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The Catholic Encyclopedia

VOLUME FOURTEEN

Simony— Tournely

BLESSED THOMAS MORE

THE CATHOLIC
ENCYCLOPEDIA

AN INTERNATIONAL WORK OF REFERENCE

ON THE CONSTITUTION, DOCTRINE,

DISCIPLINE, AND HISTORY OF THE

CATHOLIC CHURCH

EDITED BY

CHARLES G. HERBERMANN, Ph.D., LLD.

EDWARD A. PACE, Ph.D, D.D. CONDE B. PALLEN, Ph.D., LL.D.

THOMAS J. SHAHAN, D.D. JOHN J. WYNNE, S.J.

ASSISTED BY NUMEROUS COLLABORATORS

FIFTEEN VOLUMES AND INDEX
VOLUME XIV

Wew Hort
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA PRESS, INC

Nihil Obstat, July 1, 191 li
REMY LAFORT, S.T.D.

CENSOR

Imprifnaiur

+JOHN CARDINAL FARLEY

ARCHBISHOP OP NEW YORK

The articles in thin work have been written specially for The Catholic
Encyclopedia and are protected by copyright. All rights, includ-
ing the right of translation and reproduction, are reserved.

PRKtaWORK AND aiNDINQ BY J. B. LYON CO . ALOANY. N. Y.. U. 0. A.

Contributors to the Fourteenth Volume

AHERNE, CORNELIUS, Rector, PRorsssoR of
Nbw Tbstamsnt Exboesib, St. Josbph's Coi/-
LBQE, Mill Hill, London: Son of God; Son of
Man; Timothy and Titus, Epistles to.

ALBERS, p., SJ., Maastricbt, Holland: Thijm.
Joseph Albert Alberdingk; Thijm, Pet«r Paul
Mana Alberdingk.

ALDXsY, ANTAL, Ph.D., Archivist of the Li-
brary OF THB National Museum, Budapest
Sinnium, Diocese of; Steinamanger, Diocese of
Stuhlweissenburg, Diocese of; Siint6, Stepban
SsatmiLr, Diocese of; Ssentiv^nyi, Martin.

ALLARD, PAUL. Editor, "Revue deb Qubstionb
HiSTOBiQUEs", Paris: Slavery.

ALSTON, G. CYPRIAN, O.S.B., London: Solesmes,
Abbey of.

AMADO, RAMON RUIZ, S.J^ LL.D.j Ph.L., Col-
LEOB OF St. Ignatius, Sarria, Barcelona:
Spain; TarazoniL Diocese of; Tarragona, Arch-
diocese of; Teruel, Diocese of.

ARMFELT, carl GUSTAF baron, Stock-
HOLii, Swbden: Stockholm.

AYME. EDWARD L., M.D., New York: Toribio,
Alfonso Mogrovejo, St.

BACCHUS, FRANCIS JOSEPH, B.A., The Ora-
tory, BiRMiNQHAM^ ENGI..AND: Sophronius;
Symraachus the Ebioaite; Synesius ox Qvrene;
Theodoric Lector; Theonas; Theophilus^ Bishop
of Antioch; Three Chapters; Titus, Bishop of
Bostra.

BAUMGARTEN, MGR. PAUL MARIA. J.U.D.,
S.T.D., Rome: Statistics, Ecclesiastical.

BAUR, CHRYSOSTOM, O.S.B., Ph.D. (Louvain),
CoLLBoio Di San Anbelmo, Rome: Theodore,
Bishop d Mopsuestia; Theodoret; Theophilus,
Patriiffch of Afexandria.

BECHTEL, FLORENTINE, S.J., Professor of
Hebrew and Sacred Scripture, St. Louib
Univebbity, St. Louib: Susa; Tostado, Alonso.

BENIGNI, MGR. UMBERTO, Prothonotary
ApoflTOiJC Pabtbcipantb, Professor of Ec-

CLBBIASTICAL HiBTOBY, PONTIFICIA ACCADEMIA

DEI NoBiLi EccLBBiABTici^ Rome: SinigagUa,
Diocese of; Solim6es Supenore^ Sorrento, Arch-
diocese of; Sovana and Pitighano, Diocese of;
Spedalieri, Nioola: Spoleto, Archdiocese of; Squil-
lace. Diocese of; ouourbicarian Dioceses; Susa,

racina, Seue, and Pipemo, Diocese of; TivoU,
Diocese of; Todi, Diocese of; Tortona, Diocese of.

BERTREUX, EPHREM M., 8.M., Pbbfbct Apob-
Touo OF*THB SouTB SoLOMON Iblandb: Solomon
Islands, Prefecture Apostolic of the Southern.

BERTRIN, GEORGES, Litt.D., Fellow of the
University, Pbofesbob of French Litera-
TX7RE, Institut Cathouque, Parib: Swetchine,
Sophie-Jeanne-Soymonof ; Tassin, Ren^Prosper;
TiUemont, Louis-Sebastian Le Nain de.

BESSE, J. M., O.S.B., Director, ''Revue Mabil-
lon", Chbvetognb, Belgium: Thebaid.

BOLLAND, JOSEPH, S.J., Stonyhurst College,
Blackbxtrn, England: Soul; Spirit; Spiritualism.

BOSMANS, H., S.J., College Saint Michel,
Bbubbelb: Stevin, Simon.

BOUDINHON, AUGUSTE-MARIE, S.T.D,,
D.C.L., Director. "Canoniste Contemporain",
Professor of Canon Law, Institut Cath«
OLiQUE, Parib: Synods, National.

BRANTS, VICTOR. J.C.D., Membeb of the Royal
Academy of Belgium, Louvain: Thonissen,
Jean Joseph.

BRAUN, JOSEPH, S.J., St. Ignatius College,
Valkenbubg, Holland: Stole; Surplice; Taber-
nacle; Throne; Tiara.

BR^HIER, EMILE, Litt.D., Renneb, France:
Stoics and Stoic Philosophy; Tancred.

BROWN, CHARLES FRANCIS WEMYSS, Loch-
TON Castle. Perthshire, Scotland: Thomas
Abel, Blessed (sub-title Blessed Edward Powell).

BURTON, EDWIN, S.T.D., F.R. Hier. Soc., Vice-
President, St. Edmund's College, Ware,
England: Simpson, Richard; Smith, Richuxl.
Bishop of Chalcedon; Smith, Richard; Sodor ana
Man, Ancient Diocese of; Spencer. The Hon.
George; .Stanyhurst, [Richard; Stapleton, Theo-
bald j Stapleton, Thomas; Stuart^ Henry Benedict
Mana Clement; Sutton, Sir Richard; Tatwin,
Saint; Taxster, John de; Theobald, Archbishop
of Canterbury; Thomas of Beckington; Thomas
of Bradwardine; Thomas of Herefora, Saint:
Thomas Percy, Blessed; Thompson, Edwara
Healy; Thompson, Harriet Diana; Tiehborae,
Thomas, Venerable; Tiemey, Mark Aloysius;

Tootell, Hugh; Touchet, George Anselm.

•

BUTLER, RICHARD URBAN, O.S.B., Downside
Abbey, Bath, England: Sixtus IV, Pope.

CABROL, FERNAND, O.S.B., Abbot of St.
Michael's, Fabnborough, England: Terce.

CALLAN, CHARLES J., O.P., S.T.L., Professor
of Philosophy, Dominican House of Studieb,
Washington: Slotanus, John; Soto, Dominic;
Spina, Bartolommeo; Stephen of Bourbon.

CAMPBELL, WILLIAM EDWARD, Strattonk)n-
THE-FossE, Bath, England: Socialism.

CARDAUN8, HERMANN, BONN: Spee, Friedrioh
von.

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FOURTEENTH VOLUME

CABANOVA, GERTRUDE, O.8.B.. Stanbbook Ab- DELAUNAY, JOHN B., C.8.C., Rous: 8ynt»gma

BEY, WoBCEBTER, ENGLAND: Tnecla, Saint. ^

CEDILLO^ THE CONDE DE, Madrid: Toledo,
Archdiocese of.

Canonum.

DESMOND, DANIEL F., Hubon, South Dakota:
Sioux Falls, Diocese of.

CHABOT, JEAN-BAPTISTE, S.T.D., Directob ot DEVINE, ARTHUR, C.P., St. Saviour's Retreat,

— ^ urs «a ry « n^, WORCESTERSHIRE, ENGLAND: State or Way,

Purgative, Illuminative, Unitive.

DOHAN, Et)WARD GEORGE, O.SA., M.A.,
S.T.D., President of Villanova Colijbgb, Vil-
LANOVA, Pennsylvania: Thomas of Villanova,
Saint.

CHILTON, CARROLL B., London: Thompson, DOYLE, JOHN P. M., T.O.R., M.A., S.T.D., Rec-

THE "Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Ori-
entauum", Paris: Syriac Hymnody; Syriac
Language and Literature.

CHAPMAN, JOHN, O.S.B., B.A. (Oxon.), Ab-
BAYE DB St. BbnoIt, Maredsous, Namur, Bel-
gixtm: Tertullian.

Francis.

CHISHOLM, JOSEPH ANDREW, K.C., MA.,
LL.B.. Halifax: Thompson, Right Honourable
Sir John Sparrow David.

CLEARY, GREGORY, O.F.M., J.C.D., J. Civ.D,,
S.T.L.. SOMETIME Professor op Canon Law
AND Moral Theology, St. Isidore's College,
Rome: Syndic, Apostolic.

COLEMAN, CARYL, B.A., Pelham Manor, New
York: Spire; Stained Glass; Tapestry.

CORDIER, HENRI, Professor at the School for
Oriental Living Languages, Pabis: Taoism;
Tibet.

COSSIO, ALUIGI, S.T.D., S.S.D,, J.U.D., Bacca-
laureus and Licentiatus op the University
OF Padua, Rome: Titulus.

TOR OF St. Francis College, Professor of"
Moral Theology, Lorbtto, Pennsylvania:
Third Order of St. Francis, Province of the
Sacred Heart of Jesus.

DRISCOLL, JAMES F., S.T.D., New Rochelle,
New York: Stoning in Scripture; Terrestrial
Paradise; Theocracy.

DRISCOLL, JOHN JOSEPH, S.J., Superior, Wis-
consin: Superior, Diocese of.

DRISCOLL, JOHN THOMAS, M.A., S.T.L.,
Fonda, New York: Summer Schools, Catholic;
Theosophy; Totemism.

DRUM, WALTER, S.J., Professor of Hebrew
AND Sacred Scripture, Woodstock College,
Maryland: Solomon, Psakns of; Synagogue;
Temple, Liturgr of the; Theolo^, Pastoral;
Thessalonians, Epistles to the; Tobias.

COTTER, A C.. S.J., WooDBTOcK College, Majry- dUBRAY, CA., S.M., S.T.B., Ph.D., Professor of

. land: Stattler, Benedict; Tambunni Michel- Philosophy, Mawst College, Washington:

angelo; Tanner, Adam; lanner, Matthias. Species; Teleology; Telepathy.

C0YLE,M0IRAK., New York: Sti^ber, Hermann. i^^.g^AN, THOMAS, Editor, "Cathouc Tran-

CRIVELLI, CAMILLUS, S.J., Professor op Phil-
osophy and History, Instituto Cientifico de

script", Hartford, Connecticut: Tabb, John
Bannister.

of; Tepic, Diocese of; Tlaxcala.

CUMMINGS, THOMAS F., S.T.D., Holyoke. DUNIN-BORKOWSK I, Stanislaus, S.J., Bonn,
Massachusetts: Springfield, Diocese of. Germany: Spinoza, Benedict.

CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM M., Chancellor of DURAND, ALFRED, S.J., Professor op Scrip-

thb Diocese op Southwark, England: South-
wark, Diocese of.

CUTHBERT

TCRE AND Eastern Languages, Ore Place,
Hastings, England: Testament, The New.

^HBERT father, O.S.F.C,, St. Anseij^'b eNGELHARDT, ZEPHYRIN, O.F.M., Santa
House, Oxford: Theqdosius Florentini; Third Raprara. Caopornia: Sit ar. Buenaventura:

Order of St. Francis in Great Britain and Ireland.

Barbara, California: Sit jar, Buenaventura;
Tapis, Esteban.

debuchy

gium

^Y, PAUL S.J., Litt.L., Enghien, Bel- FANNING, WILLIAM H. W., S.J., Propesbor of
: Spu-itual Exercises of Samt Ignatius. Church History and C.^

Canon Law, St. Louis
University, St. Louis: Societies, Catholic; So-
cieties, Secret^ Solicitation; Subdeacon; Suspen-
sion; S>Tiod; Tarquini, Camilhis; Tenure, Eccle-
siastical; Tithes; Tonsure.

DEGERT, ANTOINE, Litt.D., Editor of "La

Revue de la Gascoigne", Professor of Latin

Literature, Institut Catholique, Toulouse:

Sulpitius; Sylvius, Francis; Terrasson, Andr6;

Tourn6Iy, Honor<«. FAULHABER, MICHAEL, S.T.D., Bishop of

DELAMARRE, LOUIS N.. Ph.D., Instructor in^ Speyer, Germany: Sophonias.

French, College of the Cm* of New York: ^, .,.,«« r, r„ t^ t^ o

Thibautde Champagne. FENLON, JOHN F., S.S., S.T.D., PrasiDENT, St.

Austin's College, Washington; Profbssob of
PELANY, JOSEPH F., S.T.D., New York: Slander, Sacred Scripture, St. Mary's Seminary, Bal-

Sloth; Temperance; Temptation; Theft. timorb: Sulpicians m the United States. . .

CONTRIBUTORS TX> THE TOURTEENTH VOLUME

^FEREHl, p. canon, SAOiT^hLAXjBxtab, FBimos:
Sorbonne.

FLADGATE, GERALDINE, London: Stone, Mary
Jean.

FLAHERTY, MATTHEW J., M.A. (Habvard),
CoNOORD, Massachubettb: Stoddaidy Charles
Warren.

FORD, JEREMIAH D. M., M.A., Ph.D., Pro-
fb880r of french and spanish languages,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chubettb: Spanish Language and Literature;
Spanish-American Literature; Tassoni^ Ajes-
sandro; Tebaldeo, Antonio; Tiraboeohi, Giro-
lamo.

F0RTE8CUE. ADRIAN, Ph.D., S.T.D., Lbtch-
woRTH, Hertfordshire^ EngLand: Suidas;
Synaxarion; Synaxis; S3man Rite, West; Theo-
doaius I; Ticonius.

FOX, JAMES J., S.T.D., Professor of Philosopht,
St. Thomas's College, Washington: Slavery,
Ethical Aspect of.

FOX, JOHN M., S.J.^ Woodstock College. Mary-
land: Tamburim, Thomas; Tongiorgi, Salvator.

FOX, WILLIAM, B.Sc., M,E., Associate Pro-
fessor OF Physics, College of the City of
New York: Toiricelli, Evangelista.

FUENTES, VENTURA, B,A., M.D., Instructor,
College of the City of New York: T^llez,
Gabriel; Torres Naharro, Bartolom^ de.

GALLAVRESI, GIUSEPPE, Professor of Mod-
ern History, Royal Academy or Milan,

Milan: Tasso, Torquato; Tosti, Luigi.

• «^

GANSS, HENRY G., Mus-D., Lancaster, Penn-
sylvania: Tetzel, Johann.

GARRIGAN, PHILIP J.^ .S.T.D., Bishop of Sioux
City, Iowa: Sioux City, Diocese of.

GAUTHEROT, GUSTAVE, Lrrr.D., Paris: Talley-
rand-P4rigord, Charles-Maurice de.

GEUDENS, FRANCIS MARTIN, C.R.P., Abhot
TrruLAR OF Barungs, Tongerloo Abbey,
Westbrloo, Belgium: Tongerlooy Abbey of.

Jacques Auguste de; Thou, Nicholas de: Tooque-
ville. Charleis Alexis - Henri -Maurioe-Clerel de;
Toulouse, Archdiocese of; Tours, Archdiocese of.

GRATTAN-FLOOD, W. H., M.R.I.A., Mus.D.,
Rosemount, EnniscorthYj Ireland: Spontini,
Ga^aro Luira Pacifico; Sullivan, Alexander Mai^
tin; TaUis, Thomas; Tassach, Saint; Tavemer,
John; Teman, Saint; Thomas, Charles L. A.;
Tigris, Saint.

GRISON, GABRIEL EMILE, Titular Bishop of
Sagalasse, Vicar Apostouc of Stanley Falls,
Belgian Congo, Africa: Stanley Falls, Vicari-
ate Apostolic of.

HAAG, ANTHONY, S.J., &r. Ignatius College,
Valksnburg, Holland: Syllabus.

HAGEN, JOHN G., S.J., Vatican Observatory,
Rome: Tempel, Wilhelm.

HANSEN, NIELS, M.A., Charlottenlund, Den-
mark: Steno, Nicolaus.

HARTIGAN, J. A., S.J., Lrrr.D.„0RE Place, Hast-
ings, England: Tiberias, See of.

HEALY, PATRICK J., S.T.D., Assistant Pro-
FESsoR OF Church BiisTORY, Cathouc Uni-
versity OF America, Washington: Socrates;
Sozomen, Salamanius Hermias; Tatian.

HECKMANN, FERDINAND, O.F.M,, St. Jo-
seph's College, Callicoon, New York: Ter-
tiaries; Third Order Secular of the Order of Our
Lady of Mount Carmel; Third Order Regular of
St. Dominic in the United States: Third Order
Regular of St. Francis in the Unitea States: Third
Order Secular of St. Francis; Thomas of Celano.

HENRY, H. T;. Litt.D., LL.D^ Rector of Roman
Cathouc High School for Boys, Philadelphia ;
Professor of English Literature anp Gre-
gorian Chant, St. Charles's Seminary, Over-
brook, Pennsylvania: Stabat Mater; Tantum
Ergo; Te Deum; Te Luois ante Terminum.

HERBERMANN, CHARLES G., Ph.D., LL.D.,
Litt. D., K.S.G., Professor of Latin Language
AND Literature, College of the City of New
York: Th6baud, Augustus.

HILGERS, JOSEPH, SJ., Rome: Sodality.

GEYER, FRANCIS XAVIER, Titular Bishop of HOLWECK, FREDERIC G., St. Louis, Missoxnu:

Trocmadjs. Vicar-Apostolic of the Sudan,
Egypt: Sudan, Vicariate Apostolic of.

GIETMANN, GERHARD, S.J., Teacher of
Classical Languages and iEsTHETics, St.
Ignatius College, Valkenburg, HoLLAi<n>:
Stalls; Steinle, Eduard von.

GIGOT, FRANCIS E., S.T.D., Professor of Sa-
, cred Scripture, St. Joseph's Seminary, Dun-
^ wooDiB, New York: Synoptics; Temptation of
Christ.

GILLET, LOUIS, Paris: Tisio da Garafalo, Ben-
venuto; Titian.

GOYAU, GEORGES, Associate Editor, "Revue
DES Dextx Mondes'', Paris: Soissons, Diocese
of; Tarbes, Diocese of; Tarentaise. Diocese of;
Tellier, Michel Le; Thiers, Louis-Aaolphe; Tliou,

♦ DecPSBPd.

Sorrows of the Blessed Virdn Mary, Feasts of the
Seven; Thorns, Feast of the Crown of.

HUDLESTON, GILBERT ROGER, O.S.B., Down-
side Abbey, Bath, England: St^hen Harding,
Saint; Thomas More, Blessed.

HUDSON, DANIEL E., C.S.C., LL.D., Edppor,
''The Ave Maria," Notre Dame, Indiana:
Sorin, Edward. .

HUNTER-BLAIR, SIR D. O., Bart., 0,8.B., M.A.,
Fort Augustus Abbey, Scotland: Smith,
James; Strain, John; Syon Monastery; Tarkin,
Saint; Tavistock Abbey; Tewkesbury Abbey;
Theodore, seventh Archbishop of Canterbury;
Thomey Abbey; Tintem Abbey.

HUONDER, ANTHONY, S.J., St. Ignatius Coir
LEGS, Valkenbxtrg, Holland: Tieffentaller,
Joseph.

vii

conthibutors to the tourteenth volume

HUSSLEIN. JOSEPH, 8. J., Absociatb Editor KRIEHN, GEORGE, A.B., Ph.D., New York:

"Amb&ica", New York: Syndicalisin.

Stanza.

INGOLD, A. M. P., Director "Revue d'Albacb", KR08E, HERMANN A., 8.J., Editor-in-Chibf,

CoiiUAR, Germany: Thotnassin, Louis.

IRWIN, FRANCIS, S.J., Stonyhurst College,
Blaokburn, England: Stonyhurst College.

JARRETT, BEDE, O.P., B.A. (Oxon.), S.T.L., &r.
Dominic's Priory, London: Third Orders,
General; Third Order of St. Dominic.

JENKINS, REGINA RANDOLPH, Bai/timorb,
Maryland: Tincker, Mary Agnes.

JENNER, HENRY, F.8.A., Late of the British
Museum, London; Cornwall, England: Syrian
Rite, East.

JOHNSON, WILLIAM T., Kansas City, Missouri:
Test-Oath, Missouri.

JOUVE, ODORIC M., O.F.M., Candiac, Canada:
Thu-d Order of St. Francis in Canada.

Stimmen aus Maria-Laach", and "Kirch-

LICHE8 HaNDBUCH F&R DAS XATHOUSCHX

"Dbutschland", St. Ignatius College, Val-
KENRURO, Holland: Statistics, Ecclesiastical, in
Germany; Statistics of Religions.

LAUCHERT, FRIEDRICH, Ph.D., Aachen: Stapf,
Joseph Ambrose; Staudenmaier, Flrans Anton;
Stdckl, Albert; Stolz, Alban Isidor.

LAUNAY, ADRIEN, ARCHnnar of the Society for
Foreign Missions, Paris: Society of Foreign
Missions of Paris.

LE BACHELET, XAVIER-MARIE, S.J., Orb
Place, Hastings, England: Terrien, Jean-
Baptiste.

LECLERCQ, HENRI, O.S.B., London: Station
Days.

KAMPERS. FRANZ. Ph.D.. Pbokk««.k op Med«. ^-EHMKUHL. AUGUSTINUS S.J . St. Ionatjcs

VAL AND Modern Chxtrch History, Univer-
sity OF Breslait: Theodoric the Great.

College, Valkendurg, Holland: Theology,
Moral.

KEATING, JOSEPH IGNATIUS PATRICK, S. J., ^^^^^\}^R2f!^RuU^'^?' ^'^'' ^^®™-
B.A., AssiOTANT Editor, "The Month", Lon- ^^' Austria, blavs, Ihe.

don: Temperance Movements, Great Britain and
Ireland.

KEILEY, JARVIS, M.A., Grantwood, New Jer-
sey: South Carolina.

KELLEY, FRANCIS C, S.T.E)^ LL.D., President,
The Cathouc Church Extension Society,
Chicago, Illinois: Society, The Catholic Church
Extension, in the United mates.

KBLLY^ BLANCHE M., New York: Tabernacle
Societies; Tegakwitha, Catherine.

KELLY, EDWARD, GRIMBSY, Ontario, Can-
Ada: TorontcT, Archdiocese of.

LE ROY, ALEXANDER A., C.SS.P., Bishop of
Alinda, Superior^eneral of the Congre-
gation OF THE Holy Ghost, Paris: SomaUland.

LETELLIER, A., S.S.S., Superior, Fathers of the
Blessed Sacrament, New York: Society of the
Blessed Sacrament, The.

LIESE, WILHELM ANTON, S.T.D., Paderborn,
Germany: Temperance Movements.

LINDSAY, LIONEL ST. GEORGE, B.Sc., Ph.D.,
Editor-in-Chief, "La NouveLlb France",
Quebec: Tach4, Etienne-Pascal; Talon, Jean;
Talon, Pierre; Tanguay, Cyprien; Tass^, Joseph.

KEMPF, CONSTANTINE, S.J., Professor of LINEHAN, PAUL H., B.A., Instructor College

Philosophy and Pedagogy, St. Ignatius Col-
lege, Valkenburg, Holland: Theodicy.

OF the City of >fEW York: Tartaglia, Niool6;
Tomibia, Jos^.

KENNEDY, DANIEL J., O.P., S.T.M., Professor lINS, JOSEPH, Dorsten, Westphalia, Germany:
OF Sacramental Theology, Catholic Uni- Sion, Diocese of ; Strasburg, Diocese of ; Tiraspol,

VER81TY OF AMERICA^ WASHINGTON: ThomSS

Aquinas, Saint; Thomism.

Diocese of.

KFT?RY WITTTAM T qTT Pn D DnrroR of ^OEHR, AUGUST OCTAV RITTER VON, Ph.D.,

s^T;,^ .t;i P^^^^^ ?2^L^J assistant director of the Imperial Colleo

rS^^^ r^. ^-^"^^""^ ^V^^'^'J^^r^^ TiON OF Coins and Medals, Vienna: Streber,

OF Sociology, Catholic University of Ame- - - _ . _ » ^ . »

RICA, Washington: Sociology.

Frans Ignaa von; Streber, Franz Seraph.

KIR9CH, MGR. JOHANN P., S.T.D., Professor LOFFLER, KLEMENS, Ph.D., ^ Librarian, Uni-

op Pathology and Christian Arch.«ology,
University of Fbibourg, -Switzerland: Sim-
plicius, Saint, Pope; Siricius, Saint, Pope; Stod-
mgers; Surius, Laurentius; Switzerland; Syl-
vester I, Saint, Pope; Sylvester II, Pope; Sym-
machufl, Saint, Pope; Tarachus, Probus, and
AndronicuB, Saints; Tarasius, Saint; Tarsicius,
Saint; Telesphorus, Saint, Pope; Theela, Saints;
Theodorus and Theophanes.

VERsmr OF minster: Simplicius, Faust inus, and
Beatrice; Speyer, Diocese of; Staphylus, FVie4-
rich; Staupits, Johann von; Stolberg, Joseph;
Strossmayer, Joseph Georg; Studion; Syncre-
tism; Tauler, John; Tepl; Tewdrig: Thalhofer,
Valentin, Thdner, Augustin; Theobald, Saint;
Theodard, Saint; Theixlore of Studium, Saint;
Theodulf: Thryfius, Hermann; Tiberius; Titus,
Roman Emperor.

KLEINSCHMIDT, BEDA, O.F.M., Bonn, Gbr- LORKIN, ELIZABETH MARY. L.R.A.M., Glab-

j, Veit; Temple; Tissot, James oow, Scotland: Stradivari, Antonio; Stradivari

many: Solari; Stoss,
Joseph; Tomb.

Family, The.

viii

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FOURTEENTH VOLUME

MEI8TERMANN. BARNABAS, OJ^.M., Lbctob.
GoNVBNT or 8. Salvator, Jsbusalbm : Temple
of Jerusalem; Thabor, Mount; Tomb of the
Blessed Virsin Mary.

MERK, AUGUST, S.J., Profbsbob or ApoLoavncs,

St. lOHATWS COLLBGB, VaLKBNBURG, HOLLAIO):

Testament, The Old.

MERSHMAN, FRANCIS, O.S.B^ S.T.D., Pbo-
rBSsoR or Moral THSOLOcnr, Canon Law, and
Liturgy, St. John's Coludob, Collegbyille,
Minnbsota; Solemnity; Stanislaus of Cracow,
Saint; Stephen of Autun; Subiaco; Supper, The
Last; Tanner, Conrad; Thais, Saint; Theodore of
Amasea, Saint; Theodotus of Ancyra, Saint;
Theophanes, Saint.

MOELLER, CH., PBorEssoR or Gbnebal History,
Uniybbsity or Louyain: Swan, Order of the;
Templars, Knights, The; Teutonic Order.

MONTANAR, VALENTINE HILARY. Mibsion-
ABY Aroerouc. New Yobk: Sse-ch wan. East-
em, Vicariate Apostolic of; Sse-ch'wan, North-
western, Vicariate Apostolic of; SzcH^'wan,
Southern, Vicariate Apostolic of.

MOONEY, JAMES, Unitbd States Ethnologist,
BuBEAU or American Ethnology, Washing-
ton: Sioux Indians; Sipibo Indians; Sobaipura
Indians; Son^ish Indians j Sookan Indians;
Squamish Indians; Swinomish Indians: Tacana
Indians; Taensa Indians: Tait Indians; Tamanac
Indians; Taos Pueblo; Tliompson River Indians;
Ticuna Indians; Timucua Indians; Toba Indians;
Tonica Indians; Tonkawa Indians; Totonac In-
dians.

•MORAN, PATRICK FRANCIS CARDINAL,
Abchbishop or Sydney, Pbiuatb or Austba-
ua: Talbot, Peter.

MORENO-LACALLE, JULIAN. B.A., Editob,
"Pan-Amebican Union", Washington: So-
corro, Diocese of; Spirito Santo, Diocese of;
Taubat^, Diocese of.

MORICE, A. C, B.A., O.M.I., Lectubeb in An-

THBOPOLOGY, UnIVEBSITY Or SASKATCHEWAN,

Winnipeg, Manitoba. Canada: Slaves; Tach^,
AloEandre-Antonin; Takkali.

MULLALYj CHARLES, S.J., Tobtoba, Spain: Toi>
tosa, Diocese of.

MUNNYNCK, MARK P. de, S.T.D., PBonsssoB or
Philosophy, Univebsity or Fbiboubg: Space;
Substance.

MUTZ, FRANZ XAVIER, S.T.D^ St. Peteb's
Seminaby, Fbeibitbg, Baden, Gebmany: The-
ology, Asoetical.

NYS, DfiSIRfi, S.T.B., Ph.D., Pbesidbnt S4mi-
N aibb LioN XIII, Univebsity or Lottvain, Bel-
gium: Time.

O'CONNELL, JOHN T., LL.D., Toledo, Ohio:

Toledo. Diocese of.

MEEHAN, THOMAS F., New Yobk: SuUivan, ' ^^

PeterJohn; Tenney, William Jewett ; Thanksgiv- O'CONNOR, JOHN B., O.P., St. Louis Bbbtband's

mg Day; Thayer, John. Conyent, Louibyillb, Kentucky: Thomas of

Cantimpi^.

MEIER, GABRIEL, O.S.B., Einbixdeln, SwmBB-

land: Tiburtius and Susanna, Sts.; Timotheua O'DONOVAN^ LOUIS, S.T.L., BALmiOBE: Spald-

and Symphorian, Sts. ing, Martm John.

LYNCH, MGR. JAMES S.M., S.T.D., LL.D.,
Utica, New Yobk: Syracuse, Diocese of.

MAAS, A. J., S.J.. Rbctob. Woodstock College,
Mabyland: Tneology, Dogmatic, sub-title Chris-
tokjgy.

MaoERLEAN^ ANDREW A.. LL.B. (Fobdham),
New Yobk: Societies, Catholic, American Fed-
eration of; Solsona, Diocese of; Stanislawow,
Diocese of; Suitbert, Saint: Sumatra, Prefecture
Apostolic of; Tinin, See of.

McGOVERN, JAMES J., Lockpobt, Illinois: Starr,
Eliza Allen.

MACKSEY, CHARLES, S.J., Pbofessob op Ethics
AND Natubal Right, Gbbgobian Univebsity,
Romb: Society, State and Church; Taparelli,
Aloysius; Tolomei, John Baptist.

McNEAL, J. PRESTON, A.B., LL.B., Baiaimobe:
Tan^, Roger Brooke.

McNeill, CHARLES, Dxtbun: Tanner, Edmund.

MacPHERSON, EWAN, New Yobk: Thalbeis,
Sigismond.

MAGNIER, JOHN, C JSS.R., St. Maby's, Clapham,
London: Sportelli, Ceesar, Venerable.

MAHER, MICHAEL, S.J., Lrrr.D., M.A. (Lon-
don), DiBECTOB OF Studies and Pbofessob of
Pedagogics, Stonyhubst College. Black*
bubn, England: Soul; Spirit; Spiritualism.

MANN, HORACE K., Hbadmastbb, St. Cuth-
bebt's Gbammab School, Nbwcastlb-on-Tyne,
England: Sisinnius, Pope; Stephen I, Saint,
Pope; Stephen II, Pope; Stephen (II) III, Pope;
Stephen (III) IV, Pope; Stephen (IV) V, Pope;
Stephen (V) VI, Pope: Stephen (VI)VII, Pope;
Stephen (VII) VIII, Pope; Stephen (VIII) DC,
Pope; Stephen (IX) X, Pope; Theodore I; Theo-
dore II.

MARCHAND, UBALD canon, J.U.D., Chan-

CELLOB OF THE DiOCESE OF ThBEE RltYSRB,

Pbovincb of Quebec, Canada: Three Rivers,
oi.

MARY AGNES, SISTER, Mount St. Joseph,
Cteo: Sisters of Charity of Cincinnati, Ohio.

MARY PATRICK, MOTHER, Chicago, Illinois:
Sisters of the Little Company of Mary.

MEDLEYCOTT, A. E., S.T.D., Titulab Bishop of
Tbicoboa, Calcutta, India: Thomas dJhristians,
Saint.

MEEHAN, ANDREW B., S.T.D., J.U.D., Pbo-
FE8SOB OF Canon Law and Litubgy, St. Beb-
nabd's Seminaby, Rochesteb, New Yobk:
Stipend; Subreption; Subsidies, Episcopal; Su-
premi discipUns; Tametsi; Taxa Innocent iana.

CONTRlBUTORfl TO THE FOURTEENTH VOLUME

CGORMAN, JOHN R., 8.T.L., J.C.D., Haiubt*
BtiRT, Ontamo. Canada: Temiskapaing, Vicari-
. ate Apostolic of.

O'HARAN, MGR. DENIS F., S.T.D., Sydney, Aus-
tralia: Sydney, Archdiocese oT."

OLIGER, LIVARIUS, O.F.M., St. Bonavbnturb's
College, Rome: Somaschi; Spirituals; Sporer,
Patritius; Taigi, Anna Maria Gesualda Antonia;
Tarabotti, Helena; Third Order of St. Francis
(Regular and Secular; Male and Female).

O'NEILL, AIITHUR CHARLES, O.P., S.T.L., Pro-
cessor OF Theology, Dominican Hottse of
Studies, Washington: Sin.

O'SHEA, JOHN FRANCIS, TAYLOR, Texas:
Texas, State of.

POLLEN, JOHN HUNOERPORD, S.J., London:
Society of Jesus; Spenser, John; Stevenson,
Joseph; Stone, Marmaduke.

POPE, HUGH, O.P., S.T.L., Doctor of Sacred
Scripture, Professor of New Testament
Exegesis, Collegio Angelico, Rome: Socin-
ianism.

POTAMIAN, brother, P.S.C., D.Sc. (LoND.),
Professor op Physics, Manhattan College,
New York: Toaldo, Giuseppe.

POULAIN, AUGUSTIN, S.J., Paris: Stipnata,
Mystical; Surin, Jean- Joseph; Theology, Mysti-
cal.

RAGONESL FRANCESCO DI PAOLA, O.T., Su-
perior-General op the Theatine Order,
Rome: Theatines; Theatine Nuns.

RANDOLPH, BARTHOLOMEW, CM., M.A.,
Teacher of Philosophy and Church History,
St. John's College, Brooklyn, New York:
Tamisier, Marie-Marthe-Baptistine.

OTT, MICHAEL, O.S.B., Ph.D., Professor of the
History of Philosophy, St. John's College,
College viLLE, Minnesota: Sixtus 1, Saint,
Pope; Sixtus 11, Saint, Pope; Sixtus V, Pope;
Smaradgus, Ardo; Spinoht, Christopher Royas
de; Spondanus^ Henri; Stadler, John Evangelist;

Stefaneschi, Giacomo Gaetani; Stephen, Saint; T»t:,*^AXT t» xtt/^w/^t ao /-\ t? t^* r^^ a

StephenofToumai;Steuco,Ako8tino:Sympho^ REAGAN, P. NICHOLAS O.F.M. Collegio S.
rosa, Saint; Syncelli; Telesphorus of Ciosenza; Antonio, Rome: Smai; Sodom and Gomorrha.

Tencin, Pierre-Gudrin de; Theophanes, Kera-
meus; Thundering Legion; Torquemada, Tom^
de.

OTTEN, JOSEPH, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Sis-
tine Choir; Song, Religious; Tartini, Giuseppe.

OUSSANI, GABRIEL, Ph.D., Professor, Eccle-
siastical History, Early Christian Litera-
ture, AND Biblical Archaeology, St. Joseph's
Seminary, Dunwoodie, New York: Solomon;
Syria.

PACE, EDWARD A,, Ph.D., S.T.D., Professor of
Philosophy, Catholic Univeivsity op Ame-
rica, Washington: Spiritism.

FALLEN, CONDlS BENOIST, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D.,

New Rochelle, New York: Test em Benevo-
lentiie.

PEREZ GOYENA, ANTONIO, S.J., Editor, "Ra-
z6n y Fe", Madrid: Suarez, Francisco, Doctor
Eximius; Toledo, Francisco; Torres, Francisco.

♦P^TRIDfes, SOPHRONE, A.A., Professor,
Greek Catholic Seminary of Kadi-Keui,
Constantinople: Sinis; Sion; Sitifis; Soli; Sora;
Sozopoiis; Stratonicea; Sufetula; Sura; Syene;
Synaus; Synnada; Tabse; Tabbora; Tacapae; Tar
dama; Ta^narum; Tamassus; Tanagra; Tavium;
Telmessus; Temnus; Teuchira; Thabraca; Thacia
Montana; Thsenae; Thagaste;Thagor4; Thapsus;
Thaumaci; Themisonium; Therm® Basilicse;
Thibaris; Thignica; Thmuis; Thuburbo; Tiberi-
opohs; Timbrias; Tingis; TI03; Torone.

PHILLIPS, EDWARD C, S.J., Ph.D., Woodstock
College, Maryland: Spagni, Andrea; Stansel,
Valentin; Stephens, Henry Robert; Terill, An-
thony.

POHLE, JOSEPH, S.T.D., Ph.D., J.C.L., Pro-
fessor OF Dogmatic Theology, Unxversity op
Breslau: Theology, Dogmatic; Toleration, Re-
ligious.

REILLY, THOMAS A K., O.P., S.T.D., S.S.L., Pro-
fessor OF Sacred Scripture, Dominican
House of Studies, Washington: Tongues, Gift
of.

REVILLE, JOHN CLEMENT, S.J., PROPEasoR of
Rhetoric and Sacred Eloquence, St. Stan-
islaus College, Macon, Georgia: Taion,
Nicolas; Tomielli, Girolamo Francesco.

ROBINSON, DOANE, Secretary, South Dakota
Department op History, Pierre, South Da-
kota: South Dakota.

ROBINSON, PASCHAL, O.F.M., New York:
Spina, Alfonso de.

RODRIGUEZ MOURE, JOSE, LL.D., J.U.D.,
Teneriffe, Canary islands: Teneriffe, Diocese
of:

ROMPEL, JOSEF HEINRICH, S.J., Ph.D., Stella
Matutina College, Feldkirch, Austria:
Toumefort, Joseph Pitton de.

RYAN, JOHN A., S.T.D., Professor of Moral
Theology, St. Paul Seminary, St. Paul, Min-
nesota: Socialistic Communities.

RYAN, PATRICK, S.J^ London: Thomas Alfield,
Venerable; Thomas Cot t am. Blessed.

SACHER, HERMANN, Ph.D., Editor of the
^'Konversationslexikon", Assistant Editor,
"Staatslexikon" of the G5rresgesell-
schaft, Freiburg-im-Brbisgau, Germany: Sty-
ria; Thuringia.

SALDANHA, JOSEPH LOUIS, B.A., Editor, "The
Christian Puranna"; Professor of English,
St. Aloyhius College, Mangalore, India:
Stephens, Thomas.

SANDS, HON. WILLIAM FRANKLIN, Chevalier
op the Legion of Honour; Ex-Envoy Extra-
ordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of
the United States to Guatemala; Member:

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FOURTEENTH VOLUME

OF THE Am. Soc. International Law; Am. SORTAIS, GASTON, S.J.« AoBocwot. Smtob*
AcADBMT Political and Social Sciencb and "Etudbs", Paris: Tintoretto, H.

THB Mexican Soc. of Geography and Statis-
tics, New York: Tahiti, Vicariate Apostolic of. SOUVAY, CHARLES L» CM., S.T.D., Ph.D.,

S.S.D., Professor, Sacred Scripturb, He-
RREW AND LrruRGT, Kenrick Sbminart, St.
Louis: Stephen, Saint; Stones, Precious, in the
Bible; Tabernacle in Scripture; Tabeomacles,
Feast of.

SCHEID, N., S.J., Stella Mattttina College,
Feldkirch, Austria: SpiUmann, Joseph; Stifter,
Adalbert.

SCHLAGER, HEINRICH PATRICIUS, O.F.M.,

St. Ludwig's College, Dalheim, Germant: SPAHN, MARTIN, Ph.D., Professor of Modern
Sonnius, Franciscus; Thangmar; Thegan of History, University of Strasburo: Thirty

Treves; Thunnayr, Johannes. Years War, The; Tilly, Johannes Tsercltes,

Count of.

SCHMID, ULRICH, Ph.D., Editor, "Walhalla",

Munich: Tegernsee, SPILLANE, EDWARD P., S.J., Associate Editor,

"America", New York: Thimelby, Richard.

SCHNURER, GUSTAV, Ph.D., Professor of Me-
dieval AND Modern History. University of STEELE, FRANCESCA M., Stroud, Gloucester-
Fribourg: Statues of the Churcn. shire, England: Taylor, Frances Margaret;

Temple, Sisters of the. -

SCHUHLEIN, FRANZ X., Professor in the Gym-
nasium of Frbisino, Bavaria, Germany: Tal- STEICHEN, MICHAEL, Missionary Apostouc,
mud; Targum; Torah; Tosephta. Tokio, Japan: Tokio, Archdiocese of.

SCHUYLER, HENRY C, S.T.L., Vice-Rector, STREICHER, FRIEDRICH, S.J., Stella Matu-
Catholic High School, Philadelphia, Pen^- tina College, Feldkirch, Austria: Tosca-

sylvania: Steinmeyer, Ferdinand. nelli, Paolo dal Pozko.

SCULLY, JOHN, S.J., New York: Squiers, Herbert STUART, JANET, R.S.H., Superior Vicar, Con-

Goklsmith.

SCULLY, VINCENT JOSEPH, C.R.L., St. Ives,
Cornwall, England: Thomas k Kempis;
Thomas of Jesus.

SENFELDER, LEOPOLD, M.D., Teacher of the
History of Medicine, University of Vienna:
Skoda, Josef; Sorbait, Paul de.

VENT OF THE SaCRED HeART, RoEHAHPTON,

London: Society of the Sacred Heart of Jesus,
The.

TARNOWSKI, COtJNT STANISLAUS, Presi-
dent, Imperial Academy op Sciences, Pro-
fessor, Polish Literature, University of
Cracow: Skarga, Peter; Sobieski, John; Staro-
wolski, Simon; Szujski, Joseph; Szymonowicz,
Simon.

SHAHAN, MGR. THOMAS J., S.T.D., J.U.D.,

Rector of the Catholic University of Amb- TAVERNIER, EUGENE, Paris: Soloviev, Via*
RICA, Washington: Thomas Abel, Blessed. dimir.

SHANLEY, WALTER J., LL.D., Danrury, Con- TETU, MGR HENRI, Quebec, Canada: Tasche-
nbcticut: Temperance Movements in the United reau, Elz^ar-Alexandre.

States and Canada.

SHIPMAN, ANDREW J., M.A., LL.M., New
York: Slavonic Language and Liturgy; Slavs in
America.

SILVA COTAPOS, CARLOS, Canon of the Cath-
edral OF SANTiAGO, Chile: Tarapac^, Vicariate
Apostolic of.

SINKMAJER, JOS., East Islip, New York:
Strahov, Abrey of.

SLATER, T., S.J., St. Francis Xavier's College,
Liverpool, England: Speculation; Sunday;
Synderesis.

SLOANE, THOMAS O'CONOR, M.A., E.M., Ph.D.,
New York: Th^nard, Louis-Jacques, Baron.

SMITH, IGNATIUS, O.P., Dominican House of
Studies, Washington: Thomas of Jorz.

SMITH, WALTER GEORGE, M.A., LL.B., (U. of
P.), Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Smith,
Thomas Kilby.

THURSTON, HERBERT, 8. J., London: Southwell,
Robert, Venerable; Stone, Comer or Founda-
tion; Stylites; Symbolism; Tenebrae; Thanksgiv-
ing before and after Meals; Theatre, The;
Thomas, Saint, the Apostle; Thomas Becket,
Saint; Toleration, History of.

TOKE, LESLIE ALEXANDER ST. LAURENCE,
B.A., Stratton-on-thb-Fobse, Bath, England:
Socialism.

TURNER, MGR. JAMES P., S.T.D., Philadel-
phia, Pennsylvania: Tabernacle Society.

TURNER, WILLIAM, B.A., S.T.D., Professor of
Logic and the History of Philosophy, Cath-
olic University of America, Washington:
Socrates; Sophists; Summse: Sylvester, Bernard;
Telesio, Bernardino; Theodore of Gaza; Theo-
doric of Chartres; Thomas of Strasburg.

TYNE, THOMAS JAMES, Nashville, Tennessee :
Tennessee.

VACCON. A., Amiens, France: Tarisel, Pierre.

SOLLIER, JOSEPH FRANCIS, S.M., 8.T.D., Pro- VAILHlfi, SIMl^ON, A.A., Member of the Rus-

VINCIAL OF THB AMERICAN PROVINCE OF THB So- SI AN ARCHiEOLOGICAL InSTITITTE OF CoNSTAN-

ctety of Mart, Washington: Supernatural tinoplb, Rome: Sinope; Siunia; Smyrna, Latin

Order; Theophilanthropists. Archdiocese of; Sophene;Sozu8a; Sparta ;Staurop-

COXTRIBUTORS TO THE FOURTEENTH VOLUME

6&b; S^ra, Diocese of; Tanis: Tarsus; Tenedos;
Tentyris: Teos; Terenuthis; Tennessus; Thasos;
Thel>e8 (Achaia Secunda); Thebes (Thebais Se-
eunda); Tbelepte; Themiscyra; Thennesus;
Theodosiopolis; Thera, Diocese of; Thennopjrhe;
TheBsalonica; Tbeveste; Thugga; Thyatira;
Thynias; Tiberias; Ticelia; Tinos and Mykonos;
Tipasa; Titopolis; Tius; Tomi. .

VAN DER HEEREN, ACHILLE, S.T.L. (Lou-
tain), Professor of Moral Thbologt and
LIBRARIAN, Grande SAiunairb, Bruges, Bei/-
gium: Suicide.

VAN ORTROY, FRANCIS, S.J., Brussels: Stanis-
las Kostka, Saint.

VASCHALDE, A.A., C.S.B., Cathouc Univbrsitt
OF America, Washington: Tell el-Amama
Tablets, The.

WAINEWRIGHT, JOHN BANNERMAN, B.A.
(OxoN.), London: Sl3rthurst, Thomas; Snow,
Peter, Venerable; Somerset, Thomas: South-
erne, William, Venerable; Southwortn, John,
Venerable; Speed, John, Venerable; Spenser, Wil-
liam, Venerable; Sprott, Thomas, Venerable;
Stonnes, James; Stransham, Edward. Venerable;
Sugar, John, Venerable; Sutton, Robert, Vener-
able; Talbot^ John; Taylor, Hugh, Venerable;
Teilo, Saint; Teresian Martvrs of Compile, The
Sixteen Blessed; Thomas Ford. Blessed; Thomas
Johnson, Blessed; Thomas oi Dover; Thomas
Woodhouse, Blessed; ThoTQe. Robert, Venerable;
Thulis, John, Venerable; Tichbome, Nicholas,
Venerable.

WALLAU, HEINRICH WILHELM, MainZj Ger.
ifANT:Speyer. .
heim, Konraa.

if ant: Speyer, Johann and Wendelin von; Sweyn-

WALSH, JAMES A^ Missionart Apostolic, Di-
rector OF THE Cathouc Foreign Missionary
Society of America, Hawthorne, New York:
Thtophane V^nard, Blessed.

WALSH, JAMES J., M.D., Ph.D., LL.D., D.Sc.,
Dean of the Medical School, Fordham Uni-
versity, New York: Spallanzani, Lassaro.

WALTER^ ALOYSIUS, C.SS.R., Rome: Steffani,
Agostmo.

WARD, MGR. BERNARD, Canon of West-
MiNBTBR, F. R. Hist. Soc., President, St.
Edmttnd's College, Ware, England: Talbot,
James; Taunton, Ethelred.

WARICHEZ, JOSEPH, Docteur en scienceb mo-
rales BT HiaXORIQUES, ArCHIVIBT OF THE DlO-

CE8B OF ToiTRNAi, BELGIUM: Toumai, Diooeee of.

WEBER, N. A., S.M., S.T.D., Professor of Cbxtrch
History, Maribt College, Washington: Si-
mony; Sirleto, Guglielmo; Sirmond^ Jacques;
Sixtus HI, Saint, Pope; Smalkaldic Leaigue;
Sophronius, Saint; Sueer, Abbot of St. Denis;
Sully, Maurice de; Stupicius Severus; Sweden-
borgians.

WEBSTER, D. RAYMOND, O.S.B., M.A. (Oxon.).
Downside Abbey^ Bath, England: Stephen of
Muret, Saint; Swithin, Saint; Sylvester Gozso-
lini. Saint; Sylvestrines.

WELD-BLUNDELL, EDWARD BENEDICT,
O.S.B., Stanbrook, England: Stanbrook Ab-
bey.

WHITFIELD, JOSEPH LOUIS, M.A. (Cantab.),
OscoTT College, Birmingham, England:
Sykes, Edmund; Talbot. Thomas Joseph;
Tnomas Sherwood, Blessea; Thwing, Thomas,
Venerable.

WILHELM, JOSEPH, S.T.D., Ph.D., Aachen, Ger-
many: Superstition.

