It is a rigorously controlled watercourse sectioned by 14 dams, with the computer-activated water low regulated by international agreements� While some cultural critics busied themselves with deconstructing the apparently natural as partly artiicial, others moved in the opposite direction� In a widely appreciated book of essays Flight Maps, Jennifer Price traced back to their sources all the materials used in the production of the quintessentially American garden sculpture—the plastic pink lamingo� hat symbol of plastic artiiciality, she demonstrated, is made entirely of natural materials—sand (glass eyes), oil (plastic body), and iron ore (legs)—which fact we miss, rarely, if ever, relecting on what exactly has been processed and reprocessed beyond recognition into a pink aesthetic abomination� Such blurring of distinctions between the natural and the artiicial, the wilderness and the civilized, led inevitably to a turn in thinking that refocused on the urban in place of the wild, and reimagined the city as, in fact, “natural” and home to unacknowledged “wildernesses�” hey were the wilderness of natural processes, Protecting the Wilderness 189 such as weather or soil cycles, the wildernesses of fungal, bacterial and viral life, not to speak of the very real physical semi- to completely wild enclaves in the city, such as railroad yards or empty lots or river corridors� hese new ideas fell upon a very fertile ground in the increasingly urbanized American imagination� he urban wilderness quickly found its own explorers and eulogists, for instance in Charles Siebert, the author of Wickerby. An Urban Pastoral or in Robert Michael Pyle, the author of he hunder Tree: Lessons from an Urban Wildland� In Wickerby, the author compares his wilderness retreat in Canada with his Bronx neighbourhood, only to conclude: I see everything here [in Bronx] that I had at Wickerby [his wilderness home] except that it’s all in the margins: weeds limning the sidewalks cracks; trees gathering air from vacant lots; birds subletting rooms, cats aswirl at sills and doorsteps; dogs leaping rootops; ish plying their portable ponds; the stars briely yielding again now to our show of lights� (Siebert 1988, 214) One of the consequences of this new turn in thinking has been a conceptual dissolution of the mid-twentieth century notion of wilderness� In the language of the Wilderness Act, wilderness is deined as “an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammelled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain�” But now the term has become so ample as to encompass both the roadless confusion of the Utah canyon country and the backyard of a suburban home� A hyperbolic language frequently employed to write about the novel idea of “urban wilderness” has not only contributed to the erosion of the old clarity, but also more or less directly reassigned value� When one reads that “One derelict oil terminal…contains 1,300 species per hectare, more than any nature reserve” (Pearce 2015), one begins to wonder why bother about nature reserves at all, instead of concentrating all conservation eforts on such derelict oil terminals� By downplaying the diference between the urban wilderness and wilderness, a message is being passed that the latter is only one of several forms which wild/natural communities assume, distinct rather by virtue of its location than by virtue of its kind� he diference between the two in size, in biological complexity, in evolutionary potential, not to mention the quality of experience either ofers is thus obscured, if not altogether denied� In the history of American conservation movement, right from the very start, there were two philosophies of wilderness preservation competing with each other� One viewed human use, including economic use (for grazing, timber harvesting, limited and controlled resource extraction) as compatible with the wellbeing of the wildlands� he term used today for this tradition is resourcism� Unlike resourcism, which is fundamentally anthropocentric, the other tradition has viewed the 190 Joanna Durczak wilderness enclaves as places where the needs and rights of humans are secondary to the needs and rights of nature� Not surprisingly, moderate resourcism has always had more advocates� Radical environmentalists, such as the original Earth First!ers or Friends of the Earth, who espoused Leopold’s land ethic with all its implications of human self-restraint and the primacy of the ecosystem’s rights, never enjoyed much public support� he relative success of environmental ideology in the last three decades—measured by such tokens as the degree of popular awareness of environmental problems, presence of environmental agendas in politics and in economic calculations, or support for green technology—has always depended on emphasizing the human beneits of adopting environment-friendly policies� Within the modern environmental movement the least criticized factions have been those which insist on the inseparability of environmental concerns and human pleas—vide the environmental justice movement or ecofeminism� Both have made discussions of environmental problems inseparable from questions of class, race, and gender, while at the same time inevitably pushing to the margin discussions of the future of the wilderness as almost frivolous in the context of dire stories of social costs and health consequences of mountaintop removal in Kentucky, fracking in Pennsylvania or oil sands extraction on Aboriginal lands� Currently, the anthropocentric perspective seems to dominate in the environmental debate� One extreme proposition in that debate has been Aaron Sachs’s: rather than cling to the antiquated and hardly tenable goal of keeping people and industry away from the wilderness, he has argued in his book Arcadian America: he Death and Life of an Environmental Tradition, Americans should reembrace the pre-Civil War, pastoral ideal of America as Arcadia in which wild “places were humanized but not conquered or commodiied” (Sachs 2014, 27)� Moreover, there’s a clear revisionist tendency in environmental thinking observable in the US now, subsumed under the term “bright green environmentalism” or “neo-environmentalism�” As opposed to the movement of the past half century, deined by its rhetoric of ecological catastrophism, bright green environmentalism, exactly as one might expect, focuses on the reasons to be optimistic about the natural world’s future� Neo-environmentalism’s most recognizable face is Peter Kareiva, a conservation scientist, whose foundational premise is that in a world inhabited by seven and a half billion people the old conservation ideal of keeping humans away from some legally protected wild enclaves is no longer tenable� What’s needed is a program to balance the needs of humans and wild nature, implicitly at the cost of sacriicing much of the (“overrated”) wildness of the latter� Bright green environmentalism has a technological faction which sees technological “modernization as a road to salvation” (Shellenberger 2011, 61)� he Protecting the Wilderness 191 wing’s two prophets, Ted Nordhaus and Michael Shellenberger, put their faith in geoengineering (to pull C02 from the atmosphere), clean and safe nuclear power plants, GMO based agriculture, and desalination of ocean water to “irrigate and grow forests in the deserts” (65)� heir solution to species and habitat extinction is “creating new organisms and new habitats, perhaps from the DNA of the extinct ones” (65)� As they put it in their manifesto, “Evolve,” what is needed is a new “worldview that sees technology as humane and sacred, rather than inhumane and profane, [a worldview that will] replace…the antiquated notion that human development is antithetical to the preservation of nature with the view that modernization is the key to saving it” (65) When it comes to wilderness, preserving it in some idealized pre-civilized, pre-technological condition is impossible� Nor do such eforts make any sense—ever since the irst primitive humans entered the game, the wilderness has been evolving under their impact� As for the oldstyle environmentalists, who see economic restraint as an answer to the world’s environmental crisis, they are in the two authors’ eyes merely hypocrites, calling for sacriice while “living amid historic levels of aluence and abundance” (62)� Bright green environmentalists’ public visibility has a great deal to do with the shock quality of their claims� For instance, they deny the reliability of the data and the estimates on which the catastrophic prognosis for the natural world’s future have been based� Fred Pearce, the author of he New Wild published in 2014, claims that the much advertised horror stories of species extinction in the range of several a day have no foundation in facts: If anything, recorded losses are diminishing� Most of the major extinctions happened before modern times� …he number of birds and mammals that are known to have gone extinct between 1980 and 2000 is just nine� his year, the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) reported no further extinctions of any species, though last year it conirmed the demise of a Malaysian snail and an earwig on the Atlantic island of St� Helena� his hardly constitutes a holocaust� (Pearce 2015) Moreover, Pearce promotes the view that constant evolution (rather than climactic stasis) is the essence of mature natural systems, and that nature is much more resilient and adaptable than commonly believed� hus, the loss of one kind of environment (wilderness in this case) should, in his eyes, be no cause for alarm— “change is what drives nature to innovate” (Pearce 2015)� For him environmental ideology of the traditional kind which seeks to protect the no longer existing “pristine nature” is “ecological antiquarianism�” “In the Anthropocene,” he writes, “we instead need to develop a new vision of conservation that acknowledges nature’s dynamism and ability to change and adapt� How else do we expect nature to get by in an era of climate change?” (Pearce 2015)� 192 Joanna Durczak Pearce is an Englishman, but he has his American counterpart in Jim Sterba, a long-time correspondent for he New York Times, who claims that America, far from losing its wildlands, has actually been undergoing a process of unprecedented “rewilding�” his is the message of his book Nature Wars (2012)� On page ater page, Sterba makes preposterous-sounding yet trickily-phrased and surprisingly well-documented claims about the condition of the natural world in America� He writes, for instance: “more people live in closer proximity to more wild animals and birds in the eastern United States today than anywhere on the planet at any time in history” (Sterba 2012, xiv)� According to him, the largely unnoticed regrowth of forests in the North-East, the wildlife-welcoming attitudes and practices of suburban New Englanders, and the general loss of what Sterba calls “nature-stewardship skills” (meaning primarily farming and hunting skills) have all lead to an explosion of wildlife in suburban and urban areas� People share them now with millions of deer, geese and wild turkeys, with thousands of coyotes, bears, moose, feral pigs and cats� To North-Easterners this miraculous environmental recovery has already become a problem—something to stoically endure, despite a growing sense of unease� As Sterba writes: his is a new way of living for both man and beast, and Americans haven’t yet igured out how to do it� People have very diferent ideas regarding what to do, if anything, about the wild creatures in their midst, even when they are causing problems� Enjoy them? Adjust to them? Move them? Remove them? Relations between people and wildlife have never been more confused, complicated or conlicted� (Sterba 2012, xv) In Sterba’s interpretation of the environmental situation in the United States, it is the well-meaning and generous humans and their property that are fast becoming victims of wildlife rather than the other way round� Emissaries of the recovering wilderness take advantage of lush lawns and riverside parks, shrub- and treeilled gardens, backyard ponds, garbage dumps and such open spaces as airports and soccer ields� Meanwhile, humans, trapped in their environmentally-correct attitudes, watch this happen, increasingly disoriented and helpless� Where do all of these developments position the old style wilderness advocates? Certainly, on the defensive: insecure about the place of their constituency on the environmental agenda (so many problems seem to be more urgent at the moment), fending of accusations of sticking to a discredited, morally and politically-suspect concept, working against the tide of public sentiment which, understandably, feeds on the hopeful rather than dire predictions for the future—especially on the promise of technological salvation and sustainable development� hus, there’s a great deal of anger but also pessimism in the circles of old-style wilderness advocates today� In bright green environmentalism they see a dangerous adversary capable Protecting the Wilderness 193 of obliterating much of the accomplishment of the twentieth century green movement by way of ofering the public bromides which it will enthusiastically swallow� As Derrick Jensen has put it, bright green environmentalism “tells people what they want to hear, that you can have the industrialism and the planet too� Or to put it another way, that you can have the planet and eat it” (Jensen 2011, 12)� Many denounce as a similar bromide the concept of “sustainable development”, believing this “curious plastic world”, this “most odious oxymoron” to have been coined for publicity reasons by PR specialists working for oil corporations (Kingsnorth, 2012, 19)� Dire predictions are circulated that the Wilderness Act will be repealed in the not so distant future as a child of another era when the world population was mere 3 billion and the US population not even 200 million, and when the power of multinational resource-exploiting corporations was still in the making� To be sure, some old-timers continue working quietly for the sake of local wildernesses, by raising alarm and mobilizing local opposition whenever yet another patch of wild lands is designated for “improvement” by construction of power lines, or logging access roads, or modernization of camping grounds for the industrial tourist� But there is also a growing contingent of the disillusioned ones, who like Paul Kingsnorth, an English environmentalist and writer with considerable following in the US, believe that an era in the history of environmentalism has come to an end, the era of clarity about the movement’s constituency (the wilderness), its goals (“saving nature from people…speaking for the small and the overlooked”) (Kingsnorth 2012, 18) and position vis-à-vis the anthropocentric civilization (critics from the ecocentric standpoint)� In his dramatic statement “Confessions of a Recovering Environmentalist,” published in 2012 in Orion and followed in the magazine’s electronic version by literally hundreds of supportive comments from the equally frustrated and disappointed, Kingsnorth chastised the environmentalism of today for having become coopted by the mainstream, and turned completely utilitarian and completely anthropocentric, an “adjunct to hypercapitalism: the catalyctic converter on the silver SUV of the global economy” (21)� His long jeremiad, concludes on a statement of helplessness: “What’s to be done about this?” he asks and then answers his own question—“probably nothing”� So, feeling defeated, he announces his decision to withdraw from action and “go out walking” (23)� his is not entirely a statement of desperation; since horeau, in American environmental imagination going out walking in the wilds has always promised some new beginning� But Kingsnorth sounds more like he’s planning to burrow in for a long winter of inaction and relection, to wait out the movement’s seduction by technological optimists and stewards of the abstracted planet, “with no sign of any real, felt attachment to any small part of that Earth” (20)� “Like the 194 Joanna Durczak librarian of a monastery through Dark Ages” he imagines himself in this diicult moment “guarding the old books, as empires rise and fall outside” (28)� Culturally, in mid-2010s, “the wilderness” is in crisis� Its meaning has become difuse� Only ity years ago, “urban wilderness” was an oxymoron� Not anymore� Ater an interlude of about half a century, “the wilderness” is once again beginning to grow fuzzy with negative associations—a domain of wild creatures “responsible” for animal-car collisions, landscape and crop damage, Lyme disease, and—Sterba’s most outrageous example—“the downing [by geese] of US Airwaves Flight 1594 in 2009” (Sterba 2012, 277)� J� Baird Callicott has suggested that the word itself should be eliminated from use as “hopelessly tainted and confused” to be replaced with a term unburdened by the negative historical associations of “wilderness” and, at the same time, expressive of the contemporary scientiic rationale for maintaining wild enclaves� His propositions are “biodiversity reserve” or “ecosystem reserve” (Nelson 2008, 15)� But the bureaucratic sounding terms cannot imaginatively compete with the world of associations, literary and cultural, which “the wilderness” has always activated in American imagination� American environmental writers and journalists who continue writing about “the wilderness” do so at the risk of sounding antiquated or out of touch with current environmental debates� he established ones, like Wendell Berry, Kathleen Dean Moore, Gary Snyder, Rick Bass, David Gessner, ignore the danger and take the risk� But the younger ones have to yet work out a new language and a whole set of stories with which to respond to the current, revisionist understanding of the wild and human obligations to it� Meanwhile, the physical wilderness on the ground endures� Despite academic squabbles about its reality or constructedness, naturalness or artiiciality, despite the industrial tourist stampede, oil spills, global warming, fracking, clearcutting, road-building, mountaintop removal, experiments in management, and myriad other forms of anthropopressure, some 110 million acres of land in the United States continue to bear the designation “wilderness” and remain formally protected by the as-yet unrepealed Wilderness Act� he wilderness endures, probably weakened and impoverished, though for a non-specialist it’s impossible to form an opinion about its condition when the data coming from the dark and the bright green environmentalists is so fundamentally contradictory� Wherever allowed to, the wilderness also restores and regenerates itself, though at a glacial pace� From the point of view of the environmental purist, it regenerates in imperfect forms—incorporating invasive species, healing over the loss of the endemic ones, adapting to the most polluted, even radioactive environments� Messy and depleted where the process of regeneration only begins, tainted by the admixture of the “artiicial” and “foreign,” it is likely to fall short of traditional aesthetic and spiritual Protecting the Wilderness 195 expectations or standards of biological health� Yet, obeying its self-willed nature, it pushes forward and goes on, following its own inscrutable evolutionary designs, always regenerating, metamorphosing and evolving� About this even Edward Abbey, the most radical of wilderness defenders, would agree with Peter Kareiva� If the wilderness does endure, we may be tempted to ask ourselves the inevitable question—are human protective eforts, then, of any signiicance? Are they necessary at all? he answer is yes� Legal protection, even if imperfect, delays (and at best prevents) the appropriation of wild enclaves by industry, agribusiness and industrial tourism, and thus slows down the process of their degradation, i�e� loss of biodiversity, biological integrity and health� Yet, there’s also another kind of protection that may be even more crucial than the legal one—the cultural protection, of which legal protection is only a derivative� What I mean by cultural protection is the collective efort by a whole range of culture workers—journalists, writers, artists, ilmmakers, musicians, religious leaders, media people—to sustain in the public the sense that biodiversity reserves, to use Callicott’s new term, constitute a part of American heritage and are American biological insurance for the future� he Wilderness Act of 1964 was a product of such a collective cultural efort to which Catlin, horeau, Muir, Leopold and many others contributed over years, creating a cultural atmosphere of emotional and imaginative support for wilderness protection� If contemporary culture stops crating and propagating stories that will justify continuation of the protective eforts (and, instead, legitimizes emotionally, as it seems to be doing now, the anti-protection logic), public sentiments will shit enough to approve of opening up “all the wild that remains” (Gessner 2015, title) to human takeover� hen, even the knowledge that the wilderness will eventually recover, in say 50�000 or 100�000 years, will become very little of a consolation� References Callicott, J. Baird� 2008� “Contemporary Criticism of the Received Wilderness Idea�” In he Wilderness Debate Rages On, edited by Michael P� Nelson and J� Baird Callicott, 355–377� Athens, Ga: he University of Georgia Press� “Contaminants in Fish and Human Health Perspective�” National Park Service� US Department of the Interior� PDF� Accessed November 25, 2015� <https:// www�nature�nps�gov/air/Studies/air_toxics/wacap/mtWorkshop/docs/ Contaminants_Fish-Humanan_GLACguidance_062008�pdf >� Cronon, William� 1996� “he Trouble with Wilderness, or Going Back to the Wrong Nature�” In Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, edited by William Cronon, 69–90� New York: Norton� 196 Joanna Durczak Foreman, Dave� 2008� “he Real Wilderness Idea�” In Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, edited by William Cronon, 378–397� New York: Norton� Gessner, David� 2015� All the Wild hat Remains. Edward Abbey, Wallace Stegner, and the American West� New York: Norton� Jensen, Derrick� 2011� “Bright Green Reality Check�” Orion. Nature, Culture, Place� November/December: 12–13� Ketcham, Christopher� 2014� “Taming the Wilderness�” Orion. Nature, Culture, Place� September/October: 40–44� Kingsnorth, Paul� 2012� “Confessions of a Recovering Environmentalist�” Orion. Nature, Culture, Place� January/February: 16–23� Kingsnorth, Paul� 2013� “Dark Ecology�” Orion. Nature, Culture, Place� January/ February; 18–29� Leopold, Aldo� 1970� A Sand County Almanach� With Essays on Conservation from Round River. New York: Ballantine� Nash, Roderick� 1982� Wilderness and the American Mind� 3rd ed� New Haven: Yale University Press� Nelson, Michael P. and J. Baird Callicott� 2008� “Introduction: he Growth of Wilderness Seeds�” In he Wilderness Debate Rages On, edited by Michael P� Nelson and J� Baird Callicott, 1–17� Athens, Ga: he University of Georgia Press� Oelschlaeger, Max� 1991� he Idea of Wilderness� New Haven: Yale University Press� Pearce, Fred� 2015� “On he Annihilation of Nature. he Siege Approach to Conservation�” LA Review of Books, September 16� Accessed October 25, 2015� <https://lareviewobooks�org/review/the-siege-approach-to-conservationannihilation-of-nature>� Price, Jenifer� 1999� Flight Maps� Adventures with Nature in Modern America� New York: Basic Books� Pyle, Michael� 2011� he hunder Tree: Lessons from an Urban Wildland� Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press� Runte, Alfred� 1997� National Parks: he American Experience� Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press� Accessed December 21, 2015� <http://www�nps�gov/ parkhistory/online_books/runte1/chap3�htm>� Sachs, Aaron� 2014� Arcadian America: he Death and Life of an Environmental Tradition. New Haven: Yale University Press� Schellenberger, Michael and Ted Nordhaus� 2011� “Evolve: A Case for Modernization as the Road to Salvation�” Orion. Nature, Culture, Place� September/ October: 60–65� Protecting the Wilderness 197 Siebert, Charles� 1998� Wickerby. An Urban Pastoral. New York: Crown Publishers� Snyder, Gary� 2008� “In Nature Real?” In he Wilderness Debate Rages On, edited by Michael P� Nelson and J� Baird Callicott, 351–354� Athens, Ga: he University of Georgia Press� Sterba, Jim� 2012� Nature Wars. he Incredible Story of How Wildlife Comeback Turned Backyards into Battlegrounds� New York: Crown Publishers� horeau, Henry David� 1988� he Maine Woods� Hamondsworth: Penguin Books� horeau, Henry David� 1975� “Walking�” In he Portable horeau, edited by Carl Bode, 592–630� Harmondsworth: Penguin Books� horeau, Henry David� 2000� Wild Fruits, edited by Bradley P� Dean� New York: Norton� he Wilderness Act� 1964� Accessed September 10, 2015� <http://www�wilderness� net/nwps/legisact>� Williams, Terry Tempest� 2014� “he Glorious Indiference of Wilderness�” Orion. Nature, Culture, Place� September/October: 50–54� Ian Upchurch U-Turn if You Want to–on the Revolutionarily Evolutionary Nature of Britain Abstract: he paper focuses on the interplay between evolution and revolution in British history and culture, with particular reference drawn to the Civil War and