This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project
to make the world's books discoverable online.
It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject
to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books
are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.
Marks, notations and other marginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the
publisher to a library and finally to you.
Usage guidelines
Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing this resource, we have taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:
+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.
+ Refrain from automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.
+ Maintain attribution The Google "watermark" you see on each file is essential for informing people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.
+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liability can be quite severe.
About Google Book Search
Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web
at|http : //books . google . com/
I
::^-
'»' • I I • • fill
« I f ' I • I I
'.""■'...'..'•' ..".•' .. .,''■"•,•.■• ..v.v
. ' ' .V"' .''.' •'•. (
I » *v I f * , I M » I t « ,' • I
■.,: i'-'^^.'/M./.^.v, ■,.■■• v. ■.■;,,
'..■.,,'., ■'<;;;■ '^-fv-';^', .;■;.;•,■'
)>:> •ill,'' • ' '. • V ', •. .' ". ■ / V
\ I 'i " ■'■ ' ' ■ ' •• ■■' ■"
I '. . 1 f ,','•• ;■■ • •■ ','M' •, ■ : ;, '•;,•■•*■., v.-
■ .' ' • * • 'I " ■ " ' • ' ' -I •■'■ 'It
I I \ ... I < • I III, < I < .' I . Ill
. . r / I '
• • 1 1 i I
' It I 1 1 I.
I / I 1 1 1 1 • ( •
• ' \ I * ' It."'
• I
I I « I ( I , I
J • • • • t • f
::■■.'■.■•', ■ •
#
#
I M
• 1}
A •
' I ' ♦
11}: '■ 'v.
• \ <• V'' •'■■.•■■■■'■ ■■..•■ „
1 1 .,jj ■;:•'■...■'.•.', ■•
I
oogle
s
.A3
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Digitized by LjOOQIC
Digitized by LjOOQIC
Digitized by LjOOQIC
TWENTIETH ANNUAL REPORT
OF THB
#|ifl §tate '§mii of ^gricdtef
WITH
M ABSTBAGT OF THE FBOGEEDINQS
OF THE
OOUOTDY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETEES:
TO THB
GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF OHIO, FOR THE TEAR 1865.
COLUMBUS:
RIOHABD NBVINS, STATE PBINTKEl.
1866.
Digitized by VjOOQlC
Digitized by LjOOQIC
PREFACE.
The following pa^es eoutain an account of a hasty trip over the greater
portion of the German States and a portion of France. The time em-
ployed was from April 15, at which time I landed at Hamburg, until the
first of July, at which time I left France for England. The account is
necessarily sketchy and imperfect, for the reason that it is almost a mat-
ter of impossibility to learn all the details of Agriculture in that extent
of territory, in the short space of time devoted to it. I made notes of
that which I considered the most important, and have introduced many
items not strictly agricultural, yet which appeared to me to have a bear-
ing on the condition of the industrial portion of the States visited.
It would require a sojourn of several years to become acquainted with
all the details of the several systems of agriculture, the improvements
being introduced, and to ascertain to what extent the various institutions
for agricultural education exert a beneficial influei.ce; then, too, the
space at command in the report is entirely too limited to do the subject
that justice which it merits. It is hoped that the several subjects dis
cussed in these pages are sufficiently full and clear to convey a correct
idea of them, and that they may prove valuable for reference, rather than
this to be an entertaining volume of travelers' gossip. I have carefully
avoided personal incidents of travel ; a description of towns or cities,
churches, theatres, operas, or other public buildings ; costumes of the
people, or their habits, manners and customs, for the reason that I could
not persuade myself that they had any relation to agricultural affairs,
although such descriptions might prove more entertaining and instruct-
ive, in other directions, than the matters recorded.
I preferred to make the report on the agriculture of Germany as full as
l)0ssible, for the reason that here, in America, we know less of German
agriculture than we do of French or English. It appears to me that our
ignorance of German Agriculture is more attributable to the difference in
language, between this country and that, than to any other cause, for the
Germans are not like the Japanese, that they forbid strangers to travel
their country, or that they refrain from publishing their attainments in
every department of human knowledge. Some kind and valued friends
suggested to me to write as little as possibly would comport with the na-
ture of the subject on German agriculture, and treat as fiilly as possible
on that of England, on the ground that English and American agricul-
Digitized by VjiWVJV IC
201412 ^
ture were more identical than the American and German. My observa-
tions do not confirm this view : four-fifths of England is kept for grazing,
whilst in America, and especially in Ohio, we have scarcely one-fifth of
the area in grazing lands. Sir Morton Peto, in his work on the '' Be-
soxjBOES AND Pbospeots OF Amebioa," has well said, in substance,
that the bright and long continued sunshine and Indian com in America
make the entire sytem of agriculture as dissimilar from that of England
as may well be conceived. The American system (if we have any at all,)
partakes full as much of that of Germany as it does of England, and so
far as meteorology is concerned, we certainly are much more identical
with Germany than with England.
I very much regret being compelled to omit the tour through England,
Scotland and Ireland, in the present volume. The size of the volume is
limited by law, and a view of English agriculture could not be given in a
few pages, which would do either the subject justice, or be any credit to
me as an observer.
The tour through France I have limited to agricultural organizations,
agricultural educational facilities, and a description of the breeds, man-
agement and uses of the French races of the horse. The French races of
cattle bear different names from those of Germany, and in my opinion
are inferior to them. Other than the Bambouillet and Mauchamp breeds
of sheep, scarcely any in France are worthy of mention in any other
than a historic sense; whilst I could add nothing to what is already
well known in this country of the Bambouillet and Mauchamp races or
breeds. Agriculture proper has not yet attained that degree of perfec-
tion and system everywhere so manifest in Germany, and considering the
space already occupied with the best farming I saw, thought it not im-
proper to omit discussing that of France.
The tour was one which I desired to make from the time that I learned
the German and French languages. This desire has been gratified, and
I return to the shores of America, the land of my birth and that of my
parents, with a far greater appreciation of the wisdom and goodness of
our government and institutions than I had conceived of before I went
abroad.
JOHN H. KLIPPABT,
Secretary.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
INDEX.
PART I.
Agricaltnral tour in Europe 17
Holstein 17
Pruseia 81
Saxony 155
Wurtemburg 198
Allgauer Cattle 40
Agricultural Schools and Colleges in
Prussia 154
Agricultural Schools and Colleges in
France 247
Agricultural Schools and Colleges in
Saxony 169
Br^tenburg Cattle 39
Bavarian Statistics 117
Brandenburg 127, 140, 144
Cattlb, Angles 26
Jutland 39
Breitenberger 39
Allgauer 40,43
Friesians 38
Oldenbergers 39, 44
Holland 37,43
Karsh 27
Montafauner 40
Swiss 44
Simmerthaler 44
Volgtlander 44
Shorthorn 46
Hungarian 47
Breeding in Prussia 48
Saxony 181
Wurtemburg 198
Climatology of Prussia 81
Cattle in PrussU 116
Saxony 162
Wurtemburg •...^ 902
Cologne, Fair at 239
vHerrYon 46
PAGE
'Friesian Cattle 38
France — 243
Agricultural organizations of.. 243
Expenses 251
Horses of 253
omnibus 253
cart 264
light races 267
of State or fancy 276
Geology of Prussia 82
Saxony 156
Wurtemburg 199
Germans and Germany , 239
Hamburg 17
Holstein, statistics of 19
inhal:itants of 18
imports and exports 20
farming in 21
Probstei farmers 25
large or smallfarms 25
labor market 26
Angle cattle 26
Marsh cattle 27
Jutland cattle 27
Marsh sheep 27
products per acre 28
Hanover, Boyal stud at Celle 28
Horse Bbeeding in Europb—
Comparative table of colts pro-
duced 31
InPrussia 54
Prussian Stud in 1864 57
Results of stud in 1864 58
Age and number of stallions 59
Results of stud from 1821 to 1861 00
Average hight of stallions 61
In Saxony 161,179
Wurtemburg 203
Franoe. 253
Digitized by VjWWV IC
6
FAGB
Hoisesy Peroherons 51, ^6
English, in Prussia '. ... 55
in Prussia 116
in Europe 117,118
Hay equivalents in other food 42
Holland cattle 37,43
Jordonnowa 120
Jutland cattle 39
^Klippart, Jno. H., tour in Europe 17
Lupine Ill
Liebig, Baron 239
^iUking qualities of cattle 43
Montafauner cattle 40
Oldenburg cattle 39, 47
Prussia, climatology of 81
geology of 82,97
soil of 83
population of 84
size of farms 85
division of land 85
receipts and disbursements .. 86
cost of a laborer's family. . 88, 94
labor system in 88
condition of laborers 93, 95
laborers* wages 94
size and weight of a man and
woman 96
illegitimate births 96
oropsin 99
food for individual in 99
product per acre 100
classification of soil 100
rotation of crops in 104, 121
forage plants in Ill, 135
statistics 116
mode of agriculture in 118
tillage of the soil 119
culture of potatoes 120
Province of Saxony 120
rotation of crops 121
change of seeds 123
manures and manuring.. 124
harvesting and preserving
orope 127
Brandenberg Agricultural
Society, meeting of.. 127
wheat in 131
potatoes in 132
textile plants 132
sugar beeta 133
manufacture of sugar 134
PA6B
Prussia— Continued.
forage plants 135
distilleries and breweries 135
fruits and forests 136, 137
live stock — breeding animals. 137
Pommerania 138
cattle 138,140
Rhenish Provinces 139
sheep 139,146
cost of rearing a calf 141
Posen 119,143
law of Korordnung 144
^ Westphalia 144
swine 147
diseases of domestic animals 148
bees 149
silk 149
agricultural implements 149
milk 150
butter and cheese 151
agricultural organizations . . 151
** societies 153
*' education 154
Ree, 8. J*s system of agriculture 21
Stettin, history of 32
international Fair at . .^ . . . . 35
Cattle at Fair 36
Holland 38
Friesian 38
Oldenburghers 39
Breitenburghers ... 39
Jutland 39
Montaufauner 40
Allgauer 40
Simmerthaler and
Freiburgher 44
Voigtlander 45
Horses at Fair 49
entries of 50
Percheron 51
Trakeners 64
Sheep at Fair 62
classification of 62
entries of 63
Bambouillets 63
Broad-tailed 65
Campbells 65
Steam Plows at Fair 66
in Saxony 162, 183
inPruasia 139
native Germany 183
Wilster Marsh 27
Digitized by LjOOQIC
PA61
Shebp at Stettin Fair 62
BREEDING in Qermany 67
races of ** 67
Merinos 71
in Germany and France 72
in Saxony 73
in Austria 75
Negrettis 74
H. A. Steiger's 77
Wool markets in Germany 78
Sohleswig Holstein 18
Schleswig, statistics of 19
Simmerthaler Cattle 44
Sohwytz " 44
Swiss " 47
Statistics of Prussia 116
Slieep in Prussia 117
Swine " 137
Statistics of Bavaria 117
Swine in Saxony 162
Steiobb, H. a 165
rotation of crops 166
liTe stock 168
sheep Id8
" discussion with Nathusius 190
Sheep and swine in Wurtemburg 203
Saxont, proTince of 120, 140, 144
rotation of crops in 121
kingdom of. . 155
geology and climatology of . . 156
size of forms and diyision of
land 159
population 160
agricultural force 161
Hve stock 161, 176
oropsin 163
products of 164
rotation of 165
Agricultural Experimental
Station 169
agricultural implements .... 17 1
condition 172
cultivated crops 173
and altitude 174
model machine warehouse... 175
livestock 176
comparison of stock 177
horse breeding 179
record of the Stud 179
cattle breeding 181
milking qualities of... 184
expeiimenta in Ibeding 185
PASI
Saxony, sheep breeding 183
" Electoral 186
" Negrettis 187
" Steiger's Buck, No. 90. 189
" classified at Hamburg
Fair of '63 190
" sorting wool 193
Snails 237
Treasurer's Eeport n
Tender cattle 39
Yoigtland cattle 45
Westphalia 144
Wool, German markets of 79, 80
in the world's market 195
WURTBMBURa lOQ
geology of 199
climatology of 200
population of 200
births, deaths, d&c 201
division of land 202
statistics of livestock 203
^«^o 203
area in grapes and yield of wine 204
culture and varieties of grapes 204-i6
fr^t 206
horses— «tud 207
names of stallions 208
Cattle on King*s estate 209
races of at Weil 209
system of breeding.... 212
introduct'n of new blood 218
yield of milk of Holland,
AiC 214
atSeegnt 215
milking qualities of ... 216
Bosenstein race 216
composition of....... 217
Zebu 218
Bosensteiners,
pedigrees of 221
qualities of. 225
milking qualities.... 227
agriculture of 229
aoclimatization of cattle in... 230
pastures 234
agricultural products •••..... 235
crops, results of.. 238
silk crop of 289
snailB 237
Zooh 110
Digitized by LjOOQIC
8
PAET n.
Agbicultukb —
state Board, proceedings of 1
Annual Convention 9
Agricnltoral Education in Europe.... 11
Institutions, number of 12
College at Hohenheim 12
model farm at Hohenheim 14
plan of teaching and branches
taught 16
plan of daily order of lectures.. 18
Academy at Tharandt 22
branches taught 22
daily order of lectures 24
method of teaching.. . 28
Academy «at Eldena 30
daily order of lectures 32
Veterinary College at Berlin — 33
education in Ireland 35
Saxony 36
yiewBof Dr.Reuning 36
Liebig 39
Alexander, J. P 59
Anderson, Fergus 61, 79, 91
Agricultural College question 63
American Agriculture, wants of 71
Abstracts of Beports of Co. Societies.. 206
Agricultural Society, Union (District) 246
Agricultural Society, Union, of Lorain
county 245
Agrictjxturajl Condition of Ohio.. . 247
Gsoix>GiCAL Befort 249
SUurian Bocks 249
Devonian Bocks 249
Cliff Limestone 249
Black Slates 249
Waverly Sandstone 249
Conglomerate 249
Carboniferous 250
Limestone Coal 251
NelsouTille " 252
Iron Ore 255
Salt 259
Fireaay 261
Petroleum 261
Devonian Oil Fields 262
jIeteorology 264
Besults of observations 264,270,272
Sanitary climatology 269
LivbStock 279
Cattle'[by T. C. Jones] 280
Pedigree of Ohio Company's im-
ported bulls 282
Sheep, Southdowns 339
Madison County Cattle Sales. 292
Address to the Ohio Wool Grow-
ers* Convention 340
Swine 349
Crops — ^Annual average and acre-
age 351
Sorgho 352
Grapes 355
Andrews, E. B. (Geological Beport) .... 249
Address of N. S. Townshend 340
Api>endix [Bep. of Ohio Pom. Soc*y.]
Committee on Business 52
report of. 56
Conard, BeiJ 57, 68
County Commi*s and Co. fair grounds. 67
Committee to examine report of the
commission appointed by the Gov'r. 53
Beport of same 75
Cheese, Bartlett's system of making .. 170
County Societies' reports, abstracts of. 203
Allen 206
Ashland 206
Ashtabula 207
Athens 207
Auglaize 209
Belmont ••• 209
Butler 210
Carroll 211
Champaign 212
Clarke 213
Clermont 213
Clinton 215
Columbiana 215
Coshocton 216
Darke..... 217
Delaware 217
Erie 217
Fairfield 218
Franklin 219
Fulton 220
Greene 221
Guernsey 221
Hancock 222
Digitized by LjOOQIC
9
Beposts op County Societies— ConMn'd.
Barriflon 223
Highland 224
Huron 226
Jackson 227
Knox 227
Lawrence 228
Licking- 228
Logan 230
Lorain 230
Madison 230
Mahoning 231
Marion 231
Medina ...-.*...• 231
Miami 232
Morgan .• 232
Montgomery 233
Morrow 233
^ Muskingnm 233
Koble 234
Pickaway 235
Portage 235
Preb]e 235
Putnam 236
Eichland 237
Sandusky 237
Seneca 238
Shelby 238
Stark 238
Summit 239
Trumbull 239
Tuscarawas 239
Union 240
Van Wert 240
Wayne 241
Williams 242
Wood. 242
Wyandot 243
Warren 244
Climatology, sanitary 269
Crops of Ohio— statistics for 1865 365
annual ay'ge and acr'ge. 351
Cattleof Ohio— by T.C.Jones 280
sales in Madison county 292
Campbell, George W 355
Brawley, H. B 51,63
Branch, J. H 62,57,58,78
Buckingham, Jas 71
Bartlett, A. (on cheese) 170
Bateham, M. B 355
Bulls, pedigrees of Ohio Co's imported. 282
Donnelly, B. B 61, 67, 72
Dogs, taxation of. 69
Earl,W.C 89
Farmers' College, proposition 97
Farm crops, statement of 196
Greenep. K.... 51-2-3-6-7-8-9, 67,78, 80-9
dreer, Wm. F 54,79
Gardner, D. £ 63
Glover, J. M €9
Geological Beport 249
Grapes 355
Harris, S. D 54-9, 73-4-«, 87
Hyde, G. A. , (observations) 270
Jones, T. C 53, 67, 81, 280
Joy,T.F 5?-8-9, 61-2-7, 74
Jamison, J. B 62
Klippart, J. H., Address on Agricultur-
al Education 11
Liebig, views of an Ag. Education 39
Lang, Wm 51-2-3,62,78-9, 88
Live stock of Ohio 279
McMillan,D 60
Members, nomination of 52
election of 69
McLung, Wm. B 71,8,91
Mt. Union College proposition 96
Miami University proposition 98,87
Minority report of Gov. Commission. . . 99
Meteorology observations at Toledo. .. 264
Cleveland 270
Urbana... 272
Madison county monthly cattle sales.. 292
Nash, J. R 53
Pope,D. L 59,62
Parish, F.D 68,75,79,92
Pedigrees of Ohio Co's. Imported bulls. 282
Pomologioal Society, report of, [Appen-
dix.]
Reuning, Dr. Prof., view of agricultu-
ral education 36
Boosa,J.M 60,62
Report of Commissioners appointed by
Governor - 92
Side shows at Fairs 57
Stedman,Wm 69
Stevens, J. C 73
State Fair 102
cattle, entries and awards 103
statements 105
pedigrees of prize animals 107
horses, entries and awards J08
Jacks and mules, entries and
awards 118
Digitized by LjOOQIC
10
BTAone Fair— Continued,
PAGE.
Bheep, entries and awards 118
sheep, pedig's of Hnmrickhouse's 123
statement of scoured fleeces. 133
swine, entries and awards % . 136
poultry, entries and awards 136
Machinery, entries and awards.. 137
textile fabrics, entries and awards 165
househ'd fab., entries and awards 166
worked metals, &c., entries and
awards 167
flour and grain, entries and aw*dd 169
Cheese, entries and awards 170
butter, bread, &o., entries and
awards 176
Sor||^ho, entries and awards 178
vegetables and flowers, entries
and awards 180
State Tjlir— Continued.
PAOB.
Fruits, entries and awards 183
flue arts, Ac, entries and awards 190
commended list of premiums .... 191
Sanitary Climatology 269
Sheep (Southdowns) 339
Swine 349
Sorgho 352
Statistics of Hve stock in 1866 361
of crops of Ohio in 1866
Trembley, J. B., M.D. (observations)... 264
Townshend, N. S. (address) 340
Welsh, A. C. resolution 51, 4, 61, 70
Wrenn,A.H 60,352
Williams, Milo Q. (observations) 272
Willis, IrvingF .* 292
Digitized by LjOOQIC
TREASURER'S REPORT.
RECEIPTS.
1865.
January 4. Balance on hand at settlement 97,909 19
March 15. Beceived from Treasurer of State 1,800 00
May 13. " •• 1,500 00
" Comstock, for lumber 364 25
" Columbus city subsoriptiou 5,000 00
Sept'r 12. Receipts of Fair $895 41
13. " " 2,147 50
14. " " 5,866 98
15. " " 1,748 76
10,658 65
" forforage 38 73
'* refreshment stands 2,032 00
lumbersold 5,96^ 76
" from miscellaneous sources 667 20
" appropriation for engraving 300 00
364233 28
KXPE2n>ITURBS.
On account of Library tl|895 47
* Ohio Pomological Society 300 00
" refreshments 1,217 40
postage 153 71
express 182 20
" members of the Board ^. 9150
" materials 755 30
labor 2,027 78
" music 667 00
" forage 375 98
lumber 2,150 62
police 1,257 25
'* printing and advertising 1,165 42
" telegraph , 86 07
*' superintendents 24170
" premiums 5,19155
" Jno. H. Klippart, salary and expenses 1 ,966 31
" 6. 0. Frankenberg, clerk 480 00
" miscellaneous expenditures 2,196 45
Cash on hand 13,831 58
Total 36,233 28
The undersigned oommittee having examined the books and vouchers, as well as the
former committee's report, find the aoove to be correct, and submit it as their report.
N. J.- TURNEY,
D. McMillan.
CoUmhu, O., Jan. 30, 1866.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
MEMBERS OF THE BOARD FOR 1865-6.
1866.
FELSOK J. TUEKEY, President, CircleviUe, Pickaway Co.
WM. F. GBBER, Painesville, Lake Oo.
DAVID TAYLOR, Treasurer, Columbus, Franklin Co.
THOS. C. JONES, Delaware, Delaware Co.
JAMES FULLINGTON, Milford Centre, Union Co.
WM. B. MoLUNG, Troy, Miami Co.
J. W. ROSS, Perrysburg, Wood Co.
E. R. DONNELLY, Wooster, Wayne Co.
JAMBS BUCKINGHAM, Zanesville, Muskingum Co.
DAN'L MoMILLEN, Jr., Xenia, Greene Co.
JOHN H. KLIPPART, Secretary, Columbus, Franklin Co.
1866.
WM. B. MoLUNG, President, Troy, Miami Co.
DAVID TAYLOR, Treasurer, Columbus, Franklin Co.
NELSON J. TURNEY, Circleville, Pickaway Co.
WM. F. GREER, Painesville, Lake Co.
THOS. C. JONES, Delaware, Delaware Co.
JAMES FULLINGTON, Milford Centre, Union Co.
J. W. ROSS, Perrysburg, Wood Co.
R. R. DONNELLY, Wooster, Wayne Co.
JAMES BUCKINGHAM, Zanesville, Muskingum Co.
DANIEL MoMILLEN, Je., Xenia, Greene Co.
JOHN H. KLIPPART, Secretary, Columbus, Franklin Co.
ExEcruTiVE Committee foe 1866.
WM. B. McLUNG, PresH, JAS. FULLn^TGTON, J. W. BOSS,
DANIEL MoMILLEN.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
Digitized"by VjOOQIC
o
O
I
s
1^
4
Digitized by LjOOQIC
I
«
n
I
t
%
Digitized by LjOOQIC
Digitized by LjOOQIC
REPORT OF AN AGRICULTURAL TOUR IN EUROPE.
BY JOHN H. KLIPPAET.
Kblson J. TtJENBY, President Ohio State Board of Agriculture :
In accordance with the commission you were kind enough to give me,
and the letter of instruction from Hon. Thos. 0. Jones, I proceeded to
make a very hurried agricultural tour of Europe. I left Xew York city
on Saturday, April Ist, 1865, and after a somewhat rough passage on the
steam packet-ship Bomssia (Gapt. H. F. Schwenzen), landed in the old
city of Hamburg, situated on and near the mouth of the river Elbe, on
the 15th day of April — being the day after the one which hereafter will
ever be memorable in the History of the United States, as the day in the
evening of which President Lincoln was assassinated.
HAMBURGr is ouc of the Hanseatic or free towns ; that is, it is not un-
der the government of any kingdom, state or province, but is governed
by Senators — much like cities in the United States are governed by a city
council. The territory over which the authority extends embraces some
50 or 60 square (English) miles, Altoona, about a mile west of Ham-
burg, is in Holstein, and is subject to the laws of Holstein ; St. Paitli is
a town situated between Hamburg and Altoona, and is called the mor-
9tadt, or outskirts of Hamburg. St. GEOBaE is a town adjoining Ham-
burg on the east, and is also called a vorstadt
From its location Hamburg is necessarily one of the most important
commercial cities in northern Germany. Situated on the Elbe, and some
40 or 50 miles from its mouth ; the river being of suflBcient depth to per-
mit the entrance to the Hamburg docks of the largest commercial vessels
afloat, necessarily makes it the point from whence all the shipping from
Holstein, Mecklenburg, Hanover, and the provinces or countries through
which the Elbe flows and is navigable, centre at Hamburg. But Ham-
burg is a free city in another sense of the term ; it has no custom-houae«
and there are neither import nor export duties exacted from its commerce
with any portion of the globe. Any articles of commerce may be ship-
ped from any of the kingdoms, duchies, or provinces to Hamburg free
of duty, but all merchandize or articles of commerce are subject to duty
if shipped from Hamburg into any of the kingdoms, duchies or provinces^
A2
Digitized by LjOOQIC
18
as soon as they pass the boundary line of Hamburg. Hence parties ship-
ping reaping or mowing machines, or any other kind of agricultural ma-
chines, implements or products, from New York, can ship to Hamburg free
of duty, but the moment they pass the line into Holstein, Mecklenburg,
or Hanover, they are subject to duty.
ScHLESWiG-HoLSTEiN, OF the two duchies for the integrity of which
Denmark took up arms against Prussia and Austria, has an area of 351^o
geographic miles,* or 7,487 English miles; of these, Holstein embraces
about 3,500, or about one-twelfth of Ohio; or in other words, it is equal
in area to about two-thirds of the Western Reserve. The poimlation is
estimated at 999,320— of these 424,901 are in Schleswig and 574,419 in
Holstein ; I say estimated, because the last census was taken in 1862 or
1863, and the regular increase as deduced from former ceususses added.
In 1845 the population of Holstein was 480,028, and in 1855 it was
523,528.
The inhabitants are Jutes, Angles and Saxons ; races or tribes who
have remained here among the marshes and ungeuial climate from before
the foundation of the Roman Empire to the present day. They are very
hardy races, not tall in stature, but have great muscular development
and powers of endurance. The language of Holstein is ** Platt
Detjtsch," or, as the Holsteiners claim, the old Saxon tongue. It fre-
quently occurred to me whilst in Holstein, that if it was necessary to un-
derstand the Latin and Greek languages in order to understand the Eng-
lish thoroughly, why not understand the " Flatt Deutsch,'^ on which the
English is based originally ?
The highest point of land in Holstein — and that is in the eastern por-
tion— is about 300 feet above the level of the ocean. The eastern portion
is somewhat gently undulating ; the western portion is an almost absolute
level or flat plain or marsh. • In fact the whole of Holsteyi is a low level
plain, and fully two-thirds of it is marshy or marsh lands— especially that
portion of it which borders on the Elbe and the North Sea ; hence the
. names of large tracts of land, as ** Dit marsh," •• B^itefer-marsh," " Cam-
per marsh," &c. There is a ridge more or less fertile extending from
north to south throughout the two duchies — high and low moors, heaths,
stony ground and barren sand wastes characterize this ridge ; but it is
now nevertheless generally cultivated. On both sides of this ridge are
exceedingly fertile lands. The eastern portion produces the largest grain
crops ; but in the western portion where the same tracts have been pas-
• The German or geographic mile is fixed at 15 such miles to one degree of latitude ;
the Btatut* mile of England and America is 69^ miles to one degree of latitude. To re-
duce German square miles to English or American square miles, I employ the following
formula: ir)xl5=225 : 69.25xG9.25=4795.5o25, so are the number of German square milee
to the equivalent in English or American.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
19
tared for hundreds of successive years — especially in the marshes — such
fat cattle as are here produced are nowhere else to be found on the Con-
tinent The most celebrated dairies of the duchies are found partly in
Angeln (Schleswig) and partly on the large estates in the eastern portion
of Holstein ; the best cheese is almost equal to the Holland, and is made
in the Wilster marsh. Sheep-breeding is carried on to- a considerable ex^
tent only in the heath districts and in the marshes ; but the nobler (finer)
races of sheep are kept in small numbers only on the manors of the no-
bles and in Eiderstedt. Swine-breeding has increased with the export of
bacon to England ; the English and the half blood races are the most
popular. The Hungarian race had been introduced on some manors in
Holstein, but was soon abandoned. The best horses (the so-called liam's
heads) come from the VVislter marsh. Goats are not generally kept, but
are becoming more popular with the cottagers. Bees are kept almost
everywhere in this country, but as a general thing in. the old-fashioned
straw hive ; the more improved and rational system has not yet found
any encouragement there.
I have made it a point to obtain all the statistics I could of all the
countries visited. I cannot vouch for their reliability from the fact that
I believe they are all based on etftimates ; there is no place in all Europe
where the statistics are either annually or decennially collected and col-
lated as here in Ohio. The following were the only crop statistics I could
obtain, viz. : Schleswig — wheat, 200,000 tuns ; rye, 700,000 tuns ; barley,
600,000 tuns; oats, 1,200,000 tons; peas and beans, 100,000 tons; buck-
wheat, 180,000 tuns. Holstein and Lauenburg — wheat, rye, 800,000 tuns ;
barley, 650,000 tuns ; Oats, 1,900,000 tuns, mostly grown in the marshes;
peas and beahs, 300,000 tuns, mainly grown in the marshes, as mixed for-
age; buckwheat, 200,000 tuus, chiefly in the sandy portions of the
duciiies. Eap& is grown on the rich lands in the marshes. Since the
breaking out of the potatoe disease, very few comparatively are grown ;
flax to a very limited extent is grown, but clover is extensively grown.
Fruit trees are planted almost everywhere, but as an article of merchan-
dize fruit is raised in the Alsen Aaroe in the Sundewitt district, in the
Probster and in the Wilster marsh. The statisticts of live stock, in
1861-2 were as follows : Schleswig— horses, 72,333, cattle, 390,001, sheep,
362,219, swine, 87,867. Holstein— horses, 77,081, cattle, 290,372, sheep,
165,344, swine, 82,398. Estimating Holstein at 153.6 German square
miles ; then there are on each square mile 602 horses, 1,890 cattle, 1,076
sheep and 536 hogs or swine. The production of butter in the thichies may
be estimated at 26,000,000 pounds in round numbers ; of this there is con-
sumed an average of 25 pounds per head of the inhabitants = 22,500,000
pounds, and 3,500,000 pounds are exported.
With a very few exceptions timber is grown only on the east of the
Digitized by
Gobgle
20
ridge; in Holstein there are 91,500 tonne* of woodland. Beech timber is
by far the most predominant. Game consists mainly of deer, hares and
foxes ; stags and red deer are rare ; black deer are found in the inclosures
on estat-es only. Of fowls, wild geese, dncks, partridges, snipes and field-
fares are found almost everywhere. Swans are found on the east coast.
On the isles of Sylt and Foehr, teal are caught in large numbers in the
bird traps.
Fishing is not carried on as a business to such an extent as might be
exx>ected, although the waters abound in fish; the more recent inventions
in fishing are not employed there. The most extensive fisheries are on
the Schlei, which in 1862 yielded a net income of about $7,500 (10,000
Prussian thalers). In the bay of Eckernfoerde, 80 fishermen are engaged
in this business with 124 boats.
The country is not rich in minerals. There is no coal, but peat is dug
and prepared in "immense quantities for fuel. Marl^ so necessary for fer-
tilizing many tracts of land, is found "everywhere:" limestone comes
from Schleswig ; Segeberg furnishes six to seven thousand tuns of planter
annually ; the Oldesloe salines furnish about 7,000 tuns of salt annually.
Tile clay is found chiefly on the eastern slope. Iron ore exists on the,
ridge, but none has yet been worked. In 1862 the imports of the duchies
amounted to 19,000,000 Prussian thalerst and the exports to 16,000,000.
This excess of 3,000,000 thalers is occasioned by the increasing demand
for articles of luxury, and partly too by the fact that Altoona, with up-
wards of 50,000 inhabitants, the largest city in the duchies, is a free port.
Having given this general outline of Holstein, its inhabitants and pro-
ducts, something should be stated more in detail.
Geologically, Holstein belongs to the Tertiary formation, but its surface
is destitute of any considerable rock formation of this period. Almost
all the rocks found in it are erratic blocks of granite and gneiss ; and
notwithstanding the country was settled before the days of Julius Caesar,
yet up to this day no stone quarry has been found in all Holstein. The
soil, so far as I had any opportunity of observing it, is a strong loam ; in
gome localities a very strong clay, especially on the east side ; in others,
sandy. It is well watered with small streams, and in the northern part
jas many small lakes. It is in the eastern portion where we find the best
farming. There is considerable forest here, having an unusual proportion
of beach and oak ; the fields are very fertile. As a rule the hillocks or
elevation^ are arable, and the intervening depression, called a ** valley,"
is either meadow or pasture. In this eastern portion is where the great-
est number of estates owned by the nobility, the crown or government,
and the church, are located. These estates vary in size from several hun-
* A '* tonnt^* IB abont 1| acres ; it ia 240 square ruthen of 16 feet square each.
X The Prussian thaler is about 75 cents.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
21
dred to even ten or twenty thousand tonnen; but even in these large
estates there is seldom over 1,000 to 2,000 tonnen in a body ; the remain-
der, being in smaller tracts and scattered over a considerable extent of
country, is generally leased to dairymen, farmers, or is in small parcels
and leased to small farmers. But the area of the principal farms in pri-
vate hands is from 300 to 700 tonnen. When the ciown or church lauds
are leased to tenants, they are leased either for a term of years, or as
hereditary in the family, and are leased for about $6.00 (10 thalers Beichs
miinze) in addition to the local tithes aftd rates, which amount to fully
$3.00 more per tonne, and to these are yet to be added the crown taxes
which the tenant must pay.
Here, too, we find the most recent improvements in agriculture, such
as underdraining, irrigation, and improved agricultural machines and
implements. Here, also, we find what is not found on the continent
proper: laborers' houses and farm houses on the estate or farm. Every
large farm has cottages for day laborers, sometimes clustered around- the
residence of the proprietor, but sometimes, also, isolated or scattered over
the estate. Most of the large farms here have windmills, tileries, lime-
kilns and distilleries.
The majority of the farms, however, have an area of 50 to 80 tonnen of
arable land and a proportionate area of meadow. Then there are many
who own the so-called •* parcels," which sometimes contain more, some-
times less, than a hide of land ; there are those, too, who have half or
quarter hides only; then •'cotters," (Jcathners) who have from 6 to 10
tonne ; and landisters, who have from 3 to 4 tonne. Good sized farms —
from 60 to 80 tonne — are divided into 8 or 10 tracts, each one of which is
surrounded by a hedge, in which a regular system of rotation is con-
ducted.
Before proceeding further with the general description of farms and
farming in Holstein, I will give a brief statement of the rotation of crops
practiced by Mr. Sigismund John Ree, a native of Holstein, who has
traveled extensively in the United States, lived awhile in England, speaks
the English language well, as also the German and ** Piatt DeuUch.*^ I
visited his estate, lying near Alt Rahlstedt, beyond Wandsbeck, where
myself and family were kindly received, and hospitably and generously
entertained. He owns in fee simple 260 tonnen land. The greater part
of this land has a very heavy clay subsoil, but the soil itself is an excel-
lent loam, in places inclined to be sandy. There is a tilery on the farm,
and he has it all well underdrained. His system of rotation may be
caUed a ten years course, as follows :
First year. — After a field has been in pasture three years, it is plowed
down at the time of first stubble, then before winter sets in it is again
plowed, but deeper than the first plowing, and is then well harrowed.
Daring the winter, manure is hauled out and spread over it. Early in
Digitized by LjOOQIC
22
spring it is shallow plowed ; then, two or three weeks later, it is well har-
rowed, aud again plowed deeper than the spring plowing. It is then
sown with a mixture of oats, tares, (vetches) barley, and sometimes spring
rye. This ciop is called meng fatter , (mixed forage) and i^ cut as soon as
the grain begins to set. Mr. Eee argues that by cutting it before the
grain is set, or just as it is beginning to set, that the plant food and
manurial strength required to form the grain is not extracted from the
soil, and that, therefore, the benefits of manuring will be longer apparent
in the subsequent crops. This ** meng futter '• crop is cured and carted
home for winter feed. The stubble is turned down ; later in the season,
harrowed and again plowed, and in September sown in winter rye. A
portion of this field is reserved, in which potatoes and turnips are planted.
In winter time the meng futter is cut up on a straw cutter, mixed with
sliced turnips, and fed to the cows.
Second year, — Beap the rye when ripe; turn down the stubble, and, be-
fore winter sets in, plow it ten inches deep ; put on no manure, but let the
field be bare during the winter.
Third year. — Plow it well and harrow with the Swedish harrow. Sow
in oats, timothy and clover, (mixed.) Cut the oats when ripe in Sep-
tember.
Fourth year. — Cut the clover and timothy twice for hay — once when the
clover is first in bloom, and then again as aftermath.
Fifth year. — Cut the clover for greensoiling cattle.
Sixth year. — Turn in cattle to pasture, and then fallow as in the first
year.
This farm is a dairy farm, and Mr. Ree does not believe that grain grow-
ing (wheat for market) is at all profitable ; therefore he grows no wheat.
It is cheaper to purchase the American fiour in Hamburg, than to grow
wheat for bread. The household bread is rye bread, or black bread, and
wheat bread is only occasionally ^een on the table.
He keeps eighty milch cows of the Angle breed or race; he has three
of the Jutland race, but does not like them as well as the Angles. These
cows are kept in the cow house all the time, except during the months of
June and July they are in the pasture fields one half of each day. In
winter they are fed with the "meng futter" and turnips, but they are
green-soiled all the remainder of the year. They are milked at 3 o'clock
A. M. and at 3 P. M. The milk is taken to Hamburg in large wooden
vessels, hung on the sides of a frame work which takes the place of the
bed or body of the wagon ; the wagon wheels are high ; the wagon is
very narrow, but long coupled; and the vessels containing milk being
slung on the sides and under the wagon, the milk is not churned as it
would be if it were in vessels resting on their bottom.
He has twelve head of horses, mostly heavy Danish horses, for farm
Digitized by LjOOQIC
23
work, bnt has a few thoroughbred Saflfolks. He does not keep many
swine, but has a few choice white Suflfblks and white Berkshires.
He never purchases a cow in milch. He told me that if a man has a
milch cow for sale, that there must be something wrong about her, and
that no man would oiSfer a really good milch cow for sale ; that if com-
pelled to raise money, any judicious person would part with almost any-
thing else on the farm., rather than with a good milch cow; and further-
more, that in many years' experience, he has never seen a milch cow
offered for sale that did not have some fault. But he purchases heifers
in calf, and then he trains them himself, and is then willing to assume
the responsibility of their having faults. As soon as the cows fail in
milk on aecount of their age, they are sold. He keeps a Breitenburgher
bull, a splendid animal, but does not rear any cattle. The calves are sold
either to adjoining farmers or to the butcher. He says it don't pay, to
rear calves on a dairy farm; "and in fact," said he, " I don't think it
pays to rear calves anywhere — ^that is, I don't think any person could
make any money by making it his entire business. For me, I know it iA
much cheaper to go to Angleland (just beyond Kiel) and purchase heifers
in calf."
During the international exhibition in Hamburg, in 1863, he purchased
an American milking machine and a rotary harrow, but he soon threw
them aside. I found this American milking machine in many places
throughout Germany, but it nowhere gave satisfaction ; the gutta-percha
tubes which embrace the teats soon become rigid and break, and the ma-
chine is then entirely useless; besides, it is liable to get out of repair in
other respects.
Mr. Eee has thrown aside almost all the old Holstein farm implements,
and has adopted the use of British and American ones in their stead.
For instance, he used the Howard plow of England; must import every
plow and every portion of the plow from England ; yet he claims that it
"pays well" to do so, in the dispatch and superior performance of the
English over the Holstein plow. But there is great difficulty in getting
the farm laborers to use the "foreign" implements. He related to me
that when he sent the first Howard plow to the field with the workmen,
they declared that they could do nothing with the crazy English tool ; but
as he had used them in England with good results, he felt sure they must
be good in Holstein. So he took hold of the plow himself, and it did
splendid, work. This touched the pride of the Holstein laborers, and they
were deeply mortified to find the ^naster a better plowman than they were,
who had been plowmen all their lives. They took the plow in hand again,
but contrived, through sheer intent, to break it ; but as he not only had sev-
eral of these plows, but had also many of the parts in duplicate for each
plow, it was soon mended. When the workmen found that he insisted
Digitized by LjOOQIC
24
on using the Howard, and would not let them go back to their old and
awkward Holsteiners, they succumbed, and now the plowing on his farm
is the pride and the marvel of the whole neighborhood — but not a single
farmer will follow his example.
I mentioned that the farm is well underdrained. He has a tilery on
the farm, and manufactures not only his own tile, but for his neighbors.
When he commenced underdraining, his neighbors all laughed at him ;
and when they saw abundant harvests as the result of it, they were fain
to attribute the results to other causes — to manuring, to deeper plowing,
careful culture, &c.; but when his crops were heavy year after year, and
those of his neighbors did not equal them with all their manuring, deep
plowing, and careful culture, they concluded that underdraining in wet
seasons might have a good effect, but that it would not pay. He therefore
made a present of enough tile to underdrain one field to his neighbor,
and gave him detailed instructions about putting them down, &c. Mr.
Eee's drains are from 30 inches to 3 feet deep ; the neighbor put none
deeper than 20 inches, some not over 12 or 15 ; the consequence was that
they were frozen up till midsummer, and of course did more damage than
good; and thus was underdraining checked in that immediate neigh-
borhood.
Every field and roadside was bounded by a hedge. These he consid-
ered useless, and has removed hedges enough to recover the use of twenty
acres of land which was occupied by them. He assured me that he had
really gained /orfy acres, for the hedges occupied twenty acres themselves,
and then they shaded twenty acres more, so as to make them unproduc-
tive. Now, where land is worth $125 per acre, the gain of forty acres is
equal to a gain of $5,000, aside from the annual product of the forty
acres.
He never purchases barn-yard manure. All that is made on the prem-
ises is very carefully preserved, and that produced by eighty cows and
twelve horses, properly managed, is all that is required. But all his
neigbors purchase manure, and are careless with what they produce. He
tried super-phosphate on rye with the most flattering results. He has a
large tank for the reception of liquid manure, and believes it to be very
efficacious.
He employs nine men constantly, during the entire year. In harvestinic
and haying he pays the men one mark (about 30 cents) a day ; the women
from one-fourth to one- third of this amount; and employs boys and
women to weed and pick stones off the fields.
I have given this extended description of this farm because it is re-
garded as being the model farm of southeastern Holstein, and Mr. Eee is
regarded as the most successful farmer in the Duchy. He values hig
farm, including stock and implements, at $60,000.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
25
The Holsteiners are not as mnch in favor of such great division of
lands, or what is the same, they are not as favorably impressed with very
small tracts of land as they appear to be in Hannover, Brunswick, Hessia
and Wurtemburg. Although there are many in Holstein who own no
more than four or five acres, yet there are very few who think of farming
with half an acre, or half a dozen isolated tracts of a quarter of an acre
in each one, as is the ca«e in the couDtries just mentioned. Notwith-
standing the fact that more may be produced from a small tract than
from a large one, in proportion to the area cultivated, because, as a rule,
the small tract is always more carefully and thoroughly cultivated than
the large one, yet the necessary force, implements and arrangements re-
quired to cultivate a large tract are less, relatively, than that of a small
one. Mr. F. Trummer, in Holstein, cites the following case in point:
"There was a very detailed and correct set of books conducted for a
series of years, in which every item of income and expenditure were care-
fully noted, of two adjoining estates, in which the soil, lay of the land,
the intelligence of the proprietors, and the system of husbandry, were as
much alike as it is possible to find. The one farm consisted of 100 ton-
nen, and the other of 1500. The proportion of the net income from pro-
ducts sold was as 1 to 17 Vy. The labor required on the small farm was
that of 3 families and 7 day-laborers, whilst that of the large one required
only 51 families and 42 day-laborers."
Thus the large farm gained an excess of an annual average of nearly
2| yearss' product of the small farm over and above a normal proportion ;
whilst the number of day laborers for the large farm was only two-fifths
of the proportion required for the small one, whilst the excess of a normal
proportion of families on the large farm wa« two-fifteenths only.
The Duchy of Holstein averages your acres to each individual. The
rural population is very unequally distributed. In the north-eastern por-
tion of Holstein is a province called Probstei, in which the population is
very dense, and where there is a great excess of laborers. These Probstei
laborers ave cheerfully employed everywhere, when they see proper to
leave their province in search of labor. They aie very industrious and
intelligent, and are employed in ditching, underdraining, marling, har-
vesting and preparing rape seed, threshing, thatching, &c. Many will
not leave home, but employ their time in making straw hats, mats, linens,
and other such like industrial pursuits. The land owners are all in com-
fortable circuinstances, have a rational system of agriculture, keep their
land in good heart, and the farm seeds from that region are famed all
over Grermany.
Cattle raising and dairying are not much in favor in Probstei. The
majority of farmers here follow out a twelve year system of rotation ; or,
in other words, have the farm divided into twelve parcels or tracts. After
Digitized by LjOOQIC
26
it lias been pastared several years, then it is summer fallower'^and plowed
three to four times; then 2d year in rye; 3d year, in barley; -tn. " meng
fdtter;" 6th, rape; 6th, rye with white clover and grasses; 7th, pasture ;
8th, pasture and fallow; 9th. wheat; 10th, peas, vetches, flax and pota-
toes ; 11th, oats and red clover; 12th, clover for hay ; then pasture again
as tit first. When it is determined to put an entire tract in potatoes, they
follow the wheat crop, and are succeeded by a crop of barley. But there
are many departures from this system of rotation, yet when it is followed,
it is found to be the best. The soil is plowed very deep ; usually three
horses are attached to the plow.
In the central or more sandy portions of Holstein, there appears to be
no regular system of farming ; rye, buckwheat and oats are grown as
suits the convenience or notion of the farmers; there are sometimes five
successive crops of rye taken from the same field, and then it is put into
pasture for a series of years.
The entire south and west coasts of Schleswig and Holstein consists of
marshes. They are irom five to fifteen miles wide, and have been gained
from the ocean and Elbe, much in the same manner that the famous fens
of Lincolnshire, in England, have been secured. Embankments have
been thrown up during the tbby or during a period of low tides, so that
when the waters returned the embankment was not disturbed. In course
of time these embankments were increased by the ocean itself, depositing
sand, marine plants, &c., on them. When the soil thus gained had be-
come solid and in arable condition, then another embankment was made,
and so on, until now an average of seven and a half miles in width has
been gained from the ocean, and constitutes some of the most productive
portions of Holstein. Boot and grain crops are not unfrequently grown
for a period of forty to fifty years before it is pastured. Clover forms
the staple pasture, and after having been clovered for three or four years,
another forty or fifty years rotation is again pursued.
There is a kind of Uibor market at Wbsselburen, in tl Ditmasrch
district, and is conducted somewhat as follows : All the unemployed
laborers, for many miles round about, congregate in the village on Sun-
day, and attend the service in the several churches there. The benedic-
tion is scarcely pronounced when all, both those seeking employment and
those seeking laborers, rush to the market place and engage laborers for
a week, or a longer period of time. Even the unemployed Probsteiera
seek this labor market to obtain employment. The system has been
practiced many years, and saves both the employer and employed a great
deal of time.
The native cattle of Holstein are the Angle cattle, which are far more
numerous than any other kind or race. They are small animals, with
fine bones, short-legged, rather than otherwise, a very fine, small head
Digitized by LjOOQIC
27
and delicately formed neck. The predominating color is red or brown,
bnt there are many dun, black or spotted ones. According to the amount
of food consumed, this race give a more abundant supply of milk than
any other in the duchies. It is a very highly esteemed race — is much
sought after for its milking qualities and kindliness in taking on flesh.
The flesh is very fine, tender and juicy. On account of the great demand
for stock of this race, cattle dealers have not unfrequently gone in Jut-
land and other points, and made purchases which they represented as
being genuine Angles, but in recent years a law has been passed that
every breeder of Angle stock must brand the calves with the letters A.
E, {Angle BaceJ in order to prevent imposition.
In these marshes are found a race of cattle much larger and heavier than
the Angles, larger boned, and of a dark, reddish brown, and known as
the Marsh race. This race seems to be adapted to the marshes, but does
not do well on the drier and higher uplands. Upon the rich pastures of
the marshes, for a time after calving, the best cows will give from forty-
eight to sixty-four pounds — from six to eight gallons of milk daily. But
the milk is not near so rich as that of the Angles — ^in fact I was shown a
statement, apparently well authenticated, to the effect that the milk of
the Marsh race contained no more than two per cent, of cream, whilst
that of the Angle race contained sixteen per cent. One thing is very
certain, namely : The butter of the Marsh race is not near so sweet or
•* nutty " as that of the Angle race.
In Schleswig, rather than in Holstein, are found many of the Jutland
race of cattle. These have very fine bones, and are long in proportion to
their height, and are, as a rule, short-legged. The prevailing color is
gray, black, or gray and black mixed with white, but very rarely red or
brown. This race is more highly esteemed for its early maturity and
readiness to fatten than for its milking qualities.
These marshes are famous places for pasturing horses, and many make
this an exclusive business. The horses thrive well on the pastures, and
many overworked, as wdl as colts, are purchased by farmers, turned into
pastures until they are in good condition, and then taken to the horse
market.
In the marshes are found also sheep known as the Marsh sheep. Those
that I saw I should pronounce decidedly poor stock for any peison
,to invest in ; they are very leggy, long necks, ill-formed body and head.
Bnt I have been assured that they are in great demand, and that flocks
of them have been taken even to ^ on them Russia. They are undoubt-
edly very hardy, for they are left to shift for themselves summer and win-
ter, in all kinds of weather— except at lambing time, the ewes and lamba
are housed. They are said to produce a very heavy fleece of wool of
about the Lincolnshire or Leicester quality. This wool is well known, all
Digitized by LjOOQIC
28
over Germany, as the "eidebstedtisohe " wool, and for certain fabrics
is in great demand.
In some portions of Holstein the pastures are plowed down every three
or four years, but in the clay lands both the meadows and pastures are
undisturbed by the plow until moss makes its appearance in them, then
they are at once plowed down. In the marshes the cattle are grazed on
the pastures, not so much for the purpose of avoiding the labor of green-
soiling as for the purpose of compacting the soil. Buckwheat, flax, pota-
toes, hemp and mustard do not do well on these marshes. Mr. Geo. Fred.
Dittman, a very accurate observer, as well as a thorough agriculturist
states that the average product of these marshes are: Eape, forty to
forty-four bushels per acre; wheat, forty-four to forty-eight bushels;
fall barley, eighty to eighty-eight bushels; spring barley, fifty-six. to sixty
bushels ; beans, forty to forty-four bushels ; oats, one hundred and twen-
ty to one hundred and thirty bushels. All the cereals, together with rape
and beans, are harvested with sickles ; although reapers and mowers are
being introduced in several localities.
Immediately southeast of Hamburg is a marsh occupied by a colony of
Hollanders, who retain the peculiar garb of by-gone centuries, calling
themselves Yieblander ; (that is fowr landers — probably from being
situated on the junction of four countries,) they devote their entire atten-
tion to growing fruits, flowers and vegetables, and enjoy the reputation
of producing the finest qualities of these in northern Europe. They iso-
late themselves as much from the world in general, and retain their pecu-
liar habits, manners, customs and speech, as the Quakers do in this coun-
try. The price of farming lands in Holstein range from $80 to $350 per
acre, according to quality and location.
The Agricultural College is at Copenhagen, in Denmark, proper, and
exists as a portion of the university course of education. Every student
entering this college must have had three years actual experience on the
farm itself, and the course of the college embraces both the science and
practice of agriculture.
KING OP HANOVER'S STUD.
Across the Elbe from Hamburg is the town of Harburg, ifrom which a
railway leads to Celle, the seat of the Royal Hannoverian Stud. The
trip from Harburg to Celle by rail, affords one many interesting sights.
The village of Pardewieck was a great city when Hamburg was merely a
lot of fishermen's huts, but Henry the Lion-hearted destroyed the city in
1189, and it has never since attained its former size or glory. Between
Luneberg and Celle are the famous Luneberg heaths or wastes. The
country is more undulating, and in the lower places one may see what in-
dustry and cultivation can make even out of a heath soil ; on the eleva-
Digitized by LjOOQIC
29
tions were pine forests grown by art, and the lower and moist valley many
varieties of deciduous trees ar^ cultivated. The meadows are irrigated,
and, I was informed, produced good crops ; in the fields, crops of pota-
toes, rye, peas, turnips, buckwheat and lupines are grown — clover and
other forage plants do not succeed well. Near by Celle, fruit trees are
extensively grown, and, I am told, do very well. On the pastures large
flocks of " Heides-chnuckers" (a variety of sheep) were to be seen with
herds of cattle, that represented the black and red spotted lighter breeds
of the low districts.
Arrived at Celle I went through the six large stables containing the Boy al
Stud ; the grooms and servants were polite, and all were tall, well-built,
muscular men. The stables are well built, aiid kept exceedingly clean.
The horses stand partly in single boxes, partly in separate stalls ; every
box or stall has a slate attached upon which the name, age, pedigree and
I>erformance of the animal are written. The stalls are calculated to ac-
commodate 228 horses ; at present there are 224 stallions there, including
the young and not fully developed ones.
Twenty-one thoroughbred horses, foaled in England, were shown me ;
among these was a twelve-year old black stallion, *• Saunterer,^^ that had
von " glorious triumphs" on the turf, and was purchased for this stud
at an enormous price. It was difficult to decide which of the numerous
**noble^* and beautiful horses was the finest and most excellent; for my-
self, acting upon the principle that a child is pleased without being able
to assign the reason, I liked best of all a fifteen-year old chesnut stallion,
" Epaminondas," bred by Mr. Ford, of England, a get of Epirus out of a
mare by Plenipotentiary. He ran in England twenty- six times, and won
three times. I was shown seven thoroughbred stallions foaled in Ger-
many ; they were powerfully built and were beautifully formed — espe-
cially *' Hamef^ and " Tambonr.^^ I was shown eighteen Hannoverian
saddle-horses, mostly half and three-quarter bloods, among which was
the fifteen-year old half-blood black stallion '* Mor^TEr^EaBO," a six-year
old black stallion, " Bestedt," got by Montenegro, a six-year old bay stal-
lion, *'UchOy" the get of Epaminondas, and others, descendants of the
horses first mentioned. In other stalls were Mecklenberg, Prussian, and
English saddle-stallions. An old black stallion, nearly twenty years old,
*' Cottager," must have been a famous horse in his prime, and I was told was
very generally admired; The carriage-horses were of Hannoverian, Meck-
lenbargian, Prussian and English parentage, very well built, and excellent
and beautiful forms. In the last stable I visited were the draught horses ;
among which were the Pommeranian stallion *' Bulldoj^," and eight
English stallions ; among the latter, a six-year old roan stallion, '' Bbown
Head," and the seventeen-year old sorrell stallon " Prickwillow," were
the most prominent The latter is a " Norfolk," and is the only stallion
Digitized by LjOOQIC
30
of the entire lot of which I could obtain an engraving or likeness. Al-
though I purchased lithographic prints of twenty four stallions of this
stud, the animals whose portraits I purchased were all dead except
Prickwillow.
This stud was commenced in 1735, under the superintendence of a for-
ester, named Brown. At first Holstein stallions were purchased and dis-
tributed to six different stations ; daring that winter eight of these stal-
lions were kept at Oelle. The fee for service up to 1838 wa^ one bushel
oats, and when the colt was foaled, one thaler in money was to be paid
to the establishment
In 1748 Stegemann took charge of the stud as superintendent; at that
time it contained 40 stallions, and the average number of stallions did
not exceed 50 until 1770, in which year they begat 1,541 colts. The seven
years* war not only checked all agricultural developments and progress,
but also checked the operation of the Royal Stud. In 1764-5 it possessed
1 English stallion, 13 Danish, 31 Holstein, 3 Prussian, 2 Neapolitan and
1 Spanish, distributed in 32 stations. During the twenty years from 1765
to 1785, and again from 1814 to 1839, stallions from the stud were dis-
tributed to all important points throughout the kingdom.
During the French invasion in Hannover, in 1803, the Superintendent,
Koch, fled with 93 stallions into Mecklenburg, in order to prevent them
ti'om fulling into the hands of the French. Not more than thirty of these
stallions ever found their way back to Celle, and during the Napoleonic
wars, the stud was entirely suspended. In 1814 it was re-established by
the purchase of new horses, and in 1818 it had 110 stallions. In 1839 the
distribution of stalhons throughout the country from the royal stud was dis-
continued. King EiiNEST Augustus donated 26 of them to the National
Stud, and ordained that in future there should exist but one Bojal Stud at
Celle, and which might be increased to 210 or 12 horses. Since that time
the National Stud has been in the charge of Mr. voN Spobcken, the
present eihcient Sux>eriulendent. At present it contains —
A. Thoroughbreds purcha«edin England 31
*• foaled in Germany 8
— 39
B. Saddle, Hunting and Army Horses —
Hanuoverian Stallions 51
Mecklen burger " 42
Prussian " ]3
English " 4
—113
C. Carriage Horses-—
HannoverLan Stallions 8
Mecklenburger •* 27
Prussian " 10
English •* 11
— 56
Digitized by LjOOQIC
31
D. Draught Horses--
HannoveTian Stallions 1
Prnssian ** 1
English " 1
— 3
224
Of these, 63 were foaled iu Hannover, 69 in Mecklenberg, 29 in Prussia,
mostly in Pommerauia, and 63 English sUillions. During the ten years
from 1853 to 1863, an average of 12,319 mares were served annually by
the stallions of the !National Stud ; during the year 1863, 13,051 mares
were served, of which 12,537 mares were from Hannover, and 514 from
neighboring places, as Hamburg, Bremen, Prussia, Holstein, Oldenburg,
Brunswick, Hesse, &c., &c. According to these figures, each stallion
served an average of 61 mares. The fee for common stallions is one
Thaler, but for the half-blooded up to the thoroughbred stallions, the fee
is 2, 3, 4 and 5 Thalers. Beside this fee, a fee of 3 Thalers is to be paid
for every colt foaled regardless of the quality or blood of the horse.
During the ten years from 1851 to 1861, the colts foaled alive were nearly
67 per cent of the mares covered.
When in Prussia I took considerable pains to collect statistics of the
"foaling," in order to ascertain the relative proportion of horse colts and
mare colts, as well as to ascertain the per centage of colts foaled from the
entire number of mares served, and I confess I was somewhat surprised
at the results. Here in Ohio we have no data whatever upon this sub-
ject, and I think if every keeper of a stallion were, by law, obliged to
make returns somewhat similar to those of Hannover and Prussia, that
much might be learned from them, and a better sjstem of breeding in-
troduced. The results of my investigations are :
In Hannover — 56.8 colts to every 100 mares served, average of ten years.
In Austria — 54.4 " " ** ** " twenty years.
InPrassia-53.6 " " " " " ^ five years.
In England— 62.5 " " " " in 1865*
, InFrance-60. " " " " t
Or an average of about 65 per cent, for these three Germanic kingdoms.
Evidently some natural law, relative to reproduction, is violated, and it
would certainly be well to ascertain what is thus violated.
Colts 711
FHlies 730
Barren Mares 536
Slipped Foal 134
Died before foaling 60
Not covered previous year 71
Covered by balf-bred borses 24
^Castaway before foaling 36
* Beirs life in London. <
Total return of brood mares for 1866 2303
t De L'Espooe Cheyaline in France, 1850.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
32
The stud at Celle is maoaged by a director, commissioners of the royal
stud, a receiver and an accountant. The employees are a horse-breaker
and a veterinary surgeon. The servants are — a "saddle-servant" or
overseer of other servants, two forage masters, one steward of the maga-
zine, one farrier, and sixty -four servants in livery ; these latter are divi-
ded into four classes, according to their salaries. Besides these there are
some sixty servants of a lower grade, who " work for their board," and
are dismissed at the close of the season.
The stud is under the immediate control of the Minister of the Interior,
and has an annual appropriation of $31,350 from the Eoyal Treasury.
The average expense for a series of years, with an average of 224 stal-
lions, amounted to $66,000 ; the deficit is made up by the service and
foal fee. The expense of each stallion thus appears to be about $300 per
annum, and this includes the purchase of new stallions; or, deducting
the amount of purchase money, there remains about $220 as the annual
expense of each stallion.
CHAPTER n.
From Hamburg I went to Berlin, in Prussia, passing through the prov-
ince of Mecklen burg. Making Berlin my head quarters for nearly a month,
I traveled over a portion of Mecklenburg, Mark Brandenburg, Pomerania
and Posen. Shortly after my arrival at Berlin, the International Fair at
Stettin took place, and as this Pair was one of the objects of my visit to
Europe, I will describe it before' touching on the agriculture of Prussia.
THE INTERNATIONAL FAIR AT STETTIN.
. Stettin is the capital of the province of Pommerania, and situated on the
river Oder, eighteen miles (German) north of Berlin, or about eighty-three
English miles. So long as Pommerania remained a dukedom, Stettin was
the residence of the reigning duke and the royal family as well as of the
nobility of the province. The last reigning grand-duke was Bogislaw
XIV, who was permitted to rule until his death in 1673 ; but in the treaty
of peace, in Westphalia in 1648, Pommerania was ceded to Sweden, and in
the treaty at Stockholm, in 1720, it was attached to Prussia. Portions
of the city evidently are some 700 or 800 years old ; for the Saint Peter
and Paul church was founded in 1124 by order of Bishop Otto, of Bam-
berg, in 1124. It was somewhat damaged by the siege of 1677, more of
it was destroyed by the war of 1806, but in 1816-'17 it was fully restored
in all its former details. The recent and present Kings of Prussia, Fred-
erick William IV and William I, have bestowed upon it several very
beautiful images and paintings on glass. The city does not occupy as
Digitized by LjOOQIC
33
much territory as Columbus, and is inclosed by a stout brick wall, the
several gates of which, especially the one opening on the Berlin load, are
splendid monuments of ornamental masonry. It contains about 70,000
inhabitants, 1.000 Catholics, and a military garrison of 6,944 soldiers.
It is one of the most important cities of the ZoUverein. The Oder river,
which is very narrow here, about like the Cuyahoga at Cleveland, or
Schuylkill at Philadelphia, is very deep, and admits vessels drawing 16
and 17 feet of water. There is an immense amount of shipping done here,
consisting chiefly of grain, wood, spirits, and zinc as articles of exx)ort«
and dye-woods, fish-oil, and groceries as imports.
Two hundred sea-going vessels are owned in this place, and thousands
from other lands are here in port every year. The city itself is very irreg-
ularly laid out. In the old part of the city there are scarcely any parallel
streets^ but they are located at every other possible angle to each other,
except at right angles. The streets are narrow, well bouldered, and kept
clean. The houses are the usual five and six story houses of northern
Germany, in which several families reside in each story. The exterior of
the buildings are stuccoed with a cement which here is very durable. I
was assured that one stuccoing properly put on at first would last fully
fifty years. This stuccoing gives the houses the appearance o* having
been built of a light-colored or grayish stone, and really presents a much
better appearance than our glaring red brick walls in the Stiites. The
country around about is a low plain, especially on the right bank of the
Oder, which in time of freshets is overflowed for miles, and can be used
for no other purpose (agriculturally) than as water meadows, or as mead-
ows in which wild or sour grasses are grown. The shore and country on
the left bank are much more elevated, and a portion of the new town or
portion of the city is fully 150 feet above the level of the river, and a
little north of the Berlin gate is a hill 250 feet high. From this hill one
of the grandest panoramic views may be obtained of many miles of the
surrounding country.
There were really two exhibitions here, the one an ** industrial exhibi-
tion," under the auspices of the Polytechnic Society of Stettin and patron-
age of the crown-prince, and the other an " agricultural exhibition," con-
sisting of an exhibition of live stock, agricultural machinery, artificial
manures, and everything else connected with agriculture, horticulture,
&c. Party lines were tolerably broadly drawn between the polytechniste
and agriculturists. Before the reader can fully appreciate the party
spirit, it will be well to explain the relative position occupied by the poly-
technist as well as that of the agriculturist.
In the first place, the agriculturist {landwirth or gutsbezitzer) is the owner
of a large estate, the average of which estates in the provinces of Meck-
lenburg, Mark Brandenburg, Pomerania, Prussia, Poses and Silesia,
A3
Digitized by LjOOQIC
34
average about 2,000 morgen^ or 1,600 acres. This landwirth is in the line
of nobility ; if not already a nobleman, he may purchase a patent of no-
bility. The polytechnist cannot make any such purchase. The landwirth
is ex-officio a member of the village council, and may be elected to the
national house of representatives. The polytechnist holds no office what-
ever ; he cannot by law change his occupation. The landwirth may com-
mence distilling, or any other kind of polytechnic establishment he sees
proper on his estate by employing competent practical men to conduct
the business for him. In a word, the agriculturist or landwirth or guts-
besitzer (for they are all convertible synonymous terms) is a privileged
man, whilst the polytechnist nowhere (in this country) can aspire to be
more than a *• greasy mechanic,^^ as the confederates said of the Yankees.
Hence party spirit runs very high, and. hence the contest as to which
should have the best exhibition. The polytechnists call themselves ** dem-
ocrats," and denounce the agriculturists as " aristocrats." There is no
equivalent for our term ** farmer." Those who do the toiling and drud-
gery on the farm are called " day laborers^'''* even though they have been
hired for a term of years ; others are shepherds, cowherds, &c., &c. The
agriculturist of the modem school is a highly educated gentleman, cour
teous, polite in his manners, very companionable, indeed ; many of them
graduates of agricultural colleges. All that I met were deeply interested
in agricultural education, experimental farms, &c. ; in fact, any of these
graduates, I think, are eminently capable of taking hold of an agricultu-
ral college and running it with proper assistance. I know for myself that
I would not hesitate a moment to vote for any one of them to be president
of our Ohio Agricultural College. There are those who own 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
and 8 acres, but they take no part in public life ; are kept close at work
as a matter of necessity to make a living on the small tract.
The crown-prince (Victoria's son-in-law) is regarded as being liberal in
his views, favorably disposed towards America and Americans ; was so-
licited by the polytechnists to extend his patronage to their exhibition,
which opened on the 12th of May, and in accordance with their request he
was present and " opened " the exhibition. This fact gave this exhibition
character and importance in the eyes of the ** masses," and the halls were
daily densely crowded with admiring and astonished visitors.
The northern provinces of the kingdom of Prussia, such as Mecklen-
burg,* Pomerania, Mark Brandenburg, and Lower Silesia, have, long since
been famous as wool-growing provinces, as well as for the healthfulness,
purity of blood, and the reliability of their by ceding sheep. The Interna-
tional Fair at Hamburg, in 1863, gave a new impetus to sheep breeding
throughout these provinces, and in the autumn, or rather at the autumn
meeting of the northern Prussian agricultural societies in 1804, it was de-
* Mecklenburg is not a part of Prussia, yet in aU social movements is more or less con-
nected with it.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
35
termined to have an exhibition of sheep at Stettin in May, 1865. The
object of the exhibition primarily was to bring not only the sheep-breed-
ers of these provinces together, but to have the sheep from the various
" stock " establishments side by side to compare, so as to be enabled to
compare the limng ammala as well as their products. But fearing that an
exhibition of sheep alone, or independent and isolated from any other
kind of agricultural interest, would not prove to be very attractive to the
public generally, nor would be very successful financially, it was therefore
resolved to unite with it a *' live stock " exhibition in the general sense of
the term, together with an exhibition of agricultural implements. Yet,
as the primary or original object of the exhibition was for the benefit of
the sheep interest, the time fixed for holding it was at a period which, in
ordinary years, would be before •' shearing time." But the year 1865 has
thus far been an extraordinary year so far as meteorology is concerned,
for in less than a week the transition was made, so far as the temperature
was concerned, from winter almost to midsummer ; and it would have
been sufficiently warm to have sheared every sheep by the first of May ;
many of them were really suffering from the heat under the dense aud
valuable winter suit. The societies further argued that, as Stettin was
practically a seaport town, and vessels arriving and departing daily for
Holland, France, England, Sweden, Eussia, &c„ if the exhibition were
dubbed international, and these countries invited to exhibit and compete
lor premiums, full aud absolute success would be guaranteed beyond a
peradventure.
This, then, is in brief the history of the location and organization of the
^^Agricultural Fair,^^ or exhibition, in or near the capital (Stettin) ofPom-
erania — a city which boasts a population of upwards of seventy thou-
sand inhabitants, situated in the midst of an agricultural region, and
whose history dates back to the 12th century. The agricultural exhibi-
tion commenced on the ICth of May, 1865. On the morning of that day
the President of the Provincial Agricultural Society, (Mr. Von Hagen)
accompanied by a number of civil and military officials, proceeded to the
extreme end of the large hall for exhibiters, and in a short and very happy
speech declared the exhibition open. The attendance was very large
throughout, but there were very few Americans here; the majority of
Americans present were the agents of the several "sewing machines."
Our consul, C. J. Sundell, Esq., has been indefatigable in his exertions to
induce Americans to exhibit, and is sparing no pains to render the stay
of Americans pleasant, agreeable and comfortable. Certainly no one
could have done more than he did and is doing daily to engender the
kindliest feeling and promote commercial intercourse between the Prus-
sian and United States governments.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
36
The number of articles on exhibition is very fair, and the quality of
most very excellent
CATTLE.
The display of cattle was excellent, and to us (Americans) one of great
Interest. There were three hundred and eighty-three head of cattle on
exhibition, embracing many, if not a majority, of the most popular
European breeds. These were divided as follows :
Milk breeds, (heavy) 232
Milk breeds, (light) 49
Beef breeds, (heavy) 35
Beef breeds, (light) 6
Work oxen, (yokes) 13
Fat cattle, (heavy) 28
Fat cattle, (Hgl^t) 1
Miscellaneous, for exhibition only 19
By comparing the number of entries of horses and cattle it will be seen
that they are nearly equal. In the United States, as a general thing,
there are about three times as many horses on exhibition as cattle. A
rational inference from this comparison of entries is, that we in the
United States pay a great deal more attention to horses than we do to
cattle, as compared with Prussia — or, what is the same thing, in other
words, Prussia pays more attention to cattle than to horses, as compared
with us; and if the manifestation of interest on the part of the visitors
at the exBibition is any exponent of the real interest manifested by the
country, then most assuredly was the interest in favor of cattle, rather
than horses, decidedly evident. It is a maxim with the Prussian farmer
that an abundance of barn-yard manure is essential to successful agricul-
ture, and the exhibition demonstrates that he practices in accordance with
the proverb. Milk, butter, and cheese are in much greater demand here
than beef; all well-read persons of the United States are aware that the
Germans, as a i)eople, consume comparatively very little animal food ; in
private families, with rare exceptions indeed, meat is on the table once
a day only at most ; but as a general thing not more than once or twice a
week. There were only forty-one brood beef cattle, while there were two
hundred and eighty-one brood milk animals. I took considerable pains
to make a complete table of the number of each race of cattle on
exhibition under the several heads under which they were classified and
entered:
Digitized by LjOOQIC
37
Milk.
Beef.
Work
oxen.
Fat «
Heavy.
Light.
Heavy.
Light.
cattlo.
Holland
125
33
4
6
5
1
9
9
7
4
6
2
East FricBian
Short-horn
28
1
9
Moutafduuor. rSchivvzer) .
Si in nierthaler ...... ..
Sarlabot
Breiteubnrcrer
1
WiUtor Marsh
Friestan Marsh
Friesiau Oldcnburor
2
Sarlabot-Dessau .
1
1
1
1
1
2
4
Schwatzower ....... . ..
Tonder
4
Wenler '
Shortrliorn Breitanhurfirer
Norfolk, (Polled)
Olden burger
1
6
2
G
2
6
1
4
1
Ayrehire
Pomeranian
4
An^^lo
Old Bi)yener
Allgauer ............ ...... ......
Jersey --.-
Angus
Short-horn. Friesland .
2
2
Short-horn. Avrshire ....... .-..
Snttolk
2
2
Devon
Bohemian .,
16
4
4
Bavarian
1
Voigtland
6
OUlen bnrg-Broitenbarg ...... ......
1
£ast Friesland Marsh .............
1
210
45
32
5
26
16
To describe each one of these several races on exhibition would simply
be to write the history of horned cattle in Europe, which, to do the sub-
ject and the animals justice, would require a large volume for text and an
engraving for a type of each breed. I am glad to learn (by way of
parenthesis) that the services of the mo3t competent artist in all Prussia
have been secured to produce a volume or rather an album of photographs
of all these breeds on exhibition.
But a brief description of the more prominent of these races may not
be inappropriate.
It is a very common practice to speak of " Holland cattle," as
though they were as distinct a breed as the Shorthorn or Devon breed ;
and I must confess that for a time I was misled by this generic temu
In Holland there are several breeds of cattle, almost all of which owe
Digitized by LjOOQIC
38
their origin to the Holland j^oper breed, and it was the manifest dispari-
ty in the several animals shown me a« Hollanders that led me to make
-a closer examination of the matter. The Oldenburgers, West Friesiau,
East Friesian, Groningen, and Beemster, are all Holland breeds, and I
am assured may be traced back to one original breed, but by culture and
care, careful selection in breeding and management, together with the
influence of climate, soil and food, these several distinct breeds have been
produced.
The generic type, so to speak, (because 2^ positive definition of the terms
genera, species, race, breeds, types and families, so far as natural history
in general is concerned, has not yet been settled ; and so far as cattle
breeding is concerned, any one of these terms is about as comprehensive
and admissable as another;) of the Holland cattle, is that of a marsh or
lowland race, and has spread itself, from Holland as a centre, over the
Netherlands proper, Flanders, Normandy, Oldenburg and Denmark.*
The most celebrated of the Holland cattle are the Friesians, which are
regarded as the original stock of all, and next to these are the Groningen
breed. They belong to what may with propriety be called the " heavy "
breeds, and are remarkable for their very line bones, fine and mellow
hide, and peculiar coloring. The most in popular favor are the white,
with red, grey, blue-grey, or black spots. Friesian cows are found in the
neighborhood of Utrecht, which measure 4 feet 8 inches in hight, 6 feet
9 inches in length, and 7 feet 8 inches in girth — indicating a live weight
of fifteen hundred weight.t The head is long, rather narrow, with fine
and light bones, but has rather a broad or wide mouth ; the horns are
short and fine, curving inward and downward ; the neck is long and fine,
somewhat curved downward on the top; the brisket well set, which is
always characteristic of the lowland races. The withers and the back
are broad and as nearly level as the Shorthorn, as well as the peculiarly
broad and projecting hips ; the tail well set, long and fine ; the chest
broad and deep, and in good proportion to the belly. The limbs are fine,
rather longer than in the Shorthorn, but equally fine; the bag in the
cows well developed.
Holland farmers, who have good pasturage and take proper care of
their stock, obtain from well bred Friesian cows an average of 21 quarts
of milk per diem, and in fresh milch cows 26 quarts; although, in some
extraordinary cases, as high as 43 quarts per diem has been obtained.*
Professor Hengereld % says that the milking qualities of the Holland
cattle are rather declining than otherwise; and that the statements of
* Authority : Dr. George May, Teterinary Professor in the Bavarian Agricultural
College at Weyenstephan, near Munich,
t The hundred weight of the ZoUyerein is 110 pounds.
X ** Over het Rundee," Haarlem, 1868.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
39
XJlkens, Weckherlin and Villeroy, namely: that the cows yielded an an-
nual average of 3,168 quarts is now, unfortunately, no longer realized,
and that the highest average now obtained does not exceed 3,000 quarts
per cow per annum. Fifty-three quarts of this milk will yield eleven
pounds of fine rich chees«, and from the milk from which this cheese has
been separated, twenty-one quarts will yield two and one-fifth pounds of
second quality soft butter.
The fattening qualities are satisfactory to tht^ dealers, and the flesh of
the fat cattle of this race or breed is very fine. As work cattle, they are
not held in very high estimation.
The Oldenburghers do not differ materially from their progenitors, the
Friesian or Holland race. They are sometimes called the East Friesians,
because they occur in the Hannoverian Friesland. They are called Bremen
cattle in the vicinity of Bremen, and they abound on the banks of the
Weser and Ems. The most important points in which it differs from the
original Friesian race, is that the animals are more rounded, plump, and
shorter in the body and legs. They are used to a considerable extent as
work cattle, and, in consequence, yield less milk.
The Breitenbergher raCe, which is well distributed throughout the
Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg, originated in the marshes near Itzehoe, in
Holstein. It is, of coutse, a marsh or lowland race, and might with great
propriety be classed as a branch of the great Friesian or Holland race.
It is a race the type of which is a medium sized animal,' with fine hide
and bones ; the color is either a white ground with dark brown spots, or
a brown ground with white spots. The head is rather more stoutly built
than in the Friesian; the horns short; neck and brisket small; the
withers rather prominent ; the back sharp ; the body wide and deep, and
the legs longer than the Friesians. The shoulder lacks flesh, but the
hind quarter is full. The Wilster and Krempner marsh races are merely
varieties of the Breitenberger race. All these are celebrated milkers,
the yield ranging from 22 to 38 quarts per day per cow, which have already
been described in the chapter on Holstein.
The Jutland race is a native of Jutland, the province north of Schles-
wig Holstein. The type is that of small animals, with very fine and
delicate bones ; the color is grey or black, but spotted and " blotched " ap-
peared to be the colors of a majority of those I saw. The head is long
and narrow; the horns fine and bent upward, or rather outward; neck,
and skin light; withers prominent; back sharp and "swayed;" chest
narrow, and the abdomen pendant. Accustomed to scanty nourish
ment, it thrives well under improved circumstances, and hence is sought
much after in the neighboring provinces.
The Tender race is a mere variety of the Angle race, but are somewhat
heavier.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
40
The Montafauner race is a branch of one of those uniformly colored
races — ^that is} there are no spotted or two colored cattle among them —
which, at an early day, were introduced into central and western Europe,
and appears to be an upland or mountain race. They may be regarded
as heavy medium cattle, lighter than the Schwytzer, and heavier than
the AUgauers. The cows have been known to weigh from 1200 to 1500
pounds. A medium sized animal of this race measures 68 inches in
length and the same in girth, and is from 46 to 47 inches high. The color
is a dark brown, very similar to that of the pure Devon. The head is
short and broad ; the horn fine, extending outward and upward, white at
the roots, and at the tips they are black. The neck is of medium
strength, with a very fine brisket; the withers somewhat prorainejt, but
powerful; the back gently curved downward or inward; the hips broad
and, as a rule, lather high, and the tail is set in very high; chest and
belly deep and wide; the limbs short and well set; the hoofs, like in all
mountain races, are very firm and well built; the shoulder and quarter
are powerful, and the shins remarkably fine. The *' bag," or udder, is
large, and the cows are very remarkable for their gentle disposition. So
far as the mi'king qualities of this race is concerned, all I could learn
may be summed up in a very few words, viz : In the beginning of the
month of May they are sent to pasture on the Alps, where they remain
until September; then from that time until the next May, they are fed
on long-cut hay and aftermath. A cow weighing from 1,000 to 1,100
pounds, live weight, will, under this treatment, yield an average of ten
quarts of milk per day. Thirty-eight and a half quarts of this milk will
yield 4yy pounds of butter, 9f pounds of cheese, and 2J pounds of zieger^
These Montafauuers have a very hardy constitution, and are very readily
acclimated; make very good and heavy work cattle; fatten readily, but
the flesh is not so good as that of some other races.
The Allgauer race, as well as the Montafauner, originated, so far as is
now known, in Switzerland or in the mountain chains to the east of Switz-
erland. In an.v event, it is an Alpine race. This race is now well dis-
tributed throughout Baden, Bavaria, Wurtemburg, Saxony, Prussia,
Bohemia, &c., and of late years has obtained a very enviable reputation,
and is that race known in the Hamburg and London markets as " Bava-
rian " cattle. It is a race of medium sized animals. Ordinary animals
are about 77 inches long, 48 inches high, and are 72 inches in circumfer-
ence. A cow of this size, when fat, will weigh from 900 to 1,000 pounds.
These cattle are remarkable for their compact build and very fine propor-
tions of body and limbs. The most prevailing colors are gray and dun,
with a darkish shade, wax colored mouth and inside of ears, and a stripe
•n the back, which extends down and over the bag. The skeleton is of
* I am indebted for this information to Professor Stookhard.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
41
medium strength ; the head small, but elegantly formed, and the mouth
wide ; the fine horns are white at the roots, but black at the tips ; the
neck is short but stout, and has a. well-set brisket; the withers elevated,
yet strong. The back, loins and hips are broad or wide, and the long fine
tail is regular and well set; the chest and barrel are rather deep and
wide, yet well formed. The lower limbs are finely formed ; the shin and
hoof are particularly fine. This race of cattle, more than any other, has
the power of transmitting its qualities to its offspring, and a dash of its
blood is readily detected in animals of the fifth generation from the
original cross. In late years it has been extensively crossed on the Mont-
afauuers without any apparent, but on the contrary much actual benefit
— the cross having improved its size and milking qualities, without hav-
ing detracted from its hardihood, its ability to thrive upon scant pastures,
and its fattening properties. In Allgau it is estimated that a cow weigh-
ing, alive, from 900 to 950 ponnds, (English) and is daily fed an average
of 30 to 36 pounds equivalent of hay,* will give 2,050 quarts (English)
of milk, including that which is allowed to the calf. Cows weighing 1,000
pounds are estimated to yield aoout 2500 quarts (2475). From 11 to 13
quarts arc required to make one pound of butter. Six to seven quarts
will make one pound of fat Swiss cheese.
From a very precise and detailed experiment made at Weyenstophan
in 1855, kindly furnished me by a friend, it is stated that 28 Allgau cows,
weighing from 900 to 1,000 pounds, live weight, and receiving daily 37 J
pounds of equivalent of hay, gave an average of 2,296 quarts of milk each,
exclusive of the milk allowed to the calves, which they were allowed to
suck for a period of four weeks. In 1861-2, forty-eight Allgauer cows
of the same live weight, and with the same amount of food, on the same
estate, yielded 2,459 quarts of milk. In this, as in the preceding, the
milk consumed by the calves is not estimated.
An account was kept by Mr. 0. Wertheimer at Eanshofen, in Austria,
which shows that with an average of 22J pounds equivalent of hay, cows
weighing 880 pounds, yielded on an average, during a period of live
years, 1,278 quarts of milk ; one pound of butter required 10 to lOJ quarts
of milk, and one pound of cheese, 5 quarts.
Since the Allganers have been introduced into Saxony, the Minister,
Baron Dr. Eeuning, has ordered experiments to be made to ascertain
what race of cattle yielded the greatest amount of milk and butter in
proportion to the amount of food consumed. The reports may be found
* In Germany all the cattle food is estimated in eqivalents of hay. The esperimenta
in feeding, and chemical analysis, have ebahled them to estimate very nearly thift
economic value of every kind of cattle food nsed. Annexed is a table of these equiva-
lents, to he found in almost every Qerman treatise on cattle feeding. {8eb next page.)
Digitized by VjOOQIC
42
in the " Amfcs and Anzeige Blatt," of the agricultnral department, kindly
furnished me by Dr. Eeuning, Vol. for 1857, page 42. (See next page,)
According to chemical analyses, and cattle feeding experimen ts, it is ascertained that—
.00 pounds of Hay, is equal to 420 pounds of good Meadow Grass.
;^ ;; " " 400 " Red Clover (green).
122 " . 400 " Lucerne, *^ "
fl^iOO « « 380 " Esparsette, "
'^ " " 425 *' Vetches "
\^ ;; ;; " 2«0 « Indian com, " leaves and stalks.
■^ " " 600 " Rye, " before blooming.
I
i1
h
h
.00
.00
100
.00
[00
100
.00
00
00
00
,00
00
.00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
.00
00
00
00
00
00
00
.00
00
00
100
00
00
.00
100
100
**
good, ordinary Meadow Hay.
aed Clover
90
u
White " "
100
<*
Lucerne "
90
i*
Esparsette "
100
tl
Vetch
150
"
Rye (cut green) "
150
tt
Artichokes, leaves, stems, &c.
275
it
Wheat Straw.
300
t*
Rye
200
u
Barley "
200
u
Oat "
160
<«
Pea, Vetch and Bean Straw.
120
it
Lentil Straw.
200
t^
Buckwheat.
200
n
Com Fodder.
125
*
Clover Chaflf.
40
I*
Com,
36
tt
Wheat.
40
tt
Rye.
44
tt
Barley.
46
tt
Oats.
48
36
tt
tt
Speltz.
Horse Beans.
36
tt
Pom.
44
tt
Buckwheat.
200
4*
Potatoes.
250
tt
Artichokes.
300
tt
Beet.
275
tt
Kohlrabi.
250
tt
Carrots.
450
tt
Turnips.
460
tt
Cabbage.
600
It
Beet leaves.
600
tt
Cabbage leaves.
50
«
Wheat or Rye Bran.
45
<(
on Cake.
60
<l
Rape Cake.
70
tt
Poppy CiAe.
75
tt
Acorns or Horse Chesnuts.
300
tt
Apple Pumice.
600
tl
Pumpkins.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
43
TABLE OF EXPEBIMENTS.
Alloausrs.
(Dun colored.)
Hollanders.
Common Cattle.
•3
a
•s
I
^
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
AT'ge.
3044
2856
2810
3050
Prodnotion of
1 cwt. eqniva-
lent of hay.
d
29.32
30.44
28.56
28.10
30.50
2.59
2.40
2.31
2.10
2.20
o
'd
-3
I
3272
3267
2992
2676
3132
Production of
1 cwt. equiva-
lent of hay.
Ma
27.27
27.22
24.92
22.30
26.10
d .
2.01
1.88
1.71
1.47
1.73
a
B
«M
o
%
2411
2018
2303
Production of
1 cwt. equiva-
lent of hay.
MS
22.12
24.11
20.18
23.03
26.35
1.91
1.79
1.56
1.79
1.84
^
3225
3003
2846
2806
26 87
25.02
23.61
23.38
2938
29.38
2.32
3068
1.76
2316
23.16
1.78
2970
24.75
Experiments made at Calbe give the following resnlt :
Holland cows yielded 8 kannen of milk' per day, or 3726 qnarts per
annum.
Allgauers cows yielded 6 kannen of milk per day, or 2786 qnarts i)6r
annum.
But it required 13 quarts of the Holland cow's milk to make one pound
of butter, or an annual product of 225 pounds of butter, whilst it required
9 quarts only of the Allgauers cow*s milk to make a pound of butter, or
an annual product of 243 pounds. The same authority from which this
last statement is taken, states that the Allgauers are less susceptible to
the Pleuropneumonia or Bikdebpest than the Hollanders.! The report
of the Agricultural Association at EiLENBEsa^ says that ftom the same
quantity of milk 2^ pounds more butter, and H pounds more cheese,
could be made from the Allgauers than from Hollanders. At the Agri>
cultural School at Liebwebd, there was a correct account kept by the
Superintendent, Mr. Lamble, from 1850 to 1857, of which the following
is a summary :
* Kannen of milk is equal to 0.318 of a jeaUon ; a kaimen of batter is equal to jM7
pounds, t Annalen der Landwirthschaft, 1858. t Wilda's Central Blatt, 1857.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
41
Color.
LrvK
wp:ight.
Annual
AMOUNT
OF MILK.
Per CENT. OF cream.
Breed of Cattle.
Average.
Winter
feeding.
Summer
or green
feeding.
1
c
(2
o*
s
Allgaiier
Dnn
901
905
ICdO
1143
&-)8
1385
ia51
1026
855
921
20
17
15
2U
22
12
Bohemian Highlands —
Olden berger
Red Spotted
Black Spotted....
Red Spotted
Reddish brown ...
10
8
SwiaH, (BiTnese.)
T>Tol, ZiUerthaler.)