WILLL^MSON, GEORGE CHARLES, Litt.D,,
London: Sodoma; Stanfield, William Clarkson;
Teniers, David; Theotocopuli^ Domenico; Ti-
baldij Pellegrino; Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista;
Torbido, Francesco.

WITTMANN, PIUS, Archiviot for the Princes
AND Counts of the House of Yssnburg-
Bt^DiNGEN; Royal Bavarian Archivist. Bt}-
dingen, Germany: Snorri Sturluson; Stolberg,
Friedrich Leopold, Count zu; Sweden.

WOLFSGRUBER, COELESTINE, O.S.B., Vienna:
Spalato-Macarsca, Diocese of; Tamow, Diocese
ot; Thugut, Johann Amadeus; Frans de Paula;
Thun Hohenstein, Count Leo.

WORNDLE VON ADELSFRIED, HEINRICH,
Innsbruck, Austria: Speckbacher, Josef.

ZIMMERMAN, BENEDICT, O.D.C., St. Luke's
Priory, Wincanton, Somersetshire, Eng-
land: Teresa of Jesus, Saint; Third Order of Our
Lady of Mount Carmel; Thomas k Jesu.

ZUPAN, CYRIL, O.S.B., Pueblo, Colorado: Slom-
sek, Anton Martin.

xii

Tables of Abbreviations

The following tables and notes are intended to guide readers of Ths Cathouo Enotclopsdia in
tnteipieting those abbreviations, signs, or technical phrases which, for economy of space, will be most fre-
quently used in the work. For more general information see the article AsBRKViATiONa, EcaLBBiAsncAX*.

I. — General Abbreviations.

a. article.

ad an. at the year (Lat. ad annum).

an., ann the year, the years (Lat. amitM,

Oftfit).

ap in (Lat. apud),

art article.

Assyr. Assyrian.

A. 8 Anglo-Saxon.

A. V. Authorized Version (i.e. tr. of the

Bible auth<»ised for use in the
Anglican Church — ^the so-oalled
"King James", or "Phytestant

Bible").

b. bom.

Bk. Book.

BL Blessed.

C, e. about (Lat. circa); canon; chap-

ter; compagnie,

can canon.

cap chapter (Lat. caput — used only

in Latin context).

cf. compare (Lat. confer).

coo« ••• *•••■•.. .oociez.

col column.

ooncL conclusion.

const., constit. . . .Lat. conMutio,

cuiA. by the industry of.

d died.

diet. dictionary (Fr. didumnaire),

diq>. Lat. dispukUio.

diss. Lat. dMserUUio,

dist Lat. distinetio,

D. V. Douay Version.

ed., edit edited, edition, editor.

£p.« £pp letter, letters (Lat. epUtola).

Fr. French.

gen. • • genus.

Gr. Greek.

H. £., Hist. EccL .Ecclesiastical History.

Heb.9 Hebr. Hebrew.

ib., iUd. in the same place (Lat. ibidem).

Id. the same person, or author (Lat.

idem).

inf. below (Lat. infra).

It Italian.

L c, loc. cit at the place quoted (Lat. loco

cUato).

Lat Latin.

lat latitude.

lib book (Lat. Hber).

long longitude.

Hon. Lat. Monumienia.

MS., MSS manuscript, manuscripts.

n., no number.

N. T New Testament.

Nat National.

Old Fr., O. Fr. . . .Old French.

op. cit in the work quoted (Lat. opere

cUalo),

Ord Order.

O. T Old Testament.

p., pp pagOy pages, or (in Latin ref-
erences) pare (part).

par.....: paragraph.

paeeim in various places.

pt part.

Q Quarteriy (a periodical), e.g.

"Church Quarteriy".

Q*y QQ-» qu»8t. . . .question, questions (Lat. quaetio).

q. V which [title] see (Lat. quod vide).

Rev Review (a periodical).

R. S Rolls Series.

R. V Revised Version.

S., SS. Lat. Sanehie, Sancti, "Saint",

"Saints" — used in this Ency-
clopedia only in Latin context.

Sept. Septuagint.

Sees Session.

Skt Sanskrit.

Sp Spanish.

sq., sqq following pagb, or pages (Lat.

eequene).

St., Sts Saint, Saints.

sup Above (Lat. eupra).

8. V. Under the corresponding title

(Lat. eub voce).

tom volume (Lat. tomue).

xia

TABLES OF ABBREVIATIONS.

tr. translation w translated. By it-
self it means "English transla-
tion", or "translated into Eng-
lish by "• Where a trani^tion
is into any other language, the
language is stated.

tr.y tract tractate.

V. see (Lat. vtcfe).

Yen Venerable.

VoL .Volume.

II. — ^Abbrbviatxcnb of Titles.

Acta SS Ada, Sanctorum (Bollandists).

Aim. pont. cath Battandier, Annuaire pontifical

eathoHqvB.

Bibl. Diet. Eng. Gath.G]llow, Bibliographical Diction-
ary of the English Catholics.

Diet. Christ. Antiq.. .Smith and Cheetham (ed.).

Dictionary of Christian An-
tiquities.

Diet. Christ. Biog. . . Smith and Wace (ed.), Diotion-

ary of Christian Biography.

Diet, d'arch. chr6t.. .Cabrol (ed.), Dictionnain rfVir-

ch4ologie chr&ienne et de Hfur-
ffic.

Diet, de th66L cath. . Vacant and Mangenot (ed.),

Dictionnaire de th^oloffie
cathoiique.

Diet. Nat. Biog. .... Stephen and Lee (ed.), Diction-
ary of National Biography.

Hsst., Diet, of the

Bible Hastings (ed.), A Dictionary of

the Bible.

Kiroheolex. Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexi-

con.

P. G Migne (ed.), Patrea Grcsd.

P. L Migne (ed.), Patrea Latini.

Vig ,Dict. de la Bible. Vigouroux (ed.), Dictionnaire d$

la Bible,

NoTB I. — ^Laige Roman numerals etanding alone Indicate volumes. Small Roman numerals standing alone indicate
chapters. Arabic numerals .standing alone indicate pages. In other cases the divisions are explicitly stated. Thus ** Rashdall,
Universities of Europe. I, ix" refers the reader to the ninth chapter of the first volume of that work; "I, p. ix" would indicate the
ninth page of the preface of the same volume.

Note II. — Whwe St. Thomas (Aquinas) is cited without the name of any particular work the reference is always to
"Summa Theologioa" (not to **Summa Philosophiie"). The divisions of the "Summa Theol." are indicated by a ss^stem which
may best be understood by the following example: "I-II, Q. vi, a. 7, ad 2 urn" refers the reader to the seventh article of the
sixth question in the first part of the second part, in the response to the second objection.

Note III. — ^The abbreviations employed for the various books of the Bible are obvious. Ecclesiasticus is indicated by
Bedus., to distinguish it from Ecclesiastes {Ecdes.), It should also be noted that I and II Kings in D. V. correspond to I and II
Samuel in A. V. ; and I and II Par. to I and II (Chronicles. Where, in the speUing of a propter name, there is a marked difference
between the D. V. and the A. V., the form found in the latter is added, in parenthesea

Full Page Illustrations in Volume XIV

Frontispiece in Colour page

Interior of the Church of the Gesd, Rome 84

Sorrento — Road from Sorrento to Positano, etc 150

Spain — A Chapel in the Cathedral of Sigtienza, etc 170

East End of the Cathedral, Segovia 176

Spain — The Alcald Gate, Madrid, etc 190

Spalato — Interior of the Cathedral, etc 206

The Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Chartres 220

Stalls — ^Church of the Frari, Venice, etc 242

Stonyiiurst College 308

Subiaco — Church of St. Scholastica, etc 322

The Last Supper— E. von Gebhardt 340

The Cathedral of San Lorenzo, Lugano 360

Constantine Holding the Bridle of St, Sylvester's Horse 370

Tasso's Cell in the Convent of S. Onofrio, Rome 464

Theodoric's Tomb, Ravenna 576

Burial of the Conde D'Orgaz — Theotocopuli 628

St. Thomas Aquinas among the Doctors of the Church — Zurbaran 670

Blessed Thomas More — Rubens 692

Episcopal Throne, Church of SS. Nereo ed Achilleo, Rome 708

Tintem Abbey, Monmouth 736

Titian — ^A Knight of Malta, etc 744

Tivoli — Medieval Castle, etc 746

Alcantara Bridge, Toledo 758

Altar-tomb of the Emperor Maximilian I 772

Maps

Spain and Portugal 200

States of the Church 266

Switzerland and Liechtenstein 364

THE
CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA

Simony (from Simon MaguB; Acts, viii, 18-24) is
usually defined "a deliberate intention of buying or
selling for a temporal price such things as are npirit-
ual or annexed unto spirituals". While this defi-
nition only speaks of purchase and sale, any ex-
change of spiritual for temporal things is simoniacal.
Nor la the giving of the temporal as the price ot the
spiritual requir^ for the existence of simony; ac-
cording to a proposition condemned by Innocent XI
(Denzmger-Bannwart, no. 1195) it suffices that the
determining motive of the action of one party be
the obtaining of compensation from the other. The
various temporal advantages which may be offered
for a spiritual favour are. after Gregory the Great,
usually divided into tnree classes. These arc:

(1) the munua a manu (material advantage), which
comprises money, all movable and immovable prop-
erty, and flJQ rignts appreciable in pecuniarv value;

(2) the muntLS a lingva (oral advantage) which in-
cludes oral commendation, public expressions of ap-
proval, moral support in.high places; (3) the munvs ab
obsequio (homage) which consists in subserviency, the
rendering of undue services, etc. The spiritual ob-
ject includes whatever is conducive to the eternal
weHare of the soul, i. e. all supernatural things:
sanctifying grace, the sacraments, sacramentals, etc.
While according to the natural and Divine laws the
term simony is applicable only to the exchange of
supernatural treasures for temporal advantages,
its meaning has been further extended through ec-
clesiastical legislation. In order to preclude all dan-

§er of simony the Church has forbidden certain
ealings which did not f^ under Divine prohibition.
It is thus unlawful to exchange ecclesiastical benefices
by private authority, to accept any payment what-
ever for holy oils, to sell blessed rosaries or crucifixes.
Such objects lose, if sold, all the indulgences pre-
viously attached to them (S. Cone, of InduJg., 12 July,
1847). Simony of ecclesiastical law isj of course,
a variable element) since the prohibitions of the
Church may be abrogated or fall into disuse. Simony
whether it be of ecclesiastical or Divine law, may be
divided into mental, conventional, and real (siTnonia
merUalis, convenlUmalis, etrealis). In mental simony
there is lacking the outward manifestation, or, ac-
cording to others, the approval on the part of the per<-
aon to whom a proposal is made. In conventional
simony an expressed or tacit agreement is entered
upon. It is subdivided into merely conventional,
wnen neither party hatf fulfilled any of the terms of
the agreement, ana mixed conventional, when one of
the parties has at least partly complied with the as-
sumed obligations. To the latter subdivision may be
referred what has been aptly termed '^ confidential
simony^', in which an ecclesiastical benefice is pro-
cured for a certain person with the tmderstanding
that I&ter he will eitoer resign in favour of the one
through whom he obtained the position or divide
with him the revenues. Simony m caUed real when
XIV— I

the stipulations of the mutual agreement have been
either partly or completely carried out by both
parties.

To estimate accurately the gravity of simony,
which some medieval ecclesiastical writers denounced
as the most abominable of crimes, a distinction must
be made between the violations of the Divine law,
and the dealing contrary to ecclesiastical legislation.
Any transgression of the law of God in this matter is,
objectively considered, grievous in everv instance
(mortalia ex toto genere 9Vo). For this kincf of simony
places on a par things supeniatural and things nat-
ural, things eternal and tilings temporal, and con-
stitutes a sacrilegious depreciation of Divine treas-^
ures. The sin can become venial only through the
absence of the subjective dispositions required for the
commission of a grievous offense. The merely ec-
clesiastical prohibitions, however, do not all and under
all circumstances impose a grave obligation. The
presumption is that the church authority, which,
m this connexion, sometimes prohibits actions in
themselves indifferent, did not mtend the law to be
grievously binding in minor details. As he who
preaches the gospel '^ should live by the gospel'*
(I Cor., ix, 14) but should also avoid evefi the ap-
pearance of receiving temporal payment for spiritual
services, difficulties may arise concerning the pro-
priety or sinfulness of remuneration in certain cir^
cumstaiices. The ecclesiastic may certainly re-
ceive what is offered to him on the occasion of spiritual
ministrations, but he cannot accept any payment for
the same. The celebration of Mass for money would,
consequently, be sinful; but it is perfectly legitimate
to accept a stipend offered on such occasion for the
support of the celebrant. The amount of the sti-
pend, varying for different times and countries, is
usually fixed by ecclesiastical authority (see Stipend).
It is allowed to accept it even should the priest be
otherwise well-to-do; for he has a right to uve from
the altar and sliould avoid becoming obnoxious to
other members of the clergy. It is simoniacal to ac-
cept payment for the exercise of ecclesiastical juria^
diction^ e. g., the granting of dispensations; but there
is nothing improper in demanding from the applicants
for matrimonial dispensations a contribution intended
partly as a chanceiy fee and partly as a salutary fine
calculated to prevent the too frequent recurrence of
such requests. It is likewise simony to accept tem-
poral compensation for admission into a religious or-
der; but contributions made by candidates to defray
the expenses of their novitiate as well as the dowry
required by some female orders are not included in
this prohibition.

In regard to the parish clergy, the poorer the
church, the more urgent is the obligation incumbent
upon tne faithful to support them. In the fulfilment
ot this duty local law and custom ought to be ob-
served. The Second Plenary Council of Baltimore
htLB framed the foUowing decrees for the United

SIMPLE 2 sniPLicros

States: (1) The priest may accept what is freely offered SimpUciUfl, Saint, Pope (46S-4S3), date of birtli

after the administration of baptism or matrimony, unknown; d. 10 March. 483. According to the

but should refrain from asking anything (no. 221). "Liber Pontificalis'^Ced. Duchesne^ 1,249) Simplicius

(2) The confessor is never allowed to apply to hjs was the son of a citizen of Tivoh named Castinus:

own use pecuniary penances, nor may he ask or ac- and after the death of Pope Hilarius in 468 was elected

cept anything from the penitent in compensation of to succeed the latter. Tne elevation of the new pope

his services. Even voluntary gifts must be refused, was not attended with any difficulties. During his

and the offering of Mass stipends in the sacred tri- pontificate the Western Kmpire came to an end.

bunal cannot be permitted (no. 289). (3) The poor Since the murder of Valentinian III (455) there had

who cannot be buried at their own expense should re- been a rapid succession of insignificant emperors

ceive free burial (no. 393). The Second and Third in the Western Roman Empire, who were constantly

Plenary Councils of Baltimore also prohibited the ex- threatened by war and revolution. Following other

action of a compulsory contribution at the church en- German tribes the Heruli entered Italy, and their

trance from the faithful who wish to hear Mass on ruler Odoacer put an end to the Western Empire by

Sundays and Holy Days (Ck>nc. Plen. Bait. II, no. deposing the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and

397; Uonc. Plen. Bait. Ill, no. 288). As this prac- assuming himself the title of King of Italy. Al-

tice continued in existence in manv churches until though an Arian, Odoacer treated the Catholic

very recently, a circular letter addressed 29 Sept., Church with much respect; he also retained the |preater

1911, by the Apostolic Delegate to the archbishops part of the former administrative organization, so

and oii^ops of the United States, a^ain condemns the that the change produced no great differences at

custom and requests the ordinanes to suppress it Rome. Diuing the Monophysite controversy, that

wherever found in existence. was still carriea on in the Eastern Empire, Simplicius

To uproot the evil of simony so prevalent during vigorously defended the independence of the Church

the Middle Ages^ the Church decreed the severest against the Cssaropapism of the Byzantine rulers and

penalties against its perpetrators. Pope Julius II de- the authority of the Apostolic See in questions of

olared simoniacal papal elections invalid, an enact- faith. The twenty-eighth canon of the Council of

ment which has since been rescinded, however, by Chaloedon (451) granted the See of Constantinople

Pope Pius X (Constitution ** Vacante Sede '*, 25 Dec., the same privileges of honour that were enjoyed by me

1904, tit. IL cap. vi, in ^'Canoniste Contemp.'', Bishop of Old Rome, although the primacy and the

XXXII, 1909, 291). The collation of a benefice is highest rank of honoiu* were due to the latter. The

void if, in obtaining it, the appointee either committed papal legates protested against this elevation of the

simony himself, or at least tacitly approved of its Byzantine Patriarch, ana Pope Leo confirmed only

commission by a third party. Should he have taken the dogmatic decrees of the council. However, the

possession, he is bound to resign and restore all the Patriarch of Constantinople sought to bring the canon

revenues received during his tenure. Excommunica- into force, and the Emperor Leo II desired to obtain

tion SLmi>ly reserved to the Apostolic See is pro- its confirmation by Simplicius. The latter, however,

nounced in the Constitution Apostolicse Sedis'' rejected the request of the emperor and opposed the

(12 Oct., 1869) : (1) against persons guilty of real si- carrying out of the canon, that moreover nmited the

inony in any benefices and against their accomplices; ri^ts of the old Oriental patriarchates.

(2) against any persons, whatsoever their dignity. The rebellion of Basiliscus, who in 476 drove the

guilty of confidential simony in any benefices; (3) Emperor Zeno into exile and seized the Byzantine

against such as are guilty of simony by purchasing or throne, intensified the Monophysite dispute. Basilis-

selling admission into a religious order; (4) against all cus looked for support to the Monophvsites, and

persons inferior to the bishops, who derive gain {quces^ he ^tmted permission to the deposed Monophysite

ium faderUes) from indulgences and other spiritual patriarchs, Timotheus Ailurus of Alexandria and Feter

eraces; (5) against those who, collecting stipends for Fullo of Antioch, to return to their sees. At the same

Masses, realize a profit on them by having the Masses time he issued a religious edict (Enkyklikon) addressed

celebrated in places where smaller stipends are usu- to Ailurus, which commanded that only the first

ally given. The last-mentioned provision was sup- three oecumenical synods were to be accepted, and

plemented by subsequent decrees of the Sacred Con- rejected the Synod of Chalcedon and the Letter of

ffregation of the Council. The Decree " Vigilanti" Pope Leo. All bishops were to sign the edict. The

(25 May, 1893) forbade the practice indulged in by Bishop of Constantinople, Acacius (from 471), wa-

some booksellers of receivin^^ stipends and offering vered and was about to proclaim this edict. But the

exclusively books and subscriptions to periodicals to firm stand taken by the populace, influenced by the

the celebrant of the Masses. The Decree "Ut De- monks who were rigidly Catholic in their opinions,

bita" (11 May, 1904) condemned the arrangements moved the bishop to oppose the emperor and to d»-

acoordiiig to which the guardians of shrines some- fend the threatened faith. The abbots and priests

times devoted the offerings originally intended for of Constantinople united with Pope Simplicius, who

Masses partly to other pious purposes. The offend- made every effort to maintain the Catholic dogma and

ers agaiiust the two decrees just mentioned incur bus- the definitions of the Council of Chalcedon. The

pension ipso facto from their functions if they are in pope exhorted to loyal adherence to the true faith in

sacred orders; inability to receive higher orders if they letters to Acacius, to' the priests and abbots, as well

are clerics inferi(»' to the priests; excommunication of as to the usurper Basiliscus himself. In a letter to

pronounced sentence {IoUb aerUerUiai) if they belong to Basiliscus of 10 Jan., 476, Simplicius says of the See

the laity. of Peter at Rome: "This same norm of Apostolic doc-

io^^^SS^r^^^^*^* ^^ T**.**^?. a^'^ ^JJ^^* trine is firmly maintained by his [Peter's] successors,

}l?Sl;T^^V-iS^?"!r^or^lTi^^^ of him to wLm the Lord eptru^ed the care of the

Bn»BelB. 1909), 237-44; Slatsb, Mantuii of Moral Theotogy, I entire flock of sheep, to whom He promised not to

^^J^/, New. York, 1909). 231-36; CanruB Jwt» CananiH leave him until the end of time" (Thiel, "Rom.

D€crtt% Orat%an%, pans Ila, caiiBa I; Dtcret, Greg., lib. V, t»t. 3, •o^-^i. » 100^ T*i *»»a aovn^ ..r^.r ti^ 4>«v^li. «i«^ «*:«^k

De Simonia; Extfat. commun., lib. V. tit. 1. De Simonia; Santi- V^*- » ^82). In the same Way he tOOk up With

Lkitnbr, Frceleetionea Juria Canoniei (4th ed.. Ratiabon. 190M. '^ne emperor the Cause of the Cathoho Patriarch of

^liv^li^^*' TSJif^oV^^^f** ^*^)l? "S^ ^""f^^: ^ Alexandria, Timotheus Salophakiolus, who had been

[^)fBln1[?:il^SJ^^^ 8upe«eded by Ailurus. \^en the 'Emperor Zeno

iMnt in BecUnatHctd tUwiew, XXXIX (1908). 234>45; Webbb, m 477 drove away the Usurper and again gained the

A Hi*u>ryofSimonuintheChnd»anChurch^^mon, 1909). supremacy, he sent the pope a completely Catholic

N. A. Weber. confession of faith, whereupon Simplicius (9 Oct.,

simple (SzMPLBx) . See FmABtB, EocLBsrABncAL. 477) congratulated him on his restoration to power and

SIMPUCXU8 3 smpucivs

oliorted him to ascribe. the victory to God, who Santa Maria Maagiore was f^iven to the Roman

willed in this way to restore libert]^ to the Church. Church and tumeoDy Simplicius into a church ded-

Zeno recalled the edicts of Bauliscus, banishe'? icated to St. Andrew by the addition of an apse

Peter Fullo from Antioch, and reinstated Timotheus adorned with mosaics; it is no longer in existence

SalophakioluB at Alexandria. He did not disturb (cf. de Rossi^ ''Bull, di archeol. crist.^', 1871^ 1H54).

Ailurus on account of the latter^s great age, and as a The pope built a church dedicated to the first mar^,

matter of fact the latter soon died. The Mono- St. Stephen, behind the memorial church of Suk

nhysites of Akxancbia now put forward Peter Lorenzo in Agro Verano; this church is no longer

Mongu^ the former archdeacon of Ailurus, as his standing. He had a fourth church built in the city

BucoesBor, Urged by the pope and the Eastern in honour of St. Balbina, ''juxta palatium Licinia-

GaUK>lic& Zeno commanded the banishment of Peter num'V where her grave was; this church still remains.

Monsus, out the latter was able to hide in Alexandria, In order to make sure of the regular holding of church

and fear of tiie Monbphysites prevented the use of services, of the administration of baptism, and of the

force. In a moment of weakness Salophakiolus discipline of penance in the great churches of the

himself had permitted the placing of the name of the catacombs outside the city wails, namely the church

Mooophysite patriarch Dioscurus in the diptychs to of St. Peter (in the Vatican), of St. Paul on the Via

be lead at the church services. On 13 March, 478, Ostiensis, and of St. Lawrence on the Via Tiburtina.

8ia4)licius wrote to Acacius of Constantinople that Simplicius ordained that the clergy of three designated

Salophakiolus should be urged to wipe out the dis- sections of the city should, in an established order,

grace that he had brought upon himself. The latter have charge of the reli^ous functions at these churches

sent legates and letters to Rome to give satisfaction of the catacombs. SimpliciuQ was buried in St. Pe-

to the pope. At the request of Acacius, who was still ter's on the Vatican, liie ''Liber Pontificalis" gives

active against the Monophysites, the pope condemned 2 March as the day of burial (VI non.); prob-

by name the heretics Mongus,FuUo, Paul of Epheseus, ably 10 March (VI id.)' should be read. Mter his

and John of Apamea, and delegated the Patriarch death King Odoacer desired to influence the filling

o£ Constantinople to be in this his representative, of the papal see. The prefect of the city^ Basilius.

When the Monophysites at Antioch raised a revolt assertea that before death Pope Simphcius had

in 407 against the patriarch Stephen U. and killed begged to issue the order that no one should be con-

him, Aeaoiufl conseerated Stephen III. ana afterwards secrated Roman bishop without his consent (cf. con-

Kalendion as Stet^en's successors. SimpUcius made cemmg the regulation Thiel, "Epist. Rom. Pont.'',

an energetic demand upon the emperor to punish 686-88). The Roman clergy opposed this edict that

the murderers of the patriarch, and also reproved limited their right of election. They maintained the

Aoaoius for exceeding his comi)etence in performing force of the edict, issued by the Emperor Honorius

this consecration; at the same time, though, the pope at the instance of Pope Boniface I, that only that

ffanted him the necessary dispensation. After the person should be regarded as the rightful Bishop of

death of Salophakiolus, the Monophysites of Alcxan- Kome who was elected according to canonical form with

drta again elected Pet^ Mongus patriarch, while the Divine approval and univers^ consent. Simplicius

Cathoucs chose Johannes Talaia. Both Acacius and was venerated as a saint; his feast is on 2 or 3 March.

the emperor, whom he influenced, wa^ opposed to „^*^p<^»^««/*«'.<^-, ^^l^j^'^'S- l- 24^261; jArrA^Reputa

laiaia, ana^ Siaea Wltn MongUS. MongUS went (Brunswick. 18«8), 174 sq.; Libbbaius. Brenar, carua Nttior.,

to Constantmople to advance his cause. Acacius xvi oq.; Evaorivs, Hist, ecd„ ill, 4 aq.; UxROBNii&Tan

and he agreed upon a formula of union between Ph^uim, hiii-22i Gjoakr, Geschictue Rom* utuider p^

tne CatnoUCS ana tne MOnopnySltes tnat was ap- (Uonn, 1885), 126 aqq.; Wuhm. Die PapntwaJd (Cologne, 1902).

proved by the Emperor Zeno m 482 (HenoHkon), j, p, Kibbch.
Talaia had sent ambassadors to Pope Simplicius

to notify the pope of his election. However, at Simplicius, Faustintjs. and Beatbice, martyrs

the same time, the pope received a letter from the at Rome during the Diocletian persecution (302 or

emperor in which Talaia was accused of perjury 303). The brothers Simplicius and Faustinus were

ana hnbeiy and a demand was made for the recogm- cruelly tortured on account of their Christian faiths

tion of Mongus. Simplicius, therefore, delayed to beaten with clubs, and finally beheaded; their bodies

recognise TaUia, but protested energetically against were thrown into the Tiber. According to another

the elevation of Mongus to the Patriarchate of version of the legend a stone wss tied to them and

Alexandria. Acaoius, however, maintained his alii- they were drowned. Their sister Beatrice had the

anoe with Mongus and sought to prevail upon the bodies drawn out of the water and buried. Then

Eastern bishops to enter intoChurchcommumon with for seven months she lived with a pious matron

him. For a long time Acacius sent no information named Lucina, and with her aid Beatrice succoured

€i any kind to the pope, so that the latter in a Ltter the persecuted Christians by day and night, finally

blamed him severely for this. When finally Talaia she was discovered and arrested. Her accuser was

came to Rome in 483 Simplicius was already dead, her neighbour Lucretius who desired to obtain

Simplicius exercised a sealous pastoral care in possession of her lands. She courageously asserted

western Europe also notwithstanding the trying cir- before the judge that she would never sacrifice to

eumstanoeB of the Church during the disorders of the demons, because she was a Christian. As punish-

Migrations. He iasued decisions in ecclesiastical ment she was strangled in prison. Her friend Lucina

questions, appoint^ Bishop Zeno of Seville papal buried her by her brothers in the cemetery ad

vicar in Spam, so that the prerogatives of the papal Ursum Pilealum on the road to Porto. Soon after this

see oould oe exercised in the country itself for the i^ivine punishment overtook the accuser Lucretius.

benefit of the eoclesiastical administration. When When Lucretius at a feast was making merry over

Bi^iop John of Ravenna in 482 claimed Mutina as a the folly of the martyrs, an infant wno had been

diocesectf his metropolitan see, and without brought to the entertainment by his mother, cried

naofe ado consecrated Bishop George for this diocese, out, '^Thou hast committed murder and hast taken

fiHmpliciufl vJSMOudy opposed him and defended the unjust possession of land. Thou art a slave of the

rights of the papal .see« SimpUcius established four devil''. And the devil at once took possession of

new churches in Rome itseff. A lar^e hall built him and tortured him three hours and di^w him down

in the form of a rotunda on the CsDUan HiU was turned into the bottomless pit. The terror of those present

Into a ohurdi and dedicated to St. Stephen; the main was so great that they became Christians. This is

part of tfaJs building still exists as the Church of Sau the story of the legend. Trustworthy Acts concern*

StefMio Rotondo. A fine hall near the Church at ing the history of the two brothers and sister areno

SIMPSON 4 SIN

longer in exiateiice. Pope Leo 11 (682-683) trans- adverse to the well-being of the subiect. as pain and

lated their relics to a church which he had built at suffering. Moral evil is found only in inteUunent

Rome in honour of St. Paul. Later the greater part beings; it deprives them of some moral good. Hew

of the rclica of the mju-tyrs wevo taken to the Church of we have to deal with moral evil only. This may be

Santa Maria Maggiore. St. Simplieius is represented defined as a privation of conformity to right reason

with a pennant, on the shield of which are three lilies and to the law of God. Since the morality of a hu-

called the crest of Simplieius; the lilies are a symbol man act consists in its agreement or non-agreement

of purity of heart, St. Beatrice has a cord m her with ri^ht reason and the etemsJ law, an act ia good

hand, because she was strangled. The feast of the or evil m the moral order according as it involves this

three saints is on 29 July. agreement or non-agreement. VHien the intelligent

Ada jS5.. July, VII, 3j-37i BiUiaiheca haowarapkiea latina creature, knowing God and His law, deliberatehr re-

CBru-el.. 189^1900), 1127-28. f ^ ^^ey^ ^^^, ^^, ^,^

KLBMBNB LOffler. gj^ j^ nothing else than a morally bad act (St.

Simpson, Richard, b. 1820; d. near Rome, 5 AprU, Thomafl, " De malo" Q. yii, a. 3), an act not in ae-

1876. He was educated at Oriel College, Oxford, ^^^^ with reaaon informed by the Divine law. God

and took his B.A. degree, 9 Feb., 1843. Being or- '^f^ endowed us with reason and free-will, and a sense

dained an Anglican clergyman, he was appointed ^' responsibility; He has made us subject to Hie law,

vicar of Mitcham in Surrey, but resigned this in ^^"ch is known to us by the dictates of conscience,

1845 to become a Catholic. After some years spent ^O" ^"^ ^^ ™^^ conform with these dictates, other-

on the continent, during which time he became w*?^ w® «*" (Rom., xiv, 23). In every sinful act two

remarkably proficient as a linguist, he returned to t^hings must be considered, the substance of the act

England and became editor of "The Rambler", and the want of rectitude or conformity (St. Thomas,

When this ceased in 1862 he, with Sir John Acton, WI. .Q- '^"» *v,l)- The act is something positive,

began the "Home and Foreign Review", which was The sinner intends here and now to act m some deter-

opposed by ecclesiastical authority as unsound and niined matter, inordinately electing that particulat

was discontinued in 1864. Afterwards Simpson de- ^^^^ »» defiance of God's law and the dictates of

voted himself to the study of Shakespeare and to "K*^* reason. The deformity is not directly intended,

music. His works are: "Invocation of Saints proved ?w i? i^ involved in the act so far as this is physical,

from the Bible alone" (1849); "The Lady Falkhuid: but m the act as coming from the will which has

her life" (1861): "Edmund Campion" (1867), the P<>wer over its acts and is capable of choosing this or

most valuable of his works; "Introduction to the that particular good contained within the sccme of ite

Philosophy of Shakespeare's Sonnets" (1868); "The adequate object, i. e. universal good (St. Thomae,

School of Shakespeare" (1872); and "Sonnets of ^e malo" Q. in, a. 2, ad 2um). God, the fiwt

Shakespeare selected from a complete setting, and ^^^^^e of all realitv, is the cause of the physical act as

miscellaneous sonjgs" (1878). Though he remained such, the fre^willof the deformity (St. Thomas, I-II,

a practical Catholic his opinions were very Uberal and Q- Ixxxix, a. 2; De malo , Q. in, a. 2). The evil act

he assisted Mr. Gladstone in writing his pamphlet adequately considered has for its cause the free;;Will

on "Vaticanism". His papers in '^The Rambler" defectively electing some mutable good m place of the

on the English martyrs deserve attention. eternal goo<i, God, and thus deviating from its true

CoonsB in Did. Nat. Bioa., s. v.; Gillow, BiU. Did. Bng. last end.

9^:il;J' J?^A">' ^« «]»« ^»'~» ^^S.^}^ Witeman (Lon- In everv sin a privation of due order or conformity

don. 1897); Gabquw. Lard Adanarui H«C»rc^ (London 1906). ^^ ^j^^ ^^^^^ j^^ j^ ^^^^^^ y^^^ gi„ -^ ^^,^ ^ p^^^ ^^

JLDwiN 15URT0N. ^^^^^ privation Of all moral good (St. Thomas, "De
Bin. — ^The subject is treated under these heads: malo", Q. ii, a. 9; I-II, Q. Ixxiii, a. 2). There is a
I. Nature of Sin; II . Division; III. Mortal Sin; twofold privation; one entire which leaves nothing of
rV. Venial Sin; v. Permission and Remedies; VI. its opposite, as for instance, darkness which leaves no
The Sense of Sin. light; another, not entire, which leaves something of
I. Nature of Sin. — Since sin is a moral evil it is the good to which it is opposed, as for instance, disease
necessary in the first place to determine what is meant which does not entirely destroy the even balance of the
by evil, and in particular by moral evil. Evil is de- bodily functions necessary for health. A pure or en-
fined by St. Thomas (De malo, Q. ii, a. 2) as a priva- tire privation of good could occur in a moral act only
tion of form or order or due measure. In the physi- on the supposition that the will could incline to evil
cal order a thing is good in proportion as it possesses as such for an object. This is impossible because
being. God alone is essentially being, and He alone evil as such is not contained within the scope of the
is essentially and perfectly good. Everything else adequate object of the will, which is good. The sin*
possesses but a limited being, and, in so far as it pos- ner's intention terminates at some object in which
sesses being, it is good. When it has its due propor- there is a participation of God's goodness, and this
tion of form and order and measure it is, in its own object is directly intended by him. The privation of
order and degree, good. (See Good.) Evil implies a due order, or the deformity, is not directly intended,
deficiency in perfection, hence it cannot exist in GoH but is accepted in as much as the sinner's desire tends
who is essentially and by nature good; it is found only to an object in which this want of conformity is in*
in finite beings which, because of their origin from volved, so that sin is not a pure privation, but a
nothing, are subject to the privation of form or order human act deprived of its due rectitude. From the
or measure due them, ancl, through the opposition defect arises the evil of the act, from the fact that it is
they encounter, are liable to an increase or decrease voluntary, its imputability.

of the perfection they have: "for evil, in a large II. Division of Sin.— As re^^ards the principle
sense, may be described as the sum of opposition, from which it proceeds sin is original or actual. The
which experience shows to exist in the universe, to the will of Adam acting as head of tiie human race for the
desires and needs of individuals; whence arises, among conservation or loss of original justice is the cause and
human beings at least, the suffering in which life source of original sin (q. v.). Actual sin is committed
abounds" (see Evil). by a free personal act of the individual will. It is
According to the nature of the perfection which it divided into sins of commission and omission. A-sin
limits, evil is metaphysical, physical, or moral. Meta^ of commission is a positive act contrary to some pro-
physical evil is not evil properly so called; it is but the hibitory precept; a sin of omission is a failure to do
negation of a greater good, or the limitation of finite what is commanded. A sin of omission, however^
bemgs by other finite beings. Physical evil deprives requires a positive act whereby one wills to omit the
the subject affected by it of some natural good, and ia fumlling of a precept, or at least wiUs something in-

SIN

oompatibla with its fulfillment (I*-II, <). hadi, a.^ 5).
As regards their malioe, nizis are diBtinguiahed into
sins <M ignorance, paasion or infirmity, and malice; as
regards the activities involved, into sins of thought,
word, or deed (cordis, oris, aperis); as regards their
eravity, into mortal and venial. This last named
division is indeed the most important of all and it
calls for special treatment. But before taking up the
details, it will be useful to indicate some further dis-
tinctions which occur in theology or in general usage.

MaUtial and Formal Sin. — ^This distinction is based
upon the difference between the objective elements
(object ita^, circumstances) and the subjective (ad-
vertence to the sinfulness of the act). An action
which, as a matter of fact, is contrary to the Divine
law but is not known to be such by the agent con-
stitutes a material sin; whereas fonnal sin is com-
mitted when the a^ent freely transgresses the law
as shown him by his conscience, whether such law
really exists or is only thought to exist by him who
acts. Thus, a person who takes the property of an-
other while believing it to be his own conunits a mate-
rial sin; but the sin would be formal if he took the
pn^rty in the belief that it belonged to another,
whether his belief were correct or not.

Iniemal 5iiis.^-That sin may be committed not
only by outward deeds but also by the inner activity
of the mind apart from any external manifestation, is
pliJn from the precept of the Decaloffuo: "Thou shalt
not covet", and from Christ's rebuke of the scribes
and Pharisees whom he likens to "whited sepulchres
. . . fuU of all filthiness'' (Matt., xxiii, 27). Hence
the Council of Trent (Sess. XIV, c. v), in declaring
that all mortal sins must be confessed, makes special
mention of those that are. most secret and that vio-
late only the last two precepts of the Decalogue, add-
ing that th^ ''sometimes more grievously wouzui the
soul and are more dangerous than sins which are
openlv committed '*. Three kinds of internal sin are
usually distinguished: deUctatio marosay i. e. the pleas-
ure taken in a sinful thought ox imagination even
without desiring it; goMidium, i. e. dwelling with com-
placency on sins already committed; and desiderium,
1. e. the desire for what is sinfql. An ejicacious desire,
L e. one that includes the deliberate intention to
realise or gratify the desire, has the same maUce,
mortal or venial, as the action which it has in view.
An inefficacious desire is one that carries a condition,
in such a way that the will is prepared to perform
the action in case the condition were verified. When
the condition is such as to eliminate all sinfulness
from the action, the desire involves no sin: e. g. I
would gladljT eat meat on Friday, if I had a dispen-
aation; and in general this is the case whenever the
action is forbidden by positive law only. When the
action is contrary to natural law and yet is permis-
sible m given circumstances or in a particular state of
life, the desire, if it include those circumstances or
that state as conditions, is not in itself sinful: e. g. I
would kill so-and-so if I had to do it in self-defence.
Usually, however, such desires are dangerous and
tiierefore to be repressed. If, on the other hand, the
condition does not remove the sinfulness of the action,
the desire is also sinful. This is clearly the case where
the action is intrinsicall^r and absolutely evil, e. g.
blasphemy: one cannot without committing sin, have
the desire — I would blaspheme Ciod if it were not
wrong; the condition is an impossible one and there-
fore does not affect the desire itself. The pleasure
taken in a unful thought {delectatio, gaudium) is, gen-
erally speaking, a sin of the same kind and gravity
as tiie action which Is thought of. Much, however.
dageodtk on Uie motive for which one thinks of sinful
actions. The pleasure, e. g. which one may experi-
enoe in studying the nature of murder or any other
crime, in getung dear ideas on the subject, tracing its
, determining the guilt etc., is not a sin; on the.

contrary, it is often both necessary and useful. The
case is omerent of course where the pleasure means
pxstification in the sinful object or action itself. And
it is evidently a sin when one boasts of his evil deedsi,
the more so because of the scandal that is given.

The CapUal Sins or Vices, — ^Accordiiig to St.
Thomas (II-II, Q. cliii. a. 4) "a capital vice is that
which has an exceedingly desirable end so that in his .
desire for it a man goes on to the commission of many
sins all of which are said to originate in that vice as
their chief source". It is not then the gravity of the
vice in itself that makes it coital but rather the fact ,
that it gives rise to many other sins. These are
enumerated by St. Thomas (I-II, Q. Ixxxiv, a. 4) as
vainglory (pride), avarice, gluttony, lust, sloth, envy,
anger. St. Bonaventure (Brevil., Ill, ix) gives the
same enumeration. Earlier writers had distinguished
eight capital sins: so St. Cyprian (De mort., iv); Cas-
sian (De instit. ccenob., v, coll. 5, de octo principali-
bus vitiki); Columbanus ("Instr. de octo vitiis
princip.'^ in "Bibl. max. vet. patr.'^ XII, 23); Alcuin
(De virtut. et vitiis, xxvii sqq.). The number seven,
however, had been given by St. Grep>ry the Great
(Lib. mor. in .Job. XXXI, xvii). and it was retained
by the foremost theologians of the Middle Ages.

It is to be noted that "sin" is not predicated uni vo-
cally of all kinds of sin. "The division of sin into
vernal and mortal is not a division of genus into
species which participate equally the natvu'C of the
genus, but the division of an analogue into thin^ of
which it is predicated primarily and secondarily"
(St. Thomas, I-II, Q. Uxxviii, a. 1, ad lum). "Sin is
not predicated univocuUy of all kinds of sin, but
primarily of actual mortal sin . . . and therefore it is
not necessary that the definition of sin in i^eneral
should be verified except in that sin in which the
nature of the genus is found perfectly. The definition
of sin may be verified in other sins m a certain sense "
(St. Thomas, II, d. 33, Q. 1, a. 2, ad 2um). Actual
sin primarily consists in a volimtary act repugnant to
the order of right reason. The act piusses, out the
soul of the sinner remains stained, deprived of grace,
in a state of sin, imtil the disturbance of order has
been restored by penance. This state is called hab-
itual sin, macula peccaii, realus culpa (I-II, Q. Ixxxvii,
a. 6).

The division of sin into original and actual, mortal
and venial, is not a division of genus into species be-
cause sin has not the same signification when applied
to original and personal sin, mortal and venial.
Mortalsin cuts us off entirely from our true last end :
venial sin only impedes us in its attainment. Actual
personal sin is voluntary by a proper act of the wilL
Original sin is voluntary not by a personal voluntary
act of ours, but by an act of the will of Adam. Orig-
inal and actual sin are distinguished by the manner
in which they are voluntary (6x pprU actus); jnortal
and venial sm by the way in which they affect our
relation to God (ex parte deordinalionis). Since a vol-
untary act and its aLsordei are of the essence of sin, it
is impossible that sin should be a generic term in
respect to original and actual, mortal and venial sin.
The true nature of sin is found perfectly only in a
person^ mortal sin, in other sins imperfectly, so that
sin is predicated primarily of actual sin, onl^ second-
arily of the others. Therefore we shall consider: first,
personal mortal sin; second, venial sin.

III. Mortal Sin. — Mortal sin is defined by St.
Augustine (Contra Faustum, XXII, xxvii) as Die-,
turn vel factum vel concupitum contra legem seter-
nam", i. e. something said, done or desired .contrary .
to the eternal law. or a thought, word, or deed con-
trary to the eternal law. This is a definition of sin as
it is a voluntary act. As it is a defect or privation it
mav be defined as an aversion from God, our true last^
ena, by reason of the preference given to some mutable
good. The definition of St. Augustine is accepted

sat

generally by theolog^aoa and is primarily a definition
of actual morttJ sin. It explains well the material

- and formal elements of sin. The words "dictum vel
factum vel concupitum'' denote the material element
of sin. a human act: "contra legem seternam", the
formal element. The act is bad because it trans-

. gresses the Divine law. St. Ambrose (De paradiso,
viii) defines sin as a "prevarication of the Divine
law". The definition ot St. Augustine strictly con-
sidered, i. e. as sin averts us from our true ultimate
end, does not comprehend venial sin, but in as much
as venial sin is in a manner contrary to the Divine
law, fiJthough not averting us from our last end, it may
be said to be included in the definition as it stands.
While primarily a definition of sins of commission,
sins of omission may be included in the definition be-
cause thev presuppose some positive act (St. Thomas,
I-II, 6. Ixxi, a. 5) and negation and affirmation are
reducea to the same genus. Sins that violate the
human or the natur^ law are also included, for what
is contrary to the human or natural law is also con-
trary to the Divine law, in as much as everjr just
human law is deriv^ from the Divine law, and is not
just unless it is in conformity with the Divine law.

BUdiad Description of Sin, — In the Old Testament
sin is set forth as an act of disobedience (Gen., ii,
1^17: iii, ll;Is.,i^ 2-4; Jer., ii, 32)j as an insult to
God (Num., xxvii, 14); as something detested and
punished by God (Gen., iii, 14-19, Gen., iv, 9-16):
as injurious to the smner (Tob., xii, 10) ; to be expiated
bv penance (Ps. I, 19). In the New Testament it is
clearly tai^t in St. Paul that sin is a transgression of
the law (Rom., ii, 23; v, 12-20); a servitude from
which we are liberated by grace (Rom., vi. 16-18); a
disobedience (Heb.. ii, 2) punished by Goa (Heb., x,
26-31). St. John aescribes sin as an offence to God, a
disorder of the will (John, xii, 43), an iniquity (I
John, iii, 4-10). Christ in many of his utterances
teaches the nature and extent of sin. He came to
promulgate a new law more perfect than the old,
which would extend to the ordering not only of ex-
ternal but also of internal acts to a degree unknown
before, and, in His Sermon on the Mount, he con-
demns as sinful many acts which were judged honest
and righteous by the doctors and teachers of the Old
Law. He denounces in a special manner hypocrisy
and scandal, infidelity and the sin against the Holy
Ghost. In particular he teaches that sins come from
the heart (Matt., xv, 19-20).

Systems which Deny Sin or Distort its True Notion. —
All systems, religious and ethical, which either deny,
on the one hand, the existence of a personal creator
and lawgiver distinct from and superior to his crea-
tion, or, on the other, the existence of free will and
responsibility in man, distort or destroy the true
biblico-theological notion of sin. In the beginning of
the Christian era the Gnostics, although their doc-
trines varied in details, denied the existence of a per-
sonal creator. The idea of sin in the Catholic sense
is not contained in their system. There is no sin for
them, unless it be the sin of ignorance, no necessity
for an atonement; Jesus is not (jrwl (see Gxobticism).
Manichaeism (q. v.) with its twc eternal principles,
good and evil, at perpetual war with each other, is
also destructive of the true notion of sin. All evil,
and consequently sin, is from the principle of evil.
The Christian concept of God as a lawgiver is de-
stroyed. Sin is not a conscious voluntary act of dis-
obedience to the Divine will. Pantheistic systems
which deny the distinction between .God and His
creation make sin impossible. If man and God are
one, man is not responsible to anyone for his acts,
morality is destroyed. If he is his own rule of action,
he cannot deviate from right as St. Thomas teaches
(I, Q. Ixiii, a. 1). The identification of God and the
world by Pantheism (q. v.) leaves no place for ain.
There must be some law to which man ia subjecti

Buperior to and distinct from him, wbioh cm be
obeyed and transgressed, before sin ean enter into fak
acts. This law must be the mandate of a superior,
because the notions of superiority and subjection an
correlative. This superior can be only God, ^o
alone is the author and lord of man. Materialism^
denying as it does the spirituality and the immor-
tality of the soul, the existence of any spirit whatso*
ever, and consequently of God, does not admit sin.
Theie is no free will, everything is determined br
the inflexible laws of motion. "Virtue" and "vice"
are meaningless quaUfications of action. Pomtivism
places man's last end in some sensible good. His
supreme law of action is to seek the maximum of
pleasure. Egotism or altruism is the supreme norm
and criterion of the Positivistic systems, not the
eternal law of God as revealed by lum, and dictated
by conscience. For the materialistic evolutionistt
man is but a highly-developed animal, conscience a
product of evolution. Evolution has revolutioniBed
morality^ sin is no more.

Kant m his "Critique of Pure Reason" having re-
jected all the essential notions of true moruityi
namely, hberty, the soul, God and a future life, at-
tempted in his "Critique of the Practical Reason" to
restore them in the measure in which they are neces-
sary for morality. The practical reason, he tells us,
imposes on us the idea oi law and duty. The fundar
mental principle of the morality of Kant is "duty for
duty's sake", not God and His law. Duty cannot be
conceived of alone as an independent thing. It cai^
ries with it certain postulates, the first <x which is
liberty. "I ought, therefore I can", is his doctrine.
Man by virtue ot his practical reason has a con-
sciousness of moral obligation (categorical imper»-
tive). This consciousness supposes tm-ee things: free
will, the immortality of the soul, the existence of Ood,
otherwise man would not be capable of fulfilling his
obligations, there would be no sufficient sanction for
the Divine law, no reward or punishment in a future
life. Kant's moral S3rstem labours in obscurities and
contradictions and is destructive of much that per*
tains to the teaching of Christ. Personal dignity is
the supreme rule of man's actions. The notion of sin
as opposed to God is suppressed. According to tiie
teacfimg of materialistic Monism, now so widespread,
there is, and can be, no free will. According to this
doctrine but one thing exists and this one being pro-
duces all phenomena, thouf^ht included; we are but
puppets in its hands, earned hither and thither as
it wills, and finally are cast back into nothingness.
There is no place for good and evil^ a free observance
or a wilful transgression of law, m such a system.
Sin m the true sense is impossible. Without law and
liberty and a personal God there is no «n.

That God exists and can be known from His visible
creation, that He has revealed the decrees of His
eternal will to man, and is (fistinct from His crea-
tion (Denssinger-Bannwart. "Enchiridion", nn. 1782,
1785, 1701), are matters of Catholic faith and teach-
ing. Man is a created being endowed with free will
(ibid, 793), which fact can ^ proved from Scripture
and reason (ibid., 1041-1660). The Council of Trent
declares in Sess. VI, c. i (ibid., 793) that man by reason
of the prevarication oT Adam has lost his primeval
innocence, and that while free will remains, its powers
are lessened (see Original Sin).