the Glorious Revolution, the scientiic revolution in Newton’s time, scientiic revolutions in evolution theory, the recent history of devolution in government and the Scottish independence movement, and inally attitudes to the EU membership� Introduction Ever since the word evolution was separated from the word revolution to mean that which is rolled out (Oxford English Dictionary), the two words have been used to describe social and political processes, sometimes without clear delineation between the two� In comparison to mainland Europe, the history of the island of Britain may be characterized as relatively free of revolutionary change, instead displaying a more gradual evolution in response to the challenges of a particular age� Despite that, several “revolutions” in the history of Britain are taught in schools and popularly thought to have taken place� his paper discusses the evidence for the proposition that ‘revolution’ is a correct term to describe several social changes in British history and, if not, why the term persists with reference to them� According to some historians, the English Civil War of the 17th century should be labelled the “English Revolution”; a claim which we should evaluate together with the “Glorious Revolution” of 1688� Around the same time the Scientiic, or “Newtonian” Revolution is also supposed to have started� his led to the “Darwinian Revolution”, which applied the principles of physical science to the natural world� Finally, the modern day challenges to the United Kingdom and its place in the European Union seem to be revolutionary in their nature� 1. Revolution versus Evolution he concept of revolution started out describing a “circular movement” revolving around an axis (OED)� It is clearly reminiscent of the invention of the wheel, which turned on an axle� his invention was also an example of the next meaning of revolution, that is a “change or upheaval”� Any situation that is overturned or 200 Ian Upchurch process that is turned around can be said to have undergone revolution� Finally, as exempliied by Marxism in the 19th century, revolution came to mean the “overthrow of an established government or social order by those previously subject to it; forcible substitution of a new form of government” (OED)� So the concept of revolution has always described a process of change in the sense of a dramatic change of direction refuting what has gone before� he concept of evolution (according to the OED) originally meant a “movement or change of position”, which can already be said to have developed an ambiguous relationship with the concept of revolution� his change of position may or may not represent a change of direction, as is clearly suggested by revolution� Evolution went on to mean the “process of unrolling, opening out, or revealing”� his is based on the metaphor of a rolled-up scroll with writing hidden inside� Rotating the scroll leads to a linear movement in the appearance of the lat sheet of paper revealing the writing� his meaning, then, combined both the revolving movement central to revolution with the progressive movement which came to be associated with evolution� he revealing of the writing imagined here was understood as a metaphor for enacting in the physical world the potential which is contained in some system at the beginning� In the context of modern biology this could be described as the expression of the genotype in the phenotype� Evolution, then, came to mean simply the “process of development”, synonymous with the processes of growth and organisation which turn a foetus into an adult organism� We should note here that even while we are using a metaphor of physical rotation (“turn”) we are clearly describing a linear process of an organism moving towards another state� It only seems to have been a dramatic change if we compare the beginning (e�g� a human foetus) and the end of the process (an adult human) without regard to the time it took to eventually produce the change� his end state is seen as ‘higher’ and ‘more developed’ than the beginning, but already in the late 19th century it was believed that somehow the foetus or the seed contained the potential to become the adult form (which was of course justiied and explained by the discovery of genetics in the 20th century)� What was crucial to the concept of evolution ater Darwin was that it was a “process of gradual change from a simpler to a more complex or advanced state” (OED)� Darwin took it for granted that the whole of the history of life on earth had been governed by processes that we can see operating in the natural world today� his entailed a smooth, gradual progressive development of life from simple to complex forms� It is important to note that this gradualism was a philosophical preference rather than an empirical observation of nature (Gould 2009, 347); an assumption that it was not possible to test, in the 19th century at least� Evolution became synonymous with gradual U-Turn if You Want to 201 and natural development as opposed to a sudden or instigated change (oten in contrast with revolution)� Any graphical representation of the history of a species’ development/evolution or the emergence of a particular feature was assumed to be a straight line rising over time� his lew in the face of the earlier assertion by William Kent, designer of Stowe garden, that “Nature abhors a straight line” (Beers 2015, 129)� Figure 1 shows how the process of biological evolution could look depending on the degree of belief in either gradualism or revolution� he graphs represent the development of a hypothetical feature (such as the length of girafes’ necks or human brain size) over time� he irst graph shows how Darwin’s smooth, gradual evolution would progress, with a very large number of tiny steps adding up over time to a straight line increase� he second graph shows a history of sporadic, intermittent jumps, with periods of rapid change alternating with periods of relative stability� his is the way evolution was seen by Stephen Jay Gould and his mechanism of punctuated equilibrium (Gould 2009)� Just as Darwin, according to Gould himself, was inluenced by his philosophical preference for a gradual process, so too Gould may have been inluenced by his own Marxist beliefs in shaping his process� Both of them may be imposing on nature the straight lines that so rarely exist in nature� he third graph shows what a haphazard, organic, chaotic natural process of evolution would look like� It contains neither a smooth even progression nor a regular series of large steps� instead it is characterised by many diferent rates of development at diferent times, varying from rapid change to stagnation� Figure 1: he process of biological evolution according to diferent perspectives his model its what we now know about actual histories of the evolution of features, as they are inluenced by a multitude of factors which themselves vary greatly over time� And yet, if we would like to see in the third graph evidence to support our philosophical preferences, it is suicient simply to change the time frame� To see the third graph as a straight line showing a smooth, even development we need to pull back the focus and show the process over a long time frame� his will iron out the details and make the line appear to be smooth� On the other 202 Ian Upchurch hand if we wish to see revolutions then we must zoom in and focus on a shorter time frame (in a convenient period) which appears to show a sudden jump� In this way we will see either revolutions or evolution in our history� 2. he English Civil War (English Revolution) he conlict between Parliamentarians and Royalists (1642–1651) known as the English Civil War was also called the English Revolution by Marxist historians (e�g� Hill 1955)� Focussing on that nine-year period it does seem to be a revolutionary change in the way England was governed; a transformation from monarchs who had ruled in England for over a millennium to the Commonwealth or Protectorate led by Oliver Cromwell (1649–1659)� We could easily imagine that the country had been run by absolutist monarch without reform until inally the country exploded in revolution� Such a view would ignore the reforms that had been made, including the famous Magna Carta and, according to Schama (2003a), the more signiicant Provisions of Oxford� While it is true that the ‘English Revolution’ established the precedent that the monarch cannot govern without the people’s consent, demand for this change had in fact been growing for over four centuries, at least since the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215� Neither was this a popular revolution since the majority of the population were not involved in the war and not enthusiastic about the republic� his republic inally ended with the Restoration of the monarch and the repeal of its laws� All of this means that the ‘English revolution’ was in fact no more than a blip on the graph of the development of democracy� 3. he Glorious Revolution he contention that the Civil War was not a complete revolution is underlined by the fact that its central achievement was to be cemented into place in an apparently separate, and less controversially named, revolution, in 1688� he Glorious Revolution legally established parliament as the ruling power in England� Parliament was able to expel the Stuart dynasty under James II, and to transfer sovereignty to their candidate, William of Orange� In so doing it established that the king could only rule while respecting the rules imposed on the monarchy and that this was enforceable in practice (unlike the signing of the Magna Carta, which King John had no intention of enacting in reality) by Parliament’s power to remove the king if necessary� Yet, like the English Civil War, this was a step in bringing about changes that had been growing for four centuries, and, unlike the bloody scenarios usually associated with “revolution,” it was carried out peacefully using the instruments of law� It was also in need of continued reform to strengthen it, in U-Turn if You Want to 203 the form of the Act of Settlement (1701) which settled the question of succession to English throne (Schama 2003b)� hese reforms were crucial for England actually avoiding a revolution in the 18th century� he possibility of a Catholic king bringing England back under the authority of Rome was forestalled by the Act of Settlement outlawing a Catholic monarch; and the possibility of a popular revolution being provoked by a distant and arrogant monarch (as in the French Revolution of 1789) was prevented by the fact that England’s developing constitution had brought the king under a large degree of control a century earlier� If the four-century history of reforms to the monarch’s position (culminating in the “Glorious Revolution”) had not taken place then something much more like a real revolution would have put the country under the power of Rome or a “Protector”, either of whom would have transformed the subsequent history of England� 4. he Newtonian Revolution he history of science also contains a revolution at the same time as the abovementioned political one� he “Newtonian Revolution” was started in the late 17th century as a result of the publishing of Isaac Newton’s works on inter alia, optics, mathematics and the motions of the planets� Science was transformed and given the basis for new discoveries that have taken us into the modern age� Alexander Pope wrote the following eulogy for Newton: “Nature and Nature’s laws lay hid in night: God said, Let Newton be! and all was light” (Pope 1740, 129)� his, then, was a revolution taking us from ignorance into knowledge; from the Dark Ages to the Enlightenment� According to this view, Newton took society from Magic to Rationality, and from Religion to Science� In giving us the idea of a Clockwork Universe, which did not need God’s intervention, Newton removed the need for religion and set science in opposition to it� Looking at this period of the history of science (the last two decades of the 17th century) up close it certainly seems to show a revolution� However, while focusing on that short period it is necessary to fail to spot important details if one is to believe in the revolution idea� In fact, Newton was not an atheist proponent of science and rationality as the exclusive way of understanding the universe (a kind of early Richard Dawkins)� Instead Newton, in addition to being a great scientist, was also the leading practitioner of occult arts and alchemy in Europe (Westfall 1994)� As well as his scientiic works, Newton also wrote on the literal and symbolic interpretation of the Bible� Most surprising of all, the credit Newton is given for the “clockwork universe” appears to be undeserved� Newton was convinced that the universe could not run without God’s 204 Ian Upchurch intervention, while it was the German mathematician Leibniz who said it could� hese omissions and distortions serve to bolster the idea that Newton was at the centre of a revolution, when what actually happened was that there was a gradual change over time, relected in the fact that ideas we are now used to seeing as opposing were held by the same people, Newton included, and that he alone was not responsible for “turning on the light”� 5. he Darwinian Revolution he mid-18th century saw the next scientiic revolution following publication of Darwin’s description of the process of natural selection by which life has evolved� he drama with which this event is sometimes described is exempliied by a quote from Richard Dawkins: “Living organisms had existed on earth, without ever knowing why, for over 300,000 million years before the truth inally dawned on one of them� His name was Charles Darwin” (Dawkins 1976, 1)� Dawkins’ attempt to build a mythology to support this scientiic story leads him to distort the historical record to it� He relegates dozens of scientists who went before Darwin and contributed to the development of the theory of evolution (including Lamarck and Erasmus Darwin who proposed evolution theories in the previous century along with Wallace and Matthew who both described the process of natural selection before Darwin) down to the level of dinosaurs and trilobites with no clue as to how they came to be on the earth� Dawkins is lattening the line of progress made by scientists before Darwin in order to build the case for a revolution in Darwin’s time� In this case modern science has gone even further to build a mythical revolution, starting with Darwin’s “Voyage of Discovery” on the HMS Beagle (1831–1836)� he public perception of Darwin goes as follows: 1� Instead of becoming a pastor, Darwin’s life took a radical turn as he went on a voyage around the world as the naturalist on the HMS Beagle� 2� He had his ‘eureka’ moment on the Galapagos Islands, as he was immediately struck by the diversiication of the animals and plants� 3� He systematically collected specimens (especially the inches and giant tortoises)� 4� He let the Galapagos on a mission to change the world with his revelation� 5� He had discovered evolution� 6� He was the irst to describe the mechanism that causes it—Natural Selection� 7� He was convinced that Natural Selection was the only mechanism of evolution� Each point in this widely known story, however, is in need of correction if one is to discover the truth rather than a myth: U-Turn if You Want to 205 1� In Darwin’s time there was no such choice: there were many pastor/naturalists� He was not recruited as naturalist on the Beagle but only as a companion for the captain� 2� He didn’t see the Galapagos as important when he was there; he was bored with this desolate place� 3� He was not struck by the inches and tortoises, specimens of which he failed to label (inches) and ate (tortoises)� 4� He wrote he was “thankful to be of…the birds, reptiles, and plants had seemed curious, but not riveting�” 5� Many others had proposed evolution (including gradual evolution) before this time� 6� Patrick Matthew had earlier proposed the mechanism of Natural Selection� 7� In his On the Origin of Species, he also included two other mechanisms, which he oten said were stronger than Natural Selection� In a later edition of the book he considered removing Natural Selection completely (Desmond & Moore 1992)� he fact is that many scientists (along with the English resident of the Galapagos who explained to Darwin the diferences in the tortoises’ shells from one island to another) made contributions over a long period “before the truth inally dawned on one of them” and replacing that history with one man’s ‘eureka’ moment can be clearly seen as myth building intended to support the idea of a revolution� And it continued, supposedly: 1� On reading On the Origin of Species T� H� Huxley, exclaimed “How stupid of me not to think of that!” and accepted the theory enthusiastically� 2� here was a debate between Darwinian Evolutionists and Biblical Creationists for acceptance of Darwin’s ideas� 3� Huxley, “Darwin’s Bulldog,” argued for Natural Selection in a famous debate with Bishop Wilberforce in Oxford� 4� Huxley won a victory for science over religion, which Darwin was happy to see� 5� Darwin ended his life a committed atheist� 6� Despite that he would have been happy that he was given a state funeral in Westminster Abbey� All of these “facts” it with the idea of Darwin being at the centre of a scientiic revolution, pitching science against religion as mutually exclusive worldviews� Unfortunately they do not it with the actual history, wherein: 1� Huxley never believed in Natural Selection as the mechanism of evolution� He never mentioned it during debates or in lengthy books on evolution and privately told Darwin he was not convinced� 206 2� 3� 4� 5� 6� Ian Upchurch here were scientists and religious ministers on both sides of the arguments� here was no set-piece debate between Huxley and Bishop Wilberforce� Darwin wanted peace between science and religion� Darwin never quite became an atheist� Darwin clearly wanted to be buried in the family plot and eaten by the worms that he studied� (Desmond & Moore 1992)� It seems clear that a story that in reality was very complex and convoluted has been straightened out into a simple dialectical revolution in the way it has been described and popularly imagined� 6. Scottish Devolution In 1999 the Labour government attempted to settle long debate over the position of Scotland in the United Kingdom by proposing devolution of some powers to a Scottish parliament (which of course is quite diferent from full independence)� he debate preceding the referendum demonstrates the choice that had to be made between evolutionary and revolutionary approaches� Just as in the abovementioned debate over Darwinism, there were people displaying each of the ways of thinking on both sides of the issue (see table 1)� Some supporters of devolution were also supporters of independence and hoped that a devolved parliament taking some powers from the central government would be a “stepping stone” eventually leading to independence—an evolutionary approach� At the same time other supporters of devolution were opponents of independence and hoped that the granting of limited powers would act as a ‘safeguard’ against independence— relecting a belief in a revolutionary solution (which they hoped to avoid)� On the other side some opponents of devolution saw it as an “obstacle” to the full independence that they wanted to achieve—a revolutionary approach� hey were joined in campaigning against devolution by others who saw it as a ‘slippery slope’ that would lead to independence—relecting a belief in an evolutionary solution (which they hoped to avoid)� Table 1: Evolutionary-and revolutionary-based positions in the Scottish devolution debate Yes to Devolution No to Devolution Yes to Independence “Stepping stone” “Obstacle” No to Independence “Safeguard” Evolutionary Revolutionary Revolutionary “Slippery slope” Evolutionary 207 U-Turn if You Want to he evolutionary position was perhaps justiied by the fact that the pro-independence Scottish National Party won a majority in the Scottish parliament and was able to hold a referendum on full independence in 2014; however, the outcome of this vote was narrowly in favour of staying in the United Kingdom, potentially settling this question for a generation, unless something extraordinary were to happen� 7. EU membership in the balance Something extraordinary happened in 2016� he United Kingdom was given a referendum on whether to leave or remain in the European Union� his followed a period of renegotiation of the terms of the UK’s membership which was intended to appease critics of the EU and persuade them to support staying in� Again, on each side of this debate, remain or leave, we see both evolutionary and revolutionary thinking (see table 2)� he “Vote Leave” campaign claimed to be ready to wait and see how fundamental the reforms were before deciding whether to campaign to leave or not� hey wanted reform if that would itself lead to a return of sovereignty to the UK parliament and eventually to leaving the EU—an evolutionary approach� Meanwhile “Leave�EU,” the other main anti-EU campaign did not want to see reform as they thought it would be successful in persuading voters that enough had been done to deal with their concerns; for them only leaving would be enough—a revolutionary approach� On the other side of the referendum, the government’s position was to reform the UK’s relationship with the EU in order to prevent the public from voting to leave—relecting a belief in the possibility of a revolutionary solution (which they hoped to avoid)� hey were joined in the campaign to remain in the EU by “Euro-enthusiasts” who did not see such a need for reform and feared it may lead to eventually leaving—relecting a belief in the possibility of an evolutionary solution (which they hoped to avoid)� Table 2: Evolutionary- and revolutionary-based positions in the EU membership debate Leave the EU Yes to Reform No to Reform Wait and see (“Vote Leave” campaign) “Leave�EU” campaign Evolutionary Stay in the EU Government position Revolutionary Revolutionary Euro-enthusiasts Evolutionary With the result of the referendum being 52 percent in favour of leaving the EU (across the whole of the UK) but large majorities in favour of remaining in both 208 Ian Upchurch Scotland and Northern Ireland, this issue has reignited the Scottish independence debate� In July following the referendum, the new UK Prime Minister and the Scottish First Minister began seeking a compromise that would respect both sides’ wishes� hey were efectively trying to ind a reform that would bridge the gap between opposite revolutions: either taking Scotland out of the UK or taking them (against their will) out of the EU� Conclusions he historical examples point to one conclusion, which is that, in the British case, evolution plus time equals revolution� Many so-called “revolutions” only appear as such due to our perspective looking back into the distant past� When investigated up close, these “revolutions” look much more like “evolutions” with a series of faltering steps towards a inal “goal”, which is only seen as the product of a revolution thanks to our desire to believe in some order and structure in history and to construct our creation myth� British history, like the third graph above, is characterised by organic and haphazard change� Depending on ideology we can look back and see smooth evolution (the irst graph) or a series of revolutions (the second graph)� It is suicient only to focus on the appropriate period of time and select the facts and personalities required to it with the way we would like to see these histories� When we look in more detail at British history we see that the possibility of revolution has been ever-present but always avoided� he evolution of British institutions and society has enabled the country to anticipate and prevent actual revolution� British people may look back and see revolutions that do not bear closer examination but they are less keen on seeing revolution in their own time� his is why the questions over the future of the United Kingdom and its place in the European Union are so fascinating, with the UK coming closer than ever to actually carrying out a revolution� References Beers, Henry A� 2015� A History of English Romanticism in the Eighteenth Century London: Routledge� Dawkins, Richard� 1976� he Selish Gene. Oxford University Press� Desmond, Adrian, and James R. Moore� 1992� Darwin. London: Penguin� Hill, Christopher� 1955� he English Revolution, 1640. London: Lawrence and Wishart� Gould, Stephen J� 2009� Punctuated Equilibrium. Harvard University Press� U-Turn if You Want to 209 OED (Oxford English Dictionary) online edition www�oed�com� Pope, Alexander� 1740� he works of Alexander Pope. London: Wordsworth Editions (1995)� Schama, Simon� 2003a� A History of Britain: Volume 1. At the Edge of the World? London: BBC� Schama, Simon� 2003b� A History of Britain: Volume 2. he British Wars 1603– 1776. London: BBC� Westfall Richard S� 1994� he Life of Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press� Donald Trinder he British Guarantee to Poland of 1939 as a Revolution in Anglo-Polish Relations Abstract: he article presents an overview of events triggered on March 30th, 