13
14
From this experiment it was evident that the Allgauers gave a greater
return for the food consumed, both in milk and manure. The other cat-
tle were disposed of, and the lot of Allgauers then on hand (3G cows) were
retained ; and during the first quarter of 1857, they yielded 5048 quarts
of milk, making an average 1^62 quarts per cow per annum, and as soon
as green feeding could be commenced it was expected that the products
would be larger. •
Simmerthaler and Freiburger races are the most prominent of Swiss
cattle. It must be observed that there is a difference between ** Swiss "
cattle and " Schwytz " cattle. The latter are a dark brown or " Devon "
colored race, and originated in the Canton of Schwytz, in Switzerland,
whilst the Simmerthaler and Freiburger also originated or trace back to
Switzerland, but not to the Canton Schwytz. The Simmerthaler race
belongs to the heaviest race found in the Canton Berne, and is, beyond
doubt, the most beautiful of all the continental races of German cattle.
This ra<5e attains a hight of 4 feet 8 inches to 5 feet; from 7 feet to 7 feet
5 inches in length, and measures 6 feet 2 inches to 7 feet in circumference,
and a fully matured and fattened cow weighs from 1,700 to 2,000 pounds.
The prevailing color is red or dun spotted ; they seldom have any black
color on them. The head is very well formed, and the animals have a
kind and confidential look. The horns are fine, are bent somewhat for-
ward and upward, and are either white or a cream color ; the neck and
brisket are fine rather than course; the withers, crop, spine and loin are
on alitie and broad; the tail is set high, and the chest and barrel are
wide and deep. The limbs are of medium height and well set ; shoulder
* Allgemehie Land and Forstwlrthschaftliohe Zeitnng.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
45
and flank broad and flesbj, and the shins rather fine. The hide is medium,
and is cov^ered with flae and soft hairs.
The milking qualities of some individuals of this race are spoken of in
the highest terms as being more productive, and yielding milk of a richer
quality, than that of the Schwy tz. The Simmerthalers are active on foot,
and are endowed with great strength and endurance; hence they are
selected for, and are very much esteemt^d as working cattle ; and fiually,
it is said that they fatten very readily, and that the flesh is better ** mar-
bled," better flavored and more tender than that of any other continental
race. But they are great feeders, and are not very choice in their food.
On the one hand it has been asserted with great confidence that this race
is very susceptible to disease, whilst on the other hand this statement is
equally confidently denied.
Prof. Dr. L. Ran, formerly Professor of Practical Agriculture at the
Royal Agricultural Academy at Hohenheim, (but at present Professor at
Carlsruhe) published a statement of the milk product of 751 Simmertha-
ler cows, which, during a series of years, had been kept at Hohenheim.
These cows averaged 1,300 pounds live weight, and yielded an average of
2,408 quarts of milk each per annum, or about C§ quarts daily. The Pro-
fessor states that these cows were fed daily an equivalent of 40 lbs. of hay
(equal to 3 pounds of food for every 100 pounds of live weight), and that
100 i)ounds of hay produced 33 pounds of milk. The largest yield of any
of the cows of this race, in a year, was 4,834 quarts. The daoi of this
cow gave 4,514 quarts in one year.
Prof. Weckerlin (also formerly of Hohenheim) gives the following as
the average product of each of these cows per annum at Hohenheim :
In the year 1840-41 2,414 quarts.
1841-42 2,740 "
184^-43 2,340 '*
(Tliia year— 1842-43— the forage failed.)
Twenty-eight heifer calves of the Simmerthaler race were purchased
in Wurtemburg and removed to Neudeck, in Bavaria. The calves were
selected from a herd famous for their milking qualities. When in milk
they were fed an equivalent of 3 pounds of hay for every 100 pounds of
live weight ; this amounted to 27 to 28 pounds of hay equivalents per
day per head. The following is the milk product :
A first calf cow gave 1587 quarts of milk, or 4.3 quarts per day.
A second " " 1941 " " 5.3
A third " " 1941 " " 5.3
Average 1712 « " 4.7
VoigUander Baoe. — ^It is a general belief that this race was produced by
Digitized by LjOOQIC
' 46
a cross of the Zillerthaler bulls with the native cows of Bavaria, and
trace back to the Fichtel mountains as their place of nativity. They are
small and light ; are what is known as a chestnut brown color. The
cows weigh from 2J to 3J cwt. (1L2 pounds) and a well fatted ox weighs,
net, from 4 to 6 cwt. of 112 pounds. The head is short but broad ; the
horns very fine ; the neck is short, but is on a straight line with the
withers, crop, back and hips. ThI withers are strongly built ; the spine is
indicative of strength ; the liauk is full ; the tail is set very high ; the bris-
ket is wide and deep. The front limbs are *' stocky," rather than other-
wise, and the shoulder is very strongly built. The hind limbs are not so
well built, and considerably lighcer in proportion. The milking qualities
are very fair. But this race is more popular fo!' its excellent fattening
qualities, tender and juicy flesh; and it is for tlirse qualities, rather than
any other, that it is prized. This race is readily distinguished from the
Angle and Jutland races, although the flesh is more nearly alike in these
three races than with any other that I met with.
In several discussions which have taken place in our agricultural jour-
nals at various periods, an opinion has been advanced that the Holland
is the parent breed of the short-horn. Not wishing to be understood as
placing myself as umpire in this matter, I yet cannot resist saying that,
after studying the 131 head of Holland cattle on exhibition, and having,
during the past eight or ten years, seen many short-horns at State Fairs,
and in private herds, I have been unable to remember a single " point "
laid down as short-horn perfection, in Morton's Cyclopaedia of Agricul-
ture, which the Hollander does not fill as well as the short-horn. In fact,
some of the Hollanders fill the bill better than the short-horn itself, with
one exception — color. I have never seen a short horn of the same color
of the majority of Hollanders; large spots of black and white is almost
uniformly the color of the latter, whilst roan, white, or red, is the pre-
vailing color of the former. There were some very dark roan Holland
bulls, some of a mouse color, some of bright dun, but the great majority
were black and white in large spots.
Many of the breeders here claim that the short-horn is simply an im-
proved Hollander ; others, and among them Herr Von Eisner, of Grouow
iSiiesia, a very intelligent gentleman and breeder of the highest reputa-
tion, claim that there is no consanguineous relation between them, but
that both of them are lowland races, and theretbre have many ** points "
in common. As remarked on a previous page, it must be remembered
that the »* Dutch" cattle, although abounding in Holland, are not the
triLe Holland breed, any more than the cattle of Durham county, Eng-
land, are thoroughbred short-horns. The Holland bull is as large, as
broad and level on the back, has the same shaped head, neck, horns, nos-
trils, and muzzle, a« the short-hom, but he lacks in development of bris-
Digitized by LjOOQIC
47
ket ; the head, neck and horns of the Holland cow are finer than that of
the short-horn cow, the carcass eqally square, broad and deep, but excels
in the development or secretion of milk. The breeders here admit cheer-
fully the excellence of the short-horn as a heef race, but claim that the
Hollanders, Breitenburgers, Oldenburgers, East Friesian, and Swiss, far
excel it as milk races. Mr. Eisner has imported and bred short-horns for
some years past, and informed me that he found them somewhat diffi-
cult to keep, and that they were very liable to be barren; that they were
by no means as certain breeders as any of the continental races.
The East Friesian (Ost Friesland) are easily kept on scant pasturage,
and yield large quantities of milk. For beef or work they are not as
desirable as " Ohio Pennyroyals."
From the great popularity of the Oldenburgers, I was surprised to find
so few on exhibition. It is a very beautiftd race of cattle— elegant in
form, often of a beautifully mottled color, medium but very gracefully
curved horns ; hides as soft, mellow, and silky as any short-horn, and ex-
traordiaary milkers.
There were, as indicated in the table, several races represented by a
single individual ; these, it is fair to presume, were brought as curiosities,
or rather as the remnants of former popular breeds, but now superceded
by others; such are the Sarlabot, Sarlabot-Dessau, Schwarzower, Tender,
Werder, &c. The Sarlabot was a two and-a-half year old buU, black and
white spotted, origiuated in Normandy, Canton de Dazule (Calvados,)
and from the Sarlabot estate, whence the name of the race. It is a polled
breed. It is said that this race is now very favorably received in some
parts of England, because they take on flesh very kindly, produce very
tender and juicy beef, and are excellent milkers.
The Swiss race would certainly never become favorites with our short-
horn breeders. The bulls are long, lank, " sway " backs, and have a large
dew-lap commencing under the lower lip, running along the throat and
terminating nearly midway on the belly. The cows are of various colors,
and their reputation for milking qualities too well known to require repe-
tition here. In the table will be found such names as Friesian-Olden-
burger, Sarlabot-Dessau, Shorthorn-Breitenburger, &c.; these are crosses,
the first name of the component breed always indicating the race of the
sire, and the last name that of the race of the dam.
Of course, not much can with any kind of propriety be said of these
half breeds as brood animals, because the type is not fixed and the quali
ties are undeveloped ; but our German friends all admit that the cross
produced between any of the local races and the shorthorns, by breeding
to a short-horn bull, produces a more desirable animal in many respects
than either of the parents.
Among those exhibited under the class of miscellaneous, were a two-
year old Hungarian bull and cow; two two-year old South American
Digitized by VjOOQIC
48
cattle, and a young Thibetan. All of these were from the Agricultural
Institute at Berlin.
The system of soiling cattle is very extensively practiced in northern
Germany. The country being low, level, or in fact nothing but a sandy
plain, with here and there a clay deposit, the farmers are compelled to
adopt every economical practice, and hence as many cattle are kei)t as pos-
sible, in order to obtain a good supply of manure; and the cattle are
green-soiled in order to secure for proper application all the manure made,
both liquid and solid. The green-soiling system undoubtedly is an
economical one, so far as the pasturage is concerned, but we very much
doubt whether animals kept in confinement for generations are or can be
as healthy as those that have the free range of the open fields.
During the week preceding this exhibition at Stettin, by the invitation
of Von Wehrinau, a geheimrath of the Agricultural Bureau of Prussia, I
attended an annual meeting of the Mark Brandenburg Agricultunil So-
ciety at Prenzlau. During the discussions on the various topics, one
member stated that he had always practiced the system of green-soiling
his cattle, but of late years found that he lost many valuable cows by
peurpual lever. Another member stated that he never, neither summer
nor winter, permitted his cattle to remain twenty -four successive hours in
the stable ; in summer time they were in the stable during the night
only, and in winter they were turned into an enclosure for several hours
during the day ; but he never had lost an animal by peur[)nal fever, or
any other disease. In his opinion, cattle that were housed all the days of
their life must necessarily, in course of time, have enfeebled constitutions.
From what I saw of the handling and management o^ cattle at this
Fair, I was fully impressed with the convictions that the Germans, as a
race, do not love domestic animals as much as Americans do. The care
of animals seemed to be much more of a task to them than to us. The
animals were all well cared for, tolerably well groomed^ but it appeared
to me that this was done rather because they fully understood that the
health and condition of the animal would be better preserved by 60 doing,
than out of any passion or real regard for the animal. It is no uncommon
thing among Americans to manifest almost as much care and concern tor
their domestic animals as for their families. I do not intend this remark
as an equivocal compliment, but as demonstrating the actual regard man-
ifested by Americans for the comfort of our domestic animals.
Cattle breeding had attracted the attention of the Germans as early as
the days of Charlemagne. But the want of encouragement in this direc-
tion, the profound ignorance of physiological laws, and especially the
laws of hereditary transmission of qualities, together with the prevailing
prejudice that agriculture was an employment fit for serfs and plebeians
of the lowest grade only, were the almost insurmountable barriers in the
Digitized by LjOOQIC
49
way of any great or marked progress. Yet notwithstanding all these
obstacles, the Germans were famous for having the best milk-breeds of
cattle in the world. During the thirty years' war, and the seven years*
war which followed shortly thereafter, agriculture in Germany was in a
most pitiable and deplorable condition. Stripped of almost all the live
stock of every kind — their flocks of fine wooled sheep, the result of a
thousand years of care and breeding, were not only dispersed but de-
stroyed. The desolate and unsettled condition of the country was any-
thing but cheering or encouraging to the breeder or agriculturist The
I>eople were so impoverished by these exhaustive wars, and the country
still so unsettled, that the breeder was unable to import good or desirable
breeding animals, and anything connected with agriculture was beneath
the dignity or notice of the nobility ; so that the agriculturists ndHy
iinUy were obliged to commence stock growing not only under the most
adverse circumstances so far as finances and political relations were con-
cerned, but with the cast off, deteriorated and degenerated animals as
breeding stock. And this stock was bred mainly for the manure it pro-
duced. It was during this period that the German agriculturist gave ex-
pression to a sentiment, which, in some parts of Germany even to this
day, has its advocates, viz. : " Cattle are a neoessaby evil."
There is no doubt that density of population and necessary division of
land into small parcels in a country where the law of primogeniture does
not obtain, together with a soil producing scant pastures only, have all
contributed to retard the increase of numbers of cattle, and the idea for-
merly deep-rooted that cattle, at best, were a necessary evil, has had its
full influence in preventing any very marked improvementof quality tak-
ing place. But during the present century, much attention has been paid
to cattle, and this interest is now engrossing the thoughts of the best phys-
iologists and breeders throughout Germany.
As I shall have more to say about the cattle of Germany, I have thought
it best perhaps to refer to the various breeds in the countries in which I
found them to predominate.
HOBSES.
In the department of horses there were three hundred and forty-eight
entries. These consist of—
Class of thoroughbred staUions and mares 16 entries.
Class of heavy farm horses and mares 38 "
Class of light farm horses and mares 96 **
Class of saddle, hnnter and cavalry horses and mares 64 "
Class of heavy pack horses and mares 5 *'
Class of heavy draught horses and mares 87 **
Class of light draught horses and mares 29 **
Class of pouies 10 "
Class of brood mares for farm pnrposes • 24 "
Digitized by LjOOQIC
60
Professional horse-dealers exhibited the remainder of the horses entered*
These horses were of various descriptions. It wonld occupy too much
space to make anything like a descriptive list of the animals on exhibi-
tion ; but, taken as a whole, the horses were superior to those usually ex-
hibited at our State Fairs in the United States. Of course, we have some
that are fullv as good in their class as any exhibited here, but our people
do not exhibit as many and uniformly good ones as here. The thorough-
bred Arabian stallion, Selim Ben Ayssa, was on exhitition here. He ift
now thirteen years old, five feet two inches (Prussian) high. He was
bred by the Sheik E^wan, near Bagdad, and is of the Saalavi-Djedrani
race, and of the Anazee BuoUa stock. He was taken to the Crimea as a
four-year old, and after making a *' campaign*' there was taken to En-
gland. The remainder of the thoroughbreds on exhibition were either
owned in England or of English blood.
The following classification will perhaps convey a better idea of the
kind and character of horses on exhibition :
Slalliong.
Mares...
English. £ng. Sire. Arab Thoro'bred. German Thoro'bred
6 2 2 1
4 0 0 1
HEAVY OABBIAaB HORSES.
PMOhHOn.
Ptroh. Bin.
Fweh.DB]ii. IMMhMT. Tnk.Sln.
Tnk.
Dam. Qerm JSng. Rumw
BtalUonfl..
2
0
2 0 3^0
9
3 0
Mares ....
9
1
.0 1 1
0
5
3 0
Geldings..
0
0
19 1
LIGHT HARIffESS.
0
3
0 0
Stamens..
0
0
1 1 S
0
3
0 t
Mares....
0
0
0 0 8
0
6
2 0
Geldings..
0
0
0 0 0
0
3
0 0
HXTNTEB, SADDLE A3XD OANALBY HOBSE.
Tnktthiicr. TFBk.Sl2«. TFBk.Dain.
StaUions.... 9 2 0
Mares 12 0
Geldings.... 3 10
iDc.ftilL Ing.hidf: Anbfbl]. Anbhalf. OtnoiA*
9 8 4 2 6
19 0 0 3
9 10 0 7
HEAVY DSAXTGHT HOBSES.
Soflblk.
StaUions.... 1
Mares 0
Colts 1
Geldings.... 0
20
8
5
2
9
1
2
1
1
2
0
0
2
9
8
7
ftahfrkncr.
0
1
I
0
0
0
0
4
5 Suffolk Pnnoh Stallions.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
61
It will be seen fh>m ibis that the Percheron blood is esteemed on the
continent for heavy carriage and draft horses. These Percherons origi-
nated in France. Those famished trom the departments of Loire et-Gher
and Eure-et-Loire, are held in the highest estimation. Kot only is this
breed remarkable for the possession of many excellent qnalities, bnt re-
cently,/o«^f<m, which exerts such an all powerful influence in everything
in France, has invested this breed with a reputation which may be exag-
gerated, bnt it has, at all events, conferred upon it a great commercial
value. There is no doubt that it is the best strain of horses on the con-
tinent for diligences, omnibusses, drays and farm work generally. The
color most sought for is a gray, or dapple gray. It is, however, doubted
THB PEBCHERON STALLION
by some persons of eminence whether the Percheron is yet really a fixed
type — there are so many colors and such great variety in size, whilst the
true Percheron is really a rather light horse. The head is elegantly
formed, withers high, without being really massive, the <5roup, notwith-
standing it is short and rather low, is yet well formed. It is generally
believed that there is considerable oriental blood in this breed, because
of the predominating color, gray, which, with age, it is said, becomes pure
white ; the hide is comparatively fine and soft, the hair fine, mane and
tail rather silky, their carriage and general contour good. It is a remark
Digitized by VjOOQIC
52
able fact that with horses of arabic origrin, white or gray, are common
colors, whilst the heavy draft horses of Flemish origin are black. The
Old English draft horse is said to be of Flemish origin, and is black.
The Percheron unites several very desirable qualities : he is very gen-
tle in disposition, as much if not more so than our Moboans, he is very
Ixactable in harness, has great muscular strength and '* good hotUyn^y^
and his movements are sufficiently rapid for a " working " horse.
There are some singular usages or customs in France relative to this
breed, which I learned when in Pari& One of these is that there are no
Percheron geldings* I have frequently seen four or five stallions of this
breed hitched up tandan in a Paris dray or heavy wagon, and I am told
that none would be sold to persons who contemplated gelding them.
These stallions, in the Paris drays, certainly manifest less viciousness
than I often have observed in geldings of our common country horses.
The great market for Percheron stallions is at Ghabtbes, in France.
I am credibly informed that the stallions offered for sale at the Fairs at
Ghartres, are not sold by those who bred or reared them, but that the
third proprietor is the one who offers them for sale. Those who breed the
Percherons have mares only, and when these have produced a stallion
colt, it is invariably sold when it is six months old, to a class of persons
who retain such colts until they are eighteen months or two years old,
and who get their pay for keeping by the difference in the price paid and
that obtained for them. The third proprietor '* educates '* them, that is»
*' breaks them " to all manner of work, and does not offer them for sale at
Ghartres until he can guaranty them to work wherever placed.
The heavy farm horses on exhibition are the *' Percherons,'' a French
breed. I was assured they are not the " Normans," and yet they resem-
ble them in height, form and general contour, and sometimes in color ; the
Percherons here are usually of a mottled color, but there is no uniformity
in color after all ; some are bright bays, others silver grays, some roan,
some dun, some dark, chestnut brown, &c. The class of light farm horses
may, without impropriety, be set down as a class corresponding to the
^' Oleveland bays." According to the catalogue, most of them are half-
blooded, or even less. In fact, all classes of horses, even to the heavy
draught horses, were regarded as being better if they had a sprinkling of
thoroughbred blood in their veins.
The saddle, hunter and cavalry horses are heavier than the thorough-
breds, move with a great deal of grace and elegance ; but all of these
are partly thoroughbreds. I learn that the Prussian government intends
to establish a race of cavalry horses — ^that is, to establish an artificial
breed, which shall be best adapted to that exclusive purpose. The man-
ner of exhibiting the horses was rather intended to embarrass than facil-
itate the work of the committee. The horse department was an enclosed
Digitized by LjOOQIC
53
street, the stalls being erected on both sides of the street, and when the
horses were exhibited they were led into the centre of the street by a groom,
and then led np and down the avenae as fast as the groom conld run. All
horses were exhibited in the same manner, whether thoroughbred or
heavy draught. One could not resist a smile to see the heavy Percherons,
weighing 1,600 to 1,600 pounds, with their heavy necks, broad buttocks,
and thick legs, undertake to trot gracefully.
Horse racing is a very popular branch of sporting among the better
classes of Germans; consequently great attention is paid not only to
blood, but to thorough training. All horses exhibited in the class of
thoroughbreds, saddle, hunter, cavalry and pleasure, manifested unmis-
takable evidence of careful breeding, excellent grooming, and capital
training. Unlike the exhibition of horses at State and National Fairs, the
exhibition here in Stettin was more fully represented by horses employed in
agricultural purposes than for pleasure. The classification here is that
adapted to the country, and therefore differs from that of ours; for in-
stance, in the United States.we always have a class of " roadsters " and
a class of *• general purposes," or horses of all work. The roadsters would
be out of place here, because there are no " buggies." Then, as every
one here has a specific occupation (in consequence of a system of guilds).
a horse of " all work " would be entirely out of place, and every horse
owner purchases or breeds for a specific purpose. The " pack " horses
were all " Suffblks," or " Suffolk punches." Three of them were exhibited
by Mr. Thomas Crisp, of Butler Abby, Wickham Market, England, one
by Freiherr von Seckendorff, and the other was from the royal horse-
breeding establishment of Poseu.
The class of heavy draught horses as will very naturally be inferred,
consisted mainly of Percherons, English draught, and their crosses with
Sufiolks and other heavy breeds of the country. Many of these animals
were of mammoth proportions. There was a three-year old from East
Friesland, a dark brown stallion, well proportioned, 5 feet 10 inches high
— or, in sporting phraseology, 17^ hands high — with such legs and neck as
I remember never to have seen on a horse before. The class of lighter
draught consisted, in the main, ot horses of the heavy draught crossed
with thoroughbreds.
As usual at all the exhibitions of this kind, the ** x>onies " attracted a
great deal of attention, but the sight of the ponies, when exercising, was
almost exclusively monopolized by the gentler sex. They forced their
way through the dense crowd to the very imminent and sometimes posi-
tive damage of crinoline, and compelled the *' lords of creation " to occu-
py a rear position. There were ten ponies, and they were of black,
brown, bay, mouse, and dun colors, and were matches throughout.
The brood mares for farm purposes were of various strains, but the
Digitized by LjOOQIC
54
Percheron and Normans predominated. The rales and regulations for
this class required that every mare exhibited be either in foal or have a
oolt by her side ; if in foal, and a premium be awarded, then the premium
will not be paid until the foal is produced ; and if the foal is dead no pre-
mium will be paid.
Whether the principle, if put in practice in the United States, of breed-
ing horses for as many and specific purposes as in Prussia, would be
economical, time alone can determine. As above alluded to, the guild
system permits a person to engage in one pursuit only, and when once
licenced and engaged in it he cannot change. Within the past few years
this system has been somewhat modified, and a capitalist may now
engage in any business he sees proper ; may establish manufactories and
carry on business in his own name, but he cannot direct the business
himself if he has not been *^ brought up'* to it ; he is compelled by law to
engage competent superintendents or foremen who have been brought up
to the business ; hence every industrial pursuit is confined to very narrow
channels. Very few improvements, and very seldom are new discoveries
or inventions made in proportion to the population and the number
engaged in industrial pursuits. This system manifests itself even in
horse-breeding ; hence there are no horses here, as with us, that will work
in a plough, in a carriage, buggy, and under the saddle. It is very doubt-
fiill if even we have horses that can be applied to all these purposes and
acquit themselves in every specific performance as well as those reared for
each of these specialties, and each specialty limited to the individual,
notwithstanding we have horses that, as individuals, perform equally well
in all the points enumerated.
The Tbakenebs are a German breed, corresponding to the English
breed of turf horses, that is, oriental blood crossed upon the best G^man.
The Trakeners are all dark colored — ^from a deep bay to a jet black.
Like most of the celebrated strains or breeds of domestic animals, the
origin of these Trakeners is involved in considerable obscurity. It ap-
pears that during the first years of the eighteenth century, horses wertt
so scarce in Germany that the King of Prussia could not obtain enough
of appropriate breeds to mount his cavalry. He therefore determined to
establish a royal stud in Litthausei^, for the purpose of breeding saddle-
horses, especially, but not excluding draft horses as well as horses for
other purposes. In his Cabinet order of April 3, 1713, King Fb£D£BIGK
WiLLiAJi, of Prussia, orders that a number of stations shall be desig-
nated throughout Prussia, at which, during the proper season, stallions
will be kept, the headquarters of these stallions at other parts of the
year to be in the Province of Prussia, at Gumbinen, Trakenen, &c.,
and that all persons owning mares (except such of the nobility as may
have good stallions of their own,) shall bring their mares to these several
Digitized by LjOOQIC
65
stations to be served by the stsdlions of the royal stud, and all the stal-
lion colts, the product of the mares, thus brought to be castrated before
weaning, so that the race or breed of ordinary stallions shall cease to
exist.
^ow there is no doubt that the stud contained several thoroughbred
Arabian stallions, but as no names of stallions are mentioned until 1779,
but they are designated as the "black stallion,** the '* chestnut brown
stallion,** &c., &c. In 1779 we find on the register such names of stal-
lions as Abbagk, Beblook, Blitz, Bbavo, Oato, Gallant, Pistol,
Skies, Spunk, Tabbogk and Tybo, indicating English and Arabic
rather than German origin, for with the exception of Blitz, there is not a
German name in the list.
This system of a Boyal stud has been retained until the present time.
The noblemen have permission to keep their own stallions, and persons
owning mares are at liberty to have them bred to the stallions of the no-
bility. Geheim Bath Wehbmann furnished me with detailed statistics
of the Boyal stud, from which I have condensed and made into the fol-
lowing table: (See Table on page 58.)
This table is a very suggestive one, and furnishes data for many phe-
nomena in horse-breeding, and, in apraotioal sense, is worth more than a
volume written out by a turfman. In the Urst place, it demonstrates the
care nature takes to prevent a preponderance in any marked degree of
either of the sexes ; out of 26,439 living colts, the mare colts are less
than 450 in excess, or less than two per cent. Secondly. The number of
miscarriages average 2,174 per annum, and the number of dead-born colts
and those died in foaling average 4,960 per annum. Is not this an extra-
ordinary average 1 In Ohio we have no such statistics, and consequently
can make no comparison. Third. In a series of five years in which one
stallion was bred on an average to forty-six mares — ^thirty-three per cent
or one- third failed to be impregnated; and the remaining thirty-one
mares produced twenty-four living colts ; or, in other words, fifty-two per
cent of the mares bred produced living colts, nearly fifteen per cent of
the mares **cast'* their colts, or the colts died in being dropped, and
thirty-three per cent of the mares would not breed at all.
When I first examined the statistics, I supposed that forty-six mares
was too great an average to be bred to a single stallion ; but upon exam-
ining the statements more in detail, I find that where a less number were
bred to a stallion, the average produce was relatively still less. For ex-
ample : In Westphalia, where an average of thirty-three mares were bred
to one stallion, twenty mares, or fifty-nine per cent, only proved to be in
foal, and these twenty mares produced fifteen living colts only, or forty-
five per cent of the mares bred produced living colts. On the other
hand, in East Prussia, where fifty-two mares were bred to one stallion^
Digitized by LjOOQIC
66
thirty-niDe mares, or seventy-six per cent, proved to be in foal, and tbeae
produced twenty-nine living colts, or nearly fifty-six per cent of the
mares bred produced living colts. From this it is legitimate to infer
that the number of mares bred to a stallion — ^the number, of course, not
to be abnormally excessive — does not afPect the breeding qualities of the
gtallion, because in East Prussia 315 stallions were bred during a period
of five consecutive years, and each stallion was bred to nineteen mares,
or fully sixty-three per cent more than those in Westphalia, and the re-
sult is largely in lavor of the latter province.
It may not be iaappropriatd to state the followiDg in connection with the Royal Stud
•f Prussia. In 1787, Frederick William, King of Prussia, issued a Cabinet Order in
substance as follows:
SecHan 1. The mares selected to be bred to stallions in the Royal Stud, shall b«
branded with the brand of the establishment at which they are to be bred. Thesa
KTandod mares are to be brought every year to the stud from and after the 20th of
March, under a penalty of five Thalers, and are to be brought to the stallion to be bred
every nine days until they reject the stallion.
Seo. 2. The i»roprietor of the mare shall not pay any fee for the services of the stal-
lion, until the mare has dropped a living colt, then the sum of one Thaler is to be paid
to the establishment.
Seo, 3. No person shall be allowed to keep a stallion for breeding purposes, except
saoh as have ample facilities for stable feeding, and these persons must annually bring
their stallions to the Stud Inspector, and if found defective, whether through heredita-
ry transmission of qualities, or otherwise, then, such defective stallion, shall be at ono«
oastrated. Furthermore, if any stallion, excepting such as belong to the Royal Stud,
be found in pasture with mares, the stallion shall be confiscated, and the proceeds placed
in the funds of the Stud.
Seo. 4. No one shall at any time breed a branded mare to any stallion other than on«
•f the Royal Stud, under a penalty of two Thalers, neither shaU one, under the sam«
penalty, be permitted to use a stallion for breeding purposes under four years of age.
Seo. 5. Any person attempting to sell a mare to parties outside of the kingdom, shall
pay a fine of ten Thalers, or according to the case, work an entire confiscation of th«
mare, without any hope of a remission of the fine. And should this order at any tim«
be violated, then and forever after said violation, one ear shall be cut from off all the
mares and mare colts in the kingdom.
Seo. 6. All the stallion colts dropped by the branded mares must be presented at the
■tud for inspection when they are two years old. Such as the iuspector may deem
proper for breeding purposes shall be retained and a fair price paid the owner for it ;
such as are not deemed proper for breeding, shall then and there be castrated. If more
ftre offered for sale than the inspector deems prudent to purchase, he shall give a oerti-
flcate of merit to the owner, so that he may sell if he wishes to parties who are permit-
ted to keep stallions
Seo, 7. Permits owners of branded mares to sell or trade them to persons in the
.kingdom, by giving notice of their transactions at the Stud.
Seo, 8. Forbids all persons, under a penalty of Ave Thalers, from riding or harnessing,
er using in any manner, any mare under three years of age-— it was believed that if used
At an earlier age the mare would be injured.
Seo. 9. Forbids all persons from concealing colts th^ may have, of from selling
•lallion colts, under two years of i^e, out of the kingdom.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
67
Se^ 10. Is a long preamble explaining the parpoee of the above order, and declaring
it to be one of the king^s objects to raise horses in the kingdom, fitted for all purposes,
more especially for cavalry ; and concludes by naming that man a " good subject " who
cheerfully sells a two year old stallion to the Stud at a fair price, and a golden ''memo-
rial *' worth six Thalers was ordered to be given to every such salesman.
8eo. 11. Forbids any one working in a team or riding a brood mare in foal at any
time daring a period of six weeks before foaling, and six weeks afber foaling.
8eo, 12. Relates to registering the stallions, mares and colts.
SectUms, 13, 14, 15 and 16 are civil or police regulations.
All the royal documents have been carefully preserved, and as far as I could learn
section two of the Council Order is the only one which has undergone any modification.
The annexed tables obtained from authentic and " official *' sources may be of interest
to the horse breeders of Ohio.
The following table exhibits the status of
THE BOYAL PRUSSIAN STUD FOB 1864.
1
1
^
1
1
\
I
r
8
1
1
1
i
1
IS §
1=
5
3&
11
....
^
i
1
<
^
f
^1
H4
a-s
H
a
^
1
H
East Prussia
300
105
56
20
141
60
131
34
328
105
12
8
15
5
5
32
13
West Prussia
15
Posen
140
20
65
46
9
140
6
7
2
15
33
Brandenburg
140
110
3
14
60
51
71
34
1
1
135
100
9
5
7
3
16
8
38
Province of Saxony..
13
Silesia
150
31
71
43
5
150
13
4
1
18
53
Westphalia
80
10
44
20
3
77
1?
2
28
Bhen.sh Provinces
55
1
10
15
29
55
3
Total
1080
155
492
394
49
1090
56
43
8
107
210
Digitized by LjOOQIC
£8
•K«O0 WOX
•gq-Miq mMj,
•noijif?^fi
I ^ I
-SB-
's S g S
« « s
S 3 6
'ao!((«i«
s;
"i S"
OO
r-l
I
I
1
1
I
[0g9 ^q pOAJOq BftOTpf
s
S 3 S 9
-ff^X00 91«|^
3
•nxoo nonwS
CO
s
«1 •*«
•TO^ra^
a
I
CO
'uojivg
A I i I
« fH »H
*P9A198 BOJ«I^
I I I I
2*
g
s ^
fe 8f
I g. I I S I.
fc S 2 iS
M Oi *H ^
o ** «o a>
i I I 13
8 2 I S
ei" ,H •M 52
I I
•M 0* 5
ao9fi99 %9J^ snoijiv^S
-"55 g
'snoTxl^^s p98y
I S S s $
I¥
i I a
"g"
■8aoiil«48 i«aoq
s
g
'noi|p?^8 tx9V9 iCq
pOAJQg' 89Jgni JO '0<^
t} «
■aoTi|«|8 poSy
S
iS s
? 8
'poAJos sdjvm JO *oj^
00
J5
*9nOTXI«^B JO -OX
'W
8 S g g
I
e9 <B
ii II it if
^> i? aP 5i
5 e« S<a ^<rt
111 U
i
Digitized by VjOOQIC
59
AYBRAOB AOB OF 8TALUON8.
Tear. Average.
1787 6.1
1788 7.0
1793 10.3
1798 8.7
1802 8.4
1807 ,... 8.9
181« 9.2
1815 9J>
1816 10.7
1817 11.7
1818 10.9
1819 10.6
1820 ...10.6
1821 9.7
1822 - 10.2
1823 9.8
1824 9.4
1825 9.4
1826 9.7
1827 9.5
1828 9.4
1829 9.9
1830. 9.9
1831 9.8
1832 9.9
1833 9.9
1834 9.5
Year. Arerage.
1835 10.1
1836 11.3
1837 10.7
1838 UiS
1839 12.0
1840 tl2-®
1841 il2 8
1842 12.6
1843 12.3
1844 11.8
1845 11.6
1846 11.7
1847 11.6
1848 11.3
1849 .....10.8
1850 10.3
1851 10.4
1852 10.6
1853 10.1
1854 104
1855 10.9
1856 11.1
1857 102
1858 ;.-. 10.9
1859 11.3
1860 11.0
" 1861 11.3
Heavy saddle.
NUMBBR OT STALUONS OF THS VARIOUS 8T&AI2C8.
Year. Heavy draft.
1850 46
1851 55
1852 65
1853 77
1854 85
1855 90
1856 91
1857 92
ia'>8 96
1859 101
1860 101
1861 97
Ught Saddle.
116
68
115
61
^... 108 .,.-..
51
106 ,
43
113
42
114
42
106
41
104
47
94
49
98
49
100
4&
Digitized by LjOOQIC
60
Year.
1821
1822
1823
1824
J825
1826
1827
l8'^8
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859
1860
1861
I
w
I
2r.(
250
250
250
250
265
307
325
300
275
305
301
310
300
313
318
308
302
307
308
304
314
319
319
316
317
296
288
291
295
295
310
297
313
321
313
317
307
315
a
13.106
13,034
10,999
13,556
12823
12,982
13.409
13,618
14,882
13,2»!
11,827
13.956
12.829
13,713
13,480
14,409
13,311
13,304
13,186
14,697
15,318
15,876
15,122
} 6.389
14,721
15.153
14,640
13,934
12.431
13,886
13,187
13,217
15215
15,694
17,891
16,:^
15,996
15,283
12,847
15,559
17,737
a
A
5438
4943
4369
4945
4410
4710
5217
5448
5894
4742
4093
4565
3528
4035
3437
4101
4309
4067
4174
4394
4836
4655
4630
5333
4336
4254
3886
3597
3454
3620
39-36
4337
4515
5551
6J12
4609
4283
3781
3662
3081
A
7,668
8.073
6,630
8.611
8,413
8,272
8,192
8, .0
8,9S-
8,486
7,734
9,:«1
9,301
9,678
10 043
10,308
9,002
9,237
9.012
10,303
10,482
11,221
10,422
11,056
10,385
10,899
10,754
10,337
8,977
8,979
9,251
8,880
10.700
10,143
11.779
11,771
11,713
11,502
9,185
12,478
748
1276
65:
528
617
1060
1061
1234
ij2l
e
1074
857
1172
654
747
587
102:)
1112
IIHI
1373
1796
1084
1570
1413
1113
lo:>9
1083
727
936
874
604
979
936
966
1135
806
1007
558
665
I
(SI
433
889
487
708
879
604
663
663
700
636
209
1185
1535
1553
1629
1598
103;"
1086
1204
1199
13H4
1597
1368
2117
175«
1841
1437
191
158:)
1287
923
902
1222
1158
1373
1671
2146
2267
1551
2957
o
§
i
3328
2956
2754
3626
3384
3:)40
3211
3160
3604
3855
2904
3540
3402
3409
3890
3896
3670
3547
3319
3955
3H55
3887
3780
3&5(l
4039
4v
3713
3476
4117
3743
3752
4329
4211
4745
4402
4421
3994
3524
4328
'3
o
I
3159
2952
2732
3749
3533
3268
32r)7
3113
3563
3343
2913
3592
3507
3544
387(>
4067
3710
3581
3341
387C
3892
4083
3589
3538
3906
8969
36:)0
3191
3927
3711
362?
4170
3838
4698
4569
4341
4243
3652
4531
1
h
OS
II
52.3
52.1
43.9
53 9
.50.6
51.W
50.4
44.2
45.6
442
42.2
45.8
42.0
44.5
45.0
46.0
42.2
42.4
43.7
47.7
49.4
512
48.2
50.9
45.9
47 5
46 3
46-9
43 3
47.5
45.0
45.3
49.5
53.1
57 3
51.6
51.2
48.1
41.8
48.5
55.2
PU|.S
58.3
62.0
60.4
62.7
64.6
62.9
62.9
59.6
58.9
63.8
64 Ji
66.5
72.7
70.1
73.9
716
676
69.0
68.0
70.0
68.2
70.8
68.9
681
70.4
72.3
73.6
75.1
72.9
64.S
71.7
68.2
69.9
65.2
662
71.9
723
74.4
71.3
761
Digitized by LjOOQIC
61
o
§
I
*o8tU9Ay
'9UOTn«^JO'02{
*8aOm<8t^8JO'0|{
-6aoixi«)fljo-o^
-TOOIII^^B JO -oil
-BaOTn'B!|8JO*0|{
^2
.3^
•OlOlfH *iHiH • iiH
• rHf-^r-ifHot^cokO'^eoeo
r^,HiH*H 1-^ M 00 dl Ol Oi 01
.2»
'saoi|[«^sjo*o|{
-flaoi[i«r|9jo'0|i
■6aonrB!^sjo*oj^
5^
*8aoixi«:^jo 'Oil
'saoTXivt^s JO 'o^
*6aoin«^Jo*o|{
'8aoixi«|8Jo*o|i
*saoin«!^Jo'0^
.9«
• pH • > • • tH lO «D CO CO 00 >-i C
, • • • I iHr^»-(Ne*d
lO^kdOO • r-i 0* fH CO 1-4 CO
23
2;:S8SfeS55:Sg$S8JS!§
ggcog^oi^GOg^^jggggggjgggggggg
SS93$SSS93g2S^SSS$S$9Sg^gg
SS8feS3SS2SSS?S53gS22;^«»«^;:3*«
4i
OiO
3gSSSS8S5§g?852'»''*-»""^««"'"«
§Sgg}Si;§S2S"*«'« :«" : :
2S2SSSa«" l--^
.ss
'8aoin«98Jo*o|{
^<»
^S'*
I
lO CO O) Ot n 09 01 (iH
.a
liiliiiliiilisiimillii
Digitized by VjOOQIC
62
SHEEP.
Ab before stated, the primary object of the exhibition was for the bene-
fit of wool-growers, and it was reasonable to presume that here, at th
headquarters of European wool-growing, a large exhibition of sheep
would be found, and in this respect we were not disappointed. The
entries of sheep of all classes numbered 2,044, and were as follows :
A.
a. Bucks 3 yean old and over, prodacing oloth wool of at leatt prime fineness,
and that have the highest breeding qualities 101
(. TearUng bucks, same as above 96
0. Ewes 3 years old and over, same as above, in lots of three in eaeh lot 143
d. Tearling twes, sameasabove 160
«. Bucks 3 years old and over, producing wool le88 than prime fineness, but hav-
ing the highest breeding qualities 88
/. Yearling backs, same as above 34
g. Ewes 3 years old and over, in lots of 3 in each lot, same as above 33
h, Tearling ewes, some as above 45
8. SHEBP PRODnciNa cx>BCBiNa wool.
a. Bupks 8 years old and over, producing combing wool of at least prime fineness,
and that possess the highest breeding qualities 54
1. Yearling bucks, same as above 49
c Ewes 3 years old, in lots of 3 in each lot 130
d. Yearling ewes, same as above 90
«. Bucks 3 years old and over, producing wool of less than prime fineness, bat
that possess the highest breeding qualities 54
y. Yearling bucks, sameasabove • 167
g. Ewes, 3 years old and over, in lots of 3 in each lot 348
h. Yearling ewes, same as above 343
3. spnnraNG wooi*
a. Bucks 13
I. Ewes 10
B. MXTTTON SHBBP, lAROX RACK, (LSICBSTBR AND UNCOLN TTFK.)
a. Bucks 6
i. Ewes 6
8. 8MAIX RACK, (SOUTH-DOWN TTFE.)
«. Bucks 68
*. Ewes 34
C. FAT SHBEP, (RBOARDLESS OF RACE.)
«. Animals under 5 months old None.
h. Animals from 5 to 18 months old 33
^ Animals over 18 months old 64
4, Animals heaviest, without regard to age None,
MisceUaneoos, without regard to age, sex or quality 54
Digitized by LjOOQIC
68
The term " combing wool ** has a different signification, or rather ha9
reference to a different quality of wool from what it has iB the United
States. By combing wool we understand a wool which is very long and
rather course, as the Cotswold or Leicester ; but in Germany the long
Merinoes are called combing wools, and are employed in the manufocture
of ladies' dress goods, whilst the *' cloth " wool is a finer and shorter wool,
and is employed in the manufacture of fine broadcloths, cassimeres, &&,
for gentlemen's dress goods.
It is conceded here that the French Merino (Bambouillet or Mauchamp)
does not produce as fine and compact a wool as the ^egretti, and an
analysis of the entries demonstrates that, whilst more than one-half of aJl
the fine-wooled sheep on exhibtion were BambouiUets, yet in the class of
** prime" fineness, a class embracing 499 entries, 13 Bambouillets, onZy
competed. The following is an analysis of the fine-wooled sheep on ex-
hibition :
J. CSloth wool, prime fineness, Negrettis 485
BambonUlets la
499
Less thftn prime fineness, Kegrettis 110
EamboniUets 14
J^
S. Combing wool, prime fineness, Negrettis 92
BamboniUets S31
Less than prime fineness, Kegrettis 119
Bamboomets 98»
"807
Showing that out of 1,753 fine-wooled sheep, 946 were BambouiUets ;
and the analysis fdrthermore demonstrates that where the fine wools
were divided into four classes, the great majority, amounting to almost
75 per cent of the entire lot of Bambouillets competed in the lowest or
coarsest class. Exhibiters were at liberty to compete in which ever class
they saw proper.
The Bambouillets are highly esteemed here, and are pretty well intro-
duced and distributed. Some of them were splendid ar^mals, indeed ; as,
for instance, Mr. Yauflart Oudin, of Gaumont by Marie, department of
Aisne, France, among others, exhibited three bucks, aged two and a half
years, weighing unshorn, but wool of one year's growth, respectively,
110, 112, 120 kilogrammes, or, estimating the kilo, at two and a hall
pounds English, 275, 280, and 300 pounds live weight. The she^
Digitized by LjOOQIC
64
breeders have been exceedingly carefdl to keep the blood pore, and
there are many flocks which were found in the latter part of the eigh-
teenth and the commencement of the nineteenth centory which have been
kept entirely pure ; this, however, is more frequently the case in Silesia
than elsewhere. The Landgrave of Schwerin, a nobleman residing on his
estate at Amalienhf, (and whose personal acquaintance I was fortunate
enough to make,) exhibited four combing wool Mennoes two years old,
which were originally from the stock flock at Kleisthohe, and are the pure
descendants of a stock established in 1816, from pure bred sheep which
Napoleon I. ordered from Spain. A yearling ewe, marked 49 of 1864,
had the most compact white and regularly crimped fleece I ever saw, and
I inquired of the landgrave why he did not compete in the class of cloth
wool instead of the combing wools ; he replied that the wool was a shade
too long to compete successfully in that class ; I hope he took a premium,
for he really deserved one. The bucks were well built, had splendidly
formed and compact heads, aud were valued at (500 (louis d*ors, 100.) I
may mention here, (parenthetically) that one of the most distinguished
sheep breeders told me that if I wished to purchase sheep I should not
pay over 200 thalers ($150) for the best buck on the grounds ; that there
were none here or in Europe really worth more than that. He said of
course some would ask 2,000 to 3,000 thalers^ but they were purely fancy
prices, and bucks equally as good in every respect could be purchased for
200 thalers. Another breeder remarked to me that the Negrettis were so
much improved that the wool was entirely too fine, and that they were now
doing all they could to introduce the Kambouillets, not because they
believed the Kambouillets were better, not even as good as the Kegrettis,
but that the cross between the two would, in the course of time, produce
the right kind of wool. Whatever may be the cause, the Eambouillets
are rapidly gaining favor in Germany.
There were very few Electorals on exhibition. The Electorals, as far
as I can learn here, are about equivalent to those we have always regarded
as Saxonys ; they have a short but very fine fleece. Many of the Negret-
tis, so called, which were on exhibition, had more or less of the Electoral
blood in them. No breeder here seems to know much about the PaularSt
or Infantados. A thorough-bred Kegretti is a singular- looking animal ;
there is no portion of the body free from folds ; wool down the forehead
and over the face, wool down the legs to the hoofl Those on exhibition
were fine and compactly built animals.
In the class of spinning wools the Lincolnshire, Oxford and South-
downs were exhibited, as well as crosses between the Southdowns and
Merinoes. The Leicester, Lincoln, and Ootswolds were exhibited in the
class of mutton sheep of the larger class. The Southdowns and Oxford-
ahiredowns, and some of the native races, were exhibited in the dass of
amaller mutton sheep.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
65
There were several of the broad-tailed or fot-tailed sheep on exhibition.
The tail is aboat six inches broad, and perhaps a foot long, and from two
to three inches thick, and resembles a cushion placed against the hind
quarters of the sheep rather than a tail but the general form of the
sheep is more like that of a deer — ^long and thin legs, no wool on them ;
a light, long body, a tolerably long neck, and, taken as a whole, one
would scarcely, at first sight, recognize them as sheep.
Taken as a whole the sheep on exhibition at Stettin were superior to
the same number of sheep on exhibition at one of our State Fairs —
although we have individual animals as good as any I saw at Stettin — but
the best sheep were not there. I afterwards saw much better ones on
some of the German estates. Sheep breeding and wool growing is more
reduced to a science, or rather a trade if I may so call it, in Germany
than anywhere else in the world. The Mecklenburgers very evidently have
been paying more attention to wool than to carcass — ^the sheep from there
were, as a rule, much smaller sized than from Silesia and other portions
of Prussia. So far as carcass alone is concerned, the large Bambouillets
were certainly entitled to a prize on this feature alone, but they certainly
deserved none on the fineness or quality of wooL
I met a gentleman on the Fair grounds who then owned some of the
stock of the sheep Mr. George Campbell, of Vermont, exhibited in Ham-
burg and sold them there. This man was &om Mecklenburg, and he told
me that he purchased them for constitution and carcass rather than for
quality of wool ; that in Mecklenburg too much attention had been paid
to the quality of wool only, and the carcass neglected; and he hoped, by
the introduction of the Vermont sheep, to improve the carcass, even if
the wool did suffer in quality. I told him that I thought there were some
equally well formed sheep here on exhibition; to which he replied, "Yes,
even better formed, but the flocks here are nearly all blood relations, and
I thought it best to infuse some fresh blood into my flock.'' He then told
me that the Vermont sheep at no time were considered as producing a
superior quality of wool, but that they produced an excellent combing or
ddaine wool, and that that kind of wool was now in greater demand Uian
it formerly had been.
Many woolen manufacturers were also present at the exhibition, and I
inquired of them if fine broadcloths could be made from such wool as that
produced by the sheep exhibited by the Count or Duke* of Schwerin (which
I think is about equal to the Vermont, but it has less grease), or of the gen-
eral run of Silesians. I received the same answer from all — " No." The
wool of the Schwerin flock is too long for fine broadcloths, but is well adapt-
ed for army goods, and ladies' wear, especially delaines. With the greatest
*" I am not sure of his title in EngUak ; the German title is Gbaf. Grafithaft i«
CMNily, and I think Graf is OnmL
Digitized by LjOOQIC
66
care they cannot make as fine a cloth, nor a cloth with as good a lustre, as
from the wool that Staiger produces. I was famished with the names of
several parties in Silesia whose flocks produced as fine wool as Mr. Stai-
ger's, bat on tracing out the pedigrees, I found that they all were de-
scended from the same as Staiger's flock.
One featnre of the Fair which attracted a great deal of attention, but
which was of no interest to me except in a zoological sense, was an ar-
rangement of apparatus for artificial fish breeding. The principle was
the same as that adopted by Dr. T. Garlick, of Oleveland, some ten or
HAeon years ago. The g^eat lack of streams of running water through-
out Prussia, and the rigid laws relative to '^fishing," as a necessary con-
sequence render fish not only scarce, but very high priced ; therefore, by
the system of artificial breeding of fishes, a fresh water pond 'x>vering
an acre will, in a given series of years, return a greater revenue than if
tilled in ordinary crops.
Beehives, somewhat on the Langstroth principle, were on exhibition,
but the walls of the hive, instead of being made of boards, were made
of straw, very ingeniously pressed. These straw hives absorb the mois-
ture created by the bees much better and more readily than the wooden
ones.
I saw many articles on exhibition manufactured from what is common-
ly known as artificial stone. The composition is soluble silica and Port-
land cement. Statuary, water troughs, tomb stones, table tops, ornamen-
tal window caps and sills — ^in short, almost everything that is made of
marble or of wood may be made of this artificial stone, whilst it is more
durable than wood and does not cost much more.
Steam plows from England were on trial as well as on exhibition here,
but fsLileA on the trial, although the trial field was very level and the soil
a good mellow loam. A steam omnibus or street wagon was successfully
operated ; the operator could turn the conveyance either to the right or
left at will, or turn around on a very small space of ground. The drivers
were very broad ; in fact all the wheels were very broad to prevent cut-
ting into the soil or damaging the road. It would pass over elevations
very readily, which I was assured amounted to a grade exceeding 200 ft.
per mile. 1 was not much impressed with its practicability for our west-
em continent, but admired it as a piece of very ingenious mechanism.
Almost all the agricultural implements on exhibition were from Eng-
land, and the entire amount of agricultural machines and implements did
not exceed the amount, and fell far short of the variety, annually on ex-
hibition at the Ohio State Fair. The only American machines which I
saw were the *^ omnipresent^* Sewing Machines. I say omnipresent, for
they were in every city, town, or village in which I stopped in all
Germany.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
67
From the earliest period of authentic history we find Germany engaged
in wool growing, or rather in rearing flocks of sheep ; and daring all this
period, this nation enjoyed the reputation of having produced the finest
fleeces in the world. But these fine flocks were not only neglected, but
utterly dispersed and destroyed during the thirty years war. Collecting
together fra^inents of very degenerate herds, the Germans engaged anew
in wool and sheep growing. During the eighteenth century many im-
portations were made from Spain to various parts of Germany, in order
to improve the quality of wool. As importations have been made into
the United States from Spain and Germany, and especially from Saxony
and Silesia in the latter country, it may be well to place upon record such
facts, although disconnected and fragmentary, as may relate to the indi«
vidual races of sheep imported.
In 1802 a Mr. Petri endeavored to obtain measurements and descrip-
tions of the various races of transhuma/nies (or migratory) flocks in Spain.
Whatever descriptions he succeeded in obtaining, they are certainly as
vague and indefinite as any one could desire. In 1863, Mr. A. Korte, of
Breslau in Silesia, and one of the editors of the German Herd Book,
published a sort of dictionary of sheep breeding and knowledge of wool,
from which I make the following translations, viz :
AxFiEBO. — ^A cabana of Spanish sheep, which was one of the most
celebrated races in Spain. In 1765 there were 61 bucks and 28 ewes of
this breed imported into Saxony, and it was of this flock that the greater
proportion of all the importations were made. What is very singular
and remarkable, neither Petri nor any other writer has described the
characteristics of this race or breed.
Bejab. — A cabana or breed which Petri regarded as being as good in
every respect as the NegrettL They are described as short-legged and
heavy-bodied. Twenty-two bucks and thirty ewes were taken to Saxony
in 1765.
OuBNTA. — ^Five bucks and twenty ewes from this cabana were imported
into Saxony with the second importation in 1779. There are many con-
flicting accounts of them in existence.
EleotobaI/. — ^Towards the dose of the last century. Saxony took high
grounds for the production of fine wools, in consequence, chiefly, of the im-
portations made from Spain. These wools from Saxony were known in the
markets as Electoral, that is, from the Electorate of Saxony. And the
Saxons themselves made it their chief object to produce fine wools, re-
gardless of race, tribe, or origin of sheep. Hence all the fine wools were,
even in Saxony, called Electoral. With this prejudice or partiality in
favor of fine wools, there necessarily was a blending of tribes, races, or
breeds, to produce a fine wool, and the miscellaneous breeding of races
in order to attain the desired object, in course of time produced a fixed
type of sheep known as the Electoral sheep, which afterwards became^T/^
^ ^ Digitized by VJWWVlC
68
widely spread thronghoat the Oerman States. This Electoral sheep pos-
sessed the following characteristics* viz : Body small, tender, and with
fine bones ; head small, long, pointed and lean ; loDg neck, with strong
bones ; the back sharp, and a sharp 'descent ftom the hips ; the barrel, or
body, slightly cask shape; the face covered with soft, short hairs; the
eyes and nose perfectly bald ; ears very thin, long, and semi-transparent;
the legs slender, seldom any wool on them ; as a mle, the legs were cov-
ered with hair; belly with very short wool, or bare. The lambs, when
dropped, were hairless, bnt often were dropped with incipient locks of
fine wool, and have a delicate, thin, and therefore a fine, pinkish trans-
parent skin, free from folds or wrinkles. The wool fibre is very elastic,
firm, tender, bnt soon becomes weak ; is elastic in curling and shrinking.
The yelk is very easily rendered fluid, and is not tallow-like or buttery,
and the wool is easily cleansed. This wool has always been highly prised
by manufacturers, but has not been so remunerative as some others to
the wool growers, on account of the lightness of the fleece.
EsouBiAL — Xebena Esoijbial. — The name of a cabana or herd of
the Leonese Transhumantes, in* Spain, and which was r^arded as the
best flock in Spain. As in the case of all other Spanish herds, definite
information or descriptions of this herd are not to be found. Petri de-
scribes them as being long-legged. Th»r, in 1825| had samples of the
wool sent to him from Denmark, where they had been imported from
Spain in 1798, and bred pure until that time ; and he says that the Pau-
lars produced a finer wool than the Escurials. At the international exhi-
bition at Paris, in 1855, it was decided that the finest woolen goods were
from Spain, and e8i>ecially from the Escurial wool. All the German
States that made importations from Spain, imported more or less Escu-
rials. At the Wool Convention in Leipzig, in 1823, Thser suggested that
the Saxon improved Merino be called Escurial. But the Convention
would not adopt the suggestion. That class of sheep producing the finest
wool, say 1^ inches long, having the greatest density of fleece, and great-
est perfection of form, is known at present in Oermany as Escurial, re-
gardless of any trace of Spanish-Escurial blood being in the herd or
not.
Guadeloupe.— A Spanish race of powerful corporeal build, and largely
imported into Denmark and France, and from the latter country into the
royal Prussian stock-flock at Frankenfelde.
IKPANTADO.— A Spanish transhumanta cabana. Petri describes them
as remarkably powerfully built, producing a highly arched (well and
roundly crimped) wool, with a tallowy yelk,— the staple rather long, but
not so dense as others. Sheep of this herd were imported into Denmark,
Bavaria and Austria in 1789 to 1802.
IBAKDO, OB YBAia>A« — Are described by Petri as having strong and
Digitized by LjOOQIC
69
deep bodies, with short legs. In 1779 fifty-one bucks and one hundred
HDd fifty-six ewes were imported into Saxony to Stolpen.
Itubbiedb. — Are described by Petri as being very* similar to theTran-
das. A stock of bucks and ewes were imported into Saxony, at Lohmen,
in 1765.
Lkonese. — ^The finest flocks in Spain were reported to be those of
Leon. They came from La Mancha, out of Estramadura, passed over
the mountains of Segovia, and in the plains of Leon became estantes or
stationary herds.
Mebinos. — All the fine wooled sheep which were imported into the
German States from Spain were called Merinos. The chief characteris-
tics are a peculiar fineness of fleece, the wool well and finely crimped, and
containing a large amount of yelk. The animals were of medium size ;
the bucks a peculiarly formed nose, and wrinkled spiral horns. In Spain
Merinos are divided into two classes, as Sorians and Leonese. t
MoNCEYS. — Sheep from the herd of Marshal Moncey, which are said
to have been derived from a cross between the Paulars and the Negrettis.
In 1815 they were introduced into the royal flocks of Prussia. These
sheep were characterized as producing a long, lank, poorly crimped, silk-
en-lustrous wool, and have been used as a basis of card- wool sheep.
Negretti is the name of one of the most celebrated Spanish flocks of
the transhumata cabanas. Petri describes them a« being low in body,
and less stoutly built than the Infantado, Gaudaloupe, &c. But the blood
of this herd is to be found in a greater or less degree in almost all the
well bred herds of fine wooled sheep in Europe. Prance introduced them
at Rambouillet in 1785, at Malmaison in 1806, and afterward on the
estates of Marshals Moncey, Murat, &c. Denmark, in 1798, introduced
them at Esserom ; in 1765 Saxony imported four bucks and fifteen ewes
for the estate at Lohmen ; seventeen bucks were taken to Stolpen in 1779,
and in 1802 many were imported into Austria. At the time when the
Merino or fiue-wooled sheep began to receive attention in Saxony, toward
the close of the last century, it was believed in the adjoining Austrian
provinces that sheep having small bodies, black "tops" of wool, and
fully wrinkled, were the most desirable kind of sheep ; and this impres-
sion became so general, that manufacturers and wool merchants required
no more than to see that the sheep possessed these characteristics, when
they made purchases of wool. Whilst in Saxony, the object sought by
wool growers was to produce a fine staple, and, as a result of this en-
deavor, the Electoral form became a fixed type for Saxony; at the same
time the Austrian breeders directed their energies to produce a black-
tipped, wrinkled, small sheep, or the true !N'egretti type. The improved
ITegretti is now characterized by a powerful, broad body, strong skeleton
and large extremities. The thick and coarse skin manifests a great dis-
Digitized by LjOOQIC
70
position to become folded or wrinkled; the wool is seldom "^i^^" fine,
bat is harsher, less elastic or yielding ; the crimps beantifolly circular ;
the staple ranging from two to three inches ; the yelk thick and adhesive.
The lambs when yeaned are hairy. The modern !N^egretti is characterized
by great weight of fleece, massive and compactly built body, a much less
adhesive, but at the same time lighter yelk, and the staple is at least two
inches long. A few of the Kegretti flocks produce super or extra fine
wool, but the great majority yield j^iw wool only.
Paular. — Petri describes this breed of the Transhumantes as having
powerfully built bodies, and judging from samples of wool sent to Thaer
in 1825 from Esserom in Denmark, the wool may be classed as " high "
fine. A stock from this flock was sent to Bambouillet in 1785, in 1809 to
the flock of Marshal Moncey, 1798 to Esserom in Denmark, and the Aus-
trian estates of Holitsch and Mannersdorf.
Perax.es. — ^Were powerfully built; otherwise similar to the Infantados.
^ViLLA Patebna.— This is undoubtedly a flock of the Ustantes. In 1779
twenty-one bucks were imported into Saxony."
It is somewhat singular that such a careful plodding people as the
Germans are, who preserved even the ear marks and brands on the horns
of the bucks which were imported from Spain, did not preserve a more
definite description of the animals themselves. The names of Kegretti
Infantado, Escurial, &c., are still used on the continent, although less
weight is placed on the distinctive appellations to signify diflferent varie-
ties. The name Kegretti especially is greatly misused, and applied to sheep
of so different type, character and even origin, that I feel obliged to give
a historical sketch of merino breeding in general, for the puix>ose of show-
ing that neither the name Kegretti nor any other mentioned above is of
particular significance.
In 1846 there was a wool-growers* convention at Breslau, Silesia, at
which a classification of sheep and wool was adopted, and at which sheep
received the Spanish tribal names that perhaps did not have a single drop
of that tribe of sheep in their veins.
The so-called Kegretti breed, being quite a new one, originating in Ger-
many, and formed from quite diverse and partly very coarse elements,
sucx^eeded only a few years ago in producing middling fleeces, after hav-
ing been crossed with fine Silesian rams. On the other hand, that old
and very valuable Austrian Negretti stock, far-famed for its strong and
stoutly constructed bodies, can rarely be found on the continent — ^not
even in Austria — ^it having become extinct, owing to the different princi-
ples of sheep breeding introduced in recent times. There are, indeed, no
sheep on the? continent which may properly be called thoroughbred or
pure-blood Negrettis, and a very few with what an Ohio breeder would
call large carcasses with abundance of fine wool. I shall proceed to show
Digitized by LjOOQIC
71
from what I learned in Germany of what little value those Negretti, In-
fSEintado, Escarial, Paolar, &c., breeds were when first imported from
Spain into Germany, and what has become of them in modem times.
As merino wo»l was greatly manufactured and highly prized by En-
glish and Dutch manufacturers, the Spanish Government prevented the
exportation of sheep by heavy penalties. This is the reason why no other
country succeeded for a long time in getting even a small stock fit for
breeding purposes.
AU Spanish sheep were divided into two diflferent groups — 1st, sheep
of Leona ; 2d, sheep of Lona. The first had a short, close, fine and reg-
ularly waved (cloth) wool ; they were always carefully bred, in-and-in,
and doubtless were the most valuable and finest stock in Spain., Their
lambs were ha^y and the weakest of them killed immediately after birth.
Lona merinos had long, coarser, less waved and consequently less valua-
ble wool ; and although their lambs had regular wool staples, without
hairs, they must, doubtless, be considered a^ improved mongrels and were
always crossed with Leona rams.
The last fifty years of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the
nineteenth comprised the flourishing period of merino breeding and wool
production in Spain. Laborte reports that in 1797 the number of sheep
was eight millions in Cabanas estantes and Ave millions in Cabanas
transhumantes, while in the year 1827 there was only half the number of
sheep in Spain, whose wool was valued at one-third of the wool produced
at the same time in Germany. A proof of how greatly wool production
decreased till the year 1848 is, that there were imported in England only
106,638 lbs. Spanish wool.
Having given a short historical notice of the origin of Spanish meri-
nos, let us turn to the development of the merino breed in foreign coun-
tries, and begin with England. The first importation of merinos into Eng-
land was in the time of Edward INT., 1461-83. Lord Sommerville and the
king himself, who took a great interest in merino breeding, did not suc-
ceed in improving the imported sheep, for the English climate and food
do not seem to be favorable for the production of fine wool. Many wri-
ters are of opinion that the modern Southdown and Leicester breeds owe
the abundance and value of their wool to those few drops of merino blood
remaining in them for so many years. France received its first merinos
under the Government of Louis XIV. (1659), but to no extent of import-
ance until, in the year 1752, the French Ministers Ghoisseul and Fruduine
favored the production of wool by importing great numbers of Spanish
merinos (from where is unknown.) Daubenton, the first French writer
on sheep (InstmctUms piywr lea hergeraetpour lesproprietaires des trovpeaux^
Pam,1820;, who himself purchased and imported Spanish merinos, laid
the foundation of that old and celebrated establishment at Naz. Louis
XYL received as a present 334 ewes and 42 rams from the King of Spain,
Digitized by LjOOQIC
72
fleleoted &om the Oavanas, Negretti, Escarial and Panlar. The only
thing we know about these sheep is that the wool of all the animals was
very eqnal ; but it seems that those Negretti, Escarial and Paalar sheep
had small carcasses, for the chief principle of breeding in the Imperial es-
tablishment at Eambonillet, where those sheep were carried to, was to
get better carcasses, while the wool might have been considered to be
fine enough. We read that many years afterwards, in consequence of the
principle of breeding, and of those animals being abundantly fed, Ram-
bouillet rams were considered to be the largest ot any sheep, and the
'King wa« pleased to select the two largest of them to draw the carriage
of the Dauphin. In the meantime, it is said that the wool, being former-
ly of ^ fine cloth description, has become a long and less fine combing
one. About the same principle as to breeding for abundant combing
fleeces was followed by all French traders, and a very good combing wool
was produced in France, such as the soft and silk-like Mauchamp, Ge-
rolles, &c. The number of sheep increased greatly, for in the year 1850,
there were about 33,151,400 merinos fmost likely not quite pure blood) in
France, and produced about 80,000,000 lbs. of wool. Notwithstanding,
France does not pay any further great attention to sheep, and there are
scarcely any animals of a particular value for breeding purposes ; but we
owe to the intelligence of French breeders the first valuable scientific in-
vestigation into wool and merino breeding, such as Matthieu de Dom-
basle, Fernauoe, Tessier, Poloneau, &c., but especially to Perault de Fo-
temps, who published in the year 1824 his N^ouveau traits 9ur la laine et
9ur les numtOTts, Paris, 1824 — a most interesting and instructive treatise,
in which he gives very valuable rules for producing fine wool, with quite
a correct statement of the physiological relation between wool and skin,
which have been most successfully followed by modern sheep breeders on
the continent
German sheep breeding was in rather an inferior position till the year
1748, although Frederick William I., King of Prussia, tried to improve
native German sheep (Deutshe geest shaf) by crossing with imported
Turkish and Danish rams. Every fanner was obliged by law to breed
sheep under a penalty of 1,000 ducats. Kobody was allowed to sell vrwA
to a foreign country while the Government kept a wool monopoly ; nor
was anybody allowed to sell sheep before shearing. Before the Seven
Years* War, Silesian wool was considered the finest in Germany, and
Frederick the Great, understanding the great value of merino sheep for
wool production, purchased, in the year 1748, 53 Spanish rams, which,
however, without being of any use, died of foot-rot and scab. Saxony
afterwards (1765) imported a lot of 128 ewes and 92 rams, selected firom the
cavanas — ^Alfaro, Bijar, Accolia, Negretti, Iturbieta and Xerena Escu-
rial ; and in the year 1770 again 176 ewes and 94 rams from Yranda,
Guenta, Villa Paterna and Negretti. The offspring of these fiocks were
Digitized by VjOOQIC
73
sold at very low prices ; consequently they soon spread over all Saxony,
and in a short time increased greatly. At the end of the eighteenth cen-
tury, Saxon wool, which wa« generally called Electoral (derived from the
Electorate Saxony), gained the particular attention of English and Dutch
manufacturers. In the year 1765, Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria,
imported a great number of Spanish sheep, and founded the Imperial es-
tablishment at Mannersdorf and Holitzsch. We have no sure informa-
tion from what Spanish cavanas these sheep were taken, but one of the
most credible authors on these subjects, Eudolph Andre (1816), says: "I
can prove that Austria got quite as fine a flock from Spain as Saxony.
Wool samples, cut from Austrian sheep, perfectly resemble those cut from
Saxon sheep." A short time afterwards, pure bred merinos were to be
found in almost every part of Germany, partly imported from Spain and
partly purchased from Austria and Saxony. The first stage of German
merino breeding was, of course, a very empirical and experimental pro-
ceeding ; sheep farmers had neither proper knowledge of the valuable
qualities of a fine combing or cloth wool nor any idea about the right
principles of breeding. The first results were, therefore, not very gratify-
ing. Veterinary science was still in its infancy, and a great many valua-
ble animals died from foot- rot and scab. Notwithstanding this, the high
prices for fine wool still animated merino breeders to continue, and while
I)€ople in Saxony paid great attention to producing fine wool — i. «., wool
the fibres of which were of small diameter, neglecting other valuable
qualities, Austrian breeders, on the contrary, strove exclusively to im-
prove the carcasses of their sheep. The result was that by 1802 Austrian
and Saxon sheep, originating from the same cavanas in Spain, differed
so evidently that the Austrian breed was generally called stout- wooled
Infantado, while Saxon sheep were under the name of fine-wooled Elec-
torals. Both Infantado and Electorals are, therefore, names invented in
Germany to signify those very different races.
The principle of breeding a fine wool, no care being taken to improve
and strengthen the body at the same time, caused a general tenderness
and delicacy in Saxon sheep ; while Austrian sheep became coarse and
equal. Infantado and Electoral breeders began to feel the great want of
information with regard to the qualities of wool which render it valuable
in the market, and at the same time pay the breeder. In 1825, Albert
Thaer, therefore, called a meeting of wool merchants, manufacturers, and
fanners, at Leipzig, for the purpose of clearing and sifting those very
conftised opinions on these matters. The result of that meeting, and sub-
sequently several very instructing exhibitions at Brunn, Vienna, &c., of
fleeces, was the settling of terms to be used regarding the fleece, and
equally adopted by both manufacturers and breeders. The names Infan-
tado, Negretti, Escurial, and Electoral, were agreed to be used as follows :
Digitized by LjOOQIC
74
Infantado to si^ify large, deep-chested sheep, with long wool, (combing,)
staples open ; Negretti, sheep of the same exterior, with short wool closed
staples, and large wrinkles ; Escorial, for flne-wooled, close-stapled sheep,
with line flexible wrinkles, and stoat bodies ; finally, the name Electoral
was to be nsed for those fine small sheep, bred exclusively for producing
as fine a wool as possible. Although the nomenclature agreed upon could
not strictly be followed, the result of that meeting was a mutual under-
standing and instruction, and an agreement on matters which had been
doubtful until that time, and consequently the basis of a great progress
in producing valuable and at the same time heavy fleeces. Since that
time people understood that the chief principle of breeding is, the select-
ing and matching of animals which, in our idea, approach nearest perfec-
tion. The terms '* pure blood *' and ** inheritance," were thoroughly dis-
cussed and correctly settled. By comparing certain observations and
facts during their experience in merino breeding, farmers became con-
vinced that the pure blood, in the general meaning of the term, is of very
little practical use, if not always prevented from varying by a careful
selection. On the other hand, races are of no use unless they present a
desirable material for new amalgamations by slight variations. "In
Saxony," says Charles Darwin, " the importance of that principle of
selection in regard to merino sheep is so fully recognized that men follow
it as a trade ; the sheep are placed on a table and are studied like a con-
noisseur," &c. Sheep breeders understood that sheep breeding was too
valuable and particular a business to be successfully done without being
thoroughly and carefully studied, and that wool sorters, without knowl-
edge of the animal body and zoological principles of inheritance and
variation, could only make a pretence of discharging their duties. £u-
dolph Wagner, therefore, published his new method of breeding in groups
(gruppenzuchtung,) following a system of classification concerning the
qualities of a fine cloth wool only. Afterwards, the brothers Frederick
and Edward Elaunitz followed another system more generally applicable,
tending more to improve the size of body and the weight of the fleece,
and it must be confessed that Germany owes a great deal to the honesty
and cleverness of these two masters in sheep-breeding, as well as to their
disciples, under whose skilful hands German merinos underwent such an
important change.
Let us now look back a few years to find the first origin of that Austri-
an Negretti breed, which began to exert a great influence on nearly all
important sheep-breeding in that time. The Baron Von Geisslem, a gen-
tleman much interested in sheep-breeding, beginning with a stock of two
rams and sixteen ewes, which he received as a present from the Empress
Haria Theresa, and afterwards purchasing a few hundred sheep more fix)m
the same stock at Mannersdorf, founded his flock at Hoschlitz, in Bohe-
Digitized by LjOOQIC
76
mia, and, by the principle of producing abundance of middling fine wool
on large carcasses, he bred quite a different race of sheep from Austrian
Infantados and Saxon Electorals, being neither an Austrian framed breed
nor a Saxon fine- wool breed, but being a medium, between both. He
did not gain the attention of sheep-breeders until his stock was quite
uniform in the qualities of wool, and perfectly constant in the hereditary
transmission of qualities, both in fleeces and frames. Baron Von Greis-
slem called his flock, in consequence of its character being so very differ-
ent from Austrian and Saxon breeds, and according to the name settled
fbr sheep of a similar style at Leipzig, Negretti, although his flock had
not in the least originated from the cayana of the Conde Kegretti.
This is the real origin of those celebrated Austrian !N'egrettis, a name
given to a new German breed, which was originally composed from many
different Spanish cavanas.
While the Baron Yon Oeisslem succeeded in breeding his flock in com-
plete uniformity, the disease known as vertigo began to render Saxon and
Silesian rams perfectly unfit for breeding purposes ; on the other hand,
the brothers Kaunitz appreciated the want of stout, deep-chested, short-
legged rams, with heavier, but iii the meantime valuable fleeces of cloth
wool, not only for the purpose of improving poor constitutions and light
fleeces, but more to freshen the blood of those delicate and sickly Elec-
torals. Having seen the great value of that Hoschlitz Negretti blood,
and being particularly acquainted with the Barents principle, Frederick
and Edward Kaunitz, founded a few establishments in Mecklenburg and
Pomerania, from ewes and rams purchased in Hoschlitz. These establish-
ments were for a long time as valuable as the orignal one at Hoschlitz* but
of late, from being neglected, the system of breeding was greatly varied.
The flocks were afterwards crossed with some Silesian rams, and are now
very far from being as valuable as many years ago. Austrian, Mecklen-
burg, and Pomeranian Fegrettis became, therefore, most valuable and
greatly desirable breeds, by the use of which the brothers Kaunitz and
their pupils succeeded in producing a greater abundance and a more valu-
able fleece than ever the Hoschlitz sheep originally possessed. They
improved the form of the sheep, strengthened the constitution by a very
rational system of matching, and in this way checked the ravages of the
disease. Silesian and Saxon wool still remained the finest in the English
market, and those Negrettified Electorals became a very paying breed,
both in quantity and quality of wool. We may instance Kuchelna
(Prince Lychnowsky), Chrzelitz (Heller), in Silesia; Thai, near Oshasz,
(Gadegast), Leutewitz Lothain (A. H. Staiger), in Saxony, and Moeglin
(A. P. Thaer), Mark of Brandenburg. While that action and successM
struggle for the " golden fleece," both literally and practically, took place
in Saxony and Silesia, we are bound to say that Austria, as well as Meek-
Digitized by LjOOQIC
76
lenbnrg and Pomerania, have almost entirely lost all claims to it, by-
endeavoring to improve the quality of the fleeces, and reduce the stout-
ness and size of the frame. Austrian sheep now suffer from the same
delicacy of body, producing fine fleeces, as Saxony and Silesia many
years before, and one could hardly believe that the Austrian and Meck-
lenburg Negrettis of the present time are a pure-bred offspring of that
old short-legged, deep-chested, long-framed Austrian Infantado.
From the foregoing it will be seen that all German breeds have origin-
ated from quite equal Spanish sheep, although taken from different cava-
nas, but that after "having been imported into Germany they varied so
greatly that an offspring so opposite as Infantado and Electoral was pro-
duced. The perfect insignificance of Spanish names for German breeds,
and the entirely German origin of these so-called pure Negretti breeds si»
an offspring of Hoschlitz, which must really be considered a variety pro-
duced by intentional selection from a stock already greatly varied, must
be apparent to all. On the other hand, there have been pure-bred Hosch-
litz iNTegretti sheep in Mecklenburg and Pomerania, and if the owners of
them had continued to breed with the same care and intelligence as their
master, the Baron Von Geisslem, those breeds would, doubtless, now still
be bright stars among German sheep-breeders, which they certainly are
not any more. iNTegretti breeders failed to follow perseveringly their
original principle of producing fine and heavy fleeces, and Negretti breed-
ing became indeed a mere sale business of those sheep of reputation, the
Kegrettis in Mecklenburg and Pomerania, whose climate and food have very
little tendency for producing heavy fleeces of a fine and valuable wool for
the higher manufEUJturing purposes, had, through the two Kaunitz's, earned
a reputation, and a great many Mecklenburgian and Pomeranian farmers,
wishing to make use of the reputation, published, in competition with the
flocks of Hoschlitz, their sale of pure blood, thoroughbred, or origina
INegretti lambs and ewes. It is rather astonishing how many of those "pur©
blood, thoroughbred, or even original Spanish Negrettis," as their owners
please to call them, were rising at once like. mushrooms, in a countrv
whose inhabitants never evinced any sign of interest for high merino
breeding. Mecklenburg never imported pure Spani:^h blood, but by cross-
ing their native German sheep with Rambouillets and Austrian Infanta-
dos, &e., had produced a merino-like, large framed, combing wool mongrel
(Boldsbuck), an animal, so far as blood is concerned, composed of most
heterogeneous elements, chiselled to a fashionable extent by a few drops
of pure iNTegretti blood, baptised with a proper business name, which suc-
ceeded, indeed, for a time to partake of the lucky profits of the Negretti
sales. Many farmers believed still that those so-called original Negrettis
were indeed a pure-bred offspring from the celebrated cavana of the
Conde NegrettL The inferior utility of those breeds, however, was, of
Digitized by LjOOQIC
77
course, soon recognized by the great coarseness 4nd inequality of woolin
the offspring, and the very inferior stapling of the fleeces threatened to
reduce the breed to the low standard of the Infantado breed. The well-
founded complaints of the wool merchants and manufacturers, and other
competent authorities, did not fail to animate the Negretti breeders to
cross again, and of course with fine Silesian rams. They succeeded,
indeed, in improving the fleeces, but, at the same time, entirely spoiled the
frame. Notwithstanding they attended well to their business, and, for
showing large carcasses with those, now obtained finer fleeces, Negretti
breeders began a system of fattening with the most powerful food, such
as peas, beans, wheat, oats, and even rice meal. The benefit of the busi-
ness, of course, was a double one ; on the one hand, the small roof-like
shoulders became rounder, and the fleeces, on the other hand, grew
heavier through the extreme abundance of grease.
This is a true and impartial sketch of those modem Negretti breeds,
so fkr as I could learn from the best sheep-breeders, whose acquaintance
I made at the J^'air at Stettin, and from Mr. Newhoase*s letter. The best
qualities, both of fleece and frame, will never be transferred to the off-
spring, if produced in the parent only by pampering with powerful food.
The only one establishment where a rational system of breeding sheep,
reared with moderate food, and pays by its wool and carcass has been
followed for years, and which, by all intelligent sheep-breeders, is now
acknowledged to be the very best^ is Mr. H, A. Staiger^s flacky in Saxony.
Mr. Staiger's flock was for some years the finest on the continent, follow-
ing, of course, the principle which at that time paid best. Afterwards Mr.
Staiger succeeded in improving the frames of his sheep by the principle
of the Southdown breed, and united the same with Perault de Jolewps'
principle — namely, to breed a fine wool on a thin skin. These two princi-
ples may well be united, because a thin skin is as necessary for the form-
ation of a stout, large body, as for the production of a fine wool. By
following this principle, the breeder is enabled to obtain close and abund-
ant fleeces by breeding a closely organized skin, and by rendering the
same equally on every part of the body, he produced an equal, fine, and
regularly stapled wool all over the body. Alter having studied the sub-
ject and having seen some of the most celebrated merino breeding establish-
ments on the continent, I feel obliged to say that Mr. Staiger's flock is not
only the best on the continent, but still the most valuable for breeding
purposes. That breed has a most extraordinary faculty of transmitting
its qualities to the offspring in a degree quite superior to any other meri-
no breed.
There cannot be the slightest doubt that if breeders would follow a
reasonable and useful proceeding they will in a short time produce far
better sheep than those on the continent, because exx>eriments already
made go to prove that the food and climate of the United States are far
Digitized by VjOOQIC
78
preferable for merino breeding ; notwithstanding, they may still require
imported material as long as there is not produced a certain uniformity
in wool and frame, united with a reliable hereditary transmission of quali-
ties, which can be obtained only by continuing the same principle for
years. Until such Br state is universal, breeders will always have far more
benefit from importing good stocks than from amalgamating inferior
materials. The way of producing more desirable forms by amalgamation
is by a skUliul selection, but being certainly the slowest, it is consequent-
ly the dearest method, through the great loss of time. Sheep breeders
must endeavor to obtain a perfect knowledge of those qualities which
render the wool valuable for manufacturing purposes. Exhibitions of
clean washed fleeces, as well as in grease, such as that made by George
W. Pollock, at the Ohio State Fair in 1864, would be of great benefit in
promoting that result Many important questions in merino breeding,
concerning which many of the breeders are still in doubt, have been dis-
cussed and successfully answered by German authorities, in the works of
Weckherlin, Mentzel, Rhode, &c The right principles of classification,
have also been tested by experiments in a way that merino breeding can
now be considered no longer in a state of infancy, but has become a per-
fect science, cultivated and promoted by scientific and practical breeders
in Germany for upwards of sixty years. In the words of Charles Dar-
win: ''Not one man in a thousand has accuracy of eye and judgment
enough to become an eminent breeder. If gifted with these qualities,
and he studies his subject for years, and devotes his lifetime to it with
indomitable perseverance, he will succeed and make great improvements;
if he wants any of these qualities, he will assuredly fail."
Berlin is the great wool market of Prussia, and next to it is Breslau,
in Silesia. The wool market commences on the first of June at Breslau,
and continues during several days ; wool merchants and manufacturers
congregate there from all parts of Europe, and even England and France,
to purchase the fine wools. The fine wools sold in Berlin, as a general
thing, are manufactured there — ^but those sold in Breslau go to France
and England. The greater part of the extra fine wool sold in Breslau is
from Saxony, von Wehrman, of the Ministerial Bureau of Agriculture
of Prussia, kindly furnished me the following statistics of the wool sales
in Prussia for 1862-3-4, being the latest at his command ; from which
it will be seen that Prussia offers an average of about 30,000,000 pounds
of wool for sale. (See Table on page 79.) M. von Eisner, of Gronow,
Kalinowitz, Silesia, a very estimable gentleman, whose acquaintance I was
fortunate enough to make on the Fair grounds, estimates the number of
sheep in Prussia at 17,500,000, and the average weight of fleece at 2|
pounds* of cleansed wool, making an aggregate of 48,125,000 pounds.
* See Ohio Agricultural Bep ^rt for 1864, page 326.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
79
r-l
I
I
^
^1
g g
I I
^ »0 » ,H S I »*V
« s ;2; ®
r-i CO
S
8 ;s
1^ CO Id ^ o«
W "^ GO
Si' 5
5-33
9, C-^
i i e i
s
s s
<0 00
s s
5 3
kO
^ kO kA
O O O
•♦a 4^ -M
5
IS
3 5
s
3
$ S S S S S S
$ ?! S IS !Si 3 3
5
* S ?^
"1
5
8 8^
S S S
g S !5
5 S 3
8 8 S
5 S
I
i1^
HI
-"«
a
«r^ SO
§ s
-00"
S § 13 S S
0 o» 00 r» t«
01 o fcC CO
o
8
00
0 O "V
8 8^
01 0«
o
i i i i i S
I i I I
iH «r ift JO
s
00
g
o
^ s
§ I
I
I I i I - a
111 Jll
S
s
.4
^
A Pi w u n P4 m
Digitized by VjOOQlC
80
s s
00 lA
^ u5
3
o
5 S 5 s
S 3 S 9
'^ ^ t' l~
s s i s $
5
2 * S* 2
t s ^ s
8 S «'"
5 5 5 5
3 S g 3
5
P
P
I
I
I
I
or
3^
2-34
s^
E ^
S 2 ^
W
IXTTXl"^
"T
00
1-^ ^ fH lO
t i I § s
s.
CO
i I 5S :::
^ kO »-• lO
o
CO
go*
lA (N
S s g s $ :8 iS
4S .«a ^ ^ .^ .^ ^
s s s s s g g
5
_i_
S5555555555
g8i;SgaS8S8
5 5
^ S S
g 5 5
go's*
H
5
S
I
9
•g 'S ^ '2 5 i
I
Digitized by LjOOQIC
81
CHAPTER in.
CLIMATOLOGY, GEOLOGY, POPULATION, ETC.
By its geograpkical positiof), Germany lies within the northern tem-
perate zone; between the isothermal* lines of 8 and 13, between the
isotheral lines of 16 and 23, and the isocheimal^lines X 3 and — 4"^, the
southern portion (the Illyrian provinces and Welsh Tyrol) only extending
to the isothermal of 14'' Or, reduced to the American standard, it lies
between the isothermal of 46° and 55** Fahrenheit, between 61© and 73©
isotheral, and ST* and 24^" isocheimal.
So far as the rain fall is concerned, it is situated in, the northern belt of
oontinuous rains, or rather in the province of summer rains, the most
southern portions only touching the belt ot^autumnal rains. The average
or mean number of raihy days is 131 in southern Germany, 154 in north-
ern Germany, and 170 in the Netherlands. The greatest amount of rain
£ftll is in the Tyrolean Alps, where the average reaches 100 inches per
annum, but decreases rapidly toward the north; at the foot of the Alps
it ranges from 30 to 25 inches ; in the Bohemian forests, Fichtelbirge,
Thuringian forests, Hartz and Erz Mountains, and the Sudetes, 25 inches;
in the Netherlands 30 inches, and the remainder of Germany 20 to 25
inches in the west, and 15 inches in the east.
The '* heated term" is from the 20th to the 30th of July, and the great-
est cold during the first half of January. From many years' observation
it is ascertained that, as an average, rye requires fifty-six days, winter
barley fifty-one, spring barley twenty-five, oats twenty-five, and grapes
four months, from the period of blooming until ripe for harvesting ; har-
vesting takes place twelve to fourteen days earlier in western than in
eastern Germany, and is four to five days later for every degree of lati-
tude northward; and in the same latitude is ten days later where places
have an elevation of 1,000 feet above the plain.
The prevailing winds in Germany are W. S. W. and K B., and the least
are from the S. E. The W. S. W. are moist and generally bring rain,
cloud the sky, and cause a sinking of the barometer, whilst the ther-
mometer rises ; the K E. winds have the contrary effect. In northern
Germany the 24th of June is 17 J hours long; but twilight, the most
agreeable and interesting portion of the twenty-four hours, lasts till
* IsonrHKRMAL Lines.-— Lines of eqnal temperature ; a term applied in phyaioal geog-
raphy to lines connecting all those places on the snrfaoe of the globe which have the
same mean temperature. Lines drawn through places having the same summer and the
same winter temperatures, are termed, respectively, iao-tharal (summer) and iao-cheimal
(winter) lines ; wliile lines drawn through places having other common temperatures.
zeoeive other appropriate names.— J5ra6£j^ii*« DioHonary of SoUntific Terms,
A6
Digitized by LjOOQIC
82
nearly midnight In smnmer time this twilight is light enough for read-
ing or writing withont the aid of artificial light.