Protestant Errors, — ^Luther and Calvin taught as
their fundamental error that no free will properly so
called remained in man after the fall of our first
parents; that the fulfillment of God's precepts is im-
possible even with the assistance of grace, and that
man in all his actions sins. Grace is not an interior
pSt, but something external. To some sin is not
imputed, because they are covered as with a cloak by
the merits of Christ. Faith alone saves, there is no
necessity for good works. Sin in L^iUier's ^toetrine

BIN

SIN

cannot be a deliberate tranBgresmon of the Divine
law. JanBenius, in his "Augustinua", taught that
according to the present powers of man some of God's
precepti are impossible of fulfilment, even to the
just who strive to fulfil them, and he further taught
that grace by means of which the fulfilment becomes
possible is wanting even to the just. His funda-
mental error consists in teaching that the will is not
free but is necessarily drawn either by concupiscence
or grace. Internal hberty is not reoun^ for merit or
demerit. Liberty from coercion suffices. Christ did
not die for all men. Baius taught a semi-Lutheran
doctrine. Liberty is not entirely destroyed, but is so
weakened that without grace it can do nothing but
sin. True liberty is not required for sin. A bad
act committed involuntarily renders man responsible
(propositions 50-51 in Denzinger-Bannwart, *'En-
^indion", nn. 10S6-1). All acts done without
diarity are mortal sins and merit damnation becaur«
they proceed from concupiscence. This doctrine de-
nies tnat sin is a voluntaiy transgression of Divine
law. If man is not free, a precept is meaningless as
far as he is concerned.

PkUaaophieal Sin, — ^Thoee who would construct
a mcmil ^tem independent of God and his kw difv
tmnush between theological and philosophical sin.
Fhuosophical sin is a morally bad act which violates
the natural order of reason, not the Divine law.
Theological sin is a transgression of the eternal law.
Those who are of atheistic tendencies and contend for
this distinction, either deny the existence of God or
maintain that He exercises no providence in regard to
human acta. This position is destructive of sin in the
theological sense, as God and His law, reward and
punishment, are done away with. Those who admit
the existence of God. His law, human liberty and
responsibility, and still contend for a distinction be-
tween philosophical and theological sin, maintain that
in tiie present order of God's providence there are
morally bad acts, which, while violating the order of
reason, are not offensive to God, and they base their
contention on this that the sinner can be ignorant of
the existence of God, or not actually think of Him and
His law when he acts. Without the knowlcdp;e of
God and consideration of Him, it is impossible to
offend Him. Thb doctrine was censured as scanda-
lous, temerarious, and erroneous by Alexander VIII
(24 Aug., 1690) in his condemnation of the following
proposition: "Philosophical or moral sin is a human
act not in agreement with rational nature and right
reason, theological and mortal sin is a free transgres-
sion of the Divine law. However grievous it may be.
philosophical sin in one who is either ignorant of Goa
or does not actually think of God, is indeed a grievous
sin, but not an offense to God, nor a mortal sin dis-
solving friendship with God, nor worthy of eternal
punishment" {Denzinger-Bannwart, 1290).

This proposition is condemned because it does not
distinguish between vincible and invincible igno-
rance, and further supposes invincible ignorance of
God to be sufficiently common, instead oif only meta-
physically possible, and because in the present dis-
pensation of God's providence we are clearly taught
m Scripture that Gcd will pimish all evil coming from
Uie free will of man (Rom., ii, 5-11). There is no
morally bad act that does not include a transgression
of Divme law. From the fact that an action is con-
ceived of as morally evil it is conceived of as pro-
hibited. A prohibition is unintelligible without the
notion of some one prohibiting. The one prohibiting
in this case and binding ^e conscience of man can be
onhr God, Who alone has power over man's free will
and aetknis, so that from the fact that any act is per-
ceived to be morally bad and prohibited by conscience.
God and Hia law are perceived at least confusedly, ana
a wilfal transgression of the dictate of conscience is
neceasairily also a transgression of God's law. Car-

dinal de Lugo (De incamat., disp. 5, lect. 8) admits
the possibility of philosophical sin in those who are
incutpably ignorant of God, but he holds that it does
not actually occur, because in the present order of
God's providence there cannot be invincible igno-
ranr 3 of God and His law. This teaching does not-
nec&jsarily fall under the condemnation of Alexander
VIII, but it is commonly rejected by theologians for
the reason that a dictate of conscience necessarily in-
volves a knowledge of the Divine law as a principle of
morality.

Con hf form of Mortal Sin: Knowledge, Free WiUj
Grtwe Mailer. — Contrary to the teaching of Baius
(prop. 40, Denzinper-Bannwart, 1046) and the Re-
formers, a si.i must be a voluntary act. Those ac-
tions alone are properly called human or moral actions
which proceed from the human will dehberately acting
with knowledge of the end for which it acts. Man
differs from all irrational creatures in this precisely
that he is master of his actions by virtue of his reason.
and free will (MI, Q. i, a. 1). Since sin is a human
act wanting in due rectitude, it must have, in so far as*,
it is a human act, the essential constituents of a
human act. The intellect must perceive and nidge
of the morality of the act, and the will must freely
dect. For a deliberate mortal sin there must be full
advertence on the part of the intellect and full con-
sent on the part of the will in a grave matter. An
involuntary transgression of the law even in a grave
matter is not a formal but a material sin. The
gravity of the matter is judged from the teaching of
Scripture, the definitions of councils and popee, and
also from reason. Those sins are judged to be mortal
which contain in themselves some grave disorder in
regard to God, our neighbour, ourselves, or society.
Scmie sins admit of no lightness of matter, as for ex-
ample, blasphemy, hatred of God: they are alwas^s.
mortal (ex toto genere suo), unless rendered venial by '
want of full advertence on the part of the intellect or-
fuU consent on the part of the will. Other sins admit
lightness of matter: they are iprave sins Ux genero stio)
in as much as their matter in itself is sufficient to oon»
stitute a grave sin without the addition of any oth^
matter, but is of such a nature that in a given case,
owing to its smallness, the sin may be venial, e. g. •
theft.

Fmpiitability. -^ThAt the act of the sinner ma^ be
imputcil to him it is not necessary that the object
whicli terminates and specifies his act should be dft*
rectly willed as an end or means. It suffices that it be'>
willed indirectly or in its cause, i. e. if the sinner
foresees, at least confusedly, that it will follow from
the act which he freely performs or from his omission
of an act. When the cause produces a twofold effect,
one of which is directly willed, the other indirectly,
the effect which follows indirectly is morallsr imput*
able to the sinner when these three conditions are
verified: first, the sinner must foresee at least con-
fusedly the evil effects which follow on the cause he
places; second, he must be able to refrain from placing
the cause; third, he must be under the obligation <n
preventing the evil effect. Error and ignorance in
regard to the object or circumstances of the aet to be
place<i, affect the judgment of the intellect and consei-
guently the morality and imputability of the act.
Invincible ignorance excuses entirely from sin. Vin-
cible ignorance does not, although it renders the act
less free (see Ignorance). The passions, while they
disturb the iudgment of the intellect, more directly
affect the will. Antecedent passion increases the in-
tensity of the act, the object is more intensely desired,
although less freely, and the disturbance caused by
the passions may be so great as to render a free jndg*
ment impossible^ the agent being for the moment
beside himself (i-II, Q. vi, a. 7, ad 3um). Conse-
quent passion, which arises from a command of the
will, does not lessen liberty, but is rather a sign of an

SIN

intense act of Yolition. Fear, violence, heredity,
temperament and pathological states, in so far as they
acfect free volition, affect the mahce and imputa-
biliW of sin. From the condemnation of the errors
of BaiuB and Jansenius (Denz.-Bann., 1046, 1066,
1094, 1291-2) it is clear that for an actual personal sin
a knowledge of the law and a personal voluntary act,
free from coercion and necessity, are required. No
mortal sin is committed in a state of invincible igno-
rance or in a half-conscious state. Actual advertence
to the sinfulness of the act is not required, virtual
advertence suffices. It is not necessary that the ex-
plicit intention to offend God and break his law be
present, the full and free consent of the will to an evil
act suffices.

Malice, — ^The true malice of mortal sin consists in a
conscious and voluntary transgression of the eternal
law, and implies a contempt of the Divine will, a com-
plete tumine away from God, our true last end, and a
preferring of some created tiling to which we subject
ourselves. It is an offence offered to God, and an in-
jury done Him; not that it effects any change in God,
who is immutable bv nature, but that the sinner by
his act deprives God of the reverence and honor due
Him: it is not any lack of malice on the sinner's part,
but God's immutability that prevents Him from
suffering. As an offence offered to God mortal sin is
in a way infinite in its malice, since it is directed
against an infinite being, and the gravity of the
(mence is measured by the dignity of the one offended
fSt. Thomas, III, Q. i, a. 2, ad 2imi). As an act sin is
nnite, the will of man not being capable of infinite
malice.' Sin is an offence against Christ Who has
redeemed man (Phil., iii, 18) ; againust the Holy Ghost
Who sanctifies us (Heb., x, 29), an injury to man
himself, causing the spiritual death of the soul, and
finLVing man the servant of 4he devil. The first and
primary malice of sin is derived from the object to
which the will inordinately tends^ and from the ob-
ject considered morally, not physically. The end for
which the sinner acts and the circumstances which
surround the act are also determining factors of its
morality. An act which, objectively considered, is
morally indifferent, may be rendered good or evil by
circumstances, or by the intention of the sinner. An
act that is good objectivel}^ may be rendered bad, or a
new species of good or evil may be added, or a new
degree. Circumstances can change the character of a
sin to such a degree that it becomes specifically dif-
ferent from what it is objectively considered; or they
may merely aggravate the sin while not changing its
specific character; or they mav lessen its gravity.
That they may exercise this determining influence
two things are necessary: they must contain in them«
selves some good or evil, and must be apprehended, at
least confus^y, in their moral aspect. The external
act, in so far as it is a mere execution of a voluntary
efficacious internal act, does not, according to the
common Thomistic opinion, add any essential good-
ness or mahce to the mtemal sin.

Gravity, — ^Wlule every mortal sin averts us from
out true last end, all mortal sins are not equally

Save, as is clear from Scripture (John, xix, 11;
att., xi, 22: Luke, vi), and also from reason. Sins
are specifically distinguished by their objects, which
do not all equally avert man from his last end. Then
again, since sin is not a pure privation, but a mixed
one, all sins do not equaUy destroy the order of reason
Spiritual sins, other things being equal, are graver
than carnal sins (St. Thomas, "De malo", Q. ii,
a. 9; I-II, Q. bcxiii, a. 5).

8j>eci^ and numeric diBtinction of Sin, — Sins are
distmguished specifically b^ their formally diverse
objects; or from their opposition to different virtues,
or to morally different precepts of ^e same virtue.
Sins that are specifically distmct are also numeric^y
distinct. Sins within the same speeieB are distin-

guished numerically according to the number of com-
plete acts of the will in regard to total' objects. A
total object is one which, either in itself or by the
intention of the sinner, forms a complete whole
and is not referred to another action as a part of
the whole. When the completed acts of the will
relate to the same object there are as many sins,
as there are morally interrupted acts.

SvibjeU causes of Sin. — Since sin is a volimtary act
lacking in due rectitude, sin is found, as in a subject,
principally in the wiH. But, since not only acts
elicited by the will are voluntary, but also tho&e
that are elicited by other faculties at the command
of the will, sin may be found in these faculties in
so far as they are subject in their actions to the
command of the will, and are instruments of the will,
and move under its guidance (I-II, Q. Ixxiv).

The external members of the body cannot be
effective principles of sin (I^II, Q. Ixxiv, a. 2 ad 3um).
They are mere organs which are set in activity by
the soul; thev do not initiate action. The appetitive
powers on the contrary can be effective prmciples
of sin, for they possess, through their immediate
conjunction wiUi the will and their subordination
to it, a certain though imperfect Uberty (I-U, Q. Ivi,
a. 4, ad 3um). The sensual appetites have their
own proper sensible objects to which they naturally.
incUne, and since original sin has broken the bond
which held them in complete subjection to the will,
they may antecede the will in their actions and tena
to their own proper objects inordinately. Hence
they may be proximate principles of sin when they
move inordinately contrary to the dictates of right
reason.

It is the right of reason to rule the lower facul-
ties, and when the disturbance arises in the sen-
sual part the reason may do one of two things:
it may either consent to the sensible delectation
or it may repress and reject it. If it consent6» the
sin is no longer one of the sensual part of man,
but of the intellect and will, and consequently,
if the matter is grave, mortal. If rejected, no sm
can be imputedl There can be no sin in the sensual
part of man independently of the will. The in-
ordinate motions of the sensual appetite which precede
the advertence of reason, or which are suffered
unwillingly, are not even venial sins. The temp-
tations of the flesh not consented to are not sins.
Concupiscence, which remains after the ^ilt of
original sin is remitted in baptism, is not sinful so
long as consent is not given to it (Coim. of Trent.,
sess. V, can. v). The sensual appetite of itself
cannot be the subject of mortal sin, for the reason
that it can neither grasp the notion of God as an
ultimate end, nor avert us from Him, without which
aversion there cannot be mortal sin. The superior
reason, whose office it is to occupy itaelf with Divine
things, may be the proximate principle of sin both
in regard to its own proper act, to know truth, and
as it is directive of the inferior faculties: in regard
to its own proper act, in so far as it voluntarily
neglects to know what it can and ouglit to know;
in regard to the act by which it directs the inferior
faculties, to the extent that it commands inordinate
acts or fails to repress them (I«-II, Q. Ixxiv, a. 7,
ad 2um).

The will never consents to a sin that is not at the
same time a sin of the superior reason as directing
badly, by either actually deliberating and commanding
the consent, or by failing to deliberate and impede
the consent of the will when it could and should do
so. The superior reason is the ultimate judge of hu-
man acts and has an obligation of deliberating and
deciding whether the act to be performed is according
to the law of God. Venial sin may also be found
in the superior reason when it deliberately oooaenta
to ains that are venial in their nature, or whjsa there

SIN

IB not a full consent in the case of a sin that is mortal
considered objectively.

Causes of Sin. — Under this head, it is needful
to distingnish between the efficient cause, i.e. the
agent performing the sinful action, and those other
agencies, influences or circumstances, which incite
to sin and consequently involve a dangor, more or
less grave, for one who is exposed to them. These
inciting causes are explained in special articles on
Occasions o^ Sin and Tbmffation. Here we have
- to consider only the efficient cause or causes of sin.
These are interior and exterior. The complete and
sufficient cause of sin is the will, which is regulated
in its actions by fhe reason, and acted upon by the
sensitive appetites. The principal interior causes of
sin are ignorance, infirmity or passion, and malice.
Ignorance on the part of the reason, infirmity and
passion on the part of the sensitive appetite, and
malice on the part of the will. A sin is from certain
malice when the will sins of its own accord and not
under the influence of ignorance or passion.

The exterior causes of sin are the devil and man,
who move to sin by means of suggestion, persuasion,
temptation, and bad example. God is not the cause
of sm (Counc. of Trent.,, sess. VI, can. Vi, in Dens.-
Bann., 816). He directs all things to Himself and is
the end of aU His actions, and could not be the cause
'of evil without self-contradiction. Of whatever
entity there is in sin as an action. He is the cause.
The evil will is the cause of the disorder (I-II, Q.
Ixxix, a. 2). One sin may be the cause of another
inasmuch as one sin may be ordained to another as
an end. The seven capital sins, so called, may be
considered as the source from which other sins
proceed. They are sinful propensities which reveal
themselves in particular sinful acts. Original sm
bv reason of its dire effects is the cause and source
of wn in so far as by reason of it our natures are left
wounded and inclined to evil. Ignorance, infirmity,
malice, and concupiscence are the consequences of
original sin.

Effects of Sin. — ^The first effect of mortal sin in man
is to avert him from his true last end, and deprive
his soul of sanctifying grace. The sinful act passes,
and the sinner is left in a state of habitual aversion
from God. The sinful state is voluntary and imput-
able to the sinner, because it necessarily follows from
the act of sin he freely placed, and it remains until
satisfaction is made (see Penance). This state of
sin is called by theolo^ans habitual sin, not in the
sense that habitual sin implies a vicious habit, but
in the sense that it signifies a state of aversion from
God dg)ending on the preceding actual sin, con-
sequent!^ voluntary and imputable. This state
of aversion carries with it necessarily in the present
order of God's providence the privation of grace
and charity by means of which man is ordered to
his supernatural end. The privation of grace is the
"macula peccati" (St. Thomas I-II, Q. Ixxxvi),
the stain of sin spoken of in Scripture (Joe., xxii, 17;
Isaias, iv, 4; 1 Cor., vi, 11). It is not anything
positive, a quality or disposition, an obligation to
suffer, an extrinsic denomination coming from sin,
but is solely the privation of sanctifying grace.
There is not a real but only a conceptual distinction
between habitual sin (rMus eidpce) and the stain of
sin {nutcula peccati). One and the same privation
eonstdered as destroying the due order of man to
God is habitual sin, considered as depriving the
soul of the beauty of grace is the stain or "macula'^
of sin.

The .second effect of sin is to entail the penrity of
undergoing suffering (reatus poenm). Sin (reaJtxis
adpce) is the cause of this obligation (reatus pceme).
The suffering may be inflicted in this life through the
medium of medicinal punishments, calamities, sick-
ness, temporal evils, which tend to withdraw from

sin; or it may be inflicted in the life io oodm by tbe
justioe of Gkxl as vindictive punishment. The
punishments of the future life are propoitioned
to the sin committed, and it is the ^ligation of
underling this punishment for unrepented sin that '
is signified by the ''reatus poens" of the theolo^ans.
The penalty to be undergone in the future life la
divided into the pain of loss {pcsna damni) and the
pain of sense {pama sensus). The pain of loss is
the privation of the beatific vision of God in punish-
ment of turning away from Him. The pain of sense
is suffering in punishment of the conversion to some
created thing in place of God. This two-fold pain
in punishment of mortal sin is eternal (I Cor., vi, 9;
Matt., XXV, 41; Mark, ix, 45). One mortal sin
suffices to incur punishment. (See Hell.) Other
effects of sins are: remorse of conscience (Wisdom,
V, 2-13); an inclination towards evil, as habits are
formed by a repetition of similar acts; a daricenmg
of the intelligence, a hardening of the will (Matt., xii^
14-15; Rom., xi, 8); a general vitiating of nature,
which does not however totally destroy the substanoe
and faculties of the soul but merely weakens llie
right exercise of its faculties.

IV. Venial Sin. — Venial sin is essentially differ-
ent from mortal sin. It does not avert us from
our true last end, it does not destroy charity, the
principle of union with God, nor deprive the soul
of sanctifying grace, and it is intrinMcally reparable.
It is called venial precisel3r because, consiaered in
its own proper nature, it is pardonable; in itsdf
meriting, not eternal, but temjioral punishment.
It is distinguished from mortal sin on the part of
the disorder. By mortal sin man is entirely averted
from Ciod, his true last end, and, at least impUcithr,
he places his last end in some created thing. By
venial sin he is not averted from God, neither does
he place his last end in creatures. He remains
united with God by charity, but does not tend towards
Him as he ought. The true nature of sin as it is
contrary to the eternal law, repugnant namely to
the primary end of the law, is found only in mortal
sin. Venial sin is only in an imperfect wa3' contrary
to the law, since it is not contrary to the primary
end of the law, nor does it avert man from the end
intended by the law (St. Thomas, I-II, Q. Ixxxviii,
a. 1 : and Cajetan, I-II, Q. Ixxxviii, a. I, for the sense
of tne prcBter legem and contra legem of St. Thomas).

Definition. — Since a voluntary act and its disorder
are of the essence of sin, venial sin as it is a voluntary
act may be defined as a thought, word, or deed at
variance with the law of God. It retards man in
the attainment of his last end while not averting
him from it. Its disorder consists either in the not
fully deliberate choosing of some object prohibited
by the law of God, or in the deliberate adhesion
to some created object not as an ultimate end but
as a medium, which object does not avert the sinner
from God, but is not, however, referable to Him
as an end. Man cannot be averted from God
except by deliberately placing his last end in some
created thing, and in venial sin he does not adhere
to any temporal good, enjoying it as a last end, but as
a medium referring it to God not actually but habit-
ually inasmuch as he himself is ordered to God by
charity. "Ille qui peccat venialiter, inhseret bono
temporal! non ut fruens, quia non constituit in eo
finem, sed ut utens, referens in Deum non actu sed
habitu" (I-II, Q. Ixxxviii, a. 1, ad 3). For a mortal
sin, some created good must be adhered to as a last
end at least implicitly. This adherence cannot be
accomplished by a semi-deliberate act. By adherins
to an object that is at variance with the law of God
and yet not destructive of the primary end of the
Divine law, a true opposition is not set up between
God and that object. The created good is not
desired as an end. The sinner is not placed in ihe

position of ohooBing between God and creature
as ultimate ends that are opposed, but is in such a
condition of mind that if the object to which he
adheres were prohibited as contrary to his true last end
he would not adliere to it, but would prefer to keep
friendship with God. An example may be had in
human friendship. A friend will refrain from doing
an3rthin^ that of itself will tend directly to dissolve
friendship while allowing himself at times to do what
. is displeaamg to his inends without destroying
friendship.

ThQ oistinction between mortal and venial sin
is set forth in Scripture. From St. John (I John.
V, 16-17) it is clear there are some sins ''unto death
and some sins not "unto death'', i. e. mortal and
venial. The classic text for the distinction of mortal
and venial sin is that of St. Paul (I Cor., iii, 8^15),
where he explains in detail the distinction between
mortal and venial sin. ''For other foundation no
man can lay, but that which is laid; which is Christ
Jesus. Now if an^ man build upon this foundation
gold, silver, precious stones, wood, hay, stubble:
every man's work shall be manifest; for the day of
the Lord shall declare it; because it shall be revealed
in fire; and the fire shall try everv man's work, of
what sort it is. If any man's work abide, which he
hath built thereupon, he shall receive a reward. If
any man's work bum, he shall suffer loss; but he
himself shall be saved, yet so as by fire." By wood,
hay, and stubble are signified venial sins (St.
Thomas, I-II, Q. Ixxxix, a. 2) which, built on the
foundation of a living faith in Christ, do not destroy
charity, and from their very nature do not merit
eternal but temporal punishment. "Just as",
says St. Thomas, [wood, hay, and stubble] "are
gathered together in a house and do not ])ertain to
the substance of the edifice, so also venial sins are
multiplied in man, the spiritual edifice remaining,
and for these he suiTers either the fire of temporal
tribulations in this life, or of purgatory after this
life and nevertheless obtains eternal salvation."
(ibid.)

The suitableness of the division into wood, hay,
and stubble is explained by St. Thomas (iv, dist.
21. Q. i, a. 2). Some venial sins are graver than
otners and less pardonable, and this difference is
well signified by the difference in the inflammabil-
ity of wood, hay, and stubble. That there is a dis-
tinction between mortal and venial sins is of faith
(Counc. of Trent) sess. VI, c. xi and canons 2^25;
sess. XIV, de poenit., c. v). This distinction is
commonly rejected by all heretics ancient and
modem. In the fourth century Jovinian asserted
that all sins are equal in guilt and deserving of the
same punishment (St. Aug., "Ep. 167", ii, n. 4);
Pelagius (q. v.), that every sin deprives man of
justice and therefore is mortal; Wyclif, that there is
no warrant in Scripture for differentiating mortal
from venial sin, and that the ^avity of sin depends
not on the quality of the action but on the decree
of predestuiation or reprobation so that the worst
crime of the predestined is infinitely less than the
slightest fault of the reprobate; Hus, that all the
actions of the vicious are mortal sins, while all the
acts of the good are virtuous (Dena.-Bann., 642);
Luther, that all sins of unbelievers are mortal and
all sins of the regenerate, with the exception of
infidelity, are venial; Calvin, Uke Wyclif, bases the
difference between mortal sin and venial sin on
predestination, but adds that a sin is venial because
of the faith of the sinner. The twentieth among
the condemned i)ropositions of Baius reads: "There
is no sin venial in its nature, but every sin merits
eternal punishment" (Denz.-Bann., 1020). Hirscher
in more recent times taught that all sins which are
fully deliberate are morUd, thus denying the dis-
tinction of sins by reason of their objects and making

the distinction rest on the imperfection of the act
(Kleutgen, 2nd ed., II, 284, etc.).

Malice ofVenialSin, — The dififerencein the maliee of
mortal and venial sin consists in this : that mortal sin is
contrary to the primary end of the eternal law, that it
attacks the very substance of the law which commands
that no created thing should be preferred to God as
an end, or equalled to Him, while venial sin is on^
at variance with the law, not in contrary opposition
to it, not attacking its substance. The substance
of the law remaining^ its perfect accomplishment is
prevented by venial sin.

Conditions. — Venial sin is committed when the
matter of the sin is light, even though the advertence
of the intellect and consent of the will are full and
deliberate, and when, even though the matter of
the sin be grave, there is not full advertence on the
part of the intellect and full consent on the part
of the will. A precept obliges svb gravi when it has
for its object an important end to be attained, and
its transgression is prohibited under penalty of
losing God's friendship. A precept obliges sub levi
when it is not so directly imposed.

Effects. — ^Venial sin does not deprive the soul of
sanctifying grace, or diminish it. It does not produce
a macula, or stain, as does mortal sin, but it lessens
the lustre of virtue — "In anima duplex est nitor,
unus quiden habitualis, ex gratia sanctificante, alter
actual IS ex actibus virtutum, jamvero peccatum
veniale impedit quidem fulgorem qui ex actibus
virtutum oritur, non autem habitualem nitorem.
quia non excluait nee minuit hiJ^itum charitatis"
(I-II, 9* bo«ix, a. 1). Frequent and deliberate
venial sin lessens the fervour of charity, disposes to
mortal sin (I-II, Q. Ixxxviii, a. 3), and hinders the
reception of graces God would otherwise give. It
displeases God (Apoc., ii, 4-5) and obliges the sinner
to temporal punishment either in this life or in
Purgatory. We cannot avoid all venial sin in this
life. "Although the most just and holy occasion-
ally during this life fall into some slight and daily
sins, known as venial, thev cease not on that account
to be just" (Counc. of Trent, sess. VI, c. xi). And
canon xxiii says: "If any one declare that a man
once justified cannot sin again, or that he can avoid
for the rest of his life every sin, even venial, let him
be anathema", but according to the common opinion
we can avoid all such as are fully deliberate. Venial
sin may coexist with mortal sin in those who are
averted, from God by mortal sin. This fact does
not change its nature or intrinsic reparabiUty, and
the fact that it is not coexistent with chanty is not
the result of venial sin, but of mortal sin. It ib
per acddenSf for an extrinsic reason, that venial sin
in this case is irreparable, and is punished in helL
That venial sin may appear in its true nature as
essentially different from mortal sin it is considered
as de facto coexisting with charity (I Cor., iii, 8-15).
Venial sins do not need the grace of absolution.
They can be remitted by prayer, contrition, fervent
communion, and other pious works. Nevertheless
it is laudable to confess them (Denn.-Bann., 153&).

V. Permission op Sin and Reb<edies. — Since it is
of faith that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and
all gooHi it is difficult to account for sin in His creation.
The existence of evil is the underiying problem in
all theology. Various explanations to account for
its existence have been offered, dififering according
to the philosophical principles and religious tenets
of their autliors. Any Catholic explanation must
take into account the defined truths of the omnipo-
tence) omniscience, and goodness of God; free will
on the part of man; and the fact that suffering is
the penalty of sin. Of metaphysical evil, the negation
of a greater good, God is the cause inasmuch as he
has created beings with limited forms. Of physical
evil {malum poena) He is also the cause. Physical

SOJkl

amii

evily considered aa it i>roceeds from God and is inflicted
in punishment of sin in accordance with the decrees of
Divine justice, is good^ compensating for the violation
of order by sin. It is only in the subject afTected
by it that it is evil.

Of moral evil (malum cvlpce) God is not the cause
(Counc. of Trent, sess. VI, can. vi), either directly
or inc^ectly. Sin is a violation of order, and God
orders all things to Himself, as an ultimate end,
consequentlv He cannot be the direct cause of sin.
God's withdrawal ofgrace which would prevent the
sin does not make Euan the indirect cause of sin in-
asmuch as this withdrawal is affected according
to the decrees of His Divine wisdom and iustice
in punishment of previous sin. He is imder no
obligation of impedinfi; the sin, consequently it
cannot be imputed to Him aa a cause (I~Il, Q. Ixxix,
a. 1). When we read in Scripture and the Fathers
that God inclines men to sin tne sense is, either that
in His just judgment He permits men to fall into
sin by a punitive permission, exercising His justice
in punishment of past din; or that He directly causes,
not sin, but certain exterior works, good in themselves,
which are so abused by; the evil wills of men that here
and now th^ commitjevil; or that He gives them
the power of accomp^lishing their evil designs. Of
the physical act in sin God is the cause inasmuch
as it is an entity and good. Of the malice of sin
man's evil will is the sufficient cause. God could
not be impeded in the creation of man by the fact
that He foresaw his falL This would mean the
limiting of His omnipotence by a creature, and would
be destructive of Him, He was free to create man
even thou^ He foresaw his fall, and He created
him, endowed him with free will, and gave him
sufficient means of persevering in good had he so willed.
We must sum up our ignorance of the permission
of evil by saying in ^e words of St. Augustine,
that God would not have permitted evil had He not
been powerftd enough to bring good out of evil.
God's end in creating this universe is Himself, not
ihe good of man, and somehow or other good
and evil serve His ends, and there shall finally be
a restoration of violated order by Divine iustice.
No sin shall be without its punisnment. The evil
men do must be atoned for either in this world by
penance (see Penaxce) or in the world to come
m purgatory or hell, according as the sin that stains
the soul, and is not repented of, is mortal or venial,
and merits eternal or temporal punishment. (See
Evil.) God has provided a remedy for sin and
manifested His love and goodness m the face of
man's ingratitude by the Incarnation of His Divine
Son (see Incarnation}; by the institution of His
Qiurch to ^de men and interpret to them His law,
and admnuster to them the sacraments, seven
channels of grace, which, rightly used, furnish an
adequate remedy mr sin and a means to union with
God in heaven, which is the end of His law.

Sense of Sin. — ^The understanding of sin. as far
as it can be understood by our finite intelligence,
serves to unite man more closely to God. It impresses
him with a salutary fear, a fear of his own powers,
a fear, if left to hhnself, of falling from ^ace; with
the necessity he lies under of seeking God's help
and grace to stand firm in the fear and love of Crod,
and make progress in the spiritual life. Without
the acknowledgment that the present moral state
of man is not tnat in which God created him, that
his powers are weakened; that he has a supernatural
end to attain, which is impossible of attainment
by his own unaided efforts, without grace there being
no proportion between the end and the means;
that the world, the flesh, and the devil are in reality
active agents fighting against him and leading him
to serve tiiem instead of God. sin cannot be under-
stood. The evolutionary hypotnesis would have it that

physical evolution accounts for the physical origjii
of man, that science knows no condition of man in
which man exhibited the characteristics of the state
of origmal justice, no state of sinlessness. The fall
of man in this hypothesis is in reality a rise to a
higher grade o[ being. "A fall it might seem, just
as a vicious man sometimes seems degraded oelow
the beasts, but in promise and potency, a rise it
really was*^ (Sir O. Lodge, "life and Matter", p. 79).
This teaching is destructive of the notion of sin as
taught by the Catholic Church. Sin is not a phase
of an upward struggle, it is rather a deliberate,
wilful reiusal to struggle. If there has been no fall
from a hi^er to a lower state, then the teaching of
Scripture m regard to Redemption and the necessity
of a baptismal regeneration is uAintelligible. The
Catholic teaching is the one that places sin in its
true light, that justifies the condemnation of sin we
find in Scripture.

The Church strives continually to impress her
children with a sense of the awfulness of sin that they
may fear it and avoid it. We are fallen creatures,
and our spiritual life on earth is a warfare. Sin is
our enemy, and while of our own strength we cannot
avoid sin, with God's grace we can. If we but place
no obstacle to the workings of grace we can avoid
all deliberate sin. If we have the misfortune to sin,
and seek God's grace and pardon with a contrite
and humble heart. He will not repel us. Sin has its
remedy in grace, which is given us by God, through
the merits of His only-be^tten Son, Who has re*
deemed us, restoring by His passion and death the
order violated by the sin of our first parents, and mak-
ing us once apain children of God and heirs of heaven.
Where sin is looked on as a necessary and un-
avoidable condition of things human, where inability
to avoid sin is conceived as necessary, discouragement
naturally follows. Where the Cathohc doctrine
of the creation of man in a superior state, his fall
by a wilful transgression, the effects of which fall
are by Divine decree transmitted to his posterity,
destroying the balance of the human faculties
and leaving man inclined to evil; where the dogmas
of redemption and grace in reparation of sin are Kept
in mmd, there is no discouragement. Left to our-
selves we fall, by keeping close to God and continudly
seeking His nelp we csm stand and struggle against
sin, and if faithful in the battle we must wage shall
be crowned by God in heaven. (See Conscience;
Justification; Scandal.)

DooMATic WoBKs: St. Thomas. SummatKeol., l-Tl, QQ. Ixxi*
Ixxzix; losM , Contra fftnUa, tr. Rickabt, OfGod Ofui Hu Creaturet
(London, 1905): Idbm, QueuL dUpuUUa: D^maioin Opera omnia
(Parb, 1875): Billvabt, D« pecoolM (Paris. 1867-72); Suabh,
Depecc in Opera Ttnnia (Paris, 1878); SAUCANncmfaBs, JOe peec
in Cun. theof, (P^iis, 1877); Qonxt, Clypetu theoi. tkotn, (Venioe.
1772) ; Jomr or 3t, Tromab, Do poec, in Cwo. thool. (Paris, 1886);
STLTroB,X>e t)«ec.(Antweri>, 1698) ; CeUet^iomuo fiomanuf, tr.DoM^H
YAN, Caieehiam ot tit Council o/Trent (Dublin. 1829): ScHKkBBN,,
Handbuch d. kath. Oogmatik (Freiburg, 1873-87) ; Wilbbui and
ScAJRfBLL, MantuL: c/ CathoUc TheSoov, II (London, 1908);
Manning, Sin ant iu Coneeguoneoo (New York, 1904) ; Sbabpe,
Principles of Christianity (London, 190i) ; Idem, Evil, ita Nairn
and Caute (LondcMi. 1906) * Billot. De not. et rtU. peeeaH poroonalio
(Rome. 1900); TANQ(UBB**r, Spnopaio theol., I (New York, 1907).

Cf. foUowiiiff on moral theology: — Lehmkuhl, Theol. monUi»
(Freiburg, 1910); Oopfebt. MoraUheolooie, I (PnAerbom, 1899);
Mabc, Intit. mor. alpnonair ? (Rome, 1002); Noldin, Summa
tneal. mor, (Innsbmck. 1906); Genxcot, Thoai. mar. tnst., I
(Loavam. 1905) ; Sabbtti-Bariibtt, Compend. thool. mor. (Ratis-
bon, 1906) : Schieler-Heusbb. Theory and Practice of the Con-
feaeumal (New York, 1906); Slatbb, Manual of Moral Theology
(New York, 1906); KocB, Morallfmlogio (Srded., Freiburg, 1910).

A. C. O'Nbil.

Sii^i i^^^'Ot S^i'a, Sinai and Sina), the mountain
on which the Mosaic Law was given. Horeb and
Sinai were thought synonymous by St. Jerome ("De
situ et nom. Hcbr.'', m P. L., XXIU, 889)) W.
Gesenius O^^D 2"in), and, more recently, G. Ebem
^. 381). Ewald, Delitzsch, Ed. Robinson, E. H.
Palmer, and others think Horeb denoted the whole
moimtdnous region about Sinai (Ex., xvii, 6). The

SINAITICnS

SnfALOA

otiglD of the name Sinai in disputed. It iMnia to be Jabal MA«t, which hu been knows since Ihe ninth
an adjective (torn ;-C, "the desert" (Ewald and century as Bt. Catherine's. Its small library con-
Ebers) or "the moon-god" (E. Schroder and others), tains about 600 volumes of valuable manuscnpta hi
Themount was caJled Sinai, or "the mount of God" Greek, Arabic, Syriac, Ethiopii;, etc. It waa here

Snibably before the time of Moeee (Josephua, " Antiq, that Tischendorf, during hia resiiairhes in 1844, 1S53,
ud.", II, xii.) The name is now given to the tn- and 1850, found a very ancient Greek MS. (dnoe
angularpeninsulalyingbetweenthodesertof Southern known as the "Codex Sinaiticiis") containing most
Palestine, the Red Ses, and the gulfs of Akabah and of the Septuagint, all the new Testament, the '^^istle
Suez, with an area of about 10,000 sq. miles, which of Barnabas'^ and the first part of the "Shepherd"
was the scene of the forty years' wandering of the of Hermas. Forty-three MS. pages found by nim an
Israelites after the Eiodua from Egypt. preserved at the University of Leipiig and known as

The principal topographical features are two. the "Codex Friderico-Au^ustanus". In 1892 Mrs,
North of the Jabal et-Tih (3200 to 3950 feet) stretches Smith Lewis found at Sinai a fourth-century palimp-
an arid plateau, the desert of Tlh, marked by numer- seat Syriac text of St. Luke's Gospel. Sinai is rich m
ous Wadis, notably El-Arish, the "River of E^ypt", valuable inscriptions. M. de VogUS gives 3200
which formwl the southern boundary of the Promised Egyptian and Semitic inscriptions found in the W4di
Land (Gen., XV, 18; Num., joodv, 5). South of Jabal Mukattob, the ruins of the temple of Ischta, or
masB of granite streaked Astaroth-Carmain, and the iron and turquoise mines
o three principal groups; and granite and marble quarries, which were ex-
tensively woriced uQ-
dcr the twelfth and
eighteenth B^g^tian
dynasties.

The present popu-
lation of Sinai is 4000
to 6000 eemi-
nomadic Arabs, Mo-
hammedans, gov*
eroed by their tribal
Bh«khs and imme-
diately subject to
the commandant of
the garrison at Qa['
at un-Nakhl, under
the Intelligence Do-
partment of the
Egyptian War Office
at C^ro.

j Ordtiaittt Survva/tSt
' br tbe I^dtiUbb Erplor.

i Huh

IdiDtifisd by St. JetoD

Mount S

I athcn with the Kul at tb« BibI*

with porphyry, dividing
t^" western, Jabal
KcrbftI (0750 feet);
t!;e central, Jabal
Mflsa (7380 feet),
Jabal Catherine
(8560 fe<-t), and Ja-
bal Urn Schomet
(8470 feet); the esEt-
em, Jabal Thebt
(7909 feet) and Ja-
bal Tarfa, which
terminates in Raa
Mohammed. It is
among these moun-
buns that Jewish and
Christian tradition
places the Sinai of
the Bible, but the
precise location is
unoertsin. It is Ja-
bal M{|Ha, according
to a tradition trace-
able b^k to the
fourth century, when
St. Silvia of" Aqui-

talne was there. Jabal MOsa is defended by
E. H. and H. 8. Palmer, Vigouraux, Lagrange, and
others. However, the ditTiculty of applying Ex.,
xix, 12, to Jabal Kldsa and the inscriptions found near
Jabal Serbal have led some to favour Serbal. This
was the opinion of St. Jerome (P. L., XXIII, 916,
933) and CoBraaa (P. G., LXXXVIII, 217). and more
reoently of Burkhard and X/;psius, and it nas of late
been very strongly defended by 0. Ebers, not to
mention Beke, Gressmann, and others, who consider
the whole story about Sinai (Ex., xix) only a mythical
interpretation of some volcanic eruption. The more
Uberal critics, while agreeing generally that the Jewish
traditions represented by the "Priest-codex" and
"Elohistic documents" place Sinai among the moun- uui*ius, i
tains in the south-centra! part of the peninsula, yet pubhc of Mi
disagree as to its location by the older "JahvisUc" Durango. ''

tradition(Ex„ii. 15, 16, 21;xviii, 1,5). A. von Gall,

whose opinion Welhausen thinks the best sustained,
oontenda that Meribar (D. V. Temptati "
xvii, 7) is identical with Cades (Num., xxxm, ao;
xxvii, 14), that the Israelites never went so far south
as Jabal Mllsa, and hence that Sinai must be looked
for in Madian on the east coast of Akabar. Others
(cf. Winckler, II, p. 29; Smend p. 35. n, 2; and WcUl,
onn. cit. infra in bibliography) Took for Sinai in the
leighbourhoodof CSdea (AynQfldis) in Southern

miG);

CeJ. c,i :

--.-----, Ion. 1891);

.SiHf (LwdoD, laoe): D( VooOt. C^mtpla
rcnJiu di iAeaa. an loKrialimt (Puis, 10U7I; MiisTEUitiiH,
CiJi du m au /ourdnin (Psria. 1909); Commf,il,iru-M an St.
>ii. I •no. by Hdmheladbi (Piria. ISOT). Dii.uitN (Lcipiif,
tS9.),>Bil<iIhen>: Piuiia. n^Omr>a/(AtEi»iHi(CiUBbni)cs,
1S71); SAnuENTOH-GjtucaaN. Sinai lia'an. PUra (Pari), t9(M),
l-l-t.S; GARUUHHiKr, S. SUwia Afuihina PertsriiuUU (Romt,
ISKS): Len in, Rtiv »» TMvn tuick . . . Binai (Berlin. IB4S};
Wi.-<CKi.Bn. QiiA. fir. (Ldpiii:. ISBS): voNGti-i. AUitr. Kutif
KOUm (Giinn. ISBS): tJHKHD, Lthrb. do- AtUal. ReliBionJiadi.
(Froibutg iin Br„ 1890): Welbacskn. Prof, air Ouch. It.
(Bptlin, lOOS): WeiLt.. Lt ifjoar ((» /irollitn au- dttiri « b
Siimf <P(ria, 1909)1 VlooDROCI, DhK. dt la Biblt. i. v. Sintli
LAaH.iNniE, Le Siaal bMupu. in Set. Bibliqu' (1S9S). 309-89.

Nicholas Reagan.
SinftltlcuB Codsz. See Codex Sikaiticus,
Slnaloa, Diocese op (Sinaloenbis), in the Re-

■ ■ ■ Slexic ~

Its a

27,.^.')2"sq. mUes, and its popuUtion (1910) 323,499.'

, Culiacan, the capital of the state and residence of the

■Ex., bishop and governor, counts a population (1910) of
13,578. The present territory of Sinaloa was dis-
covered in 1530 by the ill~reputbd D. Nuflo de GuimoD
who founded the city of San Miguel de Culiacan. A
few Spaniards estabushed a colony there. The prov-
ince of Culiacan was soon obligea to face the terrors
of war brought upon it by the barbarous cruelties
„ ,--j- T, , of Nufio and his favourite, Diego Hcrnandes de Pro-
Palestine, alio. So frightened was Nufio oy the terrible iwrur-
Sinai was the refuge of many Christian anchorit<>3 rection that he removed Proaflo, placing in his stead
during the third-century persecutions of the Church. Criat<5bal de Tapia, whose humanitarian measures
There are traces of a fourth-ccntuty monastery near slowly restored confidence. Although colonised from
Mount Serbal. In 527 the Emperor Justinian built the beginning of the sixteenth century, most of the
the famotis con^-ent of Mt, Slow on the north foot of territory, excepting a few strong places, «~° <"i-»«<*~'

a tnh^fted

UNaUTOH 1

bjr fieroB {Mgui tribee, for whoae oonvanion th«
Jtsoits laboiued early in the seventeenth century.
After having subdued and evangelixed the IndianH of
. the mission of Piaxtla in a comparatively short time,
and after having turned over to the Bishop of Durango
the settlements under their control, the Jesuits ex-
tended their doniiiiation over the Indians living in
the northern part of the actual state and at the time
of their expulsion (by decree of Charles III) they fruit-
fully 'adnunistered the nussiona of Chinipae and
Sinaloa. In Chinipas they had residences at Guaao*
rapes, Santa Ana, Sccora, Moris, Barbaroco, Santa
Ines, Serocagui, Tubares, Sateb6, Baborigame.
Nabogame, and San Andrea; in Sinaloa (misj&i del
Fuert«) they had residences at Mocorito, Nio,
Guaaave, Clucorato, Mochirave, Batacosa, Conicuri,
Tehueoo, Ocoroni, and Bacubirito, It is notable
that the towns of the niLii6n del Rio Yaqui, wlu<;h
now belong to the Dioceae of Sonora^ were the
eluded in the mission ( ' "' ' "

Durango was founded .

then had belonged tc
the Diocese of Gua-
dalajara, became
part of it; on the
Tonndation (I7S0) of

n of Sinaloa. W^en the Sec of
1 1620, Sinaloa, which until

the Di<

a port <rf the latter.

da>ceof the bishop,
after having been
Buccessivcly at Aris-
peand Alamo, pawed
to Culiaoau, eapilai
ofSinaluaunlillKS3,
when Leo XIll
founded the Diocem
ofSinalihV whiclihad
formed part of the
ecclesiastical i)rov-
ince of Guadalajara,
and the Bishop of
Sonora removed to

Hennosillo. In 1891, Tb» Ca«i

when the new archi-

epificopal Sec of Durango was created, Sinaloa be-
came one of its suffragans.

The diocese has 1 seminary with 18 students; 10
parochial acbools; 3 collceei with 077 studcnU.

artinialakUtanadilaC.dt J.tn JVuesr JTiinAii (t>ueblii. IHSS).

Camillus Critelli.

Blnglston, HroB. See Srrewhburv, Diocese or.

UniCkcUA (Sknioalua), Diucgse or (Senoqai.-
U&NBIS), in the Province of Ancona in the Marches
(Central Italy). The city is situated on the Adriatic
at the mouth of the Misa, which divides it into two
parts. Maritime commerce, the cultivation and manu-
facture of Bilk, agriculture, nnd cattlo-raising form the
means of support of the population. The fortifica-
tions constructed by the dukes of Urbino and by the
popes stitl remun in part. Among the churches,
besides the cathedral, that of Santa Maria delle
Grane (1491) without the city walls deserves ineii-
iioD; it possesses a Madonna with six saints by Peru-
eipo, ana another Madonna by Piero della Francesca.
The name Senigallia records the Senones, a tribe of
Qaub who poMcssed this city before its conquest
by the Romans. The latter founded a colony here
«aUed Sena Hadria, but later the name most cnni-
monly used was Senogallia or Senigallia. In the
<5»il War (b.c. 82) it was sacked by Pompey, then
«ne <rf Solla's generals. It was pilla^ a second time
bf Aloric, A.D. 408. Under the Byzantine rale it
belonged to the so-called Pentapolis. Several times
in the sixth and eighth centuries the Lombards

3 BUaOAQUA

attempted to capture it, and, in fact, shortly bebos
the city wu bestowed upon the Holy See it was tha
seat of a Duke Arioldo, who in 772 owed alle^tuiM
to King Desiderius. It afterwards shared the viciss-
tudes of the March of Ancon^ and at the end of the
twelfth century was the seat of a count. In the won
between the popes and Frederick II it belonged few
the moat part to the party of the Guelphs, tor which
reason it sustained many sieges, and was in 1264
sacked by Percivalo Doria, captain of King Manfred.
Hardly recovered from this calamity, it fell into the
power of Guido di Monteteltro (1280). In 1306 it
was captured by Poudolfo Malatesta of Pesaro and
remained in his family, notwithstanding that they
were expelled by Cardinal Bertraudo du Poyet and
kter by Cardinal Albornoi (13.>5). In 1416 Ludo*
vico MigUorati of Ferrao and the cities of Ancona
and Comerino formed a Icngue against Galeotto
Malatesta, and captured Siiiiguglio, out they after-
wards restored it. Id 144i'> it was taken by Sigis-
moudo Malatesta of Rimini, who aLM secured the
investiture from
Eugenius IV and
fortified the city.

After various
vicissitudes Sini^^-
liawas (1474^ given
in ficT to Giovanni
della Rovere, a n^di-
cw of Sixtiis IV.
Ue married the last
heiress of the duc^
of L'rbino, of whida.
the city thus be-
came a part (1508).
In December, 1502,
Sinigaglia, which had
thrown open its
to Catsar
_ jTgia, WB8 tbesoene
of the oeld>rated
treachery by which
Boi^a rid himself
, the

Borgi

it came imder

popes. In 1683 Turkish pirates d ,

plundered the city. Smlgoglia was the birth'
place of Plus IX and B. Gherardo di Serra (four-
teenth century). The patron saint of Sni^glia
is St. Paulinua, whose body is preserved in the
cathedral (aa is attested for the first time in 1397).
He ia, therefore, not identical with St. Pauhnus
□f Nola, nor is it known to what epoch he be-
longs. Tlie first bishop of certain date waa Vonantius
(502). About 662 the bishop was St. Bonifaoius,
who at the time of the I«mbard invasion was mar-
tyred by the Ariana. Under Bishop Si^smundua
(c, GOO) the relics of St. Gaudentius, Bishopof Rimini
and martyr, were transported to Sinigaglia. Other
biahops of the diocese are: Robertus and Theodonus
(1057), frienda of St. Peter Domionus; Jacopo (123»-
1270), who rebuilt the cathedral which had been d^
atniyedin 1264 by the Saracen troops of King Man-
fred; Francesco Mellini (1428), an Auguetinian, Trt»o
died at Rome, auifocated by the crowd at a conaiatory
of EgeniuH IV. Under Bishop Antonio C^lombella
(1438), an Augustinian, Sigiamondo M^testa, lord
of Sinigaglia, angerod by his resistance to the destruo-
tion of certain houses, caused the cathedral and iJta
epiacopal palace to be demohshed. The precious
matenaJB were tranaportcd to Rimini and were used
in the construction of S. Francesco {tempio Malaita-
tiano). Vader Bisliop Marco Vigerio della Rotov
(1513) the new cathedral was begun in 1540; it was
oonaeerated in IWJ by Pietro Ridolfi (1591), a Ifiapied

811918

8ION

writer. Other bmhope were Cardinal Antonio Bar-
berini, a Capuchin brother of Urban VIII; Cardinal
Domenioo Poracciani (1714); Annibale della Genga
(1816)| who afterwards became Pope Leo XII.
The diocese is suffragan of Urbino; it has 48 parishes
with 114 secular and 78 regular clergy; 92,000 souls;
16 monasteries for men; 19 convents for women;
and 3 institutes for female education.