1939 when the British Government extended a unilateral and unsolicited guarantee of independence to the Polish Ambassador in London� he author indicates that when the ofer was accepted by the Polish Foreign Minister, Józef Beck, a chain of events was set in motion culminating in the outbreak of World War Two� Introduction His Majesty’s Government have obligations to Poland by which they are bound and which they intend to honour� hey could not, for any advantage ofered to Great Britain, acquiesce in a settlement which put in jeopardy the independence of the State to whom they had given their guarantee� (Reply of His Majesty’s Government to German Chancellor’s Communications, 28th August, 1939)1 It is incredible that, less than 12 months previously, the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain had lamented on National Radio “[H]ow horrible, fantastic, incredible it is that we should be digging trenches and trying on gas-masks here because of a quarrel in a far-away country between people of whom we know nothing” (Faber, 2008, 375–376)� In this case Chamberlain was referring to the festering crisis in Czechoslovakia over the fate of the Sudeten Germans that threatened to develop into armed conlict, but it is impossible to ignore the, lest one say it, revolutionary nature of this political volte face� What is even more stunning about the irst of the two quotes is the fact that the Prime Minister and architect of the infamous policy of Appeasement was not only promising to defend a country that was geographically isolated from Britain in a geopolitical sphere that had never been of British interest, but that the British relationship with Poland had never been intimate—in the way that the Anglo-French relationship can be described as a love-hate relationship� In this paper, we shall attempt to portray the events of March 1939 as a true revolution, not only in British foreign policy, but also in Anglo-Polish relations� Consequently, the paper will be divided into three sections, the irst of which will deal with the state of Anglo-Polish relations prior 1 Published in the British War Blue Book, 1939, p� 162� 212 Donald Trinder to the so-called Prague Coup of March 1939, the second will discuss briely the reasons for the change in British attitudes, while the inal section will illustrate the situation following Chamberlain’s fateful address to Parliament in which he placed Poland at the heart of British national interests� 1. he Prelude he irst real question is where to start our investigation into the very nature of Anglo-Polish relations? We could reach back through the mists of time to the very irst contacts between England and Poland, when Boleslaus the Brave provided both men and monetary support to his cousin Canute during his invasion of England in 1015�2 It would, however, be quite absurd to suggest that a Polish backed invasion of Saxon England had any inluence on future relations, especially when there was little concept of nationhood among either of the ledgling countries at this time� Indeed, it is questionable as to whether the Anglo-Saxons would even have been aware of the origins of their unwelcome guests� We might take Henry Bolingbroke as the starting point, especially as he was the irst (future) king of England to set foot on Polish territory� He was on his way to lay siege to Vilnius, and was present at the request of the Teutonic Order (Turnbull, 2004, 53–54), both of which facts would lead us to believe that he was a most unwelcome visitor� his might account for why, less than a quarter of a century later, King Jogaila was to refuse to come to the aid of Bolingbroke’s son, Henry V, in his conlict with France (Davies, 1981, 93–97)� On the other hand, one should be aware of the fact that less than 50 years later England and Poland had actually signed a trade agreement as the Kings of Poland sought to exploit the new-found opportunities presented by their acquisition of Danzig (Halecki, 1934, 662)� We might take, as a less militant igure, the great 18th century parliamentarian Edmund Burke, who made a great speech in defence of Polish liberty in the atermath of the irst partition in 1772 (Davies, 1981, 513)� However, when the Second partition threatened to cause the downfall of the anti-revolutionary alliance that included Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria, Burke changed his stance� During a debate initiated by the arch-liberal Charles Fox on whether Britain should change sides and join France in a war against the remaining powers in defence of Polish Liberty, Burke declared that “with respect to us, Poland might be, in fact, considered as a country on the moon” (Burke, 1816, 148)� 2 See, for example, Lawson (1993) for a full account of Cnut’s invasion of Britain, his family tree, and the support of his Polish cousin� he British Guarantee to Poland of 1939 213 Given that, just two years later, Poland was to disappear completely from the map of Europe, we should probably best turn our attention to the rebirth of Poland, and the beginning of the period in question being the year 1918� At this moment, three key igures may be discerned in Anglo-Polish relations, the irst being Roman Dmowski, who was the efective head of the Polish negotiating team at the Paris Peace Conference, and whose job it was to try to gain international support for the recreation of an independent Polish state with the most generous borders possible� In this task, Dmowski was somewhat hampered by events taking place on the eastern borders of his phoenix state: for Poland was born into a ight for her very existence as the Bolshevik armies of Lenin attempted to stave of the Anglo-French backed counter-revolutionary war and expand Soviet inluence westwards� his is where we meet the second of the inluential igures, Marshall Józef Piłsudski� His view was radically diferent from that of Dmowski, and his aim was to secure borders as close as possible to those which historic Poland has occupied� His success in turning back the Red Army at the battle of Warsaw meant that Poland was able to approach the task of settling her eastern border from a position of relative strength (Nowak, 2015, 27–32)� Into this equation we can add the igure of British Prime Minister David Lloyd George� Whilst he was keen to see Poland repainted onto the map of Europe, he was also motivated by his vision of the future, whereby a strong Germany and a newly restored Russian Monarchy became close trading partners to help reinvigorate Britain’s shattered economy� To this end, Lloyd George refused to countenance the despatch of British surplus war material to aid the Polish, despite making a irm commitment to aid them against the Soviets (Davies, 1971, 134–136)� Equally, the British sought to pin the Polish to a border roughly in line with that of today, the infamous Curzon Line� his border was quickly made redundant by events on the battle front and, by the Treaty of Riga, the Polish border was established some 200 km east of that which had been propounded by the British, which caused many, including Lloyd George himself, to brand the Polish as both militarist and imperialist in their ambitions (Davies, 1971, 146)� Both characteristics were deemed unit for a newly reborn nation which should, in the eyes of the British, have simply been grateful for its very existence (Roszkowski, 2002, 24)� To add to this, there were wild reports of the way in which the new Polish government treated its minorities, especially the Jews� Despite the Publication of the American Morgenthau Report,3 which largely exonerated Poland of any 3 he so-called Morgenthau Report was commissioned by President Woodrow Wilson to investigate allegations of anti-Semitism in Poland and was a complete vindication of 214 Donald Trinder complicity in anti-Semitic acts, the British press and newly empowered political let were quick to label Poland as a central European dictatorship with highly despotic tendencies—hardly a suitable candidate for friendship (Davies, 1971, 150)� hen there was British guilt at the harsh nature of the Versailles Treaty, which many in Britain felt was unfair to Germany, and would cause her many years of economic hardship—hardly what was needed in our prime European trading partner (Taylor, 1992, 136–137)� hen there was the fact that the British turned their attention back inwards to focus on the Empire� he very same principle of self-determination which Wilson had included in his 14 points also meant that many of Britain’s colonial possessions and dominions were keen to seek independence from the British Crown� hus, European afairs took a back seat� he economic uncertainty of the British also played a part in determining foreign policy, especially as the rebuilding of Germany was seen as a key element in this aim� he Wall Street Crash and ensuing global economic depression further caused the British to turn their eyes inwards, away from continental afairs, and especially the plight of Eastern Europe (Parker, 1993, 12–16)� hus, the French led the way in European afairs, and Poland was initially an integral part of the French system of defensive alliances that was intended to ensure that Germany remained “encircled” (Horne, 1990, 80–83)� When Piłsudski decided that the French had become too defensive in their way of thinking following the construction of the Maginot Line, he decided that Poland’s best interests lay in the charting of a careful neutrality between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany (Steiner, 2005, 526–530)� hus, Poland too became engrossed in its own afairs� One inal point which surely had a minor inluence on the frosty nature of Anglo-Polish relations during this period was the growing support of the Polish Government for Jewish groups of campaigners (one might even use the word terrorist here) who were agitating for the establishment of an independent Jewish state in the Palestine mandated area� It is certain that the British foreign oice would not have been too thrilled at the operation in southern Poland of training camps for Jews who would then go of to undermine the British rule in Palestine (Bowyer Bell, 1977, 85–91)� 2. he Causa Movens So, we may now turn to the cause of the guarantee, which started in September 1938 when the Nazis attempted to dissect Czechoslovakia� he Munich Agreement that the behavior of the Polish government towards all ethnic minorities� Indeed, it placed much of the blame for the harassment of Jews in Poland at the door of “outlaw soldiery”� he British Guarantee to Poland of 1939 215 was reached was, in efect, the inal test of the policy of Appeasement� By going to Munich to hammer out a deal with Hitler and Mussolini, Chamberlain was making a rod for his own back� His declaration of gaining ‘peace for our time’ was the equivalent of the modern fad for “drawing a line in the sand”� he fact that both Chamberlain and Daladier were received as heroes indicates the extent to which the populations of Britain and France were averse to any form of armed conlict (Parker, 1993, 182)� Not only this, but the empire-centric nature of British politics can be summed up by the aforementioned radio address that Chamberlain made to the British prior to his departure to the conference, in which he echoed (knowingly or otherwise) the sentiments expressed by Burke a century and a half previously� Czechoslovakia was not essential to British security, so why should the British have been interested in its fate? Strangely, the afairs of India and Australia, and the machinations of Japan in the Paciic basin were of far more concern to the average man on the street at the time, as can be seen by the fact that the British military planners continued to nominate Japan as the country most likely to threaten war with the British Empire even as late as February 1939 (Postan, 1952, 58–60)� For Poland, Munich presented the inal chance for the creation of a common border with the one country in central Europe that could be counted as a irm ally� hus it was at the behest of Józef Beck that the Hungarians were awarded Subcarpathian Ruthenia in the so-called Vienna Award; a fact which was not overlooked by the British Press (Roszkowski, 2002, 79–83)� Of greater shock to British sensibilities was the overt way in which Beck placed an ultimatum with the Czech Government, demanding the cession of the Zaolzie region� From a Polish perspective this was seen as an essential territorial acquisition to enhance national security� While from a British perspective, this was seen as an opportunistic piece of imperialism, with Czechoslovakia as the innocent victim� Interestingly, the press in Britain were more hostile towards Poland than Germany, despite the fact that the whole crisis had been engineered by Berlin (Karski, 2014, 165–6)� Less than six months ater the drama of Munich, “Peace for our time” lay in the gutter as Germany carried out the Prague Coup and annexed the entirety of Bohemia and Moravia into the Reich� Primarily, this made Chamberlain look foolish as he had repeatedly claimed that Hitler was intent on nothing more than the peaceful reconstruction of the pre-Versailles Germany, and had no further territorial ambitions in Europe (Parker, 1993, 200–201)� he immediate discomfort of Chamberlain was nothing compared with Beck, who had to deal with a series of ‘oicial’ visits from Nazi dignitaries who came to try to persuade the Polish foreign minister that the Polish Corridor and Danzig were, in efect, German possessions which ought to be passed over with the minimum of fuss� his made the steering of the ‘middle path’ much more diicult, as the crux of most ofers was based upon 216 Donald Trinder the idea of a pact with Nazi Germany in return for territory� Beck, unsurprisingly, skilfully declined to take up the generous ofers (Krasuski, 2000, 240–244)� Chamberlain was further pressed by the hostile press reaction to the Nazi transgression, and also the reaction of the MPs in London� he sum conclusion of British thinking was that there was a need for a new strategy� Two days later, in a speech to his constituency members in Birmingham, Chamberlain inally showed some grit and determination and indicated that Britain had had enough� he problem with this speech is that it was delivered without the input of the foreign oice and without the support of a speech writer (Parker, 1993, 205–207)� As a consequence, the Prime Minister unilaterally set Britain on the path of European intervention which he had been so keen to avoid� he consequences of the speech were immediate� General Ironside, the Chief of the Committee of Imperial Defence, indicated that any strategy of containment had to include Soviet Russia, for obvious reasons of both logistics and material support (Taylor, 1976, 255–257)� At the same time, the French retreated further into their proverbial shell as a result of the paralysis caused by the “lurch to the let” which French Politics took in the 1930s�4 As a consequence, there was no ofensively minded nation to stand against Hitler on the continent that had the power to back up its policy� he British Prime Minister thus found himself as the leader of the opposition to Nazi expansionism, and Chamberlain, wisely or otherwise, was guided by the previous French policy of “encirclement”, initially suggesting a “peace front” consisting Poland, Hungary and Romania (Parker, 1993, 216–217)� Frantic British diplomatic eforts were quickly rebufed by both Budapest and Bucharest� But the pressure of a forthcoming General Election meant that Chamberlain was forced into action, despite the lack of willing allies in the east� As the British sought a coherent strategy that would receive backing throughout Europe, a number of things happened in short order to push Chamberlain over the edge� Firstly, Joseph Kennedy reported that Hitler had determined upon the complete dismemberment of Poland, taking the juiciest bits for himself� An SIS report came to a similar conclusion that Germany was about to embark upon the next partition of Poland� hen, a Berlin based journalist, Ian Colvin, reported directly to Halifax and Chamberlain that he had seen the Wehrmacht marching through Berlin in the direction of Danzig� hen, the German press started to report both a clear anti-Polish sentiment, and that German minorities within Poland were the subject of persecution� As a reciprocal act, the Polish press started 4 See Horne (1990) for a full discussion of the nature of the French political malaise of the inter-war period� he British Guarantee to Poland of 1939 217 to print alarmist reports of German agitation and aggression, with the result that Chamberlin called an emergency cabinet meeting to discuss the issue of Polish independence (Taylor, 1976, 256–259)� hat same day, 30th March, Chamberlain was to address Parliament and, in an impromptu speech, he gave a unilateral guarantee of Polish territorial integrity (Parker, 1993, 215)� his unexpected move was immediately agreed upon by Beck, who knew that the only way to avoid alliance with Germany was through alliance with Britain� he fundamental problem with this situation was that Chamberlain had, efectively, passed the fate of the British Empire into the hands of the Polish Foreign Minister� Despite a number of retractions, Count Edward Raczyński, the Polish Ambassador to London, was keen to tie the British down to a irm commitment (Karski, 2014, 194)� Consequently, members of the Chamberlain Cabinet made a number of public pronouncements and Beck (who was scheduled to travel to London in March as part of a series of ongoing trade negotiations) was able to sign a tentative—if vaguely worded— agreement pertaining to Polish territorial integrity� 3. he New Reality As a consequence, Poland was to achieve the long-term goal set by Piłsudski of cementing an alliance with Britain to secure the future� Britain, conversely, was obliged to defend Polish territorial integrity� Despite a number of claims to the contrary,5 this is exactly what the British were to do in September 1939� Despite this strategic development, the Soviet Union, the missing piece in the puzzle, remained isolated because of the almost pathological mistrust of Chamberlain towards the Stalinist regime (Parker, 1993, 228)� France remained a reticent partner, and Chamberlain remained set upon the course of avoiding war with a major European power� he one immediate alteration was that the committee of Imperial Defence inally recognised that Germany was the prime threat to the security of the British Empire (Postan, 1952, 84)� What did change in the ensuing period was, primarily, Beck’s more conident position in refusing the demands of the Nazis� He had a guarantee and he was not afraid to use it� Britain, on the other hand, was locked in a slow drit towards Moscow� And, given Chamberlain’s loathing of Stalin, this was a venture doomed to failure� But even had the British been in earnest, there was absolutely no chance of bringing Poland and the Soviets into a single coalition� As Beck himself stated “If France and England wish to renew talks with Russia, they may do so� …As far as we are concerned, we will present 5 For a discussion of the treacherous nature of British Relations with Poland in the immediate build-up to the war, see Prazmowska (2004) or Walker (2008)� 218 Donald Trinder no obstacle, but I will not participate in such a dangerous game” (Ciechanowski, 2008, 58)� he British and the French did increase the rate of rearmament, but it was a case of too little, too late, as can be shown by the failure of the British to ofer the Polish negotiating team anything concrete during the Anglo-Polish arms talks of June and July 1939� Concluding remarks Which leads us on to the conclusions—Prior to the Prague coups, Eastern Europe was a completely alien concept to British strategic thinkers, and Poland was viewed with either scepticism or outright hostility� Appeasement was seen as the only realistic way of avoiding war, especially for the British, who faced a much greater threat in the Paciic from an expansionist Japan� In the meantime, Beck was forced to steer a path of careful neutrality because of the lack of a reliable partner in the west, and lack of internal strength at home� Following the agreement, Eastern Europe became the main focus of thought of British strategic thinkers, as it was inally recognised that Nazi Germany presented the prime threat to British security� Poland was seen as the essential piece in the puzzle because of the contiguous border with Germany� Ultimately, there was a realisation that war was imminent and Britain needed to revert to their traditional system of alliances that had always existed prior to previous continental expeditions� From a Polish perspective, Beck continued to seek to avoid making any commitment to either of Poland’s two hostile neighbours, while at the same time attempting to secure a irm commitment from the British pertaining to military cooperation in the event of Nazi aggression� As a result, we can say with a great deal of certainty that the British attitude to Poland changed signiicantly� his is not the place to enter into counterfactual debate as to whether it was the right thing to do, but it was for sure a signiicant change in approach� From the Polish perspective, Piłsudski’s dream of alliance with Britain became reality and an alternative to careful non-alignment inally presented itself� hus, we can say with a high degree of certainty that the guarantee of March 1939 presents a radical revolution for the following reasons� Firstly, Britain was once again tied to a continental commitment that it was beyond the means of the British Government to efectively control� Secondly, prior to the Prague Coup Britain had been primarily concerned with Empire and the threat to stability which Japan posed in the Paciic� In the months that followed, Germany became the biggest threat to British security, and Poland was suddenly seen as the key to developing a strategy of efective deterrence� he British Guarantee to Poland of 1939 219 References Bowyer Bell, John� 1977� Terror out of Zion: Irgun Zvai Leumi, Lehi and the Palestine Underground, 1929–1949� New York: Avon� Burke, Edmund� 1816� he Speeches of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke in the House of Commons and in Westminster-Hall, Vol� IV� London: Longman, Hurst, Rees & Orme� Ciechanowski, Jan� 2008� Wielka Brytania i Polska: Od Wersalu do Jałty� Warsaw: Bellona� Davies, Norman� 1971� “Lloyd George and Poland, 1919–20�” Journal of Contemporary History 6(3): 132–154� Davies, Norman� 1981� God’s Playground: a History of Poland, Volume I. he Origins to 1795� Oxford: Oxford University Press� Faber, David� 2008� Munich: he 1938 Appeasement Crisis. London: Simon & Schuster� Halecki, Oskar� 1934� “Anglo-Polish relations in the past�” he Slavonic and Eastern European Review 21(36): 660–672� Horne, Alistair� 1990� To Lose a Battle: France 1940� London: Panguin� Karski, Jan� 2014� he Great Powers and Poland: From Versailles to Yalta� London: Rowman and Littleield� Krasuski, Jerzy� 2000� Tragiczna niepodległość. Polityka zagraniczna Polski w latach 1919–1945� Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie� Lawson, Mark. K� 1993� Cnut: the Danes in England in the Early Eleventh Century� London: Longman� Nowak, Andrzej� 2015� Pierwsza zdrada Zachodu� Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Literackie� Parker, Robert. A. C. 1993� Chamberlain and Appeasement: British Policy and the Coming of the Second World War� London: Macmillan� Postan, Michael� 1952� British War Production� London: HMSO� Prazmowska, Anita� 2004� Britain, Poland and the Eastern Front, 1939� Cambridge: Cambridge University Press� Roszkowski, Wojciech� 2002� Historia Polski 1914–2001� Warsaw: PWN� Steiner, Zara� 2005� he Lights that Failed: European International History, 1919– 1933� Oxford: Oxford University Press� Taylor, Alan. J. P. 1976� he Origins of the Second World War� London: Penguin� Taylor, Alan. J. P. 1992� English History, 1914–1945� Oxford: Oxford University Press� 220 Donald Trinder he British War Blue Book� 1939� New York: Farra & Rinehart� he Jews in Poland: Oicial Reports of the American and British Investigating Missions� 1921� Washington: Department of State� Turnbull, Stephen� 2004� Crusader Castles of the Teutonic Knights� Oxford: Osprey� Walker, Jonathan� 2008� Poland Alone: Britain SOE and the Collapse of the Polish Resistance, 1944� London: Spellmount� David Jervis “Insider” Accounts of Guantanamo: the Good, the Bad, and the Absurd Abstract: he article discussed a selection of irst-hand accounts of imprisonment at the American detention camp at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba and focuses on the connection between so-called war on terrorism and the isolated American prison� he insights drawn from the four books analysed are classiied as “the good”, “the bad”, and “the absurd”� he very nature of prisons means that outsiders have little information about life inside� he purpose of imprisonment is to isolate the prisoners from the outside world, and those in positions of authority typically have little interest or incentive to reveal the institution’s inner workings� hose generalizations apply even more starkly to the American prison at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba� Not