The kingdom of Prussia is embraced between the isothermal lines of
7JO and I240, the principal portion lying between JJ^ and 1(P, The
greatest summer temperature at Berlin is 103o F. in the shade* at Cob-
lentz 95*", and at Breslau 88''. The greatest cold takes place during the
month of January, when it ranges from 5** F. (5^ below zero) to 24° (or
24"^ below zero) ; the average summer heat ranges in the various portions
of the kingdom from 60'' to W. All the streams are ice-bound annually,
except the Bhine, which is ice-bound, as an average, only once in two
years. The Elbe ,i8 ice-bound an average of 62 days — the maximum
period being 123 days; the Oder 73 days average, maximum 147 days.
The longest period during which the Bhine was frozen was 75 days.
The rain fall in the kingdom ranges from 15^ to 28 inches, and the
number of rainy days ranges from 101 to 146, according to locality ; in
the eastern portion the most rainy days occur in summer, and on the
Bhine the most in autumn. The prevailing winds are west, southwest,
and northwesti less prevalent are^aorth and northeast, and very seldom
are there north or south winds. The change of winds is from south to yrest
with the course of the sun. The westerly winds invariably bring mois-
ture, whilst the east winds are very dry.
GEOLOGY OF PRUSSIA.
Bock formations, or masses of rock in situ^ are found as a general thing
in the mountainous districts only. Bailway cuttings or river banks ex-
pose very few strata. Indeed, except along the Elbe and Bhine, I do not
at this moment remember of having seen any. In upper Silesia we find
the Muschelkalk and Jurakalk predominating ; Galena, Gadmia, (a sili-
cate of zina) iron ore, and coal also abound. In Thuringia and the
Westphalian Weser mountains, the new red and keuper sandstone
abound, as well as muschelkalk. Near Halle we find porphyry and coal ;
ih Mansfeld massive layers of slate. The approaches to the Harz moun-
tains have the same formations, but have granite in addition. The
Bhenish Westphalian mountains are composed mainly of clay, slate and
grauwacke. Between the Bhine and Moselle and the sources of the
Erft, Boer and Primm, the slate formation of the Eifel is ruptured by a
number of basaltic <and volcanic formations ; these latter formations are
also found on the right bank of the Bhine, of which the '' Drachenfels '*
is a notable formation of basalt. Then there is a formation of metamor-
phic or transition limestone, stretching to the west in the vicinity of
Aix la-Ghapelle. Brown coal (lignite?) accompanies the course of the
Erft; new red sandstone appears on the Saar; muschelkalk on the
Moselle; and the districts through which the Ems and Lippe flow, through
Digitized by VjOOQIC
83
Westplialift, abonnd in chalk. Isolated fonnations or strata of limestone
are found in Mark Brandenbarg, near Efldersdorf, and in Pommerania
near Kammin. '
son, OP PEUSSIA— CWOD, MBDIUH, SANDT AND EOOKT.
Th^jse three varieties exist in about equal proportions in the aggregate
of the kingdom, but are very unequally distributed. The regions through
T^ich the Memmel and the Pregel flow, the immediate region of the
Weichsel, a tolerably broad belt along the Pommeranian coast, the neigh-
borhood of the Madue and Plenar Sea. the lower region of the Oder wid
Peene; the Wartha and upper Oder regions, on the left bank of the
Oder to its junction with the Katzbach, and from the foot of the moun-
tains to the lausita Neisse; the entire region of the Saale and ita tribu-
taries, the Westphalian region of the Weser. the lower valley of the
Mime, and the region between the Buhr and Lippe. have a preponderance
of good soil. The low coast grounds, in fact all of the immediate coast
of East Prussia, as weU as of the coasts of the East Sea. the Pommera-
man jnd Pntssian elevations, with their north and south depressions, the
Pohsh-Silesian elevations, a wide belt from the lower Katzbach over the
Bober and the Lausitz Neisse. untU beyond the Spree, including the
greater portion of Mark Brandenburg, is a vast plain of sand, witti an
occasional strip or narrow belt of good sofl intervening. The Silesian
mountains, the Sourland mountains, the Bifel, and the Dog's Back
(mmdorm) are covered with a rocky, unproductive soiL About two!
thirds of the area of the province of Prussia has a ^d soil A most
exoeUent and productive soil is in the Weichsel vaUey; about one-third
18 sandy soil, and a very small portion only is medium. The elevationn
are mostly sand and medium, but the valleys have exceUent soil A v^
productive soU is in the vicinity of StargardPyritz and the VaUey of the
OdCT in Pommerania. In Posen two-thirds of the area is medium and
sand, but good soU along the Weichsel and other streams. In the nro-
vince of Saxony the area west of the Elbe is uniformly good and produc
tive soil ; on the east of the Elbe sandy, and toward Thuringia a medium
soiL In Westphalia, between the Ruhr and Weser, the soU is good but
in the north it is very sandy, and in the south barely medium and r<Icky
So far as the Ehenish provinces are concerned, they have in the affjne-
gate one-third good, one-half rocky, and one-sixth medium soU
NotM^ithstanding this rather discouraging view of the agricilltural re-
sources of Prussia, her soU is loeU managed, and in the aggregate, fully if
not more productive than our far richer soUs here in Ohio. Then, too
Prussia has mineral resources which she is not neglecting. *
The kingdom of Prussia embrace an area of 108,825,660 morgens,»
• A P««Un morgea is five^ighthe of « .<« Eugll^^,^^^^ ^^ GoOgk
84
which is divided into 53^ per cent, of plow land, ylneyards and garden
land; 10 per cent of meadow; 8 per cent, of pasture land ; 26 per cent,
of forest land, and about 2^ per cent of absolutely waste land, so far as
agricultural purposes are concerned.
POPULATION.
The last published census of Prussia was taken in 1858,** at which time
the population amounted to 17,740,000.
A.— German tribes— a, High Dutch*** 63,000
6, Low Dutch t M 8,970,000
c. Middle Dutch t 6,044,000
B.— SciAVic TRIBES— a, Lechen**** 2,096,000
&,Czechentt 55,000
cWendenn 109,000
C— Letten— Lithunianfl 140,000
D.— Walloons— WalloonB and French 21,000
£.— Hebraists— Jews * 242,000
Total 17,740,000
German tribes • 65*60 per cent.
Other tiribes 14 40
The population of Prussia is furthermore divided into 3,691,725 families ; and there
are
Hales over 14 years of age 5,739,232
Females " " 5,861,470
Males under 14 years of age 3,096,383
Females " " 3,042,828
Total 17,739,913
Showing an average of 4 81-100 individuals to each family. Of the men 2,921,394 are
married, and there are 770,331 families of which the father is deceased.
Of the entire population there are engaged in
A.— Agriculture exclusively —
a. Leaseholders or owners of estates 4,162,874
h. Male and female farm laborers and servants 951,321
0. Daylaborers 764,242
M siiiM my ntarn aad tli* aboT* wu writtea, the Ctnras of DooMnbtr 8, 1661, has been kindly sent to mt.
The popnUtioii than wm 1S,976,718 oItH, 279,421 military on a poaoa fboting, bat tha afliBotiYa irmr military fixoa
ia 742,488, making an agipngata of 19,256,189. Of Umm 11,698,451 wan PxotaManta, 7416,861 OathoUoi, 269,761
Jewa, and tha ramaindar of dlTvraa danominartona.
•M iDolndaB tha old QotliB, AUamannn, Swablaiti and Bavariani.
t Ineladaa Sazona, Friaiiana, Holatainais and WeatftUooB.
t Inolnding Tianea, Haarfaaa, Thortnglana and SUaaiana.
••M ineloding Polaa, KavaUana, and Mbaootkca. ,
tt Inolnding Bohamian tribaa and MocaTiana.
tt Inolnding Walatana, Bodritana, Sarbana, te.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
86
B. — ^Agricultubb partiaixy —
a, Leaeeholders or owners of estates 1,981,523
h. Male and female farmllaborers and servants 122,453
c. Day laborers.. 73,347
8,055,759
Or 45 41-100 per cent, of the entire pop elation.
There are employed in
a. Mining— Males 64,754
Females 196,281
261,035
h Mbttaixubgt— Males 59,837
Females 125.297
185,134
c. Saunbs— Males 2,253
Females 51,455
53,708
The land in private hands is parcelled as follows* :
In tracts of less than five morgens 1,099.161 tracts.
In tracts of 5 to 30 morgens 617,374 "
In tracts of 38 to 300 morgens 391,586 "
In tracts of 300 to 600 morgens 15,076 "
In tracts of more than 600 morgens 18,289 **
2,141,486
♦ The several Provinces of Pmssia contain an area of 108,825,650 morgens.
This is divided as follows :
1. In Conrt-yards, gardens, dec, of less than one morgen 1,074,644.3
2. Streams, roads, railways, parks, and other pnblio purposes 4,593,466.7
3. Plow land 65,146,079.4
4. Gardens 732,218
5. Meadows 10,209,419.5
6. Pasture 8,138,356.2
7. Forests 2«,800,028.9
8. Lakes and ponds, fens and marshes 1,740,817.5
9. Deserter waste 143,703.4
10. Absolutely unproductive 246,916.9
Total 108,825,650.8
The Crown, Church, and School Lands, are exempt from taxation, as well as those
marked number 2, 8, 9 and 10 above ; the remainder, amounting to 91 ,696,504.8 morgens,
excepting town lots, yield to the Government an annual revenue of 10,000,000 thalers,
—cr in about the same proportion as if the real estate of Ohio were taxed $4,000,000,
or near about twice the amount it now is taxed for State purposes*.
• Tbe toul 8Me texes of Ohio ft» 1866, ware 85,668,867.48, of which amoont the lands (oatside of raJ ettato in
towna) paid 92,043,668.90, and tha llv« itock i«id S508,608.37, making in the aggregate of land and hre ttoek
•8445^61.96 paid into tiM State Ttmmuj.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
86
It may not be improper at this point to present a condensed statement of the finaneial
resouToee and expenditures of the Prussian Qoyemment.
1UBCXIPT8.
L The Minister of Finance collects :
a. Taxes on forests and domains li;313,484Thalera.
h. Sales of forests and sales of Crown lands 1,000,000 "
a Direct taxes 31,511,639
d. Indirect taxes 37,207»533 •*
e. Monopoly on salt 9,185,810 "
/ Lotteries 1,337,900
g. Marine Commerce 500,000 "
h. Bank of Prussia 947,000
i. Cash 71,170
if. Administration 716,404 **
Total 93,6
n. The Minister of Commerce, Industry and Public Works, collects as follows :
a. Administration of Post-office, Laws and public JoumalB. 12,692,500 Thalera.
6. Telegraphs l^l^O
c. Crown manufactures (Porcelain, &c.) 238,000 "
d. Miscellaneous 203,090 •*
0. Salt works, mines, quarries, d^e 12.924,967 *'
/. Railroads 16,490,686
Total 43,790,563
lU. Minister of Justice collects 10,518.680
IV. Minister of the Interior 678,575 "
V. Minister of Agriculture 965,232
YI. Minister of Public Instruction, Medical affairs, &c 103,072 **
VIL Minister of War 646,904
VUL Minister of Marine 44,560
IX. Minister of Foreign Affairs 10,255
Annual dues from HobenzoUern 265,257 ^*
Total State Keoeipts 150,714,031 "
KXFXN8B8.
A. L Minister of Finances 13,198,297
II. Minister of Commerce, Industry and Public Works 33^023,513
B. Expenses for the Crown, LegisUture, and Bail way debt 17,068,860
C. State Administration:
L Minister of State 353,075
n. Minister of Foreign Affairs 976,510
IIL Minister of Finance 6,613,815
rV. Minister of Commerce, d[^ 6,761,288
V. Minister of Justice 11,718,100
VI. Minister of Interior 5,566,279
VIL Minister of Agriculture 1,828,292
Vm. Minister of Public InstnLetlon,d&e 4,262,953
Digitized by LjOOQIC
87
EK. Minister of War 39.496.561 Thalew.
X. Miniater of Marine 1... 1,373,143
Total ordinary expenses 142,475,142
Extraordinary expenses • 8,124,022
Total 150,599,164
The average size of a fimn, according to the nnmber of proprietors,
woald be eleven morgens, or nearly seven acres ; and as an average, 625
tillable acres give regalar employment to 86 persons.
The question of labor has caused many sanguinary battle fields, in the
course of the world's liistory. It was the labor question which caused the
Fr^ach Revolutions of 1789 and 1848 ; it was the same question which caus-
ed the Bebellion in the United States in 1861, and German rulers must be
more sagacious than I am willing to believe them to be, if they can pre-
vent the labor question within the next decade from inaugurating one of
the most bloody struggles that Europe has witnessed for centuries.
The custom in Germany for centuries was to fiirnish the farm laborers
a hut or house for his family and the necessray fuel, clothing and pro-
vision. When the German system of slavery was abolished, the landlord,
in addition to the above, paid the laborer a mere pittance in money, say
from 10 to 15 cents per diem, for an adult male, and women and children,
in proportion to their ability to labor. At the time of the French Eevo-
lutiou of 1848, the German laborers became restive and demanded their
entire pay in money, and requested the privilege of purchasing their fuel,
dothiag, &C., in the cheapest market and for cash, and to lease ^r rent
such tenements as they saw proper or could afford. These requests were
not granted, but some modifications in the relation of the employer and
employed were made, which, for the time being, served to quiet the labor-
ing classes. The Prussian Government then ordered an investigation to
be made in order to ascertain the cash value of what the laborers received
in the form of rents, supplies, &c. The following table presents a sum-
mary of this investigation ; taking as the basis of calculation that a family
eonsits of a husband, wife, and three children :
Digitized by LjOOQIC
88
Pbovincbs.
1
4
be
a
1
1
1
1
1
1
t
3
1
H
1
1.
S
4
1
1
Grand
Total.
Prussia
7
1?
8
5
9
9
13
6i
8
1*
8
10
10
13
23i
22
26
17
13
29 50
39 41
4H 67
42 70
30 54
32 61
34i 63
50 61i
10
9
14
15
8
5
St
4
4i
3
2
3
2
3
3
64
54i
84
87
65
68
3
5
3
4^
3
3
3i
5
2
at
3i
4i
3
5
3i
4
98 Thalen.
Posen
101 *.'
PommeraDia
BrandenburiF ........... .
132 "
138 "
Silesia
101 "
Saxony .....................
108 "
Westphalia
116 *'
Bhenish Provinces .......
133 "
Average
8i
9
194
37
5S
10
3
714
4
ai
110 "
LABOR SYSTEM.
Whilst in Earope I famished the Ohio State Joomal a series of gossipping letters
of travels and social life, more especially in Germany than elsewhere, in which I de-
scribed the ** guild system/' a system whieh compels every mechanic to become a master
workman, and never permits him to change his avocation ; a system which completely
destroys competition, and is rather a preventive than encourager of improvements, or
inventions in mechanics. Some of my friends informed me, upon my return, that they
believed that I had narrated in those letters the usages of the dark ages, the customs
of feudel times, and not the condition of the enlightened and intelligent Germany of
to-day. In re-reading my descriptions of the guild system I find the narrative a very
faintly outlined picture, and therefore present in full an article of agreement, made
between the proprietor of an estate in the province of Saxony, in Prussia, and which
was published in the papers and eulogized as a very liberal arrangement with laborers,
and the owners of estates were invited by the Bitterfbld Delitzch Association to
offer the same terms to their laborers, with the hope that the liberal terms and improved
eondition of the laborers would check emigration.
AGRKEMBNT WITH THB ULBORBRS.
Section I. The year of service or hire commences on the first of April and terminates
on the 31st of March, without any regard as to whether the grain of the previous year
has been threshed by the 31st of March or not. This contract may be discontinued at
any time other than on the 31st of March, provided ;
a. Both parties agree to it.
h. The conditions are not fulfilled. In both cases the emolument in land, forage, Ac,,
granted to the laborers, will be computed in proportion to the time. If, however, nei-
ther party give notice of intention to discontinue during the first week of January, it
is presumed that the agreement is to continue for another year.
Sec. II. Every laborer is required to keep the dwelling house assigned him in good
order and repair, and especially to have the rooms properly ventilated. The repairs of
the stones, glass and other parts of the windows are at the laborer's expense, as also is
the white-washing of the rooms, also the setting of the posts and palings, and the re-
pairs of the floors are at the laborer's expense, but the necessary materials of stone,
wood, lime, brick and mortar, will be furnished by the proprietor. The laborer is not
Digitized by LjOOQIC
80
Allowed to make alterations in the rooms, or additions to the walls of the house and
stable. The place for storing straw for litter, wood and manure will be indicated by
the proprietor, and must be accepted.
Sec. III. Strange persons, not belonging to the family of the laborer, shall not be
received or harbored. The laborers are forbidden to allnre the servants from the manor
to their abodes, lest they may be incited to disobedience.
Sec. IV. No laborer is allowed to keep any poultry other than a few fowls, and he
will be held responsible for any damage done by chickens to neighbors, whether his
chickens did the damage or not.
Sec. y. The laborer is allowed to keep a cow. If he avails himself of this ]tviYilege,
he must give notice to the proprietor before the first of April, annually. In considera-
tion of 16 thalers ($12) per annum, as forage money, he receives
a. I4b square rods (16.8 square yards per square rod) of potato land, in such land as
the proprietor raises potatoes.
h. Sixty square rods of turnip land, in rye stubble.
c. Forty-five square rods of carrot land, one third of the product to go to the proprie-
tor, (root crops other than potatoes.)
d. Sixty square rods of meadow land.
e. Two thousand pounds of straw, from winter crops, during the winter season, in
monthly rations, but he is not allowed to sell, exchange or give any away.
/. The necessary heath or forest litter, which the laborer must cut and gather at such
places as are indicated to him. The manure is the property of the proprietor, but the
laborer must load and spread it when and where directed. The laborer's cows are
allowed to pasture in the ditches of the fields and road sides, but they must all be pas-
tured in common, and at such period of the day when the laborers are not required at
the manor. The search for field weeds permitted only when such request is granted,
and must cease, without notice, as soon as the summer crops are heading, and the pota-
toes in bloom, but this also must be done by the laborers in common, during leisure
hours only, and in one field at a time, under penalty of arrest and confinement. If any
one is found carrying grass or weeds from the ditches or fields at any other time, or sep-
arate from the company, such person bo offending will be fined ten silver groshen
(25 cte.,) for each offense, and the fine to be doubled if he steal anything from the field.
Every laborer keeping a cow is further obliged to furnish, during the months of May
to the middle of September, aside from the female laborer to be furnished every day, at
least three days in every week, a second female laborer who is capable of performing
the severer labor assigned to females, at the stipulated rate of wages, "or he must sub-
mit to have a strange laborer employed, and the excess of wages deducted from his
wages.
Sec. YI. Those laborers keeping no cow are furnished with a house free of charge,
and receive
a. One hundred square rods of potato ground.
h. Thirty square rods turnip ground.
0. Thirty square rods of carrot ground, one-third of the product to go to the proprietor.
d. Three hundred pounds of straw for the winter season, litter and manure, under
the same terms as those who keep a cow.
Sec. YU. The proprietor will furnish the laborers with the necessary com (bread
stuffs), at a rate proportioned to their daily wages; each laborer to receive so many
bushels of rye at the rate of four men's daily wages [or 4 days' wages] for one bushel,
as are lacking of 56 bushels of rye per year, in the quantities of grain earned by the
laborer, reduced to rye value as follows:
One bushei of rye equal in value to f bushel of wheat.
" •< •« n •« barley.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
90
One btuhel of rye equal in value to If bnahelfi of oats.
1 " peas.
" " *• li " mixed crops.
Bat as this reduction obyiously cannot be made until after the threshing^ is complet-
ed, the laborers are to receive three bushels of rye [or its equivalent as above indicated]
every month, from April to September, at the rate of four days' labor per bushel in cash,
and the amount is to be charged against the annual amount of wages of 56 bushelB of
rye. Thus every laborer receives, from the first of April to the 15th of June, 7^ bushels
of rye, at 24 Hlver groshen [60 cents] per bushel, and from the 16th of June to the 1st of
September, 10| bushels at 92 silver groshen [80 cents] per bushel on account. In order
to keep a plain and simple account, the entire sum of the laborer's wages is entered in
a common account book, kept by the foreman (leading mower), and the grain bought
by the laborers is entered on the opposite page. The grain to be bought is delivered to
the foreman in such quantity as to give each laborer 1^ bushels at a time. The foreman
must coUect the money and deliver the entire sum [or a receipt for the given quantity of
grain must be given by the laborer before the grain is delivered]. No grain will be
delivered to an individual laborer at his own request. In years when the price of grain
is low, if laborers decline 'to receive the monthly installments of grain, they cannot
claim it at a later period.
Sec. VIII. In consideration of and for these products and privileges furnished and
granted, and which must be taken into account, and considered as part payment of the
cash wages, every laborer and his wife or aervanUgirl, must appear at the gate of the
manor every morning ready for labor, and must perform any labor demanded of them,
without claiming the privilege of doing it by turns, aUd they shall receive the follow-
ing wa^es :
A. Daily wages from June 16, to October 15 :
For men, 8 Hlver groehen [20 cents].
For women, 5 Hlver groshen [12^ cents].
For the remainder of the year :
For men, 6 silver groshen [ 15 cents].
For women, 4 silver groshen [10 cents].
Whenever a laborer or his wife is needed to fill the place of a domestic [servant] on
the manor, he or she shall receive the same wages that was allowed to the one whoae
place they fill, and for the time employed in feeding or milking shall be allowed the
warm meals of the manor domestics. For night watch Qjofenninga [1^ cents] are paid
per hour. Whenever the laborers or their wives are summoned to labor on Sundays or
Feastdays or when the labor must be continued beyond the usual time for quitting, the
man is to receive one Hlver groehen \2\ cents] per hour, and the women eight p/emtin^t
[1| cents] ; nothing will be allowed for half an hour's work beyond quitting time.
When labor is performed by contract, the day's wages form the basis for determine
ing the rates of compensation.
B— LABOR BT COmiEUOT.
a. Daring harvest time for mowing [in American valaes] :
One acre of meadow, 32 cents; one acre of slover, 20 cents; one acre of peas or
lupines, 20 cents ; one acre of barley or oats, 17i oents ; one acre of winter crops, 40 oents ;
one acre of rape seed, 52^ cents.
•GnlA OEopg avtaold by iMght,— the bwhal lia ftMidftnl iiMMiire, bot li t«l«wd Iqr the wight at tiM «H»p.
flooM 7«M Ihe bnalMl of wheat te 60 poondfl, and oth«n again at low as fiS poondi, and Um grain la yta»A
aooording to iti weight ; thus, a baihal of wheat weighing 56 pounda althongh aold by meaanre, doea not bzing aa
much aa the boabal weighing 60 poonda. In abort, the Proaalan ^etem in aelling grain la our almple Amariran
^fitain,withagooddealQrBiachiiiu7attaohadtoit,Tii:it la virtually 60 poonda to the baahaL-^EuppAU.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
91
So far 88 crops of winter grain are oonoemed, the working and treatment of the erop
nntil stored in the bam, viz : the ontting, binding, shocking re-shocking, the after rak-
ing or gleaning, of the rape seed crop, the cutting and binding are all included in the
wages per acre. The raking must be done with rakes, the teetii of which are not more
than three inches apart.
I. In the bam :
For threshing by hand, the laborer receiyes the 13th, and for threshing with the
machine the 26th bnshel, as wages for this service, and are required to deposit the graln^
ehaif and short straw, at the place designated ; but the proprietor has the privilege to
cause some work at harvest time and some threshing to be done by day laborers.
Sec. IX. As a rule, the working hours for men commence at 5 o'clock A. M., and ter-
minate at 7 o'clock P. M., having an hour of rest at noon and a half an hour for forenoon
lunch, and half an hour for afternoon lunch. During the short days, when work must
begin later and cease earlier, the time for forenoon lunch will not be allowed from the
15th of December until the 15th of January, and the time for the afternoon lunch will
not be allowed from the 15th of October until the 15th of February, and it is immaterial
whether the laborers' work is by contract or otherwise ; so also in threshing.
The working hours for females begins at 6 o'olock A. M., and terminates at 7 o'clock
P. M., with the same allowances for dinner and for lunch. But the proprietor may
order them to go to work at 5 o'clock A. M., and then they may have two hours at
noon for rest or receive 6 pfennings [1^ cents] for the extra hour.
Every laborer must inquire before the hour for beginning what labor he is to perform,
80 that at 5 o'clock in summer and 6 o'clock in winter all the laborers may be at the
gate at the precise hour provided with the proper implements of labor; otherwise they
must expect to be " docked " an hour. The half hour allotted for lunch in the forenoon
and aftemoon must not be extended by going and coming. The time consumed in
going home fi^m the place of work, during the harvest, and in coming from home, will
not be deducted firom the working hours.
Sec. X. Every laborer must try to perform his work well and diligently, and whoever
keeps a servant girl, must select a female capable of doing any work, otherwise she will
not be accepted, and the laborer must pay the excess in the hire of a strange laborer.
It is to be repeated that the emoluments of the laborers in the use of land, grain, &>c.,
make up a considerable portion of their annual wages, and that an industrious and
reliable laborer's family may always be engaged on these terms, and can live comforta-
bly upon them ; therefore, it is further stipulated that every laborer and his family must
obey the orders and regulations of the proprietor, whether these orders be communica-
ted to them by himself or his steward, shepherd, or other authorized person ; but in order
to fix the penalties for cases of disobedience and defective work, the following fines
have been established, viz:
Sec. XI. a. When a laborer at work is found to be drunk, or cannot come to work
because of drinking, he loses his wages for the time, and, for neglect of work or defec-
tive work, is fined two silver groskem in each case.
h. The laborers and their wives must avoid quarrels and brawls among themselves:
if they quarrel while at work and do not cease at the command of the overseer, each of
the quarreling parties will be fined one silver groshen.
0. Whoever disobeys the overseer or the foreman, or complies with the orders and
directions given with grumbling or gainsaying, or uses vulgar and insulting language,
and acts in aooordanoe with such language, will be fined from one to five silver groshen.
d. When the laborers work by oontraot, they are each and every one responsible for
the performance of the work. If a grass or grain crop be badly harvested, a fine of
from one to 18 sQvw groshen will be imposed for a day's work, according to the extent
of the bad work, and in this case it is to be determined by the laboxers themselves, who
Digitized by LjOOQIC
92
did the bad work, and dednot the fine firom hiB wages. The decision as to whether the
harvesting is well or badly done is left to the proprietor or his steward, and if the
defective work is detected as late as three days thereafter, the penalties will be imposed.
e. When a harvested field is badly raked, this defect most not only be made good,
bnt the laborers mnst snbmit to a deduction from their wages of nine pfennings, [1 4-5th
cents] per acre of the entire area of the field, even if some portions only of it are badly
raked.
/. In threshing by hand, it is presumed that in 20 ponnds of long straight straw or
15 ponnds of short tangled straw, one gill of grains may remain ; if more than this
quantity be found upon a second threshing, the defective threshers will be fined 25
cents for the first time in the year, 37i cents for the second time, and the third time
they lose all they have earned up to that time.
g. When the threshers perform their labor lazily, whether they are laboring " by the
job " or otherwise, the proprietor reserves the right to deduct for such negligence from
their wages, an amount equivalent to the neglect.
h. As to the relation of the threshers or laborers among themselves and in regard to
the foreman, there are special regulations appended to these conditions of the contract,
and every laborer must submit to them. The fines arising from violations, like those
imposed under a h and o of this section, are put into a common treasury box, and en-
tered into the common account book of their wages. At the end of the year the pro-
prietor determines how this money is to be appropriated for the benefit of the laborers.
REGULATIONS.
1. In mowing, every one must be at his post at the appointed time ; if any one comes
too late, or when the leader (foreman) has already cut a swath through, the man laborer
is fined one silver groshen, and the woman or female laborer six pfennings [i silver
groshen.]
2. The same penalty is fixed in re-shocking the grain crops.
3. He who does not mow his swath well and properly through, pays also one silver
groshen.
4. In mowing, every one must take two short steps to the swath.
5. Whoever does not rake well the piece assigned him, will be fined three silver gro-
shens.
6. Whoever comes too late in threshing, or when one round has been threshed, loses
one peck of the kind of grain being threshed, which is deducted from his wages.
7. Whoever is unclean, or uses vulgar language at the table, will be fined three silver
groshens.
8. Whoever causes any disturbance, and is not quiet when ordered to be so, will be
fined six silver groshens.
9. Whoever takes the property of another, or commits a theft, will be fined six silver
groshens, and shall be reported to the court.
10. Whoever is drunk while at work will be fined seven and a half silver groshens.
These regulations read and approved by me.
Oberamtmak Haynsr, of Strohwalde.
[In the translation of the contract I have translated the term "drescA«r" as being a
" laborer ^^^ whereas it really means '* ihretiker;^* but its accepted significance in Germany
is that of an ordinary resident farm laborer. Special airangements are made with the shep-
herd, cowherd, plowman, &c. The American laborer will fail to see wherein the boasted
liberality consists, or where there is any si>ecial inducement to stimulate to industry ;
surely not in the clause compelling the wife and ^Servant girl to go out on the fields to
Digitized by LjOOQIC
93
labor, nor yet in the clause anthorizing the proprietor to take the laborer's wife and pat
her to seryice in the manor. In speaking with German proprietors on thib point, they
replied that it was of rare occurrence ^nd very seldom practised, just as oar slave-
holders formerly said of selling the slave hnsband away from the slave wife.
In the Province of Prnssia, the landed proprietors are of opinion that the laborers
have under the system of furnished abodes and share of the crops, too many advantages
and have no stimulus to labor and economy, and have therefore submitted the following
statement to the Provincial Board of Agriculture asking the introduction of the "Ca$h"
system.— Klifpart.]
*' It is an established fact that the only just and correct system of remuneration for
services, is to pay in cash^ by the piece or *' job," wherever it is practicable. It is not
the time spent at work but the q^uantity or quality of the labor actually performed,
should form the basis of the calculation ; — ^then the employer pays for the real value
(mly obtained by the labor, and the laborer himself gains the opportunity of earning
more by laboring more assiduously, besides it produces this moral' benefit, that the in-
dustry of the laborer is liberated from the supervision of the employer, and the laborer
is actuated by a more 'powerful motive to improve and perfect himself as a workman.
The correctness and feasibility of piece work has long since been acknowledged in Agri-
culture, as well as in other industrial pursuits, and practically confirmed in many in-
stanoes. But in this Province it has been adopted in threshing only, and here and there
when and where strange laborers have been employed.
" So far as regards the wages of the resident laborers, a custom yet prevails among
us worse than paying by the day ; for we pay them not only according to the time they
actually labor, but we furnish them with provisions, fuel, tenement, &c., during the
entire year ; we pay them also for the time they live on the manor or farm, whether
they labor or not Ad a rule, these supplies are so calculated that they meet the neces-
sary requirements of the family, aside from the wages. In consequence of this arrange-
ment, the rates of wages for piece work as well as time wages, must necessarily be low ;
otherwise the labor would be entirely too expensive, on account of the supplies furnished.
It is well known that the common laborer works without any higher moral motive than
his bare existence or to earn a few groshen. [What other motive oould he possibly
have 1 In an oppressive government, where there are legal and regal castes and classes
of society, to what can the common laborer ever attain i — Kliffakt.] If their susten-
ance and the maintenance of their families a:e fully assured, and their own rates of
wages low, as now really is the case with our resident laborers, the stimulating impulse
to labor is removed, and in its stead supervenes a lack of interest in the prosperity of
the farm, negligence, propensity to idleness, and bodily and mental languor are pro-
duced. This state of things explains of itself for the greater part the complaints of
the incapacity of the laborers. It is certainly within the power of the proprietors to
remedy this evil, by simply abolishing the custom of furnishing supplies and adopting
the system of pajing them in cash', Urst commencing with the hire by the day, and
gradually advancing to paying by the pieee, to which the resident laborer is at present
opposed, because now he has no care or responsibility in providing for the sustenance of
his family, and the rates of wages for piece work being, under existing circumstances,
of course less than that paid to free laboiers, forms no inducement for him to work
with more energy and industry, like the free man.
How this change may be ott'ected we will endeavor to show by citing an instance of a
manor near Danzig, from which we gratefully acknowledge the receipt of accurate
statements in regard to the condition and employment of its laborers. The manor con-
tains 24200 morgen [1,375 acres] of arable and meadow land, and there are eighteen
resident fBUuilies of laborers on it. The husband and share worker of every family most
Digitized by LjOOQIC
H
appear in the court-yard every day in the year, ready for lahor ; the wife of the former
ie required to appear but four aftemoonB every week from St. John's day (June 34th)
to the first of October ; from 100 to 120, say an average of 110 winter days are employed
in threshing; on shares. Kvery resident laborer's family receives—
a. Supplier and oompensation.
Free dwelling, worih (9.75.
Five-eighth acre garden ground, $7.50.
Forage for one cow, $18.75.
Feed for two hogs, $4.50.
One-half acre of arable land, $4 35.
Four and one-half bushels rye, $3.75.
Pay for raker, $0.50.
Total, $49.10.
From this deduct —
Rent for dwelling house and garden, $3.75.
Fuel, $0.75.*
Balance, $44.60.
In days* wages, the year containing 300 working days—
The man for 150 summer days, from April 1 to Oct 1, at lOo. per day .... $15.00
winter " Oct. » to March 31, at 7*0. " .... 3.00
The shareworker for 150 summer days, at O^c. per day 9.37'|
" 150 winter days, at 5o. " 7.60
The wife for 88 days, at 7ic. per day 2.10
• 36.97i.
c Shares in threshing :
4i bushels wheat |5 25 '
21 " rye 17 50
9 " peas 7 50
6 " oats 1 70
4i " barley 2 25
|34 20
Now, if we leave the threshing on shares out of the account, and for which free
laborers might be hired at 30 cents per day at any time in winter, and apportion the
supplies and the days' wages to the remainder of the working days, we obtain (if we
estimate the proportion of the rate of a man's wages to that of a woman's at 5 to 3) an
average of
190 days for the man, at 21^ cents per day.
328 '* " woman at 12i cents per day.
Furthermore, if we estimate the proportion of summer wages to those of winter as
4 to 3, then
A man's per diem in summer is 22 cents— in winter 16i cents.
A woman's " " 15 " •• 18i "
These would be the rates of wages, if the wages now so promiscuously paid during
the year for hire and supplies furnished, should each be paid in cash, wliich, it is very
apparent, would be more than doable the cash wages heretofore paid.
• TlM m»Xkaeh»Mtbm right tAffmthmrwtwiA in th* n^tghhoring farmt, ImiMia th^ f^i^ t^ ^1^ tf^^ Into tht MffOmntj
Digitized by LjOOQIC
95
It is TBiy evident that if the laborer was obliged to depend solely npon the money he
actnally earns by his labor for the supply of his wants, he would endeavor to earn as
much as possible, not only by hia awn industry, but by employing all the members of
his family able to work, especially his wife — for the more labor they performed the
more money would be earned ; and in this way the employer would gain more laborers.
Now, if the days' wages were changed into pay by the piece, the employer would not
only gain more laborers, but the laborers would endeavor to become more skillful. On
the other hand, the laborer would by this system be enabled, if working by the day, to
earn more money by doing more labor in a given time, if working by the piece, by per-
forming his labor more skilfnjly and rationally. And when he is not paid in certain
supplies actuaUy delivered to him, or to be raised in the field and garden, destined for
family consumption, hut in cash, he will then begin to consider how to appropriate it in
the best manner — ^in a word, he will try to $ave Bamething, Aside firom the eighteen res-
ident families of laborers, there are twelve families of deputants kept on the manor on
the same terms. The Steward insists that if these thirty families would do more work,
and especially the women, they might easily perform all the labor required on the
manor, whilst at present at least (300 are paid per annum to strange laborers.
Individual effort cannot succeed in introducing innovations of this kind, and we
therefore respectfully ask the Agricultural Society to endeavor to make the demanded
change."
[In the entire course of my travels on the continent I saw no drunkenness, idleness or
tendency to Xoaferiam among the laboring classes. They were industriously at work
wherever! saw them, and it appeared to me that the women had the hai-dest part of
the labor to perform. It was seldom that I saw a team in the meadow to haul in the
hay, but the women tied the new made hay in large linen sheets and carried it to the bam
on their heads. This I saw in Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria and Wurtemburg. In Prussia
I saw girls of 18, 20 and 21 years of age, with hands quite homy, and fingers knotted ;
the back stiff and bent with labor ; the step that of a Sexegenarian ; and faces no fidrer
than that of full-blooded Pottawattomies, and blank and vacant of expression as the
stare of an idiot. The drees was simply a cotton or linen slip reaching a few inches
below the knees; bare-armed, bare-headed, bare-legged and bare-footed; and thus at-
tired, they were toiling in the open field under a broiling sun (8(P to 94<^ F.) from 5
o'clock A. M. to 7 o'clock P. M., for 8 to 12 cents a day ! Such sights met me everywhere
on the continent. Then, too, I saw a woman aiding a cow or heifer to draw a load of
manure or rubbish in a cart^a woman and a dog or two hitched to a cart, taking vege-
tables to market.
I was interested in the appearance of these farm laboring men and women for I
knew that less than a hundred years ago their ancestors were ilavea; not enslaved as
the Africans were in our Southern States, where members of the same family weie
separated and sold away ; not yet under the Peon system of slavery so long tolerated
in Mexico ; but a species of slavery which gave the proprietor complete control over
and invested him with the ownership in or of the persons or bodies of his slaves— Lei-
BBiGNER, or " body owner," as he was called. The owner had the right to do what he
chose with his slaves, except to sell them off of his estate. They belonged to the estate,
and could no more be sold away than the soil could. Of course they were uneducated
and brutalized, and their descendants to this day exhibit bratalized features and an ex-
pression of countenance indicative of vacuity of mind. The women and girls exhibited
none of the graceful, supple and agile movements of the wives and daughters of Ameri-
can laborers ; and so far as personal beauty is concerned, they are many removes in the
rear of ours.
In going to and from the fields they always marched " single file," carrying a hoe
rake, sickle, or other hand implement, and as quietly as soldiers on parade. I frequently
Digitized by VjWVJV IC
96
accosted them and endeavored to draw them into oonveisation, but they only gazed
at me with a vacant stare, and all their conversation consisted of monosyllabic answers
to my inquiries. There was no " chatting " or merriment among themselves, and I often
wondered whether th^y ever smiled or laughed. Among the thousands I saw I am sure
I never saw a smile or heard a laugh. Their faces uniformly wore the expression of the
quintessence of earnestness, or else absolute vacuity of thought.
Both the women and men were much smaller than I had expected to find them. The
Prussian statisticians state that Qaetelet*s measurements and weights of the sexes at
different periods of life of the Belgians, correspond with those. of the Prussians, and
they therefore have adopted the averages as applicable to themselves. According to
these statistics, a Prussian man at 40 years of age is 1684 millimetres (5 feet 6^ inches)
high, and weighs 127^ pounds ; and a Prussian woman at 30 years of age is 1579 milli-
metres (5 feet 2 1-5 inches) high, and weighs 108f pounds. The average weighi of a
child when born is 6^ pounds, and the dried skeleton of an adult weighs from 9 to 13
pounds.
There is no doubt, in fact it is almost demonstrable, that the thirty years' war, fol-
lowed by the seven years* war, the wars of Frederick the Great, and, later, those of
Napoleon the Gretit, have reduced the stature of the German nation. During these
long continued and bloody wars, men of a certain stature were liable to conscription ;
these were taken and placed upon the battle field. Those of a less stature were not
liable, and remained at home. This conscription was chiefly among the laboring classes ;
hence we find to-day that, as a class, the laborers are shorter in stature than the
nobility. This latter class, the nobility, are, as a rule, much taller than the laborers.
And the military minimum of stature has been reduced two inches within the past hun-
dred years.
We need no better evidence of the condition of the morals of these lower classes than
the statistics of illegitimate birtha. In 8ehneider*$ Han€P>udh der ErdrKunde, he states
the illegitimate births in
Berlin, at «^ 19 pet cent, of the entire number of births.
Stralsund : 12
Liegnitz 11
Danzig 10
Konigsberg 31
Breslau 25
Elling 24 "
Madgeburg 22 "
But gives the whole of Prussia at 10 per cent.
Dr. Geo. Yiebahn, in his StaUstio deg ZollverHntm und Ifdrdlichm Deutachland, Berlin,
1862, an ofQlcial publication by the Prussian GovemmeiN;, gives the per cent, of illegiti-
mate births in the German States as follows : For every illegitimate birth there are in
1. Prussia 10.85 legitimate.
2. Oldenburg &.89
3. Hannover 9.51 "
4. Grand Duchy of Hesse 7.32 "
5. Kur Hesse 7.02
6. Hamburg - 6.75 "
7. Wurtemburg - 6.70 "
8. Baden 5.59
9. Saxony 5.52 "
10. Frankfort-on-Main 5.08 "
Digitized by LjOOQIC
97
11. lleoUenberg Strelitz 4.G7 legitimftt^.
12. Saxe Meiidgen 4.50 •*
la MeoUenberg Sehirerin 4.38 •*
14. BaTaria 3.66 «
ThiB BhowB that oyer S5 per oent. of the births in Bayaria are illegitimate. I hare
somewhere seen a rtatement that in the city of Mnnieh 60 per cent, of the hirthB were
iUecitimate.
Ko where on the continent, nor even in England, doee woman enjoj the same eleyated
■ooial and moral position that she does in the United States. No man, whether gentle
or otherwise, thinks of yielding his seat in the cars, at the theatre, opera, or chnroh, to
a female of his own, or inferior rank. Ladiee traveling withont a male companion have
not the attentions paid them at depots or hotels which they have when accompanied
by gentlemen. At one cnstom honse in the interior of Germany I saw a lady, who was
the first person of a railway train load of passengers, enter the " ZoUamt," or cnstom
hoose, to hare her baggage inspected, but was ronghly pushed aside and told to wait.
She made repeated e£Ebrts to haye her baggage ezamiaed, but eyery time iTas poshed
airide by the officer, and her*s was the yery last baggage examined. .
What position can woman expect to occupy— what respect or esteem can die expect
to command in Bayaria, where every fourth birth is an illegitimate one.
Every laborer or mechanic's wife is engag^, in her hours not devoted to household
duties, to spinning, weaving, knitting, crocheting, lace making, or some such pursuit,
manufacturing or making something to sell ; and I was assured that the wife of a laborer
or mechanic would consider herself very much disgraced if she did not earn her own
bread and part of her clothing by the manufacture of some merchantable articles. But
the wives of the wealthy and the nobility pexfoim less household duties tlian the wives
of the wealthy in the United States.
OHAPTBB IV.
PBUSSIA.
Before attempting to describe the agricnlture of Prasfiia, it may be well
to give an oatline« at least* of the kind of soil on which agriculture is
condncted. From the mouth of the Bhine to the Bassian frontier, the
northern part of Ctermany is of the qnartenary geological formation;
and thronghout Prossia, with the exception of the Bhenish provinceSt
this formation consists of recent deposits of sand. In fact, Prussia is a
vast sandy plain, with here and there a small region or district of clay.
From Mayence to Bonn, the Bhine has cut its channel through the Devo-
nian formation. From Basel to Mayence, the Bhine flows through a
qnartenary or modem dilivial valley, some twenty miles wide ; a few miles
north of Worms it cuts through the Eocene formation, which reaOy con-
tinues to Bingen and at this latter place the Devonian commences ; hence
ftom Bringen to Drachenfels the scenery is very romantic, and enchanta
almost all the travelers who pass up or down the Bhine between these^
points, whilst below Bonn and above Mayence, the stream flows through
A7
Digitized by LjOOQIC
98
a level plain, and the scenery, consequently, is dull and monotonous. A
few miles northwest of Dresden, in Saxony, the Elbe has cut its way
through a granitic formation, but before it reaches the Prussian borders
its channel has entered the vast sandy plain, through which it continues
until it reaches the l^orth or German Sea. The Oder and its tributaries
rise in the mountainous regions of Silesia and Austria, but as soon as they
reach the mountain's foot they enter upon the vast plain above referred
to. The drift or clay formation which we have in Ohio is rarely found
in Prussia, whilst that class of soil known aB " loam '* here in Ohio, is
to be found predominating in the province of Saxony, especially in the
vicinity of Magdeburg, where there is a new red sandstone formation.
A good sandy loam prevails in the " Oderbruch," a region extending from
Frankfort on the Oder for several (German) miles northward, on both
sides of the river.
Before I visited Prussia I often was astonished to find in the agricul-
tural statistics of the country such small returns of crops, but after visit-
ing and traveling the country, I was equally astonished at the great
results obtained. I saw many fields, embracing large tracts of almost pure
sand — so pure that strong sweeping winds drifted it, and it lay in dunes,
resembling waves which had been suddenly stopped. One large field
near Temple Hof, in the vicinity of Berlin, on which a good crop of
Lupines had been grown, was a field of sand sixteen feet thick. In other
portions northward, eastward and westward from Berlin, I found peat or
humus formations. The native forests have disappeared hundreds of
years ago, and a very great majority of the forests are of the pine family.
I am assured that it is exceedingly difficult to grow a deciduous forest, on
account of the great preponderance of sand, and the small proportion of
clay. I had been assured that our '^ hickories " (oarya) would not grow
there, but I found almost all of our native forest trees flourishing in the
botanical gardens at Berlin and Potsdam, although they require much
more care and study than the European trees.
That which very agreeably disappoints every American traveler there
is the entire absence of fences or hedges— in many districts neither hedge,
fence nor other kind of harriere is to be seen. Whilst in Europe, the
thought often occurred to me '* could not the $100,000,000 which we have
spent in Ohio for fenbes have been applied to some better purpose 1 Ger-
many must raise bread and meat for her population as well as we do, she
is many times more densely populated than we are, and yet she gets along
without hedge or fence much better than we do with them. But on the
other hand, here in Ohio every landholder has absolute rights to his
estate, and everybody is bound to respect those rights — ^but in Europe,
(^specially in fox hunting England, these rights are not so extensive as
Digitized by vIjOOQIC
99
fhey are here. Still these fences are physical manifestations of inde-
pendence and — ^ansocial dispositions.
Pru8»ian drops. — ^There is no reliable system of agricultural statistics
in all Europe. Prussia is famous for her very precise statistics ; but this
fame or notoriety must rest more on the nicety of decimal calculations as
exhibited in the statistical tables and reports than the positive data upon
which the absolute knowledge rests. The Prussian statisticians assvme
that a morgen (five-eighths of an acre) will produce an average crop of
90 many scheftels of wheat, rye, barley, oats, &c., and then persons are
appointed in the several provinces to ascertain whether the crops of the
current year are above or below the average in tentiia. This may be well
enough if a person knew precisely what the average crop or unit of calcu-
lation was taken to be ; but as no definite or positive statistics have ever
been collected, the whole system is nothing more than mere gness work.
Not satisfied with this system of assumption, Baron von Vincke adopted
another system. He ascertained the amount of cereals exported from
and imported into the kingdom, ascertained the synount ground in the
several mills, and the amount consumed in distilleries. From these data,
he assumes that Prussia produces annually —
Wheat 46;563,146 buBheU
Bye 97,336,671 "
Barley 17,254,438 "
Oats 61,905,248 "
Or in detail, so far as wheat is concerned, thus : —
Consomption 32,542^76 soheffels*
Ezcees of exports over imp9rt8 2,371,047 "
DistiUed 199,236 "
Brewed 200,000 •*
Seed, 1*6 6,062,572
Total 45,563,146 bnshels, or 30,375,431 •*
From these statistics of von Vincke (although unsatisfEtctory) we can
obtain some insight as to the amount of cereal food consumed by each
individual. From his tables it appears that the average consumption in
1858-^9-60 was as follows per oapita of the entire population : —
Wheat. Rye. Q'ts of Beer.
Ponndt. 0«. Poondi. Cm.
Silesia 116 7 262 11 9.09
Pommerania 90 11 276 4 5.28
Saxony 80 6 272 |» 19.21
EastProssia 94 2 255 10 ISJ83
Brandenburg 87 11 260 3 16.48
'WestPmssla 90 I 251 5 10.45
Posen 76 4 266 11 4-20
Bhenish proYinces 107 11 179 3 12.09
* The sefaeffel is about one and a half bushels in Frassia, but diffos in OYeiy utot-
Ibm— In Worftemburg it is nearly four bushels.
Digitized by CjGJOQIC
100
This gives an average of 5} bnshels of wheat and rye— the staple
cereals for human food— to each inhabitant. The consumption of cereal
food in the United States is estimated by oar statisticians at six bushels.
But if we estimate wheat at sixty pounds per bashel« and lye at flfly-six,
then the Germans consume nearly one bushel and thirty-three pounds of
wheat and four and a half bushels of lye, or a little more than six bush-
els of cereals jper capita.
The crops of Prussia from many years* returns and several systems of
statistics, give as the average product of the ten years ending in 1863,
the following : —
' Afwtf*. MKdnam piodiiet.
Washed sugar beets 198 owt8.fper acre. 388 owts. per aore.
Potatoes : 116 ** 1B3
Clover hay 40 •* 64 "
Wheat 29 bosh, per acre. 41 "
Bye 89 *« 43 «
Oats 41 •• 63 "
Baxlej ^ 33 " 60 "
Bape 25 " 40 "
When it is remembered that the greater portion of Prussia is a vast
sandy plain, very illy-adapted to agricultural purposes, the average crops
ean not fiEul to appear extraordinaiy. But there is a care and an unre-
mitted persevering labor and attention bestowed on the crops, as if it were
determined to compel the crops, by force of applied labor and attention,
to grow.
A dassiflcation of soils has been made in Prussia, and this classifica-
tion is taught in the agricultural schools. The experience of many years
has determined the qualities of the several kinds of soils so accurately,
and so much in accordance with sdence, that comparatively very little is
yet to be ascertained in this respect. The soils are classed as follows :
GLASS L— HxTMirs Olay. (Swmus Bcu^er Thonboden.)
HxceOmit Wheat Laind.
It is well known that alumina, combined with oxygen, produced a clay
or alum earth ; that this earth or day has the propert^^ of absorbing and
retaining a very large proportion of moisture, and that it always is ac-
companied by lime and talc, and has a fair proportion of alkalies. In the
dass of soils under consideration this spedes of clay predominates.
«k The soil consists of—
60 to 85 per cent, of clay, Hme and alkalies.
3 to 20 per cent, of sand, nsnaUy very fine.
7 to 16 per cent, of non-add humiia.
3 to 9 per cent, of lime earth.
k The aiable soil in this dass is, at least, one foot deep; tilie sobsoil
Digitized by LjOOQIC
101
poroQS slightly ferraginons (or contaiiiing iron ore ;) the % of the load is
generally levcd.
e. The coltivation of this soil, in Mr weather, is not heavy, bnt in
severe droughts, or long continned moist weather, it often is impractica-
ble to do anything with it.
d. The crops which succeed the best on this soil are, rape, flax, wheat,
barley, oats, clover and beans. The class of soils is generally found in
low places — seldom on any considerable elevations.
Class EL— Olay Soil. (Thonbodm^)
First Class Wheat SaiL
This class is distinguished from the preceding in containing a larger pro*
portion of sand and less humus; the depth of arable soQ not so great,
and the subsoQ somewhat impervious. The crops same as Glass I.
Class IIL— Clayby Soil. (Thonigerhoden)
Second Class Wheat 8aiL
This class differs from the two preceding by having less humus and
lime,
a. It consists of—
65 to 68 per eent. of olay, and a trace of talc and alkalies.
12 to 30 per cent, of sand.
3 to 6 per cent, of hnmiu.
2 to 6 per cent, of lime.
h. The depth of tlie soil is less than a foot, the subsoil is impervious
and ferruginous.
e. The culture of it is heavy.
d. The crops are wheat, beans, barley, vetches and oats.
Class IY.— Loahy Soil. (Milder Lekmbodm.)
First Class Barley 8eiL
a. Component parts —
30 to 60 per eent. olay.
40 to 60 per cent, fine sand.
6 to 16 per cent, non-acid Immns.
3 to 10 per cent. Ume earth.
5. The depth of this soil is from six to eighteen inches — ^in low places
deeper, yet the subsoil is porous, somewhat ferruginous — when the soil
has a iBxge proportion of sand the subsoil is more compact This class
of soils is generally level, although firee from water.
c The culture of this soil is easy, and is seldom interrupted by the con-
Digitized by Vji^W^lC
102
dition of the weather, except in cases where the large per centage of claj
prevails.
d. The crops adapted to this soil are wheat, where clay prevails, where
it does not, then rye, barley, oats, vetches, peas, clover and Income.
Glass V.— ^andt Loajc Soil, (SaiiMgeT Lekmboden.)
Second Class Barley SoiL
a. Composition —
25 to 60 per cent. day.
SO to 70 per cent. sand,
li to 3 per oent. hmnos.
2 to 25 per cent, lime earth.
h. The depth of the soil is generally less than a foot, with very differ-
ent snbsoil, it is seldom, nevertheless, very ferrnginoos.
c. Cultivation light or easy.
d. The crops are rye, barley, oats, potatoes, red clover, peas, vetches,
millet, flax and tobacco.
Class YI.— Loamy Sand Soil. (Lehmiger Sandboden.)
First Class Oat LmuL
There are several classes of soil which, so far as crops are concerned,
may, with propriety, be classed under this head, viz :
1st. Loamy sand, with a small proportion of hnmus.
2d. Black, mncky soil with peaty or turfy ingredients.
3d. Marly soil.
4th. Clay soil, with little humus, having oxyde of iron, coarse, sandy
loam, with ferruginous hard clay subsoil in moist places — ^the so-called
third class wheat soil.
a. Composition —
(1.) 20 to 30 per cent. clay.
68 to 80 per cent. sand.
1 to li per cent, homna.
1 to — per cent. lime.
<2.) 5 to 45 per cent. clay.
30 to 80 per cent. sand.
15 to 30 per cent, acid coal, like hu-
mns.
(3.; 10 to 50 per cent. clay.
40 to 60 per cent. sand.
5 to 20 per cent. lime,
i to 2 per cent, hnmns.
(4.) 70 to 90 per cent. clay.
7 to 25 per cent. sand.
1 to 2 per cent, hnmns.
1 to — per cent. Lime.
h. Cultivation on 1, 2 and 3 is very light or easy, but heavy or difficult
on "So. 4.
e. The soil is thin, or at most not deep ; the subsoil in 1 and 2 gener-
ally sandy ; in 3 more or less impervious, sometimes sandy ; in 'So. 4 it
is always impervious.
d. The crops on 1 and 3, rye, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, lupines, espar-
sette; on Ka 3, red clover; on "So. 2, chiefly oats; and No. 4 best
Digitized by VJ WW^lC
103
adapted to grasses. With proper mannrmg and tillage wheat does better
than rye, oats, peas or beans.
Glass Yn.— Loamy Sand. (Lehmiger Sand.)
Second Class Oat Land.
a. Oomposition —
15 to 80 per cent. olay.
75 to 85 per cent. sand,
i to li per cent, humiu.
h. Tillage easy.
4L The soil generaDy level, the subsoil sandy.
d. The crops are rye, oats, spergnla, lupines, potatoes, bnckwheat,
white peas, white doyer, sheep's fescue, and in good seasons red dover.
Class YUL
Third Class Oat Land. First Class Bye Land.
This class contaias more sand than the preceding class, less clay, but
more humus. The soil is generally very flat or level, the subsoil sandy,
fhe tillage easy, and the crops siune as Glass YIL, except the red clover.
Glass ESL— Oood Sandy Soil. (Outer Sandboden.)
Second Class Bye Land.
eu Gomponent parts —
5 to 8 per cent. day.
90 to — per cent. sand.
3 to 6 per cent, homiia.
h. Tillage ea^y.
c The soil is generally five to six inches deep ; the subsoil sandy.
d. The crops same as YIEL
Glass X— SAim Soil. {Sandboden.)
Three Year Bye Land.
a. Gomponent parts —
4 to 8 per cent. clay.
90 to 95 per cent. sand,
i to li per cent, hnmns.
h. Tillage easy.
e. Soil sddom more than four inches deep, subsoil sandy.
d. Grops are rye, buckwheat, lupines, sheeps* fescue (grass). There are
three classes more of sandy soil, known as the six^ nine and twelve years
rye land, or lands in which a good crop of rye can be obtained but once
in the respective number of years.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
104
The soils have been thus classed in accordance with a Government
order, a geological snrvey, as chemical analysis, and the crops were ascer-
tained by years of experience Annexed are the rotations for the several
years on the vaiions classes.
Glass L
67MnooiizM.
Tynnxotatton. 8 yeui roteftfam.
9jmn
lOtaliOB. 10 JWM XOtatfOB.
1. Tobacco,
1. Bape. 1. WeU manured 1. Tobacco, 1. Mannr'd flAllow.
(manured).
2. Barley. fallow.
(mannred.) 2- Bape.
3. Barley with
8. Wheat. 2. Bape.
2. Barley. 8. Barley.
cloyer.
4. Bye. 3. Barley.
a Wheat 4. Wheat.
3. Clover.
5. Oats. 4. Wheat.
4. Barley. S. Oats or beans
4. Wheat.
^. Clover. 5. Oato.
5. Clover. mannred.
5. Bye.
7. Clover, the 6 Clover.
a Clover (man- 6. Wheat.
6. Oats.
fallow weU 7. Clover.
nred). 7. Oats or beans.
mannred for a Wheat
7. Bape. 8. Clover or beans
rape.
8. Oats and bar- 9. Clover or wheat
ley.
10. Wheat, or oatSf
9. Wheat in many places
pastore.
Glass n— First Class Wheat Land.
Hght TMn rotetfui. Kiu ynn loltttMi.
TmjmntttBklfa^
1. Mannied fiftUow. 1. Hoed ciops mannied.
1. mannred fallow.
2. Wheat
2. Barley.
2. Bape.
3. Cloyer.
3. Clover.
a Wheat
4. Clover.
4. Clover.
4. Clover.
5. Wheat.
5. Wheat ,
6. Clover.
6. Hoed orope.
6. Oats.
a Wheat
7. Barley.
7. Beans mannred.
. Oata.
a Wheat
a Barley.
9. Oats aad peas.
9. Beans.
10. Oats.
Glass III.-«Eooia> Glass Wheat Land.
Hftnjmnniaafotk. Nine jmh lOtatioB.
TwdTvynnntelloa.
1. Mannred fiOloir. 1. FaUow manured.
1.
S. Wheat.
2. Wheat
2.
Barley.
3. Cloyer.
3. Clover.
a
Clover.
4. Clover.
4. Clover.
4.
Clover.
5. Bye.
5. Bye.
a
Clover fallow mannred.
6. Hoed crops.
6. Hoed crops manured.
a
Bape.
7. Oata.
7. Oats and barley.
7.
Wheat
a Peas.
a
Peas.
9. Bye.
9.
Bye.
10.
11.
Wheat.
12.
Oats.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
105
Glass IY.— Fibst Glass Bablby Soil.
Tlte jnn rototkni.
Nine yeHi Tolatian.
Tta jmn rotetloii.
1. Manured £ftllow 1. Beans manured. 1. Fallow manor'd. 1. Potatoes manni'd
3.
3.
4.
5.
and potatoes. 2. Wheat
Barley.
Cloyer.
Clover.
Wheat and rye.
2. Rape.
3. Clover. 3.
4. Barley. 4.
5. Potatoes manar*d. 5.
6. Barley. 6,
7. Bye 7.
8.
9.
Wheat.
Clover.
Clover.
Bye.
Hoed crops
■lannred.
Barley.
Oats.
2. Barley.
3. Clover.
4. Clover.
5. Bye.
6. Peas manured.
7. Barley.
8. Fallow and
green forage.
9. Bye.
10. Oats.
Glass Y.— ^eooio) Glass Bablbt Soil.
VtfiAjmntMkKL
NfaMTMnnteftlim.
TvajmnmtttkKL
1.
Fallow mannred and
1. Fallow mannied.
1.
Fallowed, mannred and
green forage.
2. Bye.
green forage.
2.
Bye.
3. Peas.
2.
Bye.
3,
Clover.
4. Oats.
3.
Clover.
4.
Clover.
6. Potatoes mannred.
4.
Clover.
5.
Bye.
6. Barley.
5.
Bye.
6.
7. Clover.
6
Hoed crops manured.
7.
Barley.
8. Clover.
7.
Barley.
&
Oats.
9. Bye.
2.
9.
10.
Peas.
Bye.
Oats.
Glass VL— Loamy SAim.
First OloBS Oat Lcmi.
1. Fallow manured.
2. Bye.
3. Bed and white clover.
4. Clover.
5. Bye.
6. Potatoes.
7. Oats.
VghtTMnzototioB.
1. Potatoes nAnured.
2. Oats.
3. Bed and white clover.
4. Clover.
5. Bye.
6. Potatoes.
7. Bye.
6. Oats.
1. Fallow manured.
2. Bye.
3. Clover and timothy.
4. Clover.
5. Clover.
6. Bye,
7. Potatoes manured.
8. Oats.
9. Peas.
10. Bye.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Blaek muohy soiL
Marly saiL
Clay with Ktfle hvmuB.
N!iM yein loUlion.
Nlnejwnxotetkm.
1. Tobacco manured.
1. Fallow manured.
1. Fallow manured and
green forage.
2. Oats.
2. Bye.
2. Wheat.
3. ^
4.
Clover
* and
Grasses.
3. Clover.
4. Clover.
3. Clover.
4. Clover.
5.
6. .
5. Bye.
6. Potatoes.
5. Bye.
7. Oata.
7. Oats.
7. Bye and barley.
8. Oato.
8. Peas manured.
8. Potatoes.
9. Potatoes and bnokwh't.
9. Eye.
10. White clover.
11. Pasture.
12. Pasture.
13. Bye.
9. Oats.
14. Oats.
I have thought proper to omit the intervening classes VlL, YIIL, and
IX., and will conclude this narrative of rotation on classified soils by giv-
ing that of
Class X.— Three Tear Eye Land.
1. Spergula manured.
2. Bye.
3. White clover and fescue.
4. Pasture.
5. Pasture.
6. Pasture.
7. Bye.
8. Potatoes manured.
9. Bye.
10. Sheeps* fescue.
11. Pasture.
12. Pasture.
13. Lupines plowed down.
14. Bye.
15. Lupines plowed down.
16. Bye.
An estate which I visited, and which embraced 1., and n., classes of
wheat lands, I. and II. barley land, and I. class of oat lands, the following
rotation has been found the most successftd :
Digitized by LjOOQIC
107
II
t
I
&
I
I
1
II
I
1
H
%
il
I
I
^8
II
11
I
11
I
II
I
I
|:
5
1 •
II
li
It
I
i
^ o
O
o
<&
I
I
s
M
f
I
I
Is.
I
I-
k
II
c4
^
I
II
I
II
I
1^
ris.
II
II
►
o
1
I
1.
k'
2
i
li
I
I
i
II
i
1^
II
g
MS
!§
I
I
I
i
I
1^
It
1 .
2|
^
I
Us
I
I
1
I
1
Digitized by VJWWV IC
o
QQ
I
I
I
i
tq
|l
s
§
h
1^
6
^
r
6
I
It
li
s
a
i
I
I
2
&
•g
5,
I
d
r
^
s
I
a
^
I
^5 e«
1«M 3*
ill
1^
I
I
I
-I
P4
|:
k
isl
5&
r
CD P bik
k
i
ill
II
I
s
M
I
s
p
I
I
i
I
'-'1
I
It
I
I
la
I
II
4i
Digitized by LjOOQIC
1
m
§
i
k
I
I
I
'i*^^
If
o
^
I
Hi
I
^4
M 5
t
L9
I
1
^
I
1
3
k
-^•ss;
Digitized by LjOOQIC
110
As rye constitates the cereal food for the saillioDS in Prussia, it will be
observed that in the coarse of rotation, and in the general system of
farming, much more attention is bestowed upon it than there is upon
wheat or barley.
There is considerable underdrainiug, or thoroughdraining, in Prassia,
mostly, however, in the stiff clays. The proper management of the clay
soils seems to be one of the most difficult problems in modem agriculture.
In the province of Prussia there is considerable clay, and it is managed
somewhat as follows: It is well manured, and everything plowed in
which has a tendency to make the soil mellow and porous, such as the
(horse) bean stalks, buckwheat straw, &c It is plowed four or five times
before seeding ; after the last plowing a clod crusher or roller is passed
over it, and then a plank some eight feet long, and twelve to eighteen
inches wide, and two inches thick, is attached to a span of horses and
passed over it to level it ; then well harrowed, and, if wheat, it is gener-
ally drilled in. Where it is not underdrained it is plowed deep and
plowed into narrow " lands " of four to six feet wide. Loamy lands are
plowed in lands twenty to thirty feet wide. Where these clays are sown
broad-cast the seed is harrowed in and then rolled. The kind of plow
yet retained in this province, and which appears to defy competition with
the best and most improved English or American plows, is (to an Amer-
can,) a very awkward appearing implement called a ** zooH.** It is an
implement of which a better idea can be given by an engraving than by
any description in words.
THK ZOGH.
As will be apparent from this engraving all the implements used in ag-
riculture of German or English manufacture are very heavy, and conse-
quently present an awkward appearance. Europe lacks our hickory,
tough ash and oak, and has nothing to substitute for them. All the wood
used must be heavy in order to give the required strength, and then tfaej
do not know how to produce the malleable iron, which is so extensively
used by us. The fields of lupines, rape, peas and (horse) beans presents
a novel sight to an American — the rape is grown for oil and cake, just as
flax was, and in some places yet^is, with us. The lupines, peas and beans
•Digitized by LjOOQIC
Ill
are a SLbstitnte for oar Indian corn, which does not mature there, bat is
grown to a considerable extent as a green forage plant.
The lapine is a plant belonging to the family of LeguminoscBj in Botany,
or the *^pea ** or *^pod bearing*^ family of plants, and is a native of the
shores of the Mediterranean. Although the plant was known to the
Greeks under the name of Thermos^ and used by them not only as an ar-
ticle of food, but also medicinally, esteeming them vermifugal and em-
menagogue, &c., (JHoscor. lib. 1, c. 132,) and by the ancient Eomans were
grown on the poor, dry plains, and in the time of Pliny were ploughed
under as an ameliorating crop for the improvement of the land, yet were
not introduced into Germany until the commencement of the present cen-
tury. In 1810 Baron Charles von Wolffen made an agricultural tour into
the south of France, saw them cultivated there, and on his return intro-
duced them on his estate at Pietzpuhl, near Magdeburg, in the province
of Saxony. It is ploughed in when in bloom, when it is intended to be
used as an ameliorator. It is said to derive its name from lupusj a wolf,
because it devours the substance of the land on which it is grown, that is
to say, it exhausts the land very rapidly of its alkalies. Bat this very
fact renders it particularly useful for the agricultural puipose to which it
is applied. The long tap roots strike deep into the ground and take up
whatever they find there, and thus the alkaline substances are brought
up, and when the plant is plowed in these substances are within the reach
of more shallow rooting crops. The great advantage which it possesses
over the clover tribe is, that it flourishes and produces good crops on
poor, sandy and other thin lands. It can withstand drought, but not the
cold — ^it is readily nipped by spring frosts. There are three varieties,
and each of the^e have sub-varieties, the chief varieties are white, yel-
low and blue. The white does not mature in Germany, and is used en-
tirely as a green-soiling food. In Naples it is used for food for horses,
and in Sicily and Tuscany the fruit is used on the table. It requires a
better soil than any of the others; it succeeds best on a sandy loam.
The blue lupine succeeds best in a loam, has a straight stem and very sel-
dom branches ; the yellow lupine flourishes on sandy, gravelly soils, the
0talk is much branched, yield well, but must be harvested whilst the pod
is yet green, when dry the pod bursts with the slightest pressure, and
great loss ensues if harvested when ripe. Cattle and sheep are very
fond of the herbage, and even dry stalks, whilst the fruit itself is excel-
lent food for sheep — ^lambs a few days old eat them voramously. Clover
and other cultivated forage plants can be grown among the lupines with-
out any detriment to the latter.
The really and absolutely poor soils of Germany compel the farmers to
grow every plant which cattle will eat as forage, therefore places may be
found in which the tbifolium agrarium, or field trefoil is grown for
Digitized by LjOOQIC
112
sheep — ^the hop trefoil is grown as a stabble pasture ; the none suck^ or
black seed (tbifolixtk flliforme) is readily eaten by dieep ; the tbifo-
LIUH ochroleaciim, or yellow elover, is grown in woodlands for sheep, it
is said to be very greedily eaten by them. Four kinds of melilot or
sweet clover are grown ; two or three kinds of Inoeme are in general cul-
tivation. Goat's me (Tbphbosia virginiana of Gray, but GALEair offi-
cinalis of Gtorman botanists) is cultivated for green-soiling, | and is es-
teemed as highly as lucerne. Esparsette (Onobbyohis sativa,) is highly
esteemed, and is grown with lucerne, or clover, or some other forage
plant ; by itself it does not appear to do well, but requires some compan-
ion to lean upon or to protect it ; but when green or dry it is readily
eaten by horses, cattle and sheep.
The buck bean or bitter clover (Menyanthes irifoliaia) is readily eaten,
and is still cultivated. The lotus comiculatus, or homed clover, is
found in the mixture of pasture grasses ; it is said to be much liked by
cattle, and that the butter made from cows who have pastured on it is
very yellow, and a peculiarly agreeable odor, as well as excellent flavor.
The AHfTBTLLiB vulueraria, or wound clover, is readfly eaten by cattle and
sheep, is cultivated in pastures in very rolling or broken lands. It was
formerly much cultivated as a medical plant.
The VIGIA sativa, or forage vetch, is much cultivated as a mixed forage
plant— generally grown with oats or barley— the cattle are very fond of
it either cut green for green soiling, or dried as hay, and it is claimed
that it increases the quantity as well as improves the quality of the milk.
It may be sown either in the spring or &1I ; if it is intended for seed then
it must be sown in the spring on rich and somewhat moist soiL About
twenty bushels of seed is produced per acre, and one and a half to one
and three-fourths tons of hay. The YioiA craoca, or bird vetch, vege-
tates very rapidly and grows very rank on almost any soil— it is consid-
ered a good forage plant. The vicia sepium is much used to sow in the
spring where the esparsette or luceme has failed to come up. The OOBO-
NILLA varia, is grown in pasturages. The lathtbtts pratensis, or «*everj
lasting pea,** is grown in meadows and pastures, but is mostly grown as
a mixed forage plant, either with grass or clover, or with oats, rye and
barley as green-soiling forage. The LATHVBtrs tuberosa is considered a
weed in the cereals, yet the leaves of it are freely eaten by stock ; the
tubers or roots are voraciously devoured by swine ; and among the poorer
fimulies are either substituted for coffee or mixed with it. They are
planted in a well-manured soil, in the spring, are put in in rows nine
inches apart, and are once or twice hoed, and are harvested before the
Autumn frosts; they yield some 100 to 120 bushels per acre, lathybus
venosus, or veined pea, is highly commended, it attains a hight of six
feet, is a rapid grower, is mucb liked by sheep, and makes a capital
Digitized by LjOOQIC
113
green-soiling forage for cattle. It is cnt as soon as the pods are formed ;
^hen cnt for green-soiling it yields two crops in a season ; it withstands
all manner of weather, and is in its prime at the end of three years. It
flourishes in all soils, and is sowed in March or April. Its beautiful scar-
let flowers gives the field a very attractive appearance.
Sanguisorba ofBcinalis^ or Bnmet, also known as Saxifrage, is esteem-
ed a good meadow plant; sheep are fond of it; the young leaves are
used as a salad, and, with a solution of zinc, make a beautifdl *' fast ''
lilac dye for wool, silk or cotton. The Pimpinella Magna, or Great Pim-
pernel, is esteemed a very nutritious forage plant, and is especially ac-
ceptable to cattle and sheep. It flourishes on almost any kind of soil, but
is mostly grown in limy regions ; it withstands the greatest heat, as well
as the severest cold, and yields several "cuts" or crops a year; it is a
rapid grower, grows and keeps green when covered with snow, and
ripens its seed the second year. It is chiefly grown in combination with
meadow grasses or plants. The small pimpernel (P. Saxifraga) is grown
in meadows and pastures, and is believed to increase the flow of milk^
Polygonum bistorta, one of the knot-gra«s buckwheat or bind weea
family, is also cultivated; cattle, sheep and goats eat it, when they can
get nothing better, bnt horses will not touch it.
Spinatia sativa, or common spinach, is weU known in this country as a
kitchen-garden plant, but it is at the same time esteemed an excellent
forage plant in Germany. As soon as the cereal harvest (jrheat, rye,
barley, &c,) is gathered, the stubble is turned and sown to spinach. It
will attain a good growth before winter, and becomes a good green fodder
in April. It may be cut twice during the sea>son, and then is yet a good
fiheep pasture. Ohio farmers will, however, always prefer the blue grass
(poa pratensis) to this plant. Buckwheat is grown for table use, but the
Tartarian buckwheat, which is a very poor kind indeed for the table, is
much commended for forage. The Polygonum Sieboldii, or Japanese
buckwheat, is said to grow five feet high, and is much relished by cattle ;
it is cultivated in some portions, although I did not see any. The P.
aviculare, or bird knot-grass, is extensively grown in fallow pasture
fields ; it is said to enrich the milk ; birds are fond of the seed. Here in
Ohio it is regarded as a nuisance.
During the rebellion, and the consequent high price of coffee, many
things were palmed off on the soldiers, and used in private families as
•• substitute" for coffee. Many recommended the "chicory," or succory^
For many years past I was wdl aware that the *^ coffee extract'' of com-
merce was an extract of chicory, and when in Germany I endeavored to
learn all I could about this plant. The green root is used in Germany as
a salad, and the dried root is roasted, or "burned," the same a« coffee
terries, and a coffee made of it The extract is made by boiling down
A8
Digitized by LjOOQIC
114
the juice as we boil sugar water to make syrup. A good, rich, deep soil
is selected, and aboat ten pounds of seed sown on the acre in April ; the
roots remain in the ground and flourish for ten to twelve years, withstand-
ing cold, heat, frost, wet, &c The tops are mowed off four times a year
and fed to cattle and sheep. Cattle eat them with as much avidity as
they do cabbage leaves. The first cutting of the season is usually in
April.
Gallium mullugo, cleavers, bedstraw, or goosegrass, abounds in mea-
dows and pastures; is not found in the United States; is much relished
by cattle, and it is said to increase the flow of milk, and to give both
milk and butter an excellent flavor. Spirea ulmaria, double meadow
sweet, is voraciously eaten by cattle when green and tender, but when
dried no animal will touch it. The cowslip primrose (primula veris) is
encouraged in pastures^ and meadow, because it is among the earliest
plants in the spring which are sought for by stock. The poorer dass of
Grermans gather the flowers, dry them, and use them to make a tea. The
very palatable primrose wine is made through fermentation of the flowers
in common wine, mixed with sugar and citron. Spergula pentandra,
spurrey, and S. arvensis (corn spurrey), are considerably cultivated on
sandy soils, and are regarded to have the same relation to sandy soils
that clover has to the heavier and better soils. The spurrey does well on
soils other than sandy, provided they are thin or light ; it will do well on
the very poorest soils where no other forage plants will grow, provided
the soil is clean and porous. It yields a good crop of hay, and is also
an excellent pasture. For sheep pasture it is sown from the flrst to the
middle of August in the rye stubble ; when it is grown as a substitute
for clover, it is sown about the end of April. When made into hay it is
cut when in bloom; cows fed on it, yield butter having a slight gar-
lick taste and smeU. Some farmers prefer the sx>ergula nodosa or knotted
spurrey to the above varieties.
The caltha palustris, or marsh marigold, is much encouraged in swampy
places. Oows eat it readily. The flowers, or rather buds, are eaten at
table, prepared the same as capers. The dandelion is also cultivated ;
about two pounds of seed sown per acre ; cattle and sheep eat it. The
(Germans believe that it increases the flow of milk, and gives the butter
a peculiar flavor. The common Gomfrey symplytum officinale is readily
eaten by cattle and sheep ; the leaves are cut four times a year and fed
to stock in the stables. In mountainous districts the Scorzonerj hispa-
nica, or Spanish viper grass, is cultivated and much relished by cattle in
its young and tender state ; the roots are served on the table as vegeta-
bles. The stalk grows to a height of three feet; it branches, and has
broad, long leaves ; the root is black externally, but white internally, and
js used the second year. Poterium sangnisorba, or bumet, is sown with
Digitized by LjOOQIC
116
other forage plants on elevated places ; it shoots early in the spring, and
is much relished by sheep. It is also cultivated in gardens for salads and
soups.
In addition to the above, the following have been cultivated in recent
times for forage plants, some of which have many advocates, viz :
a. Bpartium scoparium, unknown in America, h. Ulex Europeus, also
unknown, o. Echinops bannaticus, unknown here. d. Oenothera biennis,
evening primrose, has succeeded well as a green forage plant, e. Hes-
peris mationalis, (rocket) of the mustard family, gives two crops annually
beside the seed crop. /. Parsley is grown, mixed with other forage
plants, for diseased sheep ; they eat it readily, g. Ghenopodium quinoa,
goose foot. Ju Tanacetum vulgare (tansey) is fed green to swine, i. Va-
leriana locnsta olitoria (unknown here) is very early and productive on cold
heavy clays, withstands the severest summers and winters, and is fit for
forage by the middle of April. It is sown in August and September,
twenty-five pounds per acre, and ripens in July ; is believed to improve
the quality and augment the quantity of milk ; the plant is very fragrant.
k. Nuphar luteum, yellow pond lily: the leaves are fed to the cattle ; the
roots dug are voraciously eaten by hogs, cattle and horses. L Apium
graveolens (celery) is claimed to be more nutritious than the best clover.
Milch cows appear to bo very fond of it, and it increases the flow of milk
as well as increases the quantity of it. m. Sinapis alba (white mustard)
is a rapid grower, and readily eaten by cattle ; it is mowed two and, in
good seasons, three times as a green forage plant, n. Heracleum siberi-
cum, one of the parsnip family, unknown here, is sown thin in April ; the
next year it sends forth an immense amount of foliage, which may be cut
three or four times during the season. It is more especially grown for
ewes than any other kind of stock, o. Orobanche m^jor, unknown here,
but is of the bignonia family ; is very carefully cultivated in Styria for
milch cows. jp. Er3rngium campestre, button snake root, another of the
I>arsley &mily, chopped and boiled, is said to increase the flow of milk.
g. Gralinsogea parviflora, imported from China, grows wild about Boston,
Kew York and Philadelphia, probably introduced from shipping ; is very
rich in foliage, and sheep seem very fond of it ; but the Germans fear it
will prove to be a troublesome weed. r. Goldbachia torulosa, unknown
here, attains a height of three or four feet in the lightest soils ; sheep are
very fond of it. 8. Nigella hispanica, Spanish fennel flower — a crow-foot
— ^is sown about a peck per acre, grows rapidly, and attains a height of
two and a half to three feet ; is cut green for forage, t Omithopus
sativus, seradella, unknown here ; is in Germany a capital forage plant
on sandy soils, but it will not tolerate any weeds. It is sown from the
middle of March to the first of April ; fifteen to twenty pounds of seed
are required. It is at first a very slow grower, but by July has covered
Digitized by LjOOQIC
116
the field ; it does best when sown as a mixed forage plant. If sown
early, sow with spergnla or sparry; if sown late, sow with bnckwheat.
It can be fed green, or as hay — either way it is considered fully eqnal to
clover, and like clover, can be cat twice in a season, u. Banias orientalis,
Zackenschote German, nnknown here ; is an early plant and rapid grower
in sandy soil ; it is effectaally droaght-proof, and is mnch liked by cattle.
It is sown pretty thick, so as to give length to the plants and leaves at
the top ; it is cat green three times daring the year, and is said to be very
rich in nitrogen and minerals.
The meadow grasses are always made np of a mixtnre of grasses, in-
cluding red and white clover, timothy, fox-tail, sweet-scented vernal grass,
smooth-stalked meadow grass, orchard grass, Italian rye grass, red
top, &c., &C.
I have presented this list of forage plants rather to show how Germans
economize in every direction, and make use of everything which can be
used, than to urge Ohio farmers to cultivate the plants named.
Having now mentioned an outline of the meteorology, geology, soils
and mineral resources, as well as the population and organization of
labor in Prussia, the next in order will be a statistical statement of the
number of horses, cattle, sheep and swine. These are as follows:
PBUSSULN STATISTICS, 1861.
Horses.
Colts flrom 1 to 3 yean old 297,295
Horses £rom 3 to 10 years old 767,095
Horses over 10 years old 615,265
Total 1,679,655
Horses, per square mile (English) 14^
Namber of persons to ONE horse 10 4^
Horses employed in Agricnltore oyer 3 years old 1,214,532
Agricoltoral horses, per square mile lOi
CATTLE.
Bulls 83,079
Oxen 680,431
Oxen, per square mile (English) 69-10
Cows 3,382,651
Cows, per square mUe 29i
Toung cattle from 6 to 2 yeaisold 1,488,436
Total cattle 6,634,497
Cattle, per square mile 49
Number of persons to each animal 3i
Digitized by LjOOQIC
117
0HSEP.
ThoTonghbred merinoe 6,550,776
Thoroughbred, per square mile 57
Half-bred merinos 7,191,613
Common sheep 3,692,476
Total sheep 17,434,665
Sheep, per square mile 1518-10
SWINB.
Over six months old .^ 1,816,141
Under six months old 893,552
Total 2,709,693
Persquare mile 23^
STATISTICS OF HOBSES IN BUBOPB, 1860.
Horses.
On square
German
miles.
Horses to
1,000 in-
habitants.
England
Prance
Rossia
Prussia
Bavaria
Wurtsmburg
Saxony (Kingdom)
8axe Ooburg-Ootha
8axe-Weimer-Eisenach. .
Brunswick
Duchv of Hesse
Anhalt Dessan
Anhalt Bemburg
Baden
Mecklenburg Strelitv...
Mecklenburg Schwerin.
Oldenburg
Hannover
2,250,000
2,818,496
16,250,000
1,629,000
3394?75
79,741
95.624
6,347
15,106
26,059
41,463
9,700
3,229
72,817
17,046
84,467
33,413
213.946
373
293
181
318
244
225
351
178
228
387
240
303
245
262
476
364
290
306
79
78
274
94
74
45
47
42
67
95
55
84
73
53
171
155
117
116
Horses
Cattle
Sheep and goats.
Swine
Square miles ....
Inhabitants
BAYABIAN STATISTICS, 1862.
348,000
2,535,000
1,258,000
495.000
28,435
4,689,837
On 10,000* acres of arable land:
Inhabitants.
Horses.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Swine.
Prussia
5,838
12,560
10,532
5,291
10,572
530
540
416
448
672
1,777
3,603
2.898
3,827
3,288
5.496
2,100
1,628
1,098
3,348
854
Saxony
1,526
Rheniah Provinces
938
Hohenzollern
1,045
Leil«iK
2,165
' Th^se are Saxony acres and are equivalent to 13,689 English or American acres.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
118
*
According to Porter's '• Progress of Nations," there were in England
and Wales 140,374 carriage and saddle horses, 147,766 draft horses, 1,819
livery horses, 37 horses for bailiflfs, 1,476 race horses, 447,928 brood and
agricoltoral horses, 21^586 ponies less than 13 hands high, and 348
donkeys.
In Frarice there were 1,171,930 stallions and geldings, 1,194,231 mares,
352,635 colts.
Prussia, 253,734 colts, 684,671 horses from four to ten years old, 612,471
horses over ten years old.
Bavaria, 23,317 stallions, 155,461 mares, 115,334 geldings, and 45,163
colts.
Wurtemburg, 3,739 stallions, 38,332 mares, 37,640 geldings, 5,968 stal-
lion colts, 8,443 mare colts, 1,874 gelding colts.
Saxe-Coburg-Ootha, 1,241 stallions 1,280 mares, 3,836 geldings.
Saxe-Weimer-Uisenach, 2,358 colts, 12,254 woik-horses, 494 pleasure-
horses under three years old, 704 stallions, 8,364 geldings, 3,680 mares.
BruTisvncJc, 86^ stallions, 13,798 mares, 8,129 geldings, 2,095 colts under
two years, 1,174 colts from two to four years old.
Duchy of Hesse, 34,032 horses over four years old, 7,641 colts.
Anhalt Bemberg, 3,593 horses, 336 colts.
Mecklenburg Sirditz, 12,683 horses over four, and 4,363 horses under
four years old.
Oldenburg, 110 brood stallions, 7,292 brood mares, 15,272 other horses,
4,773 sucking colts, 3.584 one year old colts, 2,382 two year old colts.
CHAPTEE IV.
MODE OP AGBICT7LTURE.
During the four weeks in which my headquarters were in Berlin, I at-
tended an annual meeting of the Agricultural Society of Mark Branden-
berg, held at Preutzlau ; the International Exhibition, at Stettin, in
Pommerania; I visited also the " Oderbruck,*' a Paradaisical valley, of
the Oder, near Frankfurt on the Oder; visited Templehof Mariendorf ;
the estate of van Lutersdorf, the station at Juterbogk, and other estates
and places. The discussions of the Agricultural Societies at Prentzlau
and Stettin, in conversation with proprietors of estates, with small farm-
ers ; visits to the Agricultural Bureau, in Berlin ; conversations with
Geheimrath Wehrman, Prof. Karl Kock (Prof, of Botany of the Agri-
cultural University, in Berlin,) and conversations with agriculturists gen-
erally, at the ^several exhibitions, as well as an examination of some of
the published Agricultural Societies reports, the following views of the
Digitized by LjOOQIC
119
agricnltnre of Prussia have been gleaned : It must be remembered that
mach of the territory of Prussia is a sandy deposit, interspersed here and
there with a clay formation. The province of Saxony, a part of Prussia,
is entirely different in its geological formations and character of soil from
the other portions of Prussia, except the Bhenish provinces. The prov-
ince of Saxony reminded me strongly of Clark, Oreen, Warren, Butler
and Montgomery counties, in Ohio.
The crops, rotation and system of cultivation varies with the soil,
therefore there can be no general description which will convey a good
idea of it, and for that reason I have concluded to give my observations,
and what I learned, more in the form of memoranda than in the form of
a descriptive essay.
PEOVINOB OP POSEN.
TILLAGE OF THB SOIL.
In the neighborhood of Frauenstadt, near the banks of the Odeb, the
usual depth of the furrow In highly cultivated loam, is eight to nine
inches, for grain crops, and ten to twelve inches for forage crops and oil-
bearing plants. A deeper tiUage or loosening of the subsoil by means of
the mole, subsoil or spading plows is adopted only for beet and turnip
culture. In tilling the soil one horse and one yoke of oxen, or if horses
only are kept, two horses are required for every 100 morgen (62 acres.)
The soil is as often plowed for grain crops as in Holstein.
BBOMBEBG.
On the banks of the Weichsel, and in a WedLden formation, the sin-
gle roller is in very general use. It consists of a series of cast-iron rings,
with bevel edges, strung on the axle. It is dimmed that it does not leave
the soil closed or compressed, but admits air and moisture, and haa a f^ir
more salutary effect than the smooth roller. Mr. Bebtelsmann, the pro-
prietor of a large estate, instituted a series of experiments with a double-
and a single roller, with the following result, viz : The wheat crop was
very thin ; the clover and grass crops were not harrowed, but *' ringled "*
in, and this partly cross-wise. The seed was well covered, and so pressed
that it germinated rapidly and safely — on the portion ringled cross-wise
it came up more densely. The plants which were lifted a little .were
pressed down again by the roller, but none were Injured. Glover wa»
sown among rye with the same success, and once " ringling " was suffi-
cient. Field x>6a8 and vetches sown on the rough furrow and once ring-^
led did not differ in growth or product from those growing by the side of
them, which were harrowed in. One portion of the field, intended for
beets, was harrowed thrice and then "ringled " down compactly, the sec-
ond portion was simply twice harrowed, the third portion was harrowed
Digitized by LjOOQIC
120
twice, ringled, and then harrowed again. The beet seed was planted one-
half inch deep by a marked line. On the first portion the beets came np
tardily and irregularly, much better on the second, but best of all on the
third. Oats were sown on the rough furrow, then han'owed twice, after
this ringle-roUed, by this process the clover seed sown was pressed into
the earth. The result was fully as good as was anticipated.
lOBDONNOWA.