Cappbllbttx, Le ehieae d" Italia (Venice, 1857): Costbixi, H
poMoto « Vanenire di SenioaUia (Aacoli, 1890); MAiuii]m«
Saeurnone artiatiea per 8enig<MUia (Florence, 1886).

U. Beniqni.

8inl8y a titular see in Armenia Secunda, suffragan
of Melitene. The catalogue of titular bishoprics
of the Roman Curia formerly contained a see of
Sinita, in Armenia. When the list was revised in
1884, this name was replaced by Sinis, mentioned da
belon^g to Armenia oecunda, with Melitene, now
Malatia, as its metropolis. Ptolemy. V. 7, 5, mentions
a town called Siniscolon in Cappaaocia at Melitene,
near the Euphrates. Muller in his ''Notes k
Ptolemy" ed. Didot, I (Paris, 1901), 887, identifies
tins with Sinekli, a village near the Euphrates, ''ab
Argovan versus ortum hibemum", about nineteen
miks north of Malatia in the vilayet of Mamouret
ul-Ariz. But it seems certain that Siniscolon is a
mis-reading for ''Sinis Colonia", a form found in
several MSS. Ramsay^ "Asia Minor", 71, 272, 314,
reads Sinis for Pisonos m "Itinerar. Anton." and es-
pecially for Sinispora in the "Tabula Peutingeriana"
(Sinis, Erpa), and places Sinb Colonia twenty-two
Roman miles west of Melitene, on the road to
Csesarea. There is no mention of this town in the
Greek "Notitise episcopatuum" amon^ the suffragans
of Melitene, and none of its bishops is known, so it
seems never to have been a bishopric.

S. P^TRiDiss.

Sinna. See Sehna, Diogbse of.

Sinope, a titular see in Asia minor, suffragan of
Amasea in Helenopontus. It is a Greek colony,
situated on a peninsula on the coast of Paphlagonia,
of very early origin, some attributing its foundation
to the Argonaut Autolycus, a companion of Hercules.
Later it received a colony from Miletus which seems to
have been expelled or conquered by the Cimmerians
(Herodotus, IV, 12); but in 632 B.C. the Greeks
succeeded again in capturing it. Henceforth Sinope
aijoyed great prosperity and founded several colonies,
among them being Cerasus, Cotyora, and Trapezus.
The town took part in the Peloponnesian War, sup-
porting Athens. Xenophon stopped there with his
forces on the retreat of the Ten Thousand (Anab.
V. V, 3; Diodor. Sicul., XIV. 30, 32; Ammien
Marcel., XXII, 8). Fruitlessly besieged in 220 b.c.
by Mithridates IV, King of Pontus, Sinope was taken
by Phamaces in 183 b.c, and became the capital
and residence of the kings of Pontus. It was the
birthplace of Mithridates the Great, who adorned it
with magnificent monuments and constructed lar^e
arsenals there for his fleet. Lucullus captured it
and gave it back its autonomy. Caesar also estab-
lished the Colonia Julia Csesarea there in 45 b.c.
when his supremacy began. Sinope was also the
birthplace of the C3mic philosopher, Diogenes, Di-
philus, the comic poet, and Aquila, the Jew, who
translated the Old Testament into Greek in the second
century a.d. A Christian community existed there
in the first half of the second century, with a bishop,
the father of the celebrated heretic Mansion, whom he
expelled from his diocese. Among its other bishops
may be mentioned St. Phocas, venerated on 22
September, with St. Phocas, the sardener of the same
town, who is possibly to be identified with him;
Proheresios, present at the Councils of Gangres and
Philipropolis m 343 and 344; Antiochus at the Coun-
oO of Qiaksedon, 451 ; Sergius at the Sixth (Ecumenical

C>6\mci!, 681; Zeno, who was exiled in 712 for oppba*
ing Monothdiitism; Gregory, present at the Seventh
Council in 787, beheadedf in 793 for revolting gainst
the emperor J etc. A little before 1315 the Bishop
of Sinope, driven out of his see by the Turks, received
in compensation the metropoles of Sida and Sylseos
(Miklosich and MUller, ''Acta patriarchatus Con-
stantinopolitani", I, 34) ; the diocese must have been
suppressed upon his death, as it is not mentioned in
the ''Notitise episcopatuum" of the fifteenth century.
In 1401 a Greek merchant who visited Sinope found
everjrthinff in disorder sa a result of the Turkish
inroads (W&chter, "Der Verfall des Griechentums
in Kleinasien im AlV. Jahrhundert", 20); however,
the town, which had belonged to the Empire of Tra-
pezus from 1204 was not captured till 1470 by
Mahomet II. In November, 1853, the Turkish
fleet was destroyed by the Russians in the port of
Sinope. Sinope is now the chief town of a sanjak
of the vilayet of Castamouni, containing 15.000 in-
habitants, about one half of whom are Ureek schis-
matics.

Smith, Did. of Greek and Roman Geog. (London, 1870), s. v.;
Robinson, Ancient Sinope (Baltimore, 1906) ; Lb Qcibn, Orient
ehristianua (Paris, 1740). I, 537-40; VailrA. Lee Mouee 4e
Sinope in Befuys d^Orienl, XI. 210^12; CuxNST. La Turquie
d'Aaie (Paris, 1891). IV. 574-82.

S. VAihoA.

Sins agaixiBt the Holy Ohost, See Holt Ghobt,
subtitle VIII.

Sinuessa, Synod op. See MARCELLmus, Saint,
Pope.

Sion. See Jerusalem.

Sion, a titular see in Asia Minor, suffragan of
Ephesus. No civil document mentions it. It is
numbered among the suffragans of Ephesus in the
Greek "Notitise episcopatuum", from the seventh to
the thirteenth- century. [See Gelzer in "Abhand-
lunger der k. bayer. Akademie der Wiss.", I. CI.
XXI Bd. Ill Abth. (Munich, 1900), 536, 662; Idem,
**Georgii Cypri' descriptio orbis romani" (Leipzig^
1890), 8, 62: Parthey, "Hierocles Synecdemus e
Notit. gr. episcopat. (Berlin, 1866), 61, 103, 165.
167, 203, 245.] The names of only three bishops of
Sion are known: Nestorius, present at thie Council
of Ephec;^:-^ 431; John, at the Council in Trullo,
692; Philif represented at Nica?a, 787, by the priest
Theognis (Ic Quien, "Oriens christianus", I, 721).
Tliis author asks if Basil, Bishop irAXewf 'Atraltar rep-
resented au Chalcedon, 461, by his metropolitan
does not belong to Sion; it is more likely that he was
Bishop of Assus. Ramsay C'Asia Minor", 105)
thinks that Sion is probably the same town as
Tianae, or Tiarae mentioned by Pliny, V, 33, 3, &nd
Hierocles, 661, 8, and Attaca, mentioned by Strabo,
XIII, 607: but this is very doubtful. In any case
the site of Sion is unknown.

8. P^TRints.

Sion, Diocese of (Sedttnbnsis), a Swiss bishopric
depending directly on the Holy See.

History. — ^The Diocese of Sion is the oldest in Swit-
zerland and one of the oldest north of the Alps. At
first its see was at Ootodorum, now called Martinaeb^
or Martigny. According to tradition there was a
Bishop of Octodorum, named Oggerius, as early as
A. D. 300. However, the first authenticated bishop
is St. Theodore (d. 391), who was present at the
Council of Aquileia in 381. On the spot where the
Abbey of Saint-Maurice now stands he built a chureh
in honour of St. Mauritius, martyred here about 3001
He also induced the hermits of the vicinity to unite
in a common life, thus b^^inning the Abbey of SainV
Maurice, the oldest north of the Alps. Theodore
rebuilt the church at Sion, which had been destroyed
by Emperor Maximianus at the beginning of the

8I0N 15 SIGN

fourth oentuiy. At first the diocese was a suffra^^an mto the canton from Berne, Zurich, and Basle. In
of Vienne; later it became suffragan of Tarentaise. 1529 Bishop Adrian I of Riedmatten (1529-48), the
In 580 the bishop, St. Heliodonis, transferred the see cathedral chapter, and the sieben Z^rUen formed an
to Sion, as Octoaorum was frequently endangered by alliance with the Catholic cantons of the Confedera-
the inundations of the Rhone and the Drance. tion, the purpose of which was to maintain and pio^
There were frequent disputes with the monks of the tect the CatnoUc Faith in ^1 the territories of the
Abbey of Saint-Maurice, who were jealously watch- allied cantons against the efforts of the Reformed can-
ful that the bishops should not extend their jurisdic- tons. On account of this alliance Valais aided in gain-
tion over the abbey. Several of the bishops united ing the victory of the Catholics over the followeis ol
both offices, as: Wilcharius (764-^), previously Zwingli at Cappel in 1531 ; this victoiy saved the pos-
Archbishop of Vienne, from which he had been driven sessions of the Catholic Church in Switzerland. The
by the Saracens; St. Alteus, who received from the abbots of Saint-Maurice opposed all reli^ous innova-
pope a Bull of exemption ia favour of the monastery tions as enexvetically as did Bi^ops Adrian I of Ried-
(780); Aimo II, son of Count Hubert of Savoy, who matten, Hildebrand of Riedmatten (1565-1604), and
entertained Leo DC at Saint-Maurice in 1049. Adrian II of Riedmatten (1604-13), so that the whole
The last king of Upper Burgundy, Rudolph III, of Valais remained Catholic. Both Adrian II and his
granted the Countship of Valais to Bishop Hugo successor Hildebrand Jost (1613-38) were sgain in-^
(998-1017); this union of the spiritual and secular volved in disputes with the sie&en ZeAnlen in regard to
powers made the bishop the most powerful ruler in the exercise of the rights of secular supremacy. In
the valley of the Upper Rhone. Taking this donation order to put an end to these quarrels and not to en-
as a basis, the bishops of Sion extendMl their secular danger the Catholic Faith he relinquished in 1630 the
power, and the religious metropolis of the valley became greater psui; of his rights as secular suzerain, and the
also the political centre. However, the union of the power of the bishop was thereafter limited almost en-
two powers was the cause of violent disputes in the tirdv to the spiritual sphere,
following centuries. For, while the spiritual juris* Tne secular power of the bishops was brought to an
diction of the bishop extended over the whole valley end by the French Revolution. In 1798 Valais, after an
of the Rhone above Lake Geneva, the Couiltship of heroic stru^e against the supremacy of France, was
Valais included only the upper part of the valley, incorporated into the Helvetian Repuolic, and Bishop
reaching to the confluence of the Trient and the John Anthony Blatter (1790-1817) retired to Novara.
Rhone. The attempts of the bishops of Sion to During the sway of Napoleon Valais was separated
carry their secular power farther down the Rhone from Switzerland in 1802 as the Rhodanic Republic,
were bitterly and successfully opposed by the abbots and in 1810 was united with France. Most of the
of Saint-Maurice, who had obtained large possessions monasteries were suppressed. In 1814 Valais threw off
in Lower Valais. The bishops were also oppoBed by French supremacy, when the Allies entered the ter-
the patrons of the abbey, the counts of Savoy, ritory; in 1815 it joined Switzerland as one of the can-
who used this position to increase their suzerainty tons. As partial compensation for the loss of his sec-
over Lower Vamis. The medieval bishops of Sion ular power the bishop received a post of honour in the
belonged generally to noble families of Savoy and Diet of the canton and the right to four votes. Dis-
Vah^ and were often drawn into the feuds of these putes often arose as the Constitution of 1815 of the
fiuaiUies. Moreover the bishops were vigorously canton gave Upper Valais political predominance in
opposed by the petty feudal nobles of Vakus, who, the cantonal government, notwithstanding the fact that
trusting to their fortified castles on rocky heights, its population was smaller than that of Lower Vc^bMs.
sought to evade the supremacy of the bishop who was This led in 1840 to a civil war with Lower Valais,
at the same time count and prefect of the Holy Roman where the '' Young Swiss " party, hostile to the Church,
Empire. Other opponents of the bishops were the were in control. The partv friendly to the Church con-
flourishing peasant communities of Upper Valais, quered, it is true, and the influence of the Church
which were c^ed later the aieben ZekrUen (seven- over teaching was, at first, preserved, but on ao-
tenths). Their struggles with Savoy forced the count of the defeat of the Sonderbund, with which
bifidiops to grant continually increasing political rights Valais had united, a radical Government gained con-
to the peasant communities. Thus Bishop William trol in 1847. The new administration at once showed
IV of Rtfon (1437-57) was obliged to relinquish itself unfriendly to the Church, secularized many
dvil and criminal jurisdiction over the irieben Zehnten church landed properties, and wrung large sums of
bjr the Treaty of Naters in 1446, while a revolt of money from the bishop and monasteries. Whte in
his subjects compelled Bishop Jost of Silinen (1482- 1856 the moderate party gained the cantonal election,
96) to flee from the diocese. Walter II of Supersax negotiations were begun with Bishop Peter Joseph
(1457-^2) took part in the battles of the Swiss against von Freux (1843-75), and friendly relations were re-
Charles the Bold of Burgundy and his confederate, stored between the diocese and the canton. In 1880
the Duke of Savoy, and in 1475 drove the House of the two powers came to an agreement as to the lands
Savoy from Lower Vdais. The most important taken from the Church in 1848; these, so far as they
bishop of this era was Matthew Schinner (1499^1522), had not been sold, were |;iven back for their original
a hignl^ cultivated Humanist. Bishop Schinner, uses. Since then the bishop and the Government
fearing that PVench supremacy would endanger the have been on friendly terms. The new Constitution
freedom of the Swiss, placed the military force of the of 1907 declares the Catholic religion to be the re»
diocese at the disposal of the pope and in 1510 brought ligion of the canton, and forbids any union of spiritual
about an alliance for five years between the Swiss and secular functions. The ordinances reflating the
Confederaev and the Roman Church. In return election of a bishop which have been in existence from
for this Julius II made the bishop a cardinal. In early times, at least, contradict this (see below). The
1513 the biriiop had succeeded in having his diocese present bishop is Julius Mauritius Abbet, b. 12 Sept.,
separated from the Archdiocese of Tarentaise and 1845, appointed auxiliary bishop cum jure ntccessioniB

S laced directly under the control of the pope. The 1 Oct., 1895, succeeded to the see 26 Feb., 1901.

efeat of the Swiss in 1515 at the battle of Marignano, SlatUtics. — The boundaries of the Diocese of Valais

at which Schinner himself fought, weakened his posi- have hardly been changed since it was founded; the

tion in the diocese, and the arbitrary rule of his diocese includes the Upper Rhone Valley, that is, the

brothers led to a revolt of his subjects; in 1518 he was Canton of Valais, with exception of the exempt Ab-

obliged to teave the diocese. bey of Saint-Maurice, and of the Catholic inhabitants

The new doctrines of the Reformation found little of Saint-Gin^lph, who belong to the French Diocese

aoo^tanoe in Valais, althouc^ preacfa^ni were sent of Annecy; it also includes the parishsff of Bex and

8I01IITA

SlOm: FALLS

Aigle that belong to the Canton of Vaud. In 1911
the diocese had 11 deaneries, 125 parishes, 70 ohap-
lainciesi 208 secular priests, 135 regular priests and
professed, about 120,000 Catholics. Nearly 30 per
cent of the population of the diocese speak German,
and nearly 65 per cent French; the langua^ of the
rest of the population is Italian. The bishop is elected
by the denominationally mixed Great Council from a
list of four candidates pres^ited by the cathedral chap-
ter, and the election is laid before the pope for con-
firmation. The cathedral chapter consists of ten
canons; in addition five rectors are included among
the cathedral clergy. The clergy are trained at a
seminary for priests at Sion that has six ecclesiastical
professors and twelve resident students; there are also
six theological students studying at the University of
Innsbruck. The religious orders of men in the dio-
cese are: Augustinian Canons, with houses on the
Great St. Bernard, the Simplon, and at Martisny,
containing altogether 45 priests, 6 professed and 7 lay-
brothers; Capuchins, at Sion and Saint-Maurice,
numbering 22 priests, 6 students of theolo^, and 9 lay-
brothers. The exempt abbey of Augustinian Canons
at Saint-Maurice contains 46 priests, 9 professed and
lay-brothers. The orders and congregations of nuns
in the diocese are: Bemardinea at Colombay : Hospital
Sisters at Sion; Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul at Saint-
Maurice; Franciscan Nuns, at the same place; Sisters
of Charity of the Holy Cross at Sion, Leuk, and Leu-
kerbad; Ursuline Nuns at Sion and Brieg.

Briguvt, VaUena ehrisl. aeu duee. Sedunennt hUt. aacra (Sion,
1744); BoccABD, Hiai. du Valais (Geneva, 1844); Burgbner,
IHe HtHioen de» %oaUi$€r Landea (Einsiedeln, 1857); Gbbmauo,
Cataloffu^ dea Mqwa de Sion (Lauaanne. 1854); Idbu, Doc
rdtUifa d Vhist. du Valaia (Lausanne. 1875-84); Gat. Hiat. du
VoiatA (Geneva, 1888-89); Idem, Milangea d*hiat, talaiaanne
(petKtvtk, 189n; Rameau, Le Vaiaia hiat. (Sion, 1801); BOcBt,
Dm kath. Kircha der Schweit (Munich, 1002) ; Boubbon, L'arch*
evAjue a. VuUchaira (Fribourg, 1900) ; Milangea d'hiat. et d*archSol,
da la aoc. halvitique de Saint- Maurice (1901); Gbenat. Hiat,
modeme du Valaia J6S6-1816 (Geneva, 1904); Bbsbon. Raeherehea
aur lea orig. dea iticMa de Genive, Lauaanntj, Sion, etc. (JParis,
1900); Statua venerabilia- cleri diatc. Sedunen. (Sion, 1911); BUUler
aw« der unUiaer Geach. (Sion, 1899 — ).

Joseph Lins.
Sionita. See Gabriel Sionita. •

Sioux City, Diocese of (Siopoutan.), erected 15
Jan., 1902, by Leo XIII. The establishment of this
diocese was provided for in the Bull appointing Most
Rev. John J. Keane, D.D., to' the Archbishopric of
Dubuque on 24 Jul}', 1900. This provision was made
on the occasion of that appointment for the reason
that the new diocese was taken entirely from the
Archdiocese of Dubuque. It comprises twenty-four
counties in north-western Iowa, including a territory
of 14;518 square miles. Sioux City is on the extreme
Hmit of the western boundary of Iowa, situated on
the east bank of the Missouri River, about one hun-
dred miles north of Omaha. With the exception of
Des Moines, the capital, it is the largest and most en-
terprising municipality in the State of Iowa, oontain-
in^ a population of between fifty and sixty thousand.
It IS in the midst of a large and rich agricultural coun-
tnr^ and relies chiefly on the products of the soil, of
which the staple article is com; consequently grain-
packing is the chief industry of Sioux City. The
Cathobc population of the diocese is almost sixty
thousand. It has 138 churches, including missions,
122 priests, of whom 6 are religious (4 Fnars Minor
and 2 Fathers of the Sacred Heart); 53 parochial
schools, with 4 hospitals; 4 academies; 2 schools of
domestic science; an orphanage, a Good Shepherd
home, an infant asylum, a home for the aged, and a
working girls' home. There are 7327 children in the
parish schools, and nearly 8000 under Catholic care.
The composition of the Catholic population of the
diocese is English-speaking and German. These form
the principal elements of the Church's membership
here, and are almost equally divided in numbers.
A characteristic fe^iture of western Catholicism is

maoileBt here as In other western diooeees, that ia the
ardent deedre of the people for paroohial schoola
wherever it is possible. Out of the 10,000 children
of school age U- e. under seventeen years) in the
diocese, three-fourths are in parochial schools, The
following orders conduct schools and charitable institu-
tions in Uie dyiocese: Sisters of Charity B.V.M., Sisters
of Christian Charity, Sisters of St. Dominic, Sisters of
St. I^ancis (Dubuque, Iowa), Franciscan Sisters (Clinr
ton, Iowa), Franciscan Sisters of Perpetual Adoration,
School Sisters of St. Francis, Presentation Nuns, Ser-
vants of Mary, Sisters of St. Benedict, Sisters of
Mercy, Sisters of the Good Shepherd.

Since its establishment nine years ago, the diocese
is thoroughly organised and has been constantly
esroanding by the erection of churches, schools, and
other institutions. The present bishop, the Right
Reverend Philip J. Garrigan, D.D., first bishop of
the diocese, was bom in Ireland in the early forties,
came to this country with his parents, and received his
elementary education in the public schools of Lowell,
Mass. He pursued his classical course at St. Charles's
College, Ellicott City, Maryland, and course^ of
philosophv and theology » at the Provincial Seminary
of New York at Troy, where he was ordained on 11
June, 1870. After a short term as curate of St.
John's Church, Worcester, Massachusetts, he was
i^pointed director of the Troy seminary for three
years; and was for fourteen years afterwards pastor
of St. Bernard's Church, Fitchburg, Massachusetts.
In the fall of 1888 he was appointed first vice-rector of
the Catholic University at Washington, D. C, which
position he also held for fourteen vears. He was
named Bishop of Sioux Citv on 21 March, 1902, and
consecrated at the see of his home diocese, Springfield,
Massachusetts, on 25 May of the same year, by the
Right Rev. T. D. Beaven, and on 18 June following
took possession of his see.

Philip J. Garrigan.

Sioux Falls, Diocese of (Siouxormsnsis), suf »
fragan of St. Paul, comprises all that part of the State
of South Dakota east of the Missouri River, an area
of 34,861 square miles. The western portion of the
state, forming the present Diocese of Lead, was d^
tached from the Diocese of Sioux Falls, 8 Ausust,
1902. The early history of religion in South Dakota
(until 1879) must be sought for in the histories re-
spectively of St. Paul, Dubuque, and Nebraska. The
first Mass celebrated in South Dakota was in 1842,
in Brown County, by the late Monsignor Ravoux of
St. Paul on his first visit to the Sioux Indians; and the
first church erected was in 1867, by the late Father
Pierre Boucher, who was sent by Bishop Grace of St.
Paul to Jefiferson, Union County, to attend the
Catholics scattered about that centre. In August,
1879, the Vicariate Apostolic of Dakota, whose bound-
aries corresponded with the then existing civil boimd-
aries of the newly formed Territory of Dakota, was
established, and the Right Reverend Martin Marty,
Abbot of St. Meinrad's Benedictine Abbey, Indiana,
nominated Bishop of Tiberias and vicar Apostolic of
the now district. Bishop Marty was consecrated in
the Church of St. IVroinand, Ferdinand, Indiana,
1 Feb., 1880, by the Right Reverend Francis Silas
Chatard, the present Bishop of Indianapolis. The
vicariate was an immense district to govern (149,112
square miles) with scarcely any mode of travelling,
except by the primitive ox or mule teams. A few
miles of railroad existed from Sioux City to Yajikton.
The new vicar Apostolic went directly to Yankton,
where he took up his residence. He found 12 priests
administering to a scattered Catholic population of
less than 14,000 souls and 20 churches. Manjr and
heroic were the hardships endured by both bishop
and priests. At the close of 1881 Uie number of
priests increased to 37, the number of churches to 41

withSSstatioDS. ThcK were 8 ooDvanU, 3 aoadenuM tbe Bioux an virtually all within Uie United EKaM
fcffjroung ladies, 4 parochial schools for the white and and up to a comparatively recent period kept up
i swoola for the Indian children, while the Catholic dose connexion among the varioua bands.
population, including 700 Indiuia, numbered 15,800 N&ub and Afpiliation.— ^The name Sioux (pro-
aoula. The decade be^nuing with 1880, witnessed a nounced Su) is an abbreviation of the Frencji qidliag
wonderful development and the population increased of the name by which tbey were anciently known to
from 135,180 to 250,000. The statistics at the end their eastern Algonq^uian neighbours and enemiee,
of 1883 ^w 46 priestfl, 82 churches, 67 stations^ 4 vis. NadouMsioux, signifying "little snakes", i. e.
convents, 4 acadenue^ 12 parochial gohools, 6 Indian little, or secondary enemies, as distinguished from
Bcbools and a Catholic population, tnclutUng 1,600 the eastern t^adowe, or enemies, the Iroquois. Tlua
Indians, of 25,600 souls. The Territory trf Dakota ancient name is now obsolete, having been superseded
was divided by -^ct of Congress, 22 Februaiy, 1889, by the modem Ojibwa term Buatuig, of uncertain
and the two atatea, North and South Dakota, were etymology. They
admitted to the Union, 2 November, 1889. Tliesame call themHelvea
month witnessed the eccle^astical division of the Dakota, Nakota,
vicaiiate, and two new dioceses were formed, Sioux orLakota, accord-
Falls (South Dakota) ndth Bisliop Marty '\ta first ing to dialect,
bishop; and Jamestown (North Dakota), now Fai^, meaning "alUes".
with Bishop Shaoley (d. July, 1909) its first inoum- From the forms
bent. In ISM Bishop Marty was transfi^rrcd to the Dakota, Lakota,
Moce«eot St. Cloud,Minne!tota, where hediedlflSep- and Sioux are dfr-
tember, 1896. rived numerous
The efforts of Bishop Marty were crownnd with place-names with-
marvellous success. He devoted himself especially to m their ancient
tiie Indian race. He spoke their language and trans- area, including
lated hymns and prayers into their tongiie. The eocond those of two great
and present (1911) Bishop of Sioux Falls, the Right states. Linguisti-
Rev. Thomas O'Gorman, wau bum at Boston, Msssa- cally the Sioux are
chusetts, 1 May, 1843, he moved with his parents to St. of the great Siuuan
Paul, and was one of the first two students selected stock, to which i
for tiie priesthood by Bishop Cretin, the other was they have given |
Archbishop Ireland. Having pursued liia ecclesiastical name and of which i
studies in France, he returned to St. Paul, where he they themselves '

was ordained priest, 6 November, 1865. He was now constitute Snnwi Boll

pastor in turn of Itochwter a!id Faribault, Minn., and nearly three- *^""" ' Fhotflgrmpn

ni^ preadent and professor of dogmatic theology at fourths. Other cognate tribes are the Assiniboin,

8t, Thomas' College, St. Paul. In 1890 he was ap- Crow, Hidatsa, or Minitari, Mandan, Winnebago.

Cted Professor of Church History in the Cathofic Iowa, Omaha, Ponoa, Oto, Missouri, Kaw, Osage, aoa

'ersity, Washington, D. C, was con!«crated in Ouapaw, all excepting the Winneba.^o Uving westtrf

St. Patriclt's Cbureh, Washington D. C. (19 April, the Misaissip^ji; together with a number of tribes for^

■ by Cardinal SatoUi, then Apostolic del^ate merlyoccupyinK t^rritoriesinMissiaiippiand thecen-

to this country, and on 2 May, 1896, was in- tral regions of tie Caroliciaji and VirBijua,aJI: ._

stalled in the pro-cathedral of his episcopal see. tuallyextinct.exceptingahaQdfulofCalawbainSoutii

The statistics of the diocese then showed 51 secular Carolina. Linguistic and traditionary evidence indi-

and 14. regular priests, 50 churches with resident cat£ this eastern region as the original home of thuB

priests, 61 missions with churches, 100 stations, 10 stock, although the period and causes of the westward

ohapelB, 14 paruohial schools, 61 Indian schools, 2 migration remain a matter of conjecture. The Sioux

orphanages, and 1 hospital. liThere vf^ve 3 communi- language is spoken in three principal dialects, vii.

ties of men and 6 of women, wliile the Cathohc popu- Sant«e (pronounced Sahntee), or eastern; Yankton,

lati<m, whit« and Indian, was cstii^ted at 30,000 or middle; and Teton, or western, differing chiefly

■Olds. Bishop O'Gorman infused new life into the in the inC<Tchange of d, n, and I, as indicatal in the

diooeae. The population increased so rapidly that in various forma of the tribal name. The Asaimlxiin

1902 the Diocese of Load was erected. The statistics are a seceded branch of the Yankton division, having

of tho diocese (1911) are in prie^, secular 102, weparated from the parent tribe at some time earlier

regular 13;studentslO;churcheswithre^dentpriestB, than 1640.

91; missions with churehes, 70; stations, 23; chapels, HiaToar. — When and why the Sioux removed from

13; parochial schools, 23 with 2r5CX) children in at- their original- home in the East, or by what route

tendance; hospitals, 4. There are 3 communities of they reached the upper Mississippi country, are

mfm; Benedictines, Eudists, and the Clerics of St. unknown. When first noticed in history, about

Viateur. The communities of women are: Dominican 1650, they centered about MlUe Lac and Leech Lake,

SieteiB; Presentation Nuns; Benedictine Sisters; Sis- toward the heads of the Mississippi, Ju central Minne-

tera of the Third Order of St. Francis; School Sistera sota, having their e8sl«ra frontier within a day's

of St, Francis, and the Sisters of Charity of St. Louis, march of Lake Superior, From this position tbey

Columbus College at Chamberlain, in charge of the were gradually driven b^ the pressure, from the

Clerics of St. Viateur is an institution of great promise, east, of the advancing Ojibwa, who were earlier in

The Cathohc peculation, including 500 Indians, is obtaining firearms, until nearly tiie whole nation had

60,000. In the vicariate Apostolic of tliirty-one years removed to the Minnesota and upper Red River, in

MO, where there were only 1 bishop and 12 priests, turn driving before them the Cheyenne, Omaha,

there ore now. (1911) 4 biaaops and 284 priests, and other tribes. On reaching the buffalo plains and

DiiKttait AnMf; CalholU Dirtrtentw; pcneiul reoollBclion*. procuring horscs, HUppJemeiil*d soon thereafter by

Daiiiei. F, Desmond. firearms, they rapidly overran the county to the west

and south-west, crossing the Missouri perhaps about

BIooz IndUiu, the lai^t and most important 1750, and contmuing on to the Black Hills aud the

Indian tribe north of Mexico, with Ihe single excep- Platte until checked oy the Pawnee, Crow, and other

tion of the Ojibwa (Chippewa), who, however, lack tribes. At the beginninR of treaty relations in 1805

tbe aoKdarity of the Sioux, being widely scattered they were the acknowledged owners of most of the

on both ndes of the international boundary, while twrilory extending from cenlrul Wi.^con8in, across
XIV.— 2

nomc

SIOVZ

the MissiBBippi and Missouri, to beyond the Blftck
Hills, and from the Canada boundaiy to the North
Platte, including all of Southern Minnesota, with
considerable portions of Wisconsin and Iowa, most
of both Didcotas, Northern Nebraska, and much of
Montana and Wyoming. The boundaries of all
that portion Ijring east of the Dakotas were defined
by the great inter-tribal treaty of Prairie du Chien in
1825 and a supplemental treaty at the same place in
1830. At this period the Minnesota region was
held by the various Santee bands; Eastern Dakota
and a small part of Iowa were claimed by the Yankton
and their cousins the Yanktonai; while all the Sioux
territory west of the Missouri was held by bands of
the great Teton division, constituting three-fifths
of the whole nation.

Under the name of Naduesiu the Sioux are first
mentioned by Father Paul le Jeune in the Jesuit
Relation of 1640, apparently on the information of
that pioneer western explorer, Jean Nicolet, the first
white man known to nave set foot in Wisconsin,
probably in 1634—5. In 1655-6 two other famous
French explorers, Radisson and Groseilliers, spent
some time with them in their own countr^r, about
the western border of Wisconsin. At that time the
Sioux were giving shelter to a band of refugee Hurons
fleeing before the Iroquois. They were rated as
possessing thirty villages, and were the terror of all
the surrounding tribes 03^ reason of their number and
prowess, although admittedly less cruel. Fathers
Allouez and Marquette, from their mission of St.
Esprit, established at Lapointe (now Bayfield, Wis.)
on Lake Superior in 1665, entered into friendly rela-
tions with the Sioux, which continued until 1671,
when the latter, provoked bv insults from the eastern
tribes, retumea Marquette s presents, declared war
against their hereditary foes, and compelled the
abandonment of the mission. In 1674 they sent a
delegation to Sault Ste. Marie to arrange peace
throu^ the good offices of the resident Jesuit mission-
ary, Father Gabriel DruiUettes, who already had
several of the tribe under instruction in his house,
but the negotiations were brought to an abrupt end
by a treacherous attack made upon the Sioux while
seated in council in the mission church, resulting in
the massacre of the ambassadors after a desperate
encounter, and the burning of the church, which was
fired over their heads by the Ojibwa to dislodge
them.

The tribal war went on, but the Sioux kept friend-
ship with the French traders, who by this time had
reached the Mississippi. In 1680 one of their war
parties, descending tne Mississippi against the Illi-
nois, captured the Recollect Father Louis Hennepin
with two companions and brought them to their
villages at the head of the river, where they held
them, more as guests than prisoners, until released
on the arrival of the trader. Du Luth, in the fall.
While thus in custody Fatner Hennepin observed
their customs, made some study of the language,
baptized a child and attempted some religious instruc-
tion, explored a part of Minnesota, and discovered
and named St. Anthony's Falls. In 1683 Nicholas
Perrot established a post at the mouth of the Wis-
consin. In 1689 he established Fort Perrot near the
lower end of Lake Pepin, on the Minnesota side, the
first post within the Sioux territory, and took formal
possession of their country for France. The Jesuit
Father Joseph Marest, officially designated "Mis-
sionary to the Nadouesioux", was oneof the witnesses
at the ceremony and was again with the tribe some
twelve years later. Another post was built by Pierre
LeSueur, near the present Red Wing about 1693.
and in 1695 a principal chief of the tribe accompanied
him to Montreal to meet the governor, Frontenac.
By this time the Sioux had a number of guns and were
beginning to wage aggressive warfare toward the

west, driving the Cheyenne, Omaha, and Oto down
upon the Missouri and pushing out into the buffalo
pmins. During Frontenac's administration mission
work languished owine to his bitter hostility to mis-
sionaries, especially the Jesuits.

About the year 1698, through injudiciously aasist-
ing the Sioux against the Foxes, the French became
involved in a tedious forty-years' war with the latter
tribe which completely paralysed trade on the upper
Mississippi and ultimately ruined the Foxes. Boore
its end the Sioux themselves turned against the
French and gave refuge to the defeated Foxes. In
1700 LeSueur had buUt Fort L'Huillier on the Blue
Earth River near the present Maukato, Minn.
In 1727, an ineffective peace ha'Ving bera made, the
Jesuit Fathers, Ignatius Guignas and Nicolas de
Gonnor, again took up work among the Sioux at the
new Fort Beauharaais on Lake Pepin. Although
driven out for a time by the Foxes, they returned
and continued with the work some ten years, until
the Sioux themselves became hostile. In 1736 the
Sioux massacred an entire exploring party of twenty*
one persons under command of the yoimger Veren-
dryeat the Lake of the Woods, just beyond the north-
ern (international) Minnesota boundary. Among
those killed was the Jesuit father, Jean-Pierre AuE
neau. In 1745-6, the Foxes having been finaUv
crushed, De Lusignan again arranged peace with
the Sioux, and between them and Uie Ojibwa, and
four Sioux chiefs returned with him to Montreal.
On the faU of Canada the Sioux, in 1763, sent dele-
gates to the English post at Green Bay with proffers
of friendship and a request for traders. They were
described as "certainly the greatest nation of In-
dians ever yet found'', holding all other Indians as
"their slaves or dogs''. Two thousand of their war-
riors now had guns, while the other and larger portion
still depended upon the bow, in the use of which, and
in dancing, they excelled the other tribes.

In the winter of 1766-7 the American traveller,
Jonathan Carver, spent several months with the San-
tee visiting their burial-eround and sacred cave near
the present St. Paul^ ana witnessing men and women
gashing themselves m frenzied grief at their bereave-
ment. Soon after this period the eastern Sioux defin-
itively abandoned the MiUe Lac and Leech Lake
country to their enemies the Ojibwa, with whom the
hereditary war still kept up. Tlie final engagement
in this upper region occurred in 1768 when a great
canoe fleet of Sioux, numbering perhaps five hundred
warriors, while descendinp[ tne Mississippi from a
successful raid upon the Ojibwa, was ambushed near
the junction of Crow Wing River and entirely defeated
by a much smaller force of the latter tribe. In 1776
peace was again made between the two tribes through
the efforts of the English officials in order to secure
their alliance in the coming Revolutionary struggle.
The peace lasted until the close of the Revolutionary
War, in which both tribes furnished conting^ts
against the American frontier, after which the warriors
returned to their homes, and the old feud was resumed.
In the meantime the Teton Sioux, pressing westward,
were gradually pushing the Arikara (Ree) up the
Missouri, and by acquu^g horses from the plains
tribes had become metamorphosed from canoe men
and gatherers of wild rice into an equestrian race of
nom^ buffalo hunters.

Some years after the close of the Revolution, per^
haps about 1796, French traders in the Anaencan
interest ascended the Missouri from St. Louis and
established posts among the Yankton and Teton.
In 1804 the first American exploring expedition,
under Captains Lewis and Clark, ascended the river,
holding councils and securing the allegiance of the
Sioux and other tribes, and then crossing the moun-
tains and descending the Columbia to the Pacific,
returning over nearly the same route in 1806. * Ac a

mult of this aoquuntaace die Gist Sionx (Yankton) of ah Indian mother, he had been taken to Canada.
dtJegation visited Waehin^toa in Ihn latter year, when a small boy, by his French father, a noted
At the some time, 1806-fi,Xieat«nant Zebulon Pike trader, and placed under the care of a Catholic
■Bcwded the Missiseippi on a similar errand to the ^ieet, from vhom he acquired eome knowledge of
Sautee Sioui and other tribes of tiiat region. In this Frraich and of the Christian reli^on. The death of
be was succtWul and on 23 September, 1805, nego- his father a few years later and his cooiequent return
tiated the firat treaty of the Siouz with the United to the Sioux country put an end to his educational
States, by which they ceded lands in the vidnity of opportunity, but the early impression thus made was
the present St. Paul for the eetabliehment of military never effaced. On coming to manhood and suoeeed-
posbi, at the same time ^ving up their Engiiah flags ing to bis father's business he sent across tiie ooeon,
ftnd medals and acceptmg American one«. Up to probably through Dickson, the British tnder, tot a
thJB period and for some years later the rapidly French Bible (which, when it came, was Proteatant)
diverging bands of the east and west still held an and tben hired a cLerk who could read it to him. On
annusJ reunion east of the lower Jamea River in the establi^ment
eaHtam Bouth Dakota. In 1S07 Manuel Lisa, founder of the poet at
rf the AmericanFurCompany, "the most activeand Prairie du Chien
indefatigable trader that St. Louis ever produced'.' he brought down
(Chittenden), established head(]uarters amon^ the his Indian wife
Bioux, at Cedar Island, below the present Pierre, and had her regu-
S. D.. later moving down to about the present larly married to
Chamberlain. Lisa was a Spaniard, and like hie him by a Catholic
PrMich associates, Chouteau, M^ard, and Trudeau, priest, he himself
was a Catholic. At his seversJ trading posts among having previously
the Teton and Yankton Sioux, and the Omaha lower instructed her in
down the river, he showed the Indians how to plant religion as well as
gardens and care for cattle and hogs, beBidee setting he could. When
up blacksmith shops for their benefit, without charge, the Congregation-
and caring for their aged and helpless, so that it was atists arrived he
said that he was better loved by the Sioux than any welcomed them as
other white man of his time. Being intensely Amer- bringing Chrie-
icsn in feeling, he was appointed first government tianity, even
agent for the upper Missouri River tribes, and by his .thou^ not of the
great inSuence with them held them steady for the form of bia child-
United States throughout the War of 1812, notwith- hood teacher. He
standing that most of the eastern, or Santce, Sioux, died in 1846.
through the efforts of Tecumtha and a resident Brit- In 1841 Father
ish trader, Robert Dickson, declared for England and Augustine Ravoux

furnished a contingent against Fort Meigs. Lisa began work among the Santee in the neidlhouHiood
died in 1820. At the close of the war, by a series of of Fort Snelling, near which Father Galtier had just
five similar treaties made 15 July, 1815, at Portage built a log chapel of St. Paul, around which grew the
des Sioux, above St. Louis, the various Sioux bands modem city. Applying himself to tie study of the
made then peace with the United States and finally language, in which he soon became proficient. Father
acknowledged its sovereignty. Other late hostile R&vouxin 1843repairedtoPrairicdu Chien, and there
tribes made peace at the same time. This great with his own hands printed a small devotional work,
treaty gathering, the most important ever held with "Katolik Wocekiye Wowapi Kin", which is stQl
the tribes of the Middle West, marks the beginning used as a mission manual. He continued with the
of their modem history. In 1820 Fort Snelling was tribe for several years, extending his ministrations
built at the present Minneapolis to control the Santee also to the Yankton, until recalled to parish work.
Sioux and Ojibwa, an agency being also established As carlv at least as 1840 the greatJesuitapostleof the
at the same time. In 1825 another peat treaty North-West, Father P. J. De Smet, had visited the
uttherio^ was convened at Prairie du Chien tor the bands along the Missouri River, where Father Chris-
delimitation of tribal boundaries to put an end to tian Hoecken had preceded him in 1837, instructing
inter-tribal wars, and clear the way for future land adults and baptizing children. Father De Smet
cessions. At this po'iod, and for years after, the made several other brief stops later on his way to and
Sioux led bU other tribes in the volume of their fur from the Rocky Mountain mirarions, and in the mun-
trade, consisting chiefly of buffalo robes and beaver mer of 1848 spent several months in the camps of the
Ains. BrulS and Ogalala, whom he found well disposed to
With the establishment of permanent government Christianity. In 1850 Father Hoecken was again
relations regular mission work be^on. In 1834 the with the Yankton and Teton, but the design to cetab-
brothers Samuel and Gideon Pond, for the Congre- lish a permanent mission was frustrated by hia

Etionaliats, located among the Santee at Lake Cal- untimely death from cholera, 19 June, 1851. In the

un, near the present St. Paul, Minn, In 1835 the same summer Father Dc Smet attended the great

same denomination established other missions at inter-tribal gathering at Fort Laramie, where for

Lake Harriet and I.r.c-qui-I'arle, Minn,, under Rev, several weeks he preached daily to the Sioux and other

J. D. Stevens and Thimas Williamson respectively, tribes, bap tiling over fifteen hundred chiMren. From

In 1837 Williamson wan joined by Rev, Stepnen Ri^ that period until his death in 1872 a large portion

and his son Alfred, In 1^.12 the two last-named mis- of hia time was given to the western Sioux, among

aom were removed to th* upper Minnesota in con- whom his influence was so great that he was several

sequence of a treaty cession. All of these workers times called in by the Government to assist in treaty

are known for their linguistic contributions as well negotiations, notably in the great peace treaty n

as (or thoir missionary service. In 1837 a. Lutheran 1888.

missian was eat^lished at Red Wing and continued In 1837 the Sioux sold all of their rcmainmg terri-

for some years. Theeuccessfulestablishment of these tory east of the Mississippi. In the winter of 1837-8

_.._! - - g jyg (jijefly to the encouragement and smallpox, introduced from a passing steamer, swept

tTorded by Joseph Renville, a remaricable over all the tribes of the upper Missouri River, killing

rhostoodbighintherespect and affection perhaps 30,000 Indians, of whom a large proportion

m Sioux. Burn in the wildemees in 1779 were Sktux. About the same time the war with the

8IOUZ

SIOUX

Ojibwa on the eastfirn frontier broke out again with
greater fury than ever. In a battle near the present
Stillwater, Minn., in June, 1839| some 60 Oiibwawere
slain and shortly afterward a Sioux raidins party
surprised an Ojibwa camp in the absence of the war-
riors and brought away 91 scidps. In 1851 the var-
ious Santee bands sold all their remaining hnds in
Minnesota and Iowa, excepting a twenty-mile strip
along the upper Minnesota River. Although there
were then four missions among the Santee, the major-
ity of the Indians were reported to have "an invete-
rate hatred" of Christianity. In March. 1857, on
some trifling provocation, a small band of renegade
Santee, under an outlawed chief, Inkpaduta, ''scar-
let Point,'' attacked the scattered settlements about

risons and the general unrest consequent upon the
Civil War also encouraged to revolt. The trouble
began 2 August with &n attack upon the agency store-
house at R»iwood, where five thousand Indians were
awaiting the distribution of the delayed annuity
supplies. The troops were overpowered and the
commissary goods seized, but no other damage
attempted. On 17 Aug. a small ^arty of hunters,
being refused food at a settler's cabin, massacred the
family and fled with the news to the camp of Little
Crow, where a general massacre of all the whites and
Christian Indians was at once resolved upon. Within
a week almost cver^ farm cabin and small settle-
ment in Southern Mmnesota and along the adjoining
border was wiped out of existence and most of the

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COITNTRY OF THE SIOUX INDIANS
As defined by Treaties In 1825,

vttli Moug BcMnratloDi ■• Cxbtliiff !■ ISM

gl^ Sioux Territory V7^ Qfihtoa Territory

ir ■■■1 Terrttorv conquered from the Sioujiby
[>■ -■ I the Ojibtrn ttithtn the hlstoHe period

Spirit Lake, on the Iowa-Minnesota border, burning
houses, massacring about fifty persons, and carrying
off several women, two of whom were killed later,
the others being rescued by the Christian Indians.
Inkpaduta escaped to take an active part in all the
Sioux troubles for twenty years thereafter. In
1868 the Yankton Sioux sold all their lands in South
Dakota, excepting the present Yankton reservation.
The famous pipestone quarry in south-western Minne-
sota, whence the Sioux for ages had procured the red
stone from which their pipes were carved, was also
permanently reserved to this Indian purik>se. In
1860 the first Episcopalian work was begim
among the (Santee) Sioux by Rev. Samuel D. Hin-
man.

In 1862 occurred the great ''Minnesota outbreak"
and massacre, involving nearly all the Santee bands,
brought about by dissatisfaction at the confiscation
of a large proportion of the treaty funds to satisfy
traders' claims, and aggravated by a long delay in
the annuity issue. The weakening of the local gar-

inhabitants massacred, in many cases with devilish
barbarities, excepting such as could escape to Fort
Ridgely at the lower end of the reservation. The mis-
sionaries were saved by the faithful heroism of the
Christian Indians, who, as in 1857, stood loyally by
the Government. I>etermined attacks were made
under Little Crow upon Fort Ridgely (20-21 Ausust)
and New Ulm (22 August), the latter defended by a
strong volunteer force under Judge Charles Flandrau.
Both attacks were finally repulsed. On 2 Sept. a
force of 1500 regulars and volunteers under Cobnel
(afterwards General) H. H. Sibley defeated the hoe-
tiles at Birch Coulee and again on 23 September at
Wood Lake. Most of the hostiles now surrendered,
the rest fleeing in small bands beyond the reach 01
pursuit. Three hundred prisoners were condemned
te death by court martial, but the number was cut
down by President Lincoln to thirty-eight, who were
hanged at Mankato, 26 December, 1862. They were
attended by Revs. Rigi^ and Williamson and by
Father Ravoux, but although the other missionariea

8I00X

21 noux

had been tnenty-five years st&tioned with th« trib?
and spoke the languEige fluently, thirty-three of the
whole number elected to die in the C&tholic Church,
two of the remaining five rejecting all Chriati&n
ministration. Three years later Father Ravoux
again stood on the scaffold with two condemned
warriors of the tribe.

Two months afKr the outbreak Congress declared
the Santee treaties abrogated and the Minnesota
reservations forfeited. One part of the fugitive
trying to escape to the Yanktonai waa overtaken
and defeated with great loss by Sibley near Big

declared hostile, and Gen. W. 8. Usmey was bbqI
against them. On 3 September, with 1200 men, he
came upon their camp at Ash Hollow, Western
Nebraska, and, while pretending to parley on tbeir
proffer of surrender, suddenly attacked them, kHling
136 Indians and destroying the entire camp outfit.

Late in 1863 the Ogalala and Brul€ under their
chi^s, Red Cloud {MakJipiya-lula) and Spotted Tail
(Shinli-ifaleihka) respectively, became actively biM-
tile, inflamed by reports of the Santee outbreak and
the Civil War in the South. They were joined by
the Cheyenne and for two years all travel across tlu

_ . T l«ok refuge

_i Canada, where they are still domiciled. On 3
Sept. General Sully struck the main hostile camp
under Inkpaduta at Whitestonp Hdl, west of Ellen-
dale, N. D., killing 300 and capturing nearlv as many
more. On 28 July, 1864, General 8u!!y delivered the
final blow to the combined hostile force, consisting
of Santee, Yanktonai, and some northern Teton,
at Kildeer Mountain on the Little Missouri. The
prisoners and others of the late hostile bands were
finally settled on two reservations established for the
purpose, viz. the (Lower) Yanktonai at Crow Creek,
S. D., and the Santee at Santee, north-eastern Nebras-
ka. Here they still remain, being now well advanced
in civilisation and Christianity, and fairly prosperotis.
The outbreak ha<) cost the lives of nearly 1000 whiles,
of whom nearly 700 perished in the first few days of
the massacre. The Indian Iosh was about double,
falling abnost entirely upon the Banlee. Panana-
papi (Strike-the-Rec), head chief of Ihe 3000 Yankton,
and a Catholic, had steadily held hi.t people loyal and
the great Bnjl*5 and Ogalala bands of the Teton,
13,000 strong, had remained neutral. In October.
1865, at old Fort Sully (near Pierre), 8. D., a general
treaty of peace was made with the Sioux, and one
Teton band, the Lower Bruli^, agreeH to come upon a
reservation. The majority of ihe great Teton divi-
sion, however, comprising the whole sli'ength of
the nation west of the Missouri, refused to take part.