only is it geographically isolated, but it is under the control of the American military, communication to and from detainees is censored, and the authorities make eforts to restrict the number and length of visits with the detainees his is not to say that nothing is known about the prison, the prisoners, or the Americans who interact with them� his review examines four books written by those who have been on the “inside”� Two were written by Americans, Murder at Camp Delta by Joseph Hickman and My Guantanamo Diary by Mahvish Rukhsana Khan� Two were written by detainees, Enemy Combatant by Moazzem Begg and Enemy Combatant by Mohamedou Ould Slahi (edited by Larry Siems)� Collectively, they provide four perspectives: a British prisoner who has been released, a Mauritanian prisoner who remains at Guantanamo, an American lawyer working on behalf of the prisoners, and an American soldier assigned to guard them� No claim is made that these works provide the complete story of Guantanamo, something that is unlikely to happen until the prison is closed and more of those on the inside have told their stories� Moreover, the stories told here occurred largely during the prison’s irst ive years, when circumstantial evidence suggests that conditions were the worst, and not in the last eight years when President Obama has been trying to close Guantanamo� Still, this brief review provides a modest insight into life in the prison in its early years, relying largely on the words of those who have been on the inside� It also adds to the growing scientiic literature on the role of prisons in shaping revolutionary leaders and their movements� Insights drawn from the books will 222 David Jervis be classiied as good, bad, and absurd� First, however, there is a need to introduce the Guantanamo Bay prison and the authors� Introduction he area around Guantanamo Bay had been granted to the United States by Cuba soon ater the Spanish-American War (1898)� he naval base there had become less important in the years prior to 2001� With the war on terror, the U�S� needed a place to house those who had been captured in Afghanistan and elsewhere and, despite its distance from Afghanistan and the fact that it initially did not have the facilities to house large numbers of prisoners, Guantanamo was selected� Among the reasons, it seems, was its geographical isolation and the belief, later overturned by the U�S� Supreme Court, that prisoners on the island would not have the same rights as those on U�S� soil� he irst detainees arrived in January 2002 and over the next fourteen years more than 770 prisoners have been housed there� Of those, 695 have been released as of July 2016, 76 remain in the prison, and 45 of those have been recommended for continued detention (Packard 2013; “he Guantanamo Docket” 2016)� he two American authors irst arrived at Guantanamo at almost exactly the same time, Khan on January 29, 2006 and Hickman just six weeks later, on March 10� Beyond spending time on the island at the same time, they had little in common� Hickman was older and had spent much of his life in the military or corrections work in the civilian world, while Khan was a law student� Khan was the only one of these authors who went to Guantanamo voluntarily� Why? Part of her answer is that, while “I didn’t know whether the men at Guantanamo were innocent of guilty…I believed they should be entitled to the same justice that even a rapist or a murderer gets in the United States”� Moreover, as a PakistaniAmerican and a Pashto, she had much in common with many of the prisoners� hese were “people like me and my relatives”, and she believed she had to help (Khan 2008, 2)� hus, her role was to try to reach out to the prisoners and help them, while Hickman’s job was to try to isolate them� he two detainee authors, in contrast, have much in common, with one important diference: Begg was released from Guantanamo in January 2005, but Slahi is still there� A 2008 “detainee assessment” described Slahi as “high risk, as he is likely to pose a severe to the US, its interests, and its allies” and “of high intelligence value”� He was recommended for release in 2010, but the Obama administration appealed the decision and it was overturned (“he Guantanamo Docket” 2016; Rosenberg and Savage 2016)� Among their similarities, they were born at roughly the same time, Begg in 1968 and Slahi in 1970, were well-educated and well-travelled� heir “Insider” Accounts of Guantanamo 223 travels took them to Afghanistan and Pakistan and to mujahedeen training camps there, Slahi in 1991–92 and Begg in 1993–94� However, both were later critical of al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden, and the mujahedeen� For Begg, bin Laden was hurting the cause of Muslims by courting trouble with the U�S�, while Slahi was critical of the large number of Muslims being killed in mujahedeen power struggles� Both had been under investigation by security services before and ater 9/11, and both had been cleared by local security services� However, the Americans were not satisied and had them re-arrested� hus, began what Slahi referred to as his “endless world tour” (Slahi 2015, 256) of detention and torture facilities in Jordan, Pakistan, and then, Guantanamo� Begg’s “tour” was less extensive, but included stops in Kandahar and Bagram in Afghanistan before being sent to Guantanamo� 1. he Good It is surprising that anything good could emerge from the experiences of these authors in Guantanamo, but each of them came to recognize, minimally, the humanity of those they had irst characterized as “the enemy”, and, in some cases, to develop genuine concern or afection for them� his recognition probably came most easily to Khan, since her cultural background was similar to that of many detainees and her role required that she try to reach out to and understand them� It came more slowly for the other authors� For their part, Americans were dealing with both a new enemy and a new type of enemy: as Clive Staford Smith, one of Begg’s lawyers, noted, “In the US they have always hated black people but never feared them� During the Cold War, they feared the Soviets but never hated them� With the Muslim world, they fear you and hate you” (Staford Smith quoted in Begg 2006, 326, emphasis in original)� Moreover, they were guarding persons who they believed had been responsible for or, minimally, supportive of terrorist actions against the United States� Hickman relects this sentiment, initially describing his one-year assignment in Guantanamo as “going away for a year and guarding a bunch of terrorists in Cuba” (Hickman 2015, 5)� Nonetheless, he and some of the other guards were able to overcome this hostility� he incident that irst made Hickman realize detainees were human was an innocent one: he returned a football that had gotten out of the detainees’ compound� When a detainee thanked him, “hanks, mate� Bloody decent of you� God bless!” Hickman began to think: …I realized that up until that moment I had viewed the detainees as less than human� …With their long hair and wild beards, they looked dirty, disgusting, and mad� hat little interaction changed my perception� I couldn’t say I liked them� hey were still the enemy� But I no longer saw detainees as subhuman� I saw them as bad people� It’s not a huge diference, but it was deinitely a change� (Hickman 2015, 42) 224 David Jervis Building on that initial contact, Hickman came to believe that, As much as I hated the enemy—the guys we held inside Camp Delta—I didn’t see why they should be treated any worse than the German or Japanese prisoners held under our charge during World War II� he detainees were no less human than any other enemy America had ever faced� hey were still people� (Hickman 2015, 49) hat belief was likely one reason for his energetic pursuit of the truth about the deaths of several detainees that forms the core of his book� he detainees, for their part, had been arrested, imprisoned, and brutalized by the Americans long before their arrival in Cuba� As Slahi writes, for the detainees the environment there was “not likely to be one of love and reconciliation”: … you have interrogators who are prepared, schooled, trained and pitted to meet their worst enemies� And you have detainees who typically were captured and turned over to U�S� forces without any proper judicial process� Ater that, they experienced heavy mistreatment in another hemisphere, at GITMO Bay, by a country that claims to safeguard human rights all over the world—but a country that many Muslims suspect is conspiring with other forces to wipe the Islamic religion of the face of the earth� (Slahi 2015, 312–13) Yet both detainee authors report a number of positive interactions with their captors� At irst, Slahi felt guilty about doing so: “At one point I hated myself… I started to ask myself questions over the humane emotions I was having toward my enemies� How could you cry for somebody who caused you so much pain and destroyed tour life?” (Slahi 2015, 313–14) Begg writes of conversations with many of the guards, some female, some white, some African-American, and some from Puerto Rico and the U�S� Virgin Islands� He became especially friendly with one female guard, Jennifer� While “I would never have imagined that I could ind a friend in someone like her”, he did, inding common interests in poetry, classical literature, ancient history, among other things� She told him at one point, “I know it sounds treasonous, but I would rather sit here and talk with y’all than with the airheads we have in the military” (qtd� in Begg 2006, 236–37)� Similarly, Slahi reports being told things such as “I am your friend, I don’t care what anybody says”, “I hope you get released”, “you guys are my brothers, all of you”, and “I love you” by some of the guards, while one went so far as to tell him that “You are a great person” (Slahi 2015, 313)� Detainees also developed positive feelings about at least some of the guards� Slahi went so far as to write that he had developed a “family” in Guantanamo, consisting of the guards and his fellow detainees� “True, you didn’t choose this family, nor did you grow up with it, but it’s a family all the same… I personally love my family and wouldn’t trade it for the world, but I have developed a family in jail that I care also about” (Slahi 2015, 315)� He even came to recognize that some of “Insider” Accounts of Guantanamo 225 the interrogators were human beings: “I have been uninterruptedly interrogated since January 2000, and I have seen all kinds of interrogators: good, bad, and in-between”� Nonetheless, interrogators “were human beings, with feelings and emotions” (Slahi 2015, 353)� Khan, too, uses the metaphor of a family to describe her relationships with many of those she came into contact with� She writes that they “showed me the human face of the war on terrorism� hough they were systematically dehumanized, to me they became like friends, or brothers, or fathers and uncles� I oten see their faces in my dreams at night” (Khan 2008, 278–79)� hat each of these authors came a new understanding of the other side is evident from either the irst of last words in their books� he books by the Americans are dedicated to the detainees or their families� Khan’s dedication, in part, is “… to my friends behind the wire”, while Hickman’s is to “Taalal al-Zabrani, father of Yasser al-Zabrani who died at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, while in U�S� custody, July 9, 2006”� Books by the detainees seek common understanding with those who had imprisoned them� he prologue to Begg’s Enemy Combatant, declares that, “One of the more ambitious aims of this book is to ind common ground between people on opposing sides of this new war, to introduce the voice of reason, which is so frequently drowned by the roar of hatred and intolerance” (Begg 2006, xvii)� Slahi asks in his last paragraph: “What do the American people think? I am eager to know� I would like to believe the majority of Americans want to see Justice done, and they are not interested in inancing the detention of innocent people” (Slahi 2015, 372)� 2. he Bad While guards and detainees in Guantanamo might be able to reach out to some on the other side, the prevailing reality in any prison is one of hostility and violence� his is also true at Guantanamo and will be illustrated by three elements of reality there: torture, innocent detainees, and unexplained deaths� It is now incontrovertible that the Americans practiced torture in their prisons� While both Begg and Slahi were subjected to extensive torture, their books do not devote too much attention to it� What they add is the impact of particular torture techniques� his is especially true of Slahi, who was tortured extensively and whose interrogation regimen had been approved by Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, himself� He was made to stand for hours, something that might not seem too stressful, but those who have studied torture practices have concluded that, “Prisoners who underwent long periods of standing and sitting…report no other experience could be more excruciating” (Albert Biderman qtd� in Slahi 2015, 240)� here was also sexual molestation: female interrogators would take of their blouses, speak 226 David Jervis inappropriately to him, rub against his body, and fondle his genitals� Slahi wrote, “What many [redacted] don’t realize is that men get hurt the same as women if they are forced to have sex, maybe more due to the traditional position of the man” (Slahi 2015, 230)� Begg spent nearly two years in solitary coninement, and later wrote that it was “hard to describe the sense of utter desperation and claustrophobia I oten felt…isolated in a cell smaller than my toilet at home�” He spent “countless nights praying, crying, thinking…and regretting certain decisions in my life� When I inally did get to sleep, my dreams were illed with strange and wonderful visions of life far away from US soldiers and concentration camps� In fact, I hated waking up� I wished I never woke up again” (Begg 2006, 239)� It is not surprising that detainees would report torture, and some might argue that they have an incentive to make such reports and to exaggerate them� However, Hickman also reports abuse of prisoners, describing the “appalling conditions” in which the prisoners lived: “the open cells, the oven-like temperatures, the rules against any exercise in the cells, the isolation, and the abuse by navy guards…” (Hickman 2015, 51)� hese conditions were well-known to the military leadership, which did nothing to alter them� Rather, as Hickman came to understand, “I was serving a command that systematically engaged in violations of laws and codes of conduct that military and civilian leaders swore to the world we were upholding” (Hickman 2015, 77)� Slahi also noted the sharp contrast between American rhetoric and Gitmo reality: “President Bush described his holy war against the so-called terrorism as a war between the civilized and barbaric world� But his government committed more barbaric acts than the terrorists themselves” (Slahi 2015, 241)� hese books provide evidence that at least some of those in Guantanamo were not guilty� Both Khan and Hickman identify a 2006 study based solely on U�S� government sources that showed that merely ive percent of those in Guantanamo had been captured by U�S� personnel� he others had been turned over by Afghan warlords, Pakistani intelligence, or foreign dictatorships� Hickman was “stunned” when he learned this information, and asked “How could we be sure that all the people handed to us by bounty hunters and warlords were anti-American terrorists?” (Hickman 2015, 104) However, the best evidence in these books that Begg and Slahi were not guilty of the most serious charges against them is that Begg was released ater “confessing,” and Slahi has never been tried despite “confessing�” Begg confessed that he was a long-time member of al Qaeda and had taught in its training camps, that his book shop in Britain was a recruiting center for al-Qaeda, and that he had given money to an individual involved in the 2000 Millennium Plot� He claims he only did so ater being threatened with indeinite imprisonment and/or execution and, believing that his confession was so poorly “Insider” Accounts of Guantanamo 227 written and so devoid of evidence, that it would be meaningless� It must have been, because he was released and allowed to return to the UK in January 2005, and police authorities there immediately allowed him to return to civilian life� Slahi, too, “confessed,” that he was involved in both the Millennium Plot and 9/11, although he insists he did so only to ease the physical and psychological pain he was experiencing from torture� here is much to suggest that this is true because, despite the confession, prosecutors could not assemble enough useable evidence to charge him� One noted that prosecutors were trying “to ind something we could charge him with, and that was where we were having real trouble” (Davis quoted in Slahi 2015, xli, emphasis in the original)� Additional evidence that many in Gitmo were not guilty or guilty of only relatively minor crimes is that most detainees have been released� As noted earlier, almost 700 of the nearly 800 detainees housed in the prison at one time or another have been released� Khan quotes a lawyer for one of those: “If the U�S administration believed that [the released detainee] was a threat to our national security, he would still be at Guantanamo� he fact that he was voluntarily sent home shows clearly that there is no basis to believe that he poses any threat” (Joshua ColangeloBryan quoted in Khan 2008, 298)� he main focus of Hickman’s book is three deaths at Guantanamo in June 2006� While his title suggests that the deaths were “murders”, the conclusion in the text, itself, is that they were probably accidental; nonetheless, he believes the incident raises many questions� he relevant events occurred on June 9, 2006 in a building Hickman had previously discovered and referred to as “Camp No”, because it was outside the regular camp and did not appear on any map� He knew CIA personnel worked there, that prisoners were delivered there, and he had heard screaming coming from the building� Hickman and his men, responsible for guarding the entrances to the regular camp on June 9, knew that three prisoners had been moved from the regular prison to Camp No, had been there for several hours, were taken to the medical center upon their return to the regular camp, and were dead at time of admission, i�e�, they had died somewhere outside of the camp, probably at Camp No� From the start, the military misrepresented the story� he base commander, Harry Harris, Jr�, blamed the victims, describing the deaths as “an act of asymmetric warfare against us” by people who “have no regard for human life, neither ours nor their own” (quoted in Khan 2008, 154)� he military was also reporting things that Hickman knew not to be true, e�g�, that the prisoners had hung themselves in their cells� Moreover, it was implausible that there would be three successful suicides on the same night when there had not been a single detainee suicide prior to June 2006, despite many eforts� A full-ledged Naval 228 David Jervis Criminal Investigative Service (NCIS) report on the incident, which Hickman described as “the stuf of fantasy,” was released in the summer of 2008 (Hickman 2015, 121)� Working with professors and students at Seton Hall University, Hickman discovered multiple inconsistencies and mistakes in the report, leading him to conclude that it was an efort at a cover-up� he investigation raised a number of questions� A guard’s inspection of the cells on the aternoon of June 9, for instance, indicated that there was no contraband in them, meaning for the suicides to happen, the prisoners would have had to assemble a lot of contraband between the aternoon inspection and their deaths that night� here were also surprising omissions: the June 9 oicial guard’s log, reporting the comings and goings of prisoners, was missing and there was no video evidence of what happened in the cells that night, despite the fact that the cells were constantly monitored� Something else that was missing was the necks of the deceased� here were no photos of them in the oicial autopsy, nor were they returned with the bodies to their families� his is curious, because the necks would be a crucial piece of evidence helping to determine if the detainees died due to suicide by strangulation, as reported in the NCIS report, or by asphyxiation by having rags forced down their throats, as suggested in another oicial report� Hickman concludes his investigation by arguing that, Given the totality of the contradictions, gaps, and outright absurdities in the NCIS report, it seemed most likely to me that the cell block guards lied about inding the detainees hanging in their cells and cutting nooses of their necks because the men hadn’t been in their cells� he detainees who died were the same three men I saw removed from Alpha block earlier in the evening at the start of my shit� hey died not by hanging but as a result of asphyxiation at a remote site, Camp No� (Hickman 2015, 195) 3. he Absurd hese books contain details about multiple absurdities at the prison, things that can only make the reader laugh� One absurdity from each of the books will be identiied here� Hickman notes that he and his men received a brieing about the Cuban rock iguana, which was protected by America’s Endangered Species Act� he legal oicer told them, “We guard the health and well-being of these creatures”, and that while “the use of deadly force on a detainee can be justiied given the right circumstances [,] [t]here is absolutely no justiication for harming an iguana” (quoted in Hickman 2015, 9)� he obvious irony is that “prisoners at Guantanamo are entitled to fewer protections than an iguana” (Khan 2008, 40)� Khan tells a hilarious story about lawyers being accused of smuggling contraband to their clients� he contraband? Underwear and a Speedo bathing suit! he “Insider” Accounts of Guantanamo 229 lawyer receiving the letter, Clive Staford Smith, responded that, “I will confess that I have never received such an extraordinary letter in my entire career”, and then efectively ridiculed the accusation by noting that everyone and everything entering the prison is searched and that he had not been allowed to see his client in more than a year (quoted in Khan 2008, 93–94)� While Guantanamo commanders were worried about preventing contraband from entering the prison, Begg writes of the diiculty of a released prisoner getting out� He was blindfolded and shackled on the way from his cell to the plane that would return him to London, perhaps an absurdity in itself, but once he arrived at the plane, his guards realized that no one had the key to unlock the shackles on his wrists� Consequently, they had to use a pair of wire cutters to open the chains, but the irst pair used was not big enough, so they then had to bring in a second, larger pair� Finally, Slahi’s book reminds us that there remains much we do not know about the inner workings of Guantanamo� Because he remains in U�S� custody, the book’s contents had to be approved by the U�S� government before their release� Amazingly, more than 2,500 redactions were made to the original manuscript� Among the items that appear to have been redacted: when Slahi was sent to Guantanamo and the route he took; the names, nationalities, and gender of those who were interrogating him (pronouns suggesting his interrogator was a female were removed, while those indicating a male interrogator were not), and the names of those individuals about whom he was interrogated� here are undoubtedly many more good, bad, and absurd realities at Guantanamo, but we will only know of many of them when there are no more insiders and those who have been imprisoned or worked there can freely tell their stories� References Begg, Moazzem� 2006� Enemy Combatant: My Imprisonment at Guantanamo, Bagram, and Kandahar� London: New Press� Hickman, Joseph� 2015� Murder at Camp Delta: A Staf Sergeant’s Pursuit of the Truth About Guantanamo Bay� London: Simon & Schuster� Khan, Mahvish Rukhsana� 2008� My Guantanamo Diary: he Detainees and the Stories hey Told Me� New York: Public Afairs� Packard, Scott� 2013� “How Guantanamo Bay Became the Place the U�S� Keeps Detainees�” he Atlantic, September 4� Accessed February 11, 2016� www� theatlantic�com/national/archive/2013/09/how-guantanamo-bay-became-theplace-the-us-keeps-detainees/279308� Rosenberg, Matthew, and Savage, Charlie� 2016� “One Guantanamo Detainee Pleads for Release, but Another Does Not Appear�” New York Times, June 2� 230 David Jervis www�nytimes�com/2016/06/03/us/guantanamo-detainee-held-since-2001-presents-case-for-release�html?