Mr. Schartz, Counsellor of National Economy, related the following as
being the plan generally adopted in relation to potatoes : After the field
is plowed and obliquely harrowed, lines are drawn across the field, and
furrows made with the shovel plow on these lines, then cross4ines are
made and are followed by cross-furrows, the seed potatoes are dropped
where the furrows cross each other, and are lightly covered with a spade.
Then the ridges are split apart with the shovel plow and the potatoes
once more covered. When the tops of the potatoes appear above the
ground they are once harrowed obliquely with a light harrow and imme-
diately hilled in, in the same direction, so that the tops are entirely cov-
ered with soil and are not exposed to the effects of the weather, which
often, at that period, is very inclement. The potato is developed rapidly
and vigorously, and the weeds destroyed. When the plants are high
enough they are hilled for the first time, crosswise, and in about fourteen
days later, if large enough, are hilled again in the same direction and for
the last time. It is claimed that by this method of cultivation the soil
remains exposed to the favorable influences of the atmosphere, and the
weeds are much more easily destroyed.
PEOVmCE OP SAXONY.
In the districts where sugar beets are grown, and extensive distilleries
are established, the highest culture has become indispensable, and the ex-
ample is not lost on neighboring estates. The new and improved imple-
ments facilitate this; the improved Bohemian, English and American
plows, and more especially the subsoil plow facilities, and deeper plowing
or tillage. In the low, stiff clays of Seehausen the American swing plow
does not seem to do well, and the Scotch or Orignon and other plows are
used only when the drought and great wet do not prevent. As a rule
the depth of tillage is five to eight inches ; for hoed crops and sugar
beets, ten inches and upwards. To attain this depth, the usual practice is,
to have two plows follow each other in the same furrow. For deep tillage
the Kleeman mole plow is highly commended. In some districts a light
paring plow is used for turning pastures, or clover sod for winter crops,
&c., this, however, requires to be followed by a plow of peculiar con-
struction, so as to produce the greatest compression of the soiL The
Digitized by LjOOQIC
121
Bedford and Scotch harrows, composed of two or more sections, are used,
also the Crosskill clod-crusher, and the stone-roller.
In spring time a flock of sheep are often turned on wheat and rye crops
with good effect In the district of Sondershausen they seldom plow more
than five or six inches deep, but invariably stir the subsoil ; and it is
claimed that grains, clover and pea^ do much better with this kind of
tillage than if the soil is plowed ten or twelve inches deep. In the lake
district of Mansfield the fields are plowed shallow, but are kept clear of
weeds, are said to yield larger crops of potatoes than when plowed deep.
In Muhlhausen and other districts, they prefer planting potatoes after the
marker— a plow making a shallow furrow — ^rather than in the furrow of
deep plowing. In Bitterfeld, when potatoes are to follow rye, the stubble
is plowed under immediately after harvest, lupines are sown and plowed
in, in the fall as manure for the potatoes. On the more elevated flat soil
in the district of Banis, the soil is plowed into beds of three or four fur-
rows, the potatoes planted in the depression between them and covered.
In Dachwig, potatoes hilled with the hoe thrive the best. Keai* Erfurt —
the richest and best tilled soil in all Germany — they select the best land
for poppies, make it as clear as possible by previous crops, manure it
copiously with sheep manure, and plow this manure in pretty deep in the
fall. Kext spring the ground is twice plowed : first time shallow, next
time deep, and then well harrowed ; the poppies are sown in April, and
when of a proper size are hoed and the superfluous plants removed ; if
they are too dense or too thin the yield is not as good as when a proper
density obtains ; they are hoed three or four times during the season. A
very fine salad oil is made from the seeds. In the district of Bitterfeld-
Delitzsch, after the mole-hiUs have been carefully spread in the spring,
the meadows are well harrowed to renovate them and promote the growth
of gra^s. It is claimed that a light covering of straw, during the winter,
promotes the growth of the grass in spring, and pays double the cost, as
the straw may afterwards be used for litter in the sheep folds.
EOTATION OP CBOPS.
Province of Prussia, — ^The larger farmers in this province, as a rule,
have the following rotation of crops, viz : Fallow, rape (manured), barley,
winter grain, clover ; there is, however, a great preponderance of forage
crops.
Province of Saxony. — ^The prominent geological formations of the Prov-
ince of Saxony are Lias, Keuper, and Muschelkalk — formations nowhere
found in Ohio. The soil necessarily partakes, in a greater or less degree,
its character from the formations where it is situated or from which it is
derived. Hence, in the Province of Saxony may be found a greater
variety of good soils than in any corresponding area it has been my for-
Digitized by LjOOQIC
122
tone to visit The rotation of crops is such as experience has proven to
be best adapted to the particular soil cultivated — Whence, there is no gen-
eral system of rotation ; and as a matter of agricultural curiosity, I will
devote a page to reciting the different kinds of rotation practised in the
one province. In many places the three field system {BreifeLderwirth-
sehaft) yet prevails ; that is, the farm is divided into three fields, two are .
cultivated and the third lies fallow in rotation. , In Ohisfelde, two or three
successive grain crops are grown, and then the field lies in open fallow for
two or three years. In Seehausen, on low lands, the rotation is (1) fallow,
(2) oil crops, (3) wheat, (4) clover or pulse; on high lands, (1) fallow,
potatoes, peas (manured), (2) rye, oats, barley, (3) lupines or clover, (4)
rye. In Stendal, rape, cole and lupines are grown before winter grain,
and hoed crops before summer grains. In Loburg and Schildau, on light
soil, (1) potatoes, (2) lupines, (3) rye; in Giosz-Apenburg, (I) winter
grain, (2) hoed crops, (3) summer grain, (4) fallow. In Obisfelde, on light
soil, (1) lupines, (2) rye, (3) potatoes, (4) oats, (6) fallow; the more intel-
ligent farmers apply manure with great success after potatoes for oats,
when clover or grass are to follow. The lupine is frequently grown
before potatoes ; lupines are also sown in rye stubbles, and plowed under
as green manure for oats ; and for the same purpose they are sown among
rye when it begins to head. In Schildau, on heavier soil, the rotation
is, (1) rape, (2) wheat, (3) peas, (4) rye, (5) clover, (6) wheat, (7) potatoes,
(8) oats, (9) white clover; or (1) rape, (2) wheat, (3) potatoes, (4) oats,
(5) peas, (6) rye, (7) green clover, (8) wheat, (9) potatoes, (10) summer
grain, (11) white clover. IiTAlsleben the following has proven to be the
best rotatroi^: (1) winter grain, (2) turnips, (3) summer grain, (4) clover;
or (1) winter grain, (2) turnips, (3) summer grain, (4) turnips, (5) summer
grain, (6) clover. In the Saal district fully one-third of the area is grown
in sugar beets. In Eeindorf the rotations are (1) peas, vetches, beans,
poppy* mixed crops, &c., with copious application of barn yard manure,
(2) wheat, rye, (3) hoed crops, (4) barley with clover, esparsette, clover and
oats, (5) clover, (6) clover partly used as pasture, (7) rape, wheat, rye,
with bam yard manure, (8) rye, barley, hoed crops, (9) oats. In Sanger-
hausen fields often are manured, and barley and rye are sown in them.
In Nordhausen the rotations are clover pasture fallow in seven fields, viz:
(1) winter grain (manured), (2) barley, (3) clover, (4) winter grain (man-
ured), (5) peas, beans, &c., (6) oats, (7) clover pasture; or^ with rape in
eight fields, viz : (1) winter rape (manured), (2) winter rye, (3) barley, (4)
clover, (5) wheat (manured), (6) peas, potatoes, (7) oats, (8) clover pas-
ture; on better soils, with hoed crops in seven fields, viz : (1) hoed crops,
(with manure,) (2) barley and oats, (3) clover, beans, (4) winter grain
(manured), (5) pulse, (6) winter grain, (7) summer grain. In Neuschmidt-
stedt, (1) fallow with fall manuring, (2) winter crops, (3) hoed crops, (4)
Digitized by LjOOQIC
123
summer grain, (5) clover, (6) clover with half mannring (light mannring),
(7) winter crops, (8) hoed crops, (9) summer grain. In Sonderhausen, on
good and mediam soil, (1) rape, (2) rye and wheat, (3) peas, beans or pop-
py, also hoed crops, (4) rye or wheat with clover, (5) clover, (6) clover for
pasture— or instead of clover, oats or barley with clover, (7) clover, (8)
clover or pasture ; on inferior soils, after fallowing with manure, (1) rye,
(2) i>eas and hoed crops, (3) barley or oats with clover, (4) clover manur-
ed, (5) wheat, (6) oats. In Banis, where the six-field rotation obtains,
there are (1) hoed crops, (2) summer crops, (3) clover, (4) winter crops,
(5) pulse or peas, (6) winter crops. In Schleusingen, on two large manors
having a very heavy soil fit for clover, the seven and nine course rotation
have been adopted with decided success. On the hospital manor of St.
Kilians, where the soil is mostly very sandy, the six-course rotation pre-
vails, and nearly one-half of the area is used as a sheep pasture for three
years and then broken up and cultivated in suitable crops.
CHANGE OF SEEDS.
I made many inquiries and collected quite a number of items, facts, or
at least supposed facts, in relation to the change of farm crop seeds, but
as it would require entirely too much space to give the details of a tenth part
of them I must content myself by giving a simple statement of the con-
clusions I arrived at, based, of course, upon the statements detailed to me.
It appears that any farm crop as wheat, for example, may be much
improved by culture on a farm with appropriate soil ; but there is a limit
to the improvement of this variety, which I will designate as variety A,
on this farm, which I will designate as farm 'No. 1. After the limit of
improvement has been attained on No. 1 it will then, for a series of years,
remain stationary, and after that, even with the best culture, will deteri-
orate. But if, when it has attained its limit on No. 1, and is then trans-
ferred to a farm No. 2, with equally good or better soil, it appears to be
susceptible of still fiirther improvement until it reaches the limit of No.
2, then it will improve again on farm No. 3, &c. Whilst the variety A is
deteriorating on farm No. 1, the variety B, under proper treatment from
farm No. 2 or 3, will improve by the side of it Hence, the German farmers
have adopted a system of seed exchanges gud are anxious to obtain
seeds finom foreign countries. They seem to have given this subject a
great deal of attention, and take into account the kind of soil, meteorolo-
gy, and level above the sea where the seeds were grown, and I am inclined
to think they make it a point to obtain good seeds from elevated regions
grown on an inferior soil. The exchanges are conducted mostly by the lo-
cal agricultural societies. The Sonderhausen agricultural association have
made many experiments in the exchange of seeds, and now recommend,
as the result of their experience, that ** seeds from a good rich soil, to a
cold and indifferent one is profitable, and vice versa !^^
Digitized by VjOOQIC
124
MA19X7BES.
. Mr. pointed out some fields to me and said, '* these fields have
been in cnltivation since the days of Charlemagne." '• Then," said I,
*Hhe doctrine that Liebig is advocating, that the Gennan system of
agricnltare is a system of robbery, and his doctrine of the exhaustion of
the soil is 7U>t true? " " Liebig is a great man," replied Mr. , *• and
has done much for agriculture, but the good Ood has so formed the soil
that with proper treatment and management it will yield food for man as
long as he exists on the earth. As for German Agriculture, I must tell
you that we have many hypotheses, speculations, and some theories, and
are by no means as practical a people as you are in America, and hence
we often must do indirectly that which we could not accomplish directly.
For many years England imported vast quantities of bones from Ger-
many, our farmers did not see any soil in these bones, and therefore
cheerfully sold them because they received money for them. We all
understood that England derived great benefit from these bones, but we,
in our speculations, came to the conclusion that the climate and soil of
England made bones a very useful auxiliary, whilst they would have no
beneficial effect in Germany. Liebig's doctrine set us to thinking^ and it
is no matter whether his doctrines are right or wrong, the moment you
can get farmers to thinking^ investigating and diseussing, truth will be
evolved, correct principles govern, and laws of nature be discovered.
The effect of Liebig's doctrine was to stop the exportation of bones, and
since we have applied them in their various forms as manure, our crops
have greatly increased. In fact, before Liebig's time we did little else in
the way of manuring than to apply barn-yard manure, lime and plaster;
but now we not only apply these as bountifully as before, but in addition
apply bone dust, superphosphate, guano. Chili saltpetre and potash. The
world will never pay Liebig what is due to him ; and here in Germany it
is a difficult matter to get learned men to aQknowledge the benefits he has
conferred on science and agriculture, because most of these men are jeal-
ous of him, envy him the reputation he has justly earned, and each one
seems to have some pet theory or doctrine of his own hatched up in
opposition to Liebig ; but even if he at times has been mistaken, yet his
entire course has been productive of much good."
But I have been wandering, from the subject, and, therefore, will return
to my notes on
MANUBUfa.
Meadows situated on the banks of rivers are usually overflowed in the
spring and a rich sedimentary deposit is left upon them, so that they very
seldom require manuring; but the upland meadows are manured with
compost or liquid manure, with excellent results. In some districts wood
Digitized by LjOOQIC
125
ashes and guano are mixed for manuring. In Loburg ashes and plaster
are added after and sometimes before the liquid manure is applied ; in
Liebenwerda bone dust and guano are applied with better effect than
guano and ashes.
Since the culture of forage plants has become more extensive, stock has
been better fed and larger quantities of better manure have been made,
and which has been treated and kept with more care in the stable as well
as in the barn-yard. In Altmark the manure remains in the stable until
it is hauled on the field. In !N^euhaldersleben the stables have been built
80 as to have an apartment specially for manure ; but it is believed that
this plan is injurious to the animals — hog's manure is deemed to be spe-
cially noxious. In order to conserve the manure in the bam yard, it is
mostly trodden down compactly and strata of earth, plaster and lime are
strewed between it Vith good results ; in Eanis calcareous sand is sub-
stituted, in Halb«rstadt mould and peat are used. In Obisfelde the horse,
cattle and hog manure is frequently thrown together in heaps, with strata
of peat in equal parts. Dry peat is also used in long straw for litter in
sheep folds — this prevents the evaporation of the ammonia. As a rule,
however, earth is strewed in the sheep folds and the sheep dung is rarely
hauled away, except it is taken directly to the field and plowed under.
In Halberstadt sheep dung is daily strewed over with a misiture of 2 cwts.
of plaster and 2 cwts. of bone dust to 120 cwts. of manure. Barn-yard
manure is generally used for forage and hoed crops, winter grain, pulse
and rape. In Querfnrt it is found that manured barley yields less than
nnmanured in dry seasons, unless the manure has been plowed under the
previous year. In Oschersleben about six tons of manure are applied per
morgen (| of an acre), but m Banis 10 to 15 tons are applied every three
years — although some very successful farmers apply this quantity every
two years; and they give as a reason that the land is very level and con-
tains lime and sand largely. As a rule the manure is spread and plowed
imder as fast as it is hauled on the field, except in Sonderhausen, it is
hauled every month and spread, and then let lie until plowing time. Ex-
perience has taught them that the manure spread and lying on the field
during winter mellows the surface of the soil and has an excellent effect
ai>on the first crop, but very little or no effect upon succeeding ones. In
Halberstadt manure is usuaUy plowed 6 to 8 inches deep for grain crops,
and 10 iuehes for potatoes— this is done with a four horse team ; but in
Dachwig it is plowed 3 to 4 inches only for grain crops. The cost of barn-
yard manure is very relative — where stock is well kept and abundantly
fed, the manure is produced at a less cost, than where stock is indiffer-
ently or poorly fed. The cost of producing a ton of manure, including
straw, is estimated to cost from $L76 to $3.25. But even at these prices.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
126
barn-yard manure is held to be cheaper, more profitable and more readily
obtained than the artificial or commercial manures.
Liquid manure. — ^The careful collection of liquid manure in walled reser-
voirs, and its application, is being more generally adopted. In Erfurt
this progress is due partly to a legal decree forbidding the flow of liquid
manures in the gutters, and partly to the recommendations of the local
agricultural society. But on many estates it is not collected. It is ap-
plied in various ways ; most generally it is used for moistening the com-
post and dry manures, or else is mixed with peat The most favorable
results were obtained where the liquid manure was applied directly to
meadows, and upon compost heaps. The results of liquid manure are not
uniformly as favorable on large manors where technological branches of
industry are conducted. Experience has demonstrated that liquid manure
is more effective on hoed crops than on cereals. On an examination of
farms competing in the culture of sugar beets, it was found that in Son-
dershausen the yield of b^ets per morgen had been increased from 450 to
800 cwts. by the application of liquid manure. In Keuschmidtstedt it has
greatly increased the product of potatoes. In Zwethan it had an excel-
lect effect on Maize (Indian corn). On some farms it has been found that
the application of liquid manure surcharges the soil with salts which are
too readily soluble and thus injure instead of benefit crops.
Compost. — Every kind of offal, debris, rubbish of all kinds go to the
compost heap — even the soap suds from the wash room ; and it is held
that the greater the variety of substances put into the compost heap the
more valuable it becomes, because the substances act and react upon each
other and thus form more perfect plant food. Factory offal, beet pumice,
apple pumice, and everything of the kind finds a place in the compost
heap — Whence the residences and bam yards are made and kept more cleanly
whilst the compost heap is being enriched. Earth or peat is mixed with
the heap and it is very frequently turned over, and after the second year
it is applied to the land. The lime from burned limestone has been found
to be much more efficient for agricultural purposes, than the lime from
burnt mussle shells. In the fall muck is hauled on the field in neighbor-
hoods where it can be obtained, and is plowed in with manure the next
fall after having been stirred several times during the summer. The
application of compost on meadows is most common and profitable ; this
manner of manuring has produced surprising results, nay the yield has
been doubled and the quality much improved. In Obisfelde many mead-
ows are irrigated, and on these compost has produced unexpectedly favor-
able results. Compost has proved to be better for any crops other than
cereals.
Artificial Mineral Manures and Ouano. — Of the commercial manures
Peiiivian guano is the most extensively used in the province of Saxony,
Digitized by LjOOQIC
127
especially in connection witb bone dnst and superphosphates, &c. The
application of commercial manores in general has of late rapidly increased,
even among small farmers. Thus in the small district of Stumsdorf, con-
sisting almost exclusively of small farmers, there are now at least 10,000
cwts. of guano, and 3,000 to 4,000 cwts. of superphosphates used every
year. The application of guano is effected by guano-strewing machines
and partly by harrowing in ; when plowed in deeply it is not so effective.
Guano has very little effect when applied on a limestone boil. In the
district of Koethen, guano and phosphate of lime mixed in equal parts,
is chiefly applied for sugar beets : on fields bearing the second crop, 1^
cwts. are applied, on exhausted fields, two cwts. and even more per mor-
gen. A farmer in the district of Nordhausen, during a period of thirteen
years, applied guano partly mixed with bone dust, plaster and earth, for
cereals, beets and potatoes, with excellent success. In Genthin experi-
ence has proved that the constant application of guano is injurious. Farm-
ers are of opinion that artificial manures can have a lasting effect only in
connection with a due proportion of barn-yard or other vegetable manures;
therefore after manuring for two or three years with artificial manures,
they apply barn-yard manure exclusively and in generous quantities. In
Eanis several farmers applied oil-cake as manure, and found it to be
equally as ef^cient as guano, and that its effects were of equally long dura-
tion.
BBANDENBUBG.
METHODS OF HARVESTlNa Ain> PRESERVING THE CROPS.
One or two reaping machines are all that are in this province, and I am
not at all surprised that they are not more popular, because they are the
heavy cumbrous /our horse reapers made in England. Although not very
pertinent to this subject yet connected with it, I will introduce here a por-
tion of a letter written by me at Berlin, on the 13th of May, 1865, to the
President of the Ohio State Board of Agriculture :
" Yesterday, in company with Privy Counsellor of the King's Ministerinm, Mr. Wehr-
man, and Professor Karl Koch, I went to Printzlau, in northern Prussia, to attend a dis-
trict meeting of the Central Board of Agriculture of the Mark Brandenburg and Lower
Lausitz. Prentzlau is about seventy-flve miles north of Berlin. T^e country from Ber-
lin to Prentzlau is a sandy plain, and about as undulating as Madison county. There is
more forest in this direction than any that I have yet traveled, but the forest is entirely
of artificial growth, as they say here, which means that every tree was planted and
cared for by a forester. These forests are clear of undergrowth, and the trees are aU in
rows. They look very fine and picturesque. The crops grown on the land are lupines,
(for sheep) seradella, rye, potatoes, rape and peas. The rape is badly injured by the
frost in this region, but several fields that I saw were very pretty — ^they were in bloom,
and were a bright yeUow. I do not think there is a bushel of wheat grown within fifty
miles of Berlin in any direction. They grow considerable com for green soiling, but no
Indian corn ever ripens here. They plant our old "horse-tooth" corn, and do not
believe any other variety wiU grow.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
128
Bat as I set oat to give yoa an aoconnt of the meeting, I will oonftne myself to that
nntil I get through with it. When the train arrived at Prentzlan, we were shown into
a large hall where seats had heen reserved for Prof. Dr. Koch and myself. The Board
consists of twelve members. They were seated on a platform or stage — the President
in the centre. He very briefly stated the object of the present meeting, and read a
namber of communications on various subjects which had been forwarded to him. The
treasurer then read his report of receipts and exx>enditares. The whole being approved,
the convention proceeded to the discussion of the printed questions on the programme.
DISCUSSION OF FINANCIAL MEASURES.
Among the communications was one from the Minister of Agriculture, inquiring if
any change was necessary in the law relating to mortgages, and what rate per cent^
should be fixed as interest for money loaned to agriculturists. This brought forth a
very spirited discussion, some members (the convention numbering about fifty exclusive
of the Board) insisting that a farmer could do better without money than to get it at
too high a rate. Others insisted that if the rate was too low, capitalists would not lend
to farmers — although farmers' mortgages are considered by capitalists 9afer than the
State stocks, and therefore always have the preference. My frieud Wehrman said that
the matter would regulate itself, and that a fixed rate of interest would be fraught
with evil consequemses, as for instance, in Westpbalia, a burgomaster had some thou-
sands of thalers to loan on mortgage, but wanted four and a half per cent. ; no one
would pay more than four, so after holding his money for a year he loaned it at four.
In Silesia and Pommerania no one could borrow money at less than wc per cent. ; there-
fore, if the ministry would fix the rate at five, no one iiHwZd borrow in Westphalia,
whilst no one omdA borrow in Silesia.
One member of the Board argued that a banker or merchant could pay ten per cent,
much better than a farmer could pay four; and, if the rate of iuterest was left an open
question, that all the farmers would be mined. A Mr. Carber (member) argued that
upon a property worth 100,000 thalers, he had vainly endeavored to borrow 6,000 tha-
lers on mortgage, but could not get it at less than bank rates, this being on zhorX time,
(two years,) and as he would be obliged to pay all the expenses of attorneys, appraisers
and recorders, would make it cost too much, and he could do better without the money
than to borrow it. It appears that money is usually loaned to farmers for fifteen to
twenty years. I heard, in the course of this discussion, some very sensible remarks in
relation to this thing of money lending. The Ex-President (a man of sixty-five or sev-
enty years,) said that tbe fact that proprietors could borrow money, was, in many cases,
fatal to them, and he believed that, in the aggregate, it did more to retard than to ad-
vance agriciUture.
When a man had a pocket full of money he was very apt to indulge in things that he
otherwise would do without; for himself, he considered that if a man did borrow
money for farming purposes, he then should be more prudent, economical and indnstii-
ous until the debt was paid, than he had been before. But the discussion, after all, re-
sulted in nothing. It was voted to address a letter of thanks to the Minister for the
honor he had done the Convention by asking their advice ; but that it was a question
which <A«j/, at t^at time, were not fully agreed on, and begged him to permit them to
discuss it again at their next meeting. My friend Carber seemed to be a very sensible
man, and said he would vote for the first part of the letter of thanks, but not for the
last. He said that it was all nonsense for the Convention to discuss ministerial ques-
tions, when every body knew that the ministry would do Just as it chose at all events ;
and that there were some questions of very practical importance in agriculture, and
that the convention had several times indulged in lengthy and sometimes bitter discus-
Digitized by LjOOQIC
129
rions in matters which belonged to the ministryi and not to the Convention, and there-
foie wonld vote against asking the privilege to continne the discnssion.
BrteSing of Fine Cattle, — ^The next question discussed was the establishment of an an-
nual or semi-annual fat cattle show, at Berlin. Mr. Herrman von NathusiuSi of Hun-
disburg. was expected to be here and discuss this question, but he did not come ; but
instead sent about a quire of manuscript to be read. Nathusius is a German Yankee ;
it was he who took hold of and managed the Hamburg International Fair, in 1863.
He is a scientific breeder, and as he is well educated, and has a good estate, unlike
Hammond, of Vermont, or the Oollings, of England, Nathusius publishes expositions of
the rules and principles by which he is governed in his breeding operations. A friend
of his told me that, for a long time, he was regarded as the butt or laughing stock of
his flkgricultural neighbors ; but one day he advertised an auction of breeding animals,
and published a catalogue giving their pedigree. This was a novelty, and attracted a
great deal of attention. The sale produced $18,000. This opened the eyes of his neigh-
bors, and since that time he cannot supply the demand for breeding animals. His pa-
per, read before the Convention, was an able one, but of local importance only.
AgrietUtwral Mnohinee^^lihe first of the general questions was passed over— there
being nothing new in agriculture during the past year. The second question, " what
experiments have been made with reaping or mowing machines ? and what ones are
commended for general use V* The agriculturists generally took grounds against these
machines. Mr. Wehrman stated that he had had the honor of an official visit from, and
ibis morning the pleasure of having as a traveling companion, the Secretary of the
Ohio State Board of A|pricnlture ; and in conversation with him learned that in Ohio
there were some six or eight reaping and mowing ipachine manufacturing establish-
ments ; that in 1863-64 had made from one thousand and upwards of these machines,
and yet were unable to fill all the orders— that the Secretary estimated that at least
90,000 of these machines were in requisition in Ohio in 1864.
A gentleman on the cars had objected to the introduction of them in Mark Branden-
burg, on the ground that the fields were too stoney. The Secretary said he had been
closely observing the fields all the way from Berlin, and felt certain tbat any farmer's
son, eighteen years of age, in Ohio, would regard it almost as good as play to take a
crop off of such fields with a reaper or mower.
Mr. Wehrman stated that as the Secretary was present by invitation, he would bo glad
to have him state whether or not he (Mr. W.) had made the statement correctly. Of
course I could not make a Dutch speech with any kind of propriety, so I simply stated
that the Qeheimrath Rath had given a very correct account of my statement. A dozen
voices asked me to give the names of these reapers and mowers. I named over such as
occurred to me at the moment, as Wood's, McCormick*s, Manney's, Ball's, Champion,
Seymour's, Buckeye, and then gave the names of Pritz & Kuhns, of Dayton ; Whitely,
Kelley, Fassler & Co., of Springfield; Warder & Co., of Springfield ; Russell <& Co., of
Massillon; Younglove & Co., Cleveland ; Aultman, Ball &, Co., of Canton; as mannfao-
tnrers. After I had made this statement, the President asked me to write down the
names of the machines and manufacturers for the benefit of the society, and the pro-
prietors in Mark Brandenburg. It was then resolved that measures should be taken to
i ntroduce American reapers and mowers into the Prussian provinces, but especially in
Mark Brandenburg. The Qermans are slow and very cautious, and not disposed to risk
mnoh, and I have no idea that anything will come out of the ac tion of the Convention
in this matter, dnless our people in Ohio do as the sewing machine men have done, and
that is this: Send agents over here who are good business men, men of intelligence,
character and good morals, and let them go to work. Hamburg is full of American
agents for Howe's, Singer's, Wheeler & Wilson's, Qrover & Baker, Weed's, and other
A9
Digitized by LjOOQIC
130
sewing macliinefl, and they are really coining money ont of the operation. Berlin is Just
as full as Hamburg. In my former letters I mentioned the system of Guilds in Ham-
burg ; it is much the same here, and for this reason we can get no manufacturers here to
undertake the manufacture of sewing machines, because the workmen must abandon
their previous employ ment^nd prove themselves competent workmen in this new busi-
ness before they are allowed to go to work ; hence Americans must bring their own
workmen here, if they wish to engage in manufacturing any of our, exclusive American
wares. There is just the biggest kind of a fortune in store for reaping and mowing ma-
chine manufacturerSi if they will send competent agents here with good machines. The
Germans are very friendly to Americans, and more especially since the death of Lincoln.
That has brought out all their latent feeling; and now if our manufacturers of these
machines have got the enterprise to come here, they can literally coin moneyi and a
heavy trade can be opened with this part of Europe from America.
But to return to the subject of harvesting and preserving crops : Eye
is cut before it is Mly ripe, either with the sickle, scythe or grain cradle ;
it is bound in sheaves immediately after cutting, and put into shocks to
dry, and then hauled into the barn, or put on stacks, or threshed by the
machine on the field. As a rule, barley, oats and peas are left to lie in
the swath for six or eight days, then bound, put in shock and hauled
home. Twenty-four hours after mowing, clover is usually put in cocks,
in which it dries rapidly and is tolerably well secured from spoiling ; it is
then hauled into the stables without any loss of foliage by further hand-
ling. In recent times, however, it is usual to haul it in, in a half dried
state, put it upon lofts or into barns and salt is strewn upon the different
layers of it, it is then compactly trodden down by horses or oxen. A dif-
ferent curing of grass or clover is called brown hay, in contradistinction
from the ordinary, which is called green hay. The brovm hay is prepared
as follows : The clover is cut in fair weather, and the swaths are imme-
diately spread, the next day, as soon as the dew is evaporated, it is turned ;
on the third day, as soon as the dew is gone, it is put in cocks and hauled
in. The leaves and stalk are fully withered and are in their toughest state.
When brought into the bam it is unloaded in the repository in layers of
six to ten feet deep, and on every area of ten feet square a man is placed
to tramp it down, and it is especially well tramped at the walls. When
it is tramped down as compactly as it conveniently can be, then a layer
of bright new straw, one to two feet thick, is spread over, and then
another layer of clover, and so on — ^in some cases almost equal portions
of straw are mixed with the clover and the whole tramped down together ;
it is claimed that the straw assumes the taste and color of the hay, and is
voraciously eaten by the cattle. It requires from six to eight weeks tor
the completion of " heating" or fermentation, but during all this time, as
well as afterwards, it is left undisturbed. From well authenticated cases
in feediag, it ia stated that brown hay produced eleven and one-fifth tha-
lers per morgen more in milk than the green hay. All attempts to make
brown hay of lupines have failed. Potatoes are harvested with the hoe;
Digitized by LjOOQIC
131
they are seldom plowed oat, or taken up with a fork ; recently, however,
the English potato digger has been introduced and is much used by small
farmers. The potatoes are kept in holes or in cellars.
PBOYINOB OF SAXONY.
Beapers and mowers are more used here than in Brandenburg — ^the use
of the sickle in this province is almost obsolete. Wheat and rye are cut
before being quite ripe and laid in bundles to dry and ripen. In some
places the grain is bound in sheaves as fast as it is cut, and then put in
shocks consisting of nine sheaves, the heads up, and the head of the
tenth sheaf spread out and over the nine, somewhat like an umbrella —
this tenth sheaf is put on with the head down and serves, in a degree, to
protect the nine from rain. Rape Ib generally cut at night or witlf the dew
on it to prevent it shedding; it is, as a rule, threshed on the field. In
Mansfeld, after clover is cut it is left lying three or four days in the swath,
then tamed and left one or two days more to dry, it is then put in cocks
and hauled to the bam, where it is packed away and about three pocks of
salt mingled with every two-horse load — it is claimed that this kind of
clover hay will keep several years and is keenly relished by the animals.
In Sonderhausen considerable ladian corn — ^the '' Virginia Horse Tooth" —
was extensively grown, and with great success as a forage plant, but is
now abandoned and clover substituted for it. It is claimed that the com
was very exhausting, and required more manure than the clover.
WHEAT.
Posen. — ^This province is the most famous for producing good quality of
winter wheat of any in the kingdom of Prassia. Where the soil is wet
the '' lands '* consist of eight furrows, on drier soil the lands are a rod
in width, but on underdrained and well cultivated lands the wheat is
sown over the entire field and it is not divided into lands. A heavy clay
soil is plowed /ottr times before it is see<ied; a lighter soil is plowed three
times, and after the wheat is up is cultivated twice or thrice with a horse-
hoe or hook.
PraviTice of Saxony. — In this province wheat does well after manured
peas — even on soils of the sixth and seventh class, a thirteen fold crop is
regarded as an average — that is thirteen bushels of crop for every bushel
of seed sown. In Mansfeld a crop was drilled in, late in the season, and
afterwards received a top dressing of guano and bone dust, and produced
thirty-threebushels per morgen (five-eights of an acre,) whilst the earlier
sown wheat, with the same treatment, did not near so well. In Hal-
berstadt, about teif metzen* of wheat mixed with seven metzen of rye,
are sown per morgen. After the crop is harvested and threshed they use a
• 'The metem^ is about the <me4mUh of a busheL
Digitized by LjOOQIC
132
pecaliar machine to separate the grains. It is claimed that by growing
the crop thus mixed that both the wheat and lye yield better and weigh
heavier than if grown separate.
In Schildau a field which, for years, had been cultivated in one kind of
cn^, but in 1862 half of it was sown in oats and the other half in lupines, '
then after this oats and lapine crop the entire field was sown in rye — the
crop on the unmanured lupine stubble was better in the proportion of five
to two than that sown on the oat stubble, manured with guano. The
yield of oats in Pommerania is forty to forty-five bushels per morgen.
In Saxony field peas yield twenty-five to thirty bushels per morgen.
About two bushels of seed are used, they are drilled about nine inches
apart and cultivated by hand.
Textile Plants. — ^From eight to twenty million heads of teasles
(DiPSAOUS ftdlonum,) are grown in Silesia, but the entire teasle product
of the province is not sufficient to supply the home demand of the manu-
factories of fine broad-cloth. Hemp is very little grown anywhere in
Prussia. Flax is grown in Posen and Pommerania, for the Silesian mar-
ket. That grown in the Bhenish provinces is consumed in Westphalia.
Bape and poppy were formerly extensively grown for oil, but the intro-
duction of petroleum from America, has caused the producers to hesitate
in devoting much land to these crops.
POTATOES.
I have spoken of potatoes elsewhere, and will here only refer to a new
variety called the " green" or HeUigenatadt potato, the stalks of which
remain bright and green until late in October or early in November — it is
very productive and hardy, producing two hundred and fifty to three
hundred bushels per morgen. One man in Neuhaldersleben, province of
Saxony, had one hundred and fifty morgen in these potatoes, and the
crop averaged two hundred and forty bushels per morgen, or three hun-
dred and eighty-four bushels per <icre — a single hill contained one hundred
and thirty potatoes, on the same and adjoining estates the " red union "
potato yielded fifty-eight bushels per morgen ; the " fir cone," strongly
resembling our " lady finger," yielded eighty-four bushels only per morgen.
it requires to be planted wide apart, in hills (24 by 30 inches apart,) and
is hard to harvest, because the tubers adhere strongly to the vines and to
the soil ; on the other hand it seems to flourish in heavy, wet clays where
BO other potato would grow. Potatoes are extensively grown for distil-
ling, and many farmers exchange their crop of potatoes for oil and rape
cake, bran. &c., at distilleries. As to the value of the green potato for
table use, accounts are very contradictory. It is not " fashionable " to
bring large i>otatoes on the table in Germany — the largest I saw on the
table, in tiie entire course of my travels on the continent, did not exceed
Digitized by VjOOQIC
133
the size of our common bladk walnut, whilst most of them were not
larger than fair-sized shellbark hickory-nuts. It is held that the larger
potatoes are too coarse and not fit for human food. But for my taste^
although I am not an epicure, we have here in Ohio potatoes weighing
from half a pound to a pound and a half that are just as well flavored as
any of the German " nut " varieties. Seed potatoes are generally put in a
cellar and plaster or lime, or both, strewn over them.
BUGAB BEETS.
In Mansfeld the sugar beet crop averages one hundred and twenty cwt
per morgen, in Oscherslehen two hundred cwt. A new kind yielded eight
hundred cwt. per morgen in the district of Sondershaasen. I will repeat
here a portion of a letter I wrote home from Magdeburg.
Magdeburq, June, 1865.
Bright and early yesterday morning we left Leipzig for this place, (Magdeburg) in
the prorince of Saxony. This is a very old town ; there is a statue in the old market
place of Otto the Great, put up about the year 980, or nearly nine hundred years ago.
The Dome, a church, 350 feet long and 330 feet to the top of the steeple, was built in
1208. The city is hehaatUmedf heparapetted and heforiified in the strongest possible manner,
(for old fashioned times.) Wallenstein the great General of the seventeenth century,
besieged this place for seven months in 1629, when it yielded. I pay very little atten-
tion to these local histories, for half of them are gammon^ but I have Ustory for what I
noted above.
About one hundred years ago the first discovery of beet sugar was made, either in or
near this place, and the manufacture of beet sugar in its various departments is the
ehief industrial pursuit. All the way from Halle here, on both sides of the railway
"were wide expanses of territory in sugar beets, and a perfect army of workmen cultivat-
ing them for the Magdeburg factories. Yesterday afternoon we drove out to a sugar
beet factory, and were poUtely shown all through the establishment, and every part of
the process of obtaining the sugar from the beet was fully explained.
The establishment with all the machinery cost a little over 250,000 thalers, or about
$180,000. During the manufacturing season it turns out 20,000 pounds of refined sugar
daily. The manufacturing season commences in October, and lasts about six mouths.
At present they are engaged in refining and manufacturing from refuse material. The
best of double refined loaf sugar sells at the factory for 14 thalers 15 silver groshens a
ewt., or about 9 4-6 cents a pound. The beets are sown in drills 8 or 10 inches apart,
and Just now the field laborers are engaged in pulling out the weak and superfluous
plants, and transplanting to where they failed to come up or grow. In the manufacture
of sugar the beets weighing from one to three pounds are considered the best. They
yield the most sugar according or in proportion to their weight. Large beets, like those
grown by Prof. Mot at Newark, weighing twelve to fifteen pounds, are not considered
as being worth much. From eighty to a hundred and twenty tons of beets are har-
vested per acre. Many farmers grow an acre or two of beets and exchange them for
sugar and beet pumice. During the tall and winter the grounds around the factory are
crowded with farmers getting pumice weighed out to them to haul home for cattle food.
Then, too, the proprietors of the establishment purchase two year old cattle in the fall.
and feed them tiU spring, and ship them to Hamburg for the British or London markets.
There are quite a number of these factories in this vicinity, and notwithstanding the
government taxes these establishments very heavUy, yet they make money, and the
Harmera regard the beet crop as a profitable one.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
1S4
The Science of Sugar MaJdng,--! inquired of the proprietor if the mannfactare of 8nji;ar
from the beets had attained that degree of certainty bo that a competent person could
make sugar every timei and with as much certainty of success as the tanner could suc-
ceed in tanning a hide. " Yes," he said, " we make sugar from beets with the same
kind of certainty that a tanner tans hides, or a distiller makes whisky, but it is a trade
every single operation of which must be learned with the same care and thoroughness
that any other chemical operation requires. If you wish to establish the business in
America, your best way will be to send some of your most intelligent young men (and
they should be chemists) over here, and let them work a year in our establishment, and
then they will know all about the manufacture. This will be your cheapest and quick-
est way. You cannot learn it from books ; it muet be learned by actual physical hand-
ling and manipulating. We Germans have spent millions of money before we suc-
ceeded. We have no secrets in the manufacture at all,— all the secrets there are, is to
have a thorough understanding of the business, and to know enough of chemistry in
special cases to apply the proper agent. That is all there is about it. Whenever any
one talks to you about a secret in the manufacture of sugar of any kind, you may safely
set him down as ada imposte]>— that is, one who does not fully and thoroughly under-
stand the business himself. For a long time we were pestered and imposed upon with
these secrets, until chemists and practical workmen were found who maetered all the
difficulties, and since then we have not been troubled with secrets in the business of
manufacture."
MANUFACTURE OF BEBT SUGAB.
The statistics of beet sngar for 1864 were not yet published when I was
in Prnssia, and the latest official returns I could obtain were those of 1863.
Miey showed that there were in
BttabUduMnli. X»w ht/tm in •wts. Sogw prodoeed In ewts.
Prussia 216 31,783,088 3,178,308
Bavaria 6 399,470
Saxony 1 73,170
Hanover 1 125,956
Wurtemburg 6 1,014,479
Baden 1 1,036,945
Thuringia 2 221,068
Brunswick 14 2,065,084
Total in Zoll Verein 274 36,719,259
Austria 130 20,856,597 1,459,962
France 362 3,402,698
Russia 353 14,500,000 2,675,950
When it is remembered that each one of these establishments cost
from $150,000 to $300,000, and employs from fifty to a hundred hands,
it will readily be conceded that it has become an important branch of
industry. In the province of Saxony alone there are 121 of these estab-
lishments, several of which I visited. From what I know of the forma-
tion of the soil in this province, I am fully convinced that we can grow
just as good beets in Ohio as they do there, and I see no reason why the
manufacture of sugar from beets could not be made just as successM and
profitable here as it is there.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
135
It is objected that labor is entirely too expensive here to conduct such
an establishment profitably, or to compete successfully with sorgho,
maple, and Louisiana cane sugar. I am satisfied that relatively, all things
considered, neither skilled nor unskilled labor is more expensive in ordi-
nary times here than in Europe. The laboring men and women receive
BO many substantial gratuities from employers, in accordance with the
customs of society in Europe, that notwithstanding the nominal wages of
a laborer is a mere pittance, yet when it is considered that the employer
must furnish the laborer with an abode, means of subsistence, and employ-
ment for the entire year, it wUl be conceded by all thinking persons that
the American free system of employment has many advantages, both for
employee^and employed, over the European system. Here in America
the employer pays the fliU value of the service rendered ; the employed
has the fruits of his labor at command, is at liberty to purchase his
necessities in the lowest market, and to sell his labor in the highest mar-
ket— can labor a day, week, month, or year for the same employer, and
change at wHl. On the other hand, the employer here is not obliged to
maintain persons when he has no employment for them, as is the case in
Borope; hence results this intense application to labor in the United
States, and the unexampled introduction of machinery in every industrial
department.
In connection with these beet sugar manufactories are often to be found
breweries and distilleries. In 1863 there were in Prussia
In cItlM. On fumB. Bushels of gnin Bushels of pototoas
distiUed. distUled.
DistiUeries 1,126 4,895 6,323,499 41,125,366
Breweries 3,654 3,705*
34 2,682 1
12,68«t
Almost all the large farms have either a distillery or brewery, or some
Buch technologic branch of industry. The sugar beet factories fatten
cattle mainly, with the pumice and other offal, whilst the breweries and
distilleries feed swine.
FOBAaE PLAKTS.
Throughout all Germany I saw very little of what is here in Ohio called
pasture lands, and upon inquiry was told that it not only required less
land to keep in good condition and fatten a given number of cattle, if
they were green soiled, than if they roamed at will over the pastures, but
at the same time the culture of forage plants kept the land cleaner than
* All these pay a license and income tax.
t These pay a Ucense only, and are in connection with other manofactores.
Private— brew^ for family use only.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
136
if in pasture, whilst the cattle did not distribute the manure as equaUy
as it was done by hand. I was told that the plants chiefly grown for
forage are lucernes, rape, Indian corn, seradella, millett, vetches, oats,
barley and rye. Most of the farmers confine themselves to the culture
of red clover, lucernes and vetches, with rye, barley and oats ; those who
feel that they can afford it sow timothy for pasture. In some provinces
esparsette and seradella are extensively cultivated. Then, too, the fre-
quent failure of the potato crop caused the farmers to rely more on for-
age plants than root crops for winter food for stock. Turnips do not
appear to be in great favor with the Prussian farmers, and when they do
grow root crops for cattle, they grow beets — chiefly sugar beets — and car-
rots, together with potatoes. In many places I found that in the spring
time a mixture of clover, lucerne and esparsette was drilled between the
drills of winter wheat or rye. In the district of Sondershausen (province
of Saxony) I found from one- fifth to one-fourth of the entire area in clover.
There the lucerne is kept five to six years, esparsette three, and clover
two years in the same field. When the clover is intended to be pastured
the second year, from one-half to three-fourths of a bushel of esparsette
and pimpernel are sown per morgen. In Eanis
Bed clover is cnt 2 to 3 times a year, and yields 60 cvrts. per morgen.
Esparsette " 1 to 2 " 40
Lnceme " 3 to 3i " 60
I have mentioned lupines elsewhere, but will state here that in the
province of Saxony it is highly valued as a forage plant on sandy soils,
as well as for green manure, it exerting a powerful effect upon the
ensuing crop. The lupines, green as well as dry, are the principal food for
sheep.
Tobacco for domestic consumption is grown on almost every farm. The
product is from eight to fourteen cwts. per morgen, or from thirteen to
twenty- two cwt. per acre ; but the manufacturers complain of the quality
— ^they say it is entirely too oily.
FRUITS.
Fruits are very little grown in Germany. I found no apples to compare
with ours in Ohio, and in the markets they are very expensive. I found
no peach trees anywhere, although some are grown ; cherries and pears
do :yell, and they have most excellent varieties of those but very limited
in quantities. For strawberries they depend mainly on the meadows, and
believed the reports of the strawberries consumed and sold in Cincinnati,
Philadelphia and New York as being canards of the most extensive pro-
portions. A professor of botany, and formerly the king's gardener at
Potsdam, assured me that if these statements were correct, then there
Digitized by LjOOQIC
137
"were more strawberries sold in CincinDati annually than were grown in
the entire Germanic Confederacy ! I found plenty of currants of many
Tarieties, gooseberries of many varieties, but no raspberries nor black-
berries. Grapes, of course, are cultivated to a considerable extent in the
Ehenish provinces. The leading varieties grown are the Eiesling, Tram-
iner. Gut Edel, Franke, Dwarf Traminer, and Eed Burgundy ; but as I
shall have more to say about grapes in another place, I will reserve the
subject matter for that place.
FORESTS.
Except in the mountainous regions, no forest trees are found except
those planted and reared by hand. Where forests are thus grown, the
great variety found in American native forests js wanting. The trees
grown are either such as are very rapid growers, or else such as produce
"wood for a specific purpose. The great proportion of these cultivated for-
est trees are coni/era, or the pine family. In the Westphalian coal region
oak timber is much used, and oak forests are planted. Fir trees and oak
are used extensively for charcoal. Since the introduction of the lupine,
the forests in many regions are disappearing rapidly, because the lupine
will flourish where scarcely any other farm crop will grow at all, and the
lands formerly kept in forests are now being devoted to lupines. For-
merly the peasants and small farmers were allowed to collect the leaves
in aututun for manure, but it was discovered that the removal of the
leaves proved to be injurious to the forests, and now the removal of the
fallen leaves is strictly forbidden. The Prussian government is endeav-
oring to preserve, as near as may be, about one-fourth of the entire area
in forests, as being the minimum quantity required for practical purposes.
The subject of forestry in all its details is a very important feature in the
productive economy in Germany, and consequently much attention is paid
to it A forest there is kept as clean and in as good order as any park
iik the United States.
LIVE STOCK.
CARS AND BREEDING OF ANIMALS.
In this, as in every thing else, almost every province in the kingdom dif-
fers ; and these differences are founded on climate, soil, accessibility to
markets, and the purposes of the animals. It is therefore impossible to
give a general view of the matter that would convey any information at
all. I shall therefore pursue the same plan as with relation to the crops,
by presenting the leading feature of each province, so far as they come
under my observation.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
138
PBOVINOE OP PRUSSIA.
The royal stud at Gumbinnen is situated in this province, and its lead-
ing feature is horse breeding. But since the exhibition at Hamburg, cat-
tle and sheep breeding has received a new impulse, and many excellent
breeding animals, of both the cattle and sheep kind, have been intro-
duced. But cattle breeding cannot be much improved until a larger area
is devoted to forage plants.
An opinion has taken deep root in this province, especially the western
portion, that the IN'ational Stud is productive of more injury than benefit,
because it deters the breeders from producing horses adapted to their
local conditions, and from this cause niany mares remain without foals,
whilst those produced do not meet the wants of the breeders — Whence, we
find more cows and oxen used on farms for draught purposes than horses.
POlOCBRAmA.
The State has several stations for stallions from the Boyal Stud in
this province, and certificates are isssued to certain owners of mares,
which entitled the mares to be served free of charge, and then premiums
are awarded on mares and colts; all of these things have acted as a
powerful stimulus to horse-breeding. At the same time the style of
horses bred is not that which is most desired by farmers. The supply of
draught horses is by no means equal to the demand. In order to meet
the demands of farmers, the Government has stationed several Per-
OHERON Stallions, which have been bred to the best mares, but the result
has not been satisfactory in the vicinity of Stettin. The Stettin Agricul-
tural Association insist that the only permanent improvement which can
be made in that neighborhood is by the introduction of powerful thorough-
bred, and half blood horses thoroughly tested on the race course. On the
other hand, a very powerful breed of horses is being formed by the intro-
duction of Percherons in the vicinity of Stolp. In Koeslin, stallions
imported from Ardennes has produced the same result.
In order to improve in the art of horse-shoeing, schools have been estab-
lished in the Pommeranian cavalry and artillery regiments since 1861. In
1864, these schools graduated some fifty adepts, who have been assigned as
teachers in various localities. The price of a good farm horse is from
240 to 260 thalers (from $160 to $175), and in order to reduce the price
and supply the demand a Suffolk punch was purchased at the Battersea
exhibition in 1862. His progeny promises to be satisfactory.
CATTLE.
The imports of thoroughbred cattle into this province are rapidly in-
creasing, but it is on the large estates only where thoroughbred and
** constant*' (i. 6., not cross-bred animals) are kept pure. The Holland
ws are very popular here as milkers, but as they require generous feed-
Digitized by VjOOQIC
139
iDg, it is only on larger estates where they are kept The Bast Friesland
and Oldenburg cows, formerly so popular, are being in favor and are
fonnd only in the hands of smaller farmers. These Frieslanders and Old-
enburgers are really of the same race as the Hollanders and originally
came from the same place ; but, no doubt, thorough acclimatization, and
perhaps a defective system of breeding and keeping have impaired the
qualities which the Hollanders now present in fb.ll development. The
Shorthorns are popular as beef cattle. There are not as many calves of
any breed reared as in former times, because it is too expensive ; where
the Holland cattle are in favor, calves are bought at the age of about six
months and raised. With the smaller farmers, cattle breeding receives
very little attention. For some years past, very few work oxen have been
reared ; the owners of manors prefer to import them from Voightland,
Bavaria, the Eger Valley, &c., the cost of transportation and the duties,
&c., are amply repaid by the greater usefulness and endurance of these
races.over others.
SHEEP.
As Stettin, a sea-port town is in Pommerania, and as several railways
from this province lead to Berlin the capital of " all " Prussia, the tenden-
cy in sheep-breeding is to produce as large a carcass for mutton as possi-
ble-—hence*, formerly famous Kegretti flocks are being crossed with South-
down, Leicester, Gotswold, Bambouillets and Mauchamp bucks. Of
oourse, this proceeding is not univerml in Pommerania; some of the
owners of fine Negretti herds (combing wool sheep in the Oerman sense)
are endeavoring to improve the carcass, not so much for mutton as for
constitution, and a larger wool area. The former tendency to produce a
very fine wool is abandoned, and the flock owners are contenting them-
selves with quantity instead of quality. In some Kegretti flod^s the
fleece from 100 head amounted to 560 pounds of wool.
Many flock owners object to the practice which necessity and the high
price of land have thrust upon them of feeding the flocks the year round
in the fold, but an experience of three years on the manor of Gross Pob-
loth, near Korlin, demonstrate it to be the most profitable. Eight hun-
dred old sheep, and four hundred lambs were housed the year rouad,
i¥hilst four hundred old sheep were kept on the pastures ; those housed
were fed on red clover and vetches, and a very small area comparatively
sufficed for keeping them in much better condition than those grazing on
a largei area. The introduction of lupines and seradella has induced a
much more extensive breadth of land devoted to sheep and a consequent
large increase in quantity of sheep than before.
BHENISH PBOYINCES.
Almost all the lands in these provinces are arable, and very little of it
Digitized by VJ WwQlC
140
natural pastures ; therefore, not much attention has been paid to horse-
breeding other than heavy strains for farm ' purposes. The Government
has several stations for stallions here ; but the Suflfolk, Clydesdale, Per-
cheron and Ardennes breeds are the most patronized. More horses are
bred here than formerly on account of the high prices that horses brings
at the same time a lack of pasturage seems to be a great drawback to
the perfect success of horse-breeding,
BBANDBNBUEO,
Horse-breeding is slowly recovering from a serious drawback made
some years since in consequence of breeding thoroughbred stallions to
the common country mares. Some of the farmers refused to send mares
to these thoroughbred stallions, arguing that these horses were entirely
unsuited for either draft or the plow, and reserved, therefore, a small
stock of good country mares of Mecklenburg descent, and by breeding
them to the heavy Trakehner, Mecklenburg, and Hannoverian stallions,
have obtained suitable farm and wagon horses. Many heavy Hannoverian
colts are annually imported — ^these are found much better adapted for
agricultural purposes than the long legged thoroughbred.
PBOVINOE OP SAXONY.
In the Province of Saxony horse-breeding is one of the leading features,
the offspring of the stallions from the Royal Stud almost ruined the horse
stock for agricultural purposes, and cows and oxen were largely imported
as substitutes for the very light horses ; but the introduction of Danish
mares, Percheron and Ardennes stallions, are now producing a fine lot of
farm horses. Suffolk and Clydesdale stallions are found in some districts.
At first the Percherons were not liked; a gentleman from Weissefels
informed me that in his neighborhood a Percheron had been kept for
several seasons, but the people preferred another strain ; but since the
removal of that stallion, it was found that he had got the best colts —
especially from the Danish mares, or mares having Danish blood — and
that he was a surer foal getter than any stallion that ever had been kept
there; that he had got from 80 to 100 colts annually.
The farmers in some districts complain that the stallions are bred too
young (three to four years), and on the other hand, the want of proper
agricultural force compels them to work the colts too young.
CATTLE.
On all the estates where cattle breeding or cattle feeding is carried on
to any considerable extent, one finds the stables very cleanly kept ; not
unfrequently plastered and whitewashed, and if the hay and straw are
kept in a mow, then the floor of the mow over the cattle is a tight one,
and not unfrequently plastered and whitewashed on the underside or over
the cattlei and the hay and straw are brought down in allotted quantities
Digitized by LjOOQIC
141
and the hay given to the animal in a rack so constrncted that little, if any,
may be wasted. The floor on which the cattle stand, whether of clay,
boards or brick, is always a few inches higher nnder the forepart of the
animal than under the hindpart, so that all flnids may flow out of the
stall. Jnst in the rear of the animal is a gutter or trough running the
whole length of that part of the stable in which the cattle are ; the object
of this gutter is to collect the urine, which flows through the gutter into
a reservoir, where it collects for months, and then is used either for liquid
manure, or to be absorbed by some porous material and then hauled out
for manure. The Germans have made innumerable experiments in cattle
feeding in order to ascertain which is the cheapest food to produce a given
amount of meat, or milk, as well as to determine the relative value of
hay ; or in fact to make hay the standard, and to ascertain the relative
value of other kinds of food as compared with hay.
In 1863 an experiment was made of feeding calves at the Agricultural
College at Poppelsdorf ; the details of which were furnished me in a cop^
of •• Annalen der LaTidwirtkgchaft^ Nos. 27 and 29, June and July 1864,"
and which would All 40 or 60 pages of this report. I will content myself
by presenting it in as condensed a form as possible. Four calves were
selected of the thoroughbred large Hollanders; these calves when dropped
weighed as follows :
Weight when dropped. Weight of dam.
Ko. 1, Holder-
No. 3| Aster
No. 4, Monitor .
No. 5, Princess .
80 pounds.
92
103
88
980 ponnds.
990
1060
1070
Proportion of weight
of calf when dropped
to that of the dam.
1 to 12.2
1 to 10.7
1 to 10.3
1 to 12.1
Average 90i " 1025 " 1 to 11.3
But another Bull calf No. 2, Hercules, of the same race of cattle was
obtained from a neighboring estate,
given in the annexed table ;
The averages of the five calves are
Age of csJf in weeks.
ItoYI
VII to IX.
XtoXI....
XntoXIV.
XV to XVI.
Total.
Average .
48
23
15
14
<§>
480
316
150
122 1037
lU
27t
79 122 39148 39
LI Hi
3727f
7i
21
38
113
I25i
305
zh
^§§,^
177
231
249
^1
a
177
231
249
278
278 300
10281235
tio
84 4-5
53 1-5
18 1-5
29 2-5
21 2-5
a
1.74
2.31
1.18
1.30
1.44
207 7.97
207 1.66
cents.
14f
144
7i
76f
151
Digitized by ^
.oogle
142
During the first six weeks the calves were fed the milk as it came from
the cow — during the 7th, 8th and 9th weeks respectively J, i and f pound
of oatmeal were added to the milk, together with 1, 1^ and 2 ounces of
oil cake. In the 5th week tender sweet hay was laid before them, and
from the 10th week on the quantity of milk was daily reduced, so that by
the 14th week the calves were completely weaned. The oatmeal and oil
cake were increased until the 12th week, at which time a '^ chop feed "
consisting of a mixture of wheat chaff, bran, and chopped oats moistened,
was fed to them three times a day, and the oatmeal and oil cake gradu-
^ ally reduced in the drink until at the end of the 14th week they were en-
tirely stopped. When the calves were 12 weeks old, they were every
afternoon, after having eaten the mid-day ration, turned out into a small
grass inclosure ; this continued until the end of October, except in very
unfavorable weather, but their evening ration was always served in the
stable. Putting them on grass was simply to accustom them to green
food, to become inured to fresh air. During the first four weeks they
were fed 20 pounds of fresh milk per day for eveiy 100 pounds of live
weight ; now this milk contained 0.80 pounds of protein, 0.60 pounds of
fat, and 2.40 pounds dry substances ; during the 5th and 6th weeks, ^ pound
of hay per day was added ; therefore, for every 100 pounds of live weight
there was 0.83 pounds of protein, 0.61 pounds of fat, and 2.70 pounds dry
substance fed to each of the calves.
The 8th week may be regarded as an average of the 7th, 8th and 9th
weeks. During this period the calves received according to their live
weight an average of 12 to 16 quarts of milk — say an actual average of
14 quarts, together with 1^ ounces oil cake and f pound hay. The object
of oil cake is to supply the normal disposition to take on fat in proportion
to the live weight, which could not be accomplished by the oatmeal alone.
The ration of the 8th week shows that 1.49 pounds protein, 1.09 pounds
fat, and 5.14 pounds dry substances has been consumed for every 211
pounds live weight of animal.
The 11th week is the index of the next period ; the daily ration con-
sisted of 8 quarts sweet milk, 1^ pounds oatmeal, 3 ounces oil cake and 3
pounds hay, or 1.27 pounds protein, 0.84 pounds fat, and 6.28 pounds dry
substance for every 249 pounds live weight
In the 13th week the ration was materially changed, by the introduc-
tion of chopped feed. Four quarts sweet milk, 2^ pounds oatmeal, 2
ounces oil cake in drink, } pound wheat chaff, i pound bran, and ^ pound
chopped oats as chop feed, and 5 pounds of hay constituted the ration.
This contained 1.30 pounds of protein, 0.67 pounds of fat, and 8.89 pounds
of dry substance for every 270 pounds of live weight. At the close of the
experiment, in the 16th week, the calves received the same equivalents
that mature animals received, but the calves received it in two pounds of
digitized by LjOOQIC
143
bran, 2 ponnds mashed or chopped oats, and 9 pounds of hay ; this is
eqnal to L53 pounds protein, 0.48 ponnds fat, and 13.72 pounds dry sub-
stance to an average live weight of 300 pounds. Now during the entire
period of the experiments we find the following proportions in the food
for every 100 pounds of live weight :
Protein. Fat. Dry snbstanoe.
In the first four weeks 0.8U pounds. 0.60 pounds. 2.4
" " 5ihweek 0.83 " 0.61 " 2 7
" " 8th " 0.70 " 0.51 •• 2.5
" "11th " 0.51 " 0.34 " 2.6
" "13th " 0.48 " 0.27 " 3.2
" " 16th " 0.51 " 0.16 " 4.5
The prices of the food were the ordinary market prices, viz : milk 2^
cents per quart ; oat meal $1.66 per hundred weight, oil cake 5 cents per
pound, chopped oats $1.25 per cwt., wheat chaff 40 cents per cwt., wheat
bran $1.25 per cwt., and 62^ cents per cwt. for hay.
The experimenter (Mr. A. Kramer) in the course of the article comes to
the conclusion that he could purchase four months old calves from small
fkrmers for much less money than he could raise them ; not that small
fEurmers do not know as well as he does what it costs to raise a calf, but
that the future feeding and care necessary to produce a good animal are
such as are beyond the means of the small farmer, and necessity compels
him to sell.
Dr. Orouven, at Salzmunde, near Halle in Saxony, has published a
work of nearly 600 large 8vo pages on ^' Physiological chemical teeding,
experiments on the nutritive value and properties of general non-nitrogen-
ous nutritive materials, in 1861 and 1862, and chemical investigations on
the respiration of various animals in 1863.'* I had a copy of this work
before I visited Europe, yet had no idea of the details and precision with
i¥hich the experiments were conducted. It would occupy entirely too
much space to attempt a description here.
POSEN.
Cattle-breeding in this province is far from a leading feature ; in fact,
it is scarcely of secondary importance to the farmers, a majority of whom
regard cattle as a " necessary evil." Their system of breeding is in-and-
in, and has been conducted so long and persistently that the cattle have
become mere "runts." This is the statement made to me by an excellent
farmer, and I give it for what it is worth, without committing myself as
to whether in-and-in breeding will produce such results per ae; I am
inclined to think that the production of ''runts" is as much due to their
system of feeding and keeping, as it is to breeding. Working a milch
cow all day at the plow or in the wagon, I do not think is calculated to
improve her much as a breeder, and weaning the calves just as soon as
they are able to live on anything else besides milk, is not, in my opinion.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
144
calculated to develop or produce a superior race. On some of the large
manors, cattle are more properly cared for, fed and bred more rationally
and consequently are better.
There is a law in Prussia known as korordnung, which compels the
owners of large estates to keep stallions, bulls, rams, and boars for the
use of the smaller farmers, at mere nominal rates for service. Thus in
the province of Posen a small farmer is charged the sum of five silver
groschen (12J cents) for the service of a bull for each cow. By this means
in some districts, especially in the neighborhood of Granstadt, many of
the small farmers have really good cattle. The imported animals on the
manors consist chiefly of Holland, Oldenburg, Schwitz and Allgau races,
but recently Short-horns have been added. The average quantity of milk
given by the farmers* ordinary cow is 1,500 quarts per head ; but a yield
of 3,000 quarts is not at all uncommon. The price of milk in towns is
one silver groschen (2^ cents) per quart ; in the country it ranges from
two-thirds to three-fourths of this amount ; that is, eight to nine pfen-
nings per quart, twelve pfennings being one silver groschen. The weight
of fat cattle ranges from 1,000 to 1,600 pounds. Sometimes, but not fre-
quently, they weigh 2,000 pounds. The best quality of beef is worth
eight thalers ($6.00) per hundred pounds ; medium, six to seven thalers.
WESTPHALIA.
In Westphalia the Holland race is very popular, and extensive impor-
tations are made of this race. From forty to a hundred cows of this race
are frequently found on manors. Forage plants are not yet extensively
enough grown to instrre successful cattle breeding and keeping.
BBANDENBUBG AND SAXONY.
In these provinces much has been done in the improvement of cattle
by introducing thoroughbred foreign breeds, such as Shorthorn, Allgauer,
Holland, Oldenburg, Breitenburg, Franconians, &c., &c. The Berlin
market is supplied from these provinces, and fat cattle are shipped by
cars and on the Elbe from here to Hamburg for the English markets. In
these two provinces are many breweries, distilleries and sugar beet fac-
tories, and the fattening of cattle is an important feature of the agricul-
tural industry. It is held by those who have many years' experience,
that the cross-bred animals mature earlier, fatten more readily, and pro-
duce more flesh from a given amount of food, than those do that are not
cross- bred. Thus, for market purposes the cross between a Shorthorn
and native is much more valuable than the best native, or a cross between
a Hollander and native is better than either a pure native or a pure Hol-
lander, and bO on of the other breeds. In Saxony the most profitable
animals for marketing are a cross between a Shorthorn and *'Hartz'*
Digitized by LjOOQIC
146
cows. These mature earlier than the thoroughbred Shorthorns, aud yield
more meat from a given quantity of food than any others.
If the improvement of domestic animals were left enUrdy to the .small
farmers, it is not at all probable that any improvement whatever would
be made. But everywhere there are agricultural societies of various
grades, as for example, township societies, county societies, district socie-
ties, aud State or provincial societies. The managers of these societies
are wealthy gentlemen and extensive landholders, aud so far as I had an
opportunity of becoming acquainted with them, tbey proved to be very
intelligent gentlemen, and always very progressive. I never found a sin-
gle ^^ conservative^^ or "oZd /o^y" among them, and to the enterprise and
energy of these associations much of the improvement in agriculture is
due. These societies purchase breeding animals for the use of the mem-
bers of the society and the ** korordnung," that is, small farmers are
entitled to the use of these animals for a trifling sum ; and not unfre-
quently the societies sell some very excellent heifer calves to small farm-
ers, with the understanding that they are to be kept for breeding. This
is done to induce the farmers to fatten their old and otherwise unfit cows
for breeding. In the Halberstadt district there are annually a large num-
ber of calves, heifers in calf and cows in calf, imported from Holland.
These importers find it profitable to import seven to eight month old
calves at thirty-three thalers apiece. In Worbis they select good Hartz
bulls and breed them to the native cows, and in thi-s way obtain very excel-
lent draught cows, which have more fattening qualities than the native
oows. In several districts where the Holland bulls have been bred to the
Hartz cows the result has been more satisfactory than where Shorthorn
bulls have been used. Fattening cattle is nowhere carried on as a busi-
ness except where distilleries, breweries, or beet sugar factories are in
operation, and there only aged cows and work oxen are fatted. I have
nowhere found that cattle are reared for beef only ; everywhere they are
reared for labor and milk, and when too old for either of these purposes,
they are then &tttened. Where factory offal cannot be obtained for cat-
tle food, they feed thirty to seventy-five pounds per day per head of beets
or turnips, mixed with five pounds of cut straw, four to five pounds of
clover hay, one pound of oil-cake and one pound of bran, put in their
drink in the course of the day. They estimate a raUon of fifty pounds of
beets or turnips at three silver groschens, five pounds of hay at one and
a half silver groschens, ten pounds of straw at one silver groshen, one
pound of oil-cake and one pound of bran or shorts at thirteen pfennings,
and the care and tending at five pfennings, making in the aggregate
seven silver groschens, or seventeen and a. half cents, and the average
yield of milk, five and a half quarts, at four and one-twelfth silver gro-
schens ; the fceep of the cow then costs, net, two and five-twelfths silver
AlO
Digitized by LjOOQIC
146
groBchens or six cents per day, and it is estimated that the manure and
labor of the cow will more than cover this amount From a report of a
large dairy made to the Halberstadt Agricultural Association, it appears
that the net annual profit of eaeh cow was ten thalers, eleven and a half
silver groschen— $7.78f.
SHEBF.
Sheep husbandry is an especial and separate branch of agriculture in
almost all the German States, at the same time all the farmers who have
land enough keep more or less sheep without m-tking it a specialty. The
note made here in relation to sheep, has reference to those who do not
make sheep husbandry a specialty.
WEST FBXJSSIA.
Where the local conditions are unfavorable for cattle breeding more
attention is paid to sheep breeding. Where sheep are bred for wool, the
great object seems to be to increase the weight of fleece, without much
r^ard to quality, and as a general thing a long-wooled Merino tribe is
most popular. The wool is about the same grade as our Vermont Meri-
nos, and is there termed combing wool (kamm woUe). Southdowns, Gots-
wolds, East Friesian milch sheep, have been introduced for mutton. In
the valley of Vistula an experiment was made in fattening the Vagga
sheep. The food used was beets, potatoes, clover, hay, oats, and rape
cake, in the proportions of nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous : nutritive
substances to fatty substances, as 1 : 5^ : O3. From this it appeared that
it cost 5.44 silver groschen, or 13.6 cents, to produce one pound of mutton
exclusive of the wool.
SUma. — ^In Silesia the number of sheep does not yet equal that of 1849,
when the number exceeded 3,000,000. The last enumeration was in 1861
(will be again enumerated this summer, 1865) ; they numbered 2,611,743.
As a rule, quantity of fleece is the great object of breeding ; at the same
time they wish to preserve the quality ; but will sacrifice quality to ob-
tain quantity, rather than vice versa. Mutton sheep have been introduced,
but, except in the immediate vicinity of large towns or cities, they do not
meet with much favor.
Saxony. — Since the introduction and well-established success of lupines
in many portions of this province, a new impetus has been given to sheep
husbandry. In these places the common country sheep have been bred
by the farmers, and are now crossed with merinos — the H'egretti tribe or
family being the most popular. In some ot the districts where farmers
bred fine wooled sheep, we find that whilst they had good Electorals, they
bred them to N^egrettis in order to obtain weight of fleece ; in other dis-
tricts, however, they exclude the N^egrettis entirely and breed the Elec-
Digitized by LjOOQIC
147
torals upon the common sheep. Soathdowns, Leicesters and Gotswolds
have of late been imported as progenitors of a mutton race. Upon the
whole, sheep in this province, even in the hands of smaller farmers, are
bred for wool rather than mutton, j^nt the breeding of mutton sheep is
slowly advancing, and in such a manner as to convert the merino wool-
bearing sheep at the same time into a mutton sheep. Many well- written
essays and discussions are in print upon this point, some of the ablest
physiologists and breeders in Germany enthusiastically taking one or the
other side of the question. A learned and very intelligent gentlemen told
me that it was a great piece of folly to attempt to make a good mutton
sheep out of a fine wooled sheep, and preserve the quality of wool.
" Wool," said he, " is one product, and mutton is another. The one will
always be produced at the expense of the, other. If a sheep produces
fine wool and in good quantity it will be at least an indifferent mutton
sheep, and you never can grow fine wool on a mutton sheep, no more
than you can make a good beef race of cattle out of our milk races." In
Saxony, well-managed wool flocks, without any sales of bucks, but sell-
ing the '' culls" or lean, rejected sheep, show an average gross receipt of
2| to 3 thalers per head ; but if the culls are fattened the average rises
to from 3| to 3^ thalers. A statement was given to me of a breeding
flock where, for a period of 165 days, each sheep received a daily ration
of 3 pounds of turnips at 6 silver groshen (15 cents) per 100 pounds, half
a pound of hay at one thaler (75 cents) per 100 pounds, one ounce of oil
cake at If thalers per 100 pounds, one pound of straw at 5 thalers per
1200 pounds and the care and attending at 10 silver groshens (25 cents) ;
the aggregate cobt was 2 thalers 26| silver groshen ($2.16J) for the 165
days; then adding 13 siver groshens (32^ cents) for keeping the 6^
months of summer and fall, the entire cost of keeping a sheep amounts
to 3 thalers 9§ silver groshen ($2.49^). But it must be considered that
beside the straw, many pasture lands are used which would otherwise
remain useless.
SWINB.
Westphalia. — English boars have been imported and bred to the West-
phalian sows with the most favorable results.
Saafonff-^hike Westphalia, has imported many English boars and bred
them to native sows. The result is, an earlier maturity, great improve-
ment in the fattening qualities. The Suffolk and Berkshire are preferred,
although some are very partial to the Essex. Suffolk boars bred to Meck-
lenberg sows produce a race of swine having the ^est flavor of any pork
I ate abroad. In some districts in Saxony, there is a strong prejudice
against the English swine ; it is held that the quaUty of the English
Digitized by VjOOQIC
148
swiue is entirely too fine to thrive on the coarse pastures, and furthermore
that all animals of fine quality are more subject to disease than coarse
ones.
All the pork grown in Europe appeared to me to be of much better
flavor and really finer texture than that grown in the Ohio Valley; our
pork is strong and somewhat coarse besides. I had frequent opportunities
of seeing the two side by side, and I imagined I could always taste the
com in American pork.
DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Province of Prussid. — Several cases of trichinsB spiralis have occured,
but in all Germany I learned of one case only where fatal results attended,
yet in almost every state or province, great fear was expressed in relation
to the trichinse. This fear of the trichina has had I think its full in-
fluence on swine growing. At a meeting of the Insterburg Agricultural
Association, Dr. Pincus exhibited some specimens of the veritable trichi-
nae, and explained its natural history. This did something toward allay-
ing the fears, yet I found many who would not touch pork until it was
thoroughly boiled or roasted almost to a crisp. No cases had occurred
east of the Vistula.
As this province borders on Poland, and there is considerable traffic
among the East Prussians and Poles, the cattle plague (Rinderpest) had
broke out in several places, introduced from Poland. The remedy was,
that the most complete isolation was at once instituted, the local cattle
markets suspended, and all live stock intercourse or traffic with Poland
completely interdicted ; in a very short time the Rinderpest was subdued,
although it proved fatal to many of the animals attacked by it.
Posen. — The mouth and hoof disease prevailed in this province ; the
introduction of it is attributed to the Polish swine, great herds of which
are annually brought into Posen. When milch cows are aflfected by these
diseases, they *' dry up " rapidly ; beef cattle and draught oxen become
very emaciated, and often cannot be used for months. A disease known
as sheep pox destroyed many herds. Vertigo in sheep was increasing
year after year. No trichinae have yet been detected in either the Polish
or Posen swine herds.
Saxuny. — A few cases of Rinderpest broke out among cattle at a dis-
tillery in Nordhausen; other cattle were immediately vaccinated and
isolated, and no new cases appeared. Another disease is among cattle,
a few cases of which I had heard of in Posen, seems to be of frequent
occurrence in the province of Saxony, viz. : inflammation of the spleen
(milZ'brand), The veterinarians in the several districts have successfully
used the following remedies, viz : in Halberstadt, feeding Pantile ; in
Querfurt, administering doses of aqua ammonia, burning or searing in
Digitized by VjOOQIC
149
the region of the kidneys with spirits, and then drenching with cold
water ; in Hellstadt, doses of sulphate of iron (copperas). Dr, Hilde-
brand, of Magdeburg (a veterinarian), prescribed arsenic and was very
snccessfol. Vaccination was tried in Halberstadt, but not with any suc-
cess whatever. The hoof and mouth disease in cattle and sheep are prev-
alent in this province, and the most successful remedy, as yet discovered,
is to make a short lane or passage, say twelve to fifteen feet long and
four feet wide, the bottom or floor made water tight, so as to hold, say a
depth of two to three inches of water. This basin part is filled with a
solution of chloride of lime, and the sheep driven through it morning,
noon and evening in going to and returning from pasture, for a period of
about three weeks. There are rigid regulations throughout this province
having for their object the thorough disinfection and fumigation of the
railway cars in which cattle are conveyed from point to point.
In almost every considerable town throughout the kingdom of Prussia
is a garrison of soldiers, and with every garrison is a veterinary surgeon,
whose duty it is to practice wherever his services are required ; hence, in
almost every town {not village) there is a veterinary surgeon who has
graduated either at Berlin or some other veterinary school.
Bees are more generally kept by small farmers than by those owning
large estates. The school teachers are instructed to disseminate informa-
tion among the farmers in relation to them and are really very efficient in
their services. Most of the farmers are abandoning the old fashioned
straw thatch hive and are adopting the Dzierzon, or Oerman Langstroth
hive. After all the experiments that have been made the movable frame
hive succeeds the best. Italian bees are being very generally introduced,
succeed well and give good satisfaction.
SILK.
In addition to bee culture, the school teachers instruct in silk-worm
reiaring, and throughout the whole of Prussia it forms a considerable
branch of industry for women, children, invalids and aged persons.
Every where one finds the mulberry tree. The Milan and Japanese silk-
worms are the most popular. Silesia furnishes about 500 bushels of
cocoons annually, and other provinces in proportion. Pommerania fur-
nishes x>erhaps more than Silesia.
AOBIOtTLTITBAL IMPLEMENTS.
There are a few agricultural implement manufactories in Prussia, yet
by &r the greater part of improved or new implements are imported from
England and America. There are many agricultural implement ware-
Digitized by LjOOQIC
160
houses scattered over the kingdom, in which may be found plows, drills
rollers, broadcast sowers, potato diggers, &c., from America. Threshing
machines made after American patterns are found on many estates, and I
learned of some half dozen steam threshers. Cultivators, improved har-
rows and clod-crushers are in general use. Beeping and mowing ma-
ehiues cannot be said to be fairly introduced into Prussia, for the want
of experts in handling them.
MTT.IT-
I Ponen,. — As a rule, the milk over and above family requirements is sold
in towns (the farmers all live in villages) at an average price of one silver
groshen (2^ cents) per quart. The average quantity of milk per cow
(natives of course) may be estimated at 1400 to 1500 quarts — the cows on
manors oi large estates yielding more than those on small farms.
Fiymmerania. — ^The milk is purchased by dairymen at nine to ten pfen-
nings per quart (12 pfennings — 1 silver groshen — 2^ cents) for the manu-
facture of butter and cheese. The thoroughbred Holland cows average
3,000 quarts, whilst the Angles yield only 2,600.
Sdxony. — ^The production of milk is the chief object of cattle-breeding
and the farms in the neighborhood of towns sell nearly all the milk pro-
duced. Dairying is yet much more profitable than to grow cattle for beef.
In the district of Eanis where there are good pastures twenty quarts of
milk per day is no uncommon yield from one cow. The following is an
average of fifteen cows kept on an estate in Halberstadt : The sum-
mer feeding aside from straw was 100 pounds equivalent in green red
clover ; when clover did succeed well it was fed, when it did not succeed
well then the forage consisted of lucerne, esparsette turnip leaves, vetches
and clover, in such proportions based upon chemical analyses, and make
the equivalent of 100 pounds of green red clover, so far as the yield
of milk and nutritive properties were concerned. In winter the following
rations were divided among the fifteen cows, viz : Fifty pounds of oats
or spring rye straw ; 100 lbs. winter grain sti aw ; 90 lbs. pea straw ; 425
lbs. turnips ; 25 lbs. chaff; 12^ lbs. oil cake, equal in all to 27 lbs. hay per
head. On this feed 14 cows gave 26,145 quarts of milk ; 14 other head
gave 27,205 quarts; 15 head gave 30,012 quarts; 16 head gave 32,700,
and a second lot of 16 head gave 33,543 quarts of milk, or an aggregate
of 90 cows gave 180,455 quarts, 2,050 quarts per cow per year. These
2,050 quarts were sold for $48.87^, and the calf for $3, making $51.87^,
or $4,668.75 from the 90 cows. Or, if we take the fifteen cows which I
first mentioned they yielded 30,750 quarts of milk ; 23,950 quarts were
sold at 2J cents per quart, 6,800 quarts made 518 lbs. of butter, which
was sold at 22^ cent6 per lb., and sixty paoks of head cheese sold for an
aggregate of $22.50, making the annual income of the fifteen head $733
or $48.88 per cow.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
161
BIJTTEB AND OHBESE.
Saxony. — ^Butter or cheese is seldom made by the small farmers, thej
find that for them it is more profitable to sell the milk. When they do
make either of these articles they always use the sour cream, or sour milk
but as the sour milk cheese is neither very profitable nor remunerative
most farmers prefer to feed the sour milk to the swine. On the large ma
nors the finest, sweetest and ^^nmtHesV^ butter is made from sweet cream
and the sour milk material ia forwarded per railway to Magdeburg or Berlin
The old fashioned dash churn is the one in most general use among farm
ers. In the dairy establishment the "Anton " churn which received pre
miums in London and Paris is most popular. Thirteen to fourteen quarts
of milk of the Ear.z cows and common cows of the province yield one
pound of butter — the milk of the Holland cows not being so rich requires
aU of sixteen quarts to make one pound.
AGBIOTJLTUBAL OBGANIZATIONS IN PRUSSIA.
The Agricultural Department of Prussia is a separate and distinct
Bureau from all the other Bureaus. This Bureau has entire charge of
everything connected with the soil or land territory of the kingdom. Per-
haps the briefest and at the same time the most comprehensive idea will
be conveyed by enumerating the ofiicers and their specialties.
I. Agriculturai Bureau proper.
Chief— Baron von Selchow, Minister (or Secretary) of the Bureau. He
h^^five counsellors or advisers who, at the same time, are chiefs of sub-
ordinate divisions ; and three assistant counsellors, who hold important
subordinate positions. There is also a Bureau of Agricultaral Accounts,
and six chief accountants, a chief register, chief of chancery, and three
chancery counsellers, librarian and chancery inspector.
n. Bowrd of Landed Hoonomio Commissioners.
This body holds its sessions in Berlin, and is composed of twenty mem-
bers, viz : ^
President, a.* Secretary, 6.t a. Foreman, who is of the oldest noba
ity in the country, b. Director of the Statistical Bureau, c. Director of
the Boyal Gardens at Potsdam, d. Privy Counsellor to the Minister of
the War Department, e. General Director of Agriculture. /. Privy
Counsellor to the Minister of Finance, together with fourteen counsellors
who are estate owners. This body is really the directory or legislative
body of the Bureau. I am not sure, but I think every member of this
body has an office in the Agricultural Department in Berlin. The Presi-
dent of each of the Provincial Agricultural Societies, is, I understand,
ea^offioio one of these fourteen counsellors. There are also fifteen (or
more) members extraordinary, composed of presidents of local agricultu-
* Chief of Agricatural Bureau, t Connsenor of Agrioaltnral Bureau.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
152
ral societies, proviBcial agricultural directors, directors of agricultural
academies, &c.
This body assesses all the taxes ou lauds aud live stock ; keeps the
records and orders surveys; keeps the "dooms-day" book; regulates the
relations between the owners of estates and renters and resident laborers;
has general charge of the Agricultural Educational Institutions ; regulates
the rate of interest to be paid for money loaned by the State Agricultural
Bank to farmers ; regulates drainage, irrigation, &c. ; has charge of the
royal horse-breeding establishment ; it publishes an oflBicial weekly and
monthly journal, in which all its transactions, ordinances, &c., appear, and
is edited by the General Secretary (6) •
III. State AgncuLtural Bank,
Director (a), assisted by several counsellors. This bank is somewhat
similar in its organization to our recent State Bank. It has a branch
bank in each one of the seven provinces. It has a State fund as capital,
and negotiates loans for parties. These loans run twelve to thirty years.
The commercial banks make loans for two to three years.
IV. Revision Commissions,
This is an organization somewhat similar to our Board of Equalization.
It has a Special Bureau, a President, Chancery Counsellor, Secretary,
Accountant, Registrar, and twelve members. There is a —
V. Oeneral Commission of Agricvltieral Affairs,
With a branch commission in each one of the provinces. It is through
this commission that the assessment of agricultural taxes is made, (like
our Auditor of State) the graduation and partition of estates, &c., &c.
It holds its own special courts, and decides cases pertaining to agricul-
tural aftairs, independent of the ordinary civil courts. It acts also as an
Executive and Judiciary department of the Board of Landed Economic
Commissioners mentioned above. The President of the provincial branch
is generally a member of the Comn^ssion 11., above.
VI. The Ditch and Drainage Commission.
This commission derives its authority from the Board of Landed Eco-
nomic Commissioners. There is a Ditch and Drainage Inspector appoint-
ed for each one of the provinces, and he is ex officio President of the pro-
vincial commission. This commission has charge of laying out and con-
structing dykes, ditches, underdrains, draining marshes, building bridges,
making embankments, changing or protecting channels, laying out and
perfecting systems of irrigation, and in short has charge of waterworks
of all descriptions, and are in a very largely extended sense the equiva-
lent of our Board of Public Works.
* These letters refer to the officers thus marked on page 151.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
163
VII. The Royal Horticultural College or Commission of Sam^ Souci.
This commission consists of a •• curatorium " or executive committee,
a President, (a) Director and Accountant.
Vin. The Royal Forest Nursery at Potsdam
Consists of the same Curatorium and Director as the preceding, with
a Council.
IX. Royal Horse Breeding JEstahUshment.
This consists of three principal establishments, located respectively at
Trakehnen, near Gumbiunen, the " Frederick William establishment," at
Neustadt, and the third one at Graditz, near Torgau. These are in charge
of a Lieut.-Colonel, Provincial Stable Superintendent, Stud Inspector,
Chief Veterinarian and assistant, and a Steward. The officers of these
three establishments meet at one place, and hold a session at the call of
the President (a).
There are branch establishments in every province, in charge of some
military officer. Stud Inspector, Director and Steward. From these branch
establishments stallions are distributed to the several stations through-
out the province.
This is as brief a synoptical view of the organization of the Agricul-
tural Bureau as can conveniently be given. The agricultural societies are
organized by the Bureau, and are at all times in direct communication
with it, and are dependent on it for their existence as societies.
AGBIOULTUBAL SOCIETIES.
There is a German Agricultural and Forestry Society, something like
our United States Agricultural Society — a society without a "local habi-
tation" or a permanent place. Prominent agriculturists and foresters
throughout all the German States are members of it. It held its twenty-
fifth annual session in June, 1866, in the city of Dresden, Saxony, and
will hold its twenty-sixth session at Vienna, Austria, in May, 1866. Of
course each meeting is attended by an exhibition of live stock, agricul-
tural implements, machines, &c., agricultural products, &c., &c. The
State in which the meeting takes place defrays the expenses, and premi-
ums, &c., are paid from the receipts.
Then there is a central agricultural association or society in every prov-
ince, under the direction of the Board of Commissioners II., before men-
tioned. Then there are, in the aggregate, 501 circuit or district agricul-
tural societies that report the condition of agriculture in their respective
districts direct to the Ministry.
The discussions are a very prominent feature at aU these annual meet-
ings. Almost all manner of agricultural subjects are from time to time
advertised to be discussed, and during the several days of the meeting
Digitized by LjOOQIC
164
these are taken up in order, and thoroughly discussed. Many of the most
valuable papers on German agriculture have been brought out by and
at these meetings.
AGBIOULTUBAIi BDUOATION.
On page 31 of the Transactions of the State Board in the present vol-
ume, will be found an account of what is taught at the Agricultural Acad-
emies in Prussia. Including the Boyal Veterinary College in Berlin, there
are eight colleges or academies similar to the one at Eldena, in Prussia.
In addition to these there are nineteen agricultural schools and academies
distributed throughout the provinces, of a lower grade than the one at
Eldena. Then there are ninety-nine private agricultural schools within
the limits of the kingdom. And during the past few years fourteen Agri-
cultural Chemical Experimental Stations have been established. Not-
withstanding great improvements have been made in agriculture in all its
branches in Germany in consequence of the dissemination of agricultural
knowledge, yet the matter of agricultural education is considered to be
somewhat problematical. It is the owners of the estates who are educa-
ted and not the laborers, whilst in fact it is educated labor which is requi-
red, or rather the object sought.
The following is a list of the Agricultural Educational Institutions in
Prussia:
Comxnenoed.
Boyal Academy at Eldena, Pommerania 1835
Prottkau, SUesia 1847
" " PoppeUdorf, Rheniah provinces 1847
" " Konigsberg, Province uAbia 1858
Boyal University at Berlin.