In tike meantime serious trouble had been brewing
in the West. With the discovery of gold in California
in 1849 and the consectuent opening of an emigrant
trail ^ng the North Platte and across the Rocky
Mountains, the Indians became alarmed at the dis-
turbance to their buffalo herds, upon which they
depended for their entire subsistence. The principal
complainants were the Brul£ and Ogalala Sioux.
For. the protection of the emigrants in 1849 the Oov-
emment bought and garrisoned the Ametican Fur
Company poet of Fort Laramie on the upper North
Platte, in Wyoming, later making it also an agency
headquarters. In September, 1851, a great gathering
of nearly all the tribes and bands of the Northern
Plains was held at Fort Laramie, and a treaty was
a^otiated bjf which the^ came to an agreement in
r^ard to tbeir rival tcrntorial claims, pledged peace
among themselves and with the whites, and promi!«ed
not to disturb the trail on consideration of a certain
annual payment. Father De Smet attended through-
out the council, leaching and baptizing, and gives
an interesting account of the gathering, the largest
ever held wiln the Plains Indian.^. The treaty was
not ratified and had no permanent effect. On
17 August, 1854, while the Indians were camped
about the post awaiting the distribution of the
annuity goods, occurred the "Fort Laramie Maf*<a-
cre", by which Lieutenant Grattan and an entire
detachment of 29 soldiers lost their livee while trying
to arreat some Bridies who had killed and eaten an
emigrant's cow. From all the evidence the conflict
was provoked by the officer's own indiscretion. The
Indiana then .took forcible possession of the annuity
goods and left without maldng any attempt upon
Uu fort or garrison. Tba BraM Sioux were now

plains wan virtually suspended, in March, 186S,
they were roused to desperation by the proclamatioQ
of two new roads to be opened through their beet
hunting grounds to reach the new gold fields of Mon-
tana. Under Red Cloud's leadership they notified
the Go\-emment that they would allow no new roads
or garrison posts l« be established in their country,
&nd carried on the war on this basis with such deter-
mination that by treaty at Fort Ijarainie through a
peace commission in April-May, 180S, the Govern-
ment actually agreed to close the "Monlana road"
that had been opened north from Laramie, and to
abandon the three posts that had been established
to protect it. Red Cloud himself refused to fflgn
untd after ihe troops had been withdrawn. The
treaty left the territory south of Ihe North Platte
open to road building, recognized all north of the
North Platte and east of the Bighorn Mountains »
uneedi>d Indian twritory, and established Ihe "Great
Sioux Reservation", nearly equivalent to ai\ of South
Dakota west of the Missoun. Provision was made
for an agenej-on the Missouri River and the inaugural
tion of regular governmental civilizing work. In
consideration of thus givinif up their old freedom the
Indians were promised, besides the free aid of black-
smiths, doctors, a saw mill, etc., a complete suit of
clothins yearly t<>r thirty yean to svery individoal
of tba Muida gooeariMd, nuad oo tto aotoal ynrty

32 8I0UZ

ceDBUfl. Among the official witnesses were Rev. • 1878 at Pine Ridiee and Rosehudi 8. D., respectively.

Hinman, the Episcopalian missionary, aad Father This date may be considered to mark the bmnning

De Smet. This treaty broiight the whole of the of civilization in these two powerful bands. In 1881

Sioux nation under agency restriction, and with its all the late hostiles in Canada, came in and surren-

ratification in February, 1869, the five years' war dered. Sitting Bull and his immediate followers,

came to a close. after being held in confinement for two years, were

In this war Red Cloud had been the i)rincipal allowed to return to their homes on Standing Rock

leader, Spotted Tail having been won to.friendsnip reservation. On 5 August, 1881, Spotted Tall was

earlier through the kindness extended by the officers killed by a rival chief. On 29 July, 1888, Strlke-the-

at Fort Laramie on the occasion of the death of his Ree. the famous Catholic chief of the Yankton, died

dau^ter, who was buried there with Christian rites at tne age of 84.

at her own request. The Cheyenne and Northern In the allotment of Indian agencies to the manage-
Arapaho also acted with the Sioux. The chief fight- ment of the various religious denominations, in
ing centered around Fort Kearney, Wyoming, which accord with President Grant's "peace policy" in
Red Cloud himself held under repeated siege, and 1870, only two of the eleven Sioux agencies were
near which on 21 December, 1866, occurred the" Fet- assigned to the Catholics, namely. Standing Rock
terman Massacre", when an entire detachment of and Devil's Lake, notwitnstanding that, with the
80 men under Captain Fetterman was exterminated exception of a portion of the Santee and a few of the
by an overwhelmmg force of Indians. Bv treaties Yankton, the only missionaries the tribe had ever
in 1867 reservations had been established at Lake known from Allouez to De Smet had been Catholic,
Inverse, S. D. and at Fort Totten, N. D., for the and most of the resident whites and mixed-bloods
Sisseton and Wahpeton Santee and the Cuthead ware of CathcUc ancestry. Santee. Flandreau, and
Yanktonai, most of whom had been concerned in the Sisseton (Lake Traverse) agencies ot the Santee divi-
Minnesota outbreak. In 1870 a part of the Christian sion were assigned to the Presbyterians, who had
Santee separated from their kinsmen in Nebraska already been continuously at work among them for
and removed to Flandreau, S. D., and became citi- more than a generation. Yankton Reservation bad
zens. In 1871, despite the protest of Red Cloud and been occupied jointly by Ptesbyterians and Epifico-
other leading chiefs, the Northern Pacific railway palians in 1869, as was Chevenne River reservation
was constructed along the south bank of the Yellow- in 1873. Pine Ridge, Rosebud, Lower Brul4 and
stone and several new posts built for its protection, Crow Creek reservations, comprising nearlv one-half
and war was on again with the Teton Sioux, Chey- the tribe, were given to the Episcopalians, who erected
enne, and part of the Arapaho. Several skirmishes buildings between 1872 (Crow Creek) and 1877 (Pine
occurred, and in 1873 General G. A. Custer was or- Ridge). At Devil's Lake an industrial boarding
dered to Dakota. In the next year, while hostilities school was completed and opened in 1874 in charge
were still in progress. Custer made an exploration of of Benedictine Fathers ana Grey Nun Sisters of
the Black Hills, S. D., and reported gold. Despite Charity. At Standing Rock a similar school was
the treaty and the military, there was at once a great opened in 1877 in charge of Benedictine priests and
rush of miners and others into the HiUs. The Sisters. Thus by 1878 regular mission plants were
Indians refusing to sell on any terms offered, the in operation on every Sioux reservation. Other
military patrol was withdniwn, and mining towns at Catholic foundations were begun at Crow Creek and
once sprang up all through the mountains. Indians Rosebud in 1886, at Pine Ridge in 1887, and at Che^-
hunting by aeents' permission in the disputed tern- enne River in 1892. In 1887 the noted secular nus-
tory were ordered to report at their agencies by 31 sionary priest, Father Francis M. J. Craft, opened
January, 1876, or be considered hostile, but even the school at Standing Rock and later succeeded in
runners who carried the message were unable to organizing in the tribe an Indian sisterhood which,
return, by reason of the severity of the winter, until however, was refused full ecclesiastical recognition,
after war had been actually declared. This is com- In 1891 he removed with his community to the Fort
monly known as the "Custer War" from its central Berthold reservation, N. D., where for some years
event, 25 June, 1876, the massacre of General Custer the Sioux Indian Sisters proved valuable auxiliaries,
and every man of a detachment of the Seventh particularly in instructing the women and nursing
Cavalry, numbering 204 in all, in an attack upon the the sick of the confederated Grosventres, Arikara,
main camp of the hostile Sioux and Cheyenne, on and Maijdan. Later on several of them won eom-
the Little Bi^om River in south-eafltern Montana, mendation as volunteer nurses in Cuba during the
On that day and the next, in the same vicinitv. other Spanish War. This zealous sisterhood is no longer
detachments under Reno and Benteen sustained aesper- in existence. In 1889, after long and persistent
ate conflicts with the Indians, with the loss of some opposition by the older chiefs, the "Great Sioux
sixty more killed. The Indians, probably numbering Reservation" was cut in two and reduc^ by
at least 2500 warriors with their mnilies, finally with- about one half by a treaty cea^ion which inchided
drew on the approach of Generals Terry and Gibbons almost all territory between White and Cheyenne
from the norfia. TTie principal Sioux commanders Rivers, S. D., and all north of Cheyenne River west
were Crazy Horse and Gall, although SiUing Bull of 102°. The ceded lands were thrown open to
was also present. Red Cloud and Spotted Tail had settlement by proclamation in the next spring, and
remained at their agencies. were at once occupied by the whites. In the mean-
Several minor engagements later in the year resulted time pajrment for the lands was delayed, the annuity
in the surrender and return of most of the hostiles to goods failed to arrive until the winter was nearhr over,
the reservation, while Sitting BuU and Gall and their the crops had failed through attendance of the Indians
immediate following escaped into Canada (June, at the treaty councils in the preceding spring, epi-
1877). By a series of treaties negotiated 23 Sept.- demic diseases were raging in the camps, and as the
27 Oct., 1876^ the Sioux surrendered the whole of final straw Congress, despite previous promise, cut
the Black Hills oountiy and the western outlet, down the beef ration by over four million pounds
On 7 Sept, 1877, Crazy Horse, who had come in with on the ground of the stipulated money payment,
lus band some months before, was Idlled in a conflict which, however, had not arrived,
with the guard at Fort Robinson, Neb. In the same A year before rumours had come to the Sioux of a
month tl^ last hostiles surrendered. Soon after the new Indian Messiah arisen beyond the moimtains
treaty a large del^^ation visited Washington, following to restore the old-time Indian life, together with their
which event the Red Cloud (Ogabla) and Spotted dei)arted friends, in a new earth from which the
Tail (Biul6) agencies were ponaw^ently established in whites should be excluded. Several tribes, including

SIOUX

8I0UZ

the Siouzy sent delegates to the home of the Messiah,
in Western Nevada, to investigate the rumour. The
first delegation, as well as a second^ confirmed the
truth of the report, and in the sprmg of 1890 the
ceremonial ''Gnost Dance," intended to hasten the
fulfilment of the prophecy, was inaugurated at Pine
Ridge. Because of its strong appeal to the Indians
under the existing conditions, the Dance soon spread
among other Teton reservations until the Indians were
in a frensy of reli^ous excitement. The newly-
appointed agent at Pme Ridge became frightened and
cafied for troops, thus precipitating the outbreak of
1890. By 1 December 3000 troops were disposed in the
neidibourhood of the western Sioux reservations the
und^ orders of General Nelson Miles. Leading
events of the outbreak were: the killing of Sitting
Bidl, his son, and six others on 15 December, at his
camp on Grand River, Standing Rock reservation,
while resisting arrest by the Indian police, six of whom
were killed in the encounter; the flight of Sitting Bull's
followers and others of Standing Rock and Cheyenne
River reservations into the Bad Lands of western
South Dakota where they ioined other refugee
''hostiles" from Pine Ridge ana Rosebud; the fight at
Wounded Knee Creek, twenty miles north-east of
Fine Ridge agency, 29 December, 1890, between a
band of surrenderea hostiles under Big Foot and a
detachment of the Seventh Cavalry under Colonel
Forsyth. On 16 Jait,1891, the hostiles surrendered to
General Miles at Pine Ridge, and die outbreak was at
an end. With the restoration oi peace, grievances were
adjusted and the work of civilisation resumed.
Under provision of the general allotment law of 1887
negotiations were concluded from time to time with
the various bands by which the size of the reserva-
tions was still further curtailed, and lands allotted
in severalty^ until now almost au of the Sioux Indi-
ans are individual owners and well on the way to
full citLsenship. Indian dress and adornment are
nearly obsolete, together with the tipi and aboriginal
ceremonial, and the great majoritv are clothed in
citizen's dress, living in comfortable small houses
with modem furniture, and engaged in farming and
stock raising. The death of the old chief, Red Cloud,
at Pine Ri&e in 1909, removed almost the last link
binding the Sioux to their Indian past.

Rbuoioub Status. — in 1909 nearly 10,000 of the
25,000 Sioux within the United States were officially
reported as Christians. The proportion is now
probably at least one-half, of whom about half are
Catholic, the others being chiefly Episcopalian and
Pr^byterian. The Catholic missions are: Our
Lady of Sorrows, Fort Totten, N. D. (Devil's Lake
Res.), Benedictine; St. Elizabeth, Cannonball, N. D.

?ltandinK Rock Res.), Benedictine; St. Peter, Fort
ates, N. D. (Standing Rock Res.), Benedictine;
St. James, Poroupine (Shields P. O.), N. D. (Stand-
mg Rock Res.), Benedictine; St. Benedict, Stand-
mg Rock Agency, S. D. (Standing Rock Res.), Bene-
dictine; St. Alovsius, Standing Rook Agency, S. D.,
(Standing Rock Res.), Benedictine; St. Edward,
Standing Rock Agency, S. D., (Standmg Rock Res.)»
Benedictine: St. Bede, Standing Rock Agency, S. D.
^tanding Rock Res.), Benedictine; Immaculate
Conception, Stephan, S. D. (Oow Creek Res.).
Benedictine; St. Matthew, Veblen Co. (Britten P. O.J
8. D. (former Sisseton Res.), secular; (Jorpus Christ i,
Chevenne River Agency. S. D. (CUhey. R. Res.),
secular; St. Francis, Rosebud^ S. D. (Rosebud Res.),
Jesuit; Holy Rosary, Pine Rid^e, S. D. (Pine Ridge
Res.). Jesuit. The two Jesuit missions maintain
boarding-schools, and aro assisted by Franciscan
Sisters.^ The Immaculate Conception mission also
maintains a boarding-school, with Benedictine Sis-
ters. At the Fort Totten mission a monthly paper,
"Sma Sapa Wocekiye Taeyanpaha" (Black-gown
Prayer Herald), entirely in the Sioux language, is

published under the editorship of Father -Jerome
Hunt, who has been, with the mission from its foun-
dation. Notable events in the religious life of the
tribe are the Catholic Sioux congresses held in the
summer of each year, one in North and one in South
Dakota, which are attended by many high church
dignitaries and mission workers and several thousands
of Catholic Indians. Of some 470 Christian Sioux
in Canada about one-fourth are Catholic, chiefly at
Standing Buffalo Reservation, Saak., where they are
served from the Oblate mission school at Qu'AppeUe.

Organization and Culture. — ^The Sioux were
not a compact nation with centralized government
and supreme head chief, but were a confederacy of
seven allied sub-tribes speaking a common lanyiaae.
each with a recognized head chief and each subdivixfsa
into bands or viUages governed by subordinate chiefs.
The seven sub-tribes, from east to west, were: (1)
Mdewakantonwan (Mde-wakanton) Village (people)
of the ^irit Lake (i.e. Mille Lac); (2) Wakhpekute
''I^al Shooters''; (3) Wakhpetonwan (Wahpeton),
''Village in the Leaves'': (4) Sisitonwan (Sisseton),
''Village of the Marsh"; (5) Ihanktonwan (Yankton),
"Village at the End"; (6) Ihanktonwanna (Yank-
tonai), "Little Yanktcm"; (7) Titonwan (Teton),
"Villako of the Prairie". Of these, the finst four,
origintJlv holding the heads of the Mississippi, con-
stitute the Isanti (Santee) or eastern, dialectic group :
The Yankton and Yanktonai, about the lower ana
upper courses of the James River respectively,
together with the Assiniboin tribe constitute the
central dialectic group. The great Teton division,
west of the Missouri and comprising three-fifths oi
the whole nation, constitutes a third dialectic group.
The Toton are divided into seven principal bands,
commonly known as Ogalala (at Pine Ridge); Brul!§
(at Rosebud and Lower Brul6); Hunkpapa (at
Standing Rock); Blackf(X)t (at Standing Rock and
Cheyenne River); Minlconjii, Sans-Arc, and Two
Kettle (Cheyenne River). Among the more seden-
tary eastern bands chiefship seems to have been
hereditarv in the male line, but with the roving west-
em banas it depended usually upon pre-eminent
ability. In their original home about the heads of
the Mississippi the Sioux subsisted chiefly upon wild
rice, fishy and small game, and were expert canoe
men, but as they drifted west into the plains and
obtained possession of the horse their whole manner
of life was changed, and they became a race of equefr-
trian nomads, subsisting almost entirely upon the
buffalo. They seem never to have been agncultural
to anv great extent. Their dwelling was the birch-
bark todxfi in the east and the biiffalo-skin tipi on the
plain. Their dead were sometimes deposited in a
coffin upon the surface of the ground, but more often
laid upon a scaffolding or in the tree-tops. Food and
valuables were left with the corpse, and relatives gashed
their bodies with knives and cut off their hair in token
of grief. Besides the knife, bow, and hatchet of the
forest warrior, they carried also on the plains the lance
and shield oi the horseman. Polygamy was recog-
nized. There was no clan system.

To the Sioux the earth was a great island plain
surrounded by an ocean far to the west of which was
the spirit world. There were two souls — some said
four — one of which remained near the grave after
death, while the other travelled on to the spirit
world, or in certain cases became a wandering and
dangerous ghost. In the west also, in a magic house
up)on the top of a high mountain and guarded by
four sentinel animals at the four doorways, lived the
Wakinyan. or thunders, the greatest of the gods,
and mortal enemies of the subterranean earth spirits
and the water spirits. The sun also was a great
god. There was no supreme "Great Spirit'-, as
supposed by the whites, no ethical code to their
superoaturalism, and no heaven or hell in their

BXPXBO

8IPIB0

spirit world. Among animals the buffalo waa natu*
raUy held in highest veneration. Fairies and strange
monsters, both good and bad, were everywhere,
usually mvisible, but sometimes revealing them-
selves in warning portent. Dreams w»« held as
direct revelations of the supernatural. Taboos,
fastins, and sacrifices, including voluntary torture,
were frequent. Among the great ceremonials the
annual sun dance was the most important, on which
occasion the principal performers danced at short
intervals for four days and nights, without food,
drink, or sleef), undergoing at the same time painful
bodily laceration, either as a propitiation or in ful-
filment of a thanksgiving vow. The several warrior
orders and various secret societies each had their
special dance, and for young girls there was a puberty
ceremony. (For cults and home life see works of
Dorsey and Eastman quoted in bibliography below.)
In physique, intellect, morality, and general manli-
ness the Sioux rated among the finest of the Plains
tribes. Under the newer conditions the majority
are now fairly industrious and successful farmers and
stock-raisers.

Language and Literature. — ^The Sioux language
is euphonious, sonorous, and flexible, and possesses a
more abundant native literature than that of any
other tribe within the United State8,with the possible
exception of, the Cherokee.. By means of an al[)habet
system devised bv the early Presbyterian mission-
aries, nearly all of the men can read and write their
own language. The printed literature includes
religious wonts, school textbooks, grammars, and
dictionaries, miscellaneous publications, and three
current mission journals. Catholic, as already noted,
Presb3rterian, and Episcopal^ all three entirelv in
Sioux. The earliest publication was a spelling-book
by Rev. J. D. Stevens in 1836. In linguistics the
principal is the '^Grammar and Dictionary of the
Dakota Language", by Rev. S. R. Riggs, published
by the Smitfa^nian Institution, Washington, in 1852,
and republished in part, with editing by Dorsey, by
the Bureau of Am. Ethnology , Washington, in 1892-4.

Population. — Contrary to the usual rule with
Indian tribes, the Sioux have not only held their
own since the advent of the whites, but have appar-
ently slightly increased. This increase, however, is due
largely to incorporation of captives and intermarriage
of whites. We have no reliable estimates for the
whole tribe before 1849, when Governor Ramsoj'
gave them "not over 20,000", while admitting that
some resident authorities gave them 40,000 or more.
Ri^ in 1861 gives them about 25,000, but under-
estimates the western (Teton) bands. By official
census of 1910 they number altogether 28,618 souls,
including all mixed-bloods, distributed as follows:
Minnesota, scattered, about 929: Nebraska, Santee
agency. 1155; North Dakota, Devil's Lake (Fort
Totten) agency l986: Standing Rock agency, 3454;
South Dakota, Flanareau agency, 275, Lower Brul6,
469, Crow Creek, 997, Yankton, 1753, Sisseton,
1994, Cheyenne River, 2590, Rosebud, 5096, Pine
Ridge, 6758 . Canada : Birdtail, Oak Lake, Oak River,
Turtle Mountain, Portage La Prairie (Manitoba),
613; Wahspaton, Standing Buffalo, Moosej aw, Moose
Woods (Sask.). 455. Those in Canada are chiefly
descendants of refugees from the United States
in 1862 and 1876.

Bbtant ako MtmcH, Bist. of the Oreat Massacre hy the Sioxtx
indiana (St. Peter, 1872); Bureau Cath. Ind. Misaions, Annual
Reports of the Director (Washington) ; Annual Reports of the Dept.
of Ind. Affairs (Ottawa, Canada); Carvkr, Traeda through
the Interior Parts of AT. Am. (1766-8) (London, 1778, and later
editions); Catun, Manners, Customs arui Condition of the y. Am,
Inds. (London, 1841, and later editions) ; Chxttxkdbn. Am. Fur
Trade (New York, 1902) ; CHnrrBNOBN and Richardson, Life,
Letters and Travels of Fr. Pierre- Jean De Smet, (New York. 1906);
CoioassiONCR OF lm>. Aftairs. Annual Reports (Washington) ;
CondiHon of ths Indian Tribes, Report of Joint Special Committer

g^MhiagtoD, 1867)2 DqsaxT, Study of Siottan CuU$, in lith
ejK. Bur, Am. Eih, (Washington. 1894); KAVtuxn, Indian

Boyhood (New York. 1002); Idkm, Wigwam Kvening§ {BotMa,
1909): Vutwmn, Warpaik and Biaouat (Chicago. 1890)$ JSxt-
VKH, Conts. to the Sthnography and Pkilolooy cf the /no. Tritm
of the Misaotari VaUey in Tnme. Am, Philos. Soe., n. s., XII (Phtt-
adelpbaa, 1862); Hxnnbpxn, Dieoription de la Louisiane (Paris,
1683). tr. Sbka (New York, 1880) : HxNiuar and Wslab. /eumot
of the Rev, S, D. Hinman (Philadelphia, 1869): Jesuit Relatione,
ed. Thwaites, 73 vols., especially Ottaira and Illinois, Ir—lXXl
(Cleveland, 1896-1901); Indian Affaire: Laws and Treaties,
ed. Kaffjlbb. (Washington. 1903-4); Kxaumo, Expedition
iLono's) to the Sources of St, Peter's River (Philadelphia, 1824.
and later editions) ; Lswis and Clark, Original Journals of the
Expedition of J 804-0, ed. Tbwaitbb,8 vols. (New York, 1904-6,
numerous other editions more or lees ooxnplete, the fir^ offioia)
report being contained in the Message from the President, Waidir
ington, 18()6) ; McGee. Siouan Indians In I6th Rept, Bur, Am.
Euinologv (Washington, 1897); McKbnnxt and Hall, Hiet.
Ind. Tribes of North Am. (Philadelphia, 1854. and other ed>>
tiona); McLauohlin, My Friend the Indian (Boston, 1910);
Mallert, Ptctographs of the AT. Am. Indians In 4th Rept. Bur.
Am. Ethnology (Washington, 1886); Idkm, Picture Writing eg
the Am. Inds. in JOth Rept, Bur, Am^ Ethnology {Wasfaingtoiw
1893); Margrt. Dieouvertes et Hablieeements des Frantaie
(6 vols., Paris, 1879-86) ; Maxzmillan, Phincb or Wied, Travels
in the Interior of N. Am. (London, 1843; original German ed.
2 vols., Oiblens, 1839-41); Milxb, Personal ReeoUedione (Cfa»>
casp. 1896); Minnesota Hist. Soc* Colls. (187^1905); MooNsr*
Siouan Tribes of the East, Bull. Si, Bureau Am. Ethndogy (Wasl^
ington, 1895; Idem, The Ghost Dance Religion and Sioux Out-
break of 1800 in 14th Rept. Bur. Am. Ethnology, II (Washington.
1896): Neill. Hist, of Minnesota (Philadelphia, 1858); New
York, DocumtrUe Relating to the Colonial Hist, of (15 vols.,
Albany, 1853-87)Nicollet„ Report on . . . Upper Missiesivpi
(Senate Doc.) (Washington, 1843); North Dakota Hist. Soe.
CoUa. (2 vols., Bismarck, 1906-8) ; Parkman. Oregon Trail (New
York, 1849, and later editions); Perrin du hAC, Voyages dans
les deux Louisianes, 1801^ (Paris and Lyons, 1805): nxB, Expe-
dition to the Sources of tl^ Mississippi (Philadelphia, 1810);
PiLUXO, Bibl. of the Siouan Languages, Bull. 5, Bur, Am. EthnoU
ogy (Washington, 1887); Poole. Among the Sioux of Dakota
(Now York, 1881); Ramset, Report on Sioux in Rept. Comener.
Ind. Affairs for 1849 (Washington, 1850); Ravoux. Reminie'
cences. Memoirs and Lectures (St. Paul, 1890); Riooa, The Dakota
Language in Colls. Minn. Hist. Soe., I (St. Paul, 1851, reprint
St. Paul, 1872) ; Idem, Grammar and Diet, of the Dakota Lan-
guage: Smithsonian Contributions, IV (Washington, 1852); Idrm,
Tahkoo Wahkan. or the Gospel among the Dakotas (BoeUm, 1869);
Idem, Mary and I: Forty Years with the Sioux (Chicago. 1880);
Robinson, Hist, of the Sioux Indians in CotU. South Dakota
Hist. Soe., II (Aberdeen. &.D., 1904): RorcE and TaoMAa;
Indian Land Cessions in 18th Rept. Bur. Am. Ethnology, II (Wash-
ington, 1899); Schoolcraft, Travels . . . to the Sources
of the Mississippi (Albany, 1821); Idem, Hist. Condition and
Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the U. S. (6 vols., Philadel-
phia. 1851-7); Sheridan (in charm). Record of Engagements urith
Hostile Indians, etc., 1868-1882 (Washin^on, 1882) ; Shea, HisL
of the Catholic Missions among the Indian Tribes of the V. 8.
(New York, 1865): Idem, Disc, and Expl. of the Miseiseippi Val-
ley (New York, 1852; and Albany. 1903); Dx Smbt, Oregon
Missions (New York, 1847; Fr. editk>n, Ghent. 1848);
Idem, Western Missione and Missionaries (New York. 1863);
(see also CHrmmms and Richardson), South Dakota Hiet.
Soe. Colls. (3 vols., Aberdeen, 8. D.. 1902-6); Wall, ReeoUee-
tions of the Siotix Massacre (1862) (Lake City, Minn., 1909);
Warhen. Explorations in the Dakota Country, 1865, Senate
Doc. (Washington. 1856); Waiuien. Hist, of the Ojibstays in
Minn. Hist. Soe. Colls., V (St. Paul, 1885): Whipple, lAghU
and Shadours of a lAtng Episcopate (New York, 1899) ; Wiseonein
Hist. Soe Colls. (16 vols., Madison. 1855-1902).

Jamxs Moonet.

Sipibo IndianSp a numerous tribe of Panoan lin-
guistic stock, formerly centring about the Pisqui and
Aguailia tributaries oT the upper Ucayali River, Prov-
ince of Loreto. north-eastern Peru, and now found as
boatmen or labourers along the wnole course of that
stream. They speak the same language aa the
Conibo, Pano, ana Setebo, whom they resemble in
habit and ceremonial.

The Sipibo became known about the same time as
their cognate tribes early in the seventeenth century^
but opposed a determined resistance to the entrance
of lx)th gold-hunters and missionaries (1657), for a
long time frustrating all Christianizing efforts in th«
Ucayali region by their constant raids upon the mis-
sion settlements, particularly of the Setebo. In 1670,
in common with other tribes of that region, they were
greatly wasted bv smallpox. In 1736 thev broke the
power of the Setelx) in a bloody battle, but in 1764 the
Franciscan Father Juan de Frezneda entered their
country and so far won their good will that he suc-
ceeded in making peace between the two tribes and
in the next year (1765) established the first misBion
among the Sipibo under the title of Santo Domingo

81PIB0 2

de Piaqui. This waa Bborttf faUotrad hj the fouading
of S&nta Barbarft de Arcaani and Santa Ciui de
Aguaitia in the same tribe, together with » resum[>-
tioQ of work among the Conibo, first undertaken in
168G. Among other labourers in the Sipibo field at

AaoUSUUiI. VlLLAQI OH TBI PaCHTTU Ritu. Pbbd

this period waa.Father Jos* Amich, author of a history
of the ITcayaU missions. Suddenly and without wam-
ios in the summer of 1766 nil the river tribes attnckcd
the missions (iimultaneously, slsughtered nine of the
misaionaries together with their neophytes, and com-
pletely destroyed all that had been accomplished by
years of persevering sacrifice. Rungalo, a Sctebo
chief, who had profesaeil the greiiteat friendship for
the missionaries, appears to have benn the leader.
The reason of the outbreak was never known. It may
have been jealousy of authority, impatience of re-
strant, covetousncBs of the mission propeity, some
unrecorded outrage by the Spaniards on the frontier,
some dream, or supLTstitious panic such as arc of so
frequent occurrence among savages. A sraall relief
expedition sent out in charge oF three Franciscans the
next year Icampil the details of the massacre, and wa«
forced to turn back, but was permitted to retire with-
out molestation.

This la.st rising of the wild tribes of the middle
Ucayah was in some measure an echo of a similar

Ttxb

I UCATAU RlVBB

u bdD« pnwed oul.

rising of the wild Campa tribes on the upper branohes
of the same atream in 1742, led by Juan Santos, an
apostate Quiehua IndlMi, who assumed the title of the
InCA Atahualpa (we QmcarA), and resulting in the

5 SZPIBO

deBtruotion of all the missiona of that Kgion and the
slaughter of nearly eighty Fraooiscan missionaries.
Of this rising of the Campa, Herndon says: "It is
quite evident that no distaste for the Cathoho reli^oa
induced this rebeUioa; for in ihe year 1750, eight
years afterward, the Marquis of Miu»-henQOsa,
marching into this country for the punishment of the
rebels, found the churclt at Quimisi in perfect order,
with caudles buminK before tne images, lie burned
the town and church, and six years after this, when
another entrance into this country was made by Gen-
eral Bustamentc, he found the town rebuilt and a
large cross erected in the ihiddlo of the placa. I have
had occasion myself to notice the respect and rev-
erence of these Indian.'^ for their pastors, and their
deUght in participating in the ceremonial and sense-
strikii^ worship of the Roman Church." A similar
instance is recorded of the revolted Pueblos (q. v.),
aa also of the unconverted Set^bo. Following oloae
upon the massacre of 1706 came the expulsion of the
Jesuits by royal decree in the following year, and the
Ucayali region was ^iveu over to bartiariBm until
1791, when by direction of the superior of the FYan-
ciHcan college of Ocopa, Father Narciso Girbal with
two companions once more braved the wildemess
dangers and made " '

successful founda-
tion at Sarayacu
(q. V.) inti which
mission and its
branches most of
the wandering
river Indians were
finally gathered.

A description
of the Sipibo will
answer m most,
of its details for
all the tribes of
the Ucayali and
Huallaga region,
within the former
sphere of influence
of the Francisotui
misBionaries, with
the addition that
certain tribes,

partieulorly the ^ Sinso Trn

Coshibo, were

noted for their CMinibslism. There was verv little tribal
solidarity, each so-called tribe being broken up into
petty bands ruled by local chiefs, and seldom acting
together even Mainst a common enemy. They sub-
aiiSed chiefly on fish, game, turtlet^gs, bananas, yuccas,
and a little com, iwriculture, however, being but
feebly developed. The root of the yucca was roasted
ai) bread, ground between stones for flour, boiled or
fried, while from the juice, fermented with saliva,
was prepared the intoxicating maisato or chietui, which
was in requisition at all family or tribal festivals.
Salt was seldom used, but clay-eating was common
and sometimes of fatal consequence. Their houses,
seattered simply at intervals along the streams, were
of open framework thatched with palm leaves.
The arrow poison, usually known as evrari, was pre-
;>ared from the |uice of certain lianas or tree vmes
and was an article of inlertribal trade over a great
extent of territory. They either went entirely
naked or wore a short skirt or sleeveless shirt
woven of cotton or bark fibre. Head flattening and
the wearing of nose and ear pendants and labrets
were common. They blackened their teeth with
a vegetable dye. The modem dvilised Indians
dress in light peon fashion.

Although most of the tribes oould oount no hi^er
than five, their general mentality wns high, -
prop^Msed rapidly in oinliwd arts. Theii

_ -igh, and they
Their rdigion

toRkCa

snucivs

was animism, dominated by the ytUumi or priests, but
with few great ceremonies. As among all savages,
disease and death were commonly ascribed to evil
spirits or witchcraft. Polygamy was universal, the
women being frequently obtained by raids upon other
tribes. Among their oarbarous customs were the
eating of prisoners of war, and sometimes of deceased
parents, the killing of the helpless and of deformed
children and twins, and a sort of circumcision of
young girls at about the age of twelve years. A part
of the Sipibo still roam the forests, but the majority
are now civilized and employed as boatmen, rubber-
gatherers, or labourers along the river. In common
with all the tribes of the region their numbers are
steadily decreasing. See also Setebo Indians.

Cknmult particularly: Raimonoi. Bl Pent, II and III. Hitt, dt la
040ffra/la dd Peni, bka. i and ii (Lima. 1876-79). Raimondi de-
rives much of Mb information from a MS. history of the Fran-
ciscan missions, by Fernando Rodrigues, 1774, preserved in the
convent at Lima; Ideii« Provineia LUonU de Lordo (Lima, 1862),
condensed tr. by BobLamr in AfUhropological Heview (Lon-
don, May, 1863); Brinton, ilfiMrioan Race (New York, 1891);
Castblnau, BxoSdition dan* le9 partiet centralet de VAmirique
du Bud, IV (Paru, 1891) ; Ebebhabot, Indians of Peru in Smttk-
•on. MiteeL CoiU., quarterly issue. V (Washington, 1900), 2;
HsBNDON. Bxploration of the Amaton (Washington. 1854) ; Ofi-
DIMAIRE, Lee Sauvaoee du Ptrou in Revue d'Bthnographie, VI
(Paris, 1887) ; Smtth and Lowe, Jnwmey from lAma to Pard (Lon-
don. 1836).

James Moonet.
Sirach. See EccLEsiASTicns.

SIrieius. Saint, Pope (384-99), b. about 334; d.
26 November, 399.' Siricius was a native of Rome;
his father's name was Tiburtius. Siricius entered the
service of the Church at an early age and, according
to the testimony of the inscription on his grave, was
lector and then deacon of the Roman Church during
the pontiftcate of Liberius (352-66). After the death
of iJamasus, Siricius was unanimously elected his
successor (December, 384) and consecrated bishop
probably on 17 December. Ursinus, who had been
a rival to Damasus (366), was alive and still main-
tained his claims. However, the Emperor Valentinian
III, in a letter to Pinian (23 Feb.. 385), gave his
consent to the election that had been neld and praised
the piety of the newly-elected bishop; consequently
no oifficulties arose. Immediately upon his eleva*
tion Siricius had occasion to assert his primacy over
the universal Church. A letter, in which questions
were asked on fifteen different points concerning bap-
tism, penance, church discipUne, and the celibacy of
the clergy, came to Rome addressed to Pope Dar
masus by Bishop Himerius of Tarragona, Spain. Siri-
citB answered this letter on 10 February, 385, and
gave the decisions as to the matters in question, ex-
ercising with full consciousness his supreme power
of authority in the Church (Constant, ^'Epist. Rom.
Pont.'^ 625 sq.). Tliis letter of Siricius is of special
importance because it is the oldest completely pre-
served papal decretal (edict for the authoritative de-
cision of questions of discipUne and canon law). It is,
however, certain that before this earlier popes had also
issued such decretals, for Siricius himself in his let-
ter mentions ^'general decrees" of Liberius that the
latter had sent to the provinces; but these earUer ones
have not been preserved. At the same time the pope
directed Himerius to make known his decrees to the
neighbouring provinces, so that they should also be
observed there. This pope had very much at heart
the maintenance of Church discipUne and the obser-
vance of canons by the clergy and laity. A Roman
synod of 6 January. 386, at which eighty bishops were
present, reaffirmed in nine canons the laws of the
Church on various points of discipline (consecration
of bishops, celibacy, etc.). The decisions of the coun-
cil were communicated bv the pope to the bishops of
North Africa and probably in the same manner to
others who had not attended the synod, with the com-
mand to act in accordance with them. Another letter
which was sent to various churches dealt with the eleo*

tion of worthy bishops and priests. A miodal letter
to the Galilean bishops^ ascribed by Coustant and
others to Siricius, is assi^ed to Pope Innocent I b;y
other historians (P. L., AlII, 1179 sq.). In all his
decrees the pope speaks with the consciousness of his
supreme ecclesiastical authority and of his pastoral
care over all the churches.

Siricius was also obliged to take a stand against
heretical movements. A Roman monk Jovinian came
forward as an opponent of fasts, good works, and the
higher merit of^ celibate life. He found some ad-
herents among the monks and nuns of Rome. About
390-392 the pope held a synod at Rome, at which
Jovinian and eight of his followers were condemned
and excluded from communion with the Church.
The decision was sent to St. Ambrose, the great
Bishop of Milan and a friend of Siricius. Ambrose
now held a synod of the bishops of upper Italy
which, as the letter says, in agreement witn his de-
cision also condemned the heretics. Other heretics
including Bishop Bonosus of Sardica (390), who was
also accused of errors in the dogma of the Trinity,
maintained the false doctrine that Mary was not
always a virgin. Siricius and Ambrose opposed
Bonosus and his adherents and refuted their false
views. The pope then left further proceedings
against Bonosus to the Bishop of Thessalonica and
the other lU^ian bishops. Like his predecessor
Damasus, Siricius also took part in the Priscillian
controversy; he sharply condemned the episcopal
accusers of Priscillian, who had brought the matter
before the secular court and had prevailed upon the
usurper Maximus to condemn to death and execute
Priscillian and some of his followers. Maximus
sought to justify his action by sending to the pope the
proceedings in the case. Siricius, however, excom-
municated Bishop Felix of Trier who supported
Ithacius, the accuser of PrisciUian, and in whose city
the execution had taken place. The pope addressed
a letter to the Spanish bishops in which ne stated the
conditions under which the converted Priscilliana were
to be restored to communion with the Church.

According to the life in the "Liber Pontificalis''
(ed. Duchesne, I, 216), Siricius also took severe
measures against the Manichsans at Rome. How-
ever, as Duchesne remarks (loc. cit., notes) it can-
not be assumed from the writings of the converted
Augustine, who was a Manichsan when he went to
Rome (383), that Siricius took any particular steps
against them, yet Augustine woidd certainly have
commented on this if such had been the case. The
mention in the ''Liber Pontificalia'' belongs properly
to the life of Pope Leo I. Neither is it probable,
as Langen thinks (Gesch. der rdm. Kirche, I, 633),
that Priscillians are to be understood by this mention
of ManichsDans, although probably PnscilUans were
at times called Manichseans in the writings of that
age. The western emperors, including Honorius
and Valentinian III, issued laws against the Mani-
chseons, whom they declared to be poUtical offenders,
and took severe action against the members of this
sect (Codex Theodosian, XVI, V, various laws). In
the East Siricius interposed to settle the Meletian
schism at Antioch; this schism had continued not*
withstanding the death in 381 of Meletius at the
Council of Constantinople. The followers of Mele-
tius elected Flavian as bis successor, while the ad-
herents of Bishop PauUnus, after the death of this
bishop (388), elected Evagrius. Evagrius died in
392 and through Flavian's management no successor
was elected. By the mediation of St. John Chrysos-
tom and Theophilus of Alexandria an embaeqr, led
by Bishop Acacius of Beroca, was sent to Rome to
persuade Siricius to recognize Flavian and to re^
admit him to communion with the Church.

At Rome the name of Siricius is particularly con-
nected with the basiUca over the ipnve of St. Paul

SIKLXTO 27 UBHOm) ~

on t&e Via OstienBia which was rebuilt by the emperor self crested cardinal in 1S05, became Biriiop of San

aa a baolioa of five aMta duriiig the pontificate of Marco in Calabria in 1566, and of SqiiiOace in IMS.

SiriciuB and was dedicated by the pope in 390. An order of the papal secretary of stat«, however, en-

liie name of Siricius is still to be found on one of the joined his residence at Rome, where be was named, in

pillars that whs not destroyed in the fire of 1823, 1570, librarian of the Vatican Libmy, His iofluenoe

and which now stands in toe vestibule of the side was paramount in the execution of the aeientific un-

entrance to the transept. Two of his aontempora- dertakines decreed by the Coimcil of Trent, He ool-

lies describe the character of Siricius dispara^ngly. laboratcd in the pubucation of the Roman Catechism,

Paulinns of Nola, who on his viRt to Rome m 39fi presided over the Commissions for the reform of the

was treated in a guarded manner by the pope, speaks BomBS Breviary and Missal, and directed the work of

of the ur6tct papm sMperha diterttio, the haughty the new edition of the Roman Martyrology. Highly

policy of the Rtmian bishop (Epist., V, 14). This appreciative of Greek culture, he entertained very

action of the pope is, however, explained by the fact fnendly relations with the Elast and encouraged aU

that there hod been irregularities m the election and efforts tending to ecclesiastical reunion. He was at-

oonsecration of Paulinus (Buse, "Paulin von Nola", tended in his last illness bjr St. Philip Neri and was

I, 193). Jerome, for his part, speaks of the "lack buried in the presence of Sixtus V.

of judgment" of Siricius (Epiat.. cxxvii, 9) on ac- h,?HSS;^r"m^rf^i;Li^.'^ii ^?^'^\h^\^,'-

oount of the ktter'a treatment d Rufinus of Aqui- S^S^

leia, to whom the pope had given a letter when [^ x Webxb
Rufinus left Rome m 39^, which showed that he

was in oommunian with the Church. The reason, _ Sfimium (Szer£u), Diocesb of (Sirhibnbib),

however, does not justify the judgment which Jerome situated near the modem town of Mitrovits in

expressed against the pope; moreover, Jerome in his Slavonia; its church is said to have been founded by

polemi«il writings often exceeds the limits of pro- St. Peter. The district of Szer^m was subject to

I»iety. All that is known of the labours of Sincius the Archbishop of Kalocaa after the Christiam ration

refutes the criticism of the caustic hermit of Bethle- of Hungary. In 1228, the archbishop petitioned the

hem. "the "l^bex Pontificalis" gives on incorrect Holy Sec, m consideration of the large extent of his

date for his death; he was bnried in the txemelerium diocese, to found a new bishopric, and in 1220

of Priscilla on the Via Salaria. The text of the in- Gregory IX established the See of SzenSm, the juris-

BCription on his grave is known (De Rossi, "Id- diction of which covered almost exclusively the coun-

aeriptiones ehrist. urbis Ronue", II, 102^ 138). try on the right bank of the Sava River. The see

His feast ia odebrated on 26 November. His name was under the Turkish Government in 1526. It had

was insoled in the Roman Martyrology by Bene- no bishop from 1537 to 1578, and was held by a

diet XIV. titular bishop after 1624. In 1709 the see was r»-

Libr Pnar., td. Docamt, h xvi-i'I: Cornxrr. BpM. estabhshed with some changes in its territory.

g3!S!^£^«'j»^-ij5?ir»;^iBoii;^N^«.^; element XIV united it with Wiia and Diakovftr

dtrrtat. JC^e**, KBona. 1881), 611 wiq.; Rauscheh. Jahrt. dir m 1773.

tkriilL Kinlu (Frcibuif, IBST): OuuB. CucA. RtMu u. drr SrtBixTT. Vinditia SfrminuM (Buds, 174fl); Piai^n.

nWi(*,I,puMm:HamAXMUtk(>W«cA., II, 2iid«d., tS-4S.5t. nivricuH toowa, VU, 440-811; Put, Sptcmm HiarardUaa

J. P. KlBSCH. Bunma, II, SSZ-BS; A btUtilau Mtnarara^ (BudHpeM,

8lri«to, GTrauzLHO, cardinal and scholar, b. at A. XlsIbt.
Guardavalle near Stilo in Calabria, 1S14; d. at Rome,

6 October, 1685. The son of a plqrsician, he received SlrmotuI, Jacques, one of the greatest scholars of

an excellent edu- the seventeenth century, b. at Hit ■ ■• -»

cation^ made the ment of Puy-de-Ddme, France, (

acquaintance of Paris, 7 Oct., 16S1.

distinguished He entered the

Bcholara at Rome, Society of Jesus

and became an in- in 1576 and was

timate friend of appointed in 1581

Cardinal Marcelk) professor of clas-

C e r V i n o , later sical languages in

Pope Marcellus Paris, where he

II. He prepared numbered St,

tor Cervino, who Francis de Sales

was President of atnonE his pupils.

the Council of Called to Rome

Trent in ito initial in 1590, he was

period, extensive for sixteen yean

reports on all the private secretary

important que«- Xo the Jesuit su-

tions presenled for perior general, '

discussion. After Aquaviva, devot-

his appointment as ing his leisure mo-
custodian of the ments during the

Vatican Library, same period to

Sirkto drew up a the study of the

complete descrip- literary and historical treasures of antiquity. Hn

nve catalogue of its Greek manuscripts and pre- entertained intimate relations with several learned

pond a new edition of the Vulgate. Paul IV named men then present at Rome, among them Bellaimina

nim prothoootary and tutor to two of his neph- and particularly Baronius, to whom he was helpful

ew«. After this pope's death he taught Greek in the composition of the "Annalea". In 1608 he

and H^rew at Rom^ numbering St. Charles Bor- returned to Pari.), and in 1637 became confeeoor to

Rnaeo amot^ his students. During the concluding King Louis XIII. His first literary production ap-

period of the Council of Trent he was, although he peared in 1610, and from that date until the end of

Mntinned to reside at Rome, the constfuit and most his life almost everyvear witnessed the pubhcation

bteded adviser of the cardinal-l^at«8. He was him- of some new work. The results of his literary labours

8I6TIR8

are chiefly repreaented by edHiona of Greek and Latin
Christian writing. Theodoret of Cyrus, Ennodius,
Idatius of QaUicia^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Theodulph
of Orleans, Paschasius Radbertus, Flodoard, and Hino-
mar of Rheims are among the writers whose works
he edited, eitlier completdy or in part. Of great im-
portance were his editions of the capitularies of Charles
the Bald and successors and of the ancient councils
of France: '^Karoli Calvi et sucoessorum aliquot
fVanci» r^rum Capitula" (Paris, 1623); "Concilia
antiqua GaUis'' (Paris, 1629). His collected works,
a complete list of which wUl be found in de Backer-
Sonmiervogel (VII, 1237-^), were published in
Paris in 1696 and again at Venice in 1728.

Dk Backsb-Souubrtogel^ Bibl, de la com p. de Jims, VII
(Brussels, 1896), 1237-«1: CoLOMifcs, Vie du Pkre Sxrmand (La
Rochelle, 1671) ; Chalmers, Biog. Diet. (London. 181G). s. v.

N. A. Weber. .
Sis. See Flavias.

SlBinniuB, Pope, date of birth unknown; d. 4 Feb..
70S. Successor of John VII, he was consecrated
probably 15 Jan., 708, and died af ter a briefpontificate
of about three weeks: he was buried in St. Peter's.
He was a Syrian by oirth and the son of one John.
Although he was so afflicted with gout that he was
unable even to feed himself, he is nevertheless said
to have been a man of strong character, and to have
been able to take thought for the good of the city.
He gave orders to prepare lime to repair the walls
of Eome, and before he died consecrated a bishop for
Corsica.

Liber PontiAealia, I, 338; Mann, Thf Lives of the Popes in the
garlv Middle Ages, I. pt.>ii (St. Louis and London. 1902). 124.

Horace K. Mann.

Sisters of Charity of Cincinnati, Ohio. —

On 27 October, 1829, at the request of Bishop
Fenwick of Cincinnati, several sisters from Mother
Seton's community at Emmitsburg, Maryland,
opened an orphanage, parochial school, and academy
on Sycamore Street opposite the old cathedral, then
occupying the present site of St. Xavier's Church and
college. When Bi^op Purcell built the new cathe-
dral on Eighth and Plum Ste., the sistens moved to
Third and Plum Ste., and later the academy was
transferred to George St., near John. When Father
Etienne, superior of the Daughters of Charity of
France, in December, 1850, effected the affiliation of
the sisterhood at Emmitsburg with the Daughters
of Charity of France^ Sister Margaret George was
superior in Cincinnati. She had entered the com-
munity at Emmitsburg early in 1812, and had filled
the office of treasurer and secretary of the community,
teaching in the academy during most of Mother
Seton's life. She wrote the early records of the
American Dau^ters of Charity, heard all the dis-
cussions regarding rules and constitutions, and left
to her community in Cincinnati letters from the first
bishops and clergy of the United States, Mother
Scton's original Journal written in 1803 and some
of her letters, and valuable writings of her own. She
upheld Motner Seton's rules, constitutions, tradi-
tions, and costume, confirmed by Archbishop Carroll
17 Jan., 1812, objecting with Archbishop Carroll
and Mother Seton to the French rule in its fulness,
in that it limited the exercise of charity to females
in the orphanages and did not permit the teaching
of boyB in the schools: The sisters in New York
had separated from Emmitsburg in December, 1846,
because they were to be withdrawn from the boys
orphanage. When it was finally decided that the
community at Emmitsburg was to affiliate with the
French Daughters of Charity, the sisters in Cin-
cinnati laid before Archbishop Purcell their desire
to preserve the original rule of Mother Seton's
foundation. He confirmed the ^ters in their de-
sire and notified the superior of the French Daughters
of Charity that he would take under bis protection

the foUowers of Mother Seton. ArchbiAhop PuroeD
became ecclesiastical superior and was succeeded
by Archbishop Elder ana Archbishop Moeller.