_r=0 Slahi, Mohamedou Ould� 2015� Guantanamo Diary� London: Canongate� “he Guantanamo Docket�” 2016� New York Times� Accessed July 22, 2016� http:// projects�nytimes�com/guantanamo� Péter Gaál-Szabó Black Muslim Communication Strategy in the 1950s and 1960s From a Co-Cultural Perspective Abstract: he text focuses on speeches and sermons delivered by major African American religious leaders in the 1950s and 1960s which channelled the evolution of a renewed African American (religio-)cultural identity� he speeches and sermons ultimately relect upon the co-cultural embeddedness of the speaker, while the heterogeneity of the African American community further complicates a coherent view of communication strategies� Introduction he 1950s and 1960s witness the advent of a newly emerging African American religio-cultural projection triggered by the need in the African American community to re-establish themselves in response to white subversive challenges and to authenticate the African American self for itself—a maneuver proving a growing emphasis on accommodation instead of assimilation or separation� It is, however, the latter phenomenon that I examine here vis-à-vis Black Muslim communication patterns in the period, using co-cultural theory, an intercultural theory positing diferent preferred outcomes, i�e�, assimilation, accommodation, and separation; since separation forms a decisive part of the communication strategy in the speeches of leaders of the Nation of Islam, thus further colouring the overall African American response� he Nation of Islam and Separation For the Nation of Islam to present itself as a distinct group it became increasingly necessary to deine itself in opposition to both the white American nation and African American groups� Dennis Walker connects the process to “religion-tinged stateless nationalisms” (2005, 27) and “enclavenationalisms” (2005, 27), insisting on the Nation’s “absorption of Arabic words and ideas to solidify into a distinctive micronation within—and apart from—the mainly Christian African-American enclave-nation” (2005, 27)� heir micronationalism evolves in strong transpatial tactics in establishing diferences and intracultural maneuvers to enhance connections with the larger African American community� So when Walker refers to “further loss of continuous spatiality or homeland that the African-American enclave-nation 232 Péter Gaál-Szabó experienced in the late-modern and post-modern eras” (2005, 28) as a deinition of the Nation’s micronationalism, he enlarges both on the erasure of spatial ties with the African continent as yet a source of genealogy and on the perception of contemporary spatial displacement of the African American community in America�1 Spatial displacement does not only become the token of diference, but also the source of building a replenishing identity, especially as spatial displacement also signiies economic and social displacement—reasons why integration and, generally speaking, accommodation is not an option for many members of the African American community: “To black people disenchanted with the pieties of integration and turning the other cheek, moral exhortation to whites looked like obsequiousness, betrayal, and self-hatred—or just plain pointless” (Rieder 2008, 251–2)� It is this dual movement that characterizes the Nation’s communication even when acts of aggressive separation appear to dominate the interaction� Establishing diference evolves on several levels, including race, anti-Semitism, theology, and intrareligion (relating to world Islam), while accompanying features materializing separatist objectives are presented by economic nationalism (Cruse 1987, 235)—especially in contrast to Civil Righters’ “noneconomic liberalism” (Cruse 1987, 79)—, social, and educational aspects� he race question is prevailing in both Elijah Muhammad’s and Malcolm X’s speeches� he blue-eyed devil theme includes the demonization of whites, including Jews, but, at the same time, the deiication of African Americans� Adopting the condemning image of whites from his predecessor, Elijah Muhammad communicates a contrasting image of blacks: he time is ripe for your return� You will never again be slaves to any other nation� Allah will make you the head and not the tail� Accept your own! Stop destroying yourself trying to be other than your own kind and patterning ater a doomed race of devils� (1965, 100) Although his depiction of blacks mirrors their social plight in contemporary America—in a subverted and muted position, the contrast he sets up between blacks and whites envisions radical change, i�e�, the inversion of positioning: he white devil’s day is over […] He was given six thousand years to rule … He’s already used up most trapping and murdering the black nations by the hundreds of thousands� Now he’s worried, worried about the black man getting his revenge� (qtd� in Parks 1963, 31) 1 In addition, Walker points out that another spatial facet of micronationalisms is that, instead of becoming a coherent territorial enclave, it has been “severely fragmented into scattered, non-connected segments or micro-patches” (2005, 29)� he patches represent groups and even individuals contributing to the texture of the micro-nation as “dots of micro-homelands all connected by the web” (29)� Black Muslim Communication Strategy in the 1950s and 1960s 233 Seeking to maintain barriers—in an aggressive rather than non-assertive way—, he strengthens group identiication, which in the given American socio-political scene destabilizing African American self-esteem reduces feelings of uncertainty� Muhammad’s “uncertaintysponsored zealotry” (Hogg 2012, 21) as Michael A� Hogg identiies similar notions, arguably becomes a useful tool in articulating boundaries, estranging as it is for white outgroup members� As Hogg observes, “highly entitative groups that are distinctive and clearly deined are most efective at reducing self-uncertainty” (2012, 20)� It stems from the perception of similarity, but, irst and foremost, the heightened perception of similarity based also on comparison by contrast� On the one hand, establishing an anti-picture of the white oppressor is similar to Bhabha’s idea of mimicry that—in Borbála Bökös’ evaluation—“can lead to the deconstruction of the colonizer either by shattering its authority or through the acquisition of a superior self-image and higher ideological values by the colonized subject” (2007, 55); on the other, in efect less osmosis is allowed between groups in this way and the increased perception of ingroup homogeneity contributes to the reduction of uncertainty, counterbalancing thus the disadvantaged position of African Americans in contemporary societal structure�2 In this way, the Nation of Islam seeks to counteract what Zafar Ishaq Ansari identiies as “the common belief in White America” (1981, 171), according to which “the Negro is biologically deicient, that he is a born savage, that he has no glorious past to boast of, and that as the descendant of Ham, he is under the unending curse of God” (Ansari 1981, 171)� he Black Muslim move represents “counter-demonization” (Walker 2005, 276) par excellence, which serves to construct and maintain barriers through inverting the race issue� It has additional functions, however, as it is also strategically displayed to internalize the proposed stereotyped image in whites and to invoke self-hate (see Gould 2006, 228), and to exemplify group strength—an assertive tool in Mark P� Orbe’s theorizing (see Orbe 1998, 59)—to raise consciousness in the African American community� As Ansari assesses Black Muslim racist theology: “they created a new sense of belonging and enabled the converts to look towards the future with serene self-conidence” 2 Ingroup homogeneity results from less mind attribution as Carey K� Morewedge et al� point out� However, it they also observe that “his does not necessarily indicate that membership in an entitative group reduces attribution of mind to individual members …, as people can explain and predict the behavior of others by using knowledge structures such as stereotypes and naïve psychological theories without consideration of others’ minds” (2013, 1198)—the quality of mind attribution ultimately undergirds homogeneity and dissociating� 234 Péter Gaál-Szabó (1981, 172)� Seeking to establish a “critical consciousness”, i�e�, to evade “the deception of palliative solutions” and “to engage in authentic transformation of reality in order” (Freire 2005, 181), Malcolm X exhorts—still a spokesperson for Elijah Muhammad in 1963: But the white man is misjudging the times and he is underestimating the American socalled Negro because we’re living in a new day� Our people are now a new people� hat old Uncle Tom-type Negro is dead� Our people have no more fear of anyone, no more fear of anything� We are not afraid to go to jail� We are not afraid to give our very life itself� And we’re not afraid to take the lives of those who try to take our lives� We believe in a fair exchange�3 (1989, 68) His communication strategy swings from one end of co-cultural communication of non-assertive separation, reinforcing merely avoiding, to the far end, aggressive separation, including threatening and attacking outgroup members� “Avoiding places and gatherings” (Orbe 1998, 56)—a more physical practice—and “averting controversies” or “topical avoidance”—a more “proactive communicative practice” (Orbe 1998, 57) represent a less militant approach to interactions, leaving more space for political adjustment, whereas attacking pertains to verbal attacks and threats� Just as immigrant Muslims “denigrated heresies he presented as Islam” (Walker 1990, 377), Muhammad also distanced himself from Eastern Islam� In addition to separation from white (Christian) America, intrareligious separation evolves from the Nation’s theology� It is mainly due to Fard’s and Muhammad’s racist theology culminating in the condemnation of whites, which is why the Black Muslim deity is “a black God, and is the God of the Blacks alone” (Ansari 1981, 146)� Unlike Malcolm X, who as a Sunni convert converges to Islam, Elijah Muhammad appears to distance himself from world Islam over the years: 3 he parallel phenomenon can be witnessed in the white right-wing camp, attacking the integration of African Americans and ingroup opposing fractions, e�g�, the federal government� In his 1963 inaugural speech Alabama governor George Wallace devises the same communication strategy Malcolm X makes use of, exemplifying strength and raising consciousness, and even envisioning possible collaboration: “We invite the negro citizens of Alabama to work with us from his separate racial station…as we will work with him…to develop, to grow in individual freedom and enrichment� … But we warn those, of any group, who would follow the false doctrine of communistic amalgamation that we will not surrender our system of government…our freedom of race and religion…that freedom was won at a hard price and if it requires a hard price to retain it…we are able…and quite willing to pay it” (2011, 161)� Black Muslim Communication Strategy in the 1950s and 1960s 235 he ignorant belief of the Orthodox Muslims that Allah (God) is some formless something (sic) and yet He has An Interest (sic) in our afairs, can be condemned in no limit of time� I would not give two cents for that kind of God in which they believe� (qtd� in Ansari 1981, 146) His theology is grounded in his strategically aligned self-perception� On the one hand, since Fard, the Mahdi, commissioned him personally, he enjoys primacy among the prophets and surmounts them in relevance� Ansari also allures to the fact that in his last years Muhammad even appeared to undermine the prophetic status of the Prophet Muhammad and call him a white man (Ansari 1981, 149)� As Ansari highlights, Laying claim to full-ledged prophethood, Elijah Muhammad invested himself with all the authority which, in the Islamic tradition, belongs only to a true messenger of God, and which was conferred inally by God on Muhammad (peace be on him) since with him prophethood came to an end� (1981, 153) On the other, to focalize his group, prevent its disintegration through integration into the ummah, he needs to contain inluences from Islam, too� He achieves it on ethical grounds when he calls Eastern Muslims corrupted and hypocrites (Berg 2010, 397), dismissing them as de facto renegades (see Rokeach 1960, 78) and theologically on racial grounds as well� In his book Our Saviour Has Arrived, he explicitly excludes white Muslims from the Black Muslim Hereater: he white people who believe in Islam will not enter the Hereater that is Promised to the Lost-Found Black People� he Lost-Found People will take on a new birth� But the white people who believe in Islam will not take on a new birth because they will not be the people to live forever� Because of their belief in Islam, they will escape the great world destruction that we now face� (1969, 89) Whereas in the Islamic tradition Akhirat (“the other world” or “the spiritual world” [Elahi 2007, 132]) and ma’ad (the “realm of Return” [Elahi 2007, 64]) represent the divine intention “that He might try you—which of you is best in deeds” (Quran 67:3), for Elijah Muhammad the hereater serves to uphold the racial barrier� he setting of Ramadan at Christmas represents a plastic indication of his political overdetermination�4 Black Muslim veriication of identity relies on the assertive communication practice of embracing both auto- and heterostereotypes, which ultimately refers 4 Some changes in Muhammad’s relationship with Eastern Muslims is shown by the fact that he reset the observation of Ramadan according to the Islamic calendar in the 1970s and requested an orthodox Muslim to wed his grandchildren (Clegg 1977, 255)� 236 Péter Gaál-Szabó to the oversimpliication of both ingroup and outgroup members� In Stella TingToomey’s coinage the maneuver equals with “mindlessness,” which she sees as “the heavy reliance on familiar frame of reference, old routinized designs or categories, and customary ways of doing things” (1999, 46)—typical practices employed and advocated by both Elijah Muhammad and the early Malcolm X� Mindlessness refers primarily to the lack of openness to outgroup members and thus the refusal of decategorization rendering their communication inlexible and divergent, and unvarying regarding the interpretation of diferent outgroups� As Walker observes regarding the approach to Arabs in the Black Muslim newspaper, While the dominant trend in Muhammad Speaks was to blend the Arabs into the international Black Nation, some items did see the Arabs as whites and juxtaposed them, perhaps correctly, with the Jews, also seen as white in this variety of communications� (2005, 327) Black Muslim classiication is restrained to a dualism of black and non-black—a binary which even allows for the juxtaposition of whites (Anglo-whites), Arabs, and Jews� A similar notion of excommunication of fellow African Americans appears when “hand-picked upper-class Negroes” (Malcolm X 1989, 65) are criticized for turning their back on their less fortunate brothers and sisters� Malcolm X in his 1963 “America’s Gravest Crisis since the Civil War” identiies them as “those uppity Negroes who do escape, never reach back and pull the rest of our people out with them� he Black masses remain trapped in the slums” (1989, 64)� Siding with underclass blacks—an identiicatory move on his part—Malcolm X goes beyond raising mere class issues to debunk any myth of upward social mobility and also to attack a segment of the African American community� He makes his critique overtly an issue of ingroup separation by tying it to the Civil Rights leadership and ultimately to Christianity: hey [i�e�, black masses] reject the Uncle Tom approach of the Negro leadership that has been handpicked for them by the white man� hese Uncle Tom leaders do not speak for the Negro majority; they don’t speak for the black masses� hey speak for the ‘black bourgeoisie,’ the brainwashed, whiteminded, middle-class minority who are ashamed of black, and don’t want to be identiied with the black masses, and are therefore seeking to lose their “black identity” by mixing, mingling, intermarrying, and integrating with the white man� (1971, 199) In this way, Malcolm X brings together wealth, Christianity, and immorality, as, in his estimation, Christian leaders not only fail to cater to the needs of black masses, but also serve the white status quo treacherously and provide for themselves egotistically� As in “he Old Negro and the New Negro” (1963) he evaluates on the basis of a Long Island example: Black Muslim Communication Strategy in the 1950s and 1960s 237 But as a rule, sir, in most Negro communities across the country the only thing you’ll ind Negroes building are Negro churches� … Now here this church provides a job only for the preacher; it provides clothing and shelter only for this Negro preacher� Now if this Negro preacher has the ingenuity that it takes to raise a million dollars or to inance a million-dollar project, but the only thing he can inance is a church, it’s a problem� … But the Negro leadership, especially the religious leadership, has actually committed a crime almost in encouraging our people to build churches� But at the same time we never build schools; we never build factories; we never build businesses; we never build housing and things that will solve our problem� (Malcolm X 1971, 162) His rhetoric, on the one hand, serves to estrange black Christian leadership from the black masses through their identiication as sell-outs; but, on the other hand, taking up an anti-Christian position serves similar purposes to Elijah Muhammad’s distancing from world Islam� Attacking and sabotaging other groups has the function of self-deinition by contrast, while the latter also marks the return of the colonial power discourse in a peculiar way: as Andrea Horváth insists, “the efects of colonization remain efective in that they move away from the axis between colonizers and colonized toward inner diferences within the decolonized society” (2007, 32)—here the move signifying a will to difer within a power discourse� In the interview Malcolm X is explicit about it when he defends Elijah Muhammad against black Christian leaders: “But those same Negroes who unite against one Negro, you can’t get them to unite together on any problem under the sun except against another Negro” (1971, 160)� he dichotomizing shows that the “one Negro” standing alone is the strong man wanted, who is, at the same time, one of the black mass� In this one picture Malcom X compresses thus racial solidarity and martyrdom—both signiicant building blocks of Black Muslim identity� he anti-white and anti-black Christian discourse (oten accompanied by an anti-Semitic one [Walker 2005, 286]) are treated together to provide for the general cause and explanation of African American trauma: he black people of this country have been victims of violence at the hands of the white men for four hundred years, and following the ignorant Negro preachers, we have thought that it was godlike to turn the other cheek to the brute that was brutalizing us� (Lomax 1963, 202) he twofold causality relects the distinct Black Muslim epistemology, which is then naturally echoed in their worldview: he Christian world has failed to give the black man justice� his Christian government has failed to give 20 million ex-slaves justice for our 310 years of free slave labour� Despite this, we have been better Christians even than those who taught us Christianity� We have been America’s most faithful servants during peace time, and her bravest soldiers during war time� And still, white Christians have been unable to recognize us and accept us as 238 Péter Gaál-Szabó fellow human beings� Today we can see that the Christian religion of the Caucasian race has failed us� hus the black masses are turning away from the church back to the religion of Islam� (Malcolm X 1991, 123) Historical grievances and contemporary politics are combined to undergird reverse biological racism in a theologizing framework� Indeed “doctrinally deined by race” (DeCaro 1998, 136), Nation of Islam theology evolves around communicating the dichotomy between a supreme black self that Elijah Muhammad calls the truth about black people and the devil as he calls whites: “truth to freedom is the knowledge of God and the devil, truth of yourselves, others and the real religion of God” (1973, 3)� Islam is then employed to facilitate liberation from the strangling reality of African Americans by way of separation in order to carve out a (religious) space for themselves in which an autonomous black self can dwell, as well as to create distance by contrasting the two races morally� Conclusion he emphasis on separation or isolation proves a powerful communication tool for Black Muslim speakers, even though the degree they exploit it varies with time to a great extent� On the one hand, it can be argued that Black Muslim communication expresses an ultimate societal critique and its source lies in their self-conceptualization as “alien”� As Eszter Pabis insists, to the divergence in these aesthetics a function is attributed, which enhances knowledge in that the alien and alienated speech generates amazement, admiration, but also irritation and anxiety—a process that leads to the disclosure and inally the critique of the conventionality of the modes of perception (2014, 20)� On the other, the communicational diference lies predominantly in ideological motivation and theological background: whereas Muhammad’s employment of separation as a communication practice remains to mirror his ideological striving to realize physical separation from whites in all spheres of life and his theology backs it up by embalming black and white opposition; the Sunni Islam convert Malcolm X opens up ater his hajj in 1964 to intercultural negotiations� Importantly, however, their communication practice is not only directed towards co-cultural outgroup members� Both Muhammad’s and the early Malcolm X’s speeches show that the communicative tool of separation is adopted as a means to maintain subgroup homogeneity even seemingly at the cost of deconstructing ingroup alliances (with world Islam and the African American community in general) in contrast to and in favour of their own cultural group� Black Muslim Communication Strategy in the 1950s and 1960s 239 References Ansari, Zafar Ishaq� 1981� “Aspects of Black Muslim heology�” Studia Islamica 53: 137–76� Berg, Herbert� 2010� “Muhammad, Elijah (Elijah Mohammed, Elijah Poole)�” In Encyclopedia of Muslim-American History, edited by Edward E� Curtis IV, 394–398� New York: Facts on File� Bökös, Borbála� 2007� “On Mimicry and Otherness in he Island and A.I�” In Literatures in English in the Context of Post-Colonialism, Postmodernism, and the Present, edited by Jaroslav Kušnir, 50–60� Prešov: University of Prešov� Clegg, Claude Andrew� III� 1977� he Life and Times of Elijah Muhammad� Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press� Cruse, Harold� 1987� Plural but Equal� New York: William Morrow� DeCaro, Louis A� 1998� Malcolm and the Cross: he Nation of Islam, Malcolm X, and Christianity� New York and London: New York University Press� Freire, Paulo� 2005� Pedagogy of the Oppressed� New York and London: Continuum� Gould, Robert� 2006� “he Necessity of Forgiveness in the Struggle for Freedom from Oppression�” In Africa and the African Diaspora: Cultural Adaptation and Resistance, edited by E� Koi Agorsah and G� Tucker Childs, 223–36� Bloomington: AuthorHouse� Hogg, Michael A� 2012� “Self-Uncertainty, Social Identity, and the Solace of Extremism�” In Extremism and the Psychology of Uncertainty, edited by Michael A� Hogg and Danielle L� Blaylock, 19–36� Malden: Wiley-Blackwell� Horváth, Andrea� 2007� „Wir sind anders:“ Gender und Ethnizität in Barbara Frischmuts Romanen� Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann� Lomax, Louis E� 1963� “Louis Lomax Interviews Malcolm X�” In When the Word Is Given: A Report on Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X, and the Black Muslim World, edited by Louis E� Lomax, 169–181� Cleveland, OH: World Publication Company� Malcolm X� 1989� “America’s Gravest Crisis since the Civil War�” In Malcolm X: he Last Speeches, edited by Bruce Perry, 59–81� New York: Pathinder� —� 1971� “God’ Judgement of White America�” In he End of White World Supremacy: Four Speeches, edited by Imam Benjamin Karim, 179–220� New York: Merlin House/Seaver Books� —� 1991� “Harvard Law School Forum of March 24, 1961.” In Malcolm X: Speeches at Harvard, edited by Archie Epps, 115–31� New York: Paragon House� —� 1971� “he Old Negro and the New Negro�” In he End of White World Supremacy: Four Speeches, edited by Imam Benjamin Karim, 81–121� New York: Merlin House/Seaver Books� 240 Péter Gaál-Szabó Morewedge, Carey K� et al� 2013� “Lost in the crowd: Entitative group membership reduces mind attribution�” Consciousness and Cognition 22: 1195–1205� Muhammad, Elijah� 1965� “Devils Fool and Disgrace You�” In Message to the Black Man in America, 100–2� Phoenix: MEMPS� —. 1969� Our Saviour Has Arrived� Newport News, Va�: United Brothers Communications Systems� —. 