Agriooltoral Institute at HaUe, Province of Saxony.
Forestry <* at Neostadt, Province of Brandenberg.
Boyal Veterinary CoUege at Berlin.
jB. 8(Aool8 and Academies.
PROVINOS OF PRUSSIA.
Agrionltnral Institute at RagnitK, near Gnmbnnien 1856
" " Spitzings, near Konigsberg 1852
" " Polko, near Beichenau 1863
PROVINCE OF POSBN.
Agricultural Institute at Wielowies, near Erotaschin 1857
" " Wtelno, near Bromberg 1857
" ** Chroetowo, near Usez 1867
PROVINCB OF POMMERANIA.
Agricultural Institute at Schellin, near Greiffenberg 1845
PROYINCB OF MARE BRANDENBERQ.
Agricultural Institute at Glichow, near Calan 1845
" *' Haasenfelde, near Muncheberg 1847
Digitized by LjOOQIC
165
PROYINCB OF SILESIA.
Agricaltural lustitate at Zodel, near Gorlitz 1853
" " Popelan 1857
Siebenhufen 1856
PROVINCE OF SAXONY.
AgricultnTal Institate at Bndersleben, near Halberstadt 1846
•* " Beifenstein, near Leinefelde 1847
WESTPHALIA.
A^oultorallnBtitateat Riesenrodt, nearWerdohl 1845
" " Botzlar, near Borck 1852
RHENISH PROVINCES.
AgzieultnTal Institute at Annaberg, near Bonn 1864
" " Denkliegen, near Cologne 1852
" " Niederweia, near Trier -• 1861
PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS AND AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS.
99 distribated thronghont the several provinces.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTAL STATIONS.
1. Station at Insterbnrg, Chemical Director, Dr. Pinoos
2. " Kaschen, " " Dr. Peters.
3. •• Regenwalde, " " Dr. Bimer.
4. " Dahme, " " Dr. HeUriegel.
5. " Ida-Mariahntte, " '' Dr. Brettsohneider.
6. " SaUmnnde, " " Dr. Gronven.
8. " Eldena, " " Dr. Trommer.
9. " Proskau, " " Dr. Kroker.
10. " Poppelsdorf, " " Dr. Risse.
11. " Waldau, " " Dr. Eitthanaen.
12. " Berlin, " " Dr. Eiohhorn.
13. " HaUe, " *" Dr. Knhn.
14. " GorUta, " *• Vacant.
CHAPTER V.
KINGDOM OP SAXONY. .
Leaving the sandj plains of Mark Brandenburg for Dresden, we find
the country becoming more rolling as we approach the Elbe; yet on
almoHt every little molecule we find the inevitable mndmiU^ with four,
five or six vanes like long arms reaching out to gather in and concentrate
the breeze. I have written out these detaUs of Prussian agriculture not
for the purpose of commending them for imitation here in Ohio, or in the
v. S., but to demonstrate the thought, science and industry applied by a
dense population to obtain a subsistence from a soil, for the greater part
of which, no Ohio farmer would pay $5.00 per acre, even on a long credit.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
156
The crops are forced out of the soil, rather than generously and luxuri-
antly produced by the inherent qualities of the soil. In Prussia there is
no soil, derived from the disintegration of rocks in situ^ but as we approach
the Elbe we find the soil to be derived from the rocks in the immediate
vicinity, and in the kingdom of Saxony almost all the soils are derived
from the rocks in situ — thus there are clay slate soils, gneiss soils, mica
slate soils, granitic soils, &c., &c. There is no comparison, but the most
striking contrast between the physical aspect of the country in Prussia
generally— that of Mark Brandenburg, Pommerania, &c., in particular,
with that of the kingdom of Saxony. The former are level sandy plains —
the latter is very broken, hilly and mountainous, so much so that the
eastern portion of the kingdom has very appropriately been termed the
Saxon Switzerland.
After having made' the ** Hotel de Saxb*' headquarters during my
stay in Saxony, I presented my letters of introduction to Prof. Dr. Rbu-
NiNG, king's privy councellor and minister of Agriculture. He is a very
genial and worthy man, and one to whom I am indebted for much infor-
mation relative to the agriculture of Saxony.
GEOLOGY, CLIMATOLOGY, ETC.
Geologically Saxony belongs to the primitive formation, granite, gneiss,
feldspar, mica slate, clay slate, &c. ; here and there are found some ecene
rocks, some Silurian, some lower chalk, &c. Along the streams of course
we find the alluvial and drift. But the soil generally is the product of
the decomposed rocks in situ. From the great density of the population,
the government very early paid great attention to agriculture, and insti-
tuted and enforced very rigidly laws in regard to labor — hence Saxony has
not only the most dense, but the most industrious and intelligent popula-
tion in Europe.
Saxony has the most comprehensive and at the same time the most
detailed surveys of various kind of any kingdom I visited ; it has made a
complete Topographic Survey, Geological Survey, Hydrographic Survey,
Natural History and Agricultural Survey. From these surveys we learn
that the highest point in the kingdom is in the county or district of
Zwickau (south and west from Dresden) in Oberwisenthal, and is 3,063
feet above the level of the ocean. The lowest point is in the district of
Dresden in Biesa, and is 284 feet above the level of the ocean. The fol-
lowing will, perhaps, convey a better idea of the inequality of surface in
this kingdom :
District. Highest* point. Lowest point. Difference.
Dresden 2,600 feet. 284 feet. 2.316 feet.
Leipzig 1,242 ** 284 " 958 "
Zwiokim 3,063 " 687 " 2,376 "
Bautzen 2,012 " 313 " 1,699 "
Kingdom 3,063 " 284 " 2,779 "
Average hight of kingdom above the sea 953 "
Digitized by LjOOQIC
157
2^20 per cent, of the kingdom has an elevatiou of les8 than 500 feet above the ocean.
35.S8 ** *' " ** between 500 and 1000 feet above the ocean.
25.48 " " *• •* " 1000 and 1500 "
14.98 " " " " " 1500and2000 "
0.96 •* " '• " ** 2000and2500 "
100.
A complete knowledge of the condition of the temperature as caused
bj these elevations and depressions is of the utmost importance to the
agiiculturist; because the climate determines the character of his crops
as much as the soil doe^. The Saxony farmer, therefore, ha^ spared no
pains to ascertain all that science can teach him in this respect. Ten
years meteorological observations, so far as temperature is concerned,
gives the following result :
Spring. Summer. Antnmn. Winter. Tear.
Inlowlands 43deg. 56 deg. 44 deg. 3J deg. 44 deg.
Inhigblande 37i " 51 ** 38 '* 27 " 38 "
At Hohenheim, in Wurtemburg, the elevation is 1220 feet, and grapes
are there successfully grown, whilst in Saxony at the same elevation and
in the most protected localities the grapes do not ripen. Fruit, wheat
and spelts are successfully grown in Swabia (Wurtemburg) at an eleva-
tion of 2000 feet, whilst at the same elevation in Saxony, wheat or winter
rye seldom, if ever, succeed and so far as fruit growing is concerned it is
entirely out of the question.
A comparison of the temperature of the following points may not be
uninteresting ; the data was obtained from records kept during ten suc-
cessive years :
Eight above
Place. the ocean Spring. Summer. Autumn. Winter. Year.
Dresden (Saxony) 340 feet. 43 deg. 57 deg. 43 deg. 31 deg. 43 deg.
Berlin (Prueeia] 110 " 43^" r>8 " 45 " 3U " 45 "
Breelan (Sileeia) 430 " 42f ** 58 " 45 *• 30 " 43 "
Prague (Bohemia).... 590 " 45 ** 61 " 47 " 31 " 46***
Hohenheim (Wurtem-
burg) 1220 " 44i '• 59 " 45 •* 30 " 45 "
The amount of precipitation, that is rainfall and melted snow in Sax-
ony, during the same period of ten years was as follows :
Lowlands 19.93 inches.
Highlands 24. "
Mountains 28.5 "
Of this in the lowlands about ^ inches fall in spring, 7 inches in sum-
mer, 4 in the autumn, and the remainder in the winter. In the mountains
6 inches fall in spring, 10^ in summer, 6^ in autumn, and 5^ in winter.
The climate or *' lay of the land" as well as the soil is taken into con-
sideration in valuing the lands for tax purposes, and the government ha»
Digitized by VjOOQIC
158
established the following classification of climate, viz: all places having
An elevation of 500 feet is classed as mild climate.
" 500 to 800 teet is classed as temperate.
" 800 to 1600 " ** as raw or rough.
'* 1600 and upwards is classed cold climate.
The geological stracture is taken into consideration in assessing the
lands, and I think it proper to devote a page to showing how nicely this
survey is carried ont in all its details. In tlie original table the number
of acres of every 100 feet of elevation is compated, as well as the number
of acres of each kind in the several counties or districts. I have con-
densed the tables to groups of 500 feet of elevations, and have entirely
omitted the distribution in the several districts.
Name of Rocks.
Clay Slate
Mica Slate
Gneiss
Quarts, &c
Granulit
Granite and Syenite
Greenstone fof all kinds)..
Serpentine and Ekloapte . .
Porphyry" and Melaphyry.
Sy enitic Porphyry
Basalt and Dolorite
Phonolythe
Granwacke
Coal formation
Porphyry tuff
Red Sandstone
Zechstein
Varieffated Sandstone
New Red Sandstone
Planer
Brown Coal formation ....
Diluvium
No. of acres at the seTeral elevations of-
Per cent
of area.
Less than
500 feet
Total.
10.76
6.57
13.76
0.05
3.11
15.42
2.11
0.08
5.22
0.36
0.47
0.14
3.48
0.40
0.16
5.00
0.29
0.13
2.98
0.61
5.69
23.21
100.
2,000
1,000
11;J00
28,000
36,700
800
23,100
500
200
400
200
800
1.100
7,800
119,600
370,100
603,400
500
to
1000.
1000
to
1500.
69,900
21,800
31,900
72,900
217,000
3,500
900
80,500
200
8,300
3,100
17,000
1.300
1,500
14,400
7,800
2,200
60,000
8,700
34,700
241,800
909,400
115,300
52,800
126,700
500
11,300
105,900
46,200
1,100
10,200
1,900
4,100
600
32,100
9,000
2,700
120,300
600
19,600
1500
to
2000.
90,900
86,100
184,900
300
57,900
7.500
100
2,000
4,800
200
22,200
17,000
682,900
2000
to
2500.
6,500
16,300
18,300
500
9,100
100
"V,i66
2,000
200
300
456,900 60,400
Total.
291,600
178.000
372,900
1,300
84,200
417,900
57,300
2,100
141,500
9.700
12,800
4,000
94,400
10,800
4,400
135,100
8,000
3,600
80,700
16,500
154,300
628,900
2,710,000
Prom this it will be seen that 63.09 per cent, of all the rocks in situ are
either of igneous origin, or of the metamorphic serie43; 23 21 per cent of
diluvium, or lands like our Scioto and Miami Valleys, or ^^boUoms,^^ and
13.70 per cent, of all other formations.
Notwithstanding the fact that some of these soils have been cultivated
for a thousand years, they are in a better state of tilth and yield better
and more regular crops than any soils I saw on the continent Is it any
wonder that these Saxony farmers are slow to believe in the *^ exhaustion
Digitized by LjOOQIC
159
of the soiH" Of the entire area of this little kingdom 2 J per cent only is
unproductive in an agricultural sense. The lands are divided as follows:
1. Plow land.
2. Gardens...
3. Meadows..
4. Pastnres...
*er cent.
Acres.
51.85
1,343.364
2.80
75,406
11.12
298,576
1.04
55,192
Total agricnltnraUy prodnctive land 66 81
5. Ditches 0.70
6. Vineyards 0.11
7. Forests 29.88
Total susceptible of prodnction 97.50
9. Bnildings and yards 0.59
10. Quarries 0.09
11. Boads, commons, dtc 1.49
12. Vniages 0.33
2.50
Total onproductive.
Grand Total 100.
Geological and Topographic Snrvey
Difference conpists of streams, rivers, &c
The relative proportions of the first four items are —
Plow land
Giuxlens
Meadows
Pastures
1,772,537
20,510
3,086
837,163
2,633,296
J5,959
2,586
40,202
8,897
67,644
2,700,940
2,710,000
9,060
77.60 per cent.
4.18 "
16.66 "
1.56 "
This is owned by 129,870 proprietors, and is divided into 1,780,686 par-
cels; thus making the parcels average about one acre* each. We will
obtain a better idea of the division of lands from the following table :
Owners of less than i acre 28,630 or 22.(^ per cent.
i and less than 1 acres 9,183
4<
i
•«
1
<l
2
«
3
(«
5
u
10
*t
15
44
20
«
30
(«
40
M
50
«4
75
«•
100
• 1
150
• •
200
(t
300
«<
500
41
750
2
3
5
10
15
20
30
40
" 50
75
100
150
200
" 300
500
750
" 1000
over 1000
9.183
7.07
12,395
9.55
8,707
6.70
11,745
9.04
14,276
10.99
7,516
5.79
6,004
4.62
9,361
7.21
7,884
6.07
5,584
4.30
5,562
4.28
1,353
1.04
608
0.46
235
0.18
279
0.22
294
0.23
164
0.13
49
0.04
41
0.03
129,870 100.
There are owners of viUage and town lots.. 854292 persons.
" " " less than 3 acres 58,915 "
3 acres and upwards 70,955
Total owners of real estate 215,162
' 100 Saxony acres are equal to 136.89 English or American acres.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
16)
POPULATION.
The population of Saxony in 1861 was 2,226,240— of these 819,621 lived
in cities and large towns, and 1,405,619 in villages or on estates. This
population is equal to 8,209 for every 10,000 acres of the area, or 12,560 for
every 10,000 acres of agricultural lands. -
In Prussia there are 4,290 for every 10,000 acres of the area, or 5,838
for every 10,000 acres of agricultural lands.
In Ehenish Prussia 7,151 for every 10,000 acres of the area, or 10,532
for every 10,000 acres of agricultural lauds.
In Hessia 5,720 for every 10,000 acres of the area, or 8,540 for every
10,000 acres of agricultural lands.
In Rhenish Hessia 9,640 for every 10,000 acres of the area, or 10,000 for
every 10,000 acres of agricultural lands.
In Belgium there are 8,800 per square German mile, or about 800 per
square English mile.
In England and Ireland there are 5,080 per square German mile, or
about 500 per square English mile.
From this it will be seen that Saxony is the most densely populated
country in Europe. The figures given above are averages only ; but the
population is, of course, more dense in some portions than in others — thus
for instance in the county or district of Leipzig, is 68,863 for every 10,000
acres of area, or 81,184 for every 10,000 acres of agricultural lauds ; of
Bautzen 1,984 for every 10,000 acres of area, or 4,851 for every 10,000 acres
of agricultural lands. These — ^Leipzig and Bautzen, are the two extremes
of density and sparseness.
If the population is classified according to their avocations or pursuits,
we will find that there are engaged in
Independent. For wages. Total persons.
Agiicnlture and Forestry 302,283 256,730 559,01*:
Mechanical and other industrial pursuits.... 597,112 651,565 1,248,677
Trade and Commerce 69,301 103,645 172,946
Science, arts. State and Military service 95,693 57,043 152,736
Other vocations and retired 64,597 27,271 91,868
Total 1,128,986 1,096,254 2,225,240
Hence the really agricultural population, or those tilling the soil for a
subsistence, amount to about 25 per cent, of the aggregate population ;
and every 10,000 acres in area of the kingdom furnishes agricultural em-
ployment for 2,000 persons, or every 10,000 acres actually devoted to
agriculture furnishes employment for 3,000 persons, or one porson to every
3^ acres.
The division of the lands in such small tracts as shown on a previous
page, and was not promotive of the best agricultural and economic results.
I have often seen tracts, of a rod wide and from 20 to 160 rods deep or
1 ong ; and in this tract perhaps half a dozen different crops were growing ;
Digitized by LjOOQIC
161
there was not land enough to grow any of the crops properly, or in suffi-
cient quantities to justify the labor expended on them; therefore the
Saxony government instituted a sort of community system by which
many of the smaller tracts were merged into one large one, and a regular
system of rotation pursued upon it. Of course the labor, seed, imple-
ments, &c., were furnished pro rata by the proprietors, and the sum
total of the products estimated at a cash value, of which the proprie-
tors receive their shares pro rata.
In the vicinity of Leipzig there were 774 contiguous parcels, contain-
ing an aggregate of 1,065 acres, owned by 35 proprietors. Six of these
owned from 50 to 66 acres each, and three owned less than 2 acres
each, making an average of 30J acres to each proprietor. It is now
divided into 60 parcels, each parcel containing nearly 18 acres. Not-
withstanding the fact that this tract was very even and almost a level,
yet it was found to embrace six distinct classes of soil. The total amount
gained by reducing the number of roads and paths on the entire tract
was almost 18 acres.
AaBIGULTUBAL FOBOE AIO> GOLLATEBALS.
Ko rational agriculture can exist at the present time, on any consider-
able scale, without live stock, either as an agricultural force, or as a mat-
ter of profit. Notwithstanding in Saxony there is almost an inhabitant
to every acre, and three thousand agricultuial operatives to every 10,000
acres, yet they do not dispense with the force of domestic animals ; nei-
ther do the farmers of any kingdom or State know more precisely the
value of animal labor. The subjoined columns will convey an idea, in
outline at least, of their system of valuation.
LIVE STOCK
I.— HORSES.
Retnrn of Investment.
Capital.
ThaleiB.
06,642 horses of all kinds valued
at 75 thalers each 7,173,150
llA
Thalen.
Services of 90,000 horses at 110
thalers 9,900,000
Value of 1,000 retired horses at
lOthalers 10,000
9,910,000
Digitized by LjOOQIC
162
n.--CATTLK.
Thalers.
8,696 bnlls at 45 thalen 391,320
S6,593 oxen andsteers at 55 thai. 3,112,615
411,563 cowB at 50 thalers 20,578,150
94,547 heifer calves at 35 thai.. 3,309,145
67,061 male calves at 15 thalers. 1,005,915
638,460 head of cattle worth .... 28,397,145
ThaleiSi
Milk sold and nsed, ezclnsive of
calves 1J500 kannen
(quarts) per cow=r617,344,500
kan. at 7 pfenning 14,404,705
, Slaughtering AntmaU.
80,000 steers &c., at 75 thalers. 6,000,000
226,000 veal calves at 4 " . 900,000
Services of oxen, steers, cows
and heifers 3.000,000
Carcasses of 15,000 dead cattle,
(hides, &c.,) at 5 thalers 75,000
24,379,705
m.— SHEEP,
Thalers.
4,874 backs at 10 thalers 48,740
142,742 wethers at 4^
1554^^8 ewes at 3
69,095 lambs at H
371,989
642,339
465,834
103,642
1,260,555
Thalers.
Wool of 371,989 head at If thai. 650,981
Mutton 185,995
Fat sheep and others exported.. 60,000
896,976
IV.— SWINE.
Thalers. | Thalers.
270,000 at 15 thalers 4,050,000 | 625,000 cwts. pork at 14 thalers. 8,750,000
The Saxony Minister of Agriculture makes from this data a
% KECAPITULATION.
Oapltel lnT«st«d in Anniul letom.
Horses 7,173,150 thalers. 9,910,000 thalers.
Cattle 28,397,145 " 24,379,705 "
Sheep 1,260,555 " 896,976 "
Swine 4,050,000 " 8,750,000 "
Total 40,880,850 " 43,936,681 "
and thus demonstrates that the actual annnal return is over three mil-
lions of thalers greater than the investment itself.
Taking into consideration the limited area of the kingdom, the density
of the population, and the amount of live stock kept, it must be very
evident that the Saxonians have learned what is not only the least possible
amount of food requisite to sustain the human body, but also what kind of
food contains this i^nount, and the cheapest manner of obtaining it in the
greatest abundance. Prof. Dr. Beuning says : *'The agriculture of Sax-
ony is now in that particular stage when she cannot dispense with an
extensive or widely diffused system of labor. The live stock products
are not yet of sofftcient importance or value to compete with those of the
Digitized by LjOOQIC
163
neighboring lands, so as to justify a change of the latter into permanent
pastures ; it is also policy — since the number of laborers is decreasing —
to substitute the labor of live stock, as far as possible, for human labor,
and eventually to replace the stock labor by machinery."
In prosperous years there is an average fiieat consumption of 50 pounds
per capita, and in years when crops are affected, the average consumption
does not exceed 20 pounds, or less than half a pound per week. Among
the wealthier classes 125 pounds are consumed per capita per annum.
Black bread is not much liked by the laborers, therefore the consumption
of butter, milk and potatoes, is greater in proportion among them ; they
seldom have meat more than once a week, and yet are the hardiest, most
robust and well knit men and women that I met abroad.
The following is the average product for a series of years in Saxony :
0B0P8 m SAXONY.
Kind of crop.
Pr. cent.
Acies.
Product
per acre
in
poondB.
SEED.
Pr.acre
in
pounds.
Pr. cent.
of
crop.
S--S
sli
1
Wheat
Eye
Barley
Oats
Peas and y etches
MUlef
Flax
Bape, &o
Potatoes
10
24
8
16
3
2
1
3
10
140.000
336,000
112,000
224,000
42,000
28,000
14,000
42,000
140,000
1,268
1,246
1,822
1,280
860
728
728
1,061
178
170
148
169
286
'isi
li
13.6
13.6
11.1
12.7
35.7
25.6
1.5
76.3
71.3
73.8
75.0
98^.0
10.0
15.0
15.0
87.3
32.1
• Thi0 is ftd green to live stoek.
In their sales of wheat they have two rules relative to quantity, viz.,
weight and measure. The unit of measure is the Scheffdj equal to about
two and a half bushels or 150 pounds. I remember when a boy at
school that an arithmetical example was presented for solution somewhat
as follows : " The legal standard weight of wheat is sixty pounds per
bushel. Kow a certain miller knew that some wheat weighed more,
whilst some again weighed less than sixty pounds per bushel. He there-
fore established this rule, viz. : K a man brought wheat to the mill that
weighed say sixty-five pounds to the bushel, he allowed that one the reg-
ular price of a bushel for every fifty-five pounds ; but, on the contrary, if
any brought wheat that weighed say fifty-four pounds to the bushel, the
miller would allow the regular price per bushel for every sixty-six pounds.
It so happened that a man brought twelve bushels by measure for which ,
the miller allowed ten bushels by weight. How many pounds did he
Digitized by VjOOQIC
164
bring ? " The Saxonians have much such a rule. If wheat weighs less
than 150 pounds per scheflfel, they pay less for 150 pounds of this light
wheat than if it weighed more.
So long as the early farmers in Ohio lived in log cabins, and maintained
their families by hunting, fishing and out of the truck patch, there was
no necessity for agricultural statistics ; but as the State became more
densely settled, the farms opened up, canals and railroads in operation,
and the agricultural products of a positive commercial and economic
value, then agricultural statistics became invaluable. In Europe, espe-
cially in the most dense portions, great attention is paid to agricultural
statistics as a matter of necessity, because the supply and demand be-
come more and more equalized, and precise calculations must be made.
Thus we find the most precise agricultural statistics in Saxony. From
those furished me by Prof. Dr. Eeuning, for a series of years, I make the
following statement :
Aggregate com* crop - 15,414,840 cwts.
This may be divided as follows :
Seed 2,067,254 cwts.
Human food 8,333,671 cwts.
Cattle food 5,013,915 cwts.
Now, from the amount appropriated for human food 8,333,671 cwts.
Deduct 25 per cent, for oflfal 2,083,418 cwts.
Net amount of human food 6,250,253 cwts.
Now, to this offal 2,083,418 cwts.
Add the amount for cattle food 5,013,915 cwts.
Real amount of cattle food 7,097,333 cwts.
There is then really
Seed ^ 2,0674^52 cwts. or 13.41 per cent
Direct for human food 6,250,253 cwts. or 40.55 per cent.
Cattle food 7,097,*J33 cwts. or 46.04 per cent.
15,414,840 cwts. or 100. per cent
But in the division of lands to grow these several crops, together with
other necessary crops, it is found to be as follows :
Area doTcxfaod to grow seeds 1124232 acres or 6.22 per cent.
Area devotad to grow human food, including cereals,
yegetables, fruits, &c 345,680 aoiea or 19.16 pei cent.
Area devoted to grow cattle food of all kinds, indnd-
ing pastures and meadows 1,346,625 acres or 74.62 per cent
1,804,637 acres or 100 per cent.
i«Ooni iBotedw «a cOTMls.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
165
Saxony imports 1,800,000 cwts- of cereals, but 1,031,000 cwts- of this is
consumed in breweries and distilleries, leaving less than 800,000 cwts. of
cereals of all kinds imported for human food. One can scarcely avoid con-
trasting this state of things with the agricultural results of England, which
we have been taught to regard as having attained the greatest productive
capacity and best system of agriculture in the world. Saxony is more
densely populated than England, and imports about one-third of a cent
per capita, whilst England, from 1854 to 1865, inclusive, imported i£152,-
491,385 sterling of wheat alone. If we estimate the quarter to have aver-
aged forty shillings, then, during these twelve years, England has im-
I)orted 50,830,456 bushels of wheat annually, aside from flour, corn-meal
and other cereal products. Estimating the population of England at
30,000,000, then she imports one and one-third bushels of wheat per
capita. Aside from animal food, the Saxon farmer lives as well as the
English one. Accepting as correct data the figures obtained both in
Saxony and England, I can not avoid concluding that the Saxon system
has rendered the kingdom more nearly independent and self-sustaining
than that of England.
In abolishing the small tract of land system, and cultivating a large
area m the same crop, it became a matter of necessity to classify the soils,
and accordingly the soils were analyzed, and upon the basis of their
chemical and mechanical composition as well as altitude and " lay," they
were arranged in twelve distinct classes. Of course, the rotation on these
different kinds of soil vary, but the general system followed in the " low-
lands " is what may be termed a six years' course, as follows : (1) winter
crops (rye and wheat) ; (2) clover, or one-half rape and one-half clover ;
(3) winter rye or wheat ; (4) hoed crops ; (5) oats, spring barley, &c. ; (6)
one-half hoed crops or grass and one-half clover.
,.t I visited the estates of Zornig, Lothayn and Leutewitz, near Meissen,
owned by Sir Henry Adolph Steiger, for the purpose of seeing his world-
renowned " Leutewitzer " fine wooled sheep. The soil on his estates are
a good loam, rather inclined to clay than sand, and may, with propriety,
be classed among the " lowlands," being situated but a few miles from
the banks o^ the Elbe. Perhaps it may be as well to insert in this place
a letter written home when I was in Saxony :
Saxony is more intimately interested in America and American affairs
than I had ever supposed such an inland country could be. When the
rebellion broke out there was a tremendous ** hue and cry " in England
about the sufferings of the working classes in Lancashire, Manchester,
&c., although no cry reached us from Saxony, yet the Saxons suffered
worse than the English did. I am told that the suffering here was in the
extreme, and that actual starvation took place in some instances. When
the financial crisis of 1857 swept ovor tlie United States, some of the
heaviest establishments in Saxony failed in consequence, Saxony maun*
Digitized by VjiWVJV IVL
166
factures linens, woolens, cloths, laces, embroideries, stockings, &c, &c.,
for the American market. At Meissen is a large porcelain manafactory,
employing 350 hands, which mannfactores for the American market.
Agriculture is better developed, more science applied, and better results
are obtained in Saxony than anywhere I have yet visited. In Prussia,
that is, in Mecklenburg, Mark-Brandenburg, Pommerania, Posen and the
province of Prussia, the land is owned in large bodies, the estates aver-
age 2,000 morgens or about 1,400 acres ; but in Saxony the " tiller of the
soil " is the owner of the land, hence the farms or tracts are small, for
the population is very dense ; in fact. Professor Dr. Eeuning, the Minister
of Agriculture for Saxony, told me that, exclusive of forest, there was
just one acre of land for every individual of the population. This one
acre, then, must produce the food and clothing for the individual, besides
producing plants for commercial purposes. If the land were farmed as it
is in the United States the Saxon must starve ; but, fortunately for him,
■ he believed that science could assist him in his agricultural operations,
and he willingly accepted the counsels of science and put them into prac-
tice. There is an agricultural academy at Tharandt,* another at Chem-
nitz, an experimental farm at Pommritz, another at Salzmiinde, &c. These
schools have accomplished a vast amount of good ; have made the far-
mer intelligent, and have made agricultural operations as systematic and
intelligible as photography.
During the time I spent at Dresden, I visited estates ten, twenty, thirty
and forty miles distant, in various directions, and have everywhere found
the same untiring industry, thorough culture, and prudent management,
and, what is more, have everywhere found the proprietors very intelligent.
In order to present an idea of how farming is done here, I give the statis-
tics of one estate I visited about twenty miles west of Dresden, the estate
of Henry A. Steiger, Esq. He is the inheritor of three estates, which
lie contiguous, and are known as Lothayn, Leutewitz and Zornig. These
he farms as follows :
LEUTEWrrZ. LOTHAYN. ZORNIG.
First year Rape Rape turnip Clover.
Second year Wheat : Wheat WTieat.
Third year Potatoes Potatoes Potatoes.
Fourth year Oats Oats Barley.
Fifth year Clover Peas Rye.
Sixth Rye Rye Clover.
Or, in other words, the same crop would be grown the seventh year on
Leutewitz as that put down for the first on Lothayn ; the thirteenth year
on Leutewitz the same as the seventh on Ldthayn, or the first on Zornig,
&c., &c.
* For details of Tharandt College see page S3 of part II. of this volome.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
167
He mannres seventeen times in eighteen yeaxs, as follows :
1. Bap€.^One and a half manuring of barn yard manore and one-hsdf
manuring with guano and bone dust.
2. Wheat — ^l^o manure.
3. Fotatoe8.—¥\i]l manuring with barn-yard manure.
4. Oats, — Half manuring with guano and bone dust.
6. Clover. — Half manuring with guano and bone dust.
6. Bye. — ^Full manuring with barn-yard manure.
7. Bidbsen (spring rape).— Full manuring with barn-yard manure and full
manuring with guano and bone dust.
8. Wheat — Half manuring with barn-yard manure and one-half manur-
ing with guano and bone dust.
9. Potatoes. — Half manuring with barn-yard manure.
10. Oa^. — Half manuring with guano and bone dust.
11. Peas. — ^FuU manuring with barn-yard manure.
12. Bye. — Half manuring with bone dust.
13. Clover. — Half manuring with guano and bone dust.
14. Wheat — FuU manuring with barn-yard manure.
15. Mangolds. — ^Double manuring with barn-yard manure.
16. Barley. — Half manuring with guano and bone dust.
17. Bye. — Fall manuring with barn-yard manure and half manuring with
guano and bone dust.
18. Clover. — ^Half manuring with guano and bone dust.
By this system he obtains three crops of wheat, three of rye, three of
clover, three root crops (two of potatoes and one of mangolds,) two of
oats, and one of barley, one each of peas and rape.
Potatoes follow the wheat, and clover follows rye or oats. This system
of cropping and manuring is based upon the results and observations of
many years' experience, and keeps the soil in good heart aU the while.
A foil manuring of guano and bone-dust consists of equal weight of each,
and four (4) cwt. applied to the acre (Saxon.) A half manuring is two cwt.
His harvests yield as follows :
Bape^l2 to 20 sheflfels of 150 pounds per sheflfel per acre ; or 23 to 37
bushels of 60 pounds per American acre.
Wheat— 15 to 20 sheflfels of 170 pounds per sheflfel per acre ; or 33 to 43
bushels of 60 pounds per American acre.
Bye— IS to 20 sheftels of — pounds per sheflfel per acre; or 30 to 40
bushels of — pounds per American acre.
Barley— IS to 26 sheflfels of 140 pounds per sheflfel per acre ; or 32 to 47
bushels of 56 pounds i)er American acre.
Oats— 25 to 40 sheflfels of 100 pounds per sheflfel per acre ; or 57 to 92
bushels of 33 pounds per American acre.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
16S
Potatoes— 100 to 150 sbeffels of 150 pounds per sheflfel per acre ; or 190
to 285 bushels of sixty pounds per American acre.
If the plowing, manuring and seeding are properly done, and at the
right time, he says he can rely on these results. There is very little
damage to the crops by insects, since the birds are protected by law, and
every grove is full of the feathered tribe. The other diseases of plants
are resisted by proper cultivation, the soil being put into condition to
grow thrifty and strong plants ; for the farmers here hold that plants be-
come diseased by neglecting to cultivate the plant, by neglecting to pre*
pare the soil thoroughly, and by neglecting to use the best seeds.
Mr. Steiger's live stock consists of 100 milch cows, 25 heifers, 30 farm
horses, 12 work oxen, 1,000 to 1,200 head of sheep, and 30 brood sows.
The milch cows are of the Holland, Oldenberg, and other celebrated
milking races. He has several short-horns, but says they do not give as
much milk, in proportion to the food they consume and the weight of the
animal, as most of the other races. But he says the short-horns mature
very rapidly, and make splendid beef. He said that, notwithstanding hd
had a large estate, he found it absolutely necessary to confine himself to
growing that kind of crops and keeping those breeds of cattle which
produced the greatest return in money; that he could not afford to in-
dulge in fancy stock, either of horses or cattle ; neither could he indulge
in an " orangiere^'' or green house, but he had a very beautiful and large
flower garden of hardy plants.
The milch cows are all green-soiled, thus saving in food, or rather
making a small amount of food go a great way. In winter each cow gets
twenty-five to thirty pounds of mangolds, four to five pounds of grains,
" chopped," five to ten pounds of straw, two to four pounds of hay, and
water and potato slop, as much as the appetite craves. The manure fipom
the cattle is carefully preserved — part composted, part preserved under a
shed ; and a system of collecting liquid manure is fully and thoroughly
practiced. On almost every farm I visited I found liquid manure applied
to the growing crops.
The horses are fed, per day, fifteen pounds of oats and ten pounds of
hay ; the oxen are fed ten to fifteen pounds of grain, according to the
labor they perform, and four to five pounds of mangolds, with potato
slop as a drink. The smaller farmers cannot farm with as much perfec-
tion of system as that practiced on the estate of Mr. Steiger, but they
copy it as far as they can consistently with their means and extent of
land. And to write the plan pursued by these smaller farmers would be
simply to write out the history of each little tract, for the reason that no
two farm precisely alike ; each one has some little " hobby-horse " that
lie is ridini*", but in the ninin the system in vo^ne on Mr. Steicfor's estate
is the general plan of farming in Saxony. In other parts of the king-
Digitized by LjOOQIC
169
dam, some one of the forage crops is omitted and flax grown in its place
and since the discovery of the abundance of American petroleum, one
crop of rape is introduced in an eighteen years' course, where formerly
there were three rape crops. Professor Dr. Kenning, the Minister of
Agriculture, and Professor Dr. Stoeckhard, of the Tharandt Academy,
both informed me that if I was correct in my views of the extent of oil
territory and continued supply of it in commerce, it would seriously affect
the present system of farming; that then the crop of rape must be en-
tirely stricken from the list of crops. Eape is grown for the oil it pro-
duces, but this oil is effectually superceded by petroleum. In every town
and village through which I passed in Saxony, I saw signs inscribed
" American petroleum."
I visited the experimental agricultural station (Yersuch's station) at
Pommritz, not far from Bautzen,, some forty-five miles from Dresden.
This station is in charge of Professor Dr. Lehmann, one of Liebig's stu-
dents. He is quite a young man, full of enthusiasm, a thorough scholar
and gentleman, and earnestly and wholly devoted to his occupation. In
his laboratory were quite a number of pots containing artificial soils ;
that is to say, quartz rock was pulverized to get pure quartz ; lime rock
was reduced to get at the carbonate of lime; pure potash manufactured
and introduced, and so of the other ingredients — all manufactured and
compounded in certain proportions to make artificial soils, and in these
soils various plants were growing, some thriftily, others indifferently;
but the object of these experiments is to prove, in the first place, that an
analysis of the soil is an approximation to the true constituents of the
soil. It is to prove, in the second place, that there is a chemical condi-
tion or relation of. the soil which is just as important to the crop as the
mechanical condition is. It is intended to demonstrate, in the third place,
what particular ingredients each plant requires for its normal growth and
development. This latter idea is then worked out in a practical manner
on small experimental tracts, consisting, say, of four square rods each
tract. The first tract is well plowed and pulverized and sown in oats, but
without manure of any kind ; ^the second tract is manured with bam-yard
manure ; the third with guano ; the fourth with bone-dust ; the fifth with
insoluble phosphate of lime ; the sixth with soluble phosphate ; the sev-
enth with guano and bone-dust ; the eighth with guano, bone-dust, and
barn-yard manure ; the ninth with guano and phosphate of lime, and
sulphuric acid ; the tenth same as ninth, with addition of potash, &c.,
on to number twenty. It was very evident that these mixtures affected
the growth and standing of the plant. Some plots were thin, short, and
of a yellowish tinge ; others thick or rank, good growth, and deep green ;
others pale prreen, &c., scarcely two plots presenting the same appearance
in every respect. The soil was, iirst of ail, analyzed|and record made of
Digitized by LjOOQIC
170
it ; then a record made of the ingredients applied to each plot ; then a
record made every week of the appearance of the plots, and an analysis
made of the plants on each plot every week ; this then secures a com-
plete history of the oat plant grown with nineteen different manures, in
all its stages, in one year. Then there are twelve such plots in pease,
and other plots in other agricultural plants. Then there are about fifty
head of cattle, mainly milch cows, kept, in the first place, for milk ; and,
secondly, as living subjects to experiment upon in relation to the nu-
tritive properties of food, the hereditary transmission of qualities in
breeding, &c. The cattle are Hollanders, Oldenbergers, Bavarian or
Allgauer, and Shorthorn.
Professor Lehmann is fully of the opinion that the Shorthorn is not an
improved Hollander, nor an improved animal of any particular race, but
that the Shorthorn is the result o^ a judicious crossing, in which care
was taken to secure the good qualities of the original races. He does
not esteem them highly as milkers; says they may have been good milk-
ers in Collins' days, but they have been bred with a view to beef, and
the milking quality, in his opinion, is pretty well bred out; he says he
does not doubt that it may be bred in again, but if it is, it will be at the
expense of the beef quality and early maturity.
He reasons in this way, and says it is founded on physiological laws
and investigations, that when the secretion of milk is induced in a nor-
mal animal, the acquisition of fat does not take place; and when an ac-
quisition of fat does take place, it is necessarDy at the expense of the
flow or secretion of milk ; that the food which the animal consumes in
excess of what is absolutely required to maintain its normal condition, is
converted into either fat or milk, and that this excess will take, as a rule,
one or the other of these directions, but wiU not divide ; hence the Allgauer
race, he says, has so long been bred with reference to milk, that it has
become impossible to fatten a cow of this race ; and the Shorthorn has,
in Europe, been bred so steadily and successfully with reference to beef,
that it would require many generations to make them as good milkers as
the Hollanders, Oldenbergers, or AUgauers, or Swiss.
In his feeding experiments, he has obtained solid blocks of salt which
weigh eight to ten pounds, has drilled a hole through the centre, and
passed a cord through this hole, and fastened it to the trough, so that the
animal can lick as much as its appetite craves. He says that different
kinds of food require different amounts of salt, and hence he hit upon
this idea of determining the precise amount of salt required by each
animal, according to its age, to each particular system of feeding. The
block of salt is weighed every week ; the food weighed when fed, and the
animal weighed morning and evening. Of course, a record is kept of
every detail. He has a seven-months old Shorthorn heifer, weighing 523
Digitized by LjOOQIC
171
poimds, of which he feels very prond. A son of Dr. Eeuning, at Cun-
nersdorf, has a steer, a year old, weighing a little over a thousand paundSj
of which the Doctor feels very proud. Tliis latter steer is of the Holland
breed, and, in the Doctor's opinion, is better than the Shorthorns. There
is here, as in the United States, all sorts of opinions and notions about
the superiority of the several races ; but, after all sides have been heard,
one feels satisfied that the HoUaud, Oldenberg and Swiss races are the
highest esteemed, or most popular, as milk races, where there is no
scarcity of pasture or green forage; that the East Friesian, Angle and
Jutland (all small races) are the best milkers where there is a scarcity of
pasture, or on small estates; but the Shorthorn is nowhere in Germany a
favorite for milk.
Professor Lehmann has several Yorkshire sows, which are under a sys-
tem of experiments in feeding. I find throughout Germany that most of
the swine are of English breeds, and that the native German breeds have
almost wholly disappeared. Professor Spinola, of the University of Ber-
lin, had some Hungarian swine, but he told me that it was almost im>
possible to keep them in confinement; that they fatten with great diffi-
culty, mature very slowly, and consequently late ; and, even when as fat
as they could be made, that the flesh was very tough, and tasted as though
it were rancid. At a place called Moritzberg, the King of Saxony keeps
a hundred wild boars "for the chase ;" but I did not think it would pay
to give five dollars for a drive to the place simply to see these uncouth
animals.
All the agricultural implements and machines of native invention are
very heavy, and to me appear very awkward and bungling. The Ameri-
can implements are much admired and eagerly sought for, but the supply
is exceedingly limited indeed. John Bull enjoys a sort of monopoly
throughout the Prussian States, as far as I have been, and in Saxony, in
the sale of agricultural implements and machines, and yet our manufac-
turers could soon drive him from this market, if they would only estab-
lish agencies here to introduce the American agricultural tools.
Beaping and mowing machines are being introduced, but as yet the
demand is very limited, and the supply less. There is no use in sending
any reapers here, unless they at the same time are self rakers; hence
McCormick's is the most popular, and these are furnished by Burgess &
Key, of England, and, as a matter of course, are of English manufacture.
What the Germans want is our ash and hickory wood, and our malleable
iron; therefore they prefer American-made machines, rather than to
manufacture them here or in England. American plows are much liked
and very popular in Saxony, but not the hundredth part of the demand
can be supplied. John Bull has endeavored to supply this market, but
the Germans very much prefer the American ones. Then our spades.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
172
manure forks, pitch or hay forks, and even down to household imple-
ments and tools, are sold as rapidly as they arrive, so that no stock re-
mains on hand. A member of a heavy and very responsible firm in
Dresden told me that he purchased all the American tools and implements
that were for sale at the Hamburg exhibition, brought them home, and
in a few days they were all sold ; then he commenced sending orders to
the manufacturers in America, but could not get more than one order in
ten filled, or, in other words, if he ordered ten dozen of any kind of im-
plements, he could not get more than one dozen. He said that notwith-
standmg the very high price in America, the insurance, freight, and tariff
in Europe, yet he could sell more American implements in a less time
and with greater profit, than he could of any other kind. Can we not
manufacture enough in the United States to supply our own and the
European demand? If we have not laborers enough, send over here to
Saxony and induce some of the Saxony mechanics to go to America, and
we will get a first class population and set of workmen.
Much of the clay land in Saxony is underdrained with tile. They un-
derdrain there for two reasons ; first, actual experiment has demonstra-
ted that thoroughly underdrained soil not only produces greater and
better crops, but is at the same time much easier to work ; and this is no
small item where lands are plowed five or six times before it is seeded
down ; secondly, if a clay soil is not underdrained, then it must be plowed
into lands, and about every tenth furrow is left for a water course to drain
off the surface water ; in a ten acre field it is estimated that an entire
acre or one-tenth is thus unproductive. The actual market value of this
one acre would pay for underdraining the whole ten acres, and then the
entire area would be productive. Thus, in order to secure a larger pro-
ductive area the Saxons have underdrained if for no other reason.
The sandy soils are plowed only to cover the manure, and as a rule,
plowed but once for each crop ; they hold that much plowing plows the
'* life out of sand."
For manures, notwithstanding the fact that bone dust, Baker, Peru-
vian and Chilian Guanos, as well as superphosphates, have been intro-
duced, and are what we here would consider very extensively used, yet, after
all, their chief reliance is on bam yard manure. Prom their very limited
area, and dense population, cattle breeding cannot be so extensively con-
ducted as in some other countries ; hence, they regard cattle as a " neces-
sary mi," — regard them essentially necessary to produce manure, but
would dispense with them so far as the other benefits are concerned,
except for milk.
In Saxony rather than in England, have the advocates of the nitrogen-
ous manures stood directly opposed to the advocates of Leibig's " Mineral
Muuure" tlieoiy. Every **iiicli of the ground" occupied by citlier piuty
Digitized by LjOOQIC
173
has been severely contested not only polemically, bnt experimentally and
practically. The advocates of the nitrogenous theory found that the nitro-
genous manures yielded a greater amount of vegetation ; that is straw,
chaff and leaves, but that the yield of grain was even less than when
left unmanured, and have now settled down into the belief that the
atmosphere furnishes all the nitrogen necessary. The other party now
claim that the plant derives all its nutriment from the soil ; that through
rains, snows, &c., as in bam yard manure, a suflftcient supply of nitrogen
is provided for the plant. At a place called Stasszfurt a very cheap form
of potash is produced in great quantities and sold as a manure. On
strong clays it has as yet produced no effects, but on lighter soils is said
to be advantageous. There are some fifty bone dust mills in Saxony,
which import the " raw " material from Prussia, Hannover, Bavaria,
Wurtemburg, &c., but the supply does not equal the demand for this
small kingdom. Underdraining and artificial manures, as well as more
extensive application of barn yard manures, have greatly increased the
productive capacities of the soil, and it is now stated that the soils of
Saxony are more fertile than they were three hundred years ago. The
Saxons are of opinion that the more the soil is worked or stirred* the
more productive it will be, and all manner of debris and offal, straw, the
woody part of flax stalks, tan-bark, leached ashes, in fact, everything
wliich cannot be appropriated for any other purj)ose, is carried on the clay
fields and serves to prevent the clay from packing if it answers no other
purpose ; hence, their dwellings and stables are models of cleanliness and
order, because every available thing is used for manure.
CULTIVATED GBOPS.
Of the cereals, rye is cultivated to a much greater extent than any
other. Wheat is cultivated for export rather than home consumption.
The increase of population has caused an increased extent of area to be
devoted to barley, and the live stock has increased the area of oats.
Bape and poppies are grown on the richest and best soils for oil. Of
leguminous plants, peas occupy the first rank, because, like our Indian
com, they serve at the same time as food for ** man or heasty It has been
ascertained that ten bushels of peas contain as much nitrogenous or flesh
or muscle forming material as eighteen bushels of wheat or twenty-two
bushels of rye. This estimate is based on the fact that a very great pro-
portion of the nitrogenous matter In wheat and rye is contained in the
bran, while the pea is consumed entire. Yetches, beans, and lupines, are
not extensively grown.
Of forage plants, red clover is the most generally grown. Hie white clo-
ver and Swedish clover are grown in mixtures with other plants — ^but not
to any great extent Lucerne is not regarded with much favor. Cultivated
Digitized by LjOOQIC
4th
it
5th
14
852.6 "
t< u
4th
i<
6th
l<
544 "
« «
4th
(f
7th
If
647.8 "
Kohlrabi
4th
i<
7th
«
623.2 "
« u
4th
«
7th
l<
431.8 "
« 1(
2d
«
4th class, 29,220 plants yielded 1,065.3 cwts. of beets.
4th
If
6th
<«
28,470
u
969
6th
>»
7th
«
25,080
(f
823.7 Kohlrabi.
174
grasses are being introduced. Potatoes was the main crop for both man
and animals, and as the cheapest material which can be obtained from
which to distil spirits or whisky, until the crops failed from the " rot,"
since then the beets and sugar beets have striven for the supremacy.
Agriculturally, the Saxons are very close observers, and find their reward
by adopting their practice as much as possible in accordance with natural
laws. In 1855 a series of experiments were made with sugar beets, and
kohlrabi, by planting small tracts of equal size at various elevations, and
the results were as folllows :
At an elevation of—
578 feet, soils of seoond to fourth class, yielded 1,159.4 cwts. sngar-beets per acre.
803
1,380
770
1,260
1,897
762
977
770
In many parts of Saxony our Indian com — more especially what is
known as the " horse tooth " variety, but what is known in Ohio as the
white dent — is in great demand for broad-cast sowing, to be cut for green
fodder in July and August after the clover crop is exhausted or made into
hay. In my opinion the soil is rich enough, and therefore, I attribute it
to the climate as being unfavorable for the growth of hops and tobacoo.
Notwithstanding the central portion of Saxony is less than one degree
of latitude north of the centre of the best wine region of Europe, yet Sax-
ony is not now a wine producing country in any sense of the term. As
early as the eleventh eentury, when native forests gave shelter or protec •
tion to the vines in the vicinity of Meissen, Dresden, &c., Saxony pro-
duced wines of good quality and in considerable abundance ; but at pres-
ent the grapes grown there even in the most protected portions either do
not ripen at all or else ripen so very irregularly as to be unfit for any other
purpose than vinegar or distillation.
Fruits — that is, apples, peaches, pears, prunes and apricots — are not
grown to any considerable extent, and of these that are grown, the very
best of early varieties only are in general cultivation. Cherries succeed
admirably, and in June I was favored with some of the most delicious
ones of the "Ox Heart" variety I ever tasted. Strawberries are culti-
vated in a few gardens of the nobility only. As a rule, I think the Ger-
mans on the continent regard fruits with less favor than any other nation.
Certain it is, that they manifest more indifference than any others that
I met.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
175
Vegetables are not as extensively grown as with us. Tomatoes and
" pie plant," or the Linnean rhubarb, are grown as ornamental plants!
A German would as soon think of eating a " jimsen weed apple (fruit
of Datura stramonium) as a tomato ; and as for "j>mw," the Germans are
blissfully ignorant that any such thing exists in the world; the ••^pie,"
and especially the " pumpkin pie," is an exclusively Yankee invention.
Excellent asparagus is found everywhere in Germany ; so also is lettuce,
cabbage, cucumbers and string beans. I saw no raspberries or blackber-
ries, and was informed that there were no cranberries in all Europe. I
could see nothing of watermelons or muskmelons, but purchased some of
the finest sweet oranges for about /oier cents a dozen.
So far as meadows are concerned, there is no special attention paid to
them. Land is too much required for cereal and forage crops, to devote
any that can be used for either of these purposes to the culture of artifi-
ciaJ or meadow grasses. Cultivated meadows are confined to tracts of
land —
1. Where climatic influences do not permit other cultivated crops.
2. Where the condition of the land will not admit the plow.
3. Where the land is annually liable to be flooded.
4. Where the soil is wet, and too low to be drained.
6. Where the soil is too poor to grow other forage plants.
6. Where the soil is so situated that water impregnated with manure
will flow on or over it.
All the meadows in Saxony may be classed under one or the other of
these categories.
Considerable attention is given to forestry, which is not only an indis-
pensable portion of agriculture there, bat is also a profitable one. It is
estimated that up to the sixtieth year, the forest increases at the rate of
one cord of wood (Saxon measure) per annum, and at the regular forest
market price, the wood will sell for a sum equal to the capital upon inter-
est at four per cent, for the period of sixty years. In a country where
money may be borrowed for three to three and a half per cent, a forest
yielding four per cent, is considered a good investment.
Saxony is anxious to introduce all the labor-saving machines possible,
and I was surprised to find quite a number of American machines there.
Beapers, mowers, steam threshing machines, improved straw cutters,
plows, and many of our hand implements, were already introduced. Our
malleable iron, hickory and ash wood give American machines and im-
plements the preference to any others in all Europe. So anxious is the
Government to introduce the best machines, that it has established an
agricultural implement and machine warehouse in Dresden, in charge of
Messrs. Shubart & Hesse, and has, within the past few years, expended
about $10,000 for model machines and implements, and has given special
Digitized by LjOOQIC
176
enconragement to Saxon artisans to manufacture a supply for the king-
dom of the most excellent and desirable ones.
The collateral branches of agriculture, such as the manufacture of tile,
distilleries, breweries, etc., are fully equal to the demand. The internal
revenue derived from breweries in 1840, was 226,100 thalets, and without
any increase in the rate of assessment, the revenue amounted to 377,270
thalers in 1863, showing an increase of over 66 per cent. The revenue
on whisky in 1840 was 318,338 thalers, and in 1863 it amounted to 766,140
thalers, or an increase of 140 per cent. The manufacture of sugar from
beets has not yet obtained any footing in Saxony, although large tracts
of land there are admirably adapted to the culture of the beet.
Several attempts have been made to render the manufacture of flax a
separate and distinct branch of industry, but all have failed. The culture
and manufacture remain, as a general thing, in the hands of the farmers,
who grow the flax, ret it, and prepare it for spinning, which is generally
done in the family. Lace making, curtain embroidery, linen sewing-
thread making, and the coarser kinds of linen cloths, toweling, sheeting,
napkins, &c., &c., are carried on by the wives and daughters of farmers,
mechanics and laborers.
LIVE STOCK.
It is often a difficult task to ascertain the number of horses, cattle,
sheep and swine in a German State — even from their statistical tables —
for the reason that they have adopted what might be called an " aggre-
gate," or ** conglomerate" system, as I always named it. By this system
all the live stock is reduced to the standard of neat cattle. I remember
inquiring of a very intelligent gentleman how much live stock they had
in the province. He answered very promptly, " Beduced to neat cattle,
we have ," -so many thousand. " But how many of each kind — ^how
many horses, cattle, sheep and swine '?" "Ah yes, " said he ; "if you wish
to know how many stallions, geldings, mares and colts — how many bulls,
cows, oxen and calves — how many bucks, wethers, ewes and lambs — ^how
many boars, hogs, sows and pigs there are, then you must apply to the
Ministerium of Statistics, for we very seldom get these details."
Oattle are the standard ; and 3 head of cattle are estimated as being
equivalent to 2 horses, 30 sheep, or 12 head of swine. Thus if a farmer
haid 3 head of cattle, 2 horses, 30 sheep, and 12 head of swine, he will
tell you that his live stock is equivalent to 12 head of cattle. For future
comparisons in our country, it may be well to record the live stock popu-
lation of some of the leading kingdoms on the Continent For every
10,000 acres of cultivated land
In Prnssia, there are eqaivftlent to 3,336 head of cattle.
"Saxony, " " 6,004 ••
" Bavaria, " •*
Digitized by LjOOQIC
177
In Wnrtembxirg, there are eqniyalent to 4,466 head of cattle.
"Hanover, " " 2,470 "
" Ba^n, " " 3,914
** Grand Duchy of Hesse, there are equivalent to 3,885 "
" Knrhessen, " '• 3,103
Some idea of the relative estimate in which the several kinds of live
fttock were held, may be forme^ from the following : Saxony had,
In 1768, an equivalent of 592,000 head of cattle.
" 1834, " 744,000
"1850, " 848,000 "
" 1861, " 887,000
Showing an increase of only 60 i>er cent, in abont a century.
For every 100 horses in 1768, there were 177 in 1861.
" cattle " " 186 "
" " sheep " " 37 "
" " hogs " " 38 "
" horses in 1834, " 130 "
cattle " " 117
sheep " " 61 "
" " hogs " " 258 "
In other words, one handred years ago, Saxony had 1,005,000 head of
sheep, and to-day has 372,000 only. From this we learn that, as the
population becomes more dense — ^the lands necessarily more valuable—
that wool-growing will decrease. It is a well-known flEtct that Saxony
wool has always commanded the highest price both in the Continental
and English markets, and therefore the decline in wool-growing cannot
be attributed to a decline in the price of wool. And even during the
past thirty years, with sheep that shear more than double the weight of
fleece that the old Saxony Merinos did, we find only 61 sheep in Saxony
to-day for every 100 that were there in 1834. The Saxonians have no
love for cattle ; they regard them as a " necessary evil," yet these have
nearly doubled in number during the past century, and have increased
17 per cent, since 1834. Jt is well for the farmers of Ohio to ponder on
these facts ; for the reason that, if, with our comparative cheap lands and
sparse population, Congress must be besieged with petitions for a tariff
to protect the United States wool-grower against foreign competition on
wool, is it not reasonable that cattle-raising proper would be profitable in
a series of years, especially as we in Ohio have only about one-half the
number of cattle we had in 1860, whilst we have about double the num-
ber of sheep we then had 1 Saxony contains an area equal to about one-
seventh of Ohio, and the number of sheep in Ohio at present is in round
numbers about the same per square mUe that Saxony had in 1768, or
when it had its maximum number. Can we now increase the number in
Ohio, without neglecting other equally important branches in agriculture 1
A12
Digitized by LjOOQIC
178
For every 10,000 inhabitants in Saxony there is an equivalent of 3,085
head of cattle.
Furthermore, on every 10,000 cultivated acres there are 540 horses to
319 oxen, as animals of labor. Notwithstanding the fact, that many
Saxony farmers insist that oxen are better adapted for some portions of
farm work, and cheaper in price than horses, cost less to keep, and in the
end may be fattened and sold for the stiambles, yet they do not increase
in the same relative proportion that horses do ; for instance —
From 1834 to 1861, aU kinds of cattle increased 17 per cent.
From 1835 to 1861, hones increased 30 per cent.
For actual farm labor there are on every 10,000 cultivated acres, accord-
ing to enumeration of 1844, 218 span of horses, and 118 yoke of cattle.
Then, too, it must be remembered, cows are worked under the yoke to
a very great extent ; that is to say, 37 per cent, of the cultivated land is
owned by small farmers in parcels of from three to ten acres, and these
farmers as a rule work cows and heifers, but seldom own a yoke of work
oxen.
Viewed from another stand-point : for every 10,000 inhabitants there
are 430 horses, 254 steers and oxen, 1,850 cows, 726 cows and heifers,
1,672 sheep, 1,215 swine. Or for every 10,000 head of cattle there are
1,498 horses, 886 steers and oxen, 6,446 cows, 2,531 heifers and calves,
5,827 sheep, 4,236 swine. For every 10,000 cows there are 211 bulls,
1,375 steers and oxen, 3,926 calves and heifers.
Like most of the German States, horse-breeding in Saxony, of better
strains, is now being conducted by Government, but with this difference,
viz., that the stallions kept by Government are best adapted to the wants
of the agriculturist, and less in the direction of military purposes than in
Prussia and Hannover. From the official returns it appears that, for a
series of years, 40 per cent, of the mares served produced living colts.
But the great demand for horses have induced farmers and others to
work the mares when heavy with foal, and on the other hand, to work
horses when entirely too young, so that many horses are ruined before
they are fully developed.
It is estimated that a serviceable animal, whether horse or mare, con-
sumes annually about 150 cwt. of hay, 60 cwt. of grain, and 50 cwt. of straw,
and the question is an open one with- many farmers whether this proven-
der could not be made to yield more by feeding to some other species of
domestic animals. A gentleman who had charge of a private breeding
establishment told me that every live colt cost when dropped 30 thalers ;
the items of cost were made up of interest on the capital invested, loss
oi the services of the mare before and after dropping the colt, stallion
fees, and the pro rata of stallion fees for mares that did not produce a
live colt, food of the mare while not in service in consequence of preg-
nancy, and afterwards until fit for service.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
179
BEGOBD OP THE SAXONY STUD FOB 1863.
MA]
Served.
EtES
Befdsed service.
Colts dropped.
Per cent, of Colts
dropped to Mores
served.
Once 1,360
Twice 860
Three times.. 305
Fonr " .. 92
Five " -. 33
Six " .. 11
2,651
486
203
78
27
11
4
809
521
31
105
32
16
4
993
38-3
371
344
*34-d
500
364
37-41
Total No. of Stallions 72
Name of Staujon.
StalUon.
Number of
Mares served.
Living Colts
dropped.
Per cent, of
Colts to
mares served.
firownlord ...... ..............
20
20
19
18
18
18
17
17
17
16
16
15
15
15
15
15
14
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
12
12
12
11
11
11
10
10
10
10
9
9
9
9
9
22
23
30
32
35
47
42
54
22
49
21
41
15
23
22
6
21
48
63
32
58
100
97
13
22
56
17
22
29
31
51
64
46
46
33
31
25
39
34
33
12
7
12
11
6
16
17
23
9
10
4
11
10
12
8
1
5
14
33
5
26
30
17
6
9
14
5
5
14
8
21
42
25
10
21
10
11
16
7
16
42-2
Alcidor
Bolivar
40-0
Ariel
)
Achilles
> 29-0
DoQflElas .......................
s
Boreas
1 i
Emilins
> 41-5
Belisar
\
Fingal
Columbus .....................
> 200
Focus
Despot
Cyras --.-
> 39-3
Draco
Emir
Elliott
23-8
Jsson
Fidelio
Felix
Gladiator
\ 35-6
Marqnis
General
Grief
Goliath
Hetman «
\ 25-5
Pins
Lucifer
,
Janns
1
Hannibal......
> 3M
Lanfza
s
Lionel
Harmont
Joi^an ..w^ »^
\ 51-9
Kobald
Kastor
Narciss
Koylan.. "
> 37*0
Leonidaa.
Kodma i!
Digitized by VjOOQIC
180
Record of the Saxony Stud for 1863— Continued.
Name of Stallion.
Age of
Stallion.
Number of
Mares served.
Living Colts
dropped.
Per cent of
Colts to
mares served.
Omar
Lootse
Neptune .:..
Minus
Mozart
Landsknecbt
Onyx
Latour
Magnet
Mammeluke .
Monarch
Morwick
Marshall
Mjr Lord .---
Milton
Ninus
Ocean
Ossian
Nile
Oswin
Nelson
Quell
Pollux
Paul
Orcan
Orpheus
Onon
Planet
Pasha
Pan
Pilot
Quercus
8
8
8
8
8
8
S
8
8
8
7
7
7
7
7
S
6
6
6
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
5
54
30
51
38
32
63
57
39
50
15
47
36
31
56
54
36
65
55
36
45
48
2
44
33
52
41
30
41
16
5
3
1
17
8
25
12
11
15
10
4
21
13
7
26
20
11
29
16
19
29
20
1
25
10
13
22
10
10
3
1
34-5
^ 40-7
43-6
400
} 21-2
ONE STALLION SERVED—
Per cent, of
Colts
produced.
Mares—
100
300
I*Yom 60 to 69 ---
510
*' 60 to 59
■
35-2
" 40 to 49
39*3
" 30 to 39
33-9
** 20 to 29
39-2
" 10 to 19
36'8
" I to 9
17*7
J thought it not improper to append these results of the Saxony
Stud for 1863; the returns for 1864 were not yet complete when I
was' in Dresden. This record is less satisfactory in some respects than
that of Prussia, but more satisfactory in others, especially as it gives
Digitized by LjOOQIC
181
the ages of the stallions and the number of colts got by each ; but it is
defective in not stating sexes of the colts, as well as the number of mis-
carriages, and dead colts.
It will be observed that in Saxony a less per centage of colts are pro-
duced than in any of the above-mentioned countries. This record proves
clearly that the small per cent, of colts produced cannot be attributed to
the age of the stallion, nor to the number of mares served ; for example,
'^Bbownlobd," at 20 years of age, served 22 mares and got 12 colts — or
in other words, more than fifty per cent, of the mares served by him pro-
duced living colts ; whilst " Magnbt," at 8 years old, served 50 mares,
and got 10 colts, or 20 per cent. ; and " Pasha," at 4 years old, served 16
mares, and got 3 colts, or less than 20 per cent. With regard to the
number of mares served, "Marquis," at 13 years of age, served 100
mares, and got 30 colts ; whilst " Felix," of the same age, served 32
mares, and got 5 colts, or a little over 15 per cent., or about one-half the
proportion that " Marquis" got.
OATTLE BBEBDING.
It is claimed that the cattle breeding of Saxony has been retarded for
more than half a century by the prominence and zeal bestowed on fine-
wooled sheep, and because cattle, upon general principles, were regarded
as a necessary evil only. The high price of the fine wools made sheep-
breeding the leading branch in the breeding of domestic animals, and as
a matter of course engaged the best minds and directed the energy and
enterprise in this direction, to the detriment of other branches. The
profits or income derived from cattle did not compare with that of sheep-
breeding — ^the price of milk, milk products and of meat were at a mini-
mum and in so little demand, that cattle deteriorated to the merest
*^9crubs^" and only in Yoigtland was a pure race to be found. But how-
ever little cattle were regarded or appreciated, tliey were indispensable,
and since the wars of Napoleon the interest in cattle has increased, while
that in sheep has in a corresponding ratio decreased. During a period of
more than twenty years the Saxons endeavored to improve the native
stock of cattle by care and attention, but in 1836 the first attempt was
made at a systematic effort to produce better breeds by cross breeding, and
68 bulls were imported from Eggerland, Allgau, Oldenburg and Holland,
and distributed at specific localities throughout the kingdom. The re-
sults of this importation were favorable, but it was found that unless cows
of the same breeds, were imported in order to preserve and continue the
stock pure, that the imported blood would either be absorbed, or else
must constantly be renewed. The»6ovemment therefore offered a bonus
of 50 thalers to every one who would import ten cows or ten heifers, in
calf, of either of the above-named pure breeds. From 1844 to 1851 there
Digitized by LjOOQIC
182
were in consequence of this bonus 509 cows imported from Allgau and
Holland. The bonus was then changed to premiums on the best pure-
blooded bulls raised in Saxony. A sufficient interest is now manifested
by those interested in cattle-breeding, that importations are annually
made from Holland, Allgau and Oldenburg ; and recently, Shorthorns
have been introduced.
That race ot cattle which will yield the greatest amount of milk from a
given quantity of food, is the race destined to become the most popular*
Saxony has not yet arrived at that stage when she can dispense with the
labor of cattle, nor yet when she can afford to grow cattle for beef only ;
although she is dispensing with work cattle as rapidly as she can, and
sees the day is not far distant when she will obtain beef and fat from
young instead of old cattle. In Saxony the lowland breeds may be seen
side by side with the mountain breeds, and the difference in structure is
manifest at a single glance The lowlands have heavy shoulders, deep
chest, and light hindquarters, whilst the mountain breeds have heavy
hindquarters, and comparatively light shoulders. The lowland breeds,
ranging over level pasture, rest more of their weight on the fore legs, and
this habit, in cours3 of time, develops the shoulders ; whilst the moun-
tain breeds, in the mountainous districts, rest their weight whilst grazing
on the hind legs, and hence develop the hinder portion more than the
fore. Again, in the lowland breeds, pasturage has a greater tendency to
increase the flow of milk, whilst the mountain pasturage has a tendency,
in the mountain breeds, to form flesh and give strength to the muscular
system. Experience has taught the Saxons that cattle imported from
lowland into higher or broken regions, give a greater flow of milk than
their progeny. Stall feeding gives lowland cattle heavier hindquarters
than ranging in pastures, and also gives mountain breeds heavier fore-
quarters. The Saxons are of opinion that for the best combination of
the three purposes, viz : for milk, under the yoke, and beef, in the same
animal, the mountain breeds are the most desirable ; if milk and beef
only are required, then they prefer the lowland (Holland) breed ; and,
finally, the Shorthorn for beef only.
The Saxons insist that the Devon breed of cattle are simply the Yoigt-
lander breed acclimated in England. Oertnin it is, that the general con-
tour is the same ; the color is precisely the same ; the white or waxy
muzzle, a black or spotted muzzle being a sure indication of a cross ; the
tips of the horns and end of the tail white, but other than this, not a
white spot is to be found on the body. Devonshire, in England, is very
similar, in its general contour, to some portions of Saxony. It must be
a subject replete with great interest to the cattle breeder, to study the
so-called original breeds of the mountainous regions of southern Europe,
and compare them with those of the lowlands of northern Europe. It
Digitized by LjOOQIC
183
has been definitely ascertained that whilst the lowlanders yield a greater
quantity of milk, that the milk of the highlanders contains sixteen per
cent, more solid matter.
Experiments made in Saxony demonstrate that late maturity may be
changed into early maturity, and this latter quality made perfectly heredi-
tary. The Saxon breeders make the following statement in relation to this
subject : " It is a very common practice to wean the calf at ten to fourteen
days, in order to secure the milk for family or commercial purposes. The
calf then is compelled to subsist upon food for which its organization is
not yet adapted, and the period at which it naturally makes the most
rapid growth is completely checked. In the course of a very few years,
comparatively, the Voigtlanders have grown bull calves which, at luw
months of age, weighed over 500 pounds more than they did at birth ;
but rearing calves in the usual method, it is seldom that a two-year-old
weighs more than 500 pounds."
There are now in Saxony 120 cows for every 100 that were there in
1834, and 94 oxen and steers only for every 100 in 1834 — showing a gain
of twenty per cent, in cows, and a decrease of six per cent, in oxen;
whilst the actual cattle increase has been seventeen per cent. only. The
kingdom averages 2,323 cows on every 10,000 acres of cultivated land.
(See table and note on pages 184-5.)
SHEEP BREEDING IN SAXONY.
Long before Merinos were imported from Spain into Saxony, the latter
country was producing the finest wool in Germany, and exporting it to
NAUVK GERMAN SHEEP.
otber countries.* Except in Saxony, the native sheep only was known.
This was a sheep of rather large stature, with pointed face, long ears,
* A. Ktfrte, das Deatsohe Merino Sohaf, BresUa, ISSst.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
184
^
V
1
I
a
H
O
I
*iUUUlULVJ|^
JO OK
'eSiuoAy
'omiinxQi^
•B[«uniry
JO oil
•oSvjeAy
*IIilIUiUCV|^
•axwraiuy
JO OK
*09«I9AY
'lUUUIlXVJf
'sx'BurraY
JO OK
'e9iU9Ay
nmoEizvjf
•8i«raiay
JO o'k
*e9«a9Ay
'nmniix9|^
•8[«niiiry
JO -OK
'99«I9Ay
SS^
lo i-c s 5 S S S
SSSEiS
;!;s;$$;SS;;!S
SSi^S!
%m
iSS«SStS^&
00 SS "^S o tH
»-^ t^ ^ OJ »^ Q Id
5^ O A Q v^ C»
00 OD QD CD 00 oD a
r
s
O
e>^eocoo>i>^apkAeo > '
>>« o £.
•3 £.9 gs s s s s s
■IS >>2 S
fe S s >■
gS-SrlS
gs "S
A a o 0
t^ ^ ca S "^ -- :i
5
Digitized by VjOOQlC
185
broad neck and back, broad hips, wide chest, long feet, and altogether of
a lank appearance. But they were a profitable sheep, because they were
readily fattened, and were by no means select in their food. They could
endure the greatest heat and withstand the severest cold ; hence they
were scattered all over Germany, from the Alps to the North Sea. They
are yet to be seen in large herds in Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden and
Hesse.
The fine-wooled sheep of Saxony were called " Electorals," and pro-
duced a fine, soft wool, which was eagerly sought for by dealers and
manufacturers. The Electoral sheep had a delicate, rather small frame,
and fine bones. The head narrow, rather long than short, pointed nose,
the neck long and ridged ; the back also ridged or sharp, and the body
not specially barrel-formed. The face free from wool, but covered with
' . I ■ i o
Alter the tourtb calf, 2342 milk avVe. After tbo BeTcnith calf, 2292 milk avVe.
" " fifth " 25«2 " *^ " " eighth " 2396 "
" " sixth " 2584 " " " " ninth " 2240 " •*
The m&ximnm amount of milk was obtained after the sixth calf, and the cow had the
greatest liye weight at eight yean of age.
Of 131 cows whose average weight was 1412 ponnds, dropped bull calves.
" 108 *' " " " " 1251 " ^' heifer "
The average weight of 42 heifer and 74 bnU calves, was :
HeiftrealTW. ImwMe par owi. BnllealTW. InaniMi parci*.
Atbirth 80 — 88 —
Three month»— past... 233 291 353 401
Six " 357 153 472 134
Nine " 555 155 625 132
Twelve* " 608 109 750 120
Fifteen " 806 133 825 110
Eighteen " 1025 127 882 107
Twenty-fonr " 1180 115 1300 147
A seven-year old bnll weighed 2700 ponnds.
The average weight of 30 cows the day lefore calving, was 1450 ponnds.
" " " " " « after *• " 1304 "
Difference 146
Weight of calf 85
afterbirth 12^
fluids 48^ — 146
The ealf weighed M6th of the live weight of the cow.
FBEDINQ BXPEHDfBMTS.
The feeding experiments carefhlly observed daring a period of five years, demonstrala
Ibftt one cwt. of hay or its eqoivalent, produces in the
MUk. BvtCar.
Allganers 29.3kannen. 2.32kann6n.
HoUanders 25.5 •* 1.76 "
Oldenbergers 24.7
Natives 23.1 ** 1.78 *'
I was furnished with the details of the feeding of most of the cattle named in the
aiK>ve table, but it would require entirely too much space to repeat them here.
Note.-— The milk is put down in Saxony Icannm, which is somewhat more than a
jnart ; or, to be more precise, the hanne is 0.318 of a gallon-*the hawM for the butter is
C47 pounds— -thus, the average maximum yield of the Allgauer cows in the above table
ia 5001 kannm, eoual to 6360 quarts. The maximum yield of a Holland cow in 1863» to
•toted in the table at 6670Imwimii, which is equal to 9484 quarts, or 23i quarts as adiiilj
average during the entire year.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
186
soft, downy hairs, and even these often were wanting about the eyes,
which gave the eyes the appearance of being encircled by a pink belt
the ears often without these hairs, and semi-transparent. The fine, thin,
long legs were partly covered by a short, thin wool, and were also partly
entirely free of hair or wool ; the belly had either thin, short wool, or else
was bare. The wool, in the densest portion, had very little yelk, which be-
came fluid at a rather low temperature, and was easily washed out;] and
was from one-half inch to one and one-half inches in length.
ELBCTORAL BUCK.
In 1765 the first importations were made into Saxony from Spain, (see
Ohio Agricultural Beport for 1862, page 468,) but it was not until an im-
provement was manifest on the Saxony sheep, that importations were
made into Austria. Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria, made several
importations from the same cabannas, or original herds from which
Saxons imported ; but in Austria less attention was paid to quality of
wool, and more to quantity, than in Saxony; hence the breeding in Aus-
tria took a difiTerent direction from that of Saxony.
The result of breeding the imported Spanish Merinos in Austria, was
to produce a sheep with longer and coarser wool than that in Saxony.
The yelk in the Austrian wool was characterized by being adhesive, tal-
lowy, and in great quantity ; thus the fleece, in many particulars, was
precisely the opposite of that of Saxony. This type of Austrian im-
proved sheep has passed under various names, but is now more generally
known under the name of Negbetti, in Europe, than by any other.
The Negrettis are distinguished by their strongly built bodies, stoat
bones, and wide breast and back. The head is broad and rather short.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
187
ttie face blunt ; the neck short, compact and strong ; the body deep and
barrel-shaped. The face is covered with wool, and not unfreqnently the
spaces occupied by the eyes, nose and mouth are the only ones tree of
wool ; the short, thick ears are wooled at the base, and the short, stout-
boned legs are covered with wool down to the hoofs, and even the belly
is well covered with wool. The thick, coarsely organized skin is greatly
disposed to form folds, or great wrinkles, which are sometimes very large
around the necks and on the buttocks. All these folds produce a coarser
Digitized by VjOOQIC
188
wooL The wool is never so fine, even or soft as that of the Electorals ;
the wool itself is from 2^ to 3j inches in length, the yelk seldom becom-
ing liqnid ander 127° Fahrenheit — this tallowey quality of the yelk
making the wool appear much harsher than it really is.*
[Note.— The eDgraving of this Austrian Negretti is a copy of the portrait of Mr. J.
F. Hoflbchliiger's back, " Edonard No. 124," and is of the stock the ewes of which
divided the first premiums in the class of " quantity of wool," with George CampbeU*s
ewes, at the Hamburg Exhibition in 1863.
All the improved sheep in Germany — except Eambonillet's — ^trace back
in their pedigrees to one or the other of these types — to the Electorals or
to the Negrettis.* By great attention to systematic and carefnl breeding,
several types have been formed, as, for instance, those bred by Mr.
Steiger, of Lentewitz, where large folds are found on the neck only— no
l-drce|itible folds bein? on the body oi legs.
I was led to visit Mr. Steiger's estate on account of the sheep, because
I had heard of it everywhere as being the most famous stock flock in all
Saxony, if not in all Germany. The flock was founded in 1806, by the
purchase of the most celebrated bucks and ewes from the stock flock of
the Prince of Eeuss, at Elipphausen ; and the flock of the latter traces
back to an importation firom Spain of the most celebrated flocks there.
The present flock at Lentewitz has been bred by itself for about sixty
years, and has had no infusion or admixture of any other blood. Some
of the bucks which I saw weighed, with one year's fleece on, one hundred
and fifty pounds, and were almost as large as some of the Bambouillets I
saw at Stettin. They were very finely built animals, and had splendidly
eompact heads. The wool was very fine, even, a capital crimp, and not
overloaded with yelk. His men were shearing sheep when I arrived at
the estate, and those shorn showed careful breeding, were In good con-
dition, and well formed. The bucks' fleeces unwashed weighed from
twelve to twenty pounds, and when washed, firom six to ten pounds ; th%
ewes' fleeces unwashed, seven to ten pounds, and when washed, four to
six pounds. The wool is used in^the manufacture of the finest cloths.
The entire fiock has folds around the neck, but not on the body; and yet
Mr. Steiger insists on calling them " Electorals." This shows how arbi-
trary names are, for by Electoral we understand one without any folds
whatever. He sells annually 200 to 250 bucks, and as many ewes, and
keeps as a regular breeding flock about 400. The sheep are kept in
stables, and are kept very clean and nice. Sometimes they are driven
out to pasture in the care of shepherds, but in winter are housed all the
time, and are fed one and one-half pound of hay, three to four pounds of
straw, two pounds of mangolds, one-fourth pound of oats or other grain,
* A KOrte, das Dentsohe Merino Schaf, Brealau, 1862, page 2£>9-60.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
189
•* chopped." The proprietor aimed to combine size of body with great
prodact^of wool and perfect form, and took especial pains to show me the
classes of sheep which he afterwards exhibited at the Dresden Fair, viz :
«, sheep for size of body and perfect form ; by sheep for size of body and
quantity of wool ; c, sheep for quantity and quality of wool ; d, sheep
combining large size of body, i)erfection of form, quantity and quality ot
wooL
Digitized by VjOOQIC
l&O
At the iuternational exhibition at Hamburg, in 1863, the fine wooled
sheep were divided into the following classes :
(A.) Stock, (Stamme) in which especial regard is to be had with refer-
ence to QUALITY. ("Bide") Wolle. Bucks: Two first premiums of 50
thalers ; two second premiums of 25 thalers. Ewes, in lots of three :
premiums same as bucks.
(B.) Stock, in which especial regard is to be had with reference to
QUANTITY OP WOOL. Bucks: Two first premiums of 60 thalers; two
iiecond premiums of 25 thalers. Ewes, in lots of three : premiums same
as bucks.
(0.) Stock, in which especial regard is to be had with reference to pbb-
FEOTiON OF FORM AND EASY KEEPING. Premiums on bucks same as
preceding. Ewes, in lots of thrjee : premiums same as bucks.
(D.) Stock, in which quality of wool, quantity of wool, and
WEIGHT OF BODY are combined.
(a.) Bucks : Premiums same as preceding classes.
(b.) Ewes, in lots of three : premiums same as bucks.
Considerable controversy ensued in relation to the propriety of making
the class D, a and b. This controversy was not confined to verbal discus-
sions alone, but an exceedingly prolix published controversy grew out of
it Baron Hermann von Nathusius, a practical breeder and very scien-
tific gentleman, opposed the formation of the classes, on the grounds that
there were no physiological faots to warrant it; whilst Baron von Omp-
teda was in favor of the classes. The whole controversy grew out of Mr.
Steiger's request to have the class D 113 formed and published.
In the course of his reply to the positions assumed by the respective
gentlemen above named, Mr. Steiger says : " Mr. Nathusius states that
the object of securing competition for those sheep breeders who endeavor
to produce an animal combining several qualities, with special regard for
any one quality, was not accomplished by the addition of class 113 ; it
resulted in presenting an obscure, rather than a clear picture of the com-
bination claimed. Now, it is admitted that animals were exhibited in
this class which should have been exhibited in others*; but this is equaUy
true of all the other classes ; at least, so the awarding juries decided.
But this has nothing to do with the principle involved. Mr. Nathusins
insists that those breeders who were of opinion that they possessed ani-
mals combining all three of these qualities in an equal degree of excel-
lence, should be exhibited in the three classes, respectively. A, B and C.
For one, I was willing to have my sheep entered in those classes, but I
was not permitted to do so. I will cheerfully admit that if I had been
permitted thus to enter them, that it would have been a difficult matter
to have obtained a prize, because it is barely possible to develop all these
qualities in a high degree in the same animal ; but, whilst making this
Digitized by LjOOQIC
191
admission, I do not at the same time admit that every animal mtiat excel
in one qoality to be entitled to a place at an exhibition, or to the claim
of being profitable — conditions or terms upon which classes A, B and 0
are based. On the contrary, I maintain that in Merino breeding the
largest profit may, in most cases, be realized by having regard to all
three qualities ; that these three qualities mutually assist each other in
being developed to that degree which secures the greatest profit The
object in breeding as designated by class D, is not only a feasible, but a
very important one. Any dose observer of Merino breeders may be con-
vinced of its practicability, and I will direct attention to those points only
which, fully demonstrated, produce the result just stated.
'*In the first place, I may be permitt^ to refer to the views hitherto
Mitertained. For a long time a belief obtained, that a great quantity
and fine quality of wool could not be found in combination, or on the
same animal. Experience had demonstrated that the very finest flocks
were the very lightest shearers ; thus, when the finest wool no longer
commanded remunerative prices, it was very natural that greater atten-
tion would be paid to breeds which produced heavier fleeces, even if the
quality was inferior. As a transition fi:om one extreme to the other fre-
quently occurs, so also in this ; and it was not long before it was believed
that a heavy fleece could be obtained of coarse wool onlj/. Accurate and
more recent investigations have demonstrated this position to be incor-
rect. It was shown that fine wool has a greater specific gravity than
coarse and *^ ignoble** wool. It was also found that a wool somewhat
longer than the former short Saxony was deemed valuable, and in de-
mand by the manufacturers. They learned that a soft, true, elastic wool,
adhering firmly to the skin of the animal, although not superfine, had
the same commercial value. It was also found that this wool could grow
equally on almost all parts of the body, and that it adhered more firmly
to the skin until shearing time, than the very finest, or than the rough
and course wool ; and finally, that the greatest weight of fleece was at-
tainable with such wools. Thus, at last, a combination of these two
qualities was thought possible ; as to the third — ^form and great weight
of body — very little importance was attached to it in Merino breeding.
It was found that when quantity and quality were combined in one ani-
mal, that the development of the body often was deficient, and therefore
it was believed that perfection of form and great weight of body were
attainable only in mutton sheep, or the English breeds. It was thought,
therefore, that one only, or at most two qualities might be combined and
developed to a high degree of excellency in one sheep. But that two
only of the qualities mentioned could be found in any one animal, and
tliat the third must necessarily be wanting, is a belief no less founded on
Digitized by LjOOQIC
192
authority than the former opinions, and it may be influential in assigning
the greatest value to the sheep possessing one or two qualities only.
'* To prove the impossibility of combining all three qualities in one ani-
mal, reference ought to be made to the phenomenon which all know to be
immutable, but instead of this, reference is made to the effects produced
by every extreme breed. For example, reference is made to sheep hav-
ing a thick skin and numerous folds or wrinkles, especially if the wool
on the exposed portion of the folds is " noble,"* (which it never is in the
wrinkles) producing heavy fleeces, (because the wool in the folds has a
very large proportion of yelk ;) but then they never are in good condition,
and never have a large and heavy body.
" Inference : The nobler, and denser, and stronger (more yelky) the wool,
the smaller the body.
" On the other hand, it is apparent that animals with igrtoble^ rough,
loosely rooted wool, and the entire body of a porous texture, are good
feeders, and acquii'e a considerable weight of body.
" Inference : In order to produce good and heavy bodies, the wool must
be ignoble and coarse.
'* But these inferences are refuted by facts which have been firmly estab-
lished by accurate observation, in reference to the actual weight of wool,
(not yelk and wool) and the good feeding qualities. First, I repeat
that ' noble ' wool weighs heavier than * ignoble ;' that it adheres more
flrmly to the skin of the animal, and the goods manufactured of it are
more durable; that it has a greater commercial value; that such wool
may grow equally on all parts of the body ; that the greatest weight of
fleece may be obtained with noble and valuable wool, but it is attainable
only when such wool grows in equal density on all parts of the body of
the sheep. But another fact is, that such sheep, with a thin, noble skin,
noble wool, few wrinkles or folds, little yelk, and a broad body, will keep
in good feeding condition, and may be brought to a considerable size and
weight, because two superfluous and even noxious productions, requiring
much fodder and impeding the development of the animal — sweat (>elk)
and a thick skin — are avoided; the fodder not consumed in forming
these, may form mutton and wool. From ail these facts, it follows that
it is possible to produce a Merino sheep yielding a considerable quantity
of valuable wool, and possessing good feeding qualities, a tine form of
body and a heavy carcass; that this is possible only when all three
qualities are united and mutually operate on each other.
** The proper rearing of the young animals, the nutritive value of the
various foods, the general keeping, etc, as Mr. Ompteda remarks, can no
more be represented by figures, than the relative value of the individual
* £dl€ in German ; it signifiee " noble,'* " precious,** " excellent.'*
Digitized by LjOOQIC
193
prodnctions under the yarious conditioDS and coiynnctares ; therefore I
haye not made an arithmetical calculation, although I might maJse one
which would Mly demonstrate the correctness of the principle inyolyed
in my system of breeding.
*« In conclusion, I haye yet one remark to make in relation to that which
Mr. Kathusius, in his reply to Mr. Ompteda, designates ' as an open
question,' etc. I cannot indorse the yiews expressed by Mr. Ompteda
in discussing the question, * In breeding Merinos, why should not the
body also form an object of itself, if it is not only attainable, but is also
a condition for securing the other qualities in a* higher degree V
'*It is only when the body is of a fine form and large, and the wool field
is free from wrinkles and extended oyer a large surface, that the wool can
be really noble and equal on the yarious parts. But to obtain a large
profit the form and weight of the body are of such importance that they
are almost a sine qua non for making Merino-breeding profitable. This
refutes a principle which, perhaps, was the leading idea in the discussion
of this question by Mr. Ompteda, yiz. : that large profits might be real-
ized from the wool alone eyen if the Merinos were kept on inferior forage
or poor pasture. This idea is wholly erroneous, and is being now more
and more abandoned. All domestic animals must be well fed and espe-
cially well bred and reared, otherwise the profits accurately calculated
will always be smaller.
" H. A. STBiaEE."
Mr. A. Korte of Oppeln, Silesia, and who with propriety may be regarded
as the Yauatt of Germany, so far as sheep are concerned, speaking of the
present German flocks in general, says that those descended from the Elec-
toral herds (like Steiger's) haye retained the quality of wool, but haye
been improyed in size and form, whilst those deriyed from the Kegrettis
haye retained the form and size, but haye been improyed in the quality of
the fleece. The present combing-wool Meriuos of Germany, he regards
as a ** bastard race,'' and attributes the character of the fleece more to
the influence of soil and climate, than to any spedflc system of breed-
ing.
BOBTma WOOL.
E[nowing that the Germans paid a great deal of attention to quality of
wool, I applied to a famous wool-sorter (assorter) to learn from him how
a fleece was assorted or diyided into qualities. The following is his de-
scrqition, yiz. :
*' This cut represents a well-grown old-fashioned Electoral when shear-
ed, or rather such a sheep as produced the fine wool of Saxoay, and
which yields 70 per cent, of electa or yery fine wool, 20 per cent, bf
FBDCA, or fine wool, and 10 per cent, of seoxtitda, tags and locks. The
shoulder marked No. 1 in the cut produces the finest wool on the entire
13A
Digitized by LjOOQIC
194
body ; when the wool is of the very finest quality, soft, short in staple, it
is then called bupeb-eleota. The limits of this wool field varies in the
individaal sheep — ^in some larger, in others smaller — ^and by almost imper-
ceptible gradations mingles with that grown in Kos. 2 and 3, so that it
really has no strongly marked boundary.