The novitiate in Cincinnati was opened in 1852^
During that year twenty postulants were received.
The finst Catholic hospital was opened by the sister?
in November, 1852. In Februarv, 1853, the sisteni
took charge of the Maiy and Martha Society, ti
charitable organization established for the benefit
of the poor of the city. On 15 August, 1853, the
sisters purchased their first property on the comet
of Sixth and Parks Sts., and opened there in Septem^
ber a boarding and select day-school. The following
July they bought a stone house on Mt. Harrison near
Mt. St. Mary Seminary of the West, and called it
Mt. St. Vincent. The community was incorporated
under the laws of Ohio in 1854 as ''The Sisters of
Charity of Cincinnati, Ohio^'. Mother Margaret
George, Sister Sophia Gillmeyer, Mother Josephine
Harvey, Sister Anthony O'Connell, Mother K^pna
Mattingly, Sister Antonio McCaffrey, and Sister
Gonzalva Dou^erty were the incorporators. In
1856 Mt. St. Vincent Academy was transferred to.
the ''Cedars", the former home of Judge Alderson.
It remained the mother-house until 29 Sept., 1869^
and the boarding-school until July, 1906. . It is now
a day academy and a residence for the sisters teach-
ing adjacent parochial .schools. In 1857 Bishop
Bayle^ of New Jersey sent five postulants to Mt.
St. Vincent, Cedar Grove, Cincinnati, to be trained
by Mother Margaret George. At the conclusion
oi their novitiate. Mother Margaret and Sister
Anthony were to have gone with them to Newark,
New Jersey, to remain until the little community
would be well established, but affairs proving too
urgent. Mother Margaret interceded with the New
York community, and Sisters Xavier and Catherine
were appointed superiors over the little baiid. In
July, 1859, Mother Margaret George having held
the office of mother for the two terms allowed by the
constitution, was succeeded by Mother Josephine
Harvey. During the Civil War many of the sisters
served in the hospitals. Between 1852 and 1865 the
sisters had taken charge of ten parochial schools.
Archbishop Lamy of New Mexico, and Bishop
MacheJ^ipeuf of Colorado, both pioneer priests of
Ohio, in 1S65 petitioned Archbishop Purcell for a
colony of Sisters of Charity to open a hospital and
oxphanage in the West. Accordingly four sisters
left Cincinnati 21 August, 1865, amving at Santa
F^, 13 S<;pt., 1865. The archbishop gave them his
own residence which had been used also as a seminary.
There were twenty-five orphans to be cared for and
some sick to be nursed. On 15 August, 1866, Jo-
seph C. Butler and Lewis Worthington presented
Sister Anthony O'ConncU with the Good Samaritan
Hospital, a building erected by the Government for
a Marine Hospital at a cost of $.300,000. Deeply
impressed by the charity done in "old St. Johns"
during the war, these non-Catholic gentlemen bought
the Government hospital for $90,000 and placed the
deeds in the hands of Sister Anthony, Butler suggests
ing the name "Good Samaritan". Early in 1870
Bishop Domenec of Pittsburg, desiring a diocesan
branch of Mother Seton*s community, ^ sent four
postulants to be trained in the Cincinnati novitiate.
On their return they were accompanied by five of
the Cincionati sisters who were to remain with them
for a Umited time, and to be withdrawn one by one»
Finally all were recalled but Mother Aloysia Lowe
and Sister Ann Regina Ennis, the former besLog
superior and the latter mistress of novices. Mother
Aloysia governed the community firmly but tenderly,
and before her death (1889) had the satisfaction -of
seeing the sisters in their new motlier-house at Seton
Hill, Greensburg, Pa., the academy having been
blessed, and the ciiapel dedicated, 3 May, iSSSk

SISTERS

8ISTINE

Mother Alovsift's term of office had expired ]0 July,
1889, and we was succeeded by Sister Ann Regina
(d. 16 May, 1894). The community at Greensburs,
Pa., at present nimiber more than three hundred.
Their St. Joseph Academy at the mother-^ouse is
flouriBhing; they teach about thirty parochial schools
in the Dioceses of Altoona cmd Pittsburg and conduct
the F1ttiA>urg Hospital and Roselia Foundling Asylum
in Pittsburg.

From 1^ to 1880 the sisters in Cincinnati
opened thirty-three branch houses, one of these being
the St. Joseph Foundling and Maternity Hospital,
a gift to Sister Anthony from Joseph Butler. In
1869 a site for a mother-house, five miles from Cedar
Grove, was purchased. The first Mass was offered
in the novitiate chapel, 24 October, 1869> by Rev.
Thos. S. Byrne, the chaplain, the present Bishop of
Nashville, Tennessee, in 1882 the building of the
new mother-house began under his direction. Before
its completion MoUier Regina Mattingly died (4
June, 1883). Mother Josephine Harvey again as-
sumed the office. In 1885 the new St. Joseph
was burned to ^e ground. The present mother-
house was begun at once under the superintendence
of Rev. T. 8. Byrne. Mt. St. Mary Seminary.
closed since tiie financial troubles, was now used
for the sisters' novitiate. In July, 1886, the sisters
took possesion of the west wing of the mother-house,
and the foUowing year the seminaiv reopened.
Mother Josephine Harvey resigned the office of
mother in 18&, and was succeeded by Mother Mary
Paul Hayes, who filled Mother Josephine's unexpired
term and was re-elected in July, 1890, dying the fol-
lowing April. Mother Mary Blanche Davis was ap*
pointed to the office of mother, and held it until
July, 1899. During her incumbency the Seton Hos-

gital, the Glockner Sanitarium at Colorado Springs,
t. Joseph Sanitarium, Mt. Clemens, Mich., ana
Santa Maria Institute for Italians were begun;
additions were made to the mother-house. During
the administration of Mother Sebastian Shea were
built: the St. Joseph Sanitarium, Pueblo; the San
Rafael Hospital, Tnnidad; the St. Vincent Hospital,
&mta F6, New Mexico; the St. Vincent Academy, Al-
buquerque; azui the Good Samaritan Annex in Clifton.
Mother Mary Blanche resumed the duties of office
in 1905, and was re-elected in 1908. During these
terms a very large addition was built to the Glockner
Sanitaiium and to the St. Mary Sanitarium, Pueb-
lo; the Hospital Antonio in Kenton, Ohio; a large
boarding school for boys at Fayetteville, Ohio; the
new Seton Hospital was bought; the new Good Sa-
maritan Hospit^ was begun. Many parochial schools
were opened, among them a school for coloured chil-
dren in Memphis, Tennessee.

The community numbers: about 800 members;
74 branch houses; 5 academies; 2 orphan asylums;
1 foundling asylum; 1 Italian institute; 11 hospitals
or sanitariums: 1 Old Ladies' Home: 53 parochial
schools throughout Michigan, Ohio, Texmessee, Col-
orado, and New Mexico.

Sister Mart Aqnes.

SIstan of the Little Company of Mary, a
congregation fotmded in 1877 in England to honour
in a particular manner the maternal Heart of the
Blessed Virgin, especially in the mystery of Calvary.
The sisters make an entire consecration of them-
selves to her, and aim at imitating her virtues. They
devote themselyes to the sick and dying, which is
thdr {irincipal exterior work. The3r nurse the sick
in their own homes, and also receive them in the
hospitids and mining-homes attached to their con-
vents. Th^ make no distinction of class, national-
ity, or creed, and exact no charge for their services,
but acoept any offering which may be made them.
Besides tne perBonal attendance on the sick, they are

bound to pray continually for the dying, and in the
novitiate watch before the Blessed Sacrament, both
by day and night, pra3ring for the dying. When
circumstances require it, the sisters may engage in
various forms of mission work, especially in poor
districts. The rules received final approbation from
Leo XIII in 1893. The order conducts houses in:
Italy (1 in Rome, 1 at Florence, 1 at Fiesole): Eng-
land (3 in London, 1 at Nottin^am); Ireland (1 at
Limerick, 1 in Fermoy); Malta (1); United States
(Chicago); Australia (2 at Sydney, 1 at Adelaide);
South Africa (Port Elizabeui). The sisters when
in the convent wear a black habit and blue veil,
with a white cloak in the chaoel; when nursing, the
habit is of white linen, with a olue veil.

An association of pious women, known as **Pie
Donne*' or "Affiliated", ai^ aggregated to the order,
and share in its prayers and good works, 'some re-
siding in their own homes, others living in the con-
vent, though in part separated from the community.
A confraternity is attached to the order, calletd the
Calvaiy Confraternity, the members of which assist
those in their last agony by their prayers and, if
possible, by personal attendance.

Mother M. Patrick.

Sistine Choir. — Although it is known that the
Church, from her earliest days, employed music in
her cult, it was not until the time of her emergence
from the catacombs that she began freely to display
her beauty and splendour in sacred song. As early
as in the pontificate of Sylvester I (314-35) we
find a regularly-constituted company of singers, under
the name of achola cantorum. living together in a
building devoted to their exclusive use. The word
sckola 'WBA in those days the lepal designation of an
association of equals in any callmg or profession and
did not primarily denote, as in our time, a school.
It had more the nature of a guild, a characteristic
which clung to the oapal choir for many centuries.
Hilary II (461-8) oraained that the pontifical singers
live in community, while Gregory the Great (590-
604) not only made permanent the existing institu-
tion attachea to St. John Lateran and including at
that time in its membership monks, secular clergy,
and boys, but established a second and similar one m
connexion ^vith the Basilica of St. Peter. The latter
is supposed to have served as a sort of pi'cparatory
school for the former. For several centuries the
papal schola cantorum retained the same general
character. Its heiad, arckicantor or primicerius, was
always a clergyman of high rank and often a
bishop. While it was his duty to intone the various
chants to be followed by the rest of the singers, he
was by no means their master in the modem techni-
cal sense.

It is at the time of the transfer of the papal see
from Rome to Avignon in the thirteenth century that
a marked change takes place in the institution.
Innocent IV did not take his schola cantorum with
him to his new abode^ but provided for its continu-
ance in Rome by turmng over to it properties, tithes,
and other revenues. Community life among the
singers seems to have come to an end at this period.
Clement V (180.'>-14) formed a new choir at Avignon,
consisting for the most part of French singers, who
showed a decided preference for the new devc^lopments
in church music — the (Uchant and falsibordonif
which had in the meantime gained great vogue in
France. When Gregory XI (1370-^) returned to
Rome, he took his singers with him and amalgamated
them with the still-existing, at least in name, ancient
gehola cantorum. Before the sojourn of the papal
Court at Avignon, it had been the duty of the schola
to accompany the pope to the church where he held
station, but after the return to Rome, the custom
established at Avignon of celehratine all pontifical

aiTZnS 80 8ITJAB

functions in the papal church or cha|iel was con- never took hold for any length of time. The use

tinued and has existed ever since. The primicerius of instruments, even of the organ, has ever been ex*

of former times is now no longer mentioned but is eluded. The choir's ideal has always been the

replaced by the magisier capeUcB, which title, however, purely vocal stvle. Since the accession of the present

continues to be more an honoraiy one held by a bishop pope, and under its present conductor,^ the falsetto

or prelate than an indication of technical leadership, voices have been succeeded by boys' voices, and the

as may be gathered from the relative positions as- artistic level of the institute has been raised to a

ugned to various dignitaries, their prerogatives, etc. hi^er point than it had occupied for the previous

Thus the magiMer capeUm came immediately after thirty or forty years,

the cardinals, followed, in the order given, by the ^Rj^maiyBau^ne for MunkgadiUhu, ill. J^

Wlth the building by SlXtUS IV (1471-i84) of the tehuU »» Rom (Leipalc. 1872); Kimnls, CKoraiadiuU (Fraiburc.

church for the celebration of all papal functions since iJfW); Baini. Memorie Horico-cHHehe d^^jita e delU opere di

known as the Sistine Chapel, the original schola ^*^'*'^* '^*^'"'^* "^ PaUMr^na (Rome. 18^)-
earUorum' and subsequent capeUa porUificia or vtite .

oap^ papaie, which still retains more or less of the gltiflg, Titulab See op (Sitifbnsib), in Mauretania

guild character, becomes the capella sishna, or Sis- Sitifensis. Sitifis, situated in Mauretania Oesaren-

tme Choir, whose golden era takes ite bmnning. g^^ on the road from Carthage to Cirta, was of no im-

Up to this time the number of singers had varied portance under the Numidian kings and became

considerably, there being sometimes as few as nme prominent only when Nerva estabfished a colony

men ^d six boys. By a BuU dated November, of veterans there. When Mauretania Sitifensis was

1483, Sixtus IV fixed the number at twenty-four, created, at the close of the third century, Sitifis be-

nx for each part. After the year 1441 the records came its capital. Under the Vandals it was the chief

no longer mention the presence of bo^s m the choir, town of a district called Zaba. It was still the capital

the high voices, sopiuno and alto, being thenceforth of a province under Byzantine rule and was then a

wing by natui^ (and occasionaUy unnatiinil) soT^^ place of strategic importance. Captured by the

faUatt and high tenors respectively. Membership Arabs in the seventh century, it was almost ruined

in the papal choir became the great desideratum of at the time of the French occupation (1838). It ia

siMCTs, contrapuntist^ and composers of every land, now Setif, the chief town of an arrtmdistement in the

which accounU for the presence m Rome, at least Department of Constantine, Algeria. It contains

for a tune, of most of the great names of that period. 15^000 inhabitants, of whom 3700 are Europeans

The desire to re-estabhsh a sort of preparatory school and 1600 Jews; it has a trade in cattle, cereals,

for the papal choir, on the plan of the ancient schola, leather, and cloths. Interesting Christian mscrip-

and mcidentaUy to become independent of the ultra- tions are to be found there, one of 452 mentioning

montane, or foreign, singera, led Julius II (1503-13) the relics of St. Lawrence, another naming two

to iMue, on 19 February, 1512, a Bull founding the martyrs of Sitifis, Justus and Decurius; there are

capctta Ji^ia, which to thjs day performs all the chou- a museum and the ruins of a Byzantine fortress,

duties at St. Peter s. It became indeed, and has ever st. Augustine, who had frequent relations with

mnce been, a nursery for and stcpmp-stone^^ Sitifis, rnforms us that in his time it cont^ned a

bership m the Sistme Choir. The high artkstic aims monastery- and an episcopal school, and that it suf-

of Its founder have, however, but rarely been at- fered from a violent earthquake, on which occasion

tamed, OTOig to the rarity of truly great choir- 2OOO persons, through fear of death, received baptism

masters. Leo X (1513-21), himself a musician, by (Ep ixxxiv; Serm., xix). Five bishops of this see

choosing as head of the organization a real musician, are known: Severus, in 409, mentioned m a letter of

urespective of hm clerical rank, took a step which w^^ St. Augustine; Novatus, present at the CouncU of

of the greatest importance for the future. It had the Carthage (411), where he opposed the Donatist

efifect of transforming a group of vocal virtuon on Marcian, present at the Council of Carthage (419),

equal footing into a compact vocal body, whose m- dying in 440, mentioned in St. Augustine's letters

t«pretation of the peat^t works of polyphony Lawrence, in 452; Donatus, present at the Council

which we possess, Mid which were then coming into of Carthage (484), and exiled by Huneric; Optatus,

existence, became the model for the rest of the world, at the Council of Carthage (525) .

not only then but for all time. Leo's step was some- smith, Diet. 0/ Greek and Roman Geog., n. V. SUi/i; MOLbBH,

what counteracted by Sixtus V (1585-90). who ordered ^ote» d PtoUmu, ed. Didot, 1, 6i2; Toulotpe. Giog. de CA/rique

the singers to elect their leader annually from their ^/VJviS.'li-. iif'ljjr^,"^^^ ^^^» ^™^

own number. Paul II (1534r^9) on 17 November, ^ "^^"^ ^"^"^"^ ^^'^' ^^^^' '^'^' g^ P«trid4»
1545, published a Bull approving a new constitution

of the choir, which has been in lorce ever since, and Sitjar, Buenaventura, b. at Porrera, Island of
according to which the choir-master proposes the Majorca, 9 Dec, 1739; d. at San Antonio, Cal., 3
candidates for membership, who are then examined Sept., 1808. In April, 1768, he received the hahit
by the whole company of singers. Since that time of St. Francis. After his ordination he joined the
the state of Ufe of the candidate has not been a College of San Fernando^ Mexico. In 1770 he was
^^mf^i « assigned to Cahfomia, arriving at San Diego, 21 May,
While the Sistme Choir has, since its incipiency. 1771. He was present at the founding of the Mis-
undergone many vicissitudes, its artistic and moral sion of San Antonio, and was appointed first miasion-
level fluctuating, Uke all thmgs human, with the ary by Father Junipero Serra. He toiled there until
mutations of the times, it has ever had for its purpose his death, up to which time 3400 Indians had be«i
and object to hold up, at the seat of ecclesiastical baptiaed. Father Sitjar mastered the Telame lan-

-™ ^^^^^ ^w« t,x*«w o^v KMc 0M>uumu iwi tiic ui wuras 18 noi> as long as Arroyo oe la ^ues^a s oio-

rest of Uinstendom, both as regards the purity of tionary of 2884 words and sentences in the Mutoun

Uxe melodies and theu: rendition. After these melo- idiom of Miasion San Juan Bautista, Sitjar's gives

S^. *iad blossomed into pol3T)hony, it was in the the pronunciation and fuller explanations. He also

Sistme Chapel that it received adequate mterpreta- left a journal of an expiring expedition which he

twn. Here the artistic degeneration, which church accompanied in 1795. wa body was interred in the

musio suffered in different periods in many countries, sanctuary of the church.

81 SIXTUS

*r Mim™ 0/ *mKo Bar*oni; it«mdi -tf Miitim Sen martyr. Hia feast is cclobrat«d on 6 April, He was

m'^^risoi?' eJ^^^^'S'l^Ji^ari^ buried in the Vatican, beside the tomb of St, Peter,

^.^ IHuborSpruiM.ise7): BAMCBorr.Cal^onivi.II (awi Hifi reUca are Said to have been tranaferred to Atatri

FrEncBoo, 1886). In 1 132, though O, Jozzi ("II corpo di S, Siato I., papa

Zephtrin Enoklhaiiot. ^ martire rivendicato alia baaihca Vaticaiia"j Room,

Sittoa. See Sign Diocxsb of I90li) contenda Uiat they ore atill in the Vatican B(^

' ailica. Butler (Ltvee of the Saints, 6 April) stateethat

Siunu, a titular see, suffragan of Sebastia in Clement X gave some of his relics to Cardinal de

Armenia Prima, Siunia is not a town, but a province Rats, who placed them in the Abbey of St, MichaeJ in

situated between Gof^teha, Araxa, and Aichovania, Lorraine. The Xystus who ia commemorated in th«

in the present Russian diatricta of Chamakha, or Canon of the Maea is Xyatua II, not Xystus I.
Baku, and Eliaavetpol. The real name should be Ada 5^,, Aptil, I. S3i~i; Liber Ponii/Uatii, nd, Dncsuix,

Siaacan, the Persian form, for Siunia got ita name 1 <P™' '*»«'■ '??,; "*"'''■ ,,<^*?"',,''!™L. P?'"'"'? si's" ^■

from Siac, the son of Gegham the fittii. Armenian f^J^^'B^^IJIlS^ iTISSS T^^. ISL^aT^.^;

sovereign. Ita firat rulers, vaasala of the kings of Ar- latitmt dtiu mi nliguit da Runia «x,, mmuru (Alaui, ISM};

menia or the shahs of Perala, date back to the fourth Babubi m Dia. Chrui. Bioa.. i. v. fliiiw (2) I. „

century of our era: about 1046 it became an inde- Michael Ott.

pendent kingdom, but only till 1166, The Church Bixtus n (XraTtJs), Saint, Popb, elect«d 31 Aug.,

of Siunia was esUbliahed in the fifth century or per- 257, martyred at Rome, 6 Aug., 258. His origin ia

hapa a little earlier. It soon became a metropolia unknown. The "Liber Pontificalia" a^vthathewas

Bubjeet to the Catholicos of Armenia, and, as we see a Greek by birth, but this is probably a mistake, ori*.

in a letter of the patriarch Ter Sargia in 1006, it inating from the false aasumption that he was identi-

counted twelve crosiera, which must signify twelve cal with a Greek

suffragan aeea. The archdiocese contained 1400 philosopher of the

villages and 28 monasteriea. In the ninth cen- same name who

tury the metropolitan see was fixed in the convent was the autWof

of Tatheo, situated between Omenta and Migri, the so-called

sixty-two miles south-east of Lake Gokcha. Sep- "Sentences" of

arated for a brief interval from Noravank, the See of Xystus. During

Siunia was reunited to it, but was definitively sep- the pontificate o(

arated again in the thirteenth century. In 1837 the hja predecessor.

Diocese of Siunia was, by order ol the Synod of gt. ^phen, a

Etchmiadzin, suppressed and subjected directly to gtiarp dispute' had

the catholicos under tlie aupervision of the Biahop arisen between

of Eriv&n, who had a vicar at Tatheo. The complete Rome and the

list of the bishops and metropolitans of Siunia, from African and Aai-

Uie fifth century till the nineteenth century, ia known; atic Churches

amongat them we may mention Petroa, a writer at concerning there^

the beginning of the airth centurv, and Stetjhanoa baptism of here-

Orbelian, the historian of his Church. It is not tics, which had

known why the Roman Curia introduced this epiacopal threatened to end

title, which does not appear in any Greek or Latin jj^ ^^ complete

"Notitia episcopatuum , and was never a suffragan rupture between

of Sebastia. .„,.,. „ Rome and the

LMu dtrmuitgiq^ ia pri^ua elda nttropoKU, dt Siounii m (,'liurcheBO! Africa H«» OF 8r. BirPBi 11

BalUiitdirAcaJtmUdttSrieric—dtSainl-PUtrtb^iiri.lV (Ifii'i). and Asia Mioor DeUul fiom tbB Sistine Muloouk

4S7--GSS1 9TMrmAiiom OimmUAM, Hittoirt di la Simaiit, tt, Bao^ tgee CtpRIAN OF Rapbul

ur (Bunt-PBUttibuti, 18M), a v =* Carthaob, Saint). Sixtua II, whom Pontius (Vita

B. VAII.BK. Cypriani, cap, itiv) styles a good and peaceful priest

Utm. See Sebastia, Armeniak Cathouc Dio- (mmtu et padficu* aiuxrdot), was more conciliatory

RERE nr. than St. Stephen and restored friendly relations with
these ChurohBB, though, Uke his predeceaaor, he up-
held the Roman usage of not rebaptizing heretics.

BlxtUI I, Saint, Pope (in the oldest documents. Shortly before the pontificate of Sixtua II the Em-

Xtbtds is the apelUng uaed for the fiist three popes of peror Valerian issued hia first edict of persecution,

thatname),succeededSt. Alexander and was lollowed which made it binding upon the Christiana to partici-

by St. Telesphonis, According to the "Liberian pate in the national cult of the pagan gods and for-

Qitalogue" of popea, he ruled the CSiurch during the bode them to assemble in the cemeteries, threatening

leign of Adrian "aconaulatu Nigri et Aproniani usque with exile or death whomsoever was found to disobey

Vero III et Ambibolo" that is from 117 to 128. the order. In some way or other, Sixtus II man-

Eusebius, who in hia "Chronicon mode use of a cat^ aged to perform his functions as chief pastor of the

alogue of popes difTermt from the one he Used in his Oiristians without being molested by those who were

"Historia Eccleeiastica", states in his "Chronicon" ohareed with the execution of the imperial edict,

that Sixtus I was pope from 114 to 124, while in his But during the first days of August, 25S, the emperor

"History" he makes him rule from 119 to 128. All issued a new and far more cruel edict against the

autitoriticB agree that he reigned about ten years. Christians, the import of which has been preserved in

" IS a Roman by birth, and his father's name was a letter of St. Cyprian to Successus, the Bishop of Ab-

81z Dafi' Work, The. See Hkxaeueron.

Pastor. According to the "Liber Pontificalis" (ed, bir Germaniciana (Ep. Ixxx). It ordered bishops,

Duchesne, I, 128), he passed the following three or- priests, and deacons to be summarily put to death

dinaocea: (1) that none but aacred ministera are al- ("epiacopi et presbyteri et diaconcs incontinent! aoi-

towed to touch the sacred vessels; (2) that bishops maavertantur ). Sixtus II was one of the firat to

who have been summoned to the Holy See shall, upon fall's viotim to this imperial enactment ("Xiatum in

their return, not be received by their diocese except on oim.terio an:modversum sciatis VIII, id, August! et

presentbg Apostolic letters; (3) that after the Pref- cum eo diaccrcs quattuor" — C>-prian, Ep, Ixxx). In

ace in the Maes the' priest shall recite the Sanctus order to escape t.e vigilance of the imperial officera he

with the people. The "Felician Catalogue" of popes assembled hia .1-ck on 6 August at one of the leas-

and the rarioua martyrologies give him the title of known cemeteries, that of Pretextatus, on the left aide

81XT08

8IXT0S

of the Appian Way, nearly opposite the cemetery of
8t. Callistus. While seated on his chair in the act of
addressing his flock he was suddenly apprehended by a
band of soldiers. There is soiae doubt whether he
was beheaded forthwith, or was first brought before
a tribunal to receive his sentence and then led back
to the cemetery for execution. The latter opinion
seems to be the more probable.

The inscription which Pope Damasus (366-84)
placed on his tomb in the cemetery of St. Callistus
may be interpreted in either sense. The entire in-
scnption is to be found in the works of St. Damasus
(P. li., XIII, 383-4, where it is wrongly supposed to
be an epitaph for Pope Stephen I), and a few frag-
ments of it were discovered at the tomb itself by de
Rossi (Inscr. Christ., II, 108). The "Liber Pontifi-
calis'' mentions that he was led away to offer sacri-
fice to the gods ("ductus ut sacrificaret demoniis'' — I,
155). St. Cypnan states in the above-named letter,
which was written at the latest one month after the
martjrrdom of Sixtus, that "the prefects of the City
were daily urging the persecution m order that, if any
were brought before them, they might be punished
and their property confiscated " . The pathetic meeting
between St. Sixtus II and St. Lawrence, as the former
was being led to execution, of which mention is made
in the unauthentic "Acts of St. Lawrence'' as well as
by St. Ambrose (Ofiiciorum, lib. I, c. xli, and lib. II,
c.xxviii) and the poet Prudentius (Peristephanon, II),
b probably a mere legend. Entirely contrary to
truth is the statement of Prudentias (ibid., lines
23-26) that Sixtus II suffered martjTdom on the
cross, unless by an unnatural trope the poet uses the
Specific word cross ("Jam Xystus adfixus cruci") for
inartyrdom in general, as Duchesne and Allard (see
jelow) suggest. Four deacons, Januarius, Vincen-
iius, Magnus, and Stephanus, were apprehended with
Sixtus and beheaded with him at the same ceme-
tery. Two other deacons, Felicissimus and Agapi-
tus, suffer^ martyrdom on the same day. The feast
6f bt. Sixtus II and these six deacons is celebrated on
6 August, the day of their martyrdom. The remains
p{ Sixtus were transferred by the Christians to the
papal crypt in the neighbouring cemetery of St. Callis-
tus. Behind his tomb was enshrined the blood-
stained chair on which he had been beheaded. An
oratory (Qratorium Xysli) was erected above the
cemetery of St. Praetextatus, at the spot where he was
martyred, and was still visited by pilgrims of the
seventh and the eighth century.

For some time Sixtus II was believed to be the au-
thor of the so-called "Sentences", or "Ring of Six-
tus", originally written by a Pythagorean philosopher
and in the second century revised by a Christian.
This error arose because in his introduction to a Latin
translation of these "Sentences" Rufinus ascribes
them to Sixtus of Rome, bishop and martjT. It is
certain that Pope Sixtus II is not their author (see
Conybeare, "The Ring of Pope Xystus now first ren-
dered into English, with an historical and critical com-
mentary", London, 1910). Hamack (Tcxte und
Untersuchuni^en zur altchrist. Literatur, XIII, XX)
ascribes to him the treatise "Ad Novatianum " but
his opinion has been generallv rejected (see Kom-
bold m "Theol. Quartalschrift", LXXII, Ttibinpon,
1900). Some of his letters are printed in P. Tk, V,
79-100. A newly discovered letter was published
by Conybeare in "English Hist. Re\new", London,
1910.

Ada SS., Aug., 11, 124-42: Duchesne, lAher Pontifimlv', I,
155-6; Barmby in Did. Christ. Bioff., s. v. Xystun; RoHArM' ok
Fleurt. Let SainU de la messe. III (PariB, 18a3): HxALY.TAe
VcUerian Persecution (Boston and New York, 1905). 176-9; Ai^
LARD, Le9 derniirM persiculions du troi»iime itikcU (Paris. 1907),
80-02,343-349; db Kobai. Roma Sotteranea. II (Rome, 1864-77),
87-97; WiLPBRT, Die Paptlgraber und die Cacilienamfi in der
Katakombe dee hi. Callielu*^ supplement to dk Koeai'ift Roma
Stiieranea (FTeiburg im Br.. 1909^

Mtcbaet. Ott

SiztUB nZ (Xtbtus), Saint, Popib, consecrated
31 July, 432; a. 440. Previous to his accession he
was prominent among the Roman clergy and in cor-
respondence with St. Aujgustine. He reigned during
the Nestorian and Pelagian controversies^ and it was
probably owing to his conciliatory disposition that he
was falsely accused of leanings towards these heresies.
As pope he approved the Acts of the Council of
Ephesus and endeavoured to restore peace between
C^il of Alexandria and John of Antioch. In the
Pelagian controversy he frustrated the attempt of
Juhan of Eclanum to be readmitted to conmiunion
with the Cathohc Church. He defended the pope's
right of supremacy over Illvricum against the local
bishops and the ambitious d-esigns of Proclus of Con-
stantmople. At Rome he restored the Basilica of
Liberius, now known as St. Mary Major, enlarged the
Basilica of St. Lawrence-Without-the-Walls, and ob-
tained precious gifts from the Emperor Valentinian
III for St. Peter's and the Lateran Basilica. The
work which asserts that the consul Bassus accused
him of crime is a forgery. He is the author of eight
letters (in P. L., L, 583 sqq.), but he did not write the
works ''On Riches", "On False Teachers", and "On
Chastity" ("De divitiis". "De malis doctoribus",
"De castitate") attribute to him. His feast is kept
on 28 March.

Duchesne (ed.). Lib. Pont., I (Paris, 1886), 126-27, 232-37;
Barubt in Did. Christ. Biog., a. v. Sixtiu (3); Gbisar. History
of Rome and the Popes, tr. Cappadblta. I (St. Louis, 1911),
DOS. 54, 135, 140, 144. 154.

N. A. Weber.

Siztua IV (Francesco della Rovbre), Pope, b.
near Abisola, 21 July, 1414; d. 12 Aug., 1484. His
parents were poor, and while still a child he was
destined for the Franciscan Order. Later he studied
philosophy and theology with great success at the
University of Pa via, and lectured
at Padua, Bologna, Pavia, Siena,
and Florence, having amongst other
eminent disciples the famous Car-
dinal Bessarion. After fillins the
post of procurator of his order in
Rome and Provincial of Liguria,
he was in 1467 created Cardinal
of S. Pietro in Vincoli by Paul U.
WTiat^ver leisiu-e he now had was
devoted to theolo^', and in 1470 he Armb of

published a treatise on the Precious bdctcs i v
Blood and a work on the Immaculate Conception,
in which latter he endeavoured to prove that Aquinas
and Scotus, though differing in words, were reallv
of one mind upon the question. The conclave which
assembled on the death of Paul II elected him pope,
and he ascended the chair of St. Peter as Sixtus I v.

His first thought was the prosecution of the war
against the Turks, and Wates were appointed for
France, Spain, Germany, Hungary, and Poland, with
the hope of enkindling enthusiasm in these countries.
The crusade, however, achieved little beyond the
bringing back to Rome of twenty-live Turkish pris-
oners, who were paraded in triiunph through tlie
streets of the city. Sixtus continued the policy of
his predecessor Paul II with regard to France, and
denounced Louis XI for insisting on the roval con-
sent being given before papal decrees could oe pub-
lished in his kingdom. He also made an effort like
his predeces.^or for the reunion of the Russian Church
\^nth Rome, but his nepjotiations were without result.
He now turned his attention almost exclusively to
Italian politics, and fell more and more under his
dominating passion of nepotism^ heaping riches and
favours on nis unworthy relations. In 1478 took

Elacc the famous conspiracy of the Pazzi, planned
y the pope's nephew — Cardinal Rafael Riario — ^to
overthrow the Medici and bring Florence imder the
Riarii ThP vnxv* wna eofcnizant of the plot, though

sQcnn 3

nrobctblf not of tbe intention to rmtrnwrinittft, and evea
bid FkvencQ imdar interdict because it nwe in tury
ARiuiut the' oonspintots and brutal murderen of
wulittno de' Medici. Re now entered upon & two
JMI^ war with Florence, and encouraged the Vene-
tians to attack

Eroole d'E8t«, at-
tacked by Venice,
found alUes in al-
tnoHt every Italian
state, and Ludo-
vico Sfona, upon
whom the pope
rehed for support,
did nothing to
help him. The

forced Sixtus to
make peace, and
the chaKfiD which
this caused him ia
said to have hast-
tiDcA hie death.

Henceforth, un-
til the Reforma-
tion, the secular
interests of the
p^acy were of
paramount im-
portance. The at-
titude of Sixtus
towards the con-
spiracy of the
Pazzi, hia wars
and treachery, hia
promotion to the
highest ollicea in
the Church of
such men as Pietro

rV, Re-

ObraiHi Portnit of Siil __ . .
nwin AlkvinBAl fiauic o( Gonatancy
iUi Oh IJDS Inun Vi^l. £iidd. VI, S53
To «pufl Uu mbouHava and cruiih th(
-"■■•'' -lUi Ibe^ sdtied worts: -Thoi

and Git

)la
blots

Nmrertbelese, there is a praiseworthy side to his
pontificate. Be took measures to suppress abuses
m the Inquisition, viRorously opposeii the Wal-
densee, and annulled the decrees of the Council
ot Co^tance. He was a patron of arts and letters,
building the famous Sistine Chapel, the Sistine
Bridge across the Tiber, and beeominR the second
founder ot the Vatican Library, llniier him Itome
onoe more became habitable, and he did much to ira-

Kve the sanitary conditions of the city. He brought
m water from the Quirinal to the Fountain of
Trevi, and b«^n a transformation of the city which
death alone hmdered him from completiuE. In hia
private life Sixtus IV was blameless. The gross
accusations brou^t agaiiut him by his enemy
Infesbura have no foundation; his wont vice was
nqx>tiam, and his greatest misfortune was that he
was destined to be placed at the head of the States
of the Qiureh at a time when Italy was emerging
from the era of the republics, and territorial prince*
Kke the pope were forced to do battle with the great
da^Kit*.

Favtoi. ffiitorv 0/ At Pupa, IV (LondoB, 1894); Grboo-
MmM. JI«u in NU iAUk Xeu. Vt I (Looikiii, 1002) : CBiioaTOH.
Hut. o/CWi^iva^. IV<L(HKku, 1901); Buubahot, CuchicUi
itr JbnaiHana in ifoUn (19M): Fkanti. Siilui IV und A.
JKDuWt Floroa ([UtiMxni. 1S80).

R. Urban BuiXBit.

Sbtiu ▼, PoR (Feucii PBttKTTi), b. at Qiotta-
mare near Montalto, 13 December, 1521; elected 24
April, 1685; crowned 1 May, lASS; d. in the Quirinal,
XIV.— 3

27 August. 1690. He behmged to a Dabnatian faouh
which m tne middle of the preceding century had flea
to Italy from the Turks who were deyastatinK lUyiia
and tlu«ateaed to invade Dalmatia. His father was
a gardener and it is said of FeUoe that, when a boy, he
was a swineherd. At Uie age of nine he came to the
Minorite convent at Montalta, where his uncle, Tli.
Salvatore, was a friar. Here he became a novice at
the age of twelve. He was educated at Montalto,
Ferrara, and Bologna and was ordained at Siena
in 1547. The talented young priest gained a high
reputation as a preacher. At Rome, where in 1 562 he
preached the Lenlen sermons in the Church of Santi
Apostoli, his successful preaching gained for him the
fnendshtp of very influential men, such as Cardinal
Carpi, theprotectorof his order; the Cardinals Caraffa
and Ghislieri, both of whom became popes; St.
Philip Neri and St. Ignatius. He was Hucceasively
appomted rector of his convent at Siena in 1550, of San
Lorenso at Naples in 1553, and of the convent of the
Fran at Venice in 1566. A year later Pius IV ap-
pointed him also oounseiktr to the Inquisition at
Venice. - His seal and severity in the capacity of in-

Juisitor displeased the Venetian Oovomment, which
emanded and obtained his recall in 1560. Having
returned to Rome he was made counsellor to the Ho^
Office, professor at the Sapienia, and general procu-
rator and vicar Apostolic of his order. In 1565 Pius
IV designated him to accompany to Spain Cardinal
Buoneompagni (aftarwarda Ort^^ry XiII),who was
to investigate a charge of heresy against ^^hbisbop
Carransa of Toledo. From this time dates the antip-
athy between Peretti and Buoneompagni, which de-
clared itself more openly during the latter's pontificate
(1572^15). Upon his return to I^me in 1566 Piua V
created him Bishop of Sant' AEata dei Goti in the
Kingdom of Naples and later uioso him as his ooor
fossor. On 17 May, 1570^ the same pope created him
cturlinal-priest with the titular Church of S. Simeons,
which he aft^^arda exchanged for that of S. Girotamo
dei Schiavoni. In 1671 he was transferred to the Seo
ofFermo. He was
popularly known
as the Cardinal di
Montalto. Dur- •
ing the pontificate
ot Gregory XIII
he withdrew from
public affaks. de-
voting himself to
study and to the
collection ot works
of art, as far as
his scanty means
permitlad. Dur-
mg this time he
edited the worits
ot St. Ambrose
(Rome, 157&-
1685) and erected
a villa (now Villa
Maaeimi) on the
Esq ui line.

Or^ory XIII
died on 10 April,
1585, and after a

conclave of tour

days Peretti was Mohdmikt □* SimnB V — Fonwu
elected pope by B«iIioa of St, Muy Mais

"adoration on

24 April, 1.5S5. He took the name Sixtus V in
memory of SiMus IV, who liad also been a Minor-
ite. The legend that he entered tho conclave
on crutches, feigning the infirmities of old age, and
upon his election exultantly Uuuat aaide his crutches
and appeared full of life and vigour has long been ex-
ploded; it may, however, have been invented as a

8KABOA

SKABftA

jmnbol of hiB forced inactivity during the rejici of
Gregory XIII and the remarkable energy whion he
diisplayed during the five jrears of his pontificate. He
was a bom ruler and especially suited to stem the tide
of disorder and lawlessness which had broken out
towards the end of the reign of Gregory XIII. Hav-
ing obtained the oo-operation of the neighbouring
states, he exterminated) often with excessive cruelty,
the system of briganda^ which had reached inunense
proportions and terrorised the whole of Italy. The
number of bandits in and about Rome at the death of
Gregory XIII has been variously estimated at from
twelve to twentynseven thousand, and in little more
than two years after the accession of Sixtus V the
Papal States had become the most secure country in
Europe.

Of ahnost equal importance with the extermination
of the bandits was, in the opinion of Sixtus V, the rear-
rangement of the papal finances. At his accession the
papal exchequer was empty. Acting on his favourite
pnnciple that riches as well as seventy are necessary
for good government, he used every available means
to replenish the state treasury. So successful was he
in the accumulation of money that, despite his enor-
mous ex[)enditures for public buildinm, he had shortly
before his death deposited in the Castello di Sant'
Angelo three million aciuii in gold and one million six
hundred thousand in silver. He did not consider that
in the long run so much dead capital withdrawn from
circulation was certain to impoverish the coimtry and
deal the death-blow to commerce and industry. To
obtain such vast sums he economised everywhere,
except in works of architeeture; increased the number
of salable public offices; imposed more taxes and ex-
tended the montif or public loans, that had been insti-
tuted by Clement VII. Though extremely econom-
ical in other ways, Sixtus V spent immense sums in
erection of public works. He built the Lateran Palace ;
completed the Quirinal; restored the Church of Santa
Sabma on the Aventine; rebuilt the Church and Hos-
pice of San Girolamo dei Schiavoni; enlarsed and im-
proved the Sapienza; founded the hospice for the poor
near the Ponte Sisto; built and richly ornamented the
Qiapel of the Cradle in the BasiUca of Santa Maria
Magsiore: completed the cupola of St. Peter's; raised
the obelisks of the Vatican, of Santa Maria Maggiore,
of the Lateran, and of Santa Maria del Popolo; re-
stored the columns of Trajan and of Antoninus Pius,
placing the statue of St. Peter on the former and that
of St. Paul on the latter; erected the Vatican Library
with its adjoining printing-office and that wing of the
Vatican Palace. which is inhabited by the pope; built
many magnificent streets; erected various monas-
teries; ana supplied Rome with water, the ''Acqua
Felice", which he brought to the city over a distance
of twenty miles, partly imder ground, partly on elevated
aaueducts. At Bologna he founded the Collegio Mon-
talto for fifty students from the March of Ancona.

Far-reaching were the reforms which Sixtus V in-
troduced in the management of ecclesiastical affairs.
On 3 Dec., 1586, he issued the Bull "Postquam verus",
fixing; the number of cardinals at seventy, namdy, six
cardmal-bishops, fifty cardinal-priests, and fourteen
cardinal-deacons. Before his pontificate, ecclesiasti-
cal business was generally discharged by the pope in
consistory with the cardinals. There were, indeed, a
few permanent cardinalitial congregations, but the

Sphere of their competency was very limited. In his
ull "Immensa setemi Dei'', of 11 February, 1588, he
established fifteen permanent congregations, some of
which were concerned with spiritual, others with tem-
poral affairs. They were the Congregations : ( 1 ) of the
Inquisition; (2) of the Segnatura; (3) for the Eistab-
hahment of Qiurohes; (4) of Rites and Ceremonies;
(5) of the Index of Forbidden Books; (6) of the Coun-
cil of Trent: (7) of the Regulars; (8) of the Bishops;
(9) of the Vatican Press; (10) of the Annona, for uie

provimoning of Rome and the provinces; (11) of the
Navy; (12) of the Public Welfare; (13) of the Sapi-
ensa; (14) of Roads, Bridges, and Waters; (15) of
State Consultations. These congregations lessened
the work of the pope, without in any way limiting his
authority. The fimal decision belonged to the pope.
In the creation of cardinals Sixtus V was, as a rule,
guided by their good qualities. The only suspicion oi
nepotism with mich he might be reproached was giv-
ing the purple to his fourteen-y^hr-old grand-nephew
Alessandro, who, however, did honour to the Sacred
College and never wielded an undue influence.

In 1588 he issued from the Vatican Press an edi-
tion of the Septuagint revised according to a Vatican
MS. His edition of the Vulgate, printed shortly be-
fore his death, was withdrawn from circulation on
account of its many errors, corrected, and reissued in
1592 (see Bbllarminb, Robert Francis RoifiTLiTB,
Venerable). Though a friend of the Jesuits, he ob-
jected to some of their rules and especially to the title
" Sodetv of Jesus ". He was on the point of changing
these when death overtook him. A statue which haa
been erected in his honour on the Capitol during his
lifetime was torn down by the rabble immediately
upon his death. (For his relations with the various
temporal rulers and his attempts to stem the tide of
Ph)testantism, see Counter-Reformation, The.)

Von H0BNKB, Sixte^iuini (Paris, 1870), tr. JxBmNaHAM
(London. 1872) ; Balxani, JSohm under Sixtut V in Cambr%do§
Modem HiUtrry, III (London, 1905), 422-^5; Robaroi, SiiH
V getta quituptennaUa (Romo, 1590); Lan, Vita di Sitto V
n^AMMina, 1669), tr. Farnbwobth (London, 1754). unreliable;
TufPB8TX, Storia ddLa wita e guU di Si$to V (Rome, 1755):
Cbsabb, Vita di Sisto V (Naples. 1755); Lorbntb. Sixttu V
vnd teine Ztit (Mains, 1852); Dumbsnil. Hiat. de Sixte-Quini
(Paris, 1869); Capbakica, Papa Siato, ttoria del 9. XVI (MUan.
1884); Grasxani. Sitdo V e la rioTganitaaxione ddla «. Sede
(Rome, 1910) ; GoszAomi. Giovanni Pepoii e Si^o V (Bologna.
1879); Sbgbbtaxn. SiioihQuint el Henn IV (Paris, 1861);
CuoNONi, Memorie autoffnje di Papa Sieto V in Arehivio detia
Soc. Romana di ttoria patria (Rome, 1882); Bbnadduci, Sieto
V. Dodiei lettere inediU (Tolentino. 1888); Dalla Sakta. Un
doeumento inedito per la eloria di Siato V (Venioe. 1896) ; Roesi-
ScoTTX, PompiUo Buaebi da Perugia e Sieto papa V (Perugia*
1893); Paou. Sieto V oi banditi (Sassari. 1902); Harfbb in
Amer, Cath, Quarterly Review, III (Pliiladelphia. 1878), 498-521.

Michael Ott.

Skargs, Peter, theologian and missionary, b. at
Grojec, 1536: d. at Cracow, 27 Sept., 1612. He
began his education in his native town in 1552;
he went to study in Cracow and afterwards in War-
satv. In 1557 he was in Vienna as tutor to the young
Ofiuitellan, Teciynski; returning thence in 156^
he received Holy orders, and later was nominated
canon of Lemberg Cathedral. Here he began to
preach his famous sermons, and to convert Protes-
tants. In 1568 he entered the Society of Jesus and
went to Rome, where he became penitentiiury for the
PoU^ lan^^age at St. Peter's. Returning to Poland,
he worked in Uie Jesuit colleges of Pultusk and Wilna,
where he converted a multitude of Protestants,
Calvinism being at the time prevalent in those parts.
To this end he first published some works of contro-
versy: and in 1576. m order to convince the numer-
ous schismatics in Poland, he issued his great treatise
"On the Unity of the Church of God^', which did
much good then, and is even now held in great es-
teem. It powerfullv promoted the cause of the Union.
King Stephen Bdthori prized Skarga greatly, often
profited by his aid and advice, took him on one of his
expeditions, and made him rector of the Academy
of Wilna, founded in 1578. In 1584 he was sent
to Cracow as superior, and founded there the Brother^
hood of Mercy and tne ''Mons pietatis", meanwhile
effecting numerous conversions. He was appointed
court preacher by Simsmund III in 1588, and for
twenty-four years filled this post to the great advan- '
tage of the Church and the nation. In 1596 the
Ruthenian Qiurch was united with Rome, largely
throuf^ his efforts. When the nobles, headed tgr
SSebnfydowski, revolted against Sigismund Ill|

BS0A4 35 tLAimtt

fikarga was M&t on fi tnistion of oondliatioii to the to the ward for the insane, as it was daimed that the

rebels, which, however, proved fruitless. Besides patients were annoved by his investigations, espe-

the ocmtroversial works mentioned, Skaica published ciaily by the method, of percussion. His first publica-

a'^Historyof the Church", and ''Lives ofthe Saints" tion, "Uber die Perkussion" in the "Medisinisohe

SiTilna, 1679; 25th ed., Lembers, 188a*-84), possibly JahrbQcher des k.k. dsterreichen Kaiserstaates", IX

e most widely read book in Poluid. But most im- (1836), attracted but little attention. This paper was

g>rtant of all are his "Sermons for Sundays and followed by: " Uber den Hersstoss und die durch d^e

oiidays" (Craoow, 1505) and "Sermons on the Henbewegungen verursachten Tdne und Ober die

Seven Sacraments" (Craoow, 1600), which, besides^ Anwendung der Perkussion bei Untersuchung der

their glowing eloouenoe, are profound and instructive/ Organe des Unterleibes", in the same periodical.