1973� “Washington DC Speech May 29, 1959�” he Fall of America, 1–17� Chicago: Elijah Muhammad Books� Orbe, Mark P� 1998� Constructing Co-Cultural heory: An Explication of Culture, Power, and Communication� housand Oaks: Sage� Pabis, Eszter� 2014� “Fremde, Fremderfahrung und Verfremdung: Grundbegrife und Probleme literaturwissenschatlicher Fremdheitsforschung�” Werkstatt 9: 12–30� Parks, Gordon� 1963� “‘What heir Cries Mean to Me’—A Negro’s Own Evaluation�” Life 54(22): 22–34� Rieder, Jonathan� 2008� he Word of the Lord Is upon Me: he Righteous Performance of Martin Luther King, Jr� Cambridge, Mas�: he Belknap Press of Harvard University Press� Rokeach, Milton� 1960� he Open and Closed Mind: Investigations into the Nature of Belief Systems and Personality Systems� New York: Basic Books� he Holy Quran: Arabic Text and English Translation� 2004� Trans� Maulawi Sher Ali� Islamabad: Islam International Publications Limited� Ting-Toomey, Stella� 2005� “Identity Negotiation heory: Crossing Cultural Boundaries�” In heorizing about Intercultural Communication, edited by William B� Gudykunst, 211–233� housand Oaks, CA: Sage� Walker, Dennis� 2005� Islam and the Search for African American Nationhood: Elijah Muhammad, Louis Farrakhan, and the Nation of Islam� Atlanta: Clarity� —� 1990� “he Black Muslims in American Society: From Millenarian Protest to Transcontinental Relationships�” In Cargo Cults and Millenarian Movements: Transoceanic Comparisons of New Religious Movements, edited by Garry W� Trompf, 343–391� Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter� Wallace, George� 2011� “he Governor of Alabama’s Inaugural Address�” In Infamous Speeches: From Robespierre to Osama Bin Laden, edited by Bob Blaisdell, 153–163� New York: Dover� Małgorzata Martynuska Transculturality Exempliied by the Evolution of Salsa Dance in the USA Abstract: he article describes how in the process of transculturation salsa dance retains its Latin traditions and undergoes constant changes while incorporating new trends from American multi-ethnic culture� Salsa has become a unique part of the American Latinidad that entered diferent spheres of American social life and still continues to transform� he presence of Latina/os impacts on the formation of U�S� identity with its multiple and complex manifestations� One of these is Latin music and dance� Music is a powerful means of expressing the sense of identity and belonging needed for migrant culture� “here is a tendency within US popular culture to associate Latin population with dance and dance with Latina/os” (Valdivia 2007, 401)� Nowadays dancing to Latin music is popular not only in the USA but it has become a global phenomenon� Latina/os have performed traditional dance styles in American night clubs and public festivals as a reairmation of ethnic identity and as a form of reclaiming space� he Latin dance styles and forms of body movements are then spread among other Latina/o and non-Latina/o dancers� he most popular forms of Latin dance are dances-of-two: salsa, bachata,1 merengue2 and Afro-Latin kizomba�3 he article examines transnational lows of dance culture and focuses on the evolution of salsa in the USA with a particular focus on New York City� Salsa music and dance in the USA represents a creative fusion of traditions from Cuba, Puerto-Rico and some Afro-Caribbean inluences� hus, salsa music and dancing can be analysed as ways of expressing hybrid identities for people who migrated from Spanish-speaking places on the Caribbean islands to English-speaking spaces in the American mainland� Salsa music and dance spread to American urban centres and mixed with local styles of musical and dancing performance� Distribution of knowledge about dancing styles and diversiication of dancers are forms of transculturation process� 1 2 3 Bachata—a style of music and dance from the Dominican Republic� Merengue—music form for dance from the Dominican Republic� Kizomba—a genre of music and dance originating in Angola, sung generally in Portuguese� 242 Małgorzata Martynuska Transnational mobility is a process that has a large impact not only on the lives of migrants who travel to another culture but also on the host culture itself� Because of the increasingly globalized nature of the world, cultural diferences are no longer as clearly deined as they were in the past� he theory of transculturation challenges the traditional idea of the homogenous nature of cultures; instead it builds on approaches which hold that there is a continuous change and transformation of cultures (Flüchter and Schöttli 2015, 2)� his article analyses the transcultural phenomenon of salsa music and dance that evolved into a collective identity combining both distinct Latin heritage and a variety of cultural features characteristic of diferent ethnic groups in American society� 1. he Mambo Era Salsa has origins in Afro-Spanish musical traditions of Cuba but it is the Puerto Ricans of New York who popularized the style� Since the early 1800’s Puerto Rico has been adopting musical genres from Cuba while preserving its traditional musical styles, such as bomba4 and plena�5 Puerto Rico and Cuba share a similar history of Spanish domination and imported African slavery which had an impact on their musical styles� Enslaved Africans were brought to Cuba and there they inluenced the local dance styles forming a combination of Afro-Caribbean dance forms, such as salsa� he main African-derived element of the dance is the isolation of various body parts, especially the separate moves of the hips that roll and shake (Pietrobruno 2006, 32)� Tropical Latin dances have the distinctive Latin motion of the hips and pelvis (Drake-Boyt 2011, xviii)� According to the 2008 American Community Survey, Puerto Ricans represent the second (ater Mexicans) largest Hispanic group in the USA (Collazo et al� 2010, 1)�6 here are more Puerto Rican Americans than Cuban Americans, which can be explained by the history of both Caribbean islands� In 1898 with the help of the USA both Cuba and Puerto Rico gained independence from Spain� At this point the history of both islands difers dramatically� Cuba was let free and later the Castro regime was imposed upon the island� Although Puerto Rico was freed 4 5 6 Bomba—one of the traditional musical styles of Puerto-Rico, relecting the mixture of the three diferent cultures of the island, the Spanish, African and Taino (indigenous peoples of the Caribbean)� Plena—a genre of music and dance that blends African origins with elements from Puerto Ricans’ wide cultural background� here were 4�2 million Puerto Ricans in the US mainland in 2008 (Collazo et al� 2010, 1)� Transculturality Exempliied by the Evolution of Salsa Dance 243 from Spanish rule, it became a territory occupied by the USA as the Jones Act of 1917 made the residents of Puerto Rico American citizens� hey started to travel freely between their island and the American mainland� he great migration wave occurred in the 1950s when more than half a million Puerto Ricans arrived in the USA, mainly settling in the New York area� hey expressed their Latino identity by preserving their language, food and music (Musmon 2010, 87)� New York’s Latin culture is dominated by Puerto Ricans, which is obviously the result of the large representation of this ethnic group in the city� During World War I Puerto Ricans served in the American armed forces� Among those soldiers there were many trained musicians who were playing with Afro Americans in regiment bands, like “Hellighter’s Band”� In this way a musical exchange began between Puerto Ricans and Afro Americans� his process was facilitated because the majority of black artists used to live in Harlem and Puerto Rican musicians resided in the neighbouring East Harlem, also known as el barrio� Additionally, by the 1930s, black Harlem musicians were inluenced by musical developments in Havana, Cuba, as new travel options and advances in sound recording facilitated intercultural exchange between musicians in New York and Havana� In the 1930s and 1940s Cuban music became popular in America and Europe, but still it could not compete with Afro-American jazz� Finally, the fusion of both musical styles occurred, creating a new musical movement, known as mambo� he term “mambo” means “conversation with the gods” in the Kongo language spoken by Central Africans (McMains 2015, 33)� he story of salsa began during the mambo era of the 1940s and 1950s� In that period the USA witnessed the mambo musical and dance craze� Palladium was the most popular place in Manhattan to dance to Latin music� “he mambo craze was not just about music and dancing, it was also about a visual image or style and showmanship to complement the music” (López-Gydosh 2009, 19)� Latino bandleaders created a visual style by having their band members all wear matching costumes reminiscent of folkloric dress� he irst Latino television star in the United States was Desi Arnaz, known for his song I Love Lucy which featured mambo and other Cuban rhythms� Members of his band used to wear traditional Cuban costumes while Arnaz himself performed costumed in a tuxedo� He promoted the Latin lover image in American culture (López-Gydosh 2009, 19)� he mambo craze set the stage for the salsa boom in the 1970s� he Palladium was the most popular Latin dance venue in the period from 1947 to 1966 and it featured live Latin music four nights a week� One of the bands that used to play at the Palladium was “he Big hree”—Machito, Tito Puente and Tito Rodriguez� he Palladium also served as a place of ethnic integration as members of diferent nationalities used to attend� Puerto Ricans, Cubans, Italians, 244 Małgorzata Martynuska Afro Americans, among others, were dancing with one another� In this racially diverse group Afro Americans and Afro Latina/os were well represented so the Palladium dance loor provided a forum for interaction between difering dancing styles� Mambo music, born in Cuba, was blended with Afro Cuban danzón7 and son8 rhythms and African American jazz� Mambo dancing intermingled with other styles popular in New York’s dance halls, such as American lindy pop, Cuban rumba and Puerto Rican bomba (McMains 2015, 30–32)� Latin jazz music was pioneered in New York by the Afro Cuban musician Mario Bauzá� Machito and Bauzá started to use the word “Afro-Cuban” before other black Americans embraced it for self-identiication� Blackness and Latinness were always closely connected in the sphere of music and dancing� he artists liked to identify with the African roots of their artistic expression and mambo dance loors facilitated the cultural exchange (McMains 2015, 34)� he mambo scene in New York is depicted in the famous movie titled he Mambo Kings (1992, dir� Arne Glimcher) which is an adaptation of the novel “he Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love” (1989) by Oscar Hijuelos� It narrates the immigrants’ story “in the form of several generations of Latin music” (Jeferson 2015)� It describes how the musical genre and dancing styles (habanera9, rumba10, son) made their way from Cuba to America where they were elaborated for American and Latin tastes� he main characters are two brothers, Cesar Castillo and Nestor Castillo, who lee from Cuba to New York with hopes of forging careers as musicians and they form the band called the Mambo Kings� heir roles in the ilm are taken by Armand Assante (Cesar) and Antonio Banderas (Nestor)� he novel became an international bestseller sensation and Americans discussed it as a text inspired by Latin music� 2. Evolution of Salsa Salsa is a transnational movement combining various ethnic characteristics that crystalized in New York City� he term salsa, meaning “hot sauce” that adds lavour to meals, was coined in 1933, when Ignacio Piñeiro, a Cuban composer wrote 7 Danzón—the oicial musical genre and dance of Cuba� It was probably introduced in Cuba by the Spanish and later inluenced by African rhythms, so danzón as a music and dance style became a genuine fusion of European and African styles� 8 Son—a style of music and dance that originated in Cuba� It combines the music of Spanish colonists that fused with African rhythms� 9 Habanera—a style of Cuban popular dance music of the 19th century� 10 Rumba—a music genre that originated in Cuba but is based on African styles� Transculturality Exempliied by the Evolution of Salsa Dance 245 the song “Èchale Salsita”� It is a mode of making Latin music, oten identiied as a pan-Latino form, a hybrid genre combing other forms of Latin-American and Afro-Caribbean music such as jazz, blues, pop, mambo, danźon, rumba, son, chacha, merengue, cumbia,11 plena, bomba and guaguancó�12 his variety of Latin and Afro-Caribbean music sounds and dances mixed and fused and this progression of music and dance blending led to the formation of the New York-Caribbean dance phenomenon known as salsa� In the late 1960s the style was known as “a Cuban-style music played primarily by Puerto Ricans to express the New York City Latin experience” (Musmon 2010, 86)� Until 1962 the musicians in New York and Cuba continually interacted, inluencing one another� Although Cuba is the musical heritage of salsa it is the Puerto Ricans who largely inluenced the style and promoted it as a global tradition� Salsa music and dance have been popularized by people who migrate crossing national and regional boundaries� People migrate from the Caribbean to the USA and other countries and then support Latin cultural forms in their home towns� Salsa can be further accessed through Latin music videos and cable television networks� In the transcultural process salsa has been transplanted into local environments and then gained new characteristics and started to be performed in a way shaped by its new regional character� “Even though this rising global distribution disconnects salsa from its ties to speciic geographic locations, this dance and music remain anchored to cultural identity” (Pietrobruno 2006, 2)� Salsa has become a way people express their cultural heritage, regardless of their place of residence� In the 1960s Civil Rights Movement era, Latinos in the USA started to serve in the military and created a sense of pride in being ethnic men� Salsa began as a political movement that forged pan-Latino identities through musical expression to symbolize the spirt of the barrio� Salsa music and dance also serve as a symbol of Latin marginality in the urban environment� At the same time salsa dancing can be a kind of Latino rebellion against the immigrants’ situation in mainstream American culture� he Afro-Caribbean beat is used to express frustration with the conditions in the barrio� Salsa lyrics relate stories of love and displacement or life in the barrio, relecting the socioeconomic hardships and oppression of the Latin diaspora� (López-Gydosh 2009, 19)� 11 Cumbia—a music genre and dance that originated in Colombia’s Caribbean coastal region and Panama� 12 Guaguancó—a subgenre of Cuban rumba� 246 Małgorzata Martynuska he salsa boom began in New York in the late 1980s and in New Jersey in the mid-1990s; then it spread throughout the United States and abroad� Salsa dancing started to be practiced not only at salsa studios but also salsa clubs and at social events� Its global popularity is owed to the 1997 World Salsa Congress held in San Juan, Puerto Rico� he participants of this event learned salsa dancing there and returned to their countries and taught salsa to their students� In Puerto Rico, instruction and performances were provided for salsa dancers from New York, Los Angeles, Puerto Rico and Cuba so they could learn one another’s regional styles� Currently there are numerous congresses organized all around the world (Borland 2009, 467)� Salsa musicians and vocalists used fashion to communicate their personal styles and create images� he two well-known artists who contributed greatly to the development of salsa were Willie Colón and Héctor Lavoe� Colón was known in New York for his tough-guy image emphasized by gangster iconography and clothing, like fedora hats and pinstriped double-breasted suits� Contrary to Colón, Lavoe’s style was not created for publicity but rather a matter of his individual taste� He used to wear a fashionable three-piece suit with lots of gold jewellery which was a common practice in Puerto Rico� Colón’s style was designed for the image of macho salsa while Lavoe’s style promoted his Puerto Rican ethnicity (López-Gydosh 2009, 21)� Salsa music and dance combine a movement that is constantly evolving into new forms� Among the various new trends in salsa music there is a development of a new sub-genre of salsa known as “Salsa Romantica” which focuses on sentimental love lyrics� It emerged at the turn of the 1980s and 1990s in New York City and Puerto Rico� his musical style has new stars, e�g� Marc Anthony, Jerry Rivera, Eddie Santiago, Giro Lopez and Frankie Ruiz� 3. Learning Salsa Because salsa music is coded as dance music, it quickly spreads through the world, not only in the Americas and the Hispanic Caribbean� his process is activated by two forces: both the spread of the musical form and the migration of Latina/ os� he typical salsa music venues can be divided into two types: Latin clubs and restaurants� he former involves music and dancing; the latter concerns eating Latin food and listening to Latin music� he Latin dance studios are closely connected with the presence of salsa as they are the place where people learn how to dance before going Latin clubs� Salsa dance studios contributed to the popularization of salsa among dancers of diferent ethnic belonging� Although some Latin scenes are attended by both Latina/os and Anglos, “Latino audience members Transculturality Exempliied by the Evolution of Salsa Dance 247 continue to feel a deep sense of connection of the music and—like conjunto, Tejano, and mariachi—it reminds them of another place: their home country” (Nowotny et al� 2010, 43)� he experience of salsa dancing in Puerto Rico was related to family events such as weddings and baptism� In the USA, people learn salsa in the studios where they get knowledge about steps, body movements, and dancing in pairs� hus, salsa dancing is not connected with family events but with a sense of achievement according to the ethos of American individualism (Aparicio 2010, 220)� Moreover, the codiication of salsa dance for teaching at dance studios and for stage performance in competitions eliminates its improvisational character and distances salsa from the cultural background in which it was born (McMain 2015, 7)� Many people learn salsa dancing before travelling to the Caribbean, which suggests “the articulation between identity, place, and culture as performance, for particular geographical locations are deemed as authentic places of Latinness” (Aparicio 2010, 214–215)� People also learn salsa for the sense of belonging to the salsa community as well as to make new friendships and increase their social networks� People who attend dance classes get in touch with Latino culture and as a consequence people from diferent social and ethnic groups learn together in a friendly atmosphere eliminating ethnocentrism in the American environment (Aparicio 2010, 218)� People dance either freestyle salsa encompassing geographically diverse dancing practices or an elaborated style of salsa developed in studio instruction� Dance instructors in the American cities have been successful in transferring the practice of social dancing from the bars and ethnic ghetto parties to more cosmopolitan social spaces� However, critics emphasize that contemporary salsa dancing is not authentic and serves as a hegemonic reproduction of ethnic dancing� Another criticism concerns the centrality of the sexy woman in the performance implying the gendering of cultural space� Although salsa’s growing popularity provided space for expressive freedom for the dancers, at the same time the studio-salsa community created a safe environment where women’s expressive performance is disconnected from sexual invitation� As far as the dynamics of salsa dancing is concerned this dance requires the control of the male leader (Borland 2009, 467)� Salsa is a dance reliant on a couple who must hold each other and move together to the rhythm without prior choreography� A man “leads” and a woman “follows”� On typical dance loors a man asks a woman to dance with him� On a salsa dance loor it oten happens that a man asks irst whether a woman can dance and then he asks her to dance� he world of transnational salsa is the world of macho leading and feminine following� Men ask women to dance and women wear curve-accentuating clothes and high-heeled shoes� Moreover, the majority 248 Małgorzata Martynuska of salsa lyrics is rendered in a male voice who sings of male experiences with women� Although salseras lead their female partners, a salsero can bring a woman to dance only in terms of her skills and desires� hus, it is the body of the female dancer itself that resists the patriarchal pressures (Kabir 2014, 141–142)� “In the salsa world, the tall, blond, blue-eyed willowy igure of mainstream popular culture does not represent the feminine ideal; rather the petite curvaceous mulatta provides an alternative model of feminine beauty” (Block and Borland 2011, 15)� Many Latina/os who knew how to dance salsa beginning on the second beat, because that is how people dance it in Puerto Rico, now relearn it by counting and beginning on the irst beat� hey ind it problematic to continue with the new steps and may go back to the style they ind authentic, because they remember it from their hometowns� Many dance studio students attend clubs and perform the skills, footwork, and turns that they had practiced in their lessons� However, they dance with one another, not with Latina/os who had learned salsa at home because the styles of vernacular dancer and the studio learner difer so much that it is diicult for them to dance together� On the one hand, non-Latino dancers try to mimic the Latinized body, steps and movements because they are trying to achieve a certain degree of authenticity� On the other hand, Latina/os who learned to dance at home have to redeine their “authentic” styles through instruction received in the dancing studios (Aparicio 2010, 221)� Dance instructors “wage battle on two fronts: convincing non-Latinos that they can become accomplished salseros and convincing Latinos that dancing skill is earned through efort and practice, not given by ethnic descent” (Bock and Borland 2011, 14)� A diversity of salsa dance practices evolved in diferent communities� Each group claimed privileged access to a more stylish version of salsa� “Much like the music, salsa dance history crosses many borders, leading to both its widespread popularity and passion by which diferent factions of supporters protect their own salsa legacy” (McMains 2015, 6)� Salsa origins were rather low-class but both the music and dance have been incorporated into the lifestyles of the middle classes both in the Caribbean and beyond� he dance was originally learned at home from family members, but the 1990s witnessed the evolution of salsa dance schools which commercialized the style of dancing altering the ethnic style into academy salsa� Studio dancers use diferent technical elements such as complex turn patterns which make them more visible on the dance loor� As a result Latina/o dancers who learned salsa from family members oten feel alienated while dancing among the academy students (McMains 2015, 24)� At irst, the split between academy and home-learned dancers causes tensions, but later this diference can be beneicial as both groups of dancers inluence each other trying to dance together and in this way facilitating the process of transculturality� Transculturality Exempliied by the Evolution of Salsa Dance 249 Dancers in New York enjoyed a style of salsa known as mambo, which is also known as “New York” or “on two” salsa� Salsa is always danced on an eight count measure� While the “on-two” dancers break on the second and sixth counts from a closed (feet together) position, the “on-one” dancers step out on the irst and ith counts in response to the musical accenting in the rhythm� he “on-one” salsa is popular in Los Angeles� he shits in rhythmic emphasis from the “on-one” to the “on-two” styles are diicult and very few dancers can practice both styles� he New York centres for salsa dancing were the Palladium Ballroom at Broadway and Fity-third Street (Borland 2009, 468)� Palladium era mambo, known as salsa “on-two”, was characterized by its rhythmic structure and simplicity of partnered moves� Additionally, it was always danced to live music� Contrary to mambo, the salsa that developed in New York in 1980s, is danced to recorded music and encourages more turns while dancing (McMains 2015, 30)� Currently the “on-two” style of salsa has been experiencing a revival, which means that many dancers who can pay for lessons can practice their skills and achieve technical mastery through studio instruction� Despite this commercial aspect salsa remains a metaphor of ethnic heritage revival and cultural recovery� Many Latina/os treat salsa dancing as a way of reconnecting with their ethnicity� Additionally, the USA has been experiencing a rapid growth in the number of Latina/o immigrants who enrich American mainstream culture with their ethnic heritage, including traditional music and dance� he success of such artists as Ricky Martin has popularized Latin music to audiences broader than the USA, which in turn stimulated additional interest in Latin musical and dancing styles among non-Latinos as well (Borland 2009, 469)� Salsa can also be danced in a form known as casino de rueda. It is a contemporary form of Cuban-style salsa in which a group of couples (usually four) dance