*• No, 2. The ribs and flank. The wool on this field varies very slightly
in fineness from No. 1, bnt its boondary is more distinct as it borders on
Nos. 9, 10, 4 and 12 than is the boundary between it and No. 1. The wool
on this field is also classed as electa.
^* No. 3. The wool on both sides of the neck is a shade coarser than
on the flank.
^* No. 4. The thigh or leg. The wool on this part is the test wool of
the fleece. In the infantados and crosses, it is very frequently mixed
with hairs. The quality of the wool is fiilly two whole degrees inferior
to that on No. 1, and is graded as prime when No. 1 is super-electa, or it
is graded as seounda when No. 1 is electa. These four fields constitute the
greater portion of the fleece, and include all the best qualities on the
sheep.
" No. 5. The forehead. Wool short, irregularly stapled, and is thfere-
fore classed as locks.
^« No. 6. The head. The wool here is coarser and harsh ; in bucks es-
pecially it is* mixed with *dog hairs;' the result of butting. In ewes it
almost always is Ml of white hairs and is knotted ; it is classed with the
locks.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
196
^* No. 7. Neck — ^has coarser wool, abnormal staples, and is graded with
locks.
" No. 8. Withers. This part has either a coarser wool, or if a fine wool
it is called a ' yam' wooL Often the spot is not larger than a dollar, but if
it is not closely watched in breeding, in the course of several generations
it spreads over considerable space. In selecting a breeding buck espe-
cial attention should be paid to the wool on this spot.
•' No. 9. Back or loin. The wool here is coarser than No. 4, the staple
shorter, crimp imperfect, the small locks ' tangled' and are whiter than on
the other parts of the sheep. As it is the most exposed to the influences
of rain and sunshine, it is seldom classed as secunda, and as a rule is
graded with the locks.
*' No. 10. Boot of the tail. This is generally pretty coarse and is
always classed as ' tags.'
" No. 11. Outer portion of the thigh. On every sheep this field pro-
duces the poorest wool — ^the strip is wider or narrower according to the
purity of the breed ; the wool is coarser, sharp and brittle. In improv-
ing the quality of the wool this place is the last to yield to the iniprove-
ment.
" No. 12. Belly. Notwithstanding the wool is fine on this field, it is
short, tangled and loose ; more than all, on the lower portion it is more
or less yellow, and where there is insuflBcient litter it is dyed brown from
the urine, and is very mellow and tender. In manufacturing this wool
is always kept separate from the locks and tags, because it will not take
all the colors in dyeing, and those it does take are not always ^^fcaV
** No. 13. Shin or lower leg. Is always graded as tags.
*« No. 14. Throat and breast. The wool not fine, loose staple, and
therefore put among the locks. Even if the wool i& fine at the roots the
outer extremity is generally coarse, and at least harsb. Along the center
of the throat, in the Infantados and their descendants, very often a lus-
trous streak of wool is found."
In a coxmtry as long settled as Europe, and where the relative value of
industrial products do not fluctuate in price as in the United States, I
thought it proper to ascertain the average prices obtained for the various
grades or qualities of wooL A gentleman who has devoted a long life to
the wool business gave me the following, as the average prices in the
"World's" market:
1. Mohair ; stands at the head of the list. It is that incomparably
fine, silvery white and shining fleece of the Angora goat ; the production
and pride of Asia Minor ; the demand for which has been constantly in-
creasiDg during the past twenty years. The average price of it is $79.26
per hundred pounds.
2. Next in rank are the Saxony fine wools. These command the same
Digitized by LjOOQIC
196
price as the mohair. Then follow the Aastiian and Silesian merino
wools, the average of which is $73.17 per hundred poxmds. It is proper
to mention here that the class of wools purchased by England in the
Breslan market, are chiefly the long merino or combing merino, or better
yet, the de laine wools. There are very few establishments in England
that manufacture fine broadcloths. These delaine wools average about
$65 per hundred weight.
3. Then follows the Spanish mcr no scoured wool. Its average price
is $58.94 per hundred pounds, and it is from this wool that the greater
proportion of cloths are made which are manufactured in England.
4. The Australian merino wool is next in order, chiefly from Port Phil-
lip ; this is a very fine wool, and hafi a very nice crimp. The average
price is $53.65 per hundred pounds. Next in price is the finer scoured
merino wool from Sydney, averaging $49 per hundred pounds; then fol-
low the merinos of Victoria and other provinces. The Tasmanian merino
wool (Van Dieman's Land), however, stands higher and ranges in price
with the German de laine wools.
5. Next is the incomparably beautiM silky lustrous and soft alpacca
wool, i. e. the fleece of the Llama or Alpacca — one of the most interesting
animals of th« present day. It is found in Thibet, but chiefly in South
America, in large numbers. Its wool as it appears in market is of three
different colors, viz., a lustrous intense black, white, and a reddish brown.
It is a fine, long, combing fiber, and especially adapted for the manufac-
ture 01 the soft and lustrous goods for ladies dresses. The average price
is $48.78 per hundred pounds.
6. The factory-washed Russian merino wool from Odessa. This is a fine
merino cloth wool ; the staple is strong and somewhat harsh. The price
is the same as that of alpacca.
7. The English Southdown, such as is produced by the fourth cross of
. a Southdown buck on a fine merino ewe. This wool, perfectly cleansed,
.commands an average of $44.71 per hundred pounds. This is considered
the most useful wool in the English market ; it is from this wool that the
fine yams are made which are exported in vast quantities from England.
8. The next in order is the merino wool from the La Plata, a fine wool ,
closely approximating the medium German wools — and therefore is gen-
erally used as a substitute for them in English manufactories. The price
is $42.68 per hundred pounds.
9. Wools of the quality of the English Cheviots are next in order of
price. This is a very important wool, and is manufactured into various
useM fabrics— fine stocking yams, ladies* dress goods^^nd is mixed
•with other wools in manufacturing army cloths and fine blankets. It
sells at $38.10 per hundred pounds.
10. Eussian metis wool, fiEK^tory washed, is next in order — a very nice
Digitized by LjOOQIC
197
combing wool of long staple, the merino character of which cannot be
denied. Price $36.68.
11. Common Peruvian wool. A very nice and nseftil wool, which, like
all wools from South America, demonstrate that during the centuries of
Spanish rule, crosses with the Spanish Merinos have taken place. It is a
fine, soft, whitish gray combing wool, interspersed with red stripes, and
is used for the same purposes as ^o. 9. Price $32.52.
12. Icelandish wool ; has an excellent lustre of a peculiar character, and
differs very materially from any German wool, and is therefore very suit-
able for ladies* dress goods, and particularly for being mixed with silk
and cotton. It sells at $31.50 per hundred pounds.
13. Wools from Cape of Good Hope, commonly called " Cape wooW^
S'othwithstanding this is a merino wool and is susceptible of beiug manu-
factured into cloth, yet the filthy and very unsightly condition iu which it
comes to market greatly affects the price, which is $30.48 per hundred
pounds only.
14. Persian and East Indian wools. These are of a fine brown color
(some of the East Indian is white), long, soft, silky combing wool, and
used exclusively in the manufacture of ladies' dress goods. As it appears
in market, it is white, light yellow, and and brownish yellow ; the light
yellow being preferred. Price $28.d5 per hundred pounds.
15. Danskoi, or I^ussian white wool, is a coarse hairy-like combing
wool, yet very soft to the touch and of strong staple. It is often mixed
with cheaper wools in the manuflEKiture of fine fancy wares. Price $24.39
per hundred pounds.
16. White Lima wool. Very unequal in the fleece, yet a strong, soft
and long combing wool of the merino character. Price $23.37 per hun-
dred poxmds.
17. Black Lima wool, is used for the same purpose as the Peruvian
wool, and is very suitable for stocking yam. A singular peculiarity of
this wool is, that it cannot be dyed any other color. Price $21.34 per
hundred pounds.
18. The Chinese wool sells at the same price as the preceding. It is a
very remarkable wool, having a very soft, smooth, whitish or light-yellow
flb^ ; some locks resembling pure silk. It is used for army cloths.
19. Turkish wool sells at about 60 cents per hundred pounds less than
No. 17 ; it is a soft wool, and reaches market in an uuassorted condition,
and is made up of white, brown and black wools, and is manufactured
into various cheap goods.
20. Danskoi, or Bussian gray wool, is a mixture of black, brown and
whitish gray coarse wools ; mixed with other wools in blankets and army
cloths. Price $20.32 per hundred pounds.
21. Spanish unwashed black wool, is a native of the Pyrennean penin-
Digitized by LjOOQIC
198
sola, is an mteresting prodaotion ; it is evidently of the merino charac-
ter, and is remarkable for its intensely black color. It is used for stock-
ing yam. Price same as Ko. 20.
22. African unwashed wool from Korthem AMca — chiefly Algiers ; and
23. Valparaiso wool firom the western portion of South America ; and
lastly,
24. Eussian camels' hair, each command the same price. They are
very ordinary, rather hairs than wool fibers, and are used exclusively for
carpets. Price $16.56. per hxmdred pounds.
CHAPTER VI.
WUBTEMBUBa.
Leaving Dresden, I spent several days at Leipzig — saw the monument
and statue of Thaer, the eminent German agricultural writer, visited the
monument and statue erected to the memory of Hahnemann, the founder
of the homoeopathic system of medicine, rambled over Kapoleon's battle
fields, visited the parks, gardens, churches, etc, and saw the room which
is immortalized in Gkethe's ** Faust." I arrived at Leipzig on Saturday
eveniDg, and as the following Monday and Tuesday were holidays, the
city was full of church-going people. The churches, both Catholic and
Protestant, were crowded, and to me apparently vieing with each other
in grandeur of ceremonies. Our consul being absent, and parties to whom
I had letters of introduction not at hame^ on Wednesday morning I pro-
ceeded to Magdeburg via Halle, both of which places are famous for the
parts played by them during the life of Luther and in the Beformation.
The railway firom Dresden to Leipzig, for the first half of the way,
passes through a granitic, then Silurian and porphyritic formation : the
last half is wealden and quartemary. From Leipzig to Halle, along the
banks of the Elster, the formation is purely quartemary (modem or
recent.) From Halle to Magdeburg it passes successively through weal-
den, variegated sandstone, permian, and muschelkalk. From Magdeburg
to Branswick the formation is lias, wealden and trias. These are depo-
sits along the base of the Hartz mountains. The latter consist of granite
and uplifted devonian and Silurian formations. Sweeping around on tihe
north and west sides of the Hartz, firom Brunswick through the southern
portion of Hanover down to Hesse Cassel, the soil appears to be^of very
indifferent character, indeed— a stiff heavy clay, abounding in lime, and
making successftil agriculture very difficult. From Odttingen to Heidel-
berg the railway passes through a variegated sandstone formation, here
and there interspersed with wealden, muschelkalk and basalt. From
Digitized by LjOOQIC
199
Heidelberg to Stattgard the formation is kenper and mnschelkalk, bat at
the latter place we find a vast lias formation.
The jonmey from Magdebnrg (see page 133) to Stattgard was made as
rapidly as possible, because there was nothing of special agricalta]:al
interest between these points.
After arriving at Stattgard, of coarse the first object of interest, so iar
as my mission was concerned, was to visit the great agricnltoral college
at Hohenheim. This I did in company with my family and cousnl Klaa-
precht — (See pages 12 to 21 inclnsive, in part XL of this report, for a
statement in relation to this college.)
KmaDOM OP VnJETBMBXJBa.
The kingdom of Wnrtembarg is situated between 47 Jo and 49J0 north
latitade, and 8^o and 10^^ east longitude, and embraces an area equal in
extent to about one fifth of the State of Ohio. The geologic formation is
granite, gneiss and new red sandstone in the Black Forest (schwarzwald)
in the southwest, upper Jurassic* in the Swabian Alps, in the south and
southeast, and keuper and muschelkalk in the remainder. The northern
portion of these Alps is a lias formation, and is succeeded by the keuper,
and this last by the muschelkalk. This last formation extends almost
uninterruptedly to Saxe Goburg Ootha.
The surface of Wurtemburg is exceedingly broken or irregular. Points
in the Black Forest, sudi as Feldberg, rise to a height of 4,650 feett
above the level ot the ocean. The highest plateau is 3,550 feet, the low-
est valley is 420 feet, and the m^on height of the kingdom is 1,500 feet.
The positions and extent of the elevations exercise a great infiuence on
fhe dimatology of the country. Gannstadt, near Stuttgard, having an
elevation of 608 feet, has a mean annual temperature of 49^ Fahr. The
mean spring temperature is 48<^, the suouner 65^, the autamn 49^, and
the winter 32}.
* The geologic terms used here are those I first learned in LyeU*s " Elements of Geo
logy,** and yet prefer them to the more recent nomenolatore of other writers. They
axe ^ynonomoos with —
IjdL OaurwritM.j
New Bed Sandstone. Lower Trias.
MusoheUEalk.
Keuper.
Middle Trias. \ v««r «^ «ii^,.i. J Triasio group.
Upper Trias. T^'^^^'^'^'^i SaUnes.*
Lower or Black Jura. Marl.
Bogger. Middle or Brown Jura. Lower Oolite.
Dw«rJnra. Upper and Middle OoUte. { ^J^^^^lSl?^'^
Eocene. London Clay.
Miocene and Fliooene. Crag.
t The Wurtemburg foot is Hi inches.
Digitizegi bV V^OOglC
200
Schopflooh, in Kircheim, having an elevation of 2,360 feet, has a mean
annual temperatore of 44P F., a spring temperature of 42.8^, a summer
of 60.80, an autumn of 46^, and a winter of 3^.
AroNfe immW «f
Hotdajt. Duration of fee. Snowy days. Batnydftj*.
CftDnBtadt 46.6 82.3 31.& 154.7
Sohopfloch 12.1 107.5 48.3 123.8
Arenfe No. of daja bstWMn^
Annoal nlnftU Spring ftod Spring ui4
in Paris inobes.* Automn snovi. Aotomn ficoflto.
Cannatadt 25.5 228.5 190.1
Sohopfloch 37.9 183.5 * 168.8
During the past thirty-five years the thermometer at Stuttgard has
had a mean annual range between the maximum, 91.4o, and the mini-
mum, 1.40, or a range of 90^ Fahr. The west winds bring moist and cool
summers, and mild winters, but the east winds bring dry and hot sum-
mers—wine season — and cold winters.
The inhabitants of Wurtemburg represent quite a number of tribes or
races. About a million and a half trace back to the Swabiacs, others to
the Alemani, Franks, Styrians, Swedes and Jews, and after the revoca-
tion of the edict of Nantes, some 3,000 Huguenots and Waldensees set-
tled in Wurtemburg.
The population in 1861 was 1,720,708, or 12,555 leas than in 1852. Of
the population in 1861, there were—
Ifolai. VomalM. Undar 14 Owt 14 Pzoteatent OatholSe. Jmn,
jmn of a^B. yran of age.
830,192 890,516 495,890 1,224,818 1,179,814 527,057 11,338
Of the male population, 243,254 were under 14 and 586,964 were over
14 years of age. Of those under 14 years, 135,000 boys were attending
the public schools. The 587,000 males over 14 years of age may be classi-
fied as follows :
PMronfc of malo
popolation.
1. LandownexB engaged in agrionltnre 142,000 fUSt
2. Dependent assiatanta " 125,000 21.3
3. Agricnltnral day laborers 48,000 8.17
4. Mechanics owning their establishments 105,000 17.9
5. Assistant mechanics ( loomeymen, etc.) 120,000 20.4
6. House servants 5,000 0.85
7. In public service (including Church and State) 17,500 2.96
8. Military 9,000 1.5
9. Arts and sciences (including physicians, engineers, art-
ists, etc) 1,500 0.26
10. Students in colleges and universities 2,000 0.34
11. Betixed, living on incomes, etc 4,000 o-68
12. CriminalB, lunatics, hospitals, etc ■* 8,000 1J6
* The Paris foot is ld.79 indies.
- 'l\. : : Digitized by LjOOQIC
201
Of the female portion of the population of this kingdom, 252,636 are
under 14 years of age, of which 138,000 are attendants at public schools.
Of the 637,880 females oyer 14 years of age, 267,159 are living with hus-
bands, 63,168 are widows, 1,462 are divorced, leaving 306,091 unmairied.
Of the unmarried ones, 72,000 may be estimated as engaged in agricnl-
toral operations and collateral avocations, 6,600 as house servants, 20,000
as day laborers in skilled industrial branches, 13,000 in manu&etozies,
and 195,000 independent or living with parents, without any special avo-
It will be seen firom the above statement that more than 60 per cent of
the male populaticm are directly engaged in agriculture.
In those European countries where every male subject owes military
duty to the state, and where the ** homestead'' remains for meaij succes-
sive generations £d the same family; where every one, male or female,
not of the Jewish race, is obliged to have their birth, baptii^n and eon-
fzmation registered in eith^ some Protestant or OathoKo dhureh--*many
details of statistics are more readily obtained than in the United States,
where we have no such compulsory reguiiCBEientB. Throu^^out all Ger-
many the births are in the proportion of 84 to every 1«000 of the inhabit-
ants, or one birth to every 29^ inhabitants ; or omitting those still-bom,
then there is one birth to every 30} inhabitants. In France the births of
live children are 26 to every 1,000 inhabitants, in Belgium 29, in England
33, in Bavaria 34, in Prussia 37, in Austria 38, and in Wurtemburg 40,
or one birth to every twenty-flve of the entire population of this kingdom.
During the decennial period from 1846 to 1866, there were bom in Wur-
temburg 336,756 boys and 316,779 girls. Of these there were 8,268 births
of twins, 78 of triplets, and 7 of quartlets. Artificial means were re-
quired once only in every 33,902 births ; 2,539 mothers died in childbed;
26,638 children were stDl-bom ; and in every 10,000 births 343 were pre-
mature. From 1812 to 1852, there were nine births of legitimate children
for one illegitimate ; from 1853 to 1862, there were five legitimate to one
illegitimate. But in the district of Welzheim, in 1861, there were 37
illegitimate births for every 100 legitimate ones; and Dr. Bttmelin, of
Stuttgard, in his statistical contributions, says that in some districts
there is one illegitimate for every legitimate birth ! *
From 1812 to 1862 the deaths in Wurtembiurg were one to every 31} of
the population. The last decennial statements present the following
Bommary : In the Scandinavian countries, one death in every 48.7 of
of tiie population ; in France, one in 41.7 ; England, 41.6 ; Hannover, 40.9 ;
Belgium, 40 ; Holland, 36.2 ; Bavaria, 34.6 ; Saxony, 34.1 ; Prussia, 33.8;
Austria, 29.7. Thus, with the exception of Austria, Wurtemburg has the
greatest mortality of any European state. From July, 1846, to July,
* Laud, Yolk imd Staat Wiirtom1>iixg, 1803, page 383.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
202
1866, there were 643,087 deaths in Wurtembnrg ; of these, 26,169 or
4^2 per cent were still-bom; 218,035, or 40.1 percent, were children
under one year of age ; 52,653, or 9.7 per cent, children between two and
seven years. Omitting the still-bom, 42.18 per cent of the children die
before they are one year old. This great mortality is attributed to the
chilling atmosphere of the great elevations, insufficient clothing and
care, and, on the southern slope of the Swabian Alps and the Danubisui
regions, to the fact that the mothers never suckle the children, but fix>m
birth are fed on artificial food ; the consequence is, that the tables of
mortality show that 62 per cent of the children bom alive die before at-
taining their first year. Of 10,000 persons, it was found that there were in
TJndflir 13 yean old. BefewBen 14 and 90. Over 00 yetn.
Wnrtembnig 2,962 G^WO 778
Fianoe 2,386 6,532 1,083
During the five years from 1853 to 1858, the military conscription
brought out 80,020 young men subject to military service ; of these 4,455,
or 5.56 per cent, were under five feet two inphes high. Of this entire
number of conscripts, 40,688, or more than 50 per cent, were r^ected as
having defective organizations and unfit for military duty.
uun), BTO.
Wurtembnrg contains an area of 6,188,252 morgens* of land, or 4,821,-
748 acres, or about ane-fiflh of the area of the State of Ohio. This area
is divided for agricultural purposes as follows :
AiablelandBt 2,628,337 morgens.
Meadow t 881,607
Oardens 121,504
Vineyards 82,921
Poreete 1,919,311
Ftetnies 266,931
Highways , 135,541 "
Bondings 28,000
Quarries 84,000
Streams, etc 40,000 "
Total 6,188,252 "
This gives an average of 3.6 morgens, or 2 4-5 acres, to every inhabit-
ant The live stock statistics show :
UutarSyMMoU. OvwSjMMold. Totel. Hmms lo tfuy 100 lBhaMt*i.
Hofses 16,285 78,711 95,996 5.6
ToongOittituidaiavifc OxHi and StMO, Oowi aad hiltei. TbtaL To tfuy 100 inhtb^Mi.
CSatUa 338,229 152^85 466,758 957,172 55.6
*XIm Wnlimbiiiif iBav(iBli0.719of laMn. f
)ai7^6iin>gBiiiflraOTtoiiot«yMr,aad 058,001 «ra rat twin «yMr.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
203
Uflrino. IQzed Blood. Natfres. ToftiL
Sheep 70,686 520,284 92373 683,842
Swine 216,965
Goats ^ 43.714
Colonies of Bees f2 104,583
Abont one seventy- fifth of the entire area is now devoted to vineyards.
The same relative proportion of vineyards in Ohio would make 350,000
acres, or a little more than one averaged sized county, entirely in grape
vines.
Historians mention the culture of the vine, and the excellent quality
of the wine made in Wurtemburg, as early as the first century of the
present era. The Wurtemburgians have records showing the production
of wine since the ninth century, or the time of Oharlemagne ; but they
have annual records since the fourteenth century. These records show
conclusively that in every ten years there are-
One eztraoTdinaryl
Thiee bad j
In the thirteenth century the eimer* of wine sold at 40 cents ; in 1426
it was so abundant that it sold at, 12 cents per eimer ; but at the com-
mencement of the present century it readily commanded $15.60 per
eimer. During the thirty years* war, 40,195 acres of vineyard were
totally destroyed, and almost as much more was destroyed during the
French invasion, toward the close of the seventeenth century. The vint-
ners were poor, and became discouraged ; the demand for the Swabian
wines declined very much, and for the space of nearly one hundred years lit-
tle or nothing was done in grape culture in the kingdom. The culture was
somewhat revived toward the close of the eighteenth and the commence-
ment of the nineteenth centuries, but the vintners paid more attention to
fhe quantity they could produce than the quality of the wine. Wine
growers* associations were formed throughout the kingdom, and since
1824 they have distributed over seventeen millions of cuttings of im-
proved or superior grapes, which they imported firom nearly all parts of
Europe. Among these were the Blue Olevener, Burgundy, White Bies-
ling. Bed Traminer, Erachgutedel, White Burgundy, and Blue Sylvania.
I learned here that the character of the soil affects the altitude at
which grapes may successftdly be grown ; as, for instance, in the Kooh-
erthal and lagsthal, two valleys in dose proximity to each other, or rather
* EiMSR of wine, Angsbnrg measnie. 19.9 gallons. Eimer BiAmhnuus Wnrtembnig,
70.6 galls. Eimer MlMk-mast Wnrtembnrg, 77.6 galls. Eimer wkM an Ue$ Wnrtom-
bnrg, 81 galls.-V. ff, AUxandm^$ Diet, of Weights amd Meatwrm,
Eooa of ViTartembiirg, 64.7 gallons.— FdoIA^nM** W«ight» amd Meemurm cf oR ^oKom.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
204
the one ranning into the other. The Eocherthal is of the keaper forma-
tion, and grapes succeed at an elevation of 1,400 feet ; the lagsthal is of
the moschelkalk formation, but the grapes do not do well higher than
1,061 feet. This is not an isolated case, for in the Enz valley the one
side is moschelkalk, and the other is kneper ; the grape does not succeed
on the fbrmer at a greater altitude than 1,100 feet, whilst they flourish on
the latter at an altitude of 1,500 feet. On the molasse formation and
sandy clay drift, in the vicinity of Lake Constance, vineyards flourish at
an elevation of 1,800 feet
The most widely disseminated and extensively cultivated grape is the
"JfttKw^r," then follow in order the Sylvanian, TroUinger, Grubler, Gute-
del, Affenthaler, Velteliner, Biessling, Pttterer, Muscatelle, Clevener,
Burgundian, and Tokayer.
In places where the lias, limestone or marl formations forms the subsoil,
or where the soil is derived from the decomposition of these formations, the
soil is a cold, tough, limey clay ; but where the clay slate formation forms
the subsoil, and the soil is a rich clay, there the most productive vineyards
are found. Mr. Dobnfeld — a gentleman in Stuttgard — ^who has given
this subject special attention, says that in the last-mentioned situations,
the morgen frequently produces from 20 to 26 eimers of wine. This of
course depends upon the number of vines ; in the most densely planted
vineyards the vines are planted 2 feet by 2J from each other. So far as I
observed the vines are tied to a single stake from 5 to 7 or 8 feet high ; I
did .not observe any on trellisses, although I was told that some were
trained in that wa^. The vines must be renewed from time to time, and
in consequence of so many new vines taking place of the old ones, there
is seldom over 60,000 morgens in bearing as an average for a series of
years. The following table shows the average product of wine in Wur-
temburg during the 36 years from 1827 to 1862 :
TUd In tiBMit. Avnm par mMy ATann prioe Afanft valas of tlie . Ateng« per
(•n in aiiiMri. perelmer. crop. mocgea.
140,743 2| 910.92 |1,500,117.30 «25.08
Boring this period the mola^ge formation near the Lake of Constance
produc€d an annual average of 4} eimers per morgen, or an increase of
$44.68 per morgen ; whilst in the Tauberthal, a muschelkalk formation,
ranging from 676 to 1.300 Ibet altitude, averaged If eimers, or $13.39 per
morgan.
r 1838 yielded 3]5;206 eimen.
The yean of the gieatoet yield
1836 " 330,449
1834 " 386,008
1848 " 246,168
.1867 « 214,476
lie lowest yield in 1861 ** 41,094
The largest sum of money f<nr any erop was that of 1834, which was
Digitized by LjOOQIC
205
sold for $3,873,688. From 1827 to 1836 the price of an eimer was $8.73,
bat from 1857 to 1862 it averaged $16.51 ; but choice wines readily com-
mand $30.12 per eimer.
As a role the vineyards are located on hill sides which are too steep
for the ordinary farm crops ; the vines are planted about 2^ by 3 feet apart
Often the entire hill side is in terraces, one above the other, separated
by a stone wall of "rabble" work. The soil is changed every three
or four years in the following manner : The soil is removed from the lower
terrace, and the *' ditch** thus formed is flUed by the soil firom the terrace
above, and so on until the last or upper terrace is reached. When the
vines hre 15 to 20 years old they are layered their entire length, and the
one-year old wood left sticking out to form a new vine. This method is
preferred to that of patting down cuttings. As I was there in June and
not daring the wine season I cannot present many details of the manu*
factnre of wine ; but so far as the vines are concerned they are " cut
back " and trimmed much closer than we would dare to do here. The
vineyards very seldom consist of a single variety of grapes, but much
more generally three or four varieties are grown in the same tract.
On the steep sunny slopes, like those of the lower Sfeckar and En2 val-
leys, having the preponderating lime of the muschelkalk formation, the
varieties of grapes grown are the luxuriant or rapid growing and late
ripening, viz., the Blue Trollinger, Blue GrUbler, mixed with the White
and the Bed Elbling ; from these a heavy red wine is manufactured.
In the lateral valleys where there is less sun, less powerM or strong soil,
and altogether more mild, as in the upper Sfeckar valley, the early ripen-
ing varieties, such as the White Sylvanian, the White and the Bed Sib-
ling, the Blue Affenthaler, mixed with a few GDrollingers, and in some
special localities in the upper portion of the valley, the Blue Olevener,
Blue Burgundy, and the early Blue Portuguese are grown. The wine
made here is mostly a white wine, or a very pale claret when the blue
grapes are mixed with the others.
Where the lands are less steep, of the keuper formation, but yet with
a strong clay soil, the msgority of the grapes are of the following varie^
ties, viz.: White Elbling and White Sylvanian, mixed with the Blue
Trollinger, and a very small proportion of White Ftttterer and Outedel ;•
here and there a White Tokay and Black Urban ; in special localities we
find mixed with the first named, the White Biessling, Bed Traminer,
Blue Olevener and Burgundy, and the Blue Miiller. These grapes as a
rule make a heavy claret ; yet in some of the localities, as in the Bens
valley, capital white wines are made, where the blue grapes are not mixed
with the others.
In the lower muschelkalk formations, where there is a mild, if not an
LiteraUy tranalated means " good4iohle,**
Digitized by LjOOQIC
206
absolutely poor clay soU, as in the Eocher Jagst and Tanber valleys, the
following varieties do the best — that is, these varieties of grapes do bet-
ter here than any other varieties do — viz. : White Sylvanlan (Austrian),
White and Bed Gutedel (Junker), Yelteliner (flesh grape), the White
Sibling (crystal), the White Muscatelle, with here and there a Trollinger.
The bulk of the wines made of these grapes are a white wine. The bulk
of the red wines are made in special localities, and the grapes used are
generally the '*blue sweet red" and the ** bins coarse black."
On the more gradual slopes, or in fact elevated table lands in the moun-
tainous region of Lake Constance, where there is a strong clay mixed with
disintegrated rock, the varieties of grapes are limited to three sorts or
kinds only,,viz., the White Elbling (Thick Elbling), the Whie Eauschling
(Thin Elbling), and the Blue Burgundy. These make a very pale reddish
wine, which is somewhat harsh and acid, but requires considerable age,
when it becomes a really flue wine.
Vineyards on the muschelkalk and lias formations are kept renewed so
that the grape growing is uninterrHpted ; but on the keuper formation
they find it more profitable to cut away the old vines and grow forage
plants for four or five years — ^generally it is sown down in what is called
" blue clover," and the last crop plowed under.
There are in general cultivation 44 red and white varieties of grapes ;
41 blue and black, and 26 varieties of table grapes. Among this latter
class I was a little surprised to find our ^^Isdbella.'^ The ** Swabians" say
'' it does not amount to anything " as a wine grape — ^is too rank a grower,
bears too little fruit, and what it does bear is not juicy enough, etc., etc.
They class it as a third-rate table grape.
In Wurtemburg more attention is paid to fruit than in any other Ger-
man State I visited. Belatively much less fruit is consamed there than
in Ohio. The apples are either dried and exported, or else made into
dder, and much of that exported. Peaches as a general tir'ng are dried
and. shipped out of the kingdom. Prunes and cherries are grown to a
large extent, so also are apricots and pears. The income derived from
fruits during the laat 20 years has averaged $1,800,000.*
The land in Wurtemburg is divided into very small parcels, so that no
complete system of agriculture can be practiced by the farmers generally.
By a complete system, I mean a system which includes growing live stock
as well as farm crops. When we consider that in Ohio we have relatively
about six times as many horses, fully a« many, if not more, cattle, nine
times as many sheep, and a hundred fold as many labor-saving agricultural
machines and implements, no one will be surprised to learn that their
agriculture is conducted on a gardening system rather than otherwise.
* I state this on the authority of Dornfeld, a member of the Statistical Bnreau of
Wnrtembnig.
I
Digitized by LjOOQIC
2u7
There are in the kingdom abont 2 4-5 acres to every inhabitant, bat it
mast be remembered that this inclades the forests (the forests oocapy
nearly one-third of the kingdom), streams, highways, royal estates, parks,
etc, so that there really is barely an acre and a half to each individaal. By
practicing frugality in everything, and enforcing that rigid economy which
a Glerman only can do, combined with an untiring industry and ceaseless
energy, sufficient food is produced for *' both man and beast."
The late king of Wurtemburg did much to ameliorate the condition of
the farmers of the kiugdom. He api)ears to have been a man who did
nothing hastily, and took pains to be well informed on every subject or
project before he endeavored to put it into execution. He removed some
of the restrictions on emigration; allowed greater freedom in industrial
puisuits than many of the other States allowed; established the Agricul-
taral College at Hohenheim, so that the cultivators of the soil might have
all the advantages which science could afiord them. On his own estates
he established horse and cattle breeding establishments.
As early as 1585 there was a royal stud at Marbach, in Wurtemburg,
under the reign of the Grand Duke Ludwig, the stallions in which were
imported from Barbary, Naples and Spain. A cencuiy lat^r the Grand
Duke Frederick Charles added 79 stallions, which were purchased chieiiy
in Northern Germany. The late king having been one of the best horse-
men in the kingdom, and having thoroughly tested the oriental blood on
the battle-field and in the army, determined to establish a stud of oriental
stallions and mares as soon as he attained the tlirone. He made many
importations of Arabian horses, of several strains, among them a number
of Nubian and Berber (or barbs) horses and mares. Importations were
also made of English half thorough- bred mares, which were bred to these
Arabian stallions; some half blood Irish mares and some of the heavy
Yorkshire mares were also imported. I was furnished with a complete
history of the present stud ; with a history and pedigree of all the Arab
stallions and mares, and saw many of the crosses of these Arab sires on
English and other mares. In the system of breeding in this establishment
many important physiological facts, or rather lawn^ were developed, but
which would require entirely too much space to record here. I may state,
however, that in an attempt to preserve the family of Emib, an imported
Arabian, it was found necessary to resort to in-and-in breeding to a very
dose degree, or what in the human iamily would be called incestuous.
The result was that diminitive and feeble colts were produced, and tue
strain or family could not be maintained. The result of some of the
crosses were by no means satisfactory, whilst in others the results were
all that could be desired.
The stM is distributed on three estates— Klein Hohenheim, Scham-
hausen and WeiL At Weil there are 123 head, as follows, viz : 69 brood
mares (31 of these thorough-bred Arabians), 13 four year old mares, 21
Digitized by Vji W.W^lC
208
sacking stallion colts, and 20 sacking fillies. At Schamhansen there are
114 head, as follows : 20 brood mares, 21 three year old colts, 28 two year
olds, 32 yearlings, and 13 sacking colts* Of the above 51 are thorough-
bred Arabians and 43 are half bloods. At Klein Hohenheim 93 head, as
follows : 11 four year olds, 31 three year olds, 28 two year olds, and 23
yearlings. Of these 37 are thorough Arabian and 56 half bloods. Of the
102 brood mares 51 are thorough-bred Arabian, or saddle horses, and 51
are half bloods, or carriage horses. Of these mares eight were imported
from Arabia, viz : Saklayia, of the SaJcUm Djedran tribe, Saida, Bamdt,
of the Hamdam EvMan tribe, Nedjdi, of the KoheU tribe, Jabiffa, of
Anazee Saaba tribe, Daghma, of the Baohman d OhaJuman tribe, DouifiBA,
of the Saldcm Djedran tribe, Moeeohia, of the SaJdavi MoregMa tribe.
Of the stallions kept for service Hx are thorough-bred Arabians, viz:
BouBivoN, dapple gray, with dark mane and tail, 17 years old, 15^ hands
high, of the tribe of Amurath ; he is remarkable for transmitting his
qualities to his colts. Tajab, a chestnut brown, 15 years old, 15 hands
2i inches high, also of the Amurath tribe. He is the get of two dapple
grays, but transmits his own color with great certainty. Auru&ATH L,
a dark dapple gray, 11 years old, 15 hands 2^ inches high, full brother to
Tq^r; transmits his qualities in a remarkable degree; is not quite so
leggy as Tajar. Said, 19 years old, 14 hands 3 inches high; a splendid
dark brown animal. This stallion was sent as a present to Prince Albert,
of England, by Iman, Bey of Muscat, and in 1857 was purchased by the
King of Wurtemburg. The hind and fore legs are not as well formed as
in some others. Soliman, a light dapple gray, 13 years old, 15 hands 2
inches high ; was toed by the Vice Boyal of Egypt near Cairo ; has stout
short legs, and slightly sway backed. Gadib, a light grey, 18 years old,
15 hands and one inch high; is of the Saklavi Djeran tribe, and is a
genuine Ne<\jid-He4jaz, and was the favorite stallion of Abbas Pascha.
There are three *' half blood," or carriage stallions, viz : Haman, an Anglo-
Arabian, dapple gray, 11 years old, 17 hands one inch high, and traces
back to Moga of Derwisch. GoNOO, a jet black, 20 years old, 17 hands
high, a thorough-bred >' Tbakehneb." Blaok, a black stallion, with
white hind feet, 13 years old, 16 hands and 3 inches high ; had a thorough*
bred Trakehner sire, and dam half thorough-bred English mare. Then
there are three stallions of heavy strain, for the service of farm mares.
These last named stallions are about one-fourth to three-eighth Arab
blood, and the remainder Mecklenberg, Norfolk, or Trakehner.
During the past 15 years an annual average of 7,455 mares were served
by the stallions in the royal stud, and an annual average of 4,000 colts
produced.
There is an annual sale of four year old stallions and mares at the royal
stud. The sale had taken place a short time before I visited there.
Geldings sold for 500 to 600 florins ($200 to $240); stallions sold from
Digitized by LjOOQIC
209
1200 to 1500 florins ($4M to $600); and mares from 400 to 1200 florins
($160 to $480). Thorongh-bred Trakehner mores sold at 1600 golden
($640).
Whilst I was interested in every department of productive industry of
the Old World, yet having learned that the King of Wnrtemburg had
produced a new race of cattle, by crossing a number of varieties and breed-
ing them until a^flxity of type was produced, I devoted some time to
visiting and inspecting the cattle and obtaining aU possible intormation
on the subject.
CATTLE ON KINO.OP W UKTEMBtTEO*S ESTATES.
The last Elng of Wurtemburg has done a very great deal towards im-
proving the domestic animals of the kingdom. Formerly, the king had
a herd of cattle on each of his estates at Shabnhausen, Eleinhohen-
HEIM and Weil, but in 1848, they were withdrawn from the first two,
and are now mainly at Weil and Eosenstein. On the first of January,
1861, the cattle at Weil consisted of the following, viz :
WOBK OXBN.
Folly nuktnred and broke to the yoke 10 head.
Tonng, and ap to tl&ee years old 16 "
Total... 26 "
BBEKDINO CATTLE.
Cows ^.. 31 "
Heifers, over one year old 13 "
BnUfl 3 "
Bulls over one year old 3 "
BnU calves under one year old 4 "
Coirs " " •* 16"
Total ^ 96 "
Three bolls are more than are really required for breeding purposes in
the herd, but, as those living in the vicinity are permitted to have their
cows served by these buUs, except only during such time as any contagi-
ons disease may be in existence among the neighborhood cattle, there
are, therefore, as many bulls kept as the exigency of the times may
require.
BAOES OF CATTLE AT WEIL.
On this estate there are two races of cattle, viz:
L The large Holland race with shorthorns, the greater pcHrtion o(
whieh ace black and white, lar|^ spotted ; or else a mouse blue and white
spotted.
14A
Digitized by LjOOQIC
210
n. A race of cattle originally frota the Swiss Canton of Appenzell, the
so-called ** canvassed ^^ cattle — becaase the head, neck; fore-legs and
shoulders up to the withers are black ; then a broad band of white extend-
ing from the withers until almost to the hips, covering the sides of the
barrel, then the remainder of the hinder part of the body, and legs are
black, I remember, distinctly, that I inquired of the herdsman, when
going into the stables at Weil, why he had a white covering on all the
cows in June. He smiled and said may it please your Lordship^ these are
the Chirtenvish (canvassed) and have been regularly bred here since 1814.
Of the thirty-one cows, twenty-one were of the Holland race, and ten of
the Appenzell. The register shows the live weight of a six year old Hol-
land cow in good condition to be an average of 1,150 pounds (English),
whilst an Appenzell cow of the same age and condition weighs about 1,200.
Since the introduction of the Hollanders they have gradually lost in
weight, while the Appenzell have increased.
The milking qualities being one of the desiderata^ not only with the
king, but the entire community around about Stuttgardt, and as the
North Holland and Friesland cattle were reputed to be the best of milk-
ers they were selected, and a strict account of their yield of milk was
daily registered. It soon was apparent that no other race of cattle yield-
ed the quantity of milk per head that these did. When a comparison was
made, in which the amount of food consumed was taken into cousideration
with the yield of milk, it was found that the Schwytz (not Swiss) yielded
a slightly greater relative proportion of milk.
But then the North Holland races were desirable for the large calves
which they dropped, and the early maturity of these calves. Duiing the
period they were in milk, the cows appeared to be in very ]}oot condition,
but they fatted very rapidly when dry ; so, also, were the oxen very read-
ily fattened. They, however, always required an ample supply of food
but were by no means choice as to the quality of the food, and as they
readily crossed with the natives, they were selected as one of the perma-
nent races to be retained on the estate at Weil. The first purchase was
made in 1821, and consisted of two bulls, and eighteen females; the
second i^urchase was made in 1829, and consisted of two bulls and sixteen
females.
The race next in quality to be retained was the Schwytzer, and after
these the " canvass" or Appenzell, both of which had for a series of years
been at Klein Hohenheim, as experimental herds, and had yielded a larger
quantity of milk per head than those of any other race there. The milk
of these latter two races are richer in butter and cheese than the Holland-
ers, whilst at the same time both races take on fot equally readily. The
Appenzell had another decided advantage. over the Hollanders, namely:
Digitized by LjOOQIC
211
the oxen were hardier and brisker^ in all their movements — Whence, the
Apppenzellers were also retained at Weil.
Why the large breeds of cattle were preferred to^ the small ones, — ^The
experiments with cattle, instituted by the King of Wurtemburg, seems
to have been mainly with the view of determining which were the most
desirable races to retain — all things considered. It was found in course
of time that several of the small breeds yielded almost as much milk,
in proportion to the amount of food consumed, as the Hollanders ; for
instance, the Hallo Limhurgy one of the native breeds, yielded fifty pounds
of milk to every one hundred jwunds equivalent of hay consumed,
— ^which is almost equal to the Holianders, and at the same time this native
race produces very excellent and heavy oxen, although the cows are very
small. If the experiments had been instituted to determine the milking
qualities only, there is no doubt that the small breed from the Canton of
Uri, in Switzerland, would have been letained in preference to the others,
because for one hundred pounds equivalent of hay consumed they yielded
fifty-four pounds of milk. And then this small breed would have com-
mended itself to many of the small farmers and poorer clashes, who could
not well afford the amount of food and scabling for the large ones ; but
in comparing them with the large breeds it was found not desirable to
retain them for the following reasons :
1. The large breeds were more profitable for the shambles than the
small ones.
2. The ciilves of the large breeds were heavier, and matured more
rapidly than those of the small breeds.
3. That in proportion to the amount of food consumed the large breeds
require less care and personal service than the small breeds.
These points, however, in the end were rather considerations for the
large estates than for the small farmers, because on the large estates there
is always an abundance of food and servants.
Changes which have taken place in these breeds. — Both the Hollanders and
Appenzellers were bred purely until very recently. The Appenzellers have
in a very remarkable degree retained their color, marks or markings, form
of body and limbs, and useful qualities; the only change is in their live
weight, which has increased from one-fifth to one-fourth during the period
they have been kept on the estate. But the change in the Hollanders is
much more remarkable until the fifth, sixth, and even seventh generation,
although until 1858 there was no mixture of blood. These changes serve
to demonstrate what great modifications a change of food and keeping (in
Holland these cattle were mostly kept on pastures, whilst here, during
many years, they were kept exclusively in the stable) will produce in the
qualities of even a fixed or permanent type or race. The most prominent
of these changes are as follows : 1. So far as the animal itself is concerned.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
212
1821 these animals carried their head very low, the horns were rerj
short and bent forward, the neck thin, a very wide barrel, a somewhat
hump-backed spine, and a falling off from the hips to the insertion of the
tail. During the milking season the cows were very thin. At pres-
ent the younger generations present the following : An elevated head,
upright horns, thin neck, with a well-proportioned body or barrel, straight
back, and continuing on a line to the root of the tail. During the milk-
ing season the cows do not appear as thin as formerly. There has been
no change in the color.
2. In relation to the useM qualities, the following changes have taken
place : Notwithstanding that the food has always been abundantly sup-
plied and of equal quality, yet in the thoroughbred animals the yield of
milk has decreased from generation to generation. In some of the later
generations the yield of milk has regained its former quantity, whilst in
others not For instance, in 1829 one of the imported Holland cows
called Idttte Ooody^ (Kleine Gute) during a period of four years yielded soi
annual average of 3,424 quarts of milk. Her daughter met with an acci-
dent shortly after her first calf, so that no account was kept of her milk^
but her daughter, grandaughter of Goody ^ yielded an annual average of
2,200 quarts only, and in the progeny of this last for four or five genera-
tions the quantity was not increased. '* Moye," another imported Hol-
land cow, gave an annual average of 3,216 quarts, her daughter yielded
an annual average of 2,164 quarts, her grandaughter only 1,487 quarts ;
her great-grandaughter, however, gave 2,260 quarts, and the progeny
now in the fifth and later generations yield 2,493 quarts. A third cow of
the same importation called Old Cow^ gave an annual average of 2,450
quarts ; her daughter gave 2,040 quarts, her grandaughter 1,849 quarts,
her great-grandaughter 1,999 quarts, whilst the next and later genera-
tions yield 2,475 quarts. But this depreciation in the milking quality
has been fully compensated for by the greater susceptibility of taking
on fat and flesh, better adaptation to the yoke, and much more rapid
development and maturity. Is it possible that these changes which have
been wrought are any proof that the original animals were not thorough-
bred, or of a permanent type t Such a conclusion would be no doubt
justifiable if there had been inequalities in the progeny or back breeding,
or decided and remarkable differences between the parents and offspring,
but such have not transpired. The changes have been gradual, and
become remarkable only when the fifth or sixth generation is compared
with the original importation.
SYSTEM OF BBEEBING — ^THB AGE AT WHIOH AlOKALS ABE BBEP.
Bulls are put to service at 22 to 24 months old, and continue in servie*
until they are five years old; after this period it is believed that tliegr
Digitized by LjOOQIC
213
lose their vigor ; in any event they become too heavy and are very slow
in their movements. With respect to the cows, they are expected to drop
their first calf when they are three years old. When they have attained
this age, they are so far developed that milking does hot impair them.
Bnt there are many exceptions to this rule : the cows do not come in sea-
son veiy soon, and as an average do not drop their first calf until they
are 39 months old. As a rule the cows are bred as long as their yield of
milk is 8atisfa<;tory. Of the present lot of pure bred Holland cows, there
are which have dropped more than six calves, five that have dropped
four to five, five that have dropped three, and five that have dropped two
only. But the eldest of these cows is in such a condition that she will
yet pay well for the shambles.
Calves are drc^ped during the course of the entire year. Formerly an
attempt was made to have all the calves dropped during one portion of
the year, bnt since an arrangement has been made to supply milk deal-
ers, the quantity of milk to be delivered has been as uniform as it was
possible to have by a regular succession of fresh milch cows. But not-
withstanding the milk traffic, it has been a disideratum to have the cows
produce a calf every year. The " Canvass" or Appenzell cows have with
great regularity produced a calf every year, but not more than one-half
of the Holland cows can be relied on for such promptness ; the other or
irregular half produce % calf once in every fourteen, fifteen or sixteen
months, and some have even greater intervals.
In breeding, a son is never bred to the dam, nor a sire to the daughter,
tut brothers and sisters have not unfrequently been bred together.
INTRODUCTION OF STBANGE BLOOD.
On account of the peculiar markings (the canvass) of the Appenzellers,
they for many years past have been bred in-and-in, and there is no inten-
tion of crossing them with any other race. In order to develop the milk-
ing qualities of Hollanders to a greater extent, part of the cows are bred
to a pure Holland bull, and others to a bull of the famous new milk race
known as the "Eosenstein" race. A full description of the origin and
qualities of this last rac€| will subsequently be given.
In 1860 there were 34 cows and heifers in calf on this estate. Of these
one cow miscarried, six did not drop any calves during the year, and the
remaining 27 cows and heifers produced 27 calves. For special reasons
ttDo of these calves were sold, and as the result of the year 1860, the 34
cows and heifers dropped 25 fine healthy calves which were retained.
We were kindly furnished with a copy of a summary from the '* milk
register" at Weil, for 1858-9-60. Every two weeks the yield of milk, for
24 hours, of each cow is measured, weighed and registered, as well as the
day on which the calf was dropped, and the last milking of the cow
Digitized by LjOOQIC
2L4
before calving. From this register the quantity of milk produced by
each can be approximatively ascertained-— at all events near enough for
all practical purposes.
Year.
No. of
cows.
Average
yield of each
cow in
quarts.
Maximnm
yield in
quarts.
Minimnm
yield in
quarts
No. of cows
vield'g more
than 2,425
quarts.
AppenzeU or "Canvas."
IQTiS
7
8
9
25
16
20
2212
2090
1890
2274
2-224
2110
3096
2954
2615
3472
r272
2894
1799
1811
1560
1444
940
1384
4
1859
3
I860
1
Holland cows.
1858
10
ia59
7
I860
5
Since the introduction of the Rosenstein blood among the Hollanders,
the milk of the pure HolLanders has not been kept separate. In explana-
tion of the great disparity of product of the several years, the attendant
informed us that 1859 was a very dry year, and herbage short and scant,
whilst on the other hand 18G0 was a very wet year, and the herbage was
soft and watery.
Being in possession of the keys to the several- gates, obtained, throngh
the courtesy of the landlord, from one of the King's ofiicers, we proceeded
to the estate of Seegut. Elsewhere, or at some other time, I may describe
the system of agriculture, horses, sheep, &c., on these respective royal
domains, but at present shall confine myself to the cattle only. I have
already mentioned the large, easily fattened, and, to the yoke, well
adapted race from the rich pastures of the Canton Schwytz, but which
§xcel in their milking qualities rather than in any other. They were ex-
celled in this respect by one other race only, viz: the Hollanders. This
fact induced the King to send a herd of twenty-four cows and one bull of
the Schwytzer race to Seegut (or Sea Domain.) This herd was purchased
in 1830, in Switzerland, in the vicinity of Zurcher Sea. They were a very-
dark brown, almost black, with a light stripe on the back ; they were
large animals, and very strongly built. In addition to these there were^
a^ide from some Hallish-Limburgish — Murzthalers and English cows,
which were there for experimental purposes ; also, a small herd of Holland
cows from the domain at Weil. Both of these breeds were at first bred
separately and purely. In the fall of 1838, the much dreaded cattle dis-
ease {oY pleurojpneuinonia) broke out in this herd, and appeared to affect
and destroy more of the Schwytzers than of the other breeds. The Hol-
liilul.iN s» c:;h. d
uuii.^l- ii: I Ills new lorility, Ji:il \v<
ac-
climated ; ^lerefore, the Schwytzer cows that escaped the disease were
Digitized by LjOOQIC
216
subsequently bred to Holland bulls. This herd continued to be bred in
this manner until 1861. Daring a few previous years, it was discovered
that the cows were very irregular in calving ; some were dry an extraor-
dinary length of time, others miscarried, and some produced very sickly
and puny calves. It was then determined to make a change. There
being a good market for milk in the immediate neighborhood, it was re-
solved to replace the defective cows by those of the " Rosenstein " breed
— ^to be hereafter described — which has a good deal of the Limburgher
and Holland blood in it. There are now at Seegut, in addition to the
two original breeds, some Hallish-Limburgher cows, which will continue
to be bred to a Eosenstein bull. On this estate there are :
WORK CATTLE.
Fall grown and accnstomed to the yoke 30
Young cattle from six months to three years -. 14
Yoang cattle less than six months 6
Total 50
Of these 60 oxen, 23 were purchased and 27 bred on the estate.
MILCH cows.
HoUaod, Blgi-Holland. Umburgher. Total.
Cows 18 17 5 40
Heifers two years old and over 5 4 5 14
Heifers one year old and under two .... 6 6 .. 10
Bulls fur service 2 1 .. 3
BulU over one year old 3 1 .. 4
Bulls under one year old 4 3 18
Heifer calves under one year old 20 17 .. 37
Total 57 48 11 116
In addition to these three breeds, there is yet a Bosenstein ball to be
bred to the Limbarg cows; and for the use of the neighboring farmers,
there is a ball of a cross between a Shorthorn ball and Eosenstein cow.
The Hollanders on this estate are of the same purchases and importa^
tions as those at Weil. The Bigi-HoUanders are of the 1829 importation^,
and do not differ from the others except in color, which is rather darker.
The Limbnrghers were purchased in the eastern portion of Wurtem-
burg, on an estate where they for many years have been thorough-bred,
The cows are symmetrically built, appear to have very gentle disposi-
tions, fine bones, a light head, fine horns, but the back is not altogether
straight ; the color is a dark dun. The cows are small, and seldom ex*
eor^l 700 pounds livo weiT^it. Tliis (limiTiutivonof^s in size is no donbt
produced by breeding them at too tender an age ; because, as a rule, iu
Digitized by LjOOQIC
216
the neighborhood where they came from, the cow drops her first calf be-
fore she is fully two years old. The average weight of the calves when
dropped is 58 pounds. It is somewhat remarkable that if the bull calves
of this breed are castrated at the proper time, they become large and
heavy work oxen, so that when fiilly matured and during severe labor,
ihey will weigh, unfattened, 1,300 pounds, but when fat often exceed
1,800 pounds live weight.
Feeding and other care and treatment of the cattle, at Seegnt, are the
same as at Weil ; but as this is the only place where an account has been
kept of the milk product of the Bigi-Hollanders, it may be well to pre-
sent a summary of it :
No. of AT^ge of each per Mailiiniin In Ifloimam In Vo. oowb jrfold^g ov«r
Tear. Cowb. jmt In quarta. qovta. qnarti. 2 425 qtt> uiDiiaUT-
1858 8 2,564 3,102 2,104 4
1859..... 12 1,912 2,516 856 2
I860.....' 13 2,185 2-689 1,720 5
THB BOSENSTEIN SAGE.
Between Stuttgard and Gannstadt, just before entering the romantic
valley of the Neckar, is a royal estate of 239 morgehs, with a beautiful
park and the castle of Eosenstein (Red or Eose Stone-^Unglish.) In
accordance with a principle adopted and practiced by the late King of
Wurtemburg, that on all his estates the useful should be made as orna-
mental as possible, he determined to establish a cattle-breeding establish-
ment at Eosenstein in 1833. The objects in view in establishing this
estate were —
a. To ascertain definitely the qualities of foreign breeds of cattle which
from time to time, here or there, might be commended for superior
qualities.
5. The creation of a new race of cattle, which should combine in a high
degree, in the individuals of the race, according to sex, the following
four qualities, viz: Superior milking qualities, early maturity, suscepti-
bility of being readily fattened, and endurance under the yoke.
There is, too, on this estate, a complete hewnery^ where all descriptions
of poultry are bred, in order to study their habits and ascertain their re-
spective qualities.
The cattle in this park are green-soiled with the green crops and grass
cut from the lawns about the castle, and from the two parks adjoining
the residence in Stuttgard, which are attached to Eosenstein. Should
the proper quantity of food be deficient from these sources, then grass is
purchased in the vicinity. The. green summer crops on this estate are
grass, clover, lucerne, and a mixture of vetches and oats. In winter the
cattle are fed hay and sugar beets ; these latter are brought from the
Seegut estate. For litter, straw and forest leaves are used. The manure
Digitized by LjOOQIC
217
18 ased for top-dressing the lawns and gardens, and the straw thrown ont
with the manure in winter, is in the spring raked together and again
made to do service as litter.
The stock of cattle at Bosenstein was as follows :
Bnll «dTM "Bfitan
Bm». BiMdlBf aDd«r Com. Htfftn ander Work TotaL
balls. l7«urold. l7«arold. oxen.
White Rosenstein 4 6 37 16 16 4 73
Various cro88 breeds .. U 7 4 « * 88"
Thoroughbred Shorthorns. 2 % 2 1 .... 7
Thoroughbred Hollanders. .. .. 8 .. 6 .. 14
Total 6 8 62 24 96 6 122
The number of bulls here is in excess of the necessities of the herd, but
those living in the vicinity are allowed to have cows served by the Kosen-
stein bulls.
COMPOSITION OP THE BOSENSTEIN EAOE.
In September, 1833, this breeding establishment was created, and con-
aisted of the following races :
1. A stock of White Hollanders, consisting of five cows and one bull,
the immediate product of the importations of 1821 and 1829, and which
were placed on the domain at Weil. The stock at Eosenstein was used
partly for cross-breeding, and another portion of it was kept for breed-
ing pure Hollanders, until 1857. This Holland stock has received sev-
eral accessions from the herd at Weil.
2. Ten cows and heifers of the cream-colored Loebttbgheb race, which
have been already described. These were purchased in the districts of
Gmttnd and Aalen in Wurtumburg, for the express purpose of being bred
to the Hollander bulls. A similar purchase was made in 1845.
3. 8even cows of the same race already described under the head of
Weil, Kleinhohenhiem and Schamhausen. They were used for no other
purpose in breeding than for crossing, as explained at the commence-
ment of this article.
4. Four cows of the long-homed Devon race, imported from England.
They also were used for cross-breeding, but were retained a short time only.
5. Nine cows and one bull of thoroughbred Alderneys, imported from
England. The cows of this race do not yield a relatively lar-ie quantity
of milk, but it is of excellent quality and very rich. These AUlcrneys
were in part bred to the Hollanders and in part bred purely until 1847.
6. Ten cows and a bull of the reddish-brown polled breed, from York-
shire in England. These were bred partly pure and partly used for
crossing until 1839, after which they were used for crossing only.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
218
Seven cows and two bulls of the tractable, agile longborned Zebu's,*
with a large hump on the back ; one of the
most widely disseminated races -of cattle in
India and Africa, where they are employed as
i^i^^^K iB^w.-.MA m , beasts of burden under the yoke, and to ride,
but not for milkii^g. Like some of the other
races, these were bred partly pure and partly
crossed until 1838, since then they were cross
ZEBU. bred only.
Since the inauguration of the establishment at Rosenstein, there have
been added —
8. Cows and heifers of the Schwytzer race ; they were first introduced
at Eoaenstein in 1838, from the stock-breeding establishment at Manzell,
near Seegut, but were originally from the cloister of Einsiedela, in Swit-
zerland, in which vicinity they were purchased and bred in-and in. At
Eosenstein they were bred to the Rosenstein bulls ; the progeny giving
promise of superiority. Cows of this race were from time to time removed
here from Seegut.
9. A herd of four cows and one Shorthorn bull. This herd was upon
the recommendation of Sir Robert Peel selected from the estate of Sir
James Graham, in Cumberland, in the spring of 1847. Two of the
cows were reputed to be famous milkers. But this herd suffered so
severely in comparison with the herds of other breeds at Rosenstein, that
they were finally removed.
10. Six cows and heifers of the Jersey breed, imported directly from
the island of Jersey, in August, 1850. These were br<jd to bulls which
* The domestic cattle of India is commoaly known by the name of Zebu, and is con-
spicuous for the curious fatty hump which projects from the withers. These animals
are further remarkable for the heavy dewlap which falls in thick folds from the throat,
and which gives to the fore-part of the animal a very characteristic aspect. The limbs
are slender, and the back, after rising towards the haunches, falls suddenly at the tail.
The Zebu is a quiet and intelligent animal, and is capable of being trained in various
modes for the service of mankind. It is a good draught animal, and is harnessed either
to carriages or plows, which it can draw with great steadiness, though with but little
speed. Sometimes it is used for riding, and is possessed of considerable endurance'
being capable of carrying a rider for fifteen hours in a day, at an average rate of ^ve or
six miles an hour. The Nagore breed is specially celebrated for its capabilities as a
steed, and is remarkable for its peculiarly excellent action. These animals are very
active, and have been known to leap over a fence which was higher than our five-barred
gates, merely for the purpose of drinking at a certain well, and, having slaked their
thirst, to leap back again *i co their own pasture. As a beast of burden, the Zebu is in
great r< (^ lu.v-t for it can carry a heavy load for a very great distance, though at no
great speed.
There are various breeds of Zebu, some being about the size of our ordinary cattle,
a:ul ():li .'» .r i _:, , 'l.;ij m.-'">»:i.s rnnji a. IliTj^o ox Ij a. b.iuti! .\ •,..' vi ..'!.... .1 d.)^-. —
yfooi>s\Illu8lrated Natural History, Vol L
Digitized by LjOOQIC
219
were obained by a cross between the Hollanders and Alderneys, as de-
scribed above in No. 5. The Jersey cows suffered in comparison of their
milking qualities with the new or Rosensteiner race.
11. Four cows of the Murzthaler race. These were purchased in 1853,
in the Steyermark, and were bred until 1856, when it was found that
they possessed no superior qualities, they were removed. Oxen of this
breed are, however, yet to be found on the domain at Weil.
12. Four cows and a bull-calf of the small black-spotted Bbittant
race in France. At the Paris Exhibition, in 1856, they were highly ex-
tolled as possessing superior milking qualities. But upon actual trial
they were found to possess no qualities superior to several herds of indi-
genous German cattle, and were consequently soon removed.
13. Two heifers of the easily-fatted race of Chabolaise:, from the vicin-
ity of Lyons in France, which were purchased with those of No. 12, were
bred two years and then removed.
14. Five cows and two bulls of the famous readily fattening and early
maturing short-horned English (Durham) race. A part of this herd was
obtained in April, 1857, from the model farm of Prince Albert at Wind
sor, and a part from Jonas Webb, at Babraham ; these are bred partly
pure and partly for the purpose of crossing.
Out of twelve of the above described breeds or races, six have served
no other purpose than as affording the means of a scientific inquiry and
comparison of their qualities ; they were removed as soon as it was fully
ascertained that they possessed no qualities in a superior degree to other
cattle on the domain ; and it is confidently asserted that no trace of their
blood remains in any of the animals now retained. Five races, viz., Hol-
landers, Limburgers, Schwytzer, Alderney and Zebu, have commingled
their blood to form a new race whose type is now fixed and progeny con-
stant, and known as the Kosensteiner race or breed ; whilst others are yet in
a transition stage— inconstant in breeding, and consequently no fixity of
type. Only one of the original breeds is kept pure — the Durham ; but
even a part of this herd is kept for crossing.
I took great pains to obtain all the data of the history and description
of the various breeds of cattle on the King of Wurtemburg's domain, be-
cause I had heard of the •* Rosenstein^^ race before I visited Germany, and
heard of it everywhere in Germany, and after having seen the animals
themselves became satisfied that if the Germans are the appreciative race
of people which I believe them to be, that the Rosensteims are destined to
be, in Germany, what the Shorthorns are in England and America, viz :
the superior and most desirable breed. The origin of the Shorthorn is
not definitely ascertained — neither is that of the Improved Leicester or
Southdown sheep — the English breeders being either too selfish to impart
knowledge wiiicU may be of benelii to the world at lai^e, or else too
Digitized by LjOOQIC
220
ignorant to write ; whilst the King of Wurtemburg ordered a correct
record to be made of every step which was taken in establishing the new
race, and gave his Privy Counsellor, G. F. Schmidt, privilege to publish
it to the world.
Having given a synoptical view of the races employed in the production
of the new race, it is not improper to detail the several steps taken to
consummate the fixity of type.
What blood was employed m the production of this typeI
The White Bosensteineb breed is, so far as blood is concerned, the
product of the crossing of several constant breeds. If we wish to trace
back and ascertain definitely what blood is represented in the present
fixed type or constant race of Rosensteiners, it will be found on the original
sire*s side to have descended from a Holland bull, Apfba, dropped shortly
after the importation of 1821 ; and of five Holland cows, viz : Stxtlzb,
Snek, Blauiigeb, Baebenpood and Dobia — a portion of which were
imported in 1821, others in 1829, from Holland and Friesland, and then
placed on the domain at Weil. There is not a single animal in the en-
tire herd of the White Eosensteiners which does not trace back on the
one side to these progenitors. The five Holland cows were all celebrated
milkers. The color alone was not constant; the cows as well as the bull
himself were ** blue tigered,*' and black spotted, but many of their progeny
were white, and after 1833 all their progeny that were white were selected
to be placed in the new establishment at Rosenstein. The blood mixed
with this Holland was, in some instances, that of the Limburger only ;
in others that of the Schwytzer only. But in most instances three or four
breeds or blood is represented, such as the product of a HollandLimburg,
or Alderney-Limburg dam, and a HoUand-Schwy tzer or a Holland- Alder-
ney, or a Holland-Schwytzer-Alderney sire. In other instances the Zebu
blood is added to these.
In what manneb webe these vabious stbains of blood oom-
lONGLED ?
This question may be more satisfactorily and briefly answered by pre-
senting the pedigree of several covrs than by any detailed verbal descrip-
tion.
[NOTB.— I do not wish to be understood as asserting that a new race of cattle, in the
signification of the term "race" as employed and understood by Natukalists, has been
prodaced by the King of Wurtemburg— but that a new race, strain, breed, or family, in
the sense in which breeders generally understand any or all of these terms, has been
produced.— Klippabt. ]
Digitized by LjOOQIC
221
K
F
D
tf
E f
■^'' W
^i
m
q
M
o
1 f
oq
Digitized by LjOOQIC
222
PEDIGREE OF LEDA— Continued.
PEDIGREE ON SIRE'S SIDE.
A. Schwytzer cow, Freude, Oct., 1837.
B. Holland bull, Pollux, May. 183H.
0. Schwytzer cow, Starle, Oct., 18:J8.
D. Holland Schwytzer buU, Tell, Sep. 1840.
E. Holland Schwytzer cow, Schimmele,
March, 1842.
F. Holland Schwytzer bull, NimTod,Jaii., '45.
G. *• bull, Kilian III., Oct., 1«40.
H. Schwytzer cow, Freude, Aug., 1841.
1. Holland Schwytzer cow,Strausle,JaD. M5
K. •* " bull, Hugo, June, M9.
L. White cow, Leda,' February, 1852.
The bull Pollux is g g.g. sire on sire's side,
and is g.g. sire ou dam's side.
PEDIGREE OX DAM'S SIDE.
a. Holland cow.
b. " buU, Jacob, March, 1828.
c. " cow.
d. " bull.
e. Limburger cow.
f. Holland cow.
g. " bull. Jacob XL, Dec. 1831.
h. " Limburg cow, Blassle, June, 'SI.
i. " cow, Doria, March, 1833.
k. " bun, KiUau IL, Feb , 1835,
1. " Limburg bull, Astor, Oct. 1834.
m. Limburg cow. Spies, 183:3.
n. Holland cow, Blane.
o. See B, on sire's side of the pedigree.
p. Cow Spies, July, 1837.
q. Holland bun. Jacob III., Feb., 1842,
r. Cow Vabie, Dec, 1842.
8. Cow, Hauptlie, Feb., 1847.
PEDIGEEB OF THE COW CLARA.
SJSl^<v'^r;*ai^.v^ *'^^-^^*-^'i^J^ S^^<KWc«^'V
^'^^^ "
PEDIGREE OF SIRE.
A. Schwvtz cow, Freude, Oct., 1S32.
B. Holland bull, Pollux, May, 1838.
C. Schwvtz cow, Starle, Oct., 1838.
D. Bulltell, Sept.. 1840.
E. Cow Schininiele, March, 1842.
F. Bull Nimrod, Jan.. 1845.
PEDIGREE OF DAM.
a. Limburg cow, Mina I., 1829.
b. Alderney bull, 1H3G.
0. ** cow.
d. Cow, Mina I., Ja«., 1^42.
e. Alderney bull. Nimmd, April, 1842.
f. Cow, Mina II., March, 1^4().
g. White cow, Clara, Jan., 1849.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
223
PEDIGEEE OF COW HIRSCHE.
PKDIGRKB ON DAM*8 6IDB.
a. Limburg Bull.
b. Aldtrny cow.
o. UuUand bull, Jacob II., Dec., 1831. Same
SLH bull jf.in pedigree of Leda.
d. Llmburg Alderny cow, Fanuy, Nov. '31.
e. *• " " Blane, Nov., 1834.
f. . " Holland cow, Fanny L, Dec *39.
g. Holland bull, Kilian III., Oct., 1840. Same
as bull G. iu pedigree of Leda.
Holland Limburg Alderny cow, Fanny.
U., March, 1844.
PEDIGREE ON SIRE'S SIDK.
A. Holland Bull.
B. Limburg cow.
C. Holland bull, Jacob II. Same as bull e,
on dam's Hide.
D. Holland Limburg cow, Blassle, June,
1H3I. 8amea.sh, in Loda's pedigree.
E. Holland Limburg bull, Astor, Oct., 1834.
Same as 1, in Leda's pedigree.
F. Holland cow, Tiger, Feb., 183.5.
G. Cow, Emma, Feb., 1838.
U. Holland bull. Epple, April, 1839.
L Bull, Ellas, Jan., 1842.
K. Holland cow.
L. " bull, KoUer, April, 1836.
M. Cow, Hirsche. Feb. 1846.
The Holland bull, Jacob II. is an ancestor
on both Hire and dam's side, :«nd the Holland
bull Roller is great grand sire on both bin
and dam's side.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
224
When a new race or breed of cattle is to be established by means of
cross breeding, it is to be taken for granted that the breeder thoroughly
understands the blood with which he is operating, and has certain well
defined objects which he desires to obtain.
Bat it must not be supposed that the proportion of blood in cross breed-
ing is established accordiug to arithmetical rules or calculations. If the
proportions were thus established in fact, the present experiment would
have failed of attaining the desired object in the short space of time in
which it was actually consummated ; but the power to transmit qualities
to offspring varies very greatly in different breeds or races ; it seems to
be possessed in a very remarkable or extraordinary degree by the Holland
race. In produciug a cross breed, the question naturally ariset<; : Which
bull is to be used in order to improve the progeny, to supply a defect, or
to make a desirable change 1 The proper answer to these questions will,
in every instance, indicate the course to be pursued. If any one will take
the pains to study the foregoing pedigrees closely, he will find that —
a. There has been consanguineous breeding.
b. The consanguineous breeding must not be pursued through many
generations, but must be interrupted by the introduction of other blood.
c. That a majority of the blood must be drawn from one race.
How LONG DOES THE TEANSITION STATE CONTINUE 1 Or what lengfh
of time is required to fix a certatn typepemumently?
The cross breeding commenced in 1834. Of the first progeny there
were many animals — notwithstanding, they had some good qualities — ^yet,
for the specific purpose in view, had more or less defects, and were, in
consequence, rejected. It was only in the fourth and fifth generations
that the ^^back-bred^^ animals had become so reduced in numbers, that a
person could select a calf that would with tolerable certainty transmit its
qualities. A little more detail will, perhaps, make this point more intel-
ligible. Out of twenty-five heifers, in part the product of the first cross
and in part of the second cross, dropped in 1838 and 1839, eight only, after
a thorough examination, were found to be in every respect satisfactory ;
six might have been retained, if no better ones had been found in the lot,
but eleven presented the attainment of transmitted qualities in such a
very slight degree that they were at once rejected.
In 1851 there were dn^ped 21 healthy heifers ; of these 13 were found
to possess the requisite qualities for breeding and the transmission of
qualities, but eight could not be relied on as good breeders.
In the seventh generation, or 27 years after cross breeding had com-
menced, very few bulls are dropped whose progeny breed back. From
this it will be seen that it requires breeding to the sixth or seventh gener-
ation, or a period of twenty-five years, before a new type can be rendered
so permanent as to be reliable in the transmission of qualities with any
degree of certainty.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
225
What was the result of this cross breeding^ or mixture of blood?
On the next page I will present a brief summary of the qualities of the
new race, or *♦ Eosensteinees," and further on I will present arable of
the qualities of the races the blending of which formed this new race.
Now, if we may form a judgment or opinion from this summary and table,
as to the qualities transmitted by each race to the new, the following
may, perhaps, be accepted as being as near the truth as any analysis will
give, viz :
The color is transmitted by the Hollanders (pure white) ; the size of the
carcass, especially that of the cows, is derived from the Hollanders and
Schwy tzers ; the form of the body has been modified and rendered more
elegant by the introduction of Limburger and Aldemey blood. The great
period of time in which the cows keep in milk is inherited from the Hol-
landers; one of the Holland dams (of the Eosensteiner race), Doeia,
yielded an uninterrupted flow of milk during a period of 33 months, with-
out calving during this time. The excellent quality of the milk is derived
from the Limburger as well as from the Alderneys, in those in which this
latter blood is represented. The great yield of milk is deri\ ed equally
fipom the Hollanders, Schwytzer and Limburgers.
In the work oxen the strength of the Hollanders is combined with the
endurance of the Limburgers,
It is a self-evident proposition, that in order to obtain the best results,
and secure the fullest development of the qualities of each of these races,
that they must be properly cared for, fed, groomed, etc. Furthermore,
the cows in calf should have full rations of rich or very nutritive food ;
the calves intended to be retained for breeding purposes should be allowed
to suck longer than ordinary calves are permitted to do; those that
mature early should be bred early, so that the progeny may not only re-
tain this quality of early maturity, but that it may be fuither developed ;
those that mature late should not be bred until they are well developed ;
judicious selection of the age at which bulls are put to service ; the cows
to be " clean milked," or thoroughly milked, even when they yield small
quantities only.
QUALITIES OF THE EOSENSTEINEKS.
The cow stables (princely residences rather than stables) into which I
was introduced at Eosenstein, were filled with Eosensteiners. At one
end of the first stable I saw a Shorthorn bull, and in the other stable a
Holland bull, and unless a person were well posted on "points," it would
be difficult to decide which was Shorthorn, Holland or Eosenstein. The
Shorthorn bull is heavier in the shoulders and chest, and the Hollander
lighter in the flank than the Eosensteiner. Both the Holland and Short-
horn cows are heavier in the shoulders and very considerable lighter in
the flank than the Eosensteiner cow, and yet I have seen Shorthorn cows,
15A
Digitized by LjOOQIC
226
both in England and the United States, that did not differ essentially in
general contour from the Bosensteiners. A cow (a portrait of which I
was fortunate enough to obtain) which seemed to be the pet of the herds-
man was of a milk white color, and weighed 1,493 pounds. Her height,
measured from above the centre of the shoulder, was 53} inches, and
measured from this point to the outer edge of the bone in the hind quar-
ter, 60 inches.
The average weight of this race is —
A calf on the day it is dropped lOSponnds.
Heifer calf 3 weeks old 131 "
" " 20montliflold 670 "
" 2^ years old but not in calf 1,000 /*
Cow^ »' 1,160 ••
" 8 " 1.400 "
Work oxen 6 yeaiB old 1,550 "
I mentioned, on a preceding page, that the prevailing custom in Ger-
many is to reduce all cattle food to equivalents of good meadow hay.
This custom so universally prevails and is so thoroughly practised, that
it is difficult to obtain any other information from breeders, or even herds-
men, than that they feed " so much hay worth ;^^ and as might be expected,
I found the same custom at Bosenstein. The herdsman told me that a
mature animal was fed daily an amount equivalent to 35 pounds of hay,
cattle under two years, as an average, not exceeding half that amount.
So far as the milking qualities of this race are concerned, I can not do
better than to copy the '* milk register,'* in which the amount of milk
given by each cow is daily put down, and at the dose of the year a sum-
mary of the whole is made. The herdsman informed me that so far as
the register is concerned, aXi the milk obtained from the cow is regis-
tered ; that given to the calves was first milked and given in a bucket,
and this amount of milk is not deducted from the aggregate yield.
The average yield of milk of a cow of the constant (permanently fixed
type) race during the year 1860, amounted to 3,390 quarts. It may not
be improper to state here, that the average yield of milk of six Holland
cows during the same period, was 2,628 quarts for each cow.
The quart is 0.318 of a gallon.
Di^. <^ WtigkU tmd Meawrn of aU NaiiomM.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
227
Namb of the Cow.
In the stable all the year,
(a) of the constant white
race.
When
dropp*d.
Time oi
calving in
186U.
Time of last calv-
ing previous to
1860.
Quarts
of milk
in 1860.
Quarts
of milk
in 1859.
Quarts
of milk
in 1858.
Hirache
Sarle
Clara
Rosa
Mina (dirty white)
Leda
Lola
Vavie :
Dina (yellow white) . . .
Favorite
Elitsa
Anna
Orosse
Doris
Young Bobin
Hesse
Zwicke
Toung Bella
Helene
Lina
Ester
Ketherle
Bebele
Bertha
1846
1848
1849
1852
1852
1853
1853
1853
1854
1854
1855
1855
1855
1855
l&'SS
1856
1856
1856
1856
1856
1857
1857
1857
Oct. 18.
April 4.
" 5.
July 17.
April 8.
Nov. 12.
Jan'y3.
Oct. 6.
Nov. 17.
Jan. 12.
May 14.
Jun.27.
miscarried
Jun. 19.
Aug. 22.
Jan^y 1.
Apr. 10.
Mar. 21.
July 10,
Aug. 13,
Deo. 2,
May 26,
Mar. 12,
" 24,
July 1;
Deo. 28,
April ],
Jan. 14
July 17
July 17,
July 2.
Nov. 8,
Oct. 14,
May 16,
July 6,
Oct. 4,
June 1,
Aug. 4,
1859.
1858.
1859.
II
1^58.
1858.
1859.
1858.
1859.
4234
3264
5128
2218
3942
5076
3650
4514
3986
4722
3842
3286
3000
4168
2920
3584
3118
1698
3060
4140
4488
3960
6058
3366
4780
3014
1560
2948
5576
4220
4880
4050
5896
4620
3120
3364
3284
2280
1080
2880
2040
2188
3442
2010
3444
2364
3138
2100
2394
1776
1440
Average per cow.
3390
3200
3770
(b), CowB in ^ troMiiiUm stage— not yet eanstaHt or permanently fixed type.
Eva, red spotted
Blttmle, black spotted...
Frende, black
Sch^nelle, tigered*
Falbe, black
Blame, black spotted . ..
Blaue, mouse color
Graue, tigered
Freia, red spotted
1850
Feb. 16.
1850
Jan. 6.
1852
Nov. 6.
1854
Sep. 27.
1855
1855
Oct. 30.
1855
Jan. 24.
1856
. ......
1857
Jan. 6.
Sept. 27, 1858.
3540
2172
1. 25, "
2640
3718
Oct. 2. 1859.
2580
3300
Sept. 28, "
2820
3416
" 12, "
3284
3264
Oct. 28, "
3630
2700
Nov. 7, 1858.
2584
2920
" 2, 1859.
3358
736
3014
....
3000
2820
3240
1602
936
(o) Cknce not kept in the siahlee during the entire yejir I860.
Lorohe, white
Kola, blackish gray
Fanny, white
Idsel, white
Doric, red spotted . .
Seba, Yellow
Helm, blue tigred. .
1849
... ... .
Dec. 9, 1858.
324
4526
2970
1848
Jan. 13.
July 27, "
2520
2344
1851
.••.•• .
Aug. 17, 1857.
720
2774
3708
1854
...... •
Deo. 19, *•
b60
2482
3430
1851
Feb. 26.
Oct. 7, 1858.
1672
2014
2384
1851
June 8.
Nov. 2, "
2216
4088
5069
1855
Oct. 29, 1859,
(Miscarried.)
2296
2520
Tigtnd, Tbe oonunon Xngliah teixn fat this ft4|eetlTe ii *t/l«a Mmm."
In a coantry as densely populated as Germany is, in proportion to its
natoral producing capacity, the force of circumstances necessitates a
rigid economy in the use of all agricultural products. Hence, not only
Digitized by VjOOQIC
228
are the nutritive properties and relative nutritive value of every forage
plant well understood, as also the commercial quality Jind value of other
plants in general cultivation, but the actual cost of production of each
crop is as definitely ascertained as the amount obtained for it in market.
^Domestic or agricultural accounts are everywhere kept in Germany, with
a scrupulous exactness. Hence every farmer is able to tell precisely what
it will cost to rear a calf— if a heifer, until she is in milk; or if a bull,
until he can be put to service ; or if a steer, until he is fit for the shambles
or the yoke, or both. The annexed table of the qualities of cattle on the
King of Wurtemburg's estates, is therefore not an isolated case, but is
simply such an account as any ** Chraf,'^ '* Eittergutabesitzer^'' or ** Pdchter''
can furnish anywhere throughout the Germanic States.
On the contrary, here in Ohio, where the population is comparatively
sparse, where the producing capacity is very great, and labor very ex-
pensive, and where almost every farmer owns in fee simple the soil he
cultivates, not one farmer in a hundred can tell how much a cow has cost
to rear until in milk; how much of an income he derives from her milk,
whether sold or consumed as milk, butter, or cheese; nor how much milk
she yields in proportion to food consumed and her own live weight.
There will be a small revolution in the breeds of cattle as soon as Ohio
farmers keep as rigid accounts as the Germans do — especially in the milk-
ing qualities.
English farmers keep very loose and general accounts. In fact, England
collects no agricultural statistics of England proper, and those of Scot-
land and Ireland are assumptions rather than realities. The truth is, that
England does not produce as much, agriculturally, as she has credit lor
doing, and I presume her statesmen are well aware of this fact, and en-
deavor to conceal it as much as possible. In this respect, England is
precisely like a merchant who hwws that he is bankrupt, but does not
want the world to know it, and is straining every resource to keep up ap-
pearances. It is true that in isolated cases, like that of Alderman John
Joseph Mechi, a rigid account is kept ; but at the same time, who does
not know that his statement serves as a basis for the estimation of pro-
duct of one-half of England 1 England does not produce more than h^
of the breadstuffs she consumes, nor more than half the meat ; hence she
wants free trade in breadstuflfs and meat. But on the other hand, if some
unsophisticated individual thinks that England is in earnest in her advo-
cacy of free trade generally, let him make a shipment of American re-
prints of British authors to England, and if the custom-house oflacer of
^^ free-trade England*^ does not, no* only ^' confiscated^ them, but commit
them to the flames^ it will be because the laws have been changed since
July, 1865 — and I am not aware that any such change has been made.
This ''reciprocity^' and "free-trade" discussion is entirely out of place
Digitized by LjOOQIC
229
here, I am well aware; but the temptation was too strong for me to pass
it over in silence.
Annexed is a table compiled by G. F. Schmidt, Royal Court Domain
Councellor of the King of Wurtemburg, and copied from his publication
of the King's stock-breeding establishments. (See table, pp. 230 231.)
AGBICTJLTURE OF "WUETEMBUBG.
The great variety of geological formations found in Wurtemburg, and
the various elevations of the land, the constant succession of "hill and
dale," and the Swabian Alps on the south-east, must necessarily induce a
greatly varied system of cultivation. The highest points of cultivatable
land, are not beyond the region of summer grains ; therefore, a purely
grazing region without plow land is to be found sporadically only on the
northern portion of these Alps — the so-called sheep-walks ; the grazing
regions are, however, to be found in Allgua (in Bavaria) and in the Black
Forest (in Baden). Notwithstanding there are some herds from Wurtem-
burg driven in Allgau and grazed there during the summer, and in the
autumn brought home and stabled until the next spring. This Alpine
region, whether from the sundering of the rocks at the vast height and
consequent scarcity of water, or whether its severe climate is the cause of
a sparse population, or whether from the dryness of the atmosphere,
certain it is that here are the healthiest sheep pastures in great abun-
dance ; and from the same causes, the greatest scarcity of winter food.
The more humid valleys at the foot of these Alps abound in grasses, and
sheep are pastured during the summer on the Alps, and wintered in
sheds at the foot of the Alps, throughout their entire extent in this State
Little meadow spots, containing from 12 to 36 morgen, have each a shed
in which ibod is deposited for wintering the sheep ; and if the flock owner
does not own one of them, he then gives his sheep in charge of the owner,
and in settling the account, credits himself with the manure produced by
the sheep, to balance the charge for the shepherds' and dogs' services
and litter on the other or Dr. side.
Many of these mountain spurs have plateaus on their sides or summits,
but the ascent is too steep to haul anything up from below ; in such ca^es
the land is p^^tured a series of years with sheep, until it is sufficiently
enriched by their manure to produce several crops without manuring ;
the sod is then plowed down and crops grown upon it, and then put in
pasture again. The crops are a6 a rule a rotation of cereals, and the last
one a crop of esparsette, which is once mowed and then pastured. The
*'old" or original German system of farming, viz., to divide the estate
into a given number of fields, and then to grow the same crop on each
field alternately, and having a grass crop in the course, is yet retained in
some of the plateaus of Swabia, where the system has underpone many
modifications and developments.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
230
I
I
?
o
4
I
I
I
I
O
.§
JO «»n9tgAinb9 JO 'ggt ppt
s
■zo ai *98»oqa
S
s
s
s
'ZO n| 'je^^nq
JO oii«in ^nm
JO aeoano 099
'spimod
m nmnav J9d M.09
J9d i[iim JO PI9IA
'PfO 6J99M.
moj %'B 'p9J9(^q>fa«i8
jlgQ JO !»q3i9Al
'P9d
-dojp a9qM. *89A[VQ
-n9^!^«j o!^ iC!^iiiq«^d«py
*01[0^
9q!^ o^ aoxo jo noi!^iR^d«py
SP aP
s
s
1-4
10
I S
s s
t: S
.2 &
ll
I&1
■5.300
1
if
a
A
i
'i
I
111
^1
^2
I
a
i
O 4} H
OS'S
*Sjnqnio(^
'jiooqoiiin JO ^qSiOM. 9Aiq
«
o
S
8
IB 5
III
1
5 -^ ^
5 I
" I
i
8
I
I
^
s
I
■I
J
11
ll
II
1:1
■gll
1
I
i i
I
I
d
Vo
•W
•B
Digitized by LjOOQIC
221
s s s s
s
9
s s ^
s • s
i? s *
01
n . i
s r; s
I
I
3
$ @ : S
Cm d> GO 35
g g
J
I
I
I
jS. tg^ I**! •*>
?i ll It I
1
^1 |4I I
Si III I
8^
.9
II
ifi I- ^-
Digitized by LjOOQIC
232
Towards the Black Forest, at the junction of the new red sandstone
with the waved dolomite, the turf or sod is allowed to grow at least four
years, generally five or six years, but very seldom ten or twelve years.
Whilst the land is yet strong it is laid down in grass, then the grass is
cropped several years, then pastured. But in a higher state of cultiva-
tion it is treated as meadow land — ^that is, it is manured and irrigated,
and the cattle or sheep are green -soiled. The practice commenced many
centuries ago of paring and burning the sod, but with the scarcity and
great cost of fuel, this practice is almost discontinued. On this forma-
tion we find a complete rotation of crops — potatoes, oats, clover, fallow,
grass, &c. These crops succeed admirably well on the moist sandstone
regions here. On the keuper sand region a •• four course " seems to suc-
ceed best, as follows : winter rye, summer grains, pasture ; pasture till
June, then put in fallow. In the immediate neighborhood of large towns
the land is divided into such small parcels that, without regard to geo-
logic formation, it is farmed more like a garden, and the plow more sel-
dom used than in places where the tracts are of considerable size. But
wherever the plow is used, the plowing is well done, and in consequence
of the influence of the Agricultural College at Hohenheira, the farmers
of Wurtemburg use more improved implements than anywhere I saw on
the Continent This college has introduced a number of reapers and
mowers, but Ball's Ohio Movteb, is the only one of the lot which gives
entire satisfaction.