In addition to these are "Sermons on Various Oo vols. XIII, XIV (1837); "Vber Abdonunaltyphus

casionB" and the "Sermons Preached to the Diet", und dessen Behandlung mit Alumen crudum", also

These last for inspiration and feeling are the finest in the same periodical, vol. XV (1838): "Untersuoh-

nroducticms in the literature of Poland before the imgsmethode sur Bestimmung des ^ustandes dee

Partitions. Nowhere are there found such style, elo- Herzens", vol. XVIII (1839); "Uber Pericarditis

quenoe, and patriottsm, with the deepest religious in pathologisch-anatomischer und diagnostischer

conviction. Skargn occupies a high place in the Beziehung", XIX (1839): "tJber Piorrys Semiotik'

literature and the lustory of Poland. His efforts to und Diagnostik", vol. XVIII (1839); "Uber die

oonvert heretics, to restore schismatics to unity, to Diagnose der Hersklappenfehler", vol. XXI (1840).

prevent corruption, and to stem the tide of public and His small but up to now imsurpassed chief work,

political license, tendmg even then towards anarchy, "Abhandlung Uber die Perkussion und Auskulta-

were indeed as to this last point unsuccessful; but tion" (Vienna, 1839), has been repeatedly published

that was the nation's fault, not his. and translated into foreign languages. It established

Rrtmouna, Ptut 8haroa and hu a0«(UmUis. 1852); Pol- hig universal renown as a diagnostician. In 1841,

SOwsxi. Wed/ Peter Skarga (Cracow, 1884); BoBRSTBiaKi, Ser- ^^ iniirnflv fnr rtwktanh tn Puria htk msiAtk a Mnl

mmatoOuDiH (Cracow, 1876); Chrsanowmi, Preface to Sermont ^^J a JOUrney Xor reswcn tO fans, ne maoe a Sep-

totkt Diet (ind ed.. Waxsaw. 1897); Tarnowsxx, Sehooibook of arate division m his department for skin diseases

PM^ Literature QMnalbm and thus gave the first impulse towards the reor-

i«r». I (Crao«m.id03)-^irmPoaah. T.pv^wairr gBjiization of dermatology by Ferdinand Hebra.

o. lARNowsKi. j^ jg^ ^^ ^^^ request of the ministry of education

8koda(ScHKODA),JoBBr, celebrated clinical lecturer he drew up a memorial on the reorganization of the

and diagnostician and. with Rokitansky, founder of study of medicine, and encouraged later b^ his advice

iitd modem medical s^ool of Vienna, b. at Pilaen in the rounding of tne present hi^er administration of

Bohemia, 10 December, 1805; d. at Vienna, 13 June, the medical school of Vienna. As regards therapeu*

1881. Skoda was the son of a locksmith. lie at- tics the accusation was often made against him that

tended ^e gymnasium at Pilsen, entered the Univer- he held to the "Nihilism" of the Vienna School,

sity of Vienna in 1825, and received the degree of As a matter of fact his therapeutics were exceedindy

Doctor of Medicine on 10 Julv, 1831. He first served simple in contrast to the great variety of remedial

in Bohemia as physician during the outbreak of agents used at that time, which he regarded as usdess,

cholenL was assistant physician in the general hos- as in his experience manv ailments were cured with-

pital ot Vienna, 1832-38, in 1839 city physician of out medicines, merely by suitable medical supeiv

Vienna for the poor, and on 13 Februarv, 1840, vision and proper diet. His high sense of duty as a

on the recommendation of Dr. Ludwig, Freiherr von teacher, the large amount of work he performed as a

TQrkheim, chairman of the imperial committee of physician, and the early appearance of organic hearts

education, was appointed to the unpaid position qf trouble are probablv the reasons that from 1848

chief physician of the department for consumptives he published less and less. The few papers which he

just opened in the general hospital. In 1846. tnanks wrote from 1850 are to be found in the transactions

to the energetic measures of Karl Rokitansky, pro- of the Academy of Sciences and the periodical of the

feasor of pauiological anatomy, he was apiwinted pro- Society of Physicians of Vienna of which he was the

feasor of the mediraU clinic against the wishes of the honorary president,

rest of the medical faculty. In 1848 he began to Diuschb, Skoda (Vienna, 1881). .

lecture in German instead of Latin, being the first Leopold Sbnfkldbr.

profesBOT to adopt this course. On 17 July. 1848, he glade, John, Venerable See Bodey, John, Vbn-

was elected an active member of the mathematico- arable
physical section of the Academy of Sciences. Early

m 1871 he retired from his professorship, and the oo- Slander is the attributing to another of a fault

easion was oelebrated by the students and the popula- of which one knows him to be innocent. It contains

tion of Vienna by a great torchlight procession in his a twofold malice, that which grows out of damage

honour. RokitadudEy calls him " a lignt for those who unjustly done to our neighbour's good name and that

study, a model for those who strive, and a rock for of lying as well. Theologians say that this latter

those who despair". Skoda 's benevolent disposi- guilt considered in itself, in so far as it is an offence

tion is best shown bvthe fact that, notwithstanding his against veracity, may not be grievous, but that nevei^

large income and known simplicitv of life, he left a theless it will frequently be advisable to mention

eo^tilMiratively small fortune, and in his will bequeathed it in confession, in order that the extent and method

lef^Mies to a number of benevolent institutions. of reparation may be settled. The important thing

Skoda's great merit lies in his development of the to note of slander is that it is a lesion of our neigh-
methods of physical investigation. The discovery hour's right to his reputation. Hence moralists hold
of the method of percussion diagnosis made in 1761 that it is not specifically distinct from mere detrao-
by the Viennese physician, Leopold Auenbrugger tion. For the purpose of determining the species
(1722-1809), had been forgotten, and the knowledge of this sin, the manner in which the injury is done is
of it was first revived in 1808 by Corvisart (1765- negligible. There is, however, this difference be-
1821), oourt-physician to Napoleon I. Laennee tween slander and detraction: that, whereas there
(1787-1826) ima his pupils Piorry and Bouillaud are circumstances in which we may lawfully expose
added auscultation to tnis method. Skoda began his the misdeeds which another has actually committed,
clinical studies in close connexion with patholo^cal we are never allowed to blacken his name by charging
anatomy while assistant physician of the hospital, him with what he has not done. A Ue is intrinsicall!'
bat his superion failed to understand hk course, evil and can never be iustified by any cause or in any
•ad in 1837, hy way of punishment, transferred him oircumstanoes. Shmder involves a violation of com-

BLkYMSSf

BU^itnr

mutative justice and therefore impofles on its per-
petrator the obligation of restitution. First of all,
ne must undo the injury of the defamation itself.
There seems in general to be only one adequate way
to do this: he must simply retract his false state-
ment. Moralists sav that & he can make full atone-
ment by declaring that he has made a mistake, this
will be sufficient; otherwise he must unequivocally
take back his untruth, even at the expense of ex-
hibiting himself a liar. In addition he is bo\md to
make compensation to his victim for whatever losses
may have oeen sustained as a result of his malicious
imputation. It is supposed that the damage which
ensues has been in some measure foreseen by the
danderer.

BuLTBB, MamuU of Moral Tkwlon (New York, 1008) ; Bal-
lutua. Op. tKeoL mor, (Pmto, 1899); d'Annibalb, Summula
theol. mor. (Rome, 1908); Gbnicot, TMol. moral, t/wtti. (Lou-
vain, 1898).

Joseph F. Dblant.

Slavery. — Bovr numerous the plavcs were in
Roman society when Christianity made its appeaiv
ance, how haid was their lot. and now the competition
of slave labour crushed free labour is notorious. It is
the scope of this article to show what Chrbtianity has
done for daves and against slaverer, first in the Ro-
man world, next in that society which was the result
of the barbarian invasions, and lastly in the modem
world.

I. Thb Chubch and Roman Slavery.— ^The
first missionaries of the Gospel, men of Jewish orifdn,
came from a country where slavery existed. But
it existed in Judea under a form very different from
the Roman form. The Mosaic Law was merciful
to the slave (Ex., xxi; Lev., xxv; Deut., xv, xvi, xxi)
and carefully secured his fair wa^e to the labourer
(Deut., xxiv, 15). In Jewish society the slave was
not an object of contempt, because labour was not
despised as it was daewnere. No man thought it
beneath him to plv a manual trade. These ideas
and habits of life the Apostles brought into the new
society which so rapidly grew up as the effect of
their preaching. As this society mcluded, from the
first, mthful of all conditions — ^rich and poor, slaves
and freemen — ^the Apostles were obliged to utter
their beUefs as to the social inequalities which so
profoundly divided the Roman world. ** For as many
of you as have been baptized in Christ, have put on
Christ. There is neither Jew nor Greek: there is
neither bond nor free: there is neither male nor female.
For you are all one in Christ Jesus" (Gal., iii, 27-28;
cf . I Cor., xii, 13). From this principle St. Paul draws
no political conclusions. It was not his wish, as it
was not in his power, to realize Christian equality
either by force or by revolt. Such revolutions are not
effected of a sudden. Christianity accepts society as
it is, influencing it for its transformation through, and
only through, mdividual souls. What it demands in
the first place from masters and from slaves is, to live
as brethren — commanding with equity, without
threatening, remembering that God is the master of
all — obeying with fear, out without servile flattery,
in simphcity of heart, as they would obey Christ (cf .
Eph., vi, 9; Col., iii, 22-4; iv, 1).

Hiis language was understood by masters and by
slaves who became converts to Christianity. But
many slaves who were Christians had pagan masters
to whom this sentiment of fraternity was unknown,
and who sometimes exhibited that cruelty of which
moralists and poets so often speak. To such slaves
St. Peter points out their duty: to be submissive
"not only to the good and gentle, but also to the fro-
ward", not with a mere inert resignation, but to give a
good example and to imitate Christ, Who also suffered
unjustly (I Peter, ii, 18, 23-24). In the eyes of the
Apostles, the slave's condition, peculiarly wretched,
peculiarly exposed to temptations, bears all the more

efficacious testimony to the new religion. St. FmiI
recommends slaves to seek in all things to please their
masters, not to contradict them, to do them no wxongi
to honour them, to be loyal to them, so as to make the
teaching of God Our Saviour shine forth before the
eyes of all, and to prevent that name and teaching
from being blasphemed (cf. I Tim., vi, 1; Tit., ii, 9,
10). The Apostohc writmgs show how large a place
slaves occupied in the Church. Nearly all the names
of the Christians whom St. Paul salutes in his Epistle
to the Romans are servile cogTiomina: the two groups
whom he calls 'Hhoee of the household of Aristobulus''
and ''those of the household of Narcissus" indicate
Christian servitors of those two contemporaries of
Nero. His Epistle, written from Rome, to the
Philippians (iv, 22) bears them greeting from the
saints of Csesar's household, i. e. converted slaves of
the imperial palace.

One fact which, in the Church, relieved the con*
dition of the slave was the absence amongChristians
of the ancient scorn of labour (Cicero, "De off,", I,
xlii; "Pro Flacco", xviii; "Pro domo", xxxiii; Sueto-
nius, "Claudius", xxii; Seneca, "De beneficiis", xviii;
Valerius Maximus, V, ii, 10). Converts to the new
religion knew that Jesus had been a carpenter;
ther^ saw St. Paul exercise the occupation of a tent-
maker (Acts, xviii, 3; I Cor., iv, 12). "Neither did
we eat any man's bread", said the Apostle, "for
nothing, but in labour and in toil we worked nignt and
day, lest we should be chargeable to any en you"
(II Thess., iii, 8; cf. Acts, xx, 33. 34). Such an ex-
ample, given at a time when those who laboured
were accounted "the dregs of the city", and those
who did not labour hved on the public bounty,
constituted a very efficacious form of preaching.
A new sentiment was thereby introduced into the
Roman world, while at the same time a formal
discipline was being established in the Church.
It would have none of those who made a narade of
their leisurely curiosity in the Greek and Raman
cities (II Thess., iii, 11). It declared tiiat those who
do net labour do not deserve to be fed (ibid., 10).
A Christian was not permitted to live without an
occupation (Didache, xii).

Rehgious . equalitv was the negation of slavery
as it was practised by pagan society. It must have
been an exaggeration, no doubt, to say, as one author
of the first century said, that "slaves had no reli^on,
or had only foreign religions ' ' (Tacitus, "Annals" , Al V,
xliv) : many were membera of funerary collegia under
the invocation of Roman divinities (Statutes of the
College of Lanuvium, " Corp. Inscr. lat.", XIV, 2112).
But in many circumstances this haughty and formalist
religion excluded slaves from its functions, which,
it was held, their presence would have defiled (Cicero,
"Octavius", xxiv). Absolute religious equalityf
as proclaimed by Christianity, was therelore a
novelty. The Church made no account of the social
condition of the faithful. Bond and free received
the same sacraments. Clerics of servile origin
were numerous (St. Jerome, Ep. Ixxxii). The veiy
Chair of St. Peter was occupied by men who had
been slaves — ^Pius in the second century. Callistua
in the third. So complete — one might aimost say^,
so levelling — ^was this Christian equality that St.
Paul (I Tim., vi, 2), and, later, St. Ignatius (Polyc,
iv), are obliged to admonish the slave and the hand-
maid not to contemn their masters, "believers like
them and sharing in the same bendlts". In givins
them a place in religious society, the Church restored
to slaves the family and marriage. In Roman law,
neither legitimate marriage, nor r^;ular patMnity.
nor even any impediment to the most unnatural
unions had existed for the slave (Digest, XXXVIII.
viii, i, § 2; x, 10, § 5). That slaves often endeavoured
to override this abominable position is touchinc^y
proved by innumerable mortuary inscriptions; biU

numunr 87 ilayibt

ibe nanie of ttopor, whioh the bUto wotnaa tabv in 000. Bitt PaUftdtut wrote befora 406, which was long

these iDaoriptioiifly is very precariouai for no law before Melania had ocmpleitefy exhausted her im^

nroteetfi her nonour, and with her there la no adultery mense f<vtune in acts of Uberahty of all kinds (Ram-

(Difleat, XLVIII, v, 6; Cod. Justin., IX, ix, 23). poUa^ **8, Melania Giumoie", 1905, p. 221).
In ike Church the marnage of slaves is a sacrament; Pnmitive Christianity did not attadk slavery

it possesses ''the soliditjr' of one (St. Basil, Ep. directly: but it acted as thoufdi slaveiv did not

cxcix, ^). The Apostolic Constitutions impose exist. B^ inspiring the best m its children with

upon the master the outy of making his slave contract this heroic charity, examples of which have been
''a legitimate marriage'' (III, iv; VIIL xxxii). • given above, it remote^ prepared the way for the

St. John Chrysostom declares that slaves have the abolition of slavery. To r^roach the Church of

marital power over their wives and the paternal the first ages with not havmg condemned slavery

over their children ("In £p.ad£^he8.",Hom.xxii, 2). in principle, and with having tolerated it in fact,

He says that "he who has immoral relations with the is to blame it for not having let loose a frightful

wife dt a slave is as culpable as he who has the hke revolution, in which, perhaps, all civilization would

relations with the wife of the prince: botii are aduV- have perished with Koman society. But to say,

In the (Jhristiaa cemeteries there is no difference there should be no slavery, to sav that the Father.

between the tombs of slaves and those of the free, of the Church did not feel "the horror of slavery",

The inscriptions on pagan sepulchres — ^whether the is to display either strange ignorance or singular

columbarium common to all the servants of one unfairness. In St. Gregory of Nyssa (In Ecclesiastem,

household, or the burial plot of a funerary collegium hom. iv) the most energetic and absolute reprobation

of slaves or freedmen^ or isolated tombs— always indi- of slavery may be found; and again in numerous

cate the servile condition. In Christian epitaphs it is passages of St. John Chrysostom's discourses we

hardly ever to be seen ("Bull, di archeol. Christiana'', nave the picture of a society without slaves — a

1866, p. 24), though slaves formed a considerable part societ^r composed only of free workers, an ideal

of the d^ristian population. Sometimes we find a portrait of which he traces with the most eloauent

slave honoured with a more pretentious sepulchre msistence (see the texts cited in AUard, "Lesesclaves

than others of the faithful, like that of Amp^atus chr^tiens'', pp. 416-23).

in the cemetery of Domitilia ("Bull, diarcheol. Christ.", II. Thb Church and Slavery after the

1881,pp. 57-74, andpl. Ill, IV). This is particularly Barbarian Invasions. — It is beyond the scope of

so in tiie case of slaves who were martyrs: the ashes this article to discuss the legislative movement

of two slaves, Protus and Hyacinthus, burned alive which took place during the same period in regard

in the Valerian persecution, had been wrapped in a to slaves. From Augustus to Constantine statutes

winding-sheet of gold tissue (ibid., 1894, p. 23). and jurisprudence tended to afford them greater

Martyrdom eloquenthr manifests the religious protection against ill-treatment and to facilitate

equidity of the slave: he displays as much firmness enfranchisement. Under the Christian emperors

before the menaces of the persecutor as does the this tendeziey, in spite of relapses at certain points,

free man. Sometimes it is not for the Faith alone became daily more marked, and ended, in the sixth

that a slave woman dies, but for the faith and chastity century, in Justinian's very Uberal legislation (see

equally threatened — "pro fide et castitate occisa Wallon, "Hist, de Fesclava^e dans rantiauit^'', III,

e3t" ("Acta S. Duke" in Acta SS., Ill March, p. 652). ii and x). Although the civil law on slavery still

Beautiful assertions of this moral freedom are found lagged behind the demands of Christianity ("The laws

in the accounts of the martyrdoms of the slaves of Csesar are one thing, the laws of Chnst another",

Ariadne, Blandina, Evelpistus, Potamienna, Felicitas, St. Jerome writes in "Ep. Ixxvii"), nevertheless very

Sabina, Vitalis, Porphyrus, and many others (see g^eat proflTOBS had been made. It continued in the

AUard, "Dix lecons sur le martyre", 4th ed., pp. Eastern Empire (laws of Basil the Macedonian,

155-64). The Church made the enfranchisement of Leo the wise, of Constantine Poiphvzogenitus),

of the slave an act of disinterested charit^r. Pagan but in the. West it was abruptly checked by the

mastars usually sold him his liberty for his market barbarian invasions. Those invasions were calam-

vakre, on receipt of his painfully amassed savings itous for the slaves, increasing their numbers which

(Cicero, "Philipp. VIII", xi;S«ieca,"Ep.lxxx"); true had bep^un to dimmish, and subjecting them to

Christians gave it to him as an alms. Sometimes legislation and to customs much harder than those

the Church redeemed slaves out of its common whieh obtained under the Roman law of the period

resources (St. Ignatius, "Polyc", 4; Apos. Const., (see Alhtfd, "Les origines du servage" in "Rev, des

IV, iii). Heroic Christians are known to have sold questions historiques^', April, 1911). Here again the

themselves into slavery to deliver slaves (St. Clement, Church intervened. It did so in three ways: redeem-

"Cor.", 4; "Vita S. Joannis Eleemosymurii " in Acta ing slaves; legislating for their benefit in its councils;

SS., Jan., II, p. 506). Many enfranchised all the setting an example of kind treatment. Documents

daves they had. In pagan antiquity wholesale en- of the fifth to the seventh century are fuU of instances

franchisements are frequent, but they never include of ci4)tives carried off from conquered cities by the

all the owner's slaves, and tnev are always by testar barbarians and doomed to slavery, whom bishops.

effectually despoiling themselves of a considerable France'', 1910, pp. 357-69).

part of their fortime (see Allard. "Les esclaves chr^ The Churches of Gaul, Spam, Britain, and Italy

tiens", 4th ed., p. 338). At the oeginning of the fif th were incessantly busy, in numerous councils, with

eentury, a Roman millionaire. Si. Melania, gratui- the affairs of the slaves; protection of the maltreated

tously granted liberty to so many thousand of slaves slave who has taken refuge in a church (Councils

that her biographer declares himself unable to give of Orleans, 511, 538, 649; Council of Epone, 517):

tiieir exact number (Vita S. Melani^e, xxxiv). Pallsr protection of freedmen, not only those manumitted

dius mentions eight thousand slaves freed (Hist, in ecdesiis, but also those freed by any other process

Laiisiaea, exix). which, taking the average price of a (Council of Aries, 452; of Agde, 606: of Orleans, 649;

•lave as about $100, would represent a value of $800,- of MAcou, 586; of Toledo, 689, 633; of Paris, 616);

wucnsLY

nOkVESLY

vtfidity of marriageB contraoted with full knowl*
edge of the ciroumstanoes between free penona and
slaves (Councils of Verberie, 752; of Compidgne. 769):
rest for slaves on Sundays and fea^t days (Council
of Auxerre, 578 or 585; of ChAlon-sur-Sa6ne, middle
of the seventh century; of Rouen. 650; of Wessex,
691; of Ber^amsted, 697); prohibition of Jews to
possess Christian slaves (Council of Orleans, 541;
of M&con, 581; of CUch}% 625; of Toledo, 589, 633,
656); suppression of tramc in slaves by forbidding
theh" sale outside of the kingdom (Council of ChAIon-
sur-SaAne, between 644 and 650) ; prohibition against
reducing a free man to slavery (Council of Clichy,
625). Less liberal in this respect than Justinian
(Novella cxxiii, 17), who made tacit consent a
sufficient condition, the Western discipline does not
permit a slave to be raised to the priesthood without
the formal consent of his master; nevertheless the
councils held at Orleans in 511, 538, 549, while im-
posing canonical penalties upon the bishop who ex-
ceeded his authority in this matter, declare such an
ordination to be valid. A council held at Rome in
695 under the presidency of St. Gregory the Great
permits the slave to become a monk without any
consent, express or tacit, of his master.

At this period the Church found itself becoming
a great proprietor. Barbarian converts endowed it
largely with reskl property. As these estates were
furnished with sens attached to the cultivation of
the soil, the Church became by force of circumstances
a proprietor of human beings, for whom, in these
troublous times, the relation was a great 'blessing.
The laws of the barbarians, amended through
Christian influence, gave ecclesiastical serfs a priv-
ileged position: their rents were fixed; ordinarily,
they were bound to give the proprietor half of their
labour or half of its products, the remainder being
left to them (Lex Alemannorum, xxii; Lex Baju va-
riorum, I, xiv, 6). A council of the sixth century
(Eauzc, 551) enjoins upon bishopts that they must
exact of their serfs a lighter service than that per-
formed by the serfs of lay proprietors, and must
remit to them one-fourth of their rents. Another
advantage of ecclesiastical serfs was the permanency
of their position. A Roman law of the middle of
the fourth centuiy (Cod. Just., XI, xlvii, 2) had
forbidden rural slaves to be removed from the lands
to which they belonged: this was the origin of serfdom,
a much better condition than slavery properly so
called. But the barbarians virtually suppressed this
beneficent law (Gregory of Tours, "Hist. Franc",
VI, 45) ; it was even formally abrogated among the
Goths of Italy by the edict of Theodoric (§ 142).
Nevertheless, as an exceptional privilege, it remained
in force for the serfs of the Church, who. like the
Church itself, remained under Roman law (Lex
Burgondionum, LVIII, i; Louis I, "Add. ad legem
Langobard.", Ill, i). They shared besides, the
inalienability of oil ecclesiastical property which had
been established by councils (Rome, 502; Orleans,
511, 533; Epone, 517; Clichy, 625; Toledo, 589):
they were sheltered from the exactions of the royal
officers by the immunity granted to almost all church
lands (Kroell, "L'immunit6 franque", 1910); thus
their position was generally envied (Flodoard, "Hist,
eccl. Kemensis", I. xiv), and when the royal liberality
assigned to a church a portion of land out of the state
property, the serfs who cultivated were loud in their
expressions of joy (Vita S. Eligii, I, xv).

It has been asserted that the ecclesiastical serfs
were less fortunately situated because the inalien-
abihty of church property prevented their being
enfranchised. But this is inexact. St. Gregory the
Great enfranchised serfs of the Roman Church
(Ep. vi, 12), and there is frequent discussion in the
councils in regard to ecclesiastical freedmen. The
Council of Agde (506) gives the bishop the right to

enfraaehifle those eerfs "who shall have deserved if
and to leave them a small patrimony. A Ccmnoil
of Orleans (641) declares that even if the bishop
has dissipated the property of his church, the serfs
whom he has freed in reasonable numbor (numero
campelenH) are to remain free. A Merovingiaa
formula shows a bishop enfranchising one-tenUi of
his serfs (Formula Biturigenses, viii). The Spanish
councils imposed greater restrictions, reoognizinjs
the. ri^t of a bishop to enfranchise the serfs of his
church on condition of his indenmifying it out of his
own private property (Council of Seville, 590; of
Toledo, 633; of Merida, 666). But they made it
obhgatory to enfranchise the serf in whom a serious
vocation to the priesthood was discerned {Council
of Saragoesa, 593). An English council (Celohyte,
816) orders that at the death of a bishop all the other
bishops «and all the abbots shall enfranchise three
slaves each for the repose of his soul. This last
clause shows again the mistake of saying that the
monks had not the right of manumission. The
panon of the Council of Epone (517) which forbids
abbots to enfranchise their serfs was enacted in
order that the monks might not be left to work with-
out assistance and has been taken too literally. It
is inspired not only by agricultural prudence, but
also by the consideration that the serfs belonp^ to
the community of monks, and not to the abbot indi-
vidually. Moreover, the rule of St. Ferr^ol (sixth
century) permits the abbot to free serfs with the
consent of the monks or without their consent,
if, in the latter case, he replaces at his own expense
those he has enfranchised. The statement that
ecclesiastical freedmen were not as free as the freed-
men of lay proprietors will not bear examination
in the light of facts, which shows the situation of the
two classes to have been identical, except that the
freedman of the Church carried a higher werghM,
than a lay freedman, and therefore his hfe was
better protected. The "Polyptych of Irminon'*,
a detailed description of the abbey lands of Saint-
Germain-des-Pr6s, shows that in the ninth century
the serfs of that domain were not numerous and led
in every way the life of free peasants.

III. The Church and Modern Slavery. —
In the Middle Ages, slavery, properly so called, no
longer existed in Christian countries; it had been
replaced by serfdom, an intermediate condition in
which a man enjoyed all his personal rights except
the right to leave the land he cultivated and the tiffit
to freely dispose of his property. Serfdom soon
disappeared m Catholic countries, to last longer
only where the Protestant Reformation prevailed.
But while serfdom was becoming extinct, me course
of events was bringing to pass a temporary revival
of slavery. As a consequence of the wars against
the Mussulmans and the commerce maintainedf with
the East, the European countries bordering on the
Mediterranean, particularly Spain and Italy, once
more had slaves — Tiu'kish prisoners and also,
unfortunately, captives imported by conscienceless
traders. Though these slaves were generally well
treated, and set at liberty if they asked for bi4>tism,
this revival of slavery, lasting until the seventeenth
century, is a blot on Christian civilization. But
the number of these slaves was always veiy small
in comparison with that of the Christian captives
reduced to slaveiy in Mussulman countries, partio-
ulorly in the Barba^ states from Tripoli to the
Atlantic coast of Morocco. These captives were
cruelly treated and were in constant dan^ of losing
their faith. Many actually did deny their faith, or.
at least, were driven by despair to abandon all
religion and all morality. Religious orders were
founded to succour and redeem them.

The Trinitarians, founded in 1198 by St John
of Matha and St. Felix of Valois, established hospitals

BLkYMKf 30 8L4V1BT

for slaves at Algiers and Tunis in the sixteenth * region of the Great Lakes, ledeeming slaves and

and seventeenth centuries; and from its foundation establishing '^liberty viUages/' At the head of

until the year 1787 it redeemed 900,000 slaves, this movement appear two men: Cardinal Lavigeiie,

The Order of Our Lady of Ransom (Mercedarians), who in 1888 founded the SocUU AniiesdavaoitU

founded in the thirteenth century bv St. Peter and in 1880 promoted the Brussels conference:

Nolasoo, and established more especially in France Leo XIII, who encouraged Lavigerie in all his projects

and Spain, redeemed 490,736 slaves between the and, in 1890, by an Encyclical once more condemning

vears 1218 and 1632. To^the three regular vows its the slave-traders and ' ' the accursed pest of servitude ,

rounder had added a fourth, ''To become a hostage ordered an annual collection to be made in all

in the hands of the infidels, if that is necessary for Cathohc churches for the benefit of the antinslavery

the deliverance of Christ's faithful." Many Mer- work. Some modem writers, mostly of the Socialist

*(Dedarians kept this vow even to martyrdom. An- School — Karl Marx, Engel, Cicootti, and, in a meas*

other order undertook not only to redeem captives, ure, Seligman — attribute the now ahnost complete

but also to give them spiritual and material assistance, disappearance of slaveiy to the evolution of interests

St. Vincent of Paul had been a slave at Algiers in and to economic causes only. The foregoing exposi-
1605. and had witnessed the sufferings and perils tion of the subject is an answer to their materiaUstic

at Algiers. From 1642 to 1660 they redeemed about ^^^^i-^i^' ^«'«^- <^ VetdataM dan» Vantiquiu (Paris. 1879):

1200 slaves at an expense of about 1,200,000 livres, 5*^* hi!±!S^^J^ !? ^*iS «* *•, ''•"'/"^.iSj™. 18«7) ;

But their greatest achievements were in teaching £:.^c(«15"cX?^rrS^^'L1SS.T^/^^^^

the Catechism and convertmg thousands, and m ^~ ^' * ^ •— ^ .. .« .

preparing many of the captives to suffer the mpst

cruel mart^xiom rather than deny the Faith. As

a Protestant historian has recently said, none of the

expeditions sent against the Barbary States by the

Powers of Europe, or even America, equalled "the

moral effect produced by the ministry of consolation, j^^ -...^ — . ^ .....».^«. ^.»«». x^^,, o«»wi«iiuw,

peace and abnegation, going even to the sacrifice of v^^Jf^foSx^fe**^ ^^ Serfdom in Europe (London and New

KSy .md wJVhich WM^er^ by the humble JSS' 4*^.^Sr^'ix^i '$^{^^,::^, ^^

sons of St. John of Matha, St. Peter Nolasco, and SehiavU^ e del Sertaggio (Milan, 1868) ; Ciccotti. /I tnnumto

St. Vincent of Paul'^ (Bonet-Maury, "France, ^-^f^iS^.Si?*^' ^W-T^i^m^^

«1.»:«*;.«:«i^A A* /.Ur;i:o«i*;/^n" IOAT «> lio\ oa^rylciele a%d0Uor%9cola»iie% (Rome, l90R);BitAVDi, n Papato

ChnstianJSme et civilisation , 1907. p. 142). .fa ScMavit^ (Rome. 1903): hwuMDm/Vordre dee TrSZ

jcond J - • • ■ - - -

discovc

1492. _ . ^. _ ^

the limits of this article. It will be sufficient to l* cwrdinkL UurigerU'et ^umSree

recall the efforts of Las Casas in behalf of the abor- Paul Allabd.

igines of America and the protestations of popes

both against the enslavement of those aborigines Slavery, Ethical AspscTr of. — In Greek and Ro-
and the traffic in n^ro slaves. England, Fruice, man civilization slavery on an extensive scale formed
Portug^, and Spain, all participated in this nefarious ftn essential element of the social structure; and con-
traffic. England only made amends for its trans- sequentlv the ethical speculators, no less than the
gressions when, in 1815, it took the initiative in the practical statesmen, regarded it as a just and indis-
suppression of the slav&-trade. In 1871 a writer pensable institution. The Greek, however, assumed
hsd the temerity to assert that the Papacy had not that the slave population should be recruited nor-
yet been able ''to make up its mind to condemn mally only from the barbarian or lower races. The
slavery'' (Ernest Havet, "Le christianisme et ses Roman laws, in the heyday of the empire, treated the
origines'', I, p. xzi). He forgot that, in 1462. Pius II slave as a mere chattel. The master possessed over
declared slavery to be ''a great crime" (magnum him the power of hfe and death; the slave could not
soB^tiA); that, in 1537, Paul III forbade the enslavement contract a legal marriage, or an}^ other kind of con-
of the Indians; that Urban VIII forbade it in 1639* tract; in fact ne possessed no civil rights; in the eyes
and Benedict AlV in 1741; that Pius VII demanded of the law he was not a ''person''. Nevertheless the
of the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, the suppression settlement of natural justice asserted itself sufficiently
of the slav&-trade, and Gregory XVI condemned it in to condemn, or at least to disapprove, the conduct of
1839; that, in the Bull of Canonisation of the Jesuit masters who treated their slaves with signal in-
Peter Claver, one of the most illustrious adversaries humanity.

of slavery, Pius IX branded the "supreme villainy" Christianity found slavery in 'possession throughout
(avmmum nefas) of the slave-traders. Eveiyone the Roman world; and when Christianity obtained
knows of the beautiful letter which Leo XIII, in power it could not and did not attempt summar-
1888, addressed >to the Brasilian bishops, exhorting ily to aboUsh the institution. From the be^in-
them to banish from their country the remnants mng, however, as is shown elsewhere in this article,
of slavery — a letter to which the bishops responded the Church exerted a steady powerful pressure for the
wiUi their most energetic efforts, and some generous immediate amelioration of the condition of the in-
slave-owners by freeing their slaves in a body, as dividual slave, and for the ultimate abolition of a sys-
in the first ages of the Churdi. tem which, even in its mildest form, could with diffi-
In our own times the slave-trade still continued culty be reconciled with the spirit of the Gospel and
to devastate Africa, no longer for the profit of the doctrine that all men are brothers in that Divine
Christian states, from which all slavery nad dis- sonship which knows no distinction of bond and free.
smeared, but for the use of Mussulman countries. From the beginning the Christian moralist did not
But as Euroi)ean penetration progresses in Africa, condemn slavery as in 8e, or essentially, against the
the missionariesL who are always its precursors — natural law or natural justice. The fact that slavery,
Fathers of the Holy Ghost, Oblates, White Fathers, tempered with many humane restrictions, was per-
iiVanciscans, Jesuits, Priests of the Mission of Lyon^^ mitted under the Mosaic law would have sufficed to
kfaour in the Sudan, Guinea, on the Gabun, in the prevent the institution from being condemned by

SULVIBT 40 8LAVSBI7

Qirifltian teachers as absolutehr Immoral. They, fol- * that oonoerns his external life: that he should be oom^

lowing the example of St. Paul, implicithr accept pelled to spend his entire labour for the benefit of

slavery as not in itself incompatible with the CHiris- another and receive in return only a bare subsistence,

tian Law. The apostle counsels slaves to obey their This condition of degradation is aggravated by the

masters, and to bear with their condition patiently, fact that the slave is, generally, deprived of all means

This estimate of slavery continued to prevail till it of intellectual development for himyself or for fa» chiL-

became fixed in the systematized ethical teaching of dren. This life almost inevitiEd[>ly leads to the de»

the schools; and so it remained without any con- struction of a proper sense of self-respect, blunts the

spicuous modification till towards the end of the inteUectual faculties, weiJcens the sense of responsi*

eighteenth century. We mav take as representative bility, and results in a degraded moral standard. On

de Lugo's statement of the chief argument offered in the other hand, the exercise of the slave-master's

proof of the thesis that slavery, apart from all abuses, power, too seldom sufficiently restrained by a sense of*

IS not in itself contrary to the natural law. ''Slavery justice or Christian feeling, tends to develop arro-

consists in this, that a man is obliged, for his whole gance, pride, and a tsrrannical disposition, which in

life, to devote his labour and services to a master, the long run comes to treat the slave as a being with

Now as anybody may justlv bind himself, for the sake no rights at all. Besides, as history amplv proves,

of some anticipated rewara, to give his entire services the presence of a slave population breecis a vast

to a master for a year, and he would in justice be amount of sexual immorality among the slave-own-

bound to fulfil this contract, why may not he bind ing class, and, to borrow a phrase ofLecky, tends to

himself in like manner for a longer period, even for his cast a stigma on all labour and to degrade and im-

entire lifetime, an obligation which would constitute poverish the free poor,
slavery?'* ^De Justitia et Jure. disp. VI, sec. 2. no. 14.) Even granting that slavery, when attended with a

It must be observed that the defence of what may due re^d for the rights of tne slave, is not in itsdtf
be termed theoretical slavery was by no means in- intrinsically wrong, there still remains the important
tended to be a justification of slavery as it existed question of the titles by which a master can justly
historically, with all its attendant, and almost own a slave. The least debatable one, voluntary ao-
inevitably attendant, abuses, disregarding the natural ceptance of slavery, we have already noticed. An*-
rights of the slave and entailing pernicious conse- other one that was looked upon as legitimate was
quences on the character of the slave-holding class, as purchase. Although it is against natural justice to
well as on society in general. Concurrently with the treat a person as a mere commodity or thing of conn
affirmation that slavery is not against the natural law, merce, nevertheless the labour of a man for his whole
tiie moralists specify what are the natural inviolable lifetime is something that may be lawfully bought and
rights of th6 slave, and the corresponding duties of sold. Owing to the exalted notion that prevailed in
the owner. The rast of this teachmg is summarized earlier times about the vcUria potestaSf a father was
byCardiiialGerdiT(1718-18Q2): ''Slavery is not to be granted the right to sell his son into slavery^ if he
understood as conferring on one man the same power could not otherwise relieve his own dire oistress.
over another that men have over cattle. Wherefore But the theologians held that if he should afterwards
they erred who in former times refused to include be able to do so, the father was bound to redeem the
slaves among persons; and believed that however slave, and the master was bound to set him free if
barbarously the master treated his slave he did not anyfbody offered to repay him the price he had paid,
violate any right of the eJave. For slavery does not To sell old or worn-out slaves to anybody who was
aboUsh the natural equality of men: hence t>y slavery likely to prove a cruel master, to separate by sale
one man is understood to oecome subject to the do- husband and wife, or a mother and her little chudr^i,
minion of another to the extent that the master has a was looked upon as wrong and forbidden. Another
perpetual right to all those services which one man title was war. If a man forfeited his life so that he
may justly perform for another; and subject to the could be justly put to death, this punishment might
condition that the master shall take due care of his be commuted mto the mitigated penalty of slavery, or
slave and treat him humanely" (Comp. Instit. Civil., penal servitude for life. On the same principle that
L, vii). The master was judged to sin against justice slavery is a lesser evil than death, captives taken in
if he treated Jus slave cruelly, if he overloaded him war, who, according to the ethical iaeas of the jus
with labour, deprived him of adeauate food and cloth- gentium, might lawfully be put to death by the vic-
ing, or if ne separated husband from wife, or the tors, were instead reduced to slavery . Whatever justi«
mother from her jroung children. It may be said that fication this practice may have had in the jus gentium
the approved ethical view of slavery was that while, of former ages, none could be found for it now.
reli^ously speaking, it could not be condemned as When slavery prevailed as part of the social organ-
against the natural law, and had on its side the jus ization and the slaves were ranked as property, it
gentiumf it was looked upon with [disfavour as at seemed not unreasonable that the old juridical maxim,
best merely tolerable, and when judged by its conse- l^artue sequitur ventrem, should be accepted as peremp-
quences, a positive evil. torily settling the status of children bom in slavery.

The later moralists, that is to say, broadly speak- But it would be difficult to find any justification for

ing. those who have written since the end of the this title in the natural law, except on the theory that

eighteenth century, though in fundamental agreement the institution of slavery was, in certain conditions,

with their predecessors, have somewhat shifted the necessary to the permanence of the social organiza-

perspective. In possession of the bad historical tion. An insufficient reason frequently offered in

record of slavery and familiar with a Christian struc- defence of it was that the master acquired a right to

ture of society from which slavery had been elimi- the children as compensation for the expense be

nated, these later moralists emphasize more than did incurred in their support, which could not be provided

the older ones the reasons for condemning slaveiy; by the mother who possessed nothing of her own.

and thev lay less stress on those in its favour. While In or is there much cogency in the other plea, i.e. that

they admit that it is not, theoretically speaking at a person bom in slavery was presumed to consent

least, contrary to the natural law, they hold that it is tacitly to remaining in that condition, as there was no

hardly compatible with the dignity of personality, way open to him to enter any other. It is unnece&>

and is to be condemned as immoral on account of the sary to observe that the practice of capturing savages

evil cons€Kiuences it almost inevitably leads to. It is or barbarians for the purpose of making slaves of

but little in keeping with human dignity that one man them has always been condemned as a heinous offence

should so far be deprived of his liberty as to be per- against justice, and no Just title could be created by

petually subject to the will of a master in everything this procedure. Was it lawful for owners to MtaiD

8LAVX8

SLAVONIC

in slavery the descendants of those who had been
made slaves in this unjust way? The last conspicu-
ous Catholic moralist who posed this question when it
was not merely a theoretical one, Kenrick, resolves it
in the affirmative on the ground that lapse oi time
remedies the original defect in titles when the stabil-
ity of society ana the avoidance of grave disturbances
demand it.

8t. Tbomas, I~II. Q. zdy, a. 5, ad 3«»; II-II. Q. Ivii. a. 3. ad
2«", and a. 4, ad 2""; de L0OO, De juU. etiure, disp. 3, 5, 2; Puvr-
■ifoosr. Droit de la Nature et de* GeiUt I- VL ch. iii« a. 7; Gbo-
TITS, De Jure BeUi ac P<xci*, 1. ii, c. v, s. 27; Ksmbick. Theologia
Morali»f tract. V, c. vi; Meter, Tn3t%tuii(me» Juris NaturaJia,
par. ii, n. ii, c. xiit art. 2; Catrhbin, Moralphilosopkie (4th ed.,
Freiburg, 1904).

Jambs J. Fox.

Slaves (D^n^ "Mes")^ a tribe of the great D^nS
family of Americfui Indians, so called apparently
from the fact that the Crees drove it bacx to its
original northern haunts. Its present habitat is the
forests that lie to the west of Great Slave Lake, from
Hay River inclusive. The Slaves are divided into
five main bands: those of Hay River, Trout Lake,
Horn Mountain^ the forks of the Mackenzie, and Fort
Norman. Theu: total population is about 1100.
They are for the most part a people of unprepossessing
appearance. Their morals were not formerly of the
best, but since the advent of Catholic missionaries
they have considerably improved. Many of them
have discarded the te^es ofold for more or less com-
fortable log houses. Yet the religious instinct is not
80 strongly developed in them as with most of their
congeners in the North. They were not so eager
to receive the Catholic missionaries, and- when me
first Protestant ministers arrived among them, the
liberalities of the strangers had more effect on them
than on the other northern Ddn6s. To-day perhaps
one-twelfth of the whole tribe has embraced Protest-
antism, the remainder being Catholics. The spiritual
wants of the latter are attended to from the missions
of St. Joseph on Great Slave Lake, Ste. Anne, Hay
River, and Providence, Mackenzie.

Mackenzie, Voifoqe through the Continent of North America
(licmdon, 1801); McLean, NUee of a Twentfffi^ Years' Service
m the Hudeon'e Bay Terrttery (Loadoa, 1849) ; PsTrror, Mono-
maj^kiedee DinS-DindjH; Idem, Autour du Grand Lac dee Enclaves
(Paris, 1891) ; Mobice, The Great D6n6 Race (Vienna, in course of
pubUoatioa, 1911).

A. G. MORICE.

fflavonlc Languagre and Liturgy.— Although the
Latin holds the chief place among the htursical Ian-
gu^ee in which the Mass is celebrated and the praise
5 God recited in the Divine Offices, yet the Slavonic
language comes next to it among the languages widely
usea throughout the world in the liturgy of the
Church. Unlike the Greek or the Latin languages,
each of which may be said to be representative of a
single rite, it is dedicated to both the Greek and the
Roman Rites. Its use, howev^, is far better known
throu^out Europe as an expression of the Greek Rite;
for it IS used amongst the various Slavic nationalities
of the Byzantine Rite, whether Catholic or Orthodox,
and in that form is spread among 115,000,000 people;
but it is also used in the Roman Kite along the-eastem
diores of the Adriatic Sea in Dalmatia and in the
lower part of Croatia among about 100,000 Catholics
there. Whilst the Greek language is the norm and the
original of the Byzantine or Greek Rite, its actual use
as a church language is limited to a comparatively
small number, reckoning by population. The liturgy
and offices of the Byzantine Cihurch were translated
from the Greek into what is now Old Slavonic (or
Church Slavonic) by Sts. Cyril and Methodius about
the year 866 and the period immediately following.
St. C3rril is credited with having invented or adapted a
special alphabet which now bears his name (CyriDic)
in order to express the sounds of the Slavonic lan-
guage, as spoken by the Bulbars and Mora\ians of
his day. (See Cyril and Methodius, Saints.)

Later on St. Methodius translated the entire Bible
into Slavonic and his disciples afterwards added other
works of the Greek saints and the canon law. These
two brother saints always celebrated Mass and ad-
ministered the sacraments in the Slavonic language.
News of their successful nussionary work among uie
pa^an Slavs was carried to Rome along with com-
plaints against them for celebrating the rites of the
Church in the heathen vernacular. In 868 Saints
Cyril and Methodius were summoned to Rome by
Nicholas I, but arriving there after his death they
were heartily received b>r his successor Adrian II, who
approved of their Slavonic version of the Uturg^. St.
Cyril died in Rome in 869 and is buried in the Uhurch
of San Clemen te. St. Methodius was afterwards con-
secrated Archbishoi) of Moravia and Pannonia and re-
turned thither to his missionary work. Later on he
was again accused of using the heathen Slavonic lan-
guage in the celebration of the Mass and in the sac-
raments. It was a popular idea then, that as there
had been three languages, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin,
inscribed over our Lorof on the cross, it would be sacri*
legions to use any other language in the service of the
Church. St. Methodius appealed to the pope and in
879 he was again summoned to Rome, before John
VIII, who after hearing the matter sanctioned the
use of the Slavonic lan|;uage in the Mass and the
offices of the Church, saying among other things: " We
rightly praise the Slavonic letters invented by Cyril,
in which praises to God are set forth, and we order
that the glories and deeds of Christ our Lord be told in
that same language. Nor is it in anywise opposed to
wholesome doctrine and faith to s^ Mass in that
same Slavonic language (Nee sanaB ndei vel doctrinse
aliquid obstat missam in eadem slavonica lingua ca-
nere), or to chant the holy gospels or divine lessons
from the Old and New Testaments duly translated
and interpreted therein, or the other parts of the di-
vine office: for He who created the three principal lan-
guages, Hebrew, Greek, and lAtin. also made the
others for His praise and glory'' (Boczek, Codex,
tom. I, pp. 43-44). From that time onward the Sla-
vonic tongue was firmly fixed as a titurgical language
of the Church, and was used wherever the Slavic
tribes were converted to Christianity under the influ-
ence of monks and missionaries of the Greek Rite.
The Cyrillic letters used in writing it are adaptations
of the uncial Greek alphabet, with the addition of a
number of new letters to express sounds not found in
the Greek language. All Church books in Russia, Ser-
via, Bulgaria, or Austro-Hungary (whether used in the
Greek Catholic or the Greek Orthodox Churches) are
printed in the old C>Tillic alphabet and in the ancient
Slavonic tongue.

But even before St. Cyril invented his alphabet for
the Slavonic language there existed certain runes or
native characters in which the southern dialect of the
language was committed to writing. There is a tra-
dition, alluded to by Innocent XI, that they were in-
vented by St. Jerome as early as the fourth century;
Jagid however thinks that they were really the orig-
inal letters invented by St. Cyril and afterwards aban-
doned in favour of an imitation of Greek characters
by his disciples and successors. This older alphabet,
which still survives, is called the Glagolitic (from gla^
golati, to speak, because the rude tribesmen imagined
that the letters spoke to the reader and told him what
to say), and was used by the southern Slavic tribes
and now exists along the Adriatic highlands. (See
Glagolitic.) The Slavonic which is written in the
Glagolitic characters is also the ancient language, but
it differs considerably from the Slavonic written in the
Cyrillic letters. In fact it may be roughly compared
to the difference between the GaeUc of Ireland and the
Gaehc of Scotland. The Roman Mass was trans-
lated into this Slavonic shortly after the Greek Hturgy
had been translated by Sts. Cyril and Methodius, sc

8LAV8

SLAVS

that in the course of time among the Slavic peoples
the southern Slavonic written in Glagolitic letters be-
came the language of the Roman Rite, while the
northern Slavonic written in Cjrrillic letters was the
lan^age of the Greek Rite. The prevailing use of the
Latm language and the adoption of the Roman alpha-
bet by many Slavic nationalities caused the use of the
Glagolitic to diminish «nd Latin to gradually take its
place. The northern Slavic peoples, like the Bohe-
mianS| Poles, and Slovaks, who were converted by
Latin missionaries, used the Latin in their rite from
the very first. At present the Glagolitic is only used
in Dalmatia and Croatia. Urban v III in 1631 defi-
nitively settled the use of the Glagolitic-Slavonic
missal and office-books in the Roman Rite, and laid
down rules where the clergy of each language came
in contact with each other in regard to church ser-
vices. Leo XIII published two editions of the Gla-
golitic Missal, from one of which the illustration
on page 45 is taken.

The liturgy used in the Slavonic langua^^ whether of
Greek or Roman Rite, offers no peculianties differing
from the original Greek or Latin sources. The Ruth-
enians have introduced an occasional minor modifi-
cation (see RuTHENiAN Ritb), but the Orthodox Rus-
sians, Bulgarians, and Servians substantially follow
the Byzantine liturjjy and offices in the Slavonic ver-
sion. The Glagolitic Missal, Breviary, and ritual fol-
low closely the Roman liturgical books, and the latest
editions contain the new offices authorized by the Ro-
man congregations. The casual , observer could not
distinguish the Slavonic priest from the Latin priest
when celebrating Mass or other services, except by
hearing the lanKuage as pronounced aloud.

QiNZSL, Oeschichte der Slav»navo$Ul CyriU u. Method, u. dtt
tiavUehen LUurgie (Vienna, 1861); Harasibwics, AnnaUt Rur
therue (Lemberg» 1862); Golubinakt, Istoria Rusakoi Taerkvi, I
(Moscow, 1904). n, 326-42; Tatlor, Ud>er den Ursprunpdes gta-
golititehen Alphabet (Berlin, 1881); Zbillbr, Les originea chri-
tUnnea dana la province de Dalmatie (Paris, 1906) ; Nilljs, Kalen-
darium ManttaU, I (Innsbruck, 1896); Bchoa d'Orient, VIII
(Paris, 1905).

Andrew J. Shipman.

Slavs, The. — I. Name. — A. Slavs. — At present
the customary name for all the Slavonic races is Slav.
This name did not appear in histonr until a late period,
but it has superseded all others . Tne general opmion is
that it appeared for the first time in written documents
in the sixth century of the Christian era. However,
before this the Alexandrian scholar Ptolemy (about
A.D. 100-178) mentioned in his work, **Tttaypaf/>iKii
i>^^7iy(rtf", a tribe called Stavani (Sravarol), which
was said to live in European Sannatia between the
Lithuanian tribes of the GalindsB and the Sudeni
and the Sarmatic tribe of the Alans. He also men-
tioned another tribe, Soubenoi (SovjSewf), which he as-
sicned to Asiatic Sarmatia on the other side of the
Alani. According to Safafik these two statements
refer to the same Slavonic people. Ptolemy got his
information from two sources; tne orthography of the
copies he had was poor and consequently he believed
there were two tribes to which it was necessary to as-
sign separate localities. In reality the second name
refers very probably to the ancestors of the present
Slavs, as does the first name also though with less
certainty. The Slavonic combination of consonants
al was changed in Greek orthography into stl, sthl, or
ski. This theory was accepted by many scholars
before Safafik, as Lomonosov, Schlozer, Tatistcheff, J.
Thunmann, who in 1774 published a dissertation on
the subject. It was first advanced probably in 1679
by Hartknoch who was supported in modem times
by many scholars. Apart from the mention by
Ptolemy, the expression Slavs is not found until the
sixth century. The opinion once held by some Ger-
man and many Slavonic scholars that the names Siievi
and Slav were the same and that these two peoples
were identical, although the Suevi were a branch of

l^e Germans and the ancestors of the present Swa-
bians, must be absolutely rejected. Scatter^ names
found in old inscriptions and old charters that are
similar in sound to the word Slav must also be ex-
cluded in this investigation.