combinations of steps in a circle following a leader� Couples dance in a circle and improvise according to the calls made by one of the male dancers� Many moves have hand signs to complement the calls and most moves involve the swapping of partners (Kabir 2014, 145)� he names of moves are mostly in Spanish (e�g� abajo13); some names are in English (e�g� cross body lead); and there are also names in Spanglish (e�g� un ly14)�15 All the couples in the circle are supposed to perform in the same way and partners are changed frequently� hey are supposed to dance with all the members of the opposite sex� he men move clockwise and the women move 13 abajo—move backwards� 14 un ly—clap your hands� 15 “Rueda de Casino by the Latin World� A List of Moves�” 250 Małgorzata Martynuska counter clockwise (Musmon 2010, 88)� he usage of multi-language comments emphasises the transcultural character of this salsa dance�16 Conclusion he appearance of a new migrant musical culture in the USA demonstrates a space for transnational acculturation� Migrant music is an excellent way to explore hybridization, and creation of a new borderlands culture in the region� Since salsa performers relect the diversity of the surrounding community Latin dance can be studied as a force of community building, as the salsa scene includes a combination of Latina/os, members of other diasporic groups and Anglos, thus, it combines a wide ethnic hybridity� Moreover, there is a tendency for non-Latinos to identify with Latino culture through the dance (Borland 2009, 473)� Dance can be a way in which community members express their identity in relation to music and ethnicity� New dancers prove that Latino ancestry is not a necessary requirement for their dancing abilities� However, there is some connection between the cultural background of the dancers and their performance, as Latina/os use the dance as a way to reconnect with their ethnicity� he diverse racial makeup of Latinidad has an impact on the dancing community� Latina/os brought their dancing styles from their home countries and popularized those in the USA, and then learned other styles practiced in their dancing communities and created an ethnically diverse social base� he hybrid nature of the dance combines European and African aesthetics as well� As a result the way people dance in the USA is an example of transculturalism, because ethnic cultures irst enter the USA and then they are transformed under the inluence of the cultures prevailing in local communities� Once transplanted into the USA salsa music and dance crossed not only national and regional boundaries but also gained followers from various classes and ethnic groups� Salsa studios play a vital part in the transculturation of salsa dance� hey forge hybrid cultural identities by mixing traditional styles with new ways of dancing� Many transnational connections can develop on the basis of salsa as there are many dancers in the salsa community who dance due to their Latin heritage, as well as many others whose ethnic heritage is non-Latino� While non-Latino dancers try to move their bodies in a Latin way to achieve a certain degree of authenticity, Latina/os redeine their styles to adjust their style to dancers who 16 In the case of Poland, some English language comments are translated into Polish, e�g� “obrót” instead of “turn”� Transculturality Exempliied by the Evolution of Salsa Dance 251 learned through instruction received in the salsa academies� hus, dance studios commercialized the style by altering the ethnic style into the academy salsa� Furthermore, salsa crossed class barriers; from low-class origins it entered the lifestyles of the middle classes and promoted the mainstream acceptance of Latino music and dance in the USA� Currently, salsa is a transcultural movement that is continually evolving on a global scale� References Aparicio, Frances R� 2010� “From Boricua Dancers to Salsa Soldiers: he Cultural Politics of Globalized Salsa Dancing in Chicago�” In Inside the Latni@ Experience. A Latin@ Studies Reader, edited by Norma E� Cantú, and María E� Fránquiz, 211–233� New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan� Bock, Sheila, and Katherine Borland� 2011� “Exotic Identities: Dance, Diference and Self-fashioning�” Journal of Folklore Research 48(1): 1–36� Borland, Katherine� 2009� “Embracing Diference: Salsa Fever in New Jersey�” Journal of American Folklore 122(486): 466–492� Collazo, Sonia G., Camille L. Ryan, and Kurt J. Bauman� “Proile of the Puerto Rican Population in the United States and Puerto Rico: 2008�” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America, Dallas, TX, April 15–17, 2010� Accessed June 10, 2015� https://www�census�gov/hhes/ socdemo/education/data/acs/paa2010/Collazo_Ryan_Bauman_PAA2010_ Paper�pdf� Drake-Boyt, Elizabeth� 2011� Latin Dance� Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Publishing Group� Flüchter, Antje, and Jivanta Schöttli� 2015� he Dynamics of Transculturality: Concepts and Institutions in Motion� Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing� Hijuelos, Oscar� 1989� he Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love� New York: HarperCollins� Jeferson, Margo� “Dancing into the Dream�” New York Times, August 27� Accessed June 20, 2015� https://www�nytimes�com/books/99/02/21/specials/hijuelosmambo�html� Kabir, Ananya Jahanara� 2014� “he Dancing Couple in Black Atlantic Space�” In Diasporic Women’s Writing of the Black Atlantic. (En)Gendering Literature and Performance, edited by Emilia María Durán-Almarza and Esther ÁlvarezLópez, 133–150� New York, NY: Routledge� 252 Małgorzata Martynuska López-Gydosh, Dilia, and Joseph Hancock� 2009� “American Men and Identity: Contemporary African-American and Latino Style�” he Journal of American Culture 32(1): 16–28� McMains, Juliet� 2015� Spinning Mambo into Salsa. Caribbean Dance in Global Commerce� Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press� Musmon, Margaret� 2010� Latin and Caribbean Dance� New York: Chelsea House� Nowotny, Kathryn M., Jennifer L. Fackler, Gianncarlo Muschi, Carol Vargas, Lindsey Wilson, and Joseph A. Kotarba� 2010� “Established Latino Music Scenes: Sense of Place and the Challenge of Authenticity�” In Studies in Symbolic Interaction, Vol� 35, edited by Norman K� Denzin, 29–50� Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited� Pietrobruno, Sheenagh� 2006� Salsa and Its Transnational Moves� Lanham, MD: Lexington Books� “Rueda de Casino by the Latin World� A List of Moves�” Accessed June 15, 2015� http://www�thelatinworld�nl/rueda�html� Schneider, Britta� 2014� Salsa, Language and Transnationalism� Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters� Valdivia, Angharad N� 2007� “Salsa as Popular Culture: Ethnic Audiences Constructing an Identity�” In A Companion to Media Studies, edited by Angharad N� Valdivia, 399–418� Oxford: Blackwell� Damian Pyrkosz Values in American Economy– he Changing Face of the Core Abstract: he text discusses the relation between economic progress and American values� he author tries to provide an answer to the question whether Americans’ perception of the core values constituting their society, and thus the economic system, has changed or not, which could shed some light on the causes of the inancial crises� We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness� he Declaration of Independence Introduction he modern economic history of the USA is commonly considered the one of an unprecedented success� For most of the 20th century, the USA was an example to follow with regard to economic development� Simultaneously, the Americans have always emphasized the importance of values like equality, liberty, individualism, competition, independence, etc� hey have made a set of core values that on the one hand were believed to be the source of their personal success, and on the other helped build their country, largely contributed to its economic prosperity and earned America the nickname of the land of opportunity� Yet the economic turmoil in the irst decade of the 21st century seemed to challenge the legitimacy of the core values� In this sense, the paper attempts to examine whether the Americans’ perception of the core values constituting the ethical basis of society, and hence the economic system, has been subject to change in the years prior to the economic straits� Identiication of such shits in values could efectively shed some light on the causes of the downturn that typically go beyond the economic sphere and are implicitly related to culture� 1. Culture and economic development he idea that culture, viewed as a set of values, beliefs, morals, customs, social ties and relationships, afects economic development is not new� However, up to the second half of the twentieth century, economics had denied any claims that culture might possibly make with regard to its impact on development analysis� Culture 254 Damian Pyrkosz had been excluded from economic study of multiple forms of human development and prosperity patterns across societies mainly due the economic imperialism and mathematical sophistication (Guiso, Sapienza and Zingales 2006, 27)� he latter was consistent with the interpretation of the problem by Jackson (2009) who also accounted for the ahistorical (and a-institutional) character of neoclassical theory and the demarcation of academic disciplines as the major barriers in the process of inclusion of culture into economic analysis� he process resulted in alienation and desocialisation of economics which concentrated on identiication of general principles independent of human will (Wilkin 1997, 24); it eventually questioned its sociological roots and undermined ties with sociology, politics, history and anthropology� Under such circumstances there was no room let for a culturebased, or an inclusive at least, analysis� he above facts and the ensuing status of culture posed something of a paradox as the exclusion of culture from economic analysis essentially went contrary to the propositions made by the Founding Fathers of economics� he role of culture in the marketplace was stressed by Adam Smith in heory of Moral Sentiments (1759)� Furthermore, he meant the book to provide the moral, theoretical and methodological basis for his future works, including his ground-breaking he Wealth of Nations (1776)� As Smith emphasized, people tend to behave and prioritize in a completely diferent way in social and market circumstances� he former makes people focus on maintaining good relationships with fellow humans: in this case they are willing to undertake benevolent acts which play a critical role in strengthening ties, enhancement of social status, and eventually social order� his other-regarding understanding contradicts the non-cooperative self-interest typical of market-related actions� It lies at the roots of division of labour and its aggregate outcome—oten referred to as an invisible hand—provides proit to whole society� In this sense, people are motivated by the mutually complementary motives of either the other-regarding sympathy or the non-cooperative self-interest, which stem from human propensity to maximize results of relationships in the two walks of life� he notion that social science, including economics, is not capable of providing a comprehensive and valid analysis of civilizational development without continuous adherence to cultural circumstance was advocated by another classical economist, John Stuart Mill� He drew attention to the fact that it was precisely culture that made all attempts of comparisons between economic structures and outcomes resident in various societies and countries futile and meaninglessness� Values in American Economy 255 …it has been a very common error of political economists [i�e� economists] consistently to draw conclusions from the elements of one state of society, and apply them to other states in which many of the elements are not the same� (1843, 40)1 One of the most evident examples of interdependence between culture and economics came from a landmark analysis by sociologist Max Weber in the beginning of the 20th century� he Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905) advanced a notion that the Protestant ethic stimulated an unplanned group action leading to the development of capitalism� It was determined on the one hand by the culture-related circumstances like religion (i�e� Protestant/Puritan work ethos), and on the other, by civil law, bureaucratic state, predictable law and non-dualistic economic ethic� heir coincidence prompted a course of events resulting in the rise of capitalism� he essence of the process—oten referred to as the Weber’s paradox—identiied Protestants’ religious beliefs as the key factor which made the religious group follow a secular vocation and accumulate money, which could in turn be used for investment (i�e� it stimulated economic growth) rather than luxuries or donations� In this way, religiously motivated economic actions provided entrepreneurial activity with a moral sense and contributed to the development of capitalism� Another noteworthy recognition of the role values play in the economic system was made by Karl Polanyi in the middle of the 20th century� According to his theory, values and culture are critical not only for the well-being of society but also in the context of economic system: economy is embedded in society and subordinated to religion, politics and social relations� In this way, allocation of wealth in economy should promote the values society accepts and pursues, i�e� maintenance of social ties, accepted code of honour and generosity� he principal objectives of a human being are the pursuit of cooperation, prestige and the enhancement of its social capital� In this way, all the values accepted by society—and the inherent part of its culture—were indispensable elements of the economic system and ensured its stability� he human economy is embedded and enmeshed in institutions, economic and noneconomic� he inclusion of the noneconomic is vital� For religion or government may be as important to the structure and functioning of the economy as monetary institutions or the availability of tools and machines themselves that lighten the toil of labour� (2001, 250) 1 hese were the grounds for which James S� Mill went on to criticize Smith’s application of analysis of commercial society of Great Britain and the USA to India (ibid.)� 256 Damian Pyrkosz Unfortunately, the rise of market economy did reverse the roles between economy and society and in efect “…physically destroyed man and transformed his surroundings into a wilderness” (Ibid�, xxv)� Consequently, the values society thrived on were questioned, people were denied the safety net of the cultural institutions, which in turn atomized society, destroyed social ties and gave rise to growing hostility, conlict and poverty� Hence, the culture and values which respective nations promote should be regarded as the key factor in understanding their social processes and linking them to diferences between the countries with regard to their economic development� 2. Deining the American core values American society is highly diversiied� It consists of a rich mosaic of diferent political and social attitudes, religions, racial, ethnic and interest groups� However, Americans do share some core values that deine “the American way” of perceiving the world around and determine the manner of dealing with issues� he presence of such core values has been critical for two reasons: on the one hand they served as the basis for establishment of American political (government), social (norms, traditions and customs) and economic (enterprise) systems; on the other these values are still frequently and readily referred to by the Americans themselves in politics, workplace and family life� hey were deined by Robin Williams (1970) and include: – freedom, absolutely central to “the American way”; the idea that people should be unconstrained by other individuals or government in pursuit of their personal goals was at the very heart of the rise of the American nation; today it also denotes preference for individual initiative over collective conformity; – equality (of opportunity), individualism, or “consistent persistence”, which rewards achievement that comes from individual efort; it is a widely cherished by the Americans belief that an individual can, through his/her work, climb from the very bottom to the very top of social ladder (countless examples of “rags-to-riches” stories)� In fact, an individual is expected to go ahead and use all its potential according to individual talents and eforts as any failure to do so is blamed on the person rather than the adverse circumstances or system; – achievement and success, or “success emphasis”, which encourage competition; power, respect, prestige and wealth are always derived from personal achievement, success and personal merit; – material comfort which deines success mainly in terms of one’s ability to make money but also denotes a high level of comfort including the spheres of housing, medical care, nutrition, cars, etc� Values in American Economy 257 – activity and work, or “work-for-work’s-sake” attitude, which makes Americans work hard and get involved in various undertakings professionally and in private life� his attitude shows Americans strong preference for action over relection and controlling events rather than compliance with fate’s turns; – practicality and eiciency determines Americans approach to their action in terms of ability to provide for proit; preference is given to the practical over the theoretical, getting things done rather than planning and dreaming, eiciency over waste of time and money; – progress, belief in the fact that present/future ofers more rewards than the past; – democracy and free enterprise, the cornerstones of the American nationhood; belief that individuals have rights no government can take away, government is accountable to the people and it can be changed during free election, and market (free enterprise) is the best, though not ideal, form of economy that caters to choices of individual consumers is absolutely fundamental to the American worldview; – science and technology can solve problems and improve the quality of people’s lives; this attitude is nurtured by a belief and praise to the rational, logic and reason; – racism and group superiority, which contradicts nearly all the above values but still a feature of Americans’ traits� Despite belief in equality, freedom and democracy, still Americans’ perception of others tends to be based on gender, race, ethnicity, and social class� It is worth noting, that these values strengthen and complement each other on the one hand; yet, on the other, they contradict each other which creates tensions among American society and constantly redeines the meaning of these values� his is particularly true when people have to face new challenges generated by civilizational progress� 3. American (in)equality in perspective he above picture of American values seems consistent when compared with the one demonstrated by other nationalities� With regard to income inequality, a survey of twenty-seven middle- and high-income countries, including the USA, revealed that a third of Americans believed that the government is responsible for decreasing income disparity, as compared to more than two-thirds in the other countries surveyed (Isaacs, Sawhill and Haskins 2008)� At the same time, over two-thirds of Americans agreed with the statement that people get rewarded for intelligence and skill, compared with a typical response of only 39 percent from all the countries� 258 Damian Pyrkosz What’s more, just 18 percent of Americans think that being born to wealth is very important in getting ahead (28 percent among all nationalities polled)� hese results can be undoubtedly attributed to the American-speciic set of cultural values: probably the most common among them is the widespread belief in promotion based of one’s own talents and hard work, rather than equality of outcomes� Hence, you are rich because you deserve to be rich; you are poor since you have most probably failed to take opportunities for self-improvement� his could also explain why Americans tend to more accept economic inequality than people in other countries� What is striking in the above indings is the Americans’ distrust of government and the resulting yearning for self-reliance: redistribution of income by means of taxing the rich and channelling beneits to the poor/the middle class undermines people’s incentives to take care of themselves, and thus is wary and troublesome� he other side of the coin is that Americans are actually becoming more and more unequal economically� A study by OECD (2015) Morgan Stanley Research showed that Americans make one of the most unequal societies in term of income among the developed economies� he Gini coeicient2 of income inequality for the USA has risen from 0,39 in 1985 to 0,46 in 2013 being one of the highest inequality increases in the period among the OECD countries and much higher in relative and nominal values compared to the OECD average rate (OECD22), i�e� from 0,34 to 0,37 respectively� Situation is even more serious when we look at the speciic categories of the MS Inequality Indicator Ranking (Table 1)� Table 1: Inequality indicator and its categories for the USA and selected European countries, 2013 MS Inequality Gini Wage Workplace Indicator Coeicients Dispersion Inclusion Rank (MSII) Portugal 1 4 4 5 USA 5 1 1 11 Germany 6 13 5 13 Poland 11 12 18 8 Norway 20 20 20 20 Health Status Digital Access 4 6 5 12 10 3 14 11 4 20 Source: OECD (2015, 1) 2 It is the most commonly used measure of inequality: a measure of statistical dispersion aimed to demonstrate the income allocation of a country’s residents� 1 denotes extremely unequal distribution, whereas 0 indicates perfect equality� Values in American Economy 259 he data collected by the report and demonstrated in Table 1 shows that the USA together with some Southern European countries (Portugal, Italy, Greece, Spain) are the most unequal OECD countries� he US poor ranking is accredited mainly to the very low indexes in income inequality (Gini coeicients) and wage dispersion3, both scoring the lowest 1� Americans’ inequality in terms of health status4 (index 6) also ranks among the lowest values in the OECD countries� he US position improved due to relatively higher ranking in workplace inclusion5 (score 11) and digital access (score 14)� On the other hand, the US high value for digital access actually conirms Americans’ support for scientiic and technological development� 4. American values in a comparative perspective Personal values and their aggregates at the national level have a profound impact on the outcome of economic activity: this is the main thesis made in conclusion of the opinion poll conducted by the World Economic Forum in December, 2009 (2010)� It is interesting to see how Americans see their values in the context of the inancial crisis that had shaken the world markets and the American ones in particular in the irst decade of the 21st century� he most striking inding was that the Americans were fully aware of the causal relationship between decline of values and the economic downturn: over 70 percent admitted to this and the rate was higher than the world average (67 percent)� he Americans also showed the highest level of conidence (60 percent) in the small and medium sized business as these which were most eager to implement values-driven approach to their practice; at the same time, they were the most weary of the large, global multinational corporations and domestic governments� his seems to verify the highly individualistic culture of the Americans� 3 4 5 Wage dispersion index consists of the following elements: change in Gini coeicients, real wage growth, earnings dispersion (measured by the ratio of 9th to 1st decile limits of earnings) and gender pay gap (diference between the median earnings of men and women relative to the median earnings of men) (OECD 2015)� Health status is measured by the gap in health status which is diference between the perceived status by high and low income individuals (ibid.)� Workplace inclusion index consists of the following: secondary education unemployment (as a share of the population), involuntary part time (as a share of the population) and NEET (share of youth as a percentage of the 16–24 age group which is neither employment nor in education or training) (ibid.)