The management and application of manures is as diversified as the
soils or rotations of crops are varied. There are localities where the
liquids from the manure-pile run to waste in the roadside gutters ; and
others where not only the liquids, but everything else of even a remotely
manurial nature, is very carefully collected, conserved and applied. In
the winegrowing regions the greatest desire is manifested for an in-
creased production of manures — it is in the wine-growing districts where
the most artificial and mineral manures are applied. In these districts
everything which will contribute to the formation of manure is called
into requisition ; leaves of the forest trees, ferns, moss, sawdust, turning-
chips, and offal of every kind ; the straw produced' contributes a email
fraction towards the amount of manure applied. And in order to permit
the greatest amount of manure to be applied to the vineyards, the prac-
tice has been to grow three or four crops on 7iefw lands (from which the
forest has just been removed), without manuring. As a rule the stables
are cleaned twice a week ; in some instances the manure is at once ap-
plied to the fields, in others it is thrown into a receptacle, which is cov-
erd with boards, and as soon as the crop is off the fields it is then applied
and plowed under; there is little or no surface manuring except on grass
lands. But I have seen huge piles of manure, thoroughly rotted — ^the
Digitized by LjOOQIC
233
aocTimulation of years — and all the active portions evaporated, in Wnr-
temburg as well as in Ohio. Next to barn-yard manure in quantity is the
sheep manure, and it is very higtly prized ;• but farmers are not yet
agreed as to the proper time when it should be applied ; and in conse-
quence of this indecision, it can at times be purchased " for a song." Of
mineral manures, gypsum or plaster of Paris is the most extensively
used — especially clover and Lucerne, but very seldom on rape, pod-fruits
or meadows. In the new red sandstone regions burnt lime is more ex-
tensively used than any other artificial manure. In the vineyards marl is
more extensively used than either gypsum or plaster. All the roads in
Wurtemburg are ** m^taUed " with limestone, and as this becomes reduced
to powder or dust it is washed by rains into the ditches or gutters by the
wayside ; this wash is carefully collected and applied as manure, and, I
am assured, with the best results. Phosphates, superphosphates, bone-
dust and guano are by no means strangers to the Wurtemburg farmers ;
but they rely much more upon their own production and mineral manures
than upon imported or manufactured ones.
Where the soil is a loam— that is, a mixture of clay and fine gravel,
with a gravel or pervious subsoil — there the field is not plowed into lands,
but where the subsoil is impervious, then the field is plowed into lands.
This custom has been followed, I am told, for many centuries — ^in fact in
some settlements the richest loam and soils least likely to wash are
plowed into lands more from tradition than for any other reason. These
lands vary in width from four furrows to sixty furrows. In Wurtemburg,
as elsewhere in Germany, the lands are well pulverized ; a stiff clay is
not unfrequently plowed six times before it is seeded ; and the mellowest
loam is never plowed less than four times ; this is done not only that the
soil itself may be well commingled, but also to have the manure well
distributed.
The harrows are of various forms and kinds — some with iron, others
with wooden teeth. Wheat and winter crops are all sown broadcast ; the
drill is used for sowing rape, peas, lentils and beans. The scythe and
sickle are used to gather the crops, and there are perhaps not half a dozen
reapers or mowers in use in all Wurtemburg, and the same may be said
of the horse hay-rake. The great bulk of the crops are threshed with
the flail ; in some districts horses or oxen *' tramp ** the grain out, althougfh
there are a few threshing machines in the kingdom, but these are on
large estates, or else in neighborhoods where laborers of this kind are
scarce.
In Wurtemburg much more care and attention is given to meadows
than in Saxony or Prussia, notwithstanding the cultivation of forage
* It is computed that ^SOO.OOO Bheep produce manure equivalent to nine miUion owts
of barn-yard manure.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
234
plants is very general throaghont the kingdom. The Wortembnrgians
think it very important to secure good and healthy hay for their cattle,
and therefore pay a larger sam per acre for meadow lands than they do
for plow lands. The meadows are not confined to the depressions or
lowlands in the valleys, bat are found on the plateaux or table lands
at very considerable elevations, not only where it would be difficult to
use the plow, but where there is admirable plow land. Almost all the
meadows are so arranged that they may be flooded or irrigated — ^but
flooding is the more common practice. It deposits Ml and other fine
detritus, which acts as a manure for the grass. Where they can not
be flooded they are very liberally manured. From 80 to 100 cwt. of
manure are applied per morgen, or say 100 to 133 cwt. per acre, or three
times as much as is applied to plow lands in that kingdom. The ele-
vated meadows consume more manure than they can possibly be made
to yield, for the crop is seldom more than 30 cwt. (1} tons) per morgen,
including the regular crop and aftermath. The hay is fed with straw,
the fern and forest leaves used for litter, and yet the supply of manure
is far short of the demand. The consequence is that hay is increasing
in price, forage plants more extensively cultivated, and the forest mead-
ows turned over to the plow. But the meadows in the valleys and
depressions are seldom manured with bam yard manure, the geologic
formations immediately above them are found to disintegrate sufficiently
rapid to yield an excellent manure for them. These irrigated or flooded
meadows yield two or three crops per annum, and have beside a good
crop of pasture in the fall, and a crop of the so called ''scrape grass" at
the commencement of winter. Almost all the meadows are provided
with portable racks — often on wheels — in which the new-mown grass
thrown and put under cover in case of a sudden shower, and then again
removed to the meadow in fair weather and cured. Other meadows have
portable platforms on which the partly cured hay is thrown during a
shower, so that the hay does not rest on the ground.
PAfiTUBES.
The pastures consist of the sheep walks on the alpine slopes already
mentioned, and the out-crops of the muschelkalk formations, which
appeared adapted for grasses and pastures only. In addition to these
are the forest pastures. I did not learn that any special care was taken
to renovate the pastures ; the droppings of the sheep and cattle, together
with the disintegrated matter brought from the higher points by rains,
seemed to keep them in good condition. During the past half century,
in regions where the three year fallow system is practised, the fallows
are sown in clover of various kinds, induding esparsette and lucerne,
and then pastured.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
235
AGBIOTTIiTUBAL PEODUOTS.
Among the agricaltaral prodacts the cereals are the most important.
Wnrtembnrg exports them in considerable quantities to Switzerland,
Vorarlbarg and down the Bhine. The most fertile soils for them are
the maschelkalk plateaux, the lias lime regions, and the southern slopes
of the Swabian Alps which face the Danube. The chief of the cereals
here is the '' spelts" or ^'dinkel," {triUoum spdta) which in many places
or districts is the staple breadstuff, and consequently winter crop. It is
preferred in Wurtemburg to all other varieties of wheat, for the reason
that it is easier cultivated, has a greater product or yield, is subject to
fewer diseases, better adapted to the soil and climate, can be garnered
up longer without injurious results, and is entirely free from destruction
by birds and insects in the field. It is sent to market Bsid to mill in
the hnUf the same as barley is with us. Singular as it may appear, the
grain deteriorates rapidly after being separated from the hull. From 76
to 225 pounds are sown on the margen^ and the crop has yielded as high
as 3,000 pounds per morgen, or 06 bushels of 60 pounds each per acre^ but
the average crop for a series of years is 1,060 pounds per morgen. The
*• St. Peter's com," or "one grain," (M^umm mvMHyooewm — See Ohio Ag.
Bep. for 1857, page 707) is widely disseminated throughout the kingdom,
because it yields well on the poor tough clays, and has this advantage,
that it may be sown as a winter or spring wheat, as circumstances may
require.*
W\tat proper is grown only as a winter crop, although spring wheat
is not unknown, but the winter wheat is grown for export rather than
home consumption. From 1^ to 2} bushels are sown per acre, and in
some districts 31 bushels per acre are harvested, yet the average for the
kingdom does not exceed 18 bushels, or from one-fourth to one-fifth more
than the Ohio average.
Rye is the staple cereal for breadstuff for domestic consumption in the
northern part of the kingdom. In other parts it is grown more for the
straw than the grain. It has produced as high as 40 bushels per acre,
although the average is not over 18.
Winter barley is cultivated mostly by the poorer classes, because it
ripens about two weeks earlier than the other cereals, and thus gives
them time to secure their own crop before going out to harvest for others.
Spring barley is the largest summer crop, with the exception of oats,
that is cultivated of the cereal family. It U grown exclusively for brew-
ing. About 1^ bushels are sown per acre, and as high as 47 have been
harvested— the average is 23.
* The straw is exceedingly toagh, and in the neighborhood of yineyardB it ia grown
for the straw to fasten the yinee to the stakes.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
236
Oats are grown exclusively for horse and cattle food, except in years
of great scarcity, when oatmeal is used for grael, or mixed with other
meal for cakes and bread. The yield is about the same as barley, but
when grown with summer speltz as much as seventy bushels per acre
have been harvested.
MiUet and Imdfowheat are growli only when other crops fail.
Indian com is extensively cultivated in the wine producing regions.
It is said that corn and potatoes form the staples of breadstuff in these
regions. Certain it is that so far as I traveled the valley of the ^STeckar,
I found it every where as fine and as thrifty as in our own Miami and
Scioto bottoms.
Field peas and Windsor beans (horse beanos, hog beaais—faha vulgaris) are
extensively grown in fallow fields, the beans more extensively than the
peas, because the bean stalks are used as fuel in winter.
Vetches (vicia — ^tares in England j are cultivated every where, but most
generally are sown with oats for green fodder.
Garden beans (phaseolus) are very extensively cultivated on the south-
em slopes of the Swabian Alps, near Lake Constance, and whole ship
loads sent in a green state into Switzerland, where they are sliced down
and pickled for winter use. I found these sliced beans every where in
Germany on the hotel tables, and they certainly were a very delicious
dish.
LenUh are extensively grown in mixed forage crops. These mixed
forage crops were a new feature to me. I often fou»d oats, vetches, len-
tils, rye and barley mixed for green forage, and they are cultivated
every where, from Schleswig-Holstein through Mecklenburg, Prussia,
Saxony, Brunswick, Hesse, Wurtemburg, Baden, down to Bavaria. The
variety of forage plants in Wurtemburg is not so great as in many other
portions of Germany. Lupines are unknown, buckwheat is cultivated
as a last resort after every thing else has failed, and spergula, incarnate
or scarlet clover, Swedish clover, etc., are known but not in general cul-
tivation. The chief forage plant is the common red clover, from which
two to three crops are obtained. It is sown in the spring and one
crop taken in the ensuing fall, and then one or two crops the next
year, according to circumstances, when it is plowed down. The yield is
from 20 to 60 owt. per morgen, or say 25 to 80 cwt. per acre. On large
estates, I am told, the average is about 60 cwt or 3 tons per acre — ^this,
of course, includes two cuttings. In some neighborhoods it is grown
exclusively for the seed, which for years past has averaged $12 per cwt.,
but the supply is not equal to the demand, and much is imported from
southern France, Styria, etc. Lucerne ranks next to the red clover as a
forage plant The seed is generally obtained from southern France and
Italy, and is] grown upon the muschelkaik formations as well as on the
Digitized by LjOOQIC
237
lias and jarassic. It is usually cut four times, once the first year and
three times the second, and then plowed under.
Esparsette has recently been introduced and succeeds admirably well
ou the muschelkalk and Jurassic formations.
Hoot crops are cultivated everywhere throughout the kingdom. The
l>otato, however, is the chief crop. Before the " rot " set in, in 1845, it
was the most extensive of all crops, and was largely consumed for cattle
food and distilling; but it is now supplanted for these purposes by sugar-
beets, common field beets and turnips. The best varieties are liow culti-
vated, and they for the table only.
The genuine artichoke or topinambour^ and not our common Jerusalem
artichoke^ once so largely cultivated for cattle food, is almost entirely sup-
planted by the field beet. As much as 600 cwts. of leaves and roots of
the field beets have been harvested per acre, although the average does
not exceed 200 cwts. Turnips, carrots and cow cabbage are grown for cat-
tle food. Sorgo is also cultivated, not for syrup or sugar, but purely as a
forage plant. It is sown broadcast and cut with a scythe or sickle, and
fed green. I was assured that at least 4,000 morgen were cultivated in
hops, although fifty years ago not a single hop was grown in the king-
dom. They yield Irom four to four and three-quarter cwts. per acre, and
sell at all sorts of prices, from $4 to $100 per cwt.
Tobacco has been cultivated in this kingdom from its first introduc-
tion into Europe until the present time. A few years since, when the
price advanced considerably, a vast extent of territory was devoted to it,
but at present no more is grown than supplies the domestic consumption.
I forgot to mention in the proper place that there are 43,632 dogs in
Wurtemberg. Of this number, 30,570 are used *' to labor; " that is, they
draw carts, are used on tread wheels, &c. A " luxurious dog" — that is, a
pet dog, as a " King Charles^'''* for example — is taxed four florins annually
($1'C0), whilst the laboring dogs are taxed twenty four kreutzers (sixteen
cents.)
I had often read of snails being used as food, but did not credit the
statements. It so happened that when on my way to Bavaria, I was
obliged to " lie over " at Ulm some three or four hours, and in rambling
over the neighborhood I found a garden, in which were estimated to be
some 40,000 snails. These were being fattened, and in the fall would be
packed up in snail casks, and shipped to Bavaria, Austria, and even to
Italy, where they are purchased by Catholics to be eaten during Lent
and other times when meat is forbidden. The prices realized are from 12
to 16 cents per hundred.
The following table was compiled from the Beports of the Boyal Sta-
tistical Bureau, and gives the average number of morgens in each crop, to-
gether with the average product per morgen, or the average money value.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
238
CROPS OP WURTEMBUEG.
Number of
morgen in
each crop.
Crop.
No of lbs.
yield per
morgen.
Yalne of
crop in
JUninaof
40 cents.
647,392
36,287
117,332
7,067
56,194
<
654,272
4,908
10,697
21,700
274,754
408,589
38,113
758,761
25,632
13,359
35,575
5,649
80,215
1. Winter Crops.
Speltz, einkom and emmer,
Wheat ,
Eye ,
Barley
Mixed cereals
Total
2. SxTMMER Crops.
Speltz ,
Wheat
Eye
Barley
Oats
Mixed grains
Total
3. Ybgetablbs.
Peas and lentils
Beans
Vetches
Indian com
Total
4. Commercial Plants.
Winterrape 26,647 ;
Summer rape 15,509 <
Poppies 7,227
Hops 3,559
Sugar beets 8,185
Cabbages 18,536
Potatoes 4-5 159,136
Flax, hemp, teasels and mustard 46,608
Total 285,409
5. (1-5) Potatoes, turnips, cabbage, beats, car-
rots, &c 95,500
6. Clover, lucerne, esparsette 262,378
7. Two crop meadows 641,607
One crop meadows 240,000
8. Pastures 229,389
9. Orchards, &c 60,752
Fallow 391,138
No. of trees.
Seed fruit (apples, pears, ^.c.) 4,724,102
Stone fruit (peaches, cherries, &^c.) 34223,572
Value 4,500,000 florins.
Grapes 59,843
Peat beds 54,350
941
805
714
1,001
941
941
765
696
1,011
716
905
790
1,076
17 70
.4 cwt.
150 cwt.
2,850 head
97 bu.
(28 value
140 cwt.
30 "
22 "
10 "
10 "
30 "
$25 08
to 15 feet
thick.
30,211,626
1,425,535
4,912,689
286,136
2,502,968
39,-338,954
134,970
431,086
651,000
11,114,0M
11,746,933
1,095,748
25,178,771
958,630
542,8a5
1,*:52,801
261,576
3,115342
2,453,042
319,660
653,215
613875
1,584,728
9,229.888
10,116,968
Bu.prodnc*d
4,823,475
850,157
2i millions
cwt.*
• Th« umval produet la Talved at •100,OCO. The pxloe of tnrf or peat to about sixty oenta per 1,000 brlok* ; fliit
1,000 will weigh tnm twelte to fifteen ewt. The nllways eetlmato one hondrad ovble ftet of peat to weigh ftw-
teen ewt. In other words, about 1,280 of these bricks make a bulk equal to one cord of wood.
Digitized -by LjOOQIC
2?9
Ab early as 1593, Duke Frederick I. introduced the silkworm and
*• JfoTM* Multicaulus^^ into Wurtembnrg, but it does not appear ever to
have succeeded. One hundred years ago there were 19,000 mulberry
trees in the kingdom, but at present there are 8,600 full-grown trees,
38,000 half grown, and 55,000 Imsh or young trees. During the past
fifteen years the average crop of silk was 1,000 pounds of cocoons.
Leaving Wurtemburg I proceeded to cross the Swabian Alps and pass
through nim and Augsburg to Munich (MUnchen Oerm.^ literally Monk's
town), I made this trip for the special purpose of having an interview
-with Baron LiEBia, the Agricultural Ohemist. The main points of the
subjects discussed — so far as this report is concerned — ^will be found on
I>age 39 of Part IL of this volume.
My stay in Bavaria was necessarily short, and as far as I could see and
learn, the agriculture of Bavaria does not differ materially from that of
other parts of Germany already described. From Munich I returned to
Stattgard, and from there went to Mayence (Maintz Oerma/n)^ at the con-
fluence of the rivers Maine and Ehine, and from there went '' down the
Bhine '' to Cologne, The culture of the vine and the variety of the grapes
do not differ materially from those of Wurtemburg, already described-
There was an International Fair at Cologne, commencing June 2d, and
ending July 2, under the auspices and *' protectorate " of His Eoyal High-
ness the Crown Prince Frederick William of Prussia. The Fair consisted
of an exhibition of agricultural machines and implements. (2.) House-
hold toolS' and implements. (3.) Garden architectural tools and imple-
ments. (4.) Forestry products and hunting paraphernalia. (5.) Agricul-
tural products and fabrics* (6.) Products of mines. (7.) Floral exhibi-
tion. Mr. John S. Tappan, of New York, was the accredited United
States Commissioner to this exhibition ; and the Oeneral Committee did
me the honor to place me on the list of committeemen on agricultural
machines. In my opinion the Fair was a failure, although England.
France, Belgium, &c., sent liberal contributions ; but all in all it was not
as successful as the one at Stettin — was not as well patronized, and did
not present as many features or points of attraction.
I now take leave of Germany — that cradle of much of our civilization
— ^that nation which has baptized in her most precious blood much of the
progress of the human race. To this people, whether residing in Ger-
many, Scandinavia, or England, is due all the material progress and
mvilization of the past two thousand years. The trial by jury — ^tbat sheet-
anchor of human freedom — was in constant practice by the Germans in
Gtormany as early as the second century of our era, and was introduced
into England by the Saxons ; the method of conducting it was somewhat
improved by Charlemagne. The Reformation in religion was accom-
Digitized by VjOOQIC
240
plished by this nation ; the art of printing, and engraving of all kinds
were invented by it ; gunpowder discovered ; firearms invented; watches
invented; and the discovery of gas and illuminating towns and cities by
gas is purely of German origin.* The present system of astronomy was
discovered by the Germans, together with almost all the astronomical
and navigation calculations and formula.
In agricultuial and horticultural affairs, the Germans discovered the
art of grafting, and the improvements in vegetables and flowers by hy-
bridization ; they were the first to employ manures and to introduce a
system of rotation of crops. They were the first to discover and manufac-
ture sugar from beets.
The piano, the organ and many other musical instruments are German
inventions, and written music is of German origin. Monuments of their
architectural genius may be found in the St. Peter's Church, Hamburg,
the cathedrals at Cologne, Strasburg, Ulm, Aix-la Chapelle, Dresden,
Munich, and in places which I did not visit. In poetry, painting and
music this nation can present a list of celebrities unsurpassed by that of
any other nation. Their prudence, economy, frugality, integrity, indus-
try and miserliness are proverbial ; their indomitable perseverance, ob-
stinacy and " grasping" disposition are qualities which have made them
no friends. In their arrogance and egotism they consider themselves the
progenitors of the English and Americans, and regard these two countries
as having afforded the inhabitants superior facilities for the development
of inherent characteristics of the German tribes.
But the German mind is directed to mental culture rather than relief
of physical toil ; hence their wonderful progress in and development of
metaphysics in all its various branches, the surprising degree they have
attained in all the arts of ornameutation and personal accomplishments.
But they do nOt appreciate the application of physics or material sub-
stances as well as the English or Americans — the bulk of their grain io
ground by windmills, and the flour is always of an mferior quality ; it is
not an uncommon sight in Prussia, Mecklenburg and Holstein to count
fifteen or twenty windmills without moving a single step. One good
steam-miU would do all the grinding that these twenty windmills possibly
can do, and would produce a greatly superior article of flour. In North-
em Germany water-power could not be made available to operate ma-
chinery of any kind — the requisite *' fall" could not be secured ; and in
regions sufficiently uneven to secure a proper fall, there are no streams,
or if there are, they are entirely inadequate in their supply of water.
The egotism of the Germans prevents them from understanding the advan-
tages of '• unions," or combinations, or an united effort to secure au ob-
* Loudon was lighted by gaa by a German. See *' World's Progress," published by
Putnam, N. Y.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
241
ject ; this is very manifest in everything one sees from the government of
their petty principalities down .to agricaltural operations in the field. I
saw everywhere, in Pmssia, Saxony, Brunswick, Hannover, Hesse, Wui:.
tembnrg and Bavaria, women in the field tying the newly made hay in
large bed sheets and then carrying it home on their heads. In Wortem-
barg I counted twenty women in one field carrying the hay home in this
manner. It appears to me that these twenty women might have been
employed in some lighter labor, and the sum of money they would have
earned in one day would certainly have paid to have hauled all the hay
, home that they could carry on their heads during the same time. Then
too I saw everywhere, a woman and a dog, or a woman and a cow or
heifer, and sometimes a woman, heifer and dog, harnessed to a cart, tak-
ing ma'nure to the field. In the coal mines, about furnaces and smelting
establishments, women would wheel large barrows full of coal, fluxes,
sand, etc, etc. In short there is not an out-door employment in which
men or boys engage in the United States, that women did not do in Ger-
many.
In America we may be less refined, less metaphysical ; we may fail to
appreciate the importance or the bearing of the tragedies of ^Eschuyles
upon our mental well-being ; but it does not comport with our ideas of
the respect due to the " gentler sex " to convert them into absolute beasts
of burden. In the United States we have the physical or material world
to deal with ; we have yet millions of acres of virgin forests to remove,
many cities to build, many railways to construct; in a word, the great
future of everything connected with labor is yet before us ; in Germany all
these things are accomplished, and their acquired and surplus wealth is
devoted to ornamentation, or the development of sciences, whether men-
tal or physical. There is not in the whole United States a gallery of
paintings or sculpture like the one at Hamburg, Berlin, Dresden, Munich,
ond half a dozen other places in Euiope. There is more sculpture in the
*• Gardens" at Charlottenhoff, Pottsdam or Stuttgard, than there is in
the whole United States. And however much we may desire to cultivate
a taste for the classical and beautiful, we, as a nation, would not have
time to study all these wonderful works of art, even if we had the wealth
to purchase them. After all, I think that the humanitarianism embodied
in the laws of a country or nation, and the practical esteem in which
WOMAN is held, and with which she is treated in her every-day life, are
"better exponents of civilization than all the galleries of paintings and
scaiptnre.
The system of agriculture in Germany no doubt is of the highest order
at present attainable; the soil is kept in admirable condition, and is made
to yield the greatest possible crops at the least possible expense (except
that of human labor.) By this I do not wish to be understood as saying
A16
Digitized by LjOOQIC
242
that labor is applied in excess, but machine labor might be substituted
for human labor in many instances. It is, however, possible that if the
wages of labor are taken into consideration, a^ well as the supply and
demand of and for labor, that the substitution of machines for human
beings would entail great want and misery. The food of the German
laborer, whether artist, mechanic or fanner, is course, simple, and at the
minimum rate in quantity consistent with health and strength. But the
German mind, at the same time, is a free and independent mind — is wil-
ling patiently to investigate any subject. When all Europe was Catholic,
this mind introduced the Protestant form of worship. It will fearlessly in-
vestigate any branch of human knowledge, without considering anything
saored ground, or that anything is forbidden it to investigate ; but the great
diflSculty is, that it investigates everything for the purpose of elucidating
principles, and not with any view of applying the results of the investiga-
tion to practical life ; hence we practical Americans are perhaps too much
in the habit of condemning everytlj^ng German as savoring too much of the
metaphysical* The Germans were first in the field of Geology ; they
classified the rocks and strata, named the fossils and formations, and in-
vented a nomenclature. This is evident from the terms still in use by
the earlier English and French writers ; as, for instance, the terms kueper^
muschelkalk^ jura^ grauwacke, gneiss, &c. But the English and Americans
were the first to put the science of geology to practical purposes. The
German nation is a nation of thinkers and logicians, and are so much oc-
cupied with the development of the mental culture, that physical com-
forts are to a great extent ignored. In Berlin, for example, is a gallery
of paintings almost rivaling the one at the Louvre ; a museum of sculp- .
ture and antiquities fully rivaling the British Museum in London; exten-
sive and expensive libraries, operas, theatres and churches, in grandeur
and magnificence barely equalled anywhere on the continent; and yet
there is not, in the whole city, a barber-shop in which one can be shaved
with any kind of comfort. The streets in the city are not only short and
crooked, but are filthy, and emit an odor second only to what is experi-
enced in Cologne. The beds in the hotels are simply miserable, and not
a single gas light can be found in any private room or suite of rooms in
any hotel in Berlin, although all the streets are lighted with gas. Daily
newspapers are sold at office of publication only — there are no news
depots. They have no idea of street railroads, but have great lumbering
omnibuses, and thousands of cabs or " droskeys." In a word, there is
every thing there to promote mental culture — ^nothing for personal comfort
or convenience ; the same is applicable to every portion of Germany. In
America, on the contrary, we make every art and science, so far a« possi-
ble, contribute to our personal convenience and comfort, whilst mental
culture is not ignored.
Digitized by LjOOQIj^
^ 243
FEANCB.
Leaving Gologne, I went to Paris by way of Aix-la-Chapelle and the
sbathern portion of Belgium. I always understood that Belgium was the
best cultivated state or kingdom in all Europe ; but as I had a few weeks
of time only to make observations in France and Great Britain, I did not
deem it proper to spend any time in Belgium, more especially as I could
not see, in passing through, that it excelled Saxony, and in many places
through which I passed in the kingdom, it appeared to me that Saxony
was in advance. But the route through Belgium was through the de-
partments of Liege, Namur and Hananlt Through Liege and l^amur
the railway passed along the bank of the Meuse, or Maas, and both sides
of the river is bounded by rather steep and high hills. This Meuse valley
is of the upper carboniferous series; some of the hills on the left bank
being Devonian, and those on the right, of the Eocene. At Aix-la-
Chapelle I for the first time in my life saw the upper chalk series ; but
from Charleroi (in Belgium) to Paris, along the banks of the Oise, the
upper chalk and eocene predominated. Of course there would be nothing
very attractive, agriculturally, in the upper carboniferous formation,
especially where the minerals which it yields are in as great demand a^s
they are in France and Belgium. The northeast region of France,
through which I passed, is said to be among the best cultivated in the
empire. The crops looked well, but that great care and indefatigable
industry everywhere so manifest in Germany, was not observable here;
it looked more like Ohio:
Arriving at Paris — which place is simply all France crystalized — my
first object was to learn all about the agricultural organizations of the
empire, both for state and educational purposes. From information fur-
nished me by M. M. Babbal, Secretary of the Imperial Agricultural
Society, and Mons. La Vebbier, a former professor at Saulsie, and sundry
documents placed at my disposal, I have compiled the following on
AGBICULTUBAL OEGANIZATIONS IN PBANCB.
In Prance the agricultural affairs pertain to the department of the
Ministry fcr Agriculture, Commerce and Public Works, and are there
manapred and arranged by the Directors of Agriculture ; but the im-
provement of the soil is under the special management of the Hydrau-
lic Service department. Formerly the management of the national studs,
and all connected with national horse breeding, pertained to this depart-
ment also. In the year 1861 it was attached to that of the Minister of
State, but last year to the Minister of the Imperial Court. For the sup-
port of 26 national studs, with about 1,303 stallions, 1,922,500 francs
were expended in 1862, and for 1863 aud 1864, 2,012,500 francs were put
Digitized by LjOOQIC
244
in the budget. For the completion of these by purchases, 600,000 to 600,-
000 francs are to be appropriated annually, and for premiums and con-
tributions for the purpose of improving horse breeding in the country,
1,860,000 francs were expended in the year 1862, and for each of the years
1863 and 1864 the same amount was added to the budget. *
The replanting of forests on bare mountains, ordained by the legisla-
tive act of July 28, 1860, with its supplement of this year, (for the replant-
ing of forests and the creation of pasture lands) has been transferred to
the department for the Management of the Forests, being a branch of the
Ministry of Finance, which also has charge of the inclosure and cultiva-
tion of the downs. The amounts hitherto expended for the production
of new forests were 638,013 francs in 1861, and 1,125,188 in 1862. For the
years 1863 and 1864, 1,000,000 francs have been annually added to the
budget A large proportion of this amount has been expended in seeds
and money given to communities and private individuals, for the purpose
of replanting forests, in appropriations for establishing repositories of
seeds and nurseries, and in defraying the expenses for the management
and execution of the works. Until the year 1862 the. downs were in
charge of the Minister of Agriculture, but since 1863 they were trans-
ferred to the department for the Management of the forests — a branch of
the Ministry of Finance. In the year 1862, 418,360 fiwncs were expended
for this purpose, and for 1863 and 1864, 600,000 francs were annually
added to the budget, of which amount 417,700 francs were expended in
the execution of the work, 72,300 francs for paying the salaries of the
down ofUcers, and 10,000 francs for traveling expenses, making a total of
600,000 francs. The agents of the Central Administration of Agricul-
tural Affairs are the Inspectors General, and the Prefects the Civil Engi-
neers for the improvement of the lands.
Inspectors General. — The Inspectors General of Agriculture, as the per-
petual commissioners of the Ministry, may be regarded as the Tnedia through
which the Central Administration despatch their emissaries throughout
the country in every direction, in order to maintain a direct communica-
tion in respect to the agricultural affairs in every district. Beside a spe-
cial Inspector General for the veterinary schools, and a special Inspector
General for Corsica, since the beginning of the present year there are
seven Inspectors General. As their assistants four adjuncts have been
appointed, namely, the two directors of the imperial dairies, the director
of the imperial stock flock at Haut-Tingry, and a professor at Grignon,
but they perform active service only in cases of necessity. Accordingly
France is divided into a corresponding number of districts, throughout
which the seven Inspectors General travel every year, in order to obtain,
through their own observations, an accurate and thorough knowledge of
the condition of agriculture in their respective departments— of the chan-
Digitized by LjOOQIC
246
ges and the progress made in them — of the methods in which it is con-
dacted — of the condition of the agricultural laborers and their wages — of
the use of agricultural machines — of the commercial channels — of the pro-
gress of the works for the improvement of the lands, and in general, of
every thing having a bearing upon agriculture, and also to obtain correct
information in respect to those localities where steps should be taken
toward the improvement of lands. * Further, they are to be present at the
meetings of the boards of agriculture in the departments, and of the agri-
cultural societies, to inspect every year the higher agricultural institutions,
and examine especially into the condition of the forty -nine agricultural
Bchools, to maintain an uninterrupted communication with the agricul-
tural societies and the prominent agriculturists in their districts, and to
prepare lists of the latter, in order that from among them the awarding
judges at the exhibitions may be chosen ; therefore they are required to
travel during the entire summer. Finally, they arrange and superintend
the exhibitions of fat cattle and the agricultural district fairs. They pre-
pare minute reports of their transactions and travels. The Ministry sub-
mit to them the duty of deciding agricultural questions, and determining
local affairs and interests. It is evident that the discharge of such nume-
rous and complicated duties — ^for each Inspector General has the super-
vision of twelve departments — ^requires men of great ability and experi-
ence. Generally they are chosen from among those oflftcers who have
attained a certain eminence in the administration of agricultural affairs
the directors and professors at the agricultural academies, the imperial
stock flocks and dairies. They each receive a salary of 10,000 francs, and
T^hile traveling, a mileage amounting to about thirty centimes per kilome-
ter. Their salary and mileage in the year 1862 amounted, in the aggre-
gate, to 83,704 francs, but for 1863 and 1864 only 69,000 francs were annu-
ally put in the budget. At the beginning of the present year another
Inspector General was added to those already appointed, and the present
Minister of Agriculture, etc., insists that the Inspectors General should
be traveling as much as possible.
Prefects. — As to the Prefects, it is not to be overlooked that their offi-
cial sphere comprises the entire civil administration, except the judiciary
department and its functionaries. Therefore, the Prefects, with their conn-
selors, sub-prefects, mayors, general councils, and agricultural boards, as
consultative bodies, and in respect to the improvement of lands, with the
Civil Engineers, are to be considered agricultural agents.
JSngineers. — In France the corps of Civil Engineers, forming almost a
military organization, occupies a prominent position. In order to attain
to the degree of civil engineer in France, every candidate must have com-
pleted an entire course of studies at the polytechnic school at Paris, then
passed an examination, and acquired a higher general scientific education
beside the professional ; therefore this corps is highly respected, and the
Digitized by VjOOQIC
246
authorities employ them not only in managing and directing mere techno-
logical works, but also 'in superintending such works as require higher
scientific attainments. At the head of this corps, and the administration
of bridges, turnpikes and railroads, in the central department of Public
Works, is placed a Director General of bridges and turnpikes. The corps
of engineers consists, beside the 18 Inspectors General of bridges and
turnpikes, of 167 chief engineers, wit}^ a salary of from 6,000 to 8,000
francs, 271 common engineers, with a salary of from 2,500 to 4,500 francs,
and 2,355 conductors, divided into brigades, with a salary of 1,200 to
2,500 francs. These engineers being scattered over the whole of France,
are also the agents for the improvement of lands by means of drainage,
irrigation, drying up swamps, etc
Other Organs or Agents of the Central Administration. — Besidd these,
the Central Administration has yet the following agents : the General
Council of Agricultuie, the Boards of Agriculture, the Commissioners of
Drainage, and the Commissioners of the Herd-Book ; the first named
being a consultative body consisting of 100 members, have not been con-
vened for a series of years.
Boards of Agriculture. — ^Every arondissement in France has its Board
of Agriculture to assist the sub-v>refect, consisting of as many members
as there are cantons in the arondissement. The prefect appoints a prom-
inent farmer froni each canton as member for three years, usually con-
venes the Boards of Agriculture once a year, appoints their meetings and
the length of the session, and prepares the programme of their proceedings.
The Board in which the sub-prefect (in the polfectoral arondissement the
prefect) acts as chairman, present their views on agricultural questions
before the Government, and must state their opinion on those subjects on
which the Government requires their decision, and which are partly con-
nected with agriculture in general, and partly affected by local interests.
The inspectors general have access to these meetings, are entitled tx>
speak in them, and are required to attend them frequently, because they
present an opportunity for obtaining correct information on the agricul-
tural condition in the several districts of the arondissement, and of ascer-
taining their wants and means of supplying them.
The Commissioners of Drainage are composed of several high function-
aries, the minister having the chair ; they examine the petitions for the
granting of loans for drainage purposes, and determine on the projects
themselves, in the last or final instance.
The Commission's of the Serd-Booh consist of several high function-
aries and projectors of manors. They cause a register of the pedigree of
cattle of the pure Durham race — those imported into France as well as
those bred there — to be kept in the same manner as in England.
Directors of Agriculture. — The sphei'e of the Directors of AgriculUire in
the administration of agricultural affairs comprises mainly agricultural
Digitized by VjOOQIC
247
instraction, any subjects directly or indirectly pertaining to agriculture,
and the observation of the prices of provisions and of the trade in the
same.
Veteririary Sehools, — Great attention is paid to veterinary instruction.
There exist three veterinary schools— at Alford, near Paris, at Lyons, and
at Toulouse— in which theoretical and practical instruction is given in the
Teterinary art, and at which diseased animals are received for treatment.
At the institution in Alford, enjoying the highest reputation, six profes-
sorships are established, and at the other two, Ave each. The course of
studies embraces a term of three years ; the pupils must be between the
ages of 16 and 25 years, and pass an examination before their admission.
At the conclusion of the term they receive a diploma, if found worthy,
and then they are allowed to practice as veterinarians.
The Government maintains a number of free scholarshiJ)s at these insti-
tutions, but the other pupils pay a fee of 450 francs. In 1862, the num-
ber of pupils amounted to 602, which shows a great concourse of students
at these institutions, and justifies the inference that this profession is a
desirable one in France and the demand for veterinarians not yet sup-
plied. A special inspector general has been appointed superintendent of
the veterinary schools, who resides in Paris, inspects the institutions sev-
eral times every year, and reports thereon to the ministry. The support of
these institutions required 619,227 francs in 1862. For 1863, 619,300 francs
were put on the budget, and for 1864, 643,300 francs, since the salary of
the inspector general has been raised to 10,000 francs, and the institutioii
at Lyons considerably extended. To counterbalance those 643,300 francs,
the receipts of these institutions, in fees from the pupils, fees for the
treatment of diseased animals and for diplomas to veterinarians, etc., are
eetimated at 320,850 francs, which was placed upon the budget of receipts
of the Ministry of Finance, so that the actual expenses on the part of
the Government for these institutions amount only to 282,450 francs, of
which, 420 francs were annually paid by each of the 602 pupils, or 1,260
francs for the triennial course.
Higher Agricultural InatituUona. — To give a higher agricultural instruc-
tion, there, are three academies, one at Grignon, near Versailles, oae at
Grand louan, in the department of the Lower Loire, and one at La Saul-
saie, in the department de I'Ain. In respect to their arrangements, they
differ from those in Germany. In France, the students pass an examina-
tion before they are admitted, and must become pensioners of the institu-
tions, where they live, eat and sleep together, in large halls, work and re-
ceive instruction. They submit to a strict household discipline, taking
up their entire leisure. For the greater portion of the day they are practi-
cally employed on the large farms connected with these institutions, and
they must perform manual labor whenever the necessity for it occurs on
fj^rjii, aii submit to an examination at the close of every semester
Digitized by LjOOQIC
248
(half year). Eank or wealth creates no distinction. The students pay a
fee of 750 francs, for which everything is furnished them, except clothes.
The course of instruction extends over a term of three years. At each
of these institutions the Government maintains several free scholarships.
For the scientific instruction embracing the same branches as are taught
at the German agricultural academies, there are employed at each insti-
tution six professors, including the directors, and a number of lecturers,
who are engaged in all branches of instruction throughout France,
these academies that at Grignon is the most popular in France, partly on
account of its superior arrangements and collections, partly on account
of its excellent director, Mr. Bella, well known in the agricultural world
as theorist and practitioner. The number of pupils at these institutions,
in 1862, amounted to 67 at Grignon, to 30 at Grand louan, and to 34 at
La Saplsie— altogether 131. For France, this number is comparatively
small and shows that institutions of this kind are not frequented as their
arrangements might lead to expect. The cause, in part, is said to be
that the large land- owners are said to take no deep interest in agricul-
ture, and partly, that the strict discipline to which the pupils are sub-
jected, is avoided if possible. These institutions are every year visited
and examined by a board of commissioners, consisting of three inspectors
general of agriculture, who prepare a minute and a<5curate report. In
1862, the expenses for the support of these institutions, at each of which,
besides a director with a salary of 5-6,000 francs (the professors receive
each from 2,500 to 4,000 francs), the necessary number of subordinate
officers and farm hands are engaged, amounted to 149,000 francs at Grig-
non, to 123,558 francs at Grand louan, and to 159,895 francs at La Saul-
saie, making a total of 432,453 francs. For 1863 and 1864, 530,600 francs
were annually put on the budget. The receipts at these institutions con-
sist of the fees of the pupils, estimated at 78,500 francs, and o the net
receipts from the farms connected with the same, estimated at 180,000
francs, making an aggregate of 258,500 francs, which are put as receipts
on the budget of the Ministry of Finance. Thus, the actual expenses for
the support of these institutions amount to 272,100 francs, without taking
into the account what the farms connected with the same furnish in pro-
visions, etc. ; therefore, every pupil costs the State 2,077 francs annually.
Although these institutions are very costly, yet they are indispensable for
France ; besides, they are the schools for the education of such young
men as wish to become teachers of agriculture, or as wish to enter into
the public service and engage in the administration of agricultural affairs.
Agricultural Schools. — ^For elementary instruction in agriculture there
exist forty-nine agricultural schools, supported by the government. Their
object is to educate skillful, practical farmers, who will be able to farm
their own lands rationally, or to manage and superintend large manors as
dairymen, supervisors or superintendents in the several branches of agri-
Digitized by VjOOQIC
248
culture. Practical education and instruction of the pupils in the princi-
ples of the manipalations on the farm and their application, form the
agricultural object. In their arrangement for instruction these institu-
tions are nearly like the German agricultural schools, except that the
latter are, perhaps, of a somewhat higher grade; but in all other resx>ect8
they are widely different. In France the pupils of the agricultural schools
have no fees to pay, but, at their discharge, having completed a triennial
course, they receive each a small sum deposited for them. The director^
of every agricultural school receives, on an average, 6,300 francs from
the State for the management of the same and for tuition, and to aid him
ia the latter he employs a sub-director, an accountant, who also acts as
superintendent, a gardener and a veterinarian ; besides he pays out of
the above-stated sum 400 francs as a premium to that pupil who, on leav-
ing the institution after a course jof three years, receives the best testi-
monial at the examination. Besides, the State pays the director annually
250 firancs for every pupil ; but 76 francs are to be appropriated to cloth-
ing the pupil, and if the entire 75 francs are not required for this purpose,
the balance is put into a common saving box, the contents of which,
forming a fund for all the pupils, are distributed according to the merits
of t|ie same, and each receives his share at his discharge. It is believed
that the directors of these institutions are able to defray the expenses for
the support of these pupils by the above-named material aid from the
State, and by the work and labor of the same on the farms attached to
the schools. In all France the number of pupils in these institutions
amounts to about 1,470, which shows that they are pretty popular. The
proper inspector general must, every year, stay two days at each of these
schools, and must thoroughly investigate their condition. In the year
1863 the State expended 708,988 francs for aU these schools, or, on an
average, 14,469 francs for each one of them. Thus the maintenance of
each of those 1,470 pupils at the institutions amounted to 482 francs. For
1863 and 1864, 680,000 francs have been annually put on the budget for
this purpose.
Lecturers (called eathedras) for Agriculture. — In several of the larger
cities, namely, Rodez, Besangon, Guimper, Toulouse, Bordeaux, IS'antes,
Compiegne and Amiens, there are persons appointed to deliver lectures
on agriculture. The State contributes toward supporting them, and ex-
pended 21,500 francs for all of them in 1862. For 1863 and 1864, 18,300
francs were annually put on the budget, making, on an average, 2,033
firancs for each of tbem.
Agrievltural Colonies, — ^These are benevolent rural institutions for the
education of poor children and orphans. They receive material aid from
the State, and for each of the years of 1863 and 1864, 30,000 francs were
put on the budget
Digitized by VjOOQIC
260
Imperial Stock Flocks and Dairies. — Besides the above-meDtioned edu-
cational iDstitations, the Imperial stock flocks and dairies belong to this
category. The French government maintains two Imperial stock flocks^
one of which is at Haute Tingry (Pas de Calais), and the other at Ohamp-
bois, near Champlitte (Haute Sadne), the flock formerly kept at Gevoalles
having this summer been removed to the latter place ; and two Imperial
Diaries^ one at Corbon (Calvados), and the other at Saint Angeau
(Cantal). These establishments are said to be model institutions, and
animals of the best races are kept there, in order to exhibit their types
before the eyes of the cattle breeders, and to aid in spreading good races
of cattle throughout France. Therefore public sales of breeding animals
take place at these institutions every year. They are under the direct
control of the government, and under the administration of special direc-
tors. Their usefulness are fully appreciated in France, and the sales of
breeders are largely attended. The expenses of maintaining these insti-
tutions, during the year of 1862, amounted for the flock at Tingry to
45,272 francs ; for that at Gevoalles to 25,000 francs, making, altogether,
70,272f ; for the dairy establishment at Corbon to 50,000 francs, and for
that at St. Angeau to 36,200 fi-ancs, making, for both together, 86,400
francs, and for all four institutions 156,674 francs. For 1863 and 1864,
the sum of 119,100 francs were annually put on the budget.
The receipts from these sources, which are derived chiefly from the sales
of stock, and put as such on the budget of the Ministry of France, have
been estimated for 1864 at 52,000 francs from the flocks, and at 96,956
francs from the dairies, making a total of 148,956 francs, so that the ac-
tual expenditures for these institutions would amount only to 60,144
francs, which is but a small amount, since France attaches much value to
these institutions, and surely is an evidence of their economical adminis-
tration.
lu reviewing the above statements of the amounts expended in the
various branches of the agricultural organization in France, we find that
the French Government appropriates nearly 13,500,000 francs annually
in furthering the agricultural interests, besides the expenses of the cen-
tral administration. In the year of 1859, 10,531,841 francs were expended
for this purpose. In the budget for 1864, these expenses are estimated
at 13,275,000 francs. Table A shows a considerable increase since 1859.
This table is taken from the general budgets, and, therefore, gives a gen-
eral statement, especially in regard to the chief item, No. 1. In order to
give a detailed review, table B shows the amounts actually expended for
the several individtud branches, in 1862, according to the definite budget
of the adniiiiibtration for that year, and also the respective estimates in
the provisional budget for 1863 and 1864. In the same table several
smaller items will be found which, being only of secondary importance
and requiring no special explanation, have not been described.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
251
r^ oteo*^ lO
l*30Oi©-5
Digitized by LjOOQIC
252
The French Special Budget for AgrictUtural Purposes^ for 1862, *63 and '64.
State Expenses.
10.
n.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Francs.
530,600
680,000
18,300
30,000
199,100
69,000
Francs. Francs.
Higher agricultural institutions 432,453 530,600
Agricultural schools 708,988 680,000
Special catheders for agriculture 21 ,500 18,300
Agricultural colonies 3,200 30,000
Imperial flocks 70,272 > loainn
Imperial dairies 86,400 \ A5«,iuu
Inspector General 83,704 69,000
Expenses of exhibitions of fat cattle, and of dis-
Irict exhibitions 790,896
Expenses in visiting and examining those farms,
the proprietors of which have competed for
premiums at district exhibitions 35,087
Subventions to the agricultaral societies 576,606
For estabUshinff nur^'eries in Corsica. 5,400 \ 1,500,000
Appropriation lor furthering the breeding of silk
worms 34,490
For a special agricultural mission to China 19,606
Expenses for special agricultural investigations. . 25,185
Miscellaneous expenses, printing, purchase . of
books, &c 138,356
Veterinary schools 619,227 619,300
Contributions in cases of material losses by acci-
dents 1,412,870 2,073,500
Drainage and irrigation— costs of preparatory
works, and contributions 506,860 500,000
For the drying of swamps, irrigation and other
improvements of lands .' 2,503,775 1,200,000
Cultivation of barren commons, under the law of
July28, J860 100,000
Appropriations for furthering drainage 95,350 150,000
Entrench'nt and cultivation of do wnsC Admin. ) 418,360 500,000
\ <>^ \
Re-plant, of forests of bare mount*ns.( forests. ) 1,125,188 1,100,000
National studs 1,922,500 2,012,500
Repletion of the same, and appropriations for the
improvement of horse breeding 1,860,000 1,860,000
Expen. at the general exhibition at London, 1862. 74,418
Totals 13.570.641 13.042.300 13,275.800
1863.
1864.
1,500,000
619,300
2,083,000
500,000
1,450,000
100,000
100,000
500,000
1.100,000
2,012,500
1,860,000
HORSES.
In the city of Paris is perhaps the best place in all France to stndy the
French horses. In the carts and drays in the streets are seen the heavy
" Bonlonaise," "Kormandy*' and "Percheron" stallions; in the Place
de^Carousal may be seen the cavalry horses, and in the Bois de Boulogne
the carriage and blooded horses. Those who are at all familiar with
French history, especially in modern times, will remember the difficulties
in France to obtain good cavalry horses; whole divisions were sent to
Germany to be equipped ther^, and they gladly accepted any and all
kinds of horses. Since the termination of the French wars, France, not-
thstauding, continues importing horses from England and Germany,
and a very large proportion of the French Cavalry are to-day mounted
Digitized by LjOOQIC
253
on German horses ; and the German horse is one npon which they rely
for artillery. France appears to have an abundance of draft and farm
horses, bat is greatly deficient in lighter breeds, especially as compared
with England and Germany.
Two strains of horses mainly are imported, viz : saddle horses from
Germany and England, and strains of light draught from the south of
Germany ; but with all these importations, the supply is not equal to the
demand. The limited space which this report will admit, necessarily ex-
cludes a detailed account of horse-breeding and its history, although it is
most instructive as to what has been accomplished, and yet is in progress,
in the production of horses. I will, therefore, limit myself to a few
sketches of the strains of French horses which are so numerously and
faithfully represented upon the streets of Paris.
According to his particular occupation or fancy, every one will feel in-
terested in the stout, powerful roan horses attached to the omnibus, the
small hack or cab horses, which stand with drooping heads and shaggy
hair on the streets day and night, or pass by in a slow trot, the collossal
animals hitched to the stone and rubbish carts, or in the elegant steeds
which, between two and five o'clock in the afternoons, fly over the course
of the Champs Elysees and through the Bois de Bologne. We will look
at these various classes of horses :
L— The Omnibus Hoeses.*
The immense travel within the city limits of Paris employs most gen-
erally the omnibus as its means of conveyance. These belong to the
** Gompagnie Imperiale des Omnibus de Paris." It runs 31 lines through
Paris. The horse-track street car road, running fiom the square " le Con-
corde " to Versailles, is their property also.
For six soust one can ride from one end of Paris to the other, and to
any place in the city. Although this is a low rate of fare, and for the im-
mense amount of equipments and appointments employed 8,000 horses
are kept, yet the company do a good business, if we may judge from the
rate at which their paper is accepted at the Bourse. This favorable re-
salt is chiefly owing to the excellent order prevailing in all the branches
of this collossal establishment, and the strict management of their aflairs.
The company possesses about thirty-six depots in various parts of Paris.
At the head of each depot is a chief who directs and controls the hostlers,
attendants, drivers, smiths and conductors, and has charge of the wagon
materials, the horses, of which there are, at times, five hundred at one
depot, and the forage stores. These depot-chiefs are under the supervi-
* Mail ooach hoises, in the more oomprehenslTe eense of the term.
A Bont ia about one cent.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
254
sion of inspectors, and these again under that of the Central Adminis-
tration, at whose head there is a Director General.
Every one should visit such a depot. They are well kept and managed,
and much of the care and management of horses may be learned there.
' The stables are clean and kept in good order ; the horses are promptly
fed and tended (their rations being 16 lbs. of oats, 8 lbs. of hay and 10
lbs. of straw), and are in fine condition. This is the more praiseworthy
as there is only one hostler for every twelve horses. For his services he
receives three francs per day without board ; this is low wages, consid-
ering that in the vicinity of Paris a day -laborer receives 2.60 francs
in winter and six francs in summer. A very judicious arrangement
is made in all these depots, namely, that the horses for the night service
(from 6 o'clock P. M. to 12J o'clock A. M.) are kept together in separate
stables, but remain undisturbed in day time.
The drivers and conductors (each omnibus has its own) receive four
francs, but after they have been three years in the service they receive
4.75 francs per day. These men have a very hard and unpleasant situa-
tion, being day by day almost constantly employed from seven or nine
o'clock in the morning (in summer from six o'clock) till half-past eleven
or half-past one o'clock at night, but between every two trips they have
a rest of eight minutes, and a little longer one for breakfast and dinner.
Every four days they have one holiday. Every one of them is obliged to
give security in the sum of 200 francs, and every driver is responsi-
ble for any daiuages done through his fault or neglect to his own or other
wagons, and the conductor is responsible for any money lacking at his set-
tlement in the evening. Besides the above-named employees at such a
depot, there are blacksmiths, who shoe all the horses and repair the
wagons; also the so-called relayeurs^ a portion of whom change the horses
at the omnibus stations, or are waiting from seven o'clock in the morning
to seven o'clock in the evening at elevated places, with additional horses.
The omibusses are real monsters. They have twelve seats on the impe-
riale (top) and fourteen inside, but are intended to contain sixteen. The
f jre wheels of the wagons are made larger to alleviate the work of the
horses.
An omnibus weighs twenty-two cwts., and can accommodate twenty-
eight persons ; yet it is not crowded, and often there are children inside,
so that fifty cwt. may be estimated as the mean weight of it. This large
weight is drawn by two horses, and another horse is attached only at the
steeper elevations, and this at many places only until seven o'clock in the
evening, although the traveling does not perceptibly decrease by that
time. The average speed is eight kilometres* in an hour, including the
innumerable stoppages to let the passengers in or out.
* A kilometre is 1,093 yards or five-eighths of a mile.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
266
The length of any omnibus route may be estimated at six kilometres.
Each pair of horses travel that distance on one day, twice in going and
returning — i, c, twenty-four kilometres — and on the next day only once,
going and returning, making a mean distance of eighteen kilometres
(more than eleven English miles) per day, and this always in a trot with
a weight of fifty cwt. to pull, which, in rainy weather and in winter, is
hard work. But the hardest for the animals is the frequent stopping
which the drivers effect in the roughest manner, and which wearies them
more than the actual draught. But fortunately they have not many
steep elevations to asscend, as, e. ^., in the Eue des Martyrs, where the
omnibus is stopped, without checking contrivance, by the horses alone,
in which the driver aids them only by letting the wheels graze the curb
stones of the sidewalks.
Despite of all these exertions, one sees the animals, the very pictures of
IK)wer and strength, pull theii* two-story structure along without any
difficulty. One word from the driver causes them to stop short, and an-,
other to start again at once ; and he rarely has occasion to apply the
whip. If well fed and tended, they seldom are sick. Fever and colic
are the principal diseases, and which are difficult to avoid in horses stand-
ing in exposed places and street corners in any weather, and covered with
the foam of their sweat.
They are purchased by three reliable dealers who are engaged in this
business during the whole year. They exhibit the horses before a com-
mission, and when they are accepted by it, the dealer receives ninety
francs over and above the purchase price per head delivered at the stable.
The price ranges from 700 to 1,100 francs, but most of them cost 850 francs
on an average. As a rule, five year old animals are purchased, and kept
till their tenth year; but one frequently finds older horses, and even up to
seventeen or eighteen years old.
They are, as at first stated, generally stallions, for in the larger portion
of France it is not customary to castrate working horses ; and another
reason is, because no domestic race produces geldings which, at the same
cost price, could perform the same labor or endure the same treatment as
these horses.
The chief rule in reorganizing the business in December, 1860, was to
open a market for French horse-breeding. The leading principle was
declared to be to open a market for geldings. To that end the govern-
ment makes every possible effort. The horse breeders are informed of
all the theoretical and practical reasons in favor of castration. They are
told what injurious effect the many bad stallions have upon breeding,
since the nearest stallions are frequently used as breeders, to save trouble,
time and money. It has been proved by statistics that the 12,000 horses
which, after a deduction of the exports, have been imported annually for
Digitized by VjOOQIC
256
the last tew years, were nearly all geldings, and that nearly five hundred
men are every year injured or killed in France through the unmanage-
ableness of the stallions. Even considerable premiums have been offered
for castration, and besides, the extensive omnibus establishmcDts and
mail lines have given public notice that in future they are very willing to
use geldings, as soon as they can find suitable ones for their respective
services.
But in spite of the extensive means employed and the strenuous efforts
made on the part of the Government, yet many a year will elapse before
this end will be accomplished, and the " Percheron '* stallions will not
rapidly disappear from the omnibus. In general, they are stout, square-
built animals,* with a large, often expressive head, a heavy, generally well-
formed neck, an abundant mane, short, somewhat abrupt, fleshy loins,
often with a depression along the back-bone, a pretty strong hind-quar-
ter, which appears stronger than it really is, because the tails of these
horses are constantly tied up ; the legs are often too light in proportipn
to the body, the muscular system i^lso might be stronger, and the back
is often defective. Their color is generally a gray, chestnut-brown and
sorrel.
By the name of " Percherons " the Parisians understand all omnibus
horses and, in general, horses of this size and weight, especially when
they are gray hordes. To a casual observer they appear all to belong to
the same race ; but when he examines them more closely, he will doubt
this, especially when he learns more of the race and breeding of the
Percherons.
The Percherons come from Beauce and Perche. Formerly they used
oxen' there, and the race of the Percherons, therefore, is naturally not
only not an old one, but the latest of all French horses, artificially pro-
duced by select breeding, by moderate work, and chiefly by plenty of
good food. The Bretagne draft race and several varieties of the Boulogne
race which were, by chance, brought together here on neutral ground,
were reared separately, and under natural local infltiences now developed
a new tribe which, with their forms and exterior appearance, their powers
and special qualities, is found nowhere else, although many attempts
have been made at producing them in France and in foreign countries.
In those regions every farmer keeps many more horses than he can use,
and is very careM in selecting the stallion for his mares ; a good farmer
in Perche will select a genuine Percheron stallion only.
Formerly the Government had placed English thoroughbred stallions
at its stations in Beauce and Perche which were continually used in
crossing by individuals ; the [result, of course, was unfavorable, for the
colts were animals of much " &^od,'* but With high and thin legs, and
* See Mite page 51.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
257
without bottom. Then the farmers as constantly rejected the English
stallions, and their suspicions or prejudices against anything foreign was
so great that the Government was compelled to place Percheron stallions
at its stations. The reorganization of 1860 changed this again ; they
started on the principle ** that heavy draught horses cannot be propagated
except in regions where they are developed almost by themselves under the
peculiar influences of the soil and climate. For the improvements of the
agricultural implements, the more perfect structure of the wagons, (!) the
demand for greater speed, and the impending improvement of the country
roads (they are worse in the environs of Paris than I noticed anywhere
in Germany, and their connections are very defective), render them un-
necessary ; but on the other hand, it is the duty of the State to try to
produce horses of medium size — ^horses a deux fins (for two purposes),
suitable for both agriculture and the saddle. Therefore, the State keeps
no more heavy stallions, except the very heavy Bretons, Boulonnais and
Ardennais, but furnishes for the other draft races the English full-blood
and half-blood only. The same is the case in Perche were alternate cross-
ing and the gradual bastardizing with English fuU-bood stallions, even
to half blood, have produced excellent horses, rather light, but very
powerful, and suitable for speedy draft.
In the Percherons various subdivisions may be distinguished. The
" fine Percheron," chiefly in the departments Eure and Loire and Loire
and Cher, is a powerful, fiery animal, very well fed from its youth up, with
oblique shoulders, long croup and projecting hips ; very fine specimens
are found in the cantons d'Dliers, Courville and Chateanenf, where they
are fed as much oats as they can eat.
The •' heavy Percheron," on the Ome, Sarthe and Eure, is nothing less
than a fine or well-built animal, but a horse renowned for heavy draft.
The " small Percheron," in the West, in the vicinity of Aigle and Mor-
tagne, is much smaller and lighter, has straighter shoulders, a shorter
croup, hips more level than the fine ; yet he Is a solid and useful horse,
but not very fast.
The "small Percherons" are found in large numbers in the omnibus
stables, but a few only of the " fine," because they are used by the Ad-
ministration. The latter are more frequently seen in the mail omnibus
conveying the letter-carriers to their respective districts ; and in private
wagons.
The Percherons are mostly dapple-gray, and while young, iron-gray.
Having spoken of la. Peechb as the country producing renowned,
powerful horses, it is proper to speak of it from another stand-point
which is of greater importance ; I mean the rearing or bringing up of im-
ported horses, in which Beauce and Perche are engaged on an extensive
scale.
17A
Digitized by LjOOQIC
268
Being situate between provinces a portion of which produce many
horses, and the other portion consume many, la Percbe has become a kind
of depot, where the qualities of the horses are improved, before they are
hitched to the mail- wagons, in all France.
A landed proprietor who formerly sold one horse every four years, now
purchases many in the Vendue, Poitou, Bretagne, Normandy, Picardy,
and even in the Champagne, Burgundy, Yivernais and Franche Oomte,
having chiefly regard to the color — dapple-gray. He keeps these ani-
mals, and after he has fed them well for that length of time, he sells
them with his own Percherons bred by himself, and as such, whilst they
in fact are only " percherized."
Thus the comparative rarity of genuine Percherons is explained, and
also the fact that all these " percherized" races are taken for Percherons;
and this may be easily understood, when we consider how the Percheron
race has been artificially produced, and when we further consider that in
all these races Percheron stallions have been used as breeders possessing,
as all experiences in France have shown, by far too little constancy and
ability to transmit their qualities, to improve a common race. This is
quite natural ; for when a common race (and such are the Percherons) is
transplanted from its native country to another region, it will change
without improving the race in the latter region. He who wishes to im-
port Percherons, will proceed in the safest way, when he selects stallions
and mares in the district of the genuine breed, in the vicinity of Mont-
doubleau and Mortagne, where a fine animal, bred by a reliable breeder,
may be purchased for 3-4000 francs ; but removed from its native districts^
the race will not be preserved long.
The great mass of omnibus horses consist of these "percherized" ani-
mals, and we will briefly speak of the races furnishing contingents to
them.
As to numbers, the Bretons occupy the first place. These we under-
stand to be the valuable mall coach or diligence horses, found along the
whole sea coast, from Foug^res to Brest.
On account of the local conditions of their native country, they have
kept almost entirely such as I hey have been described centuries ago —
rather small, thick set, stout body in proportion to height, broad chest,
thick and low withers, strong neck, long head, short sloping croup. Chief
characteristics : — very broad forehead, the nasal bone being considerably
elevated, the head is very narrow beneath the eyes, the croup projects like
a semi-circle, extending from the top of the hips towards the middle, and
the muscles forming this xsircle ascend over the hips and make them quite
level. The shoulder is often too steep, the fore-arm too short and thin,
and the tendons might be stronger in general ; the limbs might be more
powerfril in proportion to the body. Their trot is very fast, but the legs
Digitized by LjOOQIC
are too close together; their temper is that of inertness, on account of
the tbod they receive and the climate on the coast, unless they are fed
grain while young. As to color, they are mostly grey ; in some districts
a reddish roan or flea-bitten grey.
The " percherizing '* of these animals is practised, not only because they
are weak in consequence of insufficient feeding, but because in Bretagne
horse breeding is subject to a terrible evil— a periodical inflammation of
the eyes, or moon blindness. When six to seven months old, the foals go
into the district of Morlaix ; at the age of one to one and a half years, into
the departments of C6tes du l^ord, lUe, and Villaine, etc., later into those
of Sarthe, Ome, Eure and Loire ; in these three latter countries the rear-
ing of the horses exported from Bretagne is completed, before they are
spread abroad as mail horses throughout France.
The Norman horsefc" being smaller, belong to the "postiers," which are
spread in the north, in Mayeune, Orue, Ille and Yillaiue, and stronger and
larger in the southern portion of La Manche ; being mostly brown or sor-
rel, they have the Norman ram*s head, are rather tender, but faster animals
than the Bretons, but are not as good for the omnibus service, on account
of their long back. They are frequently crossed with the neighboring
Bretons and Percherons, and are gradually disappearing.
The old province of Poitou has three entirely different soils, and conse-
quently three different horses. The Bocage^ where grain has always been
grown, produced in lier poorer portion, the Vendue, small, vigorous, but
hardy horses, which, when well fed, make excellent light cavalry horses.
In the more fertile districts of the Doux Sevres, the horses of the Becage
are finer, stronger and larger, and produce, when crossed with English-
Arabian stallions, very elegant saddle horses. The inferior stallions of
these two sub- divisions are partially exported to La Perche, pai-tially to
the departments of Yonne, Loiret and Nievre.
The second race of Poitou is produced in the dried swamps of St. Gervais.
The third race, the Poitev^iris proper, are produced in the Marais de Deux
Sevres, and that of La9on, from Melle to La9on and St. Hermine. They
are dark brown, lirge, long legged, having a heavy body with badly set
hind quarters, very bad croup, immense head, wide flanks, rough bones,
feet almost wholly covered with hair, broad hoots, coarse but very luxuri-
ant mane and tail — the genuine production of a soft soil, moist climate,
and luxuriant but too hard and fibrous fodder. Being in themselves very
indifferent working animals, they are very usefhl for draft if, at an early
age, they are taken into Berry, and thus escape the noxious influences of
their native country. The greys among them go as a rule to Perche and
Beance, and at the age of five to »ix years are sold as very efficient mail
coach horses. The others go to Burgundy, the Saintange, Nivernais, and
even Auvergne.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
260
If the mares have broad hoofs, considerable hair at the feet, a cowlike
belly and a depressed back, they are nsed for mule breeding in the sonth-
em districts. Of all mares, these are surest to breed to the ass ; and
although the race has somewhat changed, not so much through the influ-
ence of the stallions of the State as through the improvement in agricul-
ture. They have a wide chest and a flne muscular development in the
hind quarters, and produce the best mules in the world, and therefore
they are better known by the name of "chevaux mulassiers" than by
that of Poitevins.
The old Picardy race, which was very bad, has now almost disappeared.
At present the Picardy produces a very good strain of horses, (le cheval
rimeux) and these descend from English, Norman, Percherons, Belgian
and Bologne stallions. But she imports many foals of the Bologne race,
which get a thick belly, depressed back, weak limbs, and grow clumsy
where the fodder is still bad, and is therefore given in large quantities.
Thus they resemble the old race, and, like those, are called '* horses of the
poor land," or ''carrot eaters."* But these horses, if they are not sent
too late into La Perche, will greatly improve and become valuable mail
horses.
The Champagne^ except Cliampagne PouiUeuse^ where the chalk stratum
is very thick, is a very fertile country, and therefore does not largely
engage in horse breeding. Very common horses, with a thick head and
big belly, are at home on the Upper Maas or Meuse. The lighter ones,
on the low lands of the Marne and Aube, are partly used for cavalry and
partly for draught horses. Many foals from the valleys are sent upon
the plateaux of the departments of Aube, Seine, Marne and Yonne, and
the better ones of these ftirther to Beauce, where they are afterwards sold
for Percherons.
In the Andermes there existed formerly a nervy, hardy, not elegant race
of horses, but very suitable for light cavalry, which had sadly degener-
ated by crossing with Flemish horses, about 1830. Afterwards they
crossed with English full-bloods and English-i^ormandy half-bloods, and
they gradually produced partly ^^ catoniers^^^ partly mail horses, suitable
also for artillery service. The finest mail horses are found in the arron-
disements of Bethel and Youziers, where the farmers also buy one year
old foals in the markets of Namur and Givet, heavy and thick bellied,
which through the fodder and care (which are very defective) become
quite different animals from the Belgian horse, which does not leave its
native country.
Besides mail horses, the Ardennes produce also smaU '^ bidets,*' for-
* These terms became more improper everyday, and aotually have now only a histori-
cal meaning.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
261
merly so frequently seen in the light carriages at Paris, as well as an-
other and heavy race.
The Burgundy horses resemble the horses of the Champagne in the
north and the Gamtois in the east and south. They form no special race,
for the Burgundy horse proper, a very low, vigorous and hardy animal,
has almost entirely disappeared, and in their country there originated
crosses with Percherons and English-Normandy half-bloods. They have
lost their reputation. On account of the fertility of the soil and its ex-
tensive culture, they are at an early age exported to the west, and thus
become good mail horses.
The Ntvernais are at home in the departments of Yonne, Loiret and
Nievre, which have a fertile soil and a mild, rather moist climate, on ac-
count of the extensive woods. They produce a large number of good , strong
horses, similar to the Percherons, but less elegant, perhaps, on account
of the climatic conditions, and also because they are not selected for
breeding with the same care as in La Perche, the one district being more
engaged in breeding, the other in rearing. At the age of two years the
horse foals generally go into the western provinces ; the mares remain in
the country. Only the most common and cheapest, especially from the
Serien valley, are used for such breeding in the departments of Lozere,
Cantal, Aveyron, Tarn.
The native districts of the Oamtois are in the Chalk Mountains in the
departments of Ain, Jura, Daubs, Haute Saone and the plains from the
sources of the Saone to the Beyssouse. In these regions, formerly, an
excellent race existed, with flue forms and strong muscles. They disap-
peared entirely during the war at the beginning of this century, and later
became a common, heavy kind of animals, intermediate between the
lighter and better' built Bretons and the stronger, more clumsy Boulon-
nais — ^long, a depression in the back, thin neck (caused by early castra-
tion), abrupt, but broad and even croup, weak limbs, bad sinews. Yet
they are capable of performing more work than their appearance indi-
cates, and were very valuable animals in the times of *' teaming." It is a
remarkable fact, contrary to all experiences anywhere else, that here the
plateaux on the mountains produce the heavier horses, and the valleys,
e8i>ecially that of the Sa6ne, the lighter ones ; but this corresponds fully
to the quality of the food, which is more strengthening and nourishing on
the mountains than in the gravely and very moist valleys. Many foals
are imported from the canton of Berne, and, vice veraay six to eight months
old animals go hence into Switzerland, and afterwards are brought back
88 Swiss horses. The better ones go into the plains of the Sa6ne, re-
main there twelve or fifteen months, and then are sent farther into the
basin of Paris, the departments of Seine and Mame, and Seine and Oise.
There they are well fed, and then, according to their size« are taken
either for Percherons or Boulonnais.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
262
In their native country they are also used for mail horses ; mares for
mule breeding go into the departments of Aveyron and Gantal.
Fow we have described the various races which are used in all France
for the omnibus and the mail service in general. Those we have named
are found exclusively in the omnibusses in Paris, but the stage coaches,
especially in the east and south, are drawn by other strains, horses which
no longer correspond to the Parisians' ideas, and, as to the value and ex-
tent of their production, they are far inferior to the races named, whose
large numbers fill the statistical tables.
Thus, the better stallions, as we have seen, are " percherized." The
smaller portion ot the inferior ones are used as relay horses before the
heavy two-wheeled carts, while the larger portion, together with the
mares, form the great mass of farm horses of France. They are castrated
late, in order that they may retain a proper horselike bearing.
In general, they are good and useful animals, but most of them are too
small, too heavy, not fat enough, and often not well built. Therefore, as
stated in speaking of the Percherons, the government intended to trans-
form them all into larger, lighter and faster, but at the same time very
powerful and solid breeds, suitable for the mail and farm service, for the
line and heavy cavalry.* A horse of this breed, lately produced, may be
seen in the Imperial stables. In the arrondissement of Argentan, Nor-
mandy, there existed a quite common Norman race, which they improved
in the beginning by stout, heavy stallions, produced by crossing Auge-
rons with Percherons possessing some blood. The productions were
large, powerful, agile, enduring, energetic animals, which are almost ex-
clusively used in very haid mail service of the Imperial House.
The accomplishment of that great plan was essentially facilitated
through the better cultivation of forage plants and the improvement of
the soil and agriculture in general, so that the conditions and circum-
stances under which they were badly reared and poorly fed, and conse-
quently many races had a weak and faulty constitution, have ceased to
exist. Further, all of these races have been injudiciously crossed with
Breton, Norman, and chiefly Percheron stallions, so that the type of
the race has frequently disappeared, and thus they can not possess any
power of resistance against the constant infusion of better blood. But
the latter is the very thing which is wanting ; for the State does not
possess a sufficient number of stallions, and many of those in its posses-
sion are unsuitable.
The State possesses an aggregate of twelve hundred stallions — ^English,
Arabian, and English- Arabian full bloods, English-Norman and English-
Arabian half bloods, and a few heavy ones. Since 1861, no pains axkA
* The heary cavalry use different horses at present from what they did formerly'; for
if they can not move fast enough, they are lost before they meet the enemy.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
263
expenses were deemed too great in selecting these animals, so that, for in-
stance, 60,000 to 60,000 francs have frequently been paid for English
thorobred stallions that had faultless structures and showed great speed
and endurance on the race course. The State will have none other than
the best animals, such as very few private persons are able to purchase;
and therefore she can not meet all the demands, for there are 600,000
brood mares in France. Hence she favors the stationing of department
and community stallions, and authorizes such, L 6., designates them as
good breeders and awards premiums to them, the highest figures of which
are 3,000 francs for full blood stallions, 1,600 for half bloods, 600 for
heavy draught horses. Mares with foals receive premiums also, amount-
ing to 600f. for full bloods and half bloods, and to 300 francs for draught
horses. Large sums are expended in this way. Thus the races are to be
essentially improved by in-and-in-breeding, which is a great step forward,
for strong and faultless mares are brought to the be«t stallions of the
State.
All these arrangements existed long ago in most German countries,
and they are not new even in France ; and I mention them to show the
interest taken in the improvement of horses by the State at the present
time.
I mentioned that France does not have the proper kind of stallions
requisite for the intended improvement of common races — the strong-
boned, large, broad English half bloods. I will remark here that in 1832
they came very near establishing an excellent constant race (but now even
sinfrle individuals are rare) ; that, although the government does not
spare any expense to procure them, and does everything in its power to
improve the breed, yet, on the other hand, it is to be feared that it has
not yet made sufficient progress with the jockey club (full blood mania)
which is absolutely necessary for the accomplishment of the end proposed.
In inexperienced hands the full bloods are a dangerous material, because
they can not satisfy the popular demands ; but it is doubly dangerous to
cross with races whose limbs should be stronger in proportion to the body.
The administration retiring in 1851 fully understood this. It had the
correct idea how to improve and change the races mentioned, not after
the type of the English-Norman horse, but after that of the Norfolk trotter,
f. e., it desired to obtain the type of a mail horse and a working horse for
£ftrmer8 — ^a new horse, good for all purposes, for the saddle and harness,
about 61 inches high, with thick, low shoulders, in order that the collar
might fit the better, short, stout body, some distinction in the foot-tuft hair
and croup, broad, strong limbs, fine stature and proper energy. It (the
government) intended to effect this change by using the Anglo-Percheron
horse as breeder for all these races, and this horse produced them himself
by a gradual, very slow process of bastardizing with the most powerful
Digitized by LjOOQIC
264
English full blood, continuing until half blood. Then the same new or-
ganization came which did not want anything, or, as the French say,
aided a la ficelle^ and the work, barely properly commenced was wholly
abandoned.
n. OABT HOBSES.
In transporting any bulky mass or coarse and heavy material, the
French use heavy carts, resting on two very large and broad wheels,
such as are seen in large numbers in Paris in all quarters where build-
ings are being erected. Not only the rubbish and stone carters, &c.,
but also the farmers use these carts exclusively, and stick to them
with a prejudice and obstinacy worthy of a better cause. They are
abolished at the celebrated agricultural school at Grignon, but none of
the large and famous manors in the vicinity have followed this example.
The disadvantages of the heavy carts must be manifest to every one. I
can only remark that they are loaded very carefully and in strict equili-
brium ; otherwise the thill-horse would be borne down to the ground or
drawn up into the air, which frequently occurs on sloping roads, or even
in driving over low ridges. The burden loaded on a rubbish or stone
cart ranges from 120 to 140 cwts. To such carts from one to six
or seven and more horses are hitched in tandem style. The fore horses
are stallions of the races mentioned, but the thill horse (Umaniers), of
course, must be much larger and stronger, for they are subject to con-
stant concussions, have more to pull up hill and alone to hold back down
hill. France possesses three most excellent races of these cart horses
proper, which seem to be superior in power and energy even to the heavy
English horses. The most famous of them are the Boulonnais.
T^ie country of this large family and from whence it is exported is the limy
clay soils of Boulogne, where it numbers about 350,000 head. The mares
are kept at home, while horse foals are scattered not only in the depart-
ments of Pas de Calais, Somme, Inf^rieure, and Nord, but also in all
neighboring districts, where such mighty live motors are required
for the hard work in manufacturing establishments or in heavy soils.
They are called Eace Bourbourienne in le Nord ; Cauchoise or horses of the
good country in Eure and Loire, Eure and Seine, Inf^riene; Picarde or
horses of the poor land (a term without any proper meaning at present)
in the department of Somme.
Besides, the same race is produced in Normandy under the name of
Augerons, or Virois, or Oaennais, in the department of Picardy under
the name of Yimeux and as Hamands in Artois and French Flanders.
Many authors distinguish all these as separate races, but others consider
them to be members of one family. The latter seems to be the more
correct view, for distinctions of race are nowhere to be found, and now
Digitized by LjOOQIC
265
less than formerly, when the local conditions were quite different, and
essentially modified the structure and temper of the animals. But a dis-
tinction must be made between the races suitable for draught in trotting,
the Boulonnais proper and the Hamands and Picardies pulling only in
walking or pacing. The Boulannais are fed plenty of grain from the
earliest period of life, become muscular and agile, more energetic and
less massive than the Flemish, which are doomed to a walking pace on
account of their clumsiness and inertness. The following is a character-
istic description of the Boulannais : Mostly 1.66 metres^ high, very stout
but short body; heavy, expressive, straight head, well carried by a pow-
erftil yet elegant neck, with luxuriant double manes; vei:y broad chest;
full, soft, fleshy shoulders ; thick, not always high withers ; back some-
what depressed, but short ; fine loins, very fleshy and sloping ; uncom-
monly large muscles on the thigh ; strong, broad tendons at the knee
and hock; strong, long forearm; short and powerful shin bone; flue skin
and mane ; little hair on the legs, which is very rare in animals of this
kind ; color, gray, brown. They are broad, short, thick-set, well-propor-
tioned, athletic animals, which may be put at work at an age of eighteen
to twenty months, and have their full vigor at five years.
In the Picardy their general feed is hay ; hence a thick, coarse skin,
clumsy feet, less powerful form ; are larger and longer legged, not so
muscular and energetic. But these animals are becoming rare, since the
race has been essentially improved during the last twenty two years, and
is now very valuable.
When well fed they have a wonderful strength. Thus Mange, the
director of Alfort, relates of an Augeron which he saw in a cart loaded
with 240 cwts. stone, and besides the animal was burdened with a weight
of 1,430 lbs. of collar, hamass and saddle. ^
Although they are heavy, the Boulannais have a quick step, and one is
astonished to* see how their limbs are developed in trotting. Before the
railroads were built, they brought the ma/rie (fresh sea flsh, oysters, &c.)
regularly to Paris, and traveled about five miles i)er hour.
At Paris we may observe how these smart animals can suddenly hold
back and stop in a throng or crowd, whenever there is any thing in the
road, and then pull again and go slowly and cautiously round the cor-
ners, and all this of their own accord, the driver leading the foremost
horse, and seldom looking back at the others.
The smaller individuals of this race are excellent mail horses. The
heavy ones are suitable for brewers, millers, stone and rubbish carters,
freight carriers and for towing boats or vessels.
The heavy Bretons are found along the whole northern coast of the
* 1 06-100 metres is equal to 5 feet 5i inches, or nearly I6i hands high.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
266
peninsnla. The cradle of their race and the central point of their pro-
duction are the arrondissements of Brest and Morlaix. They vary from
gray to dapple gray with intervening shades ; are five feet one inch to
flye feet four and a half inches high ; have a large, heavy, fleshy head,
often with a snnb nose ; large, protruding eyes ; large lower jaws ; a
heavy neck with double mane ; heavy, straight shoulders ; round belly ; .
short, broad loins ; muscular, short, broad, double, sloping croup ; ftdl,
deep-set tail ; powerful limbs, especially in the upper parts and chiefly in
the hock, but bad sinews, neither strong enough nor properly separated
from the bone ; short, strong, hairy fetlocks ; large, broad hoof. They
are strong, energetic animals, capable of enduring the most strenuous
exertions. An excellent variety of them is found between St Malo and
Lannion.
The Ardennean-Belgean heavy race, in the valleys of the Maas and
Mosel, is five feet three inches to five feet five inches high ; has a flue
head ; a strong, not ungraceful, but short neck ; low withers ; the back
lower than the croup, which is sloping ; is broad in the hips and in gene-
ral in the hind quarter, and therefore is very strong and hard to tire ; it
has a broad chest, of sufficient depth ; large shoulders ; a very muscular
fbrearm ; a wide knee ; a good hock, but not marked and dry enough.
They are probably of the same origin as this Flemish race, and are, like
these and the Bretons, suitable for draught in walking only.
It is probably owing to the above-mentioned peculiar form of vehicle,
that these large and uncommonly strong animals are yet found in France
in such large numbers , but another reason is that the French have a
strong predilection for them.
They intend to preserve these three races perfectly pure by in-and-in
brewing.
The Boulonnais, which are removed from their native country in their
|Hime, are well fed on grain and have been regularly worked, which pre-
vents the inertness of temper. But the mares and the breeding stallions
live and die with the breeder, are reared more delicately, and fed less,
and thus keep their lymphatic temper, and transmit it regularly to their
offlSpring. In-and-in breeding, therefore, is not satisfactory. This was
also acknowledged by the authorities is 1840-1850. They endeavored
to preserve the width of the animals, and to improve and strengthen
their power of endurance and their usefulness by an infusion of better
blood. But there is more difference between the Anglo-Norman and the
Boulonnais, than between this latter and the fhll blood ; and not only is
the disparity greater, but influences prevail impeding or retarding the
desired result, which are not found in the pure and simple connection of
both races. Morever, exx>eri<dnce has shown that the Anglo-Norman has
produced injurious results, for they did not wish to change the Boulon-
nais but to give the energetic motor some blood, which must be done
Digitized by LjOOQIC
267
directly. In the same manner that the Anglo-Percheron was produced
as a breeder of mail and farm horses, the Anglo-Boulonnais should be
used for the very heavy tribes. Some of the best judges told me that the
crossing of the Boulonnais with full blood was nonsense ; that the race
deteriorated rapidly and was almost destroyed ; bastardizing left it as it
was, and improved and bettered it. In the third generation the crosses
were seven-eighth blood, and the draught horse had entirely disap-
peared. In bastardizing, the new family were hardly one-fourth blood in
the fifth and sixth generation. Thus the race would have become better,
finer and faster if the year of 1850 had not terminated this as well as
other progresses.
The Parisian horse market, near the Boulevard de I'Hopital, every
Wednesday and Saturday at one o'clock P. M., presents an opportunity
for looking at all the races so far mentioned. The heavy strains, espe-
cially, are often represented here by very fine specimens ; here and there
also genuine " fine " Percherons are seen ; but the largest number consists
of interior horses.
m. IHB LIGHT BAOES.
France has not only plenty of heavy and very heavy (cart) horses, but
also of light breeds ; the middle class — the mail and working horse of the
present day, the military horse, for troops of the line — is the one of which
she is in want ; and since she takes no pains to produce this herself, she
must procure it from her neighbors. Besides, the farmer uses by far too
many horses. They keep a large number of individuals which are entirely
lost, which cost very much, for he uses them for their entire lives, instead
of during their prime only. Thus France does not seem to produce hor-
ses enough, and yet she has a larger number of them than would be neces-
sary ; but in other points she is behind her neighbors. England has many
common horses, but there they are not so numerous nor so deteriorated :
the Glerman horse is not a fine nor very good animal, yet he has a certain
size and form, and if its " toilet" is made, it has a pretty good appearance,
although it cannot boast "of family.*' But in France a large majority of
the larger and more substantial races are common and defective : the legs
are too light for the exertions to which they are subjected ; badly fed and
kept, they are from early life used for every thing which degrades a race
or keeps it in the lowest scale, although all of these races might easily be
made useful. I need only refer to what good feeding and keeping has made
of the " percherized." On the other hand, the small French raeeiB are too
lean, too light, too nervous, have protruding bones, without muscle or
flesh, and much fire without bottom ; notwithstanding they are hardy, and
easy to keep, yet no one desires to purchase them, and the farmer must
keep them in comparative idleness. These light races were to be mo^e
larger, stronger, more substantial, at least where the forage crops would
Digitized by VjOOQIC
268
permit, and in the last years of the " restoration " their systematic improve-
ment was actually commenced. They began with the Bigourdan race (in
Bigorre, now Hautes-Pyr^n^es,) and after the results had proved favora-
ble there, they used this improved race, and also the English- Arabian
fiill-blood, by which it was produced, for improving all others.
Were I to stick strictly to my subject, this might suffice on the horses
of Prance, and I would need only describe the races in succession. Al-
though not being a horse breeder, one may teel interested in the improve-
ment of races carried on to such an extent as this throughout the entire
southern half of Prance ; therefore I will briefly present a few details.
In 1828 the Bigourdan race was selected as a basis, partly because it
has been preserved best, partly because 600 mares were found within a
small district in the plain of Tarbes, near the station of Pampadour, so
that the crossing could take place in the presence of experts. These mares
descended from the Navarino race, found in large numbers in southern
France, and these firom the Andalusian, the full bloods of a preceding
age. . The horses of Tarbes were in great demand for light cavalry and
saddle horses ; they were the French manege horse, par excellence^ and in
the illustrated equestrian books of the past century there are good repre-
sentations of them. The abandonment of the studs in 1790 proved detri-
mental to them, and in 1830 they were reduced very much, the head
often being too heavy, forehead arched, withers deep, sway backed, croup
pointed but sloping, chest narrow, shanks like a calf, long and thin, legs
dry and nervous, but much too light, joints bad, fetlock very thin and
weak ; a good looking, fiery animal under the saddle, but promising more
than it could perform.
The crossing with Arabian stallions had produced animals which were
much too small, but when crossed with the English, the colts were thin
and spindle-shanked ; therefore they were crossed alternately with Ara-
bian and English fcdlblood, crossing the daughter of the Arabian with
the English stallion, and the daughter of the English with the Arabian
stallion. But this process was too slow, and therefore they began to cross
with English- Arabian blood ; this was done at the stud of Pompadour
with the most excellent stallions and mares, whose power of transmission
had been proved, and they carefiilly avoided falling back upon English
or Arabian blood exclusively.
They began generally with the English mare and the Arabian horse,
rarely the reverse way, and proceeded as follows :
Miothar. F»thOT. Prodaotioii.
1. English fall-blood. Arabian fall-blood. 0.50 English -|- 0.50 Arabian.
2. Eng.-Arab. half-blood. EngUsh " 0.75 " ^- 0.25 "
3. f Eng. and i Arab. f Eng. and i Arab. Eqnal.
4. " " Arabian foU-blood. "
By selecting the breeding animals with great core, the race seemed to
Digitized by LjOOQIC
269
be perfect and constant in the fourth generation, since the English and
Arabian fall-bloods are of the same origin, though they seem to be greatly
different. Thus they obtained excellent stallions — larger, with longer and
more developed lines, broader limbs, of earlier maturity, as fiery and strong
as the Arabian, shorter, more hardy, broader, and easier to keep than the
English. After crossing these animals for a few years with native mares,*
they obtained brilliant results by proper and careful keeping : the ani-
mals were larger and the head longer than the Arabian, but expressive
and characteristic, the neck longer and better set, the withers higher, the
back better built, the shoulder freer and more sloping, the chest deeper
and wider, the knee broader and better marked, a liner angle in the hock,
short and stronger shanks, with powerful and more distant tendons, the
gait as good as formerly, but much wider, more vigorous and rapid : with
one word, a strong, powerful, yet light and elegant race, an energetic,
graceful saddle horse, and at the same time a very desirable, light road-
ster, frequently sold at from 1,000 to 1,200 francs.
With this improved Bigourdan race they then crossed all the deteriorated
races of the south, of late maturity, to make them larger and stronger.
In the year 1852 this noble work of improvement was rapidly progressing,
when the Jockey Club got the ascendancy, and declared that the English
full-blood combined every thing they wanted. Accordingly they sold most
of the English- Arabian full-blood stallions. Since these were removed,
the mares were sometimes brought to inferior Arabian horses, and some-
times to thin, high legged, English horses, often afiiicted with all kinds
of defects in the bones. The result was that that excellent race rapidly
deteriorated, and became much too thin and light. This was evident at
the exhibition in 1860, and although it caused a complete reorganization
of the studs, yet it is feared that the noble races of the south will be less
benefitted thereby than the horses of Normandy. Contrary to the opin-
ion of a majority of the commission in favor of the enlargement of the
stud at Pampadour, it has been entirely abandoned, and thus the farmer
is, at best, confined to alternate crossing with English and Arabian hor-
ses, the proper management of which is not understood by him. For the
last two years the State pays more attention to the English- Arabian full
and half-bloods, but such excellent horses as she formerly produced are
rarely to be had.