After the reference by Ptolemy the Slavs are first
spoken of by Pseudo-Caesarios of Nazianzum, whose
work appeared at the beginning of the sixth century;
in the middle of the sixth century Jordanis and Pto-
copius gave fuUer accounts of them. Even in the
earliest sources the name appears in two forms. The
old Slavonic authorities give: Slov^ (plural from the
singular SlovSnin), the country is callea SlavHskOj the
language slaoSnesk jazyk, the people slovHisk narod.
The Greeks wrote Soubenoi (in Ptolemy Sov/SevoQ,
but the writers of the sixth century used the terms:
Sklabenoi (SieXa/Siyw)!), Sklauenoi (ZjtXawyw/), Skldbir
not (ZcXo/JTwt), Sklauinoi (ZicXawiKot). The Romans
used the terms: Sdaueni, Sdauini^ Sdaueniaf Sclau^
inia. Later authors employ the expressions Sthla-
benoi (Z^Xo^i^koQ, Sihlabinoi (Z0\aptpoi JiSXapiPol),
while the Romans wrot«: Sthlaueni, Sthlauini. In
the "Life of St. Clement" the expression S^a/Sewl
occurs; later writers use such terms as Esklabinoi
(BcTJcXa/Kwc), Asklabinoi (AtrjcXa/Stw), Sklabinioi (ZjcXo-
plpioi\ Sklauenioi (ZKXav^jptoi). The adjectives are
sdaviniscus, sdavaniscuSf sclavinicuSj sdauanicus. At
the same time shorter forms are also to be found,
as: sklaboi (ZKXapol), sthlaboi (Ze\i^)^8clavi, schiavi,
scUwania^ later also slavi. In addition appear as
scattered forms: Sdauanif Sclauones (SkKo^Qpoi, E^-
ffkaprifftapolj X0\apoy€P€[s) . The Armenian Moises of
Choren was acquainted with the term Skktvajin: the
chronicler Michael the S3rrian used the expression
Sglau or Sglou; the Arabians adopted the expression
SclaVj but because it could not be brought into har-
mony with their phonetical laws they changed it into
Saklabf Sakdlibe, and later also to SUxvije^ Slavijun,
The anonymous Persian geography of the tenth cen-
tury uses the term Seljabe.

Various e>i))lanations of the name have been sug-
gested, the theory depending; upon whether the longer
or shorter form has been taEen as the basis and upon
the acceptance of the vowel o or a as the original
root vowel. From the thirteenth century until Safafik
the shorter form Slav was always regarded as the
original expression, and the name of the Slavs was
traced from the word Slava (honour, fame), con-
sequently it signified the same as gloriosi (eUperoC).
However, as early as the fourteenth century and later
the name Slav was at times referred to the longer form
Sloven in with o as the root vowel, and this longer form
was traced to the word Slovo (word, speech), Slava
signifying, consequently, "the talking ones", verbosi,
veraces, dtx^Xorroi. Dobrowsky maintained this ex-
planation and bafafik inclined to it, consequently it
nas been the accepted theory up to the present time.
Other elucidations of the name Slav, as aovek (man),
skala (rock), seld (colony), slati (to send), soloviH
(nightingale) , scarcely merit mention. There is much
more reason in another objection that Slavonic philol-
ogists have made to the derivation of the word SUw
from slovo (word). The ending en or an of the form
SlovSnin indicates derivation from a topographical
designation . Dobrowsky perceived this difficulty and
therefore invented the topographical name Slovy,
which wjw to be derived from slwo. With some res-
ervation SafaMk also gave a geographical interpreta-
tion. He did not, however, accept the purely imag-
inary locality Slouy but connected the word Slovinin
with the Lithuanian Satava, Lettish Sola, from which
is derived the Polish hj^vxi, signifying island, a dry
spot in a swampy region. According to this inter-
pretation the word Slavs would mean the inhabitants
of an island, or inhabitants of a marshy region. The
German scholar Grimm maintained the identity of the
Slavs with the Suevi and derived the name from sMa,

«L4V8

8L4VB

99oba (freedom). The most probable explanation is
tbat deriving the name from 9I090 (word) ; this is sup-
ported by the Slavonic name for the Germans Nemci
(the dumb). The Slavs called themselves Slowmif
that is, " the speaking; ones *\ those who know words,
while they" called their neighbours the Germans, ''the
dumb'', that is, those who do not know words.

During the long period of war between the Germans
and Slavs, which lasted until the tenth century, the

only a single tribe. Ptolemy called the Slavs as a
whole the Venedai and nys they are ''the great-
est nation'' {fuyiffrw iBwot), Tlie Bysantines of the
sixth century thought only of the southern Slavs and
incidentally also of the Russians, who lived on the
boundaries of the Eastern Empire. With them the ex-
pression Slavs meant only the southern Slavs: they
called the Russians Anta, and distinguished sharply
between the two groups of tribes. In one place (Get.,

A8TEAM EUROPE

SHOWING

THE SLAVIC RACE

CO., II.T.

Slavonic territories in the north and south-east fur-
nifdied the Germans lar^e numbers of slaves. The
Venetian and other Italian cities on the coast took
numeroiis Slavonic captives from the opposite side
of the Adriatic whom tne^ resold to other places. The
Slavs frequently shared in the seizure and export of
their coimtrymen as slaves. The Naretani. a pirati-
cal Slavonic tribe living in the present aistrict of
Southern Dalmatia, were especially notorious for their
slave-trade. Russian princes exported large numbers
of slaves from their country. The result is that the
name Slav has given the word slave to the peoples of
Western Europe.

The question still remains to be answered whether
the expression Slavs indicated originally all Slavonic
tribes or only one or a few of them. The reference
to them in Ptolemy shows that the word then meant

34, 35) Jordanis divides all Slavs into three groups:
Venetif Slavs, And Anta; this would correspond to the
present division of western, southern, and eastern
Slavs. However, this mention appears to be an ar-
bitrary combination. In another passage he desig-
nates the eastern Slavs by the name Veneti. Ftod-
ablv he had found the expression Veneti in old writers
and had learned personally the names Slavs and Antes;
in this way arose his triple division. All the seventh-
century authorities call all Slavonic tribes, both
southern Slavs and western Slavs, that belonged to
the kingdom of Prince Samo, simply Slavs; Samo is
called the ''ruler of the Slavs", but his peoples are
called "the Slavs named Vindi" {ScUwi cognomento
Winadi). In the eighth and ninth centuries the
Csechs and Slavs of the Elbe were generally called
Slavs, but also at times Wends, by the Geiman and

tun 44 sum

Roman efaroniclers. In t'he same way all authoritiefl sixth oentury under the name of Slavs. The name

of the era of the Apostles to the Slavs, Cyril and Wend, however, was never completely forgotten.

MethodiuSi give the name Slav without any distino- The German chroniclers used both names constantly

tion both to the southern Slavs, to which branch without distinction, the former almost oftener than

both missionaries belonged, and to the western Slavs, the latter. Even now the Sorbs of Lusatia are called

among whom they laboured. As regards the eastern by the Germans Wends, while the Slovenes are fre-

Slavs or Russians, leaving out the mention of Ptolemy quently called Winds and their language is called

already referred to, Jordanis sa3rs that at the begin- Windish.

ning of the era of the migrations the Goths had car- Those who maintain the theory that theoriginal home
ried on war with the "nation of Slavs'': this nation of the Slavs was in the countries along the Danube
must have lived in what is now Southern Russia. The have tried to refute the opinion that these references
earliest Russian chronicle, erroneously ascribed to the relate to the ancestors of the present Slavs, but their
monk Nestor, always calls the Slavs as a whole arguments are inconclusive. Besides these definite
"Slavs". When it begins to narrate the history of notices there are several others that are neither clear
Russia it speaks indeed of the Russians to whom it nor certain. The Wends or Slavs have had con-
never applies the designation Slav, but it also often nected with them as old tribal confederates of the
tells of the Slavs of Northern Russia, the Slavs of present Slavs the Budinoi mentioned by Herodotus,
Novgorod. Those tribes that were already thor- and also the Island of Banoma mentioned by PUny
ougmy incorporated in the Russian kingdom are (IV, d4), further the Venetse, the original inhabitants
simply called Russian tribes, while the Slavs in Nor- of the present Province of Venice, as well as the
them Russia, who maintained a certain independence, Homeric Venetoi, Cssar's Veneti in Gaul and Anglia,
were designated by the general egression Slavs. Con- etc. In all probability, the Adriatic Veneti were an
sequently, the opinion advocated by Miklo&i6, namely, lUyrian tribe related to the present Albanians, but
that the name Slav was originally applied only to one nothing is known of them. With more reason can the
Slavonic tribe, is unfounded, though it has been sup- old story that the Greeks obtained amber from the
ported by other scholars like Krek, Potldlnski, Czer- River Eridanos in the country of the Enetoi be I4>-
mak, and Pasternek. plied to the Wends or Slavs; from which it may be

From at least the sixth century the expression Slav concluded that the Slavs were already living on the

was, therefore, the general designation of iJl Slavonic shores of the Baltic in the fourth century before

tribes. Wherever a Slavonic tribe rose to greater Christ.

political importance and founded an independent Most probably the name Wend was of foreign orion

kingdom of its own, the name of the tribe came to the and the race was known by this name only among the

front and pushed aside the general designation Slav, foroign tribes, while they called themselves Slavs. It

Where, however, the Slavs attained no political power is possible that the Slavs were originally named Wends

but fell.under the sway of foroign rulers they remained by the early Gauls, because the root Wend, or Wind, is

known by the general name of Slavs. Among the found especially in the districts once occupied by the

successful tribes who brought an entire district under Gauls. The word was apparently a designation that

their sway and gave it their name were the Russians, was first applied to various Gallic or Celtic tribes^ and

Poles, Czechs, Croats, and the Tursuiian tribe of the then given by the Celts to the Wendic tribes hving

Bidgars. The old general name has been retained to north of them. The explanation of the meaning of

the present time by the Slovenes of Southern Austria the word is also to be sought from this point of view,

on tne Adriatic coast, the Slovaks of Northern Hun- The endeavour was made at one time to derive the

^kry, the province Slavonia between Croatia and word from the Teutonic dialects, as Danish tMznd,

Hunpaiy and its inhabitants the Slavonians, and the Old Norwegian vatn^ Latin unda, meaning water.

Slovinci of ft-ussia on the North Sea. Up to recent Thus Wends would signify watermen, people living

times the name was customary among the inhabitants about the water, people living by the sea, as proposea

of the most southern point of Dalmatia, which was by Jordan, Adelung, and others. A derivation from

formerly the celebrated RepubUc of Dubrovnik (Ra- the German wenden (to tmti) has also been suggested,

gusa). Until late in the Middle Ages it was retained thus the Wends are the people wandering iUix>ut; or

by the Slavs of Novgorod in Northern Russia and by from the Gothic vinjay related to the German weiden,

the Slavs in Macedonia and Albania. These peoples, pasture^ hence Wends, those who pasture, the ehep-

however, have also retained their specific national and nerds: finally the word has been traced to the old root

tribal names. ven, oelonging togel^her. Wends would, therefore,

B. Wend8. — ^A much older designation in the his- mean the allied. Pogodin traced the name from the

torical authorities than Slav is the name Wend. It is Celtic, taking it from the early Celtic root vindo8,

under this designation that the Slavs first appear in whlte^ by which CTroression the dark Celts designated

history. The first certain -references to the present the hght Slavs. Naturally an explanation of the

Slavs date from the first and second centuries. They term was also sought in the Slavonic language; thus,

were made by the Roman writers PUny and Tacitus Kollar derived it from the Old Slavonic word Un,

and the Alexandrian already mentioned Ptolemy. Sassinek from Slo-vartf Perwolf from the OW Slavonic

Pliny (d. a.d. 79} says (Nat. hist., IV, 97) that among root vfd, still retained in the O. Slav, comparative

the peoples hving on the other side of the Vistula be- vestij meaning large and brought it into connexion

sides the Sarmatians and others are also the Wends with the Russian Anti and VjatiH; Hilferding even

(Vensdi). Tacitus (G., 46) says the same. He de- derived it from the old East Indian designation of the

scribes the Wends somewhat more in detail but can- Aryans Vanila, and Safaflk connected tne word with

not make up his mind whether he ought to include the East Indians, a confusion that is also to be found

them among the Germans or the Sarmatians; still in the early writers.

they seem to him to be more closely connected with H. Original Home and Migrations. — There are

the first named than with the latter. Ptolemy (d. two theories in regard to the original home of the

about 178) in his TetaypaimHi (HI^ .5, 7) calls the Venedi Slavs, and these theories are in sharp opposition to

the greatest nation hving on the Wendic Gulf. How- each other. One considers the region of tne Danube

ever, he says later (III, 5, 8) that they hve on the as the original home of the Slavs, whence they spread

Vistula; he also speaks of the Venedic mountains (HI. north-east over the Carpathians as far as the Volga

5, 6). In the centuries immediately succeeding the River, Lake Ilmen, and the Caspian Sea. The other

Wends are mentioned very rarely. The miffrations theory regards the districts between the Vistula and

that had now begun had brought other peoples into the Dneiper as their original home, whence thev

the foreground until the V^enedl again appear in th« spread ■outh^'weat ow the Carpathians to the Bat-

SLAVS

kanB and into the Alps, and towards the west aorosa
the Oder and the Elbe.

The ancient Kieff chronicle, erroneously ascribed
to the monk Nestor, is the earliest authority Quoted
for the theory that the original home of the Slavs is
to be sought in the. region of the Danube. Here in
detail is rdated for the first time how the Slavs spread

not commit himself to this view. The southern Slavs
have held this theory from the earliest period up to
the present time with the evident intention to base
on it their claims to the Church Slavonic in the Lit-
urgy. At an early period, in the letter of Pope John X
(914-20) to the Croatian Ban Tomislav and the
Sachlumian ruler Mihael, there is a reference to the

l«61

AibA (HA d&arsAA 8 faoiASiiiB

•:iii8:-

fioasiD9rTP. Pfi. •uA* dlbrA

tkwmm SHuaibi. ou. fiirsooa raoas au
ffioiia&Aadbi nAcAirr sttiBODT wuatn*
tB8 mnaas. ifidbdli., Adlidb. oafc.Ps.*0D9*
PnsAi oaAon %Ki paiMVT rar aon-
inA%i: 8 auDT fisarA tBAaniBfDa oaa.

Pa fiaohoiaab. maaia|Da«T Adbdliadb., a
ia8BAaib.H&.KnrB; OlMbauni. Ps.>uA*
fia odAu eAAiiafidbaoMBiT sa ooTsAtT
mStatoMMj eaaa aa fcafiioaibA. dbk. DbA
eAAftafidhaoBaaiT laa %SSr amr fisarA:
a 0kA sOauwa eAAftAa aaissadliBiiidbA
MTfia ffttra AadoaiDA anaaaiia. odk. 8
ibA a0Duiua aira aaraooi muaAi :
fliau f A StaUkadba.

ODt ootaina iqAaAaoDTP. mamaiDafiinn
fioaaiBanr. a aai maaoM aa &iira : Mh
Aadtoa, AdUb. un. P*. 'aiv- Pandba
BtAmr IbaaiDaflbT isaivaai aimi afBiamA*
ki: B aoDT fiakffA tBAeonaioa una, Ad^

OBK. Pa. •fcih'jB* i!!!dliA»aeiniaiiDa ooAei
^apaabi anm 9aaFA, adiia aianaba
raea a OdmmRud, AAidbadli.
^^ PaadtoobaMAf 88 eoo. aonArnira-
^E? diaa aom iftAoDAa.
AAoD. -tov*
ni)1 afa Bouoia: PuaoD»(D8ina «
^UT Basisa pAuaAat8axBiuil«Ba3«r
a UI&A«adbjDW9: ifiwa obaeoDaBoiiT adba-
QDA«a iDaaooaoDS dliara aiio80 |D8.b8i<«
aAiaa ooara? Bdba airaoAwAaoi, haaa
8«i : £A80Da mis aidbs, au efODDa&smis
itei iB&tooA aAaooaiA, inaiRiA a (IDafa
aiBBDau a? s una: fia^a bAoiiB aesaA-
08800! adttaooatr aooTvA s fflAonaKT, t
|DUdba|D80oi aa dtaf» eooaas, s esoha-
ooA aeA oiT indbTooi asbora. ODainTdlla
IPdlia ff»eoDA imaflA, n aoharA iDdbTOBT.
3dli3 aea iSfsibr aiaaooA, adnooa^f obA
ra fcAtodbmiAaooT.

Pupsai. Pa. 'iir« £A na aingDAAi,
%GS8, baAi: DDs aes li:a%i maB: ooi
wuB DODaaiD oauMiarA maA.

ODAepAa.

inf&um, fflidhaniT ooa %&t, obAsr taA
JUL aooaoDB OoAun d&araoooB iDKsra-
aafv: 8 OhadbA aviadlia aao ttSDuaoBaAi
esBba aoouBooadliT. %K3inT rAuianiT.
3 &3<T IflBraa pAoit, sskas laMtfUoba
radba (aaaooT: BftusrAooB ra, madbsniT ooa
luaioaou a lo&aa., aooaa taw eooBArA
3pi8eoDailb8a (bbAma dfI^rs^s a Fama-
aooa rA uAaraibT pi&aohT adbimiAtailiT,
%AA%adbaoDT ODbiAa aio piafiAaob. Aa-
dbBimoa.

PsfflaAsfflT aa. AadblonoA.
lT\8AaaoB80Di isaobs, ftiSs, madba-
^IC raami rAuisinT, s aaoDAoodbspsami
■0088011, aoisdika bAaiDdbaAobsn i udlia-
ooAMfetA^a' uoiiA seoo&SBAt aaa ,
edhAiiT iDumhTaoodira : ohA adba, una-
eaio oooafiTvafliT, aTOonaiodbAaiiDT aa,
ooaeajo loamAiiAoQadlraoii , aTAsApaooT
aa. %aapiaBbamT.

PafiaAsfflT aa. AadbBOOoA.

EJdba, Bdba BodbAaootDi asAs aooBOa
ofliaA BOOT pBttaaoAa eTooosudtr
•aaa: sAa aaoouBooi ootbaAt onoAus
toAttsAA, aAsooa^B pia aeuliODa ea-
dbaiD eiflooauPB, onaiia &Aob8 pa^AOo-
AaaiPBfli puoiavi dbapseTtoTObAAT aaa,
ObA AapiaUmB ouaAaaa aooi omlbT-
aiaa idAtoob ihiAAt es pAaaAa, aaa
ata oAa 8001 aobBpAiM a^aobrpa tsBaooT
aianoAaoBoas, PBcaiiBbA laaabaeipa pa-
eB cisAa fcAdDABaooDs: l!!aAa, aAa
ooaAi QoaeatsmT oDABPTeoooBami ea-
lB&aAiP8a auui^BfodbaPoa saooaosBAT
3B8, OhA eKAttTpamT ODAoaaaoaniT Ai&b-
aooA 8 ^fci«taoa bbAbpb pttaobiaieub-
ikiBdfn e*B: I^BAa, sniTAa AapA msAa
BTUbbBAAaAi aa, u BbbaAieA aoi*|Ofci-
ooaa aaA&aapA, ooamf eAA^aadb*-
Dadbapsami pAobA^AgaoT aa, aAa aovopi
pa «AtoP8io BBODaarpAvia auAA, pa |oa-
ooaiOTPBoiT saaAobapaaon oooTanB.eo-
aom: pkbIdu maAaaoDaasa pA aaio
bAea aooaiOt aAa aTODTtafOBooa Aama-
aa aa loBAipaaia louobbaAapaio, Aa-

Glaooutic Mibsal of the Roman Ritb
A page from the Misaa pro Bponfio et Spofisa, containing the Graduitl, Tract, Gospel
^Mait. xiz), and Speeial Prayw over the Bride and Groom

from the lower Danube to all the countries occupied
later by them. The Noricans and Illyrians are de-
clared to be Slavs, and Andronikos and the Apostle
Paul are called Apostles to the Slavs because they
laboured in Illyria and Pannonia. This view was
maintained l^ the later chroniclers and historical
wtiters of all Slavonic peoples, as the Pole Kadlubek,
"Chronikapol." (1206), Boguchwal (d. 1253), Dlugos,
Mate] Miechowa, Decius, and others. Among the
Cseohs this theory was supported by Kozmaz (d.
1125), DaUmhr (d. 1324), Johann Marignola (135&-
13C2), Pribik Pulkava (1374), and V. Hajek (1641).
The Kussians also developed their theories from the
statements of their first chronicler, while the Greek
LaoDikos Harkondilos of the fifteenth century did

§revalent tradition that St. Jerome invented the
lavonic alphabet. This tradition maintained itself
through the succeeding centuries, finding supporters
even outside these countries, and was current at Rome
itself. CJonsequently if we were to follow strictly the
written historical authorities, of which a numl)er are
very trustworthy, we would be obliged to support the
thwry that the original home of the Slavs is in the
countries along the Danube and on the Adriatic coast.
However, the contrary is the case; the original home
of the Slavs and the region from which their migra-
tions began is to be sought in the basin of the Dnieper
and in the region extending to the Carpathians and
the Vistula. It is e^sv to explain the origin of the
above-mentioned widely beheved opinion. At the

SLAVS

-beginning of the Old Slavonic literature in the ancient
Kingdom of the Bulgars the Byzantine chronicles of
Hamartolos and MaLda, which were besides of very
little value, were translated into Slavonic. These
chronicles give an account of the migrations of the
nations from the region of Senaar after the Dehiee.
According to this account the Europeans are the de-

do not correspond to facts are often adopted in his-
torical writings. Among the Slavonic historians and*
philologists supporting this theory are: Kopitar,
August Schlotzer, Safifik, N. Arcybafief, Fr. Radki,
Bidowski, M. Drinov, L. Stur, Ivan P. Filevifi, Dm.
Samokvasov, M. Leopardov, N. Zakoski, and J. Pic.
We have here an interesting proof that a tradition

BxTSfHiMA AMfrU

VAMkt CKOA: Nf EC nOAMOHHUIlf R^OTH '^ H KpO-

BH, NO Tf K-£ CT^mnoM^i Er^. Tki of clo fidKo
CNAH^no KotrwTRAo CKOfH noTpfEi: n^^K^rc-

IffHrnik CHAAMH^ n^TfUieCTft^fOltlHrnTk Cn^Tflfflf-
tTKt$H, NfA$rt$fCqflA HCqidH, Splf'lJO A^UlIk H

' Ed^rOAilTIIO, H l|lf ApOT^^H, H "tMOftiKOdrOEI-

iM\ eAnNopdAN^rw Gn^ Tsofrw, c% KH^n^i

Cd^rOt/IOftlN-k 6CH, Ck npfcfkf^% H gAAVHAil^
H »vHKpTKOpAl(JH^-k TftOHmik Ap^'k, Nkwk

|6PM| cMms T/Abmw a^MW mtuihAttk, f ttcrsaAm Waw m a**"9<* ct^mA ctAa t^mIsm*
mmaA a* *n itfM«T*ircA HnifAii m cMmb TiAiuMt, tViRMBiivi afprrM oi«li* M«i af#r(i#tAt*
HMNM iucItw* &ii«t% «r«rrirw T-Caa X^i^ti, <M#b m *, A aim aHNttlAm lu c^f aI" critA t^a
■law, mAmw iiMUJM&iTt* cf64is TMiMMm. n* c<M« #(111% A O"*!! rcfi MSiiln, ^r. n^

niirii M A mAtm, mAmtta cb iMiAitiiMM rrii. .jJ^^J

OHMH Tin \m XfTt Em nam-k^ w era-

Vw !KH<1HI|I<1 TSOtrui, H W RpTOdtf CdffKU
IfpTKf A TKOfrW, H npiHAH SO ^TKt OtTHTH MVk,
HTKf rop-fi CO Oqf'H'k ciAAH, H 3A'£ HfMfk Hf-
BHAHiHW CnpfEklKflAH; H CnOAOEH Afp^<lSH0IO

Tfiof 10 pbKoio npinoA<fTH mai'k npnmTOf Tido

TKOi, H 1 KTHblO KpOKk, H MMH KC&Hl <1IOAf<H'k.

TiM ^A'^Am wUtu r#teA^ r^^stUAi

Ctbxluc M188A.L OF Grbek Rite
A page from the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, containing the Prayers of Adoration

just before Communion

scendants of Japhet, who journeyed from Senaar by
way of Asia Minor to the Balkans; there they divided
into various nations and spread in various directions.
Conseouently the Slavonic reader of these chronicles
would believe that the starting point of the migrations
of the Slavs also was the Balkans and the region of
the lower Danube. Because the historical authorities
place the ancient tribe of the Illyrians in this region,
It was necessary to make this tribe also Slavonic. In
the later battles of the Slavs for the maintenance of
their language in the Liturgy this opinion was very
convenient, as appeal could be made for the Slavonic
claims to the authority of St. Jerome and even of St.
Paul. Opinions which are widely current yet which

deeplv rooted and extending over many centuries and
found in nearly all of the early native historical au-
thorities does not agree with historical fact.

At present most scholars are of the opinion that the
original home of the Slavs in South-eastern Europe
must be sought between the Vistula and the Dneiper.
The reasons for this belief are: the testimony of the
oldest accounts of the Slavs, given as alreadv men-
tioned by Pliny, Tacitus, and Ptolemy: further the
close relationship between the Slavs ana the Lettish
tribes, pointing to the fact that originally the Slavs
lived close to the Letts and Lithuanians; tnen variou?
indications proving that the Slavs must have been
originally neighbours of the Finnish and Turaniav

8L4V8 47 SLAVS

Iriboi. Historical iDvestigation has shown that the Bohemian, Lusatian Sorb, and Polish. In his

Thraoo-lllyrian tribes are not the forefathers of the "Slavonic Ethnology" (1842) Pavel SafaHk enumer-

SlavB. but form an independent family group between ated six languages with thirteen dialects: Russian,

the Greeks and the Latms. There is no certain proof Bolgarish, lUyrian, Lechish, Bohemian, Lusatian.

in the Balkan territory and in the region along the The great Russian scholar J. Sreznejevskij held that

Danube of the presence of the Slavs there before the there were eight Slavonic languages: Great Russian,

first century. On the other hand in the redon of Little Russian, Serbo-Croat, ICorotanish, Polish, Lu-

the Dneiper excavations and arohsological finds show satian, Bohemian, Slovak. In 1865 A. Schleicher

traces only of the Slavs. Li addition the direction of enumerated eight Slavonic languages: Polish, Lusa-

the general march in the migrations of the nations was tian, Bohemian, Great Russian, little Russian, Serb,

always from the north-east towards the south-west, Bulgarian, ana Slovene. Frsnc Miklo§i6 counted

but never in the opposite direction. Those who main- nine: Slovene, Bulgarian, Serbo-Croat, Great Ru»-

tain the theory that the Slavs came from the region of sian. Little Russian, Bohemian, Poli^, Upper Lu-

the Danube souj^ht to strengthen their views by satian, Lower Lusatian. In 1907 Dm. Florinsklj

the names of various places to oe fo\md in these dis- enumerated nine: Riusian, Bulgarian, Serbo-Croat,

tricts that indicate Slavonic origin. The etymology of Slovene, BohemianoMoravian, Slovak, Lusatian,

these names, howeiier, is not entirely certain; there Polish, and Kafiube. In 1898 V. Jagid held that

are other names that appear only in the later author- there were eight: Polish, Lusatian, Bohemian, Great

ities of the first centunes after Christ. Some again Russian, Little Russian, Slovene, Serbo-Croat, Bul-

|Ht>ve nothing, as the^ could have arisen without the garian. Thus^ it is seen that the greatest represen-

occupation of these districts by the Slavs. tatives of Slavonic linguistics are not in accord upon

It can therefore be said almost positively that the the question of the number of Slavonic langua^.

original home of the Slavs was in the territory along The case is the same from the purely philological

the Dnieper, and farther to the north-west as far as point of view. I^actically the matter is even more

the Vistula. From these regions they spread to the complicated because other factors, which often i>lay

west and south-west. This much only can be con- an important part, have to be considered, as religion,

ceded to the other view, that the migration probablv politics etc.

took place much earlier than is generally supposed. At the present time some eleven to fourteen lan-
Probably it took place slowly and by degrees. One guages, not including the extinct ones, can be enu-
tribe would push another ahead of it like a wave, and merated which lay claim to be reckoned as distinct
they all spiead out in the wide territory from the tongues. The cause of the uncertainty is that it is
North Sea to the Adriatic and .£gean Seas. Here and impossible to state definitively of several branches of
there some disorder was caused in the Slavonic migra- the Slavonic family whether they form an independent
tion by the incursions of Asiatic peoples, as Scythians, nation or only the dialect and subdivision of another
Sarmatians, Avars, Bulgars^ and Magyars, as well as Slavonic nation, and further because often it is im-
by the German miipration from north-west to south- possible to draw the line between one Slavonic people
east. These incursions separated kindred tribes from and another. The Great Russians, Poles, Bohemians,
one another or introduced foreign elements among and Bulgarians are universally admitted to be dis-
them. Taken altogether, however, the natural ar- tinctive Slavonic peoples with distinctive languages.
rangement was not much disturbed, kindred tribes The Little Russians and the White Russians are trv-
joumeyed together and settled near one another in ing to develop into separate nationalities, indeed the
the new land, so that even toKiay the entire Slavonic former have now to be recognized as a distinct people,
race presents a regular succession of tribes. As earl^ at least this is true of the Ruthenians in Austria-
as the first century of our era individual Slavomc Hungary. The Moravians must be included in the
tribes might have crossed the boundaries of the orig- Bohemian nation, because they hold this themselves
inal home and have settled at times among strangers and no philological, political, or ethnographical rea-
at a considerable distance from the native country, son opposes. The Slovaks of Moravia also consider
At times again these outposts would be driven back that they are of Bohemian nationality. About sixty
and obliged to retire to the main body, but at the years ago the Slovaks of Hungary began to develop
first opportunity thev would advance again. Central as a separate nation with a separate literary language
Europe must have been largely popumted by Slavs and must now be r^arded as a distinct people. The
as early as the era of the Hunnisn ruler Attila, or of Lusatian Sorbs also are generally looked upon as a
the migrations of the German tribes of the Goths, separate people with a distinct language. A division
Lombards. Gepidie, Heruli. Rugians etc. These last- of this little nationality into Upper and Lowor Lusa-
mentionea peoples and tribes formed warlike castes tians has been made on account of hnguistic, reli-
and militaiy organisations which became consoicu- gious, and political differences; this distinction is also
ous in history by their battles and therefore nave evident in the literary language, consequently some
l^t more traces m the old historical writings. The scholars regard the Lusatians as two different oeoples.
Slavs, however, formed the lower strata of the popula- The remains of the languages of the former Slavonic
tion of Central Europe; all the migrations of the other inhabitants of Pomerania, the Sloventzi, or Ka£ubes,
tribes passed over thcan, and when the times grew are generally regarded at present as dialects of Polish,
more peaceful the Slavs reappeared on the sunace. though some distingtiipned Polish scholars main-
It is only in this way that the appearance of the Slavs tain the independence of the Kadube language. The
in great numbers in these countries directly after conditions in the south are even more complicated.
the dose of the migrations can be explained without Without doubt the Bulgarians are a separate na-
there^being any record in history of wnen and whence tionalitv, but it is difficiut to draw the line between
they came and without their original home being the Bulgarian and the Servian peoples, especially
depioFpulated. in Macedonia. Philologically the Croats and Serbs

ill. Classification of the Slavonic Peoples. — must be regarded as one nation; politically, however,

The auestion as to the classification and number of and ethnographically thev are distinct peoples. The

the Slavonic peoples is a complicated one. Scien- population of Southern Dalmatia. the Monammedui

tific investigation does not support the common population of Bosnia, and probaoly also the inhabi-

belief, and in addition scholars oo not agree in their tants of some parts of Southern Hungary, and of

opinions on this question. L[i 1822 the father of Croatia cannot easily be assigned to a definite group.

filavonie philology, Joseph Dobrovsky, recognised Again, the nationality and extent of the Slovenes

nine Slavonic peoplee and languages: Russian, II- living in the eastern Alps and on the Adriatic coast

lyrian or Serb, Croat, BkfveDe, Korotaaish, Slovak, cannot be settled without further investigation.

SLAVS 48 SLAVS

From a philolo^cal point of view the following eequently in 1900 the total number of Rusaans could

fundamentiu principles must be tskken for guidance, be reckoned at about 93 million pensKms. This does

The Slavonic work! in its entire extent presents not include the Russian colonists in other ootmtries;

philologically a homogeneous whole without sharply moreover, the numbers given bv the official statistics

defined transitions or gradations. When the Slavs of Austria-Hungary may be far below reality. Classi-

settled in the locsJities at present occupied by them fied by religion the Russian Slavs are divided as

they were a mass of tribes of closely allied tongues follows: in Russia Orthodox Greeks, 95.48 per

that chanced slightly from tribe to tribe. Later cent; Old Believers, 2.59 per cent; Catholics, 1.78

historical development, the appearance of Slavonic per cent; Protestants, .06 per cent; Jews, .08 per

kingdoms, the ^wth of literary languages, and var- cent; Mohammedans, .01 per cent; in Austria-

ious civilizing influences from without have aided Hungary Uniat Greeks, 90.6 per cent, the OrUiodpx

in bringing about the result that sharper distinctions Greeks, 8 per cent. In the Russian Empire, excluding

have been drawn in certain places, and that distinct Finland and Poland, 77.01 per cent are illiterates; in

nationalities have developed in difTerent localities. Poland, 69.5 per cent; Finland and the Baltic prov-

Where these factors did not appear in sufficient number inces with the large German cities show a higher

the boundaries are not settled even now, or have been grade of literacy.

drawn only of late. The Slavonic peoples can be The Russians are divided ntto Great Russians.
8e()arated into the following groups on the basis of Little Russians or inhabitants of the Ukraine, ana
philological differences: (1) "nie eastern or Russian White Russians. In 1900 the relative numbers of
group; in the south this groupapproaches the Bui- these three divisions were approximately: Great Rufl-
garian; in the north-west the White Russian dialects sians^ 59,000,000; White Russians, 6,200,000; Little
show an affinity to Polish. The eastern group is Russians, 23,700,000. In addition there are 3,800,-
subdivide d into Great Russian, that is, the prevail- OOu Little Russians in AustriarHun^ary, and 500^000
ing Russian nationality, then Little Russian, and in America. The Russian official statistics are
White Russian. (2) The north-western group. This naturally entirely too unfavourable to the White
is subdivided into the I^echish langua^ and into Russians and the Little Russians; private computa-
Slovak, Bohemian, and Sorb tongues. The first sub- tions of Little Russian scholars give much higher m-
division includes the Poles, Ka§ubes, and Slovintzi, suits. Hrusevskij found that the Little Russians
also the extinct languages of the Slavs who formerly taken altogether numbered 34,000,000; Kaiskij cal-
extended across the Oder and the Elbe throughout culated that the White Russians numbered 8,000,000.
. the present Northern Germany. The second sub- A thousand years of historical development, different
division includes the Bohemians, Slovaks, and the influences or civilization, different reli^ous oonfes-
Lusatian Sorbs. The Slavs in the Balkans and in the sions, and probably also the ori^nal philological dif-
southem districts of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy ferentiation have caused the Little Russians to de-
are divided philologically into Bulgarians; Stokauans. velop as a separate nation, and to-day this fact must
who include all Serbs, the Slavonic Mohammedans of be taken as a fixed factor. Among the White Rus-
Bosnia, and also a large part of the population of sians the differentiation has not developed to so ad-
Croatia; the Cakauans, who live partly in Dalmatia, vanced a stage, but the tendency exists, in olassify-
Istria, and on the coast of Croatia; the Kajkauans, to ing the Little Russians three mfferent types can be
whom must be assigned three Croatian countries and s^ain distinguished: the Ukrainian, the Podohan-GaU-
all Slovene dif^ricts. According to the common cian, andthePodlachian.' Ethno^aphicallv interest-
opinion that is based upon a comoination of philolo- ing are the Little Russian or Ruthenian tribes in the
gical, political, and religious reasons the Slavs are Carpathians, the Lemci,Boici, and Hueuli(Qou20uM).
divided into tne following nations: Rusgian, Polish, The White Russians are divided into two groups;
Bohemian-Slovak, Slovenes, Serbs, Croats, Bui- ethnographically the eastern group is related to the
garians. Great Russians: the western to the Poles.

IV. Present Condition — A. Russians. — ^TheRus- B. Poles. — ^Tne Poles represent the north-western
sians live in Russia and the north-eastern part of branch of the Slavonic race. From the very earUeet
Austria-Hungary. They form a compact body only times they have Uved in their ancestral regions be-
in the south-western i>aSrt of the Russian Empire, as tween the Carpathians, the Oder, and the North Sea.
in the north and east they are largely mixed with A thousand years ago Boleslaw the Brave united all
Finnish and Tatar populations. In Austria the Little the Slavonic tribes living in these territories into a
Russians inhabit Eastern Galicia and the northern Polish kingdom. This kingdom, which reached its
part of Biikowina; in Hungary they live in the eastern highest prosperity at the close of the Middle A^,
part on the slopes of the Carpathians. Scattered then gradually declined and. at the close of the ei^-
colonies of Little Russians or Ruthenians are also to teenth century, was divided by the surrounding
be found in Slavonia and Bosnia among the southern powers — Russia, Prussia, and Austria. In Austria the
Slavs, in Bul^^a, and in the Dobrudja. In Asia Poles form the population of Western Galicia and are
Western Siberia is Russian, Central Siberia has num- in a large minority throughout Eastern GaUciaj in
erous Russian colonies, while Eastern Siberia is Eastern Galicia the population of the cities particu-
chiefly occupied by native tribes. There are Rus- larly is preponderantly Polish, as is also a large part
sians, however, living in the region of the Amur of the population of a section of Austrian Silesia, the
River, and on the Pacific as well as on the Island of district of Teschin. The Poles are largely represented
Saghalien. Turkestan and the Kirghiz steppes have in the County of Zips in Hungary' and less larcely in
native populations with Russian colonies in tne cities, other Hungarian counties which border on M^tem
There are large numbers of Russian emigrants, Galicia. There is a small Polish population in Bu-
mostly members of sects, in Canada and elsewhere in kowina. In Prussia the Poles live in Upper Silesia,
America. Brazil, Argentina, and the United States form a la^e majority of the inhabitants of the Prov-
have many Little Russian immip-ants. There are ince of Posen, and also inhabit the districts of
small Russian colonies in Asia Minor and lately the Dantzic and Marienwerder in West Prussia, and the
emigration has also extended to Africa. According southern parts of East Prussia. In Russia the Poles
to the Russian census of 1897 there were in the Rus- form 71.95 per cent of the population in the nine
sian Empire 83,933,567 Russians, that is, 67 per cent provinces formed from the Polish Idngdom. In addi-
of the entire population of the empire. Allowing for tion they live in the neighbouring district of the
•>«\tural increase, at the present (1911) time there are Province of Grodno and form a relatively large mi-
t 89 millions. In 1900 there were in Austria nority in Lithuania and in the provinces of White and
576 Ruthenians, in Hungary 429,447. Con- Little Russiit, where they are mainly owners of laargo

SLAVS 49 8L478

tfUitai and reshk&tB of dties. Aooordb» to the cen- as far as Lake Flatten, where they oame into contact

BUB of 1900 the Poles in Russia numbered about with the Slovenes who belonged to the soathem Sla-

8.400,000; in Austria, 4,250,150; in Gennany, in- vonic group. Probably, however, they did not for-

ciuding the Kasubes and Macurians^ 3,450,200; m the merly extend as far towards the east as now, and the

rest of Europe about 55,000; and m America about Slovaks in the eastern portion of Slovakia aie really

1,500,000; consequently altogether, 17,664,350. Cter- Ruthenians who were Siovakanised in the late Middle

kawski reckonea the total number of Poles to be A^. Directly after their settlement in these ooun-

21,111,374; Straszewics held that they numbered tries the Bohemians fell i^Mtft into a great number of

from 18 to 19,000,000. As regards religion the Poles tribes. One tribe, which settled in the central part of

0^ Russia are almost entirely CSitholic; in Austria 83.4 the present Bohemia, bore the name of Csechs. It

per cent are Catholics, 14.7 per cent are Jews, and 1.8 gradually brought all the other tribes under its WDr

per cent are Protestants; in Gennany they are also trol and gave them its name, so that since then the en-

almost entirely Catholics, only the Mazurians in East tire people have been called Csechs. Along with this

Prussia and a small portion of the Kasubes are name, however, the name Bohemians has also been i«-

Protestant. tained; it comes from ^e old Celtic people, the Boii,

fithnographically the Polish nation is divided into who once lived in these regions. Soon, however, Ger- .

three groups: the Gneat Poles live in Poeen, Silesia, man colonies sprang up among the Bohemians or

and Pnissia; the Little Poles on the upper Vistula as Csechs. The colonists settled fdong the Danube on

far as the San River and in the region of the Tatra the southern border of Bohemia and also farther on in

mountains; the Masovians east of the Vistula and the Pannonian plain. However, these settlements dis-

aJong the Narva and the Bug. The Kasubes could appeared during- the storm of the Magyar inclusion.

be called a fourth group. All these groups can be The Bohemians did not suffer from it as they did from

subdivided again into a large number ofbranches, but the later immigrations of German colonists who were

the distinctions are not so striking as in Russia and brou^t into the country by the Bohemian rulers of

historical tradition keeps all these peoples fiimly the native Premsyhdian dynasty. These colonists

united. The Kasubes five on the left bank of the lived through the mountains which encircle Bohemia

Vistula from Dantzic to the boundary of Pomerania and large numbers of them settle also in the interior

and to the sea. According to government statistics of the country. fVom the thirteenth century the lan-

in 1900 there were in Germany 100,213 Kasubes guages of Bohemia and Moravia became distinct

The very exact statistics of the scholar Ramuh gives tongues.

174,831 Kasubes for the territory where they live in The Bohemians have emigrated to various countries

large bodies, and 200,000 for a total including those outside of BohemiarMoravia. In America there are

scattered through Germany, to which should be added about 800,000 Bohemians; there are large Bohemian

a further 130,000 in America. According to the colonies in Russia in ^e province of Volhynia, also

latest investi^tion the Kasubes are what remains of in the Crimea, in Poland, and in what is called New

the Slavs ofPcxnerania who are, otherwise, k>ng Russia, altogether numb^ing 50,385. In Bulgaria

extinct. there are Bohemian colonies in Wojewodovo and near

C. Luaaiian Sorbs. — ^The Lusatian Sorbs are the Plevna; there is also a Bohemian colony in New Zea-
residue of the Slavs of the Elbe who once spread land. Nearly 400,000 Bohemians live at Vienna^ and
acrofls the Od&r and Elbe, inhabiting the whole of the there are large numbers of Bohemians in the cities of
present Northern Germany. During centuries of lins, Pesth, Berlin, Ih-esden, Leipzig, Triest; there
combat with the Germans their numbers gradually are smafler, well-or|^u3ised Bohemian colonies in
decreased. They are divided into three main nearly all Austrian cities, besides large Bohemian col-
ETOUps: the Obotrites who inhabited the preseftt onies in Hungary and Slavonia. In the last-men-
Mecfdenburg, LQnebiu^, and Holstein whence they tioned country there are 31,581 Bohemians. These
extended into the Old Mark; the Lutici or Veltce, who settlements are modem. The Slovaks occupy the
lived between the Oder and Elbe, the Baltic and south-eastern part of Moravia and the north-eastern
the Varna; the Sorbs, who tived on the middle course part of Hungary from the Carpathians almost to the
of the Elbe between the Riven Havel and Bober. The Danube. But there are scattered settlements of Slo-
I^tici died out on the Island of Riigen at the begin- vaks far into the Hungarian plain and even in South-
ning of the fifteenth century. In the middle of the em Hungary, besides colonies of Slovaks in Slavonia.
siz^nth century there were still large numbers of Onaccountof the barrenness of the soil of their native
Slavs in LQneburg and in the northern part of the Old land many SlovsJcs emigrate to America. According
Mark, while their numbers were less in Mecklenburg to the Austrian census of 1000 there were 5,955,207
and in Brandenburg. However, even in Liineburg Bohemians in Austria. The number may be de-
the last Slavs dkappeared between 1750-60. Only cidedly high^. In Geraiany there were 115,000
the Lusatian Sorbs who lived nearer the bordere of Bohemians; in Hungary 2,019,641 Slovaks and 50,000
Bohemia have been able to maintain themselves in de- Bohemians; in America there are at least 800,000 Bo-
clining numbers until the present time. The reason hemians; in Russia 55,000; in the rest of Europe
probably is that for some time their territorv belonged 20,000. Consequently taking all Bohemians and
to Bohemia. At present the Lusatian Sorbs number Slovaks together there are probably over 9,000,000.
about 150,000 persons on the upper course of the If, as is justifiable, the figures for America, Vienna,
Spree. The^y are divided into two groups, which Moravia, Silesia, and Hungary are considered entirely
differ so decidedly from each other in speech and cus- too low, a maximum of about 10,000,000 may be ac-
toms that some regard them as two peoples; thev also cepted. As to religion 96.5 per cent of the Bohe-
have two separate literatures. They are rapidly be- mians are Catholics, and 2.4 per cent are Protestants;
coming Gminanized, especially in Ix>wer Lusatia. 70.2 per cent of the Slovaks are Catholics, 5.3 per cent
The Lusatian Sorbs are Cath<olics with exception of are Uniat Greeks, and 23 per cent are Protestants.
15^000 in Upper Lusatia. E. Slovenes. —The Slovenes bek)ng, together with

D, Bohemians and Slovaks. — The Bohemians and the Croats, Serbs, and Bulgarians, to the southem
Slovaks also belong to the north-western branch of the group of nlavs. The Slovenes have the position
Slavonic peoples. They entered the region now con- farthest to the west in the Alps and on the Adriatic,
stitutin^ Bohemia from the north and then spread They first appeared in this region after the departure
farther mto what is now Moravia and Northern Hun- of the Lombards for Italy and the first date m their
finry, and into the present Lower Austria as far as the history is 595, when they fought an unsuccessful
Danube. The settlements of the 6k>vaks in Hungary battle with the Bavarian Duke Tassilo on the field
must have extended far towards the south, perhaps of Toblaeh. They occupied at first a much larger

XIV.— i

8LAV8 50 8L4V8

territory than at present. Thejr extended along the Krashovanians, Serbo-Croatian tribes in Hunmiy,
Drave as far as the Tyrol, reaching the vaUeys of the who were not included with these in the census. Con-
Rivera Rienx and Eisack; they also occupied the larger sequentlv the number ot this bipartite people may be
part of what is now Upper Austria, Lower Austria as reckoned approximately as 8,700,000 persons. Ao-
far as the Danube, and from the district of the Lun- cording to Servian computation there are about

§au in Southern SaUburg through Carinthia, Camiola, 2,300,000 Croats in Austria-Hungary; the (>oats
tyria, the crownland of GorzAradiska, and a large reckon their number as over 2,7(X),000. The con-
part of Friuli. Under German supremacv the terri- troveny results from the uncertainty as to the croup
tory occupied by them has grown considerably less to which the Bosnian Mohammedans and the above-
in the course of the centuries. They still mamtain mentioned Schokzians, Bui^jevsians, and Krashovi^
themselves only in Camiola, in the northern part of nians, as well as the population of Southern Dalmatia,
Istria, about Gdrs. and in the vicinity of Triest, in belong. As to religion the Serbs are i^ost exclu-
the mountainous districts north of Udine in Italy, sively Orthodox Gr^, the Croats Catholic, the great
in the southern part of Carinthia and Styria, and m majority of the inhabitants of Southern Dahnatia are
the Hungarian coimtries bordering on the farther Catholic, but many consider themselves as bc^nging
side of the Mur River. Carinthia is becoming to the Servian nation. The branches in Hunf;ary
rapidly Germanized, and the absorption of the other mentioned above are Catholic; it is still undecided
races in Hungary oy the Magyan constantly ad- whether to include them among the Croats or 8&ha.
vances. According to the census of 1900 there were G. Bulgarians. — ^The Slavonic tribes living in
then 1,192,780 Slovenes in Austria, 94,993 in Hun- ancient Roman Mcesia and Thrace south of the Danube
gaiy, 20,987 in Croatia and Slavonia, probably and south-east of the Serbs as far as the Black Sea
37,000 in Italy, in America 100,000, and 20,000 in came under the sway of the Turanian tribe of the
other countries. There are, taking them alto- Bulgars, which established the old Kingdom of Bul-
gether, probi^ly about 1,500,000 Slovenes in the garia in this region as early as the second half of the
world; 99 per cent of them are Catholics. seventh century. The conquerors soon bc^gan to

F. Croats and Serbs. — In speech the Croats and adopt the language and customs of the subjugated
Serbs are one people: they have the same literary people, and from this intermixture arose the Bul-
language, but use different characters. The Croats ganan people. The historical development was not
writo with the Latin characters and the Serbs with a quiet and uniform one; there were continual mi-
the Cyrillic. They have been separated into two gnitions and remigrations, conquests and inter-
peoples by religion^ political development, and dif- mingling. When the Slavs first entered the Balkan
ferent forms of civilization; the Croats came under peninsula they spread far beyond their present
the influence of Latin civilization, the Serbs under boimdaries and even covered Greece and the Pdo-
that of the Byzantines. Aftor the migrations the ponnesus, which seemed i^ut to become Slavonic,
warlike tribe of the Croats gained the mastery over However, thanks to their higher civilization and supe-
the Slavonic tribes then'livmg in the tenritory be- rior tactics, the Greeks drove back the Slavs. SuU.
tween the Kulpa and the Drave, the Adriatic and the Slavonic settlements continued to exist in Greece ana
River Cetina, m Southern Dalmatia. They founded the Peloponnesus until the lato Middle Ages. The
the Croat Kingdom on the remains of Latin civiliza- Gredks were aided by the Turkish conquest, and tlM
tion and with Roman Catholicism as their religion. Slavs were forced to withdraw to the limit that is still
Thus the Croat nation appeared. It was not until a maintained. The Turks then b«san to force back
later dato that the tribes living to the south and east the Slavonic population in Maceoonia and Bulgaria
began to unito politically under the old Slavonic name and to plant colonies of their own people in obtain
of Serbs, and m this region the Servian nation de- districts. The chief aim of the Turldsh colonization
veloped. Decided movements of the population was