� 260 Damian Pyrkosz Another conirmation of such an individualistic attitude was revealed when a question whether businesses should be primarily accountable to their shareholders, employees, clients and customers, or all three equally was addressed: he Americans felt the highest accountability to business shareholders� he notion of responsibility recurred in their responses to the question on the most signiicant values in the global political and economic systems: compared to other nationalities the US citizens most oten opted for the impact of actions on the well-being of others (other options being preserving the environment; respecting others’ rights, dignity, views; and honesty, integrity and transparency)� he Americans, like other citizens of the countries with well-developed economies, predominantly lacked belief that people held the same values in personal and professional lives (over 75 percent, one of the highest answers among the surveyed countries)� Moreover, a higher share of Americans (over 90 percent) than other nationalities used the quality and price criteria when shopping (others being the environmental impact, impact on human well-being during production, and ethical values of the producer)� he two questions and the Americans’ replies indicated that in practical terms they couldn’t see a link between their personal decisions and situation in the markets� We could also trace the roots of this attitude back to the Americans’ preoccupation with of practicality and eiciency� As for sources of personal values the Americans, quite expectedly, declared that education/family (57 percent, compared with 62 global percent rate) and religion/faith (30 percent, compared with 21 percent global rate) are the most important� However, only 50 percent of the Americans admitted that there was actually a set of universal values across the world� he other half of the American respondents were either in doubt or denied existence of such� his inding could be particularly disturbing considering the long immigration history of the USA� In this light, the responses proved a failure of seemingly open and multicultural society, yet in this sense, the one incapable of establishing a common set of values� 5. Changing values, changing outcomes Economic development is not exclusively a product of economic factors� It is also a subject to a wide range of social, political as well as cultural determinants, including changes in people’s values and beliefs� A number of prominent authors (inter alia Harrison and Huntington 2000; Hofstede 2005; Landes 1998; Polanyi 2001; Sen 2001; Jackson 2009; Guiso, Sapienza and Zingales 2006) have come to acknowledge the role of cultural factors in the creation of conditions favourable Values in American Economy 261 or prohibitive to the economic development of nations� In this sense, values cherished by diferent nations are the key to the understanding of the diferent patterns of economic development� Hence, changes in values—in the cultural sphere—are likely to induce changes in the economic one� With reference to the values deined as the American core, a closer analysis of the data provided by the World Values Survey reveals certain dynamics in the values status (Table 2)� he following observations can be made: – it seems that Americans have a stronger feeling of freedom of choice and control; – the individualistic American culture is further reinforced by an even greater support for diferences in income to stimulate people’s eforts; – there seems to be a growing conviction that hard work does not necessarily bring success as this can also be a result of connections; yet still success continues to be very important and so is the feeling of happiness; – work continues to be important as a way to success, yet more and more Americans would like or at least wouldn’t mind work to become less important to them in the future; – there is an unswerving support of Americans for democracy and competition, yet at the same we can observe a slight tendency to believe that competition is not necessary, as there is enough wealth for everyone; – both science and technology and tradition continue to play important role in the Americans’ lives and form a basis of their future betterment; – although religion continues to play an important part in Americans’ lives, yet we may observe a slight downward trend in this respect which coincides with increasing quite evident distrust of people; this could be explained in terms of the slow, yet steady process of secularization of American society, quite typical for many developed countries; the trend is conirmed by other surveys, e�g� American Values Survey (Jones 2015) – in terms of relationships, both family and friends remain very high on the list of importance; at the same time Americans seems to be less tolerant to the presence of immigrant neighbours and workers� 262 Damian Pyrkosz Table 2: Changes in American core values according to the World Values Survey (1981–2014) World Values Survey (1981–2014) responses (percent) Values Freedom6 Income equality7 Individual8 Success9 6 7 8 9 1981– 1984 1989– 1993 1994– 1998 1999– 2004 2005– 2009 2010– 2014 None at all 20 15 16 11 13 13 A great deal 80 85 84 89 87 87 Incomes more equal n/a 28 52 43 37 49 Income diferences n/a 71 48 55 61 51 Agree n/a n/a n/a n/a 63 68 Disagree n/a n/a n/a n/a 37 33 Important n/a n/a n/a n/a 45 48 Not important n/a n/a n/a n/a 51 50 V55� “Some people feel they have completely free choice and control over their lives, while other people feel that what they do has no real efect on what happens to them� Please use this scale where 1 means <<no choice at all>> and 10 means <<a great deal of choice>> to indicate how much freedom of choice and control you feel you have over the way your life turns out”� V96� “Now I’d like you to tell me your views on various issues� How would you place your views on this scale? 1 means you agree completely with the statement on the let; 10 means you agree completely with the statement on the right; and if your views fall somewhere in between, you can choose any number in between: <<Incomes should be made more equal>> vs� <<We need larger income diferences as incentives for individual efort>>”� V216� “People have diferent views about themselves and how they relate to the world� Using this card, would you tell me how strongly you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about how you see yourself? <<I see myself as an autonomous individual>>”� (Strongly agree/Agree/Disagree/Strongly disagree) V75� “Now I will briely describe some people� Using this card, would you please indicate for each description whether that person is very much like you, like you, somewhat like you, a little like you, not like you, or not at all like you? Being very successful is important to this person�” 263 Values in American Economy World Values Survey (1981–2014) responses (percent) Values Hard work10 Happiness11 Future: less work12 Democracy13 Competition14 1981– 1984 1989– 1993 1994– 1998 1999– 2004 2005– 2009 2010– 2014 Brings better n/a life 82 81 n/a 78 77 Brings no success n/a 17 20 n/a 23 23 Happy 91 88 93 93 93 89 Not happy 8 10 5 7 6 10 Good/don’t mind 32 86 57 67 69 65 Bad thing 67 14 44 32 29 33 Not important n/a n/a n/a n/a 11 13 Important n/a n/a n/a n/a 85 84 Good n/a 86 86 82 87 84 Harmful n/a 13 15 18 12 15 10 V100� “Now I’d like you to tell me your views on various issues� How would you place your views on this scale? 1 means you agree completely with the statement on the let; 10 means you agree completely with the statement on the right; and if your views fall somewhere in between, you can choose any number in between: <<In the long run, hard work usually brings a better life>> vs� <<Hard work doesn’t generally bring success—it’s more a matter of luck and connections>>”� 11 V10� “Taking all things together, would you say you are happy”� (Very happy/Rather happy/Not very happy/Not at all happy) 12 V67� “I’m going to read out a list of various changes in our way of life that might take place in the near future� Please tell me for each one, if it were to happen, whether you think it would be a good thing, a bad thing, or don’t you mind? <<Less importance placed on work in our lives>>”� 13 V140� “How important is it for you to live in a country that is governed democratically? On this scale where 1 means it is <<not at all important>> and 10 means <<absolutely important>> what position would you choose?” 14 V99� “Now I’d like you to tell me your views on various issues� How would you place your views on this scale? 1 means you agree completely with the statement on the let; 10 means you agree completely with the statement on the right; and if your views fall somewhere in between, you can choose any number in between: <<Competition is good� It stimulates people to work hard and develop new ideas>> vs� <<Competition is harmful� It brings out the worst in people>>”� 264 Damian Pyrkosz World Values Survey (1981–2014) responses (percent) Values Wealth15 Science & technology16 Tradition 17 Trust18 Religion19 1981– 1984 1989– 1993 1994– 1998 1999– 2004 2005– 2009 2010– 2014 At other’s expense n/a 43 28 n/a 39 39 Enough for all n/a 58 73 n/a 61 63 Makes us worse of n/a n/a n/a n/a 21 21 Makes us better of n/a n/a n/a n/a 75 78 Important n/a n/a n/a n/a 68 64 Not important n/a n/a n/a n/a 28 34 Trust people 43 52 36 36 39 35 Don’t trust 57 48 64 64 61 65 Important n/a 79 82 82 71 68 Not important n/a 21 17 17 29 31 15 V101� “Now I’d like you to tell me your views on various issues� How would you place your views on this scale? 1 means you agree completely with the statement on the let; 10 means you agree completely with the statement on the right; and if your views fall somewhere in between, you can choose any number in between: <<People can only get rich at the expense of others>> vs� <<Wealth can grow so there’s enough for everyone>>”� 16 V197� “All things considered, would you say that the world is better of, or worse of, because of science and technology?� Please tell me which comes closest to your view on this scale: 1 means that <<the world is a lot worse of>> and 10 means that <<the world is a lot better of>>� 17 V79� “Now I will briely describe some people� Using this card, would you please indicate for each description whether that person is very much like you, like you, somewhat like you, a little like you, not like you, or not at all like you?: <<Tradition is important to this person; to follow the customs handed down by one’s religion or family>>”� 18 V24� “Generally speaking, would you say that most people can be trusted or that you need to be very careful in dealing with people?” 19 V9� “For each of the following, indicate how important it is in your life� Would you say it is: Religion”� 265 Values in American Economy World Values Survey (1981–2014) responses (percent) Values Family20 Friends21 Neighbours: immigrants22 1981– 1984 1989– 1993 1994– 1998 1999– 2004 2005– 2009 2010– 2014 Important n/a 98 99 99 99 98 Not important n/a 2 1 1 1 2 Important n/a 94 95 96 95 93 Not important n/a 6 4 4 5 6 Not mentioned 92 90 90 90 87 86 Would not like 8 10 10 10 13 14 Source: own calculation on the basis of World Values Survey (2016) Note: All values results, when they provided for a range of answers (typically 4, 6 or 10) were grouped into two collective categories, i�e� airmative and negative (indicating the most extreme answers in the table heading), unless stated otherwise; n/a denotes data was not available for this WVS wave series; percentages do not sum up to 100 due to omission of the following response categories: “missing; unknown”, “no answer”, “don’t know”; each footnote begins with the value code� he idea of a nation’s commonly accepted set of values has attracted a great deal of attention among sociologist and economists dealing with cultural determinants of economic development� Generally, several models have been established to demonstrate the role people’s beliefs and values play in economic development� Hofstede (2005) distinguished and analysed shared values in diferent cultures along ive dimensions: power distance, individualism vs� collectivism, masculinity vs� femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long- vs� short-term orientation� An alternative model was proposed by Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) It was based on a matrix of seven cultural factors (shared values) to account for the discrepancies determined along the criteria of universalism vs� particularism, analysing vs� integrating, individualism vs� communitarianism, inner- vs� outerdirectedness, time as sequence vs� time as synchronization, achieved vs� ascribed 20 V4� “For each of the following, indicate how important it is in your life� Would you say it is: Family”� 21 V5� “For each of the following, indicate how important it is in your life� Would you say it is: Friends”� 22 V39�“On this list are various groups of people� Could you please mention any that you would not like to have as neighbors?: Immigrants/Foreign workers”� 266 Damian Pyrkosz status, and equality vs� hierarchy� Although the two frameworks difered, they shared the same basic objective, i�e� to understand how people in diferent valuesharing cultures behave and perceive their economic and social development� he most advanced and systematic analysis of shared values and beliefs and their impact on the level of economic, social, political and civic development has been performed by Inglehart and Welzel (2015)� hey used the data of the World Values Survey (WVS) held on a regular basis among an increasing number of countries� he analysis demonstrates two major dimensions of the cross-cultural discrepancy in the world built along two continua between traditional and secularrational values on the one hand, and survival and self-expression values on the other: – traditional values are those which stress religion, family ties and values and, respect for authority; consequently, divorce, abortion, euthanasia and suicide are not approved of by members of these societies who also tend to demonstrate nationalistic worldviews; – secular-rational values place emphasis on the opposite preferences compared to traditional values; hence, religion, traditional family values and authority are less revered; on the other hand divorce, abortion, euthanasia and suicide are considered moderately acceptable; – survival values draw attention to economic and physical security; this worldview tends to accept a relatively ethnocentric outlook and low levels of trust and tolerance; – self-expression values give precedence of environmental protection, growing tolerance of foreigners, gays and lesbians and gender equality over any other values; an important feature of this set of values is support for participation in decision-making in economic and political life� Values make a critical socio-cultural pool of interdependencies in the form of developed routines, shared norms and trust that facilitate (or inhibit) interactive processes and mutual understanding in the transmission of information and knowledge (Fischer 2002, 25)� hese seemingly non-productive ideas, i�e� shared social values, interact with the productive (economic) sphere and afect the longrun economic development� hey become crucial for economy to grow (Kim and Lee 2015)� With reference to Figure 1 we can see the above dimensions of values for various countries in a graph format� his can help us observe various country groupings related to their predominant cultural traits� On this basis we can distinguish countries of the Baltic, Confucian, Protestant Europe, Orthodox, Catholic Europe, South Asia, African-Islamic, Latin America and the English Speaking� Values in American Economy 267 he position of the USA on the map conirms that Americans are a nation who highly appreciates self-expression values of tolerance, equality, governance and environmental protection� However, in terms of traditional v� secular-rational values Americans place in the neutral sphere with a slight preference to the former, thus emphasizing religion, family ties, and respect for authority� Figure 1. Cultural map according to the World Values Survey (wave 6, 2010–2014) Source: adapted from Inglehart and Welzel (2015) he above map represents indexes of WVS of the last wave held in 2010–2014� It does not show, however, shits in the Americans’ values over a time period� Analysis of the changes in Americans’ values in the subsequent waves of the WVS, beginning with 1990 (wave 2) and inishing in 2014 (wave 6), allows a more profound understanding of the process (cf. Figure 2)� 268 Damian Pyrkosz Figure 2. Changes in the Americans’ values according to the World Values Survey (waves 2–6, 1990–2014) Source: own calculations based on Inglehart and Welzel (2015) Following the path of value changes in Figure 2 we can observe that three basic stages can be revealed with regard to the way Americans shited preference for traditional v� secular-rational values and survival v� self-expression values� In the irst stage between years 1990 and 1996 Americans became more traditional and showed more preference for self-expression values� he next 1997–2002 period saw a partial reversal of the trend and Americans became more secular and rational in their views; however, the tendency towards more self-expression values remained� Finally, in the last period between 2003 and 2014, Americans continued to emphasize more secular and rational values at the expense of those based on tradition, religion and family; yet their penchant for self-expression traits was abandoned and replaced by a strong liking for survival values focusing on economic and physical security at the expense of trust and tolerance� In this sense the last period is a complete reversal of the initial 1990–1996 trend� he reasons for the patterns of change are plentiful and should make a subject further study� Among them are a multitude of political, social and technological changes or security issues: for example the last period, among other factors, could demonstrate Values in American Economy 269 America’s reaction to the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center on September 11th 2001� he inancial crisis, which began in 2007, also afected Americans’ preferences and made them rely on secular and rational values to a greater extent� Conclusions he above examination of the changes in values cherished by Americans and the facts concerning the economic aspects of their lives reveal that some values like freedom and democracy have remained intact and will survive any other wave of economic downturn should it occur in the future� However, the excessive reliance on market and belief in competition have changed the core of the American values to some extent� Growing acceptance of income inequality, rising doubts about beneits of competition, growing anxiety and distrust of people, slow yet steady decline in importance and support for religion can be deined as the Americans turn towards survival and secular values� Taking into consideration the fact that the originators of the American values (Protestants, Christians) will likely not make a majority of voters, we may expect a major remaking of the American values in the year to come� As noted by Robert Jones, from Public Religion Research Institute, which conducts “American Values” survey, “his sense of dislocation is economic, it’s cultural and it’s religious” (qtd� in Pattison 2015)� At the same time the drive towards success, higher eiciency, belief in competition have been fed by the prevailing rationale of the market logic� In this sense, the Americans have become the product of their own nearly perfectly eicient market economy� But it has come at a price: a price of growing income inequality, increasing distrust of others paralleled by the anxiety about physical and economic security� Another long-term trend is the decreasing support for religion� It seems that the political, economic and social situation can bring further blows to the already declining American values at their core� One thing seems certain: without a revival of their values, Americans are going to see more economic downturns, growing discrepancies and social unrest� he bottom line is that market economy will neither provide nor cater for quality relationships as it does not serve this purpose� Market rules do not build relationship� Our understanding of the factors impacting the human socio-economic sphere has signiicantly broadened to include the behavioural and cultural elements of economics� Although a range of authors and surveys declare the recent economic downturn to be a crisis of values, it remains to be seen whether there come more changes in the American values that can prospectively produce a qualitative change in the performance of American economy� Americans, among many other nations, should reassess the signiicance of values that actually drive, both their 270 Damian Pyrkosz lives and economy� Given the size of the economy and its impact on the world markets the task is formidable� What is more, there is no need to invent new ways: education, family and religion provide values that have driven the country’s people and that have already been the source of their country’s power for centuries� Yet, that is not supposed to denote abandonment of market qualities� Rather, the American culture and values may become a new source of competitive advantage and provide for a stable and thriving economy� Yet, to accomplish this, a change of priorities and a change of the way the Americans work, live, behave and think is necessary; and above all freeing minds from the overriding imperative of market eiciency� A call for a new culture? References Fischer, Manfred M� 2002� “A Systemic Approach to Innovation�” In Regional Development Reconsidered, edited by Gündüz Atalik and Manfred M� Fischer, 15–31� Berlin: Springer-Verlag� Guiso, Luigi, Paola Sapienza, and Luigi Zingales� 2006� “Does Culture Afect Economic Outcomes?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 20: 23–48� Harrison, Lawrence E., and Samuel P. Huntington� eds� 2000� Culture Matters: How Values Shape Human Progress� New York: Basic Books� Hofstede, Geert� 2005� Cultures and Organizations: Sotware of the Mind� New York: McGraw-Hill� Inglehart, Ronald, and Christian Welzel� 2015� World Values Survey. Findings and Insights� Accessed November 14, 2015� http://www�worldvaluessurvey�org/ WVSContents�jsp� Isaacs, Julia B., Isabel V. Sawhill, and Ron Haskins� 2008� “Getting Ahead or Losing Ground: Economic Mobility�” In America� Washington, DC: he Brookings Institution� Jackson, William A� 2009� Economics, Culture and Social heory� Cheltenham: Edward Elgar� Jones, Robert P., Daniel Cox, Betsy Cooper, and Rachel Lienesch� 2015� Anxiety, Nostalgia, and Mistrust. Findings from the 2015 American Values Survey� Washington D�C: Public Religion Research Institute� Kim Yong Jin, and Chul-In Lee� 2015� “Social values and economic dynamics�” Journal of Economic Dynamics & Control 53: 69–84� Landes, David S� 1998� he Wealth and Poverty of Nations. Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor� New York: Norton & Company Inc� Mill, James S� 1843� A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive� New York: Harper and Brother Publishers� Values in American Economy 271 OECD� 2015� “Mind he Inequality Gap�” Sustainable Economics. Morgan Stanley Research� November 24� Polanyi, Karl� 2001� he Great Transformation. he Political and Economic Origins of Our Time� Boston: Beacon Press (irst published in 1944)� Pattison, Mark� 2015� ‘American Values’ survey shows a nation less tightly knit than before. Accessed December 14� http://catholicphilly�com/2015/11/news/ national-news/american-values-survey-shows-a-nation-less-tightly-knitthan-before/� Sen, Amartya� 2001� “Culture and Development�” Unpublished paper delivered at the World Bank Tokyo Meeting, December 13, 2001� Accessed September 4, 2013� http://info�worldbank�org/etools/docs/voddocs/354/688/sen tokyo�pdf� Smith, Adam� (1759) 1790� heory of Moral Sentiments� London: A� Millar� Smith, Adam� (1776) 1904� he Wealth of Nations� London: Methuen & Co� Trompenaars, Fons and Charles Hampden-Turner� 1998� Riding the Waves of Culture. Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business� London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing� Wilkin, Jerzy� 1997� “Efektywność a sprawiedliwość jako problem ekonomiczny�” In Efektywność a sprawiedliwość, edited by Jerzy Wilkin, 23–47� Warszawa: Key Text� Williams, Robin M� 1970� American Society: A Sociological Interpretation� New York: Knopf� World Economic Forum� 2010� Faith and the Global Agenda. Values for the PostCrisis Economy� Geneva: World Economic Forum� World Values Survey� 2016� Online Data Analysis� Accessed January 26, 2016� http://www�worldvaluessurvey�org/WVSOnline�jsp� List of Contributors Olha Bandrovska (Ivan Franko National University of Lviv, Ukraine) Marek Błaszak (University of Opole, Poland) Mirosława Buchholtz (Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland) Joanna Durczak (Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, Poland) Péter Gaál-Szabó (Debrecen Reformed heological University, Hungary) David Jervis (Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, Poland) Agnieszka Kallaus (University of Rzeszów, Poland) Paweł Kaptur (University of Information Technology and Management in Rzeszów) Krzysztof Kosecki (University of Łódź, Poland) Monika Kozub (Pedagogical University of Cracow, Poland) Sławomir Kuźnicki (University of Opole, Poland) Małgorzata Martynuska (University of Rzeszów, Poland) Paulina Mirowska (University of Łódź, Poland) Anna Pietrzykowska-Motyka (Pedagogical University of Cracow, Poland) Damian Pyrkosz (University of Rzeszów, Poland) Iryna Senchuk (Ivan Franko National University of Lviv, Ukraine) Katarzyna Strzyżowska (unailiated) Donald Trinder (University of Rzeszów, Poland) Ian Upchurch (University of Rzeszów, Poland) Oksana Weretiuk (University of Rzeszów, Poland) Viktoriia Yaremchuk (Ivan Franko National University of Lviv, Ukraine)