Now, after becoming acquainted with the horse of Tarbes (Haute Py-
renn^es) its kiudied tribes may be briefly mentioned. To these belong all
horses of the Basses Pyrennees. The abolition of the studs in 1790 affected
them greatly, so that as a general thing mules were bred ; and when they
began again to improve, the race of horses had sadly degenerated. Now
* It was maoh £EM)ilitated Bince the Nayarino mare uid the Arabian horse are in-bred.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
270
they crossed them with stallions of the improved Bigoordan race, and
obtained small horses, not as elegant as those, but strong, very energetic
and fine hunters. Since the population is not so dense in this depart-
ment as in the Hautes Pyrenees, the offspring are more diffused, except
in the valleys, where they are better fed, they form a scale descending
through the arrondissements of Pan, Ol^rou, Maul^on, Bayonne, Basques,
and lastly Orthey. The basques are small and trim, very easy of keeping,
and enduring horses, lacking nothing but size. Horse breeding is very
extensive and profitable in this department, for at the St. Ji^lartin's mar-
ket of Lectoure (department du Gers) she provides the whole south with
horses ; and the state also draws, I believe, most militai'y horses from the
Basses Pyrenees.
The Navarinos are found in the department de I'Arri^ge also. The
communities here have large mountain pastures, on which the mares and
foals remain through the whole summer, and where there are no horse
stations in the neighborhood, the stallions are also sent with the herd.
The horses are small, nervous, badly built and unruly; but by good keep-
ing they become more powerful, and therefore are highly valued as mail
horses in the departments of Arriege, Aude, flaute-Garonne and Tarn
They are readily recognized by the head, being very thick till below the
eyes, and then becoming very narrow.
Of all the horses belonging to the Navarino race those of Auvegr<m
had degenerated the most, and it was with them that the Anglo- Arabian
crosses appeared in the most tavorable light, for the Arabian blood kept
them short, near the ground, restrained them ixom going too rapidly
beyond the capacity of the soil to sustain them ; but the English blood
pushed them on more rapidly and produced better results. Horses
remain stunted mostly on account of poor keeping; where this is not the
case, they obtain a fair size. In color they are mostly light— sorrel with
white extremities — are not very well built, but easily kept, energetic,
more nervous than muscular, owing to their being kept in the stable too
long.
The lAmommes are better known in Europe than any of the French
races, and formerly had a wide reputation as hue, strong and agile horses.
Descending from Arabian stallions imported by the Crusaders, they
remained pretty good until greatly injured by Louis XV., importing En-
glish, Arabian and Spanish stallions ; they were improved again by Ara-
bian blood under Louis XVL, but the Bevolution destroyed them entirely.
Napoleon brought Egyptian stallions into the Limousine, but they were
too small, too light, had too little bottom, and, therefore were of no ac-
count Here the English -Arabian crosses accomplished much till the
year 1862 : according to the predominating raoe in a district, they some-
times produced hardy, enduring, coarser military horses (department of
Digitized by LjOOQIC
271
Crease;) sometimes elegant, light saddle-horses, (Gorrize; ) ia Hante-
Vi^nne, where the mares are larger and stronger, and more English blood
conld be applied, a vigorous half-blood, (officer's horse.)
The reputation of the Auvergnians is not owing to the race — they are
degenerated Limousines which were generally used for breeder*— but to
the inclement district and wild rearing. The wars of the empire destroyed
them almost entirely, yet they again became numerous, and by crossing
with English-Arabian stallions, not very fine, but very enduring, hardy
and docile saddle-horses were produced.
The Landairs^ of Arabian descent, bear the stamp of the sand steppes
and swamps of the country ; they are ugly, but energetic and indefatiga-
ble animals, growing up in almost entire wildness ; when well fed and
crossed with Tarbes stallions, they grow finer and stronger ; many of
them come from the environs of Dax, into all the towns, of the south,
and even the metropolis, as saddle-horses and roadsters.
Of all the southern races the improved Bigourdans have the largest
number of representatives at Paris ; they are seen under the saddle and
in light carriages, and are easily recognized by their Arabian cast, their
fine, but often too light and thin frame, theii* noble bearing and elegant
gait ; yet they are not very numerous even in Paris, and not found at all
at the fashionable horse-dealers, since the Anglo-mania has entirely
changed the taste and interest for such hd^s. Whoever desires to be-
come better acquainted with them should go into their native district, at
least to Saumur where more than a hundred splendid stallions of this
race are kept as manege horses, for which the iState pays an average
price of 1200 francs apiece.
Before leaving the south suppose we cast a look upon a race of which
I could not discover any representative at Paris ; this is the horse of the
Camargne, the rich pasture lands at the mouths of the Ehone. This race
being of Arabian descent and preserved as such through oriental stal-
lions is seldom mentioned beyond the limits of its district ; we find it
mentioned during the Camisarde wars, at the close of the seventeenth
century, when the terrible enemies of Louis XIV. were in possession of
an excellent cavalry, the horses of which were exclusively from the
Camargne. Like them, they are yet frugal, strong, enduring, small horses,
mostly grey, similar to the Landairs in structure. They live in herds of
twenty to one hundred head, guarded by men who are as skillful horse-
men as the Hungarian Gzikos ; in summer they have enough to eat, but
in winter they nearly starve. They come to the manors to carry away
the grain, which is the only work they perform ; the remainder of the
time they live in the open air. From 1830 to 18^0 the State owned a kind
of normal farm in the Camargne, where the horses were kept precisely
as everywhere else in the country, but they were t>etter fed and crossed
Digitized by LjOOQIC
272
with excellent stallions. The results were highly satisfactory, yet the
example was nowhere followed, and at last the State was compelled to
abolish the establishment. Railroads, mail-coaches, improvements in
agricaltore, threshing machines, and competition in wool and meat ; these
only can thoroughly change the horse of the Oamargne.
Now we turn to the western coast of France, and having already
become acquainted with the horses of the Bocage, we proceed at once to
the uttermost corner of the Armorican peninsula, where the Gonquet horses
are produced in the valleys of Oonquet, St Benan and Rondalmizeau.
They are mostly sorrel or bay, and are frequently seen in light vehicles
at Paris ; They are rather common, but not inelegant. Often they are
too long and narrow, and have " ram's " heads, and their feet are not
very good, yet they are in great demand for their hardiness and use-
fulness.
The former province of Anjou produces heavy horses, belonging to the
Percherons, Poitevines and Bretons; they are not excellent, but re-
nowned for vigorous constitution and great usefulness. The Angevines
proper are a recent race which was produced, in the vicinity of Angers, by
bastardizing with English full-blood and strong Anglo-Korman balf-blood ;
they are of medium size, well built, sprightly, active and fast, between half
and three-quarter blood ; bt^w half-blood they remained too common,
above three-quarter they ha^bo little body. The production of this race
is something remarkable on .i.!LX)unt of the miseral^le mares, entirely dis-
proportioned to the stallions ; the line results must be owing to the cli-
mate, the very healthy, vigors .i nature of the mares, and the extinction
of the power of transmitting , leir qualities, which was greater in the
stallions.
The excellent Lothringen rac? greatly decreased under Louis XIV.
Stanislaus improved them again through Oriental and Spanish stallions,
but the wars proved destructive to them. Meanwhile much has been
done for them, but without any great results ; the horses of Lothringen
have ever been badly kept. These horses are sought after for military
purposes on account of their hardiness, frugality and endurance. Of late
the breed has been greatly improved ; many noble saddle-horses and
roadsters, and even coach-horses are produced, and the State has estab-
lished a manege at Nancy.
The Alsace had, in the last century, a good, light race of saddle horses,
of which no trace was left in 1815. The high, intensive cultivation of
the soil reduced horse-breeding to a minimum. Many German and Swiss
horses were imported, and a heavy breed was produced in some of the
swampy valleys.
The French Government always having a predilection for the German
provinces, have ever devoted great attention to horse breeding, and the
more so, since the Frenchman recognizes in the Alsagian a peculiar
Digitized by LjOOQIC
273
talent and adaptation for horse breeding : *^ The Alsagian being German
by character, never maltreats a horse ; " thus their more flattering than
merited praise is worded in all French works. In some valleys of the
Bhine where gravelly soil abounds, and the less fertile hills of Oolmar,
Schlettstadt, Savern, &c., a light race has been produced descending
from country mares and Anglo-Norman stallions. Although the hind
quarter is defective and the back too long, yet the animals are in great
demand.
Perhaps I have dwelt too long on all these various races which are dif-
ficult to distinguish in Paris ; but I have done so believing that such a
summary review of the productions of France, consisting chiefly of light
horses, would be a matter of general interest. For the same reason I
wiU add a few words on the Berbers^ which are now generally classed
among the French races and often seen under the saddle in Paris. The
mounted guard regiment of chasseurs in garrison at Paris have the
Berbers grey stallions exclusively. The term Berbers designates neither the
horse of the Sahara, resembling the finest Arabian type, nor the so-called
Tunese, longer and more vigorous, but the horse of the Tell, the arable
countiy between the Sahara and the sea. This is stronger and longer
than the horse of the desert, with deep, often flat chest ; slightly curved
back ; fine withers ; long, lean head ; large ears ; marked croup, but less
fine hide, hair and mane than that of the former ; in general, he is less
" splendi ," but vigorous, hardy and endowed with excellent qualities
Being of more Arabian descent, he owes these defects of elegance,
probably, to negligent keeping and carrying burdens, for farm work and
mule breeding. The observation has long since been made that the
jackass exercises an influence upon the ovary which is apparent in the
next productions ; thus, the curved back, the mule croup, the large head,
and the long ears may be explained, if this hypothesis is correct.
Now we come to a sub-division of the eight races, intermediate between
these and the ponies, the so-called " JSw^te," which are seen in large num-
bers in gigs and one-horse conveyances in Paris. Six thousand of these
animals belong to the " Compagnie Imperiale de voitures de Paris" alone,
who, together with the Omnibus Association, furnish the means of con-
veyance for the personal intercourse within the capital. This Compagnie
is organized in a similar manner as the Omnibus Association, but its
business is not so extensive as that of the latter, perhaps for the reason
that it, in spite of the best arrangements, is impossible to exercise such a
complete control over the " cabs," horses and receipts, as is practiced by
the Omnibus Company, without difficulty. Tet their depots are in the
best of order, the stables are nice and clean, but there is a great difference
in the tending and keeping of the horses ; there is one groom only for 32
18A
Digitized by LjOOQIC
274
to 40 head. The service of these animals lasts from seven A. M. to one
o'clock at night, and during all this time they do not come into the stable;
quite young horses only, or such as are to be spared, are changed towards
evening. Every other day they have a day of rest and get plenty to eat,
but they are so fatigued that they hardly touch their food. Whoever has
seen a hackney stable will not soon forget the miserable creatures lying,
as if they were dead, before the troughs filled with food.
The night service from one to seven o'clock A. M. for all Paris is man-
aged by one depot.
• The horses in the one-horse conveyances present no further interest, the
majority of them being inferior specimens of all races ; but in the two-
horse carriages these small, gentle and enduring ^^ Bidets" are seen.
Their quality of endurance nobody will deny, considering that they have
to travel a distance of 30 to 50 miles every day. They are purchased by
second hand dealers at 350 to 480 francs, of late at an average of 420
francs, since the somewhat stronger and larger animals are wanted.
Bought at the age of five years, they are generally kept till they are ten
years old.
The large majority of them are the "Bidets Bretons," which probably
are the same horses as the omnibus horse mentioned before : the more
luxuriant and nourishing food ^n the sea-coast producing the larger and
stronger mail horses, but the pastures on the mountains the smaller and
more nervous Bidets. Their native place is in the departments of Cote-
du-Nord and lUe and Vilaine, especially in the districts of Guincump and
Loudeac ; they are greys, bays and duns, have a small head, full of good
sense and fire, a short neck, fine back and hips, but the legs might be a
little stronger.
The "Double Bidet," in the north of the arrondisements of Brest and
Morlai, in the Marbihan, and the entire southern slope of the province,
tas a large, lean head ; is a short, stout, broad animal, wi^h low croup ;
lean and strong legs; in general, of more marked forms and much bottom
— a frugal, hardy, formerly highly valued mountain horse. It is known
as the " French Cossac."
The finest variety of Bidets Bretons are found in the centre of Oar-
nouailles — a horse which once had so good a reputation, and in breeding
great attention was paid to the purity of the race. Their gait was the
"|MW reZ«?e," resembling the trot, for the legs moved dis^onally, and the
pace, since the feet are thrown forward one after the other, four distinct
strokes of the hoofs are heard, but so rapidly after one another that they
seem to be connected two by two. This peculiar gate is hereditary in the
race, but disappears in crossing with another breed.
For some years the Bidets are crossed with English and Arabian stal-
lions, and at present excellent saddle and hunter horses may be imported
of this race from Bretagne. These crosses, judiciously continued, are cer-
Digitized by LjOOQIC
275
tainly correct for improving this race, which in itself at present does not
supply any real want
It is to be regretted that the periodical affection of the eyes renders
the exportation of the Bretonis from their native department necessary at
a very early age; they go into the adjoining departments, and many
Bidets are now '* percherized/' The smallest and cheapest of them come
into the stables of the fiacres ; the better ones are in the one-horse wagons
of the industrial classes, chiefly butchers and milk-men, in which service
they give evidence of their strength and speed.
On the heath lands in the department of the Loire Inferieure, especially
the parishes of Sarenay and Chateaubriant, there exists a similar small
race of very vigorous, frugal animals, the endurance of which is really
astonishing. The country people hitch them to wagons and use them
under the saddle. On market days at Nantes whole families are seen
coming on the backs of these horses from their homes, twenty to twenty-
flve miles distant, and returning the same evening.
As rare as these animals are in the fiacre stables, so rare also are the
Bidets Nomumds^ which formerly were spread over the whole of Nor-
mandy ; they are mostly bays, duns and greys, have a broad head, deep
chest, a heavy but not short neck, and strong legs. Those coming from
the southern portion of the department La Manche are used as fiacre
horses ; in the northern parts of the same department they are stronger
animals through better feeding, and are used for the heavier one-horse
wagons. The Bidets Normandy disappear gradually, and in a few years
they will be. fully supplanted by the Anglo-Norman race.
The ponies^ although not found in Paris in such large numbers as the
Bidets, are, nevertheless, plenty there ; the rich import them from Gal-
loways, Scotland, and the Shetland Isles. The industrial classes use
French races, chiefly in their two- wheeled cart-wagons.
The cheval brennon^ in the department de I'Indre, with a square, heavy
head, heavy jaws, projecting eyes, slfort, thin neck, short but free shoulder,
large belly, the thigh finely closed, the tail nicely set, and the croup broad.
It grows up in a half- wild state, is badly kept, and disapj^ears gradually
from old age and bad keeping.
On the isles of Noirmoutiers and He de Dieu there exist small, excellent
ponies, the so-called race barhatre ; they look wild, but are very gentle,
and were famous as saddle-horses for ladies.
In the Landes of Bordeaux there are found nervous, frugal, very reliable
ponies, suitable for saddle-horses and roadsters, ftiU of fire, indefatigable,
with very free shoulders, and of fine figure ; they are of the same origin
as the raee lemdain.
The Corsican Pony, a small, thin, fiery, very frugal and enduring horse,
sometimes also finds his way into the capital; but he is no more the
Digitized by LjOOQIC
276
representative of the old Oorsicau race ; for this was crossed with almost
every race, but chiefly with the Sardinian.
IV.— THE HOBSB OP STATE OB FANCY.
Although this term is very indefinite, and may appear incorrect, since
we have became acquainted with several elegant, light races of saddle-
horses and roadsters, yet it is justifiable ; for French fancy generally
rejects the light races altogether ; it esteems none but the horse imported
from England and, Northern Germany, and tolerates only the Anglo-
Norman who is only second rate and not found at all in the stables of the
fashionable horse-dealers in Paris. I have a few words yet to say of the
Anglo-Norman and the few other races kindred to it in origin, structure,
and the use made of them.
Normandy, with her fine climate and excellent forage, has ever been fa-
mous for her production of horses ; here the animals thrive without special
care, acquire fine forms and the best qualities. Moon-blindness, which,
in many districts of France so noxious to horse-breeding, is here altogether
unknown. The Norman has always enjoyed a high and wide-spread repu-
tation, not only as bidet, pastier and limonier^ but also as a fancy horse.
Of the latter, two races were distinguished : the race cotentinoj in the
Calvadas and the department la Manche — ^large, strong horses for coaches
and the heavy cavalry. The race alericannaisey in the department de I'Ome,
were less strong, but more nervous and fine for the saddle and light car-
riages. The best were those jfrom the Merlerault ; they were mostly bay
or black, with white extremities — the best sorrel being without value — ^a
prejudice, which, to some extent, prevails to this day.
These two races were pretty well preserved till they fell victims to the
mania under the reign of Louis XV. The countess Dubarry had received
Danish roadsters with enormous *' ram*s " heads as a present from the
embassador of a northern court. Then, either because this form of the
head was deemed beautiful, or to pay a compliment to the mistress of the
king— in short, everybody wanted "ram's" nosed horses, and the breed-
ers in Normandy, to retain their custom, had to procure Danish stallions
in large numbers as soon as possible. Gayot describes the result of this
cross in the following manner : Superb " ram's " head, with small, dim
eyes and long ears, standing very close together, which alone character-
izes the common horse ; further, a short, 'thick, fat neck, short, coarse
shoulders, even beyond the withers, which are hardly visible, pointed
chest, hollow, weak back, high, straight, unmarked hips, high legged, lean
fore-arm, thin shin bones, curved backward, bad sinews, weak joints, be-
sides, a thick hide, coarse hair, inert temperament, even in early youth
subject to strain, gall and spavin."
The chief equerrie of Louis XVL, Prince of Lambesc, introduced twenty-
four Cleveland half-blood stallions into the stud of Pin, the names of
some of which are still known in Normandy. Being themselves of no
Digitized by VJ W05l6
277'
fixed, constant race, their influence was not very great. Their get looked v
pretty fine as roadsters, bat were too long, high legged, with thin limbs,
short cronp and " ram*s " heads. The discontinuation of the stud in 1790,
was greatly detrimental to horse breeding in Kormandy, as well as else-
where. They were soon in want of suitable horses and mares, and as
England still remained closed to them, they used any accessible stallions, '
without regard to race, mostly from the north — animals which had lost
their power and energy in the climate and food of Kgrmandy. In the
last years of the Restoration they remembered those tJnglish full-blood
stallions, and now, in order to secure undoubted hereditary transmission
of qualities, they took the full-blood and reinvigorated the nearly extinct
race of the Cleveland half-blood descendants, not through a continuous cross
with full-blood, but through a rational intermixture of blood in various
grades. This was practiced until 1852, when the Korman had become a
Jftne animal— large, slender, with a noble, sprightly head, fine neck, straight
back (very short in the Merlerault race) and croup, a finely set tail, strong
joints, powerful hind quarters, and great bottom ; energetic and fiery in
his fine and fast gait. This horse was somewhat modified in the two old
centers where he was originally produced, on the one hand with the rich
pastures of Lower Normandy, producing chiefly the flne oaros&iers (coach
horses) which are best in the arrondisement of Boulogne, on the other
hand, in the department de POrne, where the winter is more severe, the
summer hotter, soil and climate less moist, the forage less luxuriant, pro-
duces the lighter, more elegant and vigorous horses. With the breed of
either of those old centers those of other districts correspond. In the
fertile, rich plains of Caen coach horses are bred ; on the plateaux oi
Alen9on which, although they belong to the same geological formation,
are not so highly cultivated and farther distant from the sea. Tied to
posts they feed the saddle horses here oii clover fields, where they acquire
less powerful forms than on the esparsette fields of the Calvados. These
two horse-rearing districts receive their foals from all the surrounding
valleys. Tlie foal of Merlerault, which would have remained light in this
department de TOrne becomes a coach horse, if he comes into the Calva-
dos at an early age ; for the high plains around Ca^n are for the fancy
coach horses what the environs of Chartres are for the mail horses. The
fine foals of the departments de TOrne and la Manche are brought thither,
but also the productions of full and half blood dropped in the Bretagne,
Poitou, Vendee, Anjou, and afterwards can not be distinguished, since they
are, on the part of the mother, often of ISTorman descent — a blood which
was frequently employed in improving the carriage horses of the west.
Yet, "normandizing" is not as generally practiced, or as necessary as
"percherizing," for among the large multitude of horses along the sea
coast from Kantes to Bordeaux, excellent coach horses are found, such as
the horses of St. Gervais, which are natives of the swamps between St
Digitized by V_J WVJ^lC
278
Gervais and Machecaul, resembling the Anglo-Nonoans in size and struc-
ture. Very fine, large wagon horses are found in the bocage of the depart-
ment Deux- Sevres. Powerftd, but more common animals of the Rochefort
race are bred in the swamps of Eochefort and Charennes.
The small, indifferent Medoc horse which sadly deteriorated through
imported Spanish stallions at the beginning of this century, has, since
1835, been greatly improved through Anglo S'orman, and finally, through
full blood. He is now a pretty large, well built, powerful coach horse,
with long and oblique shoulders, fine withgrs, and expressive head, of
much temper and great frugality, but the back is not well enough sup-
ported, the croup too short, the sinews yet too thin, the hoof too broad.
A very fine variety is that of JEntre-deiixmers, between Dordogne and
Garonne, on the lower extremity of the neck of land of Ambey, a dis-
trict which has been proudly named " French Mecklenburg."
I have described the Anglo-Norman of 1852, because he was then finest
and best, and Normandy was upon the point of combining all her races
into one constant half-blood race of the type described, which, according
to the locality, was modified to a hunter, lighter roadster, or coaeh horse.
The race preserved itself for some years, but then rapidly degenerated,
and now we see many high-legged animals with bones too thin, muscles
not sufBciently developed, weak joints and little bottom ; gracefiil and
elegant, but much too light and insufficient ; a horse of very much tem-
per, and too much blood. Such is the product of 1852, when, as the
French express it, " the jockey-club assumed the sway," and then for
eight years ruled supreme over French horse-breeding, according to prin-
ciples derived from the turf. The breeding of half bloods was neglected.
The thinnest, longest stallions afflicted with all possible faults, were used if
they were only full bloods. But through this inconsiderate predilection
for full blood great injury was done, not only to the Norman horse, but
also to all those races for the improvement of which Norman half blood
had been hitherto used. One of the chief reasons was the discontinua-
tion of the Stud at Pin, where, besides full blood, an excellent constant
half blood race had been produced whose stallions were sent to the State
depots ; now they were satisfied with purchasing every year a few half
bloods, without putting them to any test, nobody knows for what reason.
They did not consider that private individuals do not breed a constant
half blood, for although the Englishman, when working privately, or for
himself, uses great care and skill, and produces excellent individuals, yet
his half blood, in the first, or at best, second generation, the product of
one or two crosses, is not equal to that produced by the State, a uniform
constant race established in the course of time, which certainly possesses
the power of transmitting their qualities.
The exhibition of horses, especially in Normandy, showed very plainly
the sad consequences of the blunders committed, and it is really surpris-
Digitized by VjOOQIC
279
ing that this was not discovered by the proper authority until after the
lapse of eight years. Then the government at once went to work with
great energy, and now expends large sums in furthering the breeding of
half bloods, endeavoring to improve it in every way possible.
In 1852, horse-breeding was entirely abandoned in Normandy, when
nothing was wanted there but full blood, which the private individual can
breed as well and cheap as the State, i. e., in countries where there are
many rich citizens, but at the same time, to favor the English full blood,
they reduced also the Arabian and English-Arabian full blood breed
Pompadour, and even in the year of 1860, when better principles again
prevailed, they discontinued this stud altogelher, under pretense of econ-
omy, but in fact because the English full blood had not yet been reduced
to its proper limits, in their opinion.
There are various wounds which France has inflicted upon herself.
They will, for a long time to come, interfere with the accomplishment of
the great end for which the administration of the French studs spares
neither pains nor costs. Here is an evidence of it. I have said above
that the rich Frenchman rejects the horses of his country, and this par-
tially for the reason that he does not know them. He imports from Eng-
land or Northern Germany such animals as he might procure at home,
with the exception of the very large, strong, yet not inelegant coach horses
of which England and Mecklenburg, at present at least, produce a better
breed. The 12,000 horses every year imported into Franioe are chiefly
fancy animals. Therefore, the government endeavors to create a greater
demand and a better market for the home products. It pays rather high
prices for early castration and trained three or four year old saddle and
wagon horses ; besides, it has established horse-training schools (private
citizens have them also) where horses are boarded and trained until they
are i)erfectly reliable for their future uses. This is not only a great ad-
vantage for the small breeder, whose horse is thus being best developed
as a fancy horse, but the horse trained there is guaranteed to the purchas-
er, and this is of great importance in France, where the wealthy neither
take the interest in, nor have the knowledge of, horseflesh which the Eng-
lish and Grermans have.
But these excellent arrangements will remain useless if the demand
does not increase to a considerable extent, and for this reason the Emperor
now requests all the Nobles and Dignitaries of State to provide themselves
in future chiefly with domestic horses, doing so himself. This plan cer-
tainly is a very good and patriotic one, and will produce good results ;
but tlie same France which, a century ago, sacrificed an excellent race to
the fancy of a Dubarry, is to-day the slave of another fancy. An elegant
Frenchman wears English hats only, English clothes ; he is ready to pay
10,000 francs for a span of carriage horses from England, simply because
t is not fashiondble to have two Normans, that are just as good for 1,000
Digitized by VjOOQIC
260
francs in the stable. He rides an English hunter which once was owned
by Lord X, and he feels happy if he can show himself as the caricature
of an Englishman in the Bois de Boulogne. Fancy can be overcome only
by fancy. If this should now succeed, then the breeding of French fancy
horses is secured for the future, for France is as well able as England to
meet all the demands of fancy in the various forms and in the various
grades of blood.
To those who cannot go to the large markets of Bayeux, Sees, Caen,
Falaise, Alen9on, &c., it may be as well to state that they may find very
fine l^orman horses in Paris as well as in the Imperial stables and in the
escadron of the Centgardes where the army horses are purchased at 1,800
francs. Besides, some are always to be seen at the Thursday auctions of
the French Tattersall, near the Arc-de-rEtoile, and at similar auctions in
the Eue Ponthieu, which take place on Wednesdays.
l^ow, since we have seen the French horses in their native country,
and accompanied them through their life, of which fancy and commer-
cial and industrial intercourse employ so many thousands in Paris, it be-
comes a true biographer to look at their ending.
Many fall on the field of honor, in the discharge of their duties, victims
to accidents of all kinds, but most of them have to come down the entire
grade, from the most impressive hight of fancy to the lowest depth of
mal-treatment and misery, until they go to meet death in the plain des
Vertus. Before the gate of AuberviUiers there is a large establishment
which formerly was situated on the well-known Montfaucon, now Buttes
Ghaumont, until it had to recede before the increasing population. Into
this so-called slaughter-house a portion of the Parisian equehrisseurs bring
the ruined, fallen or diseased animals of any strain which must be re-
moved from Paris. Besides, the managers of this establishment go to
the markets and buy such horses as are unfit for any service, for in Paris
they eat no horse-flesh as they do in Germany, which there saves so many
horses from extreme misery. The animals are killed with a hammer,
skinned and gutted, then the carcass is chopped into pieces and boiled by
steam in iron kettles, to extract the fat. After the bones are removed
and the whole mass pressed, the remaining flesh (fibrin) is spread upon a
steam kiln, where it is dried till it crumbles into small pieces by being
turned with shovels, which pulverize gradually. This pulverized meat is
sold for manure, for which purpose the entrails, heart, lungs and liver are
also used, and thrown into a compost heap, mixed with earth, peat, etc.
The manure belongs to the proprietor of the establishment, the equeris-
seur gets the hide, hair, bones and fat, and pays a certain amount for
each head brought there. 6,000 horses are taken to this establishment
every year. Another establishment of the same kind and of the same
extent exists at St. Dennis. Establishments of the adjoining depart-
ments receive most of their victims from Paris also.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
PEOOBBDINGS OF THE BOAKD,
STATB AaBIOXJLTXTBAIi BOOMS, Jofk 3d, 1865.
Members all preaent, Mr. Tnmey in the Ohair.
Ordered, that the President appoint a comigittee of three to take charge
of the agricoltoral college question — Jones, McLung and Oreer.
Ordered, that a meeting be called on the 14th of March to receive pro-
posals for holding the Fair of 1865.
On motion of T. 0. Jones,
Setolved, That the Correapondiiig Beoretaiy be aUowed the Bum of thiee handled dol-
laiB per year for olerk hire, commenciDg Jannary let, 1864.
Passed unanimously.
AaSIOmiTTTBAJL BOOHB, MoTck lAth, 1865.
Board met Tuesday afternoon.
On motion of Mr. T. G. Jones, the first premium on draft horses was
awarded to Mr. Boughton, of Mansfield, instead of Frederick and Pettit.
On motion of Mr. McLung, the bond of the city of Columbus was ac-
cepted for $5,000, as a bonus to hold the Fair of 1865 in Columbus.
On motion of Mr. Oreer, the committee of the Ohio Pomological So-
ciety be invited to confer with the State Board of Agriculture, so &r as
the firuit department is concerned.
On motion of D. McMillan, the time of holding the fair was fixed on the'
12th, 13th, 14th and 15th of September, 1865.
On motion of B. B. Donnelly, it was agreed to change the general en-
trance-fee from one dollar: tO;one dollar and flAy cents. • '
On motion of T. 0. Jones, the entrance in sweepstakes is to be one dol-
lar on each animal.
On motion of D. McMillan, the number of tickets to any ezhibiter not
to exceed twenty.
On motion of J. W. Boss, the price of single tickets was agreed upon
at thirty cents.
On motion of D. McMillan, the premiums on fat cattle were changed.
On motion of T. 0. Jones, the premiums on milch cows were changed.
On motion of Mr. Buckingham, the premiums on matched horses and
mares were changed.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
2
On motion of Mr. Backingham, the premiums on geldings and mares
were changed.
On motion of Mr. Donnelly, the trotters' dads was increased.
On motion of Mr. Boss, Merinos were increased 50 per cent.
On motion of T. 0. Jones, the following resolutions, expressive of the
views of the Board upon the subject of the landscrip donated by Con-
gress for the establishment of agricultural colleges, were passed, and that
the Secretary place copies of the same upon the desks of members of the
Legislature.
Ordered, that when this meeting adjourns, it be to meet again on Tues-
day, the 30th day of May liext, to transact such business as may be
brought before it, bud that the Secretary notify the members in writing,
at least one week before the time of meeting.
Bmolvedy nnanimoiuily, by the Ohio State Board of Agricnltnre, that we reepectfnlly
reoommend to the Legislature the paasage of an act providing for the sale of the scrip
granted by the act of Congress, for the endowment of agrionltoral colleges, at a price
not less than eighty cents per acre, and for the appointment of a commission to receive
propositions for acquiring an experimental faxm with a view to the establishment of an
agricoltoral college in accordance with said act of Congress ; said comm mission to re-
port to the next session of the Legislature.
Be9$olved, That we, as the representatives of the agricultural and mechanical inter-
ests of the State, do earnestly protest against any division of the fund arising from
said grant.
Ordered, that the changes suggested by Messrs. Warder, Campbell and
Bateham, in the fifth department, be adopted.
Ordered, on motion of T. 0. Jones, that $500 in gold be allowed to
John H. Elippart, to make an agricultural trip to Europe.
Ordered, that Henry S. Babbitt be elected Assistant Secretary until the
return of Mr. E^lippart from Europe.
Ordered, that F. B. Elliott be allowed $25 for his manuscript on horti-
culture.
A<\journed Wednesday evening, March 15, 1865.
Attest : N. J. TUBNET, Prest
John H. Exippabt, Secy.
State AaBictJLTimAii Booms,
Tuesday, May 30, 1865.
The Board met, pursuant to adjournment, at 9 A. M. All the members
present at the opening of the meeting, except Messrs. Fullington, Me-
Lung and McMillan, who reported soon after. Pres. N. J. Turney in the
Ohalr.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
3
On motion of Mr. Boss, the price of single admission to the grounds
daring the coming fair was fixed at twenty-five (25) cents, instead of
thirty cents as rated at the March meeting.
On motion of Mr. Buckinghamr-Toted that the entrance-fee be placed
at one dollar ($1.00), instead of one dollar and fifty cents as voted at the
March meeting.
On motion of Mr. Jones— voted that the limitation of the admission
tickets be abolished, and that exhibiters be allowed tickets to the frill
amount of their entry fees.
On motion of Mr. Buckingham, it was voted that twenty dollars ($20)
be struck out, and one hundred dollars ($100) bo inserted as premium
for the best and fastest trotting horse, mare, or gelding, in ** Sweepstakes
open to all.**
On motion of Mr. Oreer, it was voted to offer a premium for the best
pen of not less than five ewes of any age or breed, of fifty dollars ($50) ;
a premium of twenty-five dollars ($25) for the best long-wool buck, and
the same for best pen of not less than five long- wool ewes.
On motion of the President, it was agreed to change the premium on
*• Piles" from five dollars ($5) to silver medal.
On motion of Mr. Boss, the item ** best display of mattresses,** was
transferred from Class No. 37 (list of 1864) to Glass 35 (same list) ; also
to modify the caption of Glass ;37, by adding the words *' and miscella-
neous articles.'*
On motion of Mr. Oreer, it was agreed to ofTer premiums of diplomas
for best •• roofing-tile" and for best ••flooring-tile.**
On motion of Mr. Bos&— voted that a premium for amber wheat be
offered the same as that for white wheat and red wheat.
On motion of Mr. Greer, a new class was ageed upon for factory-made
cheese, with premiums the same as in Glass Ko. 43, for cheese of domestic
manufacture, so to be designated.
Sundry motions were made relative to a money sweepstakes premium
for the best and largest display of cheese ; and, finally, Mr. Greer*s mo-
tion, as amended, was adopted, giving a silver medal for •• Sweepstakes
on Cheese.'*
Minor changes were made in the Ust of premiums, and noted upon the
list by the Secretary.
The Board then proceeded to the selection of committees from the list
reported by the Secretaries of forty-five county societies. In the absence
of Messrs. Pullington and McLung, only three names were decided upon
for each committee. The names of the awarding committees having been
agreed upon for the first three departments, it was voted, at 6 P. M., to
adjourn till to-morrow morning (31st inst.) at 8 o*clock.
[Thii Toto was ftfterwaids reconsidered ont of the Agrionltonil Booms, and the
Boaid ooaToied fx an oTeoing session, and completed the list of awarding oonunittees.}
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Wednesday, May 31, 1865.
Pull Board present, except Ja«, Backingham— N. J. Turney, President,
in the chair. Various topics of a general nature were discussed and par-
ticularly the suggestions of the State Convention in January last, that
the State Board offer premiums for the heaviest fleeces of cleaned wool ;
and,
On motion of Mr. Boss, it was voted that a committee of three members
be appointed to devise a plan for carrying out the views of the Conven-
tion, and that a premium of twenty dollars (^20) be offered for the best and
heaviest fleece of cleansed wool from a buck and the same for ewes fleece,
under conditions to be adopted by the special committee. The President
appointed T. C. Jones, W. F. Greer and James Fullington, as said com-
mittee.
On motion of Mr. McLung, it was voted that the names of the award-
ing committee be omitted from the premium list for this year.
On motion of Mr. Donnelly, it was voted to separate Class XII, (No. 40)
Third Department, into two Classes — one of which should embrace the
minerals, fossils and collections, illustrating the vegetable and animal
kingdom.
On motion of Mr. Oreer, it was voted to amend the premium list as fol-
lows:
For the best herd, two hundred dollars ($200) ; for the best Bull, one
hundred dollars ($100) ; for the best stallion, one hundred doUars ($100).
Voted to accept the proposition of Mr. B. Nevins for printing the pre-
mium lists, and of Messrs. Fairbanks, Benedict & Co. for printing the
posters.
Board adjourned, iine die^ at 6 P. M.
Wednesday, July 12, 1865.
An Executive meeting was called by order of the President, the mem-
bers having been notified by mail by the Assistant Secretary.
Present— K J. Turney, President ; David Taylor, Treasurer j and T. P.
Jones. James Fullington, in charge of the Horse Department of the next
Fair, was notified to be present, but did not appear. Mr. McMillen also
being absent, and the propositions for lumber for new structures not being
quite ready, the meeting was a4Joumed to Friday of next week, the 21st
just.
HEKET S. BABBITT, Asst. Secretary.
Friday, JWy 21, 1866.
Bxecutive committee met pursuant to a^jonmmenir— all present, and
James Fullington also by invitation. Yarioos subjeets and propoBitianB
Digitized by LjOOQIC
were discussed but no definite action taken upon anything introduced,
except to agree with Mr. Isaac L. Baker, of Dayton, to give him the ex-
clusive privilege to pat up as many as three stands for the sale of ice
cream, candy, and the right to make and sell popcorn for the sum of fifty
dollars. George M. Parsons, Esq., submitted an estimate of the cost of
erecting a new Pine Art Hall, 100 feet by 40 feet, viz: $2,744.40, The
Secretary was instructed to notify Mr. Stewart that the stock must be
kept out of the Fair grounds hereafter ; and to ascertain of Mr. Bartlit
whether the lots on High street, nearly opposite the grounds, could be
obtained for trial of sod plows during the Fair ; also to correspond with
railroads in Ohio with reference to reduced rates during the Fair.
Wednesday, August 2, 1866.
The Executive committee met in pursuance of notice issued by order of
the President, at 9 o'clock A. M.
Present — ^N". J. Turney, David Taylor and Daniel McMillen; absents T.
0. Joneb. Messrs. James FuUington and W. T. Greer were present by in-
vitation.
The subject of the new Fine Art Hall was opened and discussed, when
Mr. Turney, on behalf of himself and Mr. David Taylor, to whom the mat-
ter was referred, reported that an arrangement had been made with Mr
H. Carlisle, of Columbus, for all the necessary lumber for the ensuing Fair
at twenty dollars ($20) per one thousand feet (1,000), to be delivered in
such quantities as may be desired npon the Fair grounds, free of extra
charge, and to be paid for in September next The quality of lumber to
be the same as that furnished last year.
The plan for HaU, submitted by Geo. M. Parsons, was adopted so far as
relates to the general design but with less expensive finish, except that
it should be shingled. It was estimated by the committee that it could
be completed at a cost not to exceed one thousand dollars ($1,000) above
Hie proceeds of a sale of the materials used afl;er the Fair.
The oversight of the construction was referred to Mr. Greer ; and Mr.
Tyler, of Circleville, was employed to do the carpentry of the hall and
other structures agreed upon, viz : amphitheatres and poultry house.
The Seci'etary was instructed to notify Silas F. Dewitt, of Columbus*
that the Executive committee would entef into the same agreement for
the Police arrangements of the next Fair that were made in 1864, stipulsr
ting that Mr. Dill Brooke, of Kewark, be associated with him in the mat-
ter as in 1864, and consenting that Mr. Dewitt might employ one leas de-
tective and receive the same amount for the detectives employed, imsreaa-
ing ill the talent of thp employees what was lessened in number.
It was agrjeed that stands for refreshments should be le^ to individual^
at seventy-flve dollars ($75) per stand of thirty-six feet in length or less,
Digitized by VjOOQIC
the choice of position to be sold to the highest bidder on the first day of
September next. It was decidied that the price per meal should not be
fixed at a higher rate than fifty cents, bat that fruits and vegetables of all
kinds might be kept for sale and beverages that do not intoxicate, ice
cream, candy and popcorn not to be included in these permits. The par-
ties contracting for the privilege to pay the sum agreed upon at the time
of making the agreement.
It was also agreed that a fee of fifty dollars ($50) should be charged
for soda fountains, and for stands for the sale of photographs or engrav-
ings the sum of twenty-five dollars ($25).
HEKBT S. BABBITT, Asst Secretary.
Satijedat, Aug. 12, 1865.
A meeting of the Executive Committee was called by the President for
yesterday morning (Friday, Aug. 11).
Present, Messrs. Tumey, McMillan and Taylor.
Two letters from John H. Klippait, Secretary of the Board, having
reference to a draft for £100 or £125, which he proposed to make upon
the Board, were submitted to the committee by Mr. Tuiney, to whom they
had been sent by the Assistant Secretary.
Without any specific vote upon the subject, the Assistant Secretary
was informed by the President, Mr. Tumey, that the Treasurer would
honor Mr. Klippart*s draft for the sum specified above, the amount to be
charged him in account current.
Messrs. Oreer and Fullington met the committee, and reported the
progress in their respective departments, viz.. Fine Art Hall and the
Horse Bing.
Attest: HENEY S. BABBITT, Aset. 8ee%
P. S. — Ordered, that no checks be drawn by the Secretary for the pay-
ment of accounts, until the same have been approved by the Treasurer or
President.
HENRY S. BABBITT, Asst. Seo'y.
Tuesday, Auguet 24, 1806.
The Executive Committee met at call of President, and Mr. Greer, of
the Wool Committee, was also present. The afternoon was spent at the
Fair Grounds ; and the use of the grounds was directed to be tendered,
through Peter Ambos, Esq., to the Saengerbund Society, for their festival
cf September 1st. In the evening, the fleeces received for competition
were examined and prepared for cleaning. There were fifteen fleeces
Digitized by VjOOQIC
present ; others, on the way, had not arriyed on Friday at 10 A. M. The
choice of position for refreshment stands was sold at auction. Ten stands
were sold, netting $235.50 in premiums, and it was agreed that this
amount should be divided equally among those that drew lots, viz., the
remaining ten, giving to each $23.55.
Fbidat Evbnivg, Sept. 16, 1866.
Board met Present— President K J. Tumey, T. 0. Jones, D. McMil-
lan, James Fullington, J. W. Boss, B. B. Donnelly, W. B. McLung, W.
F. Oreer, James Buckingham and David Taylor.
On motion of T. 0. Jones, it was ordered, that the premium awarded
If. Van Loon, in class of geldings in light harness, be set aside, because
his horse had received a first premium in same class at Cleveland.
On motion of W. B. McLung, the first premium awarded breeding
mare in roadster class, be set aside, because she had not produced a liv-
ing foal in two years.
On motion of W. B. McLung, it was
BetoUfedt That the Execntiye Committee he authorized to seU the lomher and flxtnret
upon the Fair Gronnda in such manner and npon snch terms as they may think advia-
On motion of T. 0. Jones, the Board a<\joumed until 8 o'clock to-morrow
morning* #
Satubdat MoBiOHa, Sept 16, 1866.
Board met Present— K J. Tumey, President; T. 0. Jones, Jas. Pul-
Ungton, David Taylor, R R Donnelly and W. F. Oreer.
On motion of T. 0. Jones, the Executive Committee were instructed to
settle the accounts of the Board with John H. Klippart up to October 1st ;
and they are hereby authorized to purchase of him such books as they
may think are desirable for the library.
On motion of R R Donnelly, the Secretary is hereby directed to ex-
press, by a suitable testimonial, to Messrs. Tallmadge, Buttles, J. O. B.
Benick and Mrs. Geo. Parsons, the great obligations the Ohio State Board
of Agriculture feel under to those individuals for their valuable services
In securing and arranging contributions for the recent Ohio State Fair, in
the various departments of Fine Arts, Fruits and Flowers.
On motion—
WmooLUB, Daring the reoent aheence in Europe of John H. Klippart, Seoietaiy of tha
Ohio State Board of Agrienltore, the duties of his office have been discharged by Henzy
& Babbitt, of Colnmbos ; therefore, be it
Setohed, That the Corresponding Secretary be instmcted to transmit to him tiia
tfm^ of this Board ibr the promptness and effldenoy with which he has at aU timsa
Digitized by LjOOQIC
8
pezformed the many duties imposed upon him, and to express the deep obligations felt
hy each indiyidoal member o^ the Board for the many acts of courtesy received by t&em
at his hfemds.
Mesolmdt That the Execntive Committee be instmeted to present Henry S, Babbitt
with some testimonial, suitably engraved, expressive of the above.
Passed unanimously.
Besolved, That the members and ex-members of the Board be authorized to draw from
the library books upon the same terms and under the same regulations as members of
the Legislature, etc., are allowed to use the books in the State Library; and that the
Secretary be authorized to cause the books to be numbered, and make the other neces-
sary arrangements for carrying tliis resolution into effect.
Unanimously adopted.
At an Executive Meeting, it was ordered, that the Secretary draw an
order upon the Treasurer for the sum of four hundred and twenty seven
dollars and twenty-five cents, for books purchased as per invoice of this
date on file.
State Agbioulttjbal Eooms, Jan. 14, 1866.
W. B. McLung, President, and J. W. Boss, Secretary pro tern.
On motion of Daniel McMillan, the following was adopted :
Moved that a committee of three be appointed to examine the books of
the Secretary and Treasurer, as weU as the reports of the several com-
mittees on the same, and that this committee shall have full power to
make such arrangements for the fhture management of the above officers
aild carry the same into effect, as they may deein necessary, and report
their action at the spring meeting of the Board. Whereupon, Messrs.
Tumey, Donnelly and McMillan were appointed said committee.
There being a mistake by committee in the award of premiums in dass
of roadster stallions, in awarding the first premium to J. W. McOann, of
Hilliard, Franklin county, O., and the second premium to B. D. Ander-
son, of Xenia — ^the first should be paid to W. Wylie, of Big Island, Marion
County, O. — ^it was ordered that the first premium be awarded Wylie, and
that l^e Secretary write toMcCann to refund the money.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
TEA]^^SA0TIONS OE THE OONVENTIOK.
Wbdnesdat, Jail 3, 1866.
At ten o*clock Mr. Kelson J. Ttjbnet, President of the Ohio State
Board of Agricnltare, called the Convention to order in the Senate
Ohamber. The Secretary proceeded to call the roll of County Societie*,
when the following gentlemen reported themselves as duly authorized
delegates :
COXnXTY. NAME. COUNTY SKAT.
Allen J. M HaUer Lima.
Aahland « D. A. Fenn Salllyan.
Ashtabula D. H. PrentisB Aflhtabala.
Athens H. B. Brawley AmesviUe.
Belmont. J. M. MitoheU St. ClairaviUe.
Brown F. Jennings Georgetown.
Batler Fergus Anderson Ross.
Carroll B. R. Harvey CarroUton.
Champaign N. H. Harr WestviUe.
Clarke L. B. Spragne Springfield
Clennont .' JohnH. Branch LoYeland.
CUnton J. S..Hohlet Wilmington.
Colmnhiana B.F.Nichols New Lisbon.
Coshocton J. Miskimmen Newcomerstown.
Cnyahoga S.D. Harris Cleveland.
Darke J. £. Matohett..... Greenville.
Delaware T.JP Joy Delaware.
Erie F. D.Parrish Sandusky City.
Fairfield N. Sleioh Lancaster.
Franklin Jared Foresman Colnmbns.
Geanga ^D. L..Pope ^Y^elshfield.
Greene J..B.Nash '. Xenia.
*• .-..Wm. Brown* Jamestown.
Onemsey ' 'Soah Hyatt Cambridge.
Hamilton J. E. Greene....' Carthage.
Hancock , G. W. Galloway Findlay.
Hardin J. C. Stevens Kenton.
Harrison James B. Jamison Cadiz.
Highland Be^]. Conard Hillsborongh.
Huron Alva Brightman Pera.
Jackson J. Tripp Jackson.
Knox John G.Delano , Mt. Vernon.
* President of an Independent Society; but not a regular delegate.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
10
CX>UMTT. NAMK. COUNTY 8BAT.
Lake H. K. Carter PamesvUle.
Lawrence J. 8. Faverty Ironton.
Licking David Smith Newark.
Logan John M. Glover West Liberty.
Lorain D. A. Stocking Blyria.
Lucas W. C. Earl Toledo.
Madison W. A. Niel London.
Mahoning Lewis Templin Greenford.
Marion Chas. Smith Marion.
Medina W.H. Witter Medina,
Miami W. B. McLnng Troy.
Montgomery M. Eells Dayton.
Morgan J.B.Stone McConnellsville.
Morrow A. H. Wrenn Mt. Gilead.
Mnskingom Valentine Best Zanesville.
Noble S.K. Yonng Sarahsville.
Pickaway Z. H. Perrill Ldthopolis.
Portage F. B. Cannon Aurora.
Preble Jae. Albert Eaton.
Putnam JohnMaidlaw Ottawa.
Bichland A. C. Welsh Mansfield.
Boss Hugh Bell ChUUcothe.
Sandusky Theodore Clapp Fremont.
Seneca Wm. Lang TiiBn.
Shelby J. Duncan Sidney.
Stark John P. Bex 4 Canton.
Summit J. Parke Alexander Akron.
Tuscarawas U. C Deardorff Canal Doveb
Union B. D.Beed Flint.
Warren J. M. Boosa Lebanon.
Washington A. L. Curtis Marietta.
Wayne J. G. Troutman Wooster.
Williams Jacob Dillman Williams Centve.
Wood George PoweiB Perrysburg.
Wyandot T. V. Beber Upper Sandusky.
Judge Jones of Delaware. Mr. President, I understand that the Secre-
tary has prepared a paper relative to Agricultural Education in Europe*
embodying his views and observations during his tour there the past
Summer. I suggest that the present is perhaps as good a time as any
other to have the paper read to the Convention.
Whereupon the Secretary proceeded to read the address.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
11
AGBIOULTURAL BDUOATIOK IN: EUEOPB.
Agricultural education is of very modem date. We find no mention
of agricultural education made anywhere before the close of the last cen-
tury. So long as the natural fertility of the soil produced sufficient bread-
stuff for the nation, just so long were those who tilled the soil held in a
state of bondage. But as population increased, civilization introduced
many artificial wants, and the fertility of the soil decreased to such a de-
gree as to attract the attention of those in power. The bondmen were set
free, in the vain hope that freedom from human bondage would not only
restore the primitive fertility of the soil, but would induce greater atten-
tion to agricultural afTairs. Then it occurred to some sagacious minds
that the agriculturist should be educated in his special vocation. Believ-
ing that thepriusHoe of agrumUure had confirmed the existence of certain
laws of nature, one of the leading minds of Europe conceived the idea of
adopting these laws as a basis to establish a school wherein they should
be taught, and to obtain a greater degree of development by experiments.
Fully persuaded by the practicability of the plan, Baron von Fellenberg
-was the first to organize and conduct an agricultural school. This school
necessarily was on a very limited scale, with a very scanty literature and
no text books to aid him. The school was located in Switzebland, and
-was organized towards the close of the last century. Then in 1811, a
private Forestry School was established at Thabandt in Saxony, which,
in 1816, was transferred to the State authorities, and in 1830 was con-
verted into an agricultural college. In 1818, the great Agricultural Ool**
lege of Europe was established at Hohenhbim, in the neighborhood of
BruTTaABD, in the kingdom of Wurtemburg. Then in 1835, an Agricul-
tural College was established at Eldena, in Pommemia, in Prussia.
These three colleges— THABAin>T, Hohenheim and Eldena— were all
the purely i^cultural schools or colleges established in all Cl>ermany
during the half century which ensued from the establishment of the
school in Switzerland by Baron von Fellenberg. Thus, tardily, was ag-
ricultural education appreciated, or its importance recognized. But the
importance once recognized and fully appreciated, it is somewhat remark-
able how rapidly agricultural education has grown into favor with the
Germanic tribes. There are at present no less than one hundred and
forty-four agricultural stations, institutes, schools and colleges in the
Germanic States — and all of them, with the exception of the three already
named, were established since Liebig published his first work on Agri-
cultural Chemistry in 1844— or during the past twenty years. These are
located aA follows :
Digitized by LjOOQIC
,12
. In the Ein^om of PraBsia 51
" Empire of Aostriik ^ 37
" Kingdomof Bararla •- 12
Saxony 4
" " Wurtemburg * 6
" Grand Duchy of Baden 6
" several Duchies ; 28
Total 144
^ 4iB a description of these 144 institutions would far exceed tJie limits
of this paper, I will confine myself to a description of several of the most
prominent ones, and shall introduce no more details than are really essen-
tial to a proper understanding of the general plan
Hoh:bi^hexm being not only the oldest institution of this kind now in
eizistence, but the most famous one, I have deemed it proper to place it
first on the list. It wba established on the 26th of May, 1818, and had at
that time an estate of two hundred and fifty acres of cleiured lands, and
wSfS placed under the direction of Babon STepoitxtk Schwbbz — a very
celebrated agronomist, and at that time in the 00th year of his age. The
institution was opened on the 20th of I^ovember, 1818, with eight students.
The buildings were erected on the ruins of an old castle, by Duke
Cbcabuss, in 1770-^80, as a princely residence for himself and body-guard;
but these structures were almost in ruios themselves wjien Kiug Witjjak
determined to establish a,n agricultural college there. A portion of the
^yal stud and flock of sheep were placed under the direction of the iiip
jltitution in 1822. I have taken some pains to obtain these dates, in order
to place upon record the fact, that only during the past fifty years have
any steps been taken, whether in a right or wrong direction, to teach the
science of agriculture in its various branq^es, so far sus they were known,
jfiL the most populous, enlightened and civilized portion of Europe. Eu-
rope .has a» written history of fully two thousand years — a portion of it
ihas a written hisjtory qf nearly three thousand years, daring which the
present pha^e of civilization on the globe has had its inception, develop-
l(ient and attained its preseAt status. There were schools for art, for
.theology, law, medicine, arobitecture, but .uone lor the ipost important
^ aU humaiu occupations — agriculture. WJioever travels f)urope now
An4 observes how carefuUy every sguaire foot of soil is cultivated, aa4
l^ow zealously every substance i/3 economized and rendered serv3ceable»
j^d at the 9ame .time will compare the products of to-day with what they
were one hundred years ago, i^ust be fully convinced that tbe hand of in-
dustry* w>hen directed by science, or di^ipUned JAt^tigence, has produced
igabulouB results. One hundred years ago, Qermaoy had no surplfis ^gri-
cultural products other t^an ^ine ; to-day, with nearly a quadrupled pop-
ulation, she exports all manner of agricultural product, includiug C94tle
and sheep. These are historic facts which cannot be gainsayed, and their
solution is to be found only in the intelligence of the Gtorman farmeri
operating in accordance with the natural laws of husbandry.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
13
The institation of Hohbnheidc consists of three separate schools,
namely: that which miay be termed the higher institution, the Agridol-
tnrai School and the Horticultural School, and to these may be added
several special courses of study and instruction which nevertheless have
lUi agricultural relation.
The higher institution was changed into an academy in 1847. Students
are received in this academy who are not less than 18 years of age— that
liave made the requisite proficiency in preparatory studied, and who de-
Bire'to obtain a knowledge of agriculture in all its branches and relations,
80 that at a future day they may manage theii* own estates, or undertake
-Ae management of large estates for others. Instruction is imparted by
lectures and practical demonstrations, and the coui^se embraces two yeai^s
of time.
The Agricultural School is independent of the academy, and was In-
stituted for the purpose of creating a dass of thoroughly practical stew-
ards, or overseers of small estates, who will take the plow in their own
hands — at present it is devoted more to teach young men who own small
estates how to perform every necessary agricultural operation with their
own hands ; as their praoticat education is the main object, the greater
portion of their time is spent in actual labor on the farm. They, however,
receive instruction firom professors during two hours each day, in the' lec-
ture room. The number for any one term is limited to twenty-five, and
they must be residents of "Wubtembueq — no foreigners are, under any
circumstances, admitted to this school. The course embraces three years ;
fhey must be at least sixteen years of age and must have a preparatdr^
education.
The third school was established in 1844, and is named the Horticultural
School. Si^t students are annually admitted for a years* theoretico-prac^
tlcal course of instruction. The requisites to enter this school are: To
be seventeen years of age, to have served a three years apprenticeship in
gardening or in the vineyard ; or in lieu of that, to have gone through
one course in the Agricultural School. The object of this school is to
complete both the theoretical and practical education of gardening and
horticulture which the students may have attained in the other schools.
In addition to these three schools, there is annually an educational
course on fruit growing, meadow culture and management, shepherding
and school teaching.
The fruit growers' course has been held annually since 1850. The stu-
dents are young men of eighteen and upwards years of age, who intend
to make fruit growing their occupation. The course is embraced in four
or five weeks study in the spring, and a few days in summer, to learn in-
oculation practically. Of late years, however, so many wish to attend
tliis spedal coarse that it has been commenced about the middle of
Digitized by LjOOQIC
14
March and terminated at the end of May — thus giving an entire conrse
to three successive classes. The meadow calture conrse of lectures were
commenced in 1844, and suspended in 1852, but again restored in 1855.
It is a five weeks course, in the springtime, and consists of lectures on
practical drainage, surveying, etc., for those who wish to become engineers
in agricultural operations, such as draining, irrigation, etc. The number
in attendance has averaged eight since the conftnencement.
The shepherd^i course was established in 1855, and has had a regular
annual class of ten or twelve. The requisites to enter this class are : To
be twenty years of age, and to have served an apprenticeship of, at least,
four years in the shepherd occupation. This course commences in Feb-
ruary and continues four weeks.
The school teachers* course is somewhat similar to our Kormal School
Oystem; and the object of it is to introduce elementary agricultural
knowledge in the comnu>n schools — ^the number of cadets is limited to
twenty-five — and the course is limited to three weeks, and is held during
the autumn only.
The instruction in these extraordinary courses is given either by the
Professors of the Institutions, or by experts in the respective specialties
who are engaged by the Directory to deliver the special lectures.
From 1840 to 1846 a course of lectures was annually delivered on the
cultivation and preparation ctf flax, but was discontinued when an Insti-
tution was opened in SxuTTaABD ^'for the promotion of flax industry.'*
Since 1852 the various work-shops, pattern and model depositories, and
the various museums are open to master mechanics, who are permitted to
remain ten days in the Institution to observe, inquire, make notes, draw-
ings, etc, of the models or other improvements there ; seventy-seven
master blacksmiths and fifty-eight master wagon makers have given
testimonials of the acquirements they made during their ten days sojourn.
In addition to all these there are special courses for goverimient officers,
or those who will succeed in hereditary offices.
A special course has also been adopted for instruction in bee and silk-
worm culture and management.
MODEL FABM.
The model farm consists of about 1,000 morgen (778) acres. The Direc-
tor disclaims the idea that it is a model farip, in the usually accepted
sense of that term, but is intended to demonstrate improvements, such
as a rational system of rotation of caops, careful and thorough culture of
the soil, proper treatment of manures, underdraining, irrigation, etc Of
these 1,000 morgen 835 only are in an actual arable condition, as follows :
Digitized by LjOOQIC
15
The Chaiiflsefleld lotation 99^orgeii.
The Melerwaeld " 233
TheHeidefield " 278
Free agrionltare 19
Meadows 145
Permanent pastares 50
Hop field 3
Foreet wood nnraery 9
815
The live stock employed and kept upon this fium are-
Farm horses i 10
Work oxen 28
Cows and heifers 90
Sheep 1,000
The remaining 165 mcrgen are devoted to the experiments, demonstra-
tions, etc., snch as a botanical garden, experimental plots, vegetable gar-
den, vineyard and nursery for agricultural and horticultural purposes.
The experimental fields are composed of ninety-seven plots of ground,
each containing one-fourth of a morgen. On these plots all manner of
experiments are made; such as experiments in the different depths of
plowing, the effect of different manures, the effects of different systems
of rotation of crops, the effects of a succession for a series of years of
the same kind of crop, as wheat, rape or potatoes, etc., the effects of ex-
cessive manuring, thick and thin seeding, drilling and broadcast sowing.
Then, too, in these fields rare and valuable seeds are grown for distribu-
tion amon^ the farmers. When I visited there, these experimental fields
were chiefly occupied with cereals, wheat, {ye, barley and oats, although
some were occupied with potatoes, rape, lupines, peas, beans, poppies,
mangolds, swedes, sugar beets, carrots and sorgho.
The department for Applied Chemistry consists of a Sugar Beet Fac-
tory, Brewery, Distillery, Starch Factory, Vinegar Factory, a Malting
and Fruit-Drying Establishment, Boof and Drain Tile Manufftctory, etc.
The Agricultural Implement and Machine Manufactory was established
not only to supply the vicinity with the best implements and machines
at the lowest possible rates, but as a school where young men might be-
come practically finished workmen. It employs from thirty to forty
workmen, of which two or three ore exclusively engaged in manufactur-
ing models of agricultural machines and implements.
In the Silk Worm department everything is taught that is known in
this branch of industry, namely : How to rear and manage silk worms —
how to reel the cocoons, and prepare the silk for weaving or sewing.
The Flax-preparing department is still continued, but is limited to
water retting the flax, breaking and skutching it during the winter, and
its only object now is to introdnce the Netkerland system of preparing flax
into Wttbtembubg.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
16
As a sort of addenda to this model farm, is an establishment for the
dissemination of seeds to the fanners in the kingdom. There are annu-
ally distributed more than a thousand varieties. Then, too, there is an
annual sale of bulls and bucks for the improvement of cattle and sheep.
I have omitted to mention anything relative to the Forestry depart-
ment The forest consists of 6,290 morgen, embracing all the varieties
of indigenous trees, shrubs and plants, and a plot of 25 morgens of exotic
trees and shrubs.
PLAN OF TEAOHma, AND BRANCHES TAUGHT.
The instruction in the Academy is imparted partly by lectures, partly
by demonstrations and excursions, and partly by actual practice. The
following is the plan and course of lectures :
AGRICULTURE.
A. — AOBICULTUBAL PRODUCTS.
1. General Agriculture and Plant Cul-
ture.
2. Special Plant Culture.
3. Meadow Culture.
4. Grape, Hop and Tobacco Culture.
5. Fruit Culture.
6 C ulture of Vegetables, (kitchen) Breed-
ing of Domestic Animals.
7. Horse Breediug>
8. Cattle Breeding.
.9. Sheep Breeding.
10. Breeding Small Animals.
11. Silk Worm Culture.
ld< Bee Culture.
B.— Forest Economy.
5. Forestry.
6. Forest Taxation.
C. — State Forestry.
7. Wurtemburg Forest Laws.
8. Practical Forest Business.
m. COLLATERAL BRANCHES.
A^— Mathebiatical Collaterals.
1. Arithmetic.
2. Algebra.
3. Planeometry. •
4. stereometry.
6. Trigonometry.
6. Practical Geometry.
7. Venation of Forests.
B.— Natural Sciknoe CoLLATXRAijl
8. Mechanics.
B.— Professional.
13. Taxation.
14. Book Keeping.
C— Agricultural Tbghkoloqy.
n. FORESTRY.
Encyclopedia of Forest Science.
Agricultural Encylopedia for Foresten.
A.— Forest Productions.
1. Forest Botany. '
2 Growing Woodlands.
3. Protection of Forests.
4. Profits of Technology of Forests.
9. Physics.
10. General Chemistry.
11. Agricultural Chemistry.
12. Analytical Chemistry.
13. Introduction of Geognosy.
14. Geognosy.
15. Special Botany.
10. Vegetable Physiology.
IT. General Zoology.
18. Special Zoolo^.
19. veterinary Science.
C— Political Economy Collatkrals.
20. National Economy.
21. Principles of Law.
D.—- Technological Collaterals.
22. Economical Architecture.
23. Draughting Plans.
The above named general subjects may by considered as fhongli each
sabject named were the title of a good sized volume. The capUom or ti(le$
of the lectures themselves occupy about twenty-five large pages of finely
Digitized by VjOOQIC
17
printed matter. For instance, the subject of General Agriculture and
Plant Culture is divided into ten sections, as follows : 1, Introduction ;
2, Climate and Meteorology ; 3, The Soil ; 4, Agricultural Implements
and Machines ; 5, Preparation of the Soil ; 6, The Increase of Plants ;
7, Manures; 8, Protection of the Seed when Sown; 9, Harvesting; 10,
Preservation of Agricultural Products.
Each oue of these sections is divided into apecifio subjects, and each of
these specific subjects into lectures. As an illustiation, the second sec-
tion, on Climate and Meteorology, is divided into the following specific
subjects, each one of which may be the theme of a lecture, namely :
1, The Atmosphere — ^its composition, height or pressure. 2, Moisture,
dew, fog, clouds, rain, snow, hail, 3, Winds. 4, Electricity and Light-
ning. 6, Heat or Warmth — ^its horizontal, perpendicular and curved dis-
tribution. 7, Light, and its influence upon vegetation. 8, The Heavens
— stars, moon and comets. 9, Local climate; climate as affected by seas
and continents ; elevations above the level of the sea — influence of large
streams, seas, sandy plains, prairies, forests, mountains, valleys. 10, In-
herent warmth of the earth, and terrestrial magnetism. 11, distribution
of the vegetable kingdom. 12, Effects of Frost. 13, Duration of vege-
tation, and amount of heat during that period. 14, Acclamatization of
Plants.
Here there are 14 lectures on one fecial subjeot. Taking th s as a
specimen, there would be 140 lectures upon the subject of General Agri-
coltnre and Plant Culture, before the subject would be considered ex-
hausted, and perhaps before a lecture would be delivered upon Special
Plant Culture or Meadow Culture. And so on with the others.
The Institution has a Library of 4,000 standard volumes, and . n annual
ftind of 500 florins ($200) to increase the Library. There are cabinets
and museums of everything pertaining to tbe branches taught — a collec-
tion of soils, minerals, plants, woods, wools, fibres, a museum of anatomy
and physiology ; a vast collection of models of implements, machinery,
&C., — ^this last collection embraces 1,250 articles ; among them are models
of 110 plows. In the Museum of J^atural History, I saw stuffed speci-
mens of 400 different birds, and 100 mammals, besides many reptiles and
fishes. In the Veterinary Department is a very extensive collection of
Pathological specimens and preparations.
The aggregate number of students inscribed on the books of the Acad-
emy, from its commencement until the termination of the winter course
for 1861-2, wa« 2,944, of these 2,322 entered for purely agricultural studies.
and 622 for forestry. Thirteen professors are employed. For daily order
of lectures see pages 18, 19, 20-1.
2B
Digitized by LjOOQIC
18
I
f
I
ft
1
1^
I
1
9»
.1
I
S3
P
to
o
n
i
s
CO
I
£
O 0
BO
I
1
0 ©
0
I
00
o
IS
,0 O
•5 S
a;
00
"a
0
■3
o
i2
S
■'3
eS
I
OS
i2
5
O
I
I
f
I
•3
o
•a
o
i
CO
s
C4
0
£;
0
0
0
1
o
0
05
I
0
1
S
•s
0
I
i
•c ®
1^
0
H
0
c
o
©
a
I
0
I
^
S
O
^
3
B
B
0
02
Digitized by ^
joogle
19
^E
a
o
O
i
I
I
^
P
I
H o
i
H
00
1^
Si
ii
o
^
o
o
M
I
I
o
1
I
I
I
a
S
bo
.S
n
&
i
o
3
o
I
0
a
I
I
•d
a
I
•d
I
I
•a
s
I
S
5
i
S
o
1
a
o
a
o
CO
5
I
s
CO
0
1
I
I
i
■3
H
M
8
'd
s
I
5
CO
o
Digitized by VjWWV IVL
20
5
s
06
I
>
K
I
I
I
OQ
53
§
I
0
I
Id
I
o
S
§
0
I
o
00
a»
5
3
l*
00
5
1
5
9
S
s
2
I
I
1
(In
•d
§
t
i
I
s
I
§
5
0>
I
g
I
§
i
a
o
I
1
-a
s
I
•3
t
I
&
i2
'd
s
a
'53 <J
I
i
s
'd
i
8
I
I
s
•s
o
I
•■sg
tcrc
or
o
.a
'd
«il«
Jg-g
CO
5
09
I
s s
00 ^
►•d
1.2
■<.-s
"^1
^1
It
0 «
0 -M
n
I
s
i
a
c
o
»
-3
&
S
a
£
i
i
•a
§
I
5
I
i
&
I
o
si
Mo
« O
01
Is
S'd
'd K
If
8i
o
5
1-4
I
r
o
3
S
Digitized by VjOOQIC
21
•s
a
a
o
00
I
Hi
!
1
1
1
i
1
£
o
'eno;sinox3 ^^ssioj .
00
§
:3
1
o
9
.a
i
1
1
1
1
i
'5
>
1
;2
1
5
1
•89SIPJ9X3
lBjra;inou]8v l«»T^i>«d[
2
'O
0
2
HH
^
-3
S
^
S
1
1
1
2
1
S t-b
>>
s
1
1
>h'
o
f
S.
Ck
g
n
o
^
1
S
1
»o
a
1
9
t
r ~
•a
i
1
a
1
1
a
t
1
(2
1
.5
1
n
3 •
.
u
•g
S
a
g
£
s
%>
§
i
m3
1
1
i
i
1
1
J
1
1
1
•d
s
'S
>
1
|i
11
r
a
1
1
I1
II
i
1
t>
f
9
f
' §
4»
1
8
0
o
G>l
1
s
<K
o
»H
W
•T
4C
CI
!>•
^^
s
s
5
S
a
S
5
s
S
■S
N S
r*
00
A
s
91
«
-*
to
«o
Digitized by VjOOQIC
22
THE FOBEST AITD A6BI0TJLTUBAL AGADEKT AT THABANBT.
This Academy is located near tlie village of TWandt near Dresden,
and its specific objects are to teach forestry and agricnlture by lectnres
and excursions.
Students of good character and of sufficient proficiency are admitted at
seventeen years of age. The course embraces a two or three years* term,
at the option of the student, and includes the following studies under the
teaching of the gentlemen named as Professors, viz :
Director and Professor, Baron Berg — History and Literature of Forestry, Plans of For-
ests, State Forestiy, including estimates of value, Taxation, &c.
Director and Professor Privy Councellor, Dr. Schober— Encyclope&dla of Agriculture,
Agriculture (the business part of it.)
Professor and Counsellor PRESSLER—Mathematics, (Mensuration) Surveying, Mechan-
ics, Architecture, Plan and Architectural Drawing.
Professor and King's Councellor, Dr. A. STOCKHARixi^-Agricultural Chemistry, Prac-
tical Chemistry.
Professor Dr. Wilkomen— Zoology, Forest Entomology, Agricultural Entomology and
Natural History.
Professor Dr. Krutzsch— Physics, Meteorology.
Professor RocH— Care of Forests, Hunting, Forest Kepetitorium.
Professor Dr. STENOEi^-Oeneral Agricultural Botany, Structure and quality of Wool,
AflTicultnral Technology.
Koyal Veterinarian, Dr.WEBER— Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic Animals, Pa-
thology, Horse-shoeing.
Qarden Inspector, Dr. Reum— Kitchen Garden Vegetable Culture.
Forester Tager— Mathematical Repititorium.
Official Actuary, Bose — ^Law.
YIBBT YEAR AT THARANDT, CLASS I.
^ ujt.^ELEHENTARY AND COLLATERAL SCIENCES.
Pure and applied Arithmetic and Algebra, four hours per week Ib Summer.
Planimetry and ordinary Mensuration, four hours in Winter.
Plan and Architectural draughting, three hours in Summer, four in Winter.
Physics, four hours in Summer, one in Winter.
Theoretical and Technological Chemistry, four hours in Summer.
Meteorology and Climatology, two hours in Summer.
Mineralogy, four hours in Winter,
General Botany, four hours in Summer.
Zoology » three hours in Winter.
B, — PRACTICAL 8CIBNGK.
EncyelopcDdia of Agriculture^ one hour in Winter
" Forestry, three hours in Summer.
Agricultural Plant Culture, five hours in Summer.
Cattle Breeding, three hours in Winter.
Protection of Forests, one hour in Winter.
Conduct of the Chase, one hoar in Winter.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
23
SECOND YEAK, CLASS U.
A. — BLESfENTARY AND COLLATERAL SCIENCES.
Triij^onoinetry and Conio Sections, four hours in Summer.
Stereometry Forest Mathematics, three hours in Winter.
Plan and Architectural drawing, with special reference to Agricultural Buildings,
three hours in Summer, and four in Winter.
Vegetable Physiology, three hours in Summer, and one in Winter.
Special Botany for Agriculturists, two hours in Sumhier.
" '* Foresters, two hours in Summer.
Afi^cultural Chemistry and Soilology, four hours in Winter.
Entomology, one hour in Summer, and two in Winter.
Popular Science, three hours in Summer.
Jurisprudence for Farmers and Foresters, three hours in Winter.
Practical Business, two hours in Summer.
Veterinary Science, two hours in Summer, and two in Winter.
JS.— PRACTICAL SCIENCES.
Agricultural Management, including Book-keeping, d:^., three hours in Winter.
Culture of Forests, four hours in Summer.
Forest Matters in General and Detail, three hours in Summer, and six in Winter.
Natural History, two hours in Summer, and three in Winter.
Practical exercises and demonstrations for Agriculture and Forestry,
ttsoally take place on Saturday afternoon, and the Natural History excur-
sions on the afternoon of some other day in the week, during both the
first and second year.
Daring the second year there is especially taught —
Practical Mensuration, including Surveying for Agriculturists, one afternoon in sum-
mer— «ame for Forestry.
Practical Chemistry — eight hours summer and winter.
Practical Exercises in Taxation for Foresters— an afternoon in summer.
Practical Instruction in Horticulture—at appropriate seasons, in the Gardens and
Nursery.
In winter, exercises in the chase, and in summer in gunnery.
From this synoptical view, we obtain an idea of what is taught here,
but not of how it is taught. I will, therefore, explain, in as brief a man-
ner as possible, how the Agricultural and Ghemical portions are taught.
See page 28. For the daily order of lectures see pages 24-5-6-7.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
24
i
CD
00
'fe'
eg
I
a
I
S3
a
QQ
»
P
0
O
£
^ O
08
i
£
l-H
P
i2
I!
H
w
as
s
06
<6
I
II
-3
OP
s
o
§
'3
§
I
5
I
fag
-3
a
o
a
o
»
•a
fl
o
Is
p 08 O
II
&
&
a.
1
06
CD -Oiit
g O .
a
3
I
1
.^
g2
a
3
12
o
P4
I
a
.s
.-SO
d
s
1
a
£
&>
^J
■Sd
C;»-i
oc 0
f^tSg
PCS
C 08
^ ?.
c 0
P-
03
fi
5zi
•a
0
s
u
(^
c o
P4
111
I
"fev
I
0
g
I'
.Si
IB
^
o
fa
I
&
I
'flS
^£
II
* P
I
00
1
I
(6
I
1
o
o
a
3
I
1
I
.2 g
I*"
p
a
o
i
■§1
I
I
7
I
i
Digitized by LjOOQIC
25
2
A
5
i
§
s
O
(In
I
o
A
&
a
r
I
a
a
eS
a
u
d
K^
GO
2
£
I
<6
QQ
I
§
I
e8
a
.9
I
r
"a
a
2
Ok
I
!
00
I-
'3«
^
^
^
P4
I
I
£
t
a
5
;S
g2
O
o
Ah
9
i2
.s
08.4
.SO
I
wa
n
Digitized by VjOOQIC
26
CO
00
i
I
8
1
S3
5
Q
^3
O
§
1
0
•^
o
3
•§
S2
Q
§
£
1
^3
3.
1
I.
1
I
a
I?
1
S
I
bo
a
1
§
^^
flS
i
I
fit-
^^
It
!l
0<M
WO
-3H
^ ^
O 4d
II
11
I
^
tc
c
rt
(^
So i
-9
o «
-<
o
&
'$&
is
as
i«
do's
t3
2
B
a
5^5
S
3
I
I
I
■38
s
I
I
•I
a
I
I
1
o
Q
I
I
Digitized by VjOOQIC
27
III
§
I
O
P
SI
I
.£3
1
i
s
§ i
la Id
Is
•11
1^
!
a
1
a
•p
'd
d o
I
I
I
be
COQ
I
X
<<
i
I
2
:
Digitized by LjOOQIC
28
METHOD OP TEAOmNG AGBIOULTUBAL SCIENCE.
The lectures on Practical Agriculture commence with the Encyclopaddia
of Agriculture. This, as the term indicates, is general reviews of, in brief,
every thing relating to practical agriculture, and of some special branches,
flrom their present status of development ; partially for the purpose of
directing attention to special studies, and thus to prepare for them, and
partially of presenting the various branches as a connected whole, and
thus show their relations to each other, and to recall important points to
the memory of the student. • In this review, the relations of the element-
ary principles and sciences to the collateral and auxiliary ones, are clearly
shown, so as to induce the best practical application of all. No one lecture
embraces the whole, but each lecture is devoted to some special topic ;
yet the entire course of lectures on these themes form one complete or
entire series of the most important points in Practical Agriculture. Con-
nected with this series, are lectures on the first principal part of Practical
Agriculture, which is subdivided into two series — one on Plant Culture,
and the other on Cattle Breeding and Bearing. Each one of these latter
subdivisions is again divided into lectures, one series of which embracing
the general laws and principles, and the other the special ones.
The crowning part of the professional agricultural lectures forms the
second part of the agricultural series, and is entirely devoted to farm man-
agement. In this course, the size of farms, quality of the soil and its
adaptation to special crops, contiguity to, or remoteness from markets*
necessary amount of capital to be invested, number and kind of live stock
to be kept, amount 6f machinery t.o be employed, l)ook- keeping, techno-
logical agricultural branches, which may profitably be carried on, &c., &c,
are taught in this series. At the close of each one of these lectures, stu-
dents are permitted to present objections, improvements, or request
detailed explanations; and finally demonstrations are given in this course
by means of excursions by railway, or otherwise, to the best conducted
estates in the kingdom. Excursions are also made to the royal sheep-
folds, for the purpose of studying the different varieties of sheep, systems
of b ceding, crossing,. &c., as well as to obtain accurate knowledge of
wool in all its stages of growth and preparation for market and manufac-
tory. These excursions generally take place oti Saturday of each week,
Bmnmer and winter.
CHEMISTRY.
Cheihistry forms a ver^ important portion of the coarse of study at
Tharandt. 'the TK>arse is limited to one year, although i^tudents are per-
mitted to reiki:un d>s much longer in this departn!ient as Ihey see proper —
but the course comprises Chemistry in gteneral. Technological Chemistry,
and Agricultural Chemistry, The course is divided as follows, viz :
Digitized by LjOOQIC
:s9
I. Chemistry in general, and Technological Chemistry (Aummer term), —
This is limited to that portion of physical or inorganic chemistry as laid
down in Stockhardt's Elements of Chemistry. Such portions of it as re-
late to agriculture, are introduced at the proper places ; as, for instance,
the lecture on Water includes an analysis of water filtering, or otherwise
purifying water, generation of steam, &c. The lectures on Heat embrace
methods of determining heating properties of the several kinds of timber
or other fuel, the construction of flues and gas apparatus. The lecture on
Alkalies includes the analysis of wood ashes, the manufacture of lye, soap,
&C. The lecture on Clays includes the disintegration of the rocks from
which they aie formed, and that on the test of clay soils, by the manufac-
ture of tiles, brick and crockery.
n. General Agricultural Chemistry (Winter term). — ^The course of Gen-
eral Agricultural Chemistry consists in an explanation of the following
propositions, viz : I. TTAa^ part does Nature perform in plant life ? IL
Where does she perform it? and III. How does she perform iti These
explanations naturally suggest the following arrangement of lectures, viz:
a. Orgamo Chemistry: Composition of plants. Woody fiber, gum, sugar.
Vegetable albumen. Spirituous fermentation, vinous fermentation. Fatty
and volatile oils. Organic acids and bases, coloring matter, &c. Ele-
ments of plants. Changes effected in vegetable matter by burnings decay
and decomposition. Composition of animal bodies*
ft. Chemistry of the SoU: Changes effected in mineral substances by dis-
integration. Earths. Arable earths or soils. Differences in these in
mechanical or physical as well as chemical composition. Investigation of
these differences. Soils and subsoils, &c.
c. Speoial Agricultural Chemistry : General conditions essential for plant-
life. Development of plants and vegetative processes. Principal nutri-
tive elements of plants. Increase of crops by tillage, fallowing, rotation
of crops, drainage, irrigation, manuring, &c
At first glance, no doubt every one will be impressed with the idea that
here is entirely too much important chemistry to be studied during the
winter term. But it must be recollected, on the one hand, that the sum-
mer term is never as long as the winter term at this academy ; and, fur-
thermore, the students must be proficient in all the preparatory studies,
namely. General Chemistry, Physics, Meteorology and Climatology, Min-
eralogy, Geognosy, and Geology, before they are admitted into the class
of Agricultural Chemistry. These elementary, or rather preliminary,
studies very considerably abridge the course ; whilst, if so much of these
collaterals as is absolutely necessary to understand agricultural chemistry
were taught in connection with this coarse, a doable if not threefold the
length of time would be required for a practical knowledge of it.
IIL Labobatoby. — ^There is an excellent laboratory in the basement
Digitized by LjOOQIC
30
of the building ; in which the students are required to make practical
application of their chemical knowledge, as well as to afford the student
confidence^ and a degree of accomplishment in manipulation, analysis, &c.
There is a complete botanical museum attached to the Institution, where
specimens of wood of every kind of tree and shrub may be seen. These
specimens consist of a vertical and horizontal section — the bark, leaves,
fruit and flower of a tree — together with a specimen of the larvae, crysalis
and imago of the insect which attacks it.
At the end of every term, the students are examined in the following
branches: 1. Principles of Forestry. 2. National Forestry. 3. History
and Literature of Forestry. 4. Regulations of Forestry. . 5. Culture of
Forests. 6. Practical exercises in Forestry Taxation. 7. Forest Tech-
nology and Utility. 8. Protection of Forests. 9. Forestry Repititorium.
10. Forest business — Excursions, Target-shootings, &c. 11. Practice in
Forest N'ursery. 12. The Chase — hunting. 13. Bncyclopsedia of Agri-
culture. 14. Culture of Agricultural Plants. 15. Cattle Breeding. 16.
Agricultural operations in connection with Book-keeping and Assessment
of Taxes. 17. Political Economy. 18. Agricultural Machinery and Im-
plements. 19. Wool. 20. Agricultural Technology. 21. Agricultural
Excursions and Demonstrations. 22. General Mathematics. 23. Survey-
ing. 24. Practical Surveying. 25. Special Forestry Mathematics. 26.
Mechanics. 27. Architecture. 28. Architectural Draughting. 29. Math-
ematical Repititorium. 30. Theoretical and Technological Chemistry.
31. Agricultural Chemistry and knowledge of Soils. 32. Practical Chem-
istry. 33. Physic 34. Mineralogy. 35. Geognosy. 36. Meteorology.
37. General Botany. 38. Forest Botany. 39. Agricultural Botany. 40.
Vegetable Physiology. 41. Practical Vegetable Physiology. 42. Zoology.
43. General Entomology. 44. Forestry Entomology. 45. Agricultural
Entomology. 46. ^Natural History Repititorium. 47. Natural History
Excursions. 48. Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic Animals. 49.
Exterior of Domestic Animals. 50. Hygienic or Sanitary Measures for
Domestic Animals. 51. Pathology. 52. Horseshoeing. 53. Wines and
Fruit Culture. 54. Kitchen G-ardening. 55. Laws.
The number of students ranges from eighty to one hundred, of which
fully one half are "foreign," or those who do not reside in the Kingdom
of Saxony ; and the students are about equally divided, so far as studies
are concerned, in Agriculture and Forestry.
THE AOiDEMT AT ELDENA.
This Institution, situated in Pommerania, in Prussia, is conducted on
the model farm plan, and is a portion of the University at Greifswald, a
short distance from the latter place. The Academy has about 1,900 acres
of land, divided iuto 1,355 acres of plow land, 344 acres of meadow, 41
permanent pasture, 13 in gardens of various kinds, as flower gardens.
Digitized by Vji^VJ^lC
31
vegetable gardens, forest and agricaltural plant nurseries, etc., a fruit
nursery of 10 acres, and 18 acres for experiments.
The King's Privy Counselor, Prof. Dr. Baumstark, is the Director of
this Institution, and teaches i>olitical economy, agricultural legislation,
state finances, popular national economy and policy of Prussia, the organ
ization and details of the Prussian system of government. Prof. Dr.
Sbgnitz teaches history of agriculture, agricultural statistics, general
agriculture and culture of plants; the use and structure of agricultural
implements, farm management, book-keeping, practical exercises in ap-
praising lands, lands, exercises in agricultural calculations and compu-
tations. Economic Counsellor and Administrator, Dr. Khode, teaches
special culture of plants, management of meadows ; cattle, sheep and
swine breeding; demonstration and practical exercises in agriculture.
The Garden Inspector, Zabnaok, teaches kitchen gardening, horticulture,
culture of fruit trees, ornamental agriculture. Royal Forester, Wibse,
teaches the science of forest productions, management of forests, excur-
sions, etc.
Prof. Dr. Tbommeb teaches knowledge of soils, organic, inorganic and
analytic chemistry, practical exercises in chemical laboratory, physics,
agricultural technology, practical demonstrations in brewing, cheese-
making, manufacture of tile, etc. In these. Prof. Tbommeb is assisted
by Dr. Schlotz, who teaches, in addition, mineralogy, geognosy and
geology. Prof. Dr. Jessen teaches geographical distribution, anatomy
and physiology of plants, systematic botany, specific and analytic botany,
microscopical exercises, botanical excursions, diseases of plants, and in-
sects injurious to vegetation. Eoyal Architect, Dr. Muelleb, teaches
plans and arrangement of farm buildings, architecture, appraising build-
ings, location and construction of road^ , open drains and ditches. Prof.
Dr. Gbunebt teaches arithmetic, practical mensuration, plane trigono-
metry, surveying and leveling, mechanics and machinery. Prof. Dr.
FtiBSTENBEBa tcaches general principles of breeding animals, sanitary
measures for domestic animals; horse breeding, rearing, shoeing and
riding ; anatomy and physiology of domestic animals ; internal and ex-
ternal pathology and veterinary pharmacoepia ; practical demonstrations
and exercises with the horse. Prof. Dr. Habeblin teaches agricultural
jurisprudence.
The entire course is estimated to occupy two years ; although by a
special arrangement, less time may be occupied ; or the course may be
extended to three or four years. ]^o students are admitted who are not
qualified to enter the University proper ; or, in other words, the students
must be 18 years of age, must have graduated at a gymnasium, or a
polytechnic school — that is, the highest class of an industrial school —
and those who enter for the agricultural course exclusively, mast have
had one year's experience on the farm proper.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
32
5
FN
Q
CO
525
Q
D
o
CG
■a
1
4
s
a
OD
■-3
i
•3
00
2
o
s
I
E
9
a
i
?
s
o
o
I
Prac. Exer. in Laborat*y
OS
ga
^1
II
t
•a .5
® 2
s
Jo
H M
ii
O
^
o
I
i
-I
g
1
S a 2
GO
S 2
■3 = 92
" " I §
nd
g
U)a
a
e
O
o
jL
0
s
•^1
^5
<5 *« a
-9 ^«
0
1
o
s
Praotioal Exercises in
the Laboratorj.
I:
^§
£
21
1-
GQ
:
CO
I
Digitized by VjOOQIC
33
There are, aside from the varions very excellent cabinets and mnsenms,
laboratory, etc, a large stock of Merino sheep, consisting of 1,200 head
of Negrettis, Kambouilletts, etc ; one stock of Leicester, one of Gotswold,
and one of Southdown sheep. There are about 100 head of breeding-cat
tie, of the Holland, Scotch, Oldenburger, Angle, Danish, and natives ;
these are kept, a portion of them pure blooded, and others are crosses,
for fully demonstrative and experimental purposes.
An arrangement has been made with Messrs. Labahne & Baukb, the
proprietors of a large manufacturing establishment of agricultural imple-
ments and machines; with Mr. Kesslbb, an extensive foundryman;
with Albonico, the proprietor of a saddlery hardware manufactory, to
I>ermit students at stated periods, to visit all the various workshops, for
examination, observation and instruction in the various mechanical ope-
rations pursued. There is also a large distillery, a brewery, cheese fac-
tory, and tilery on the estate, owned by the academy, in each of which
students receive practical instruction in these several industrial pursuita.
From the commencem^t in 1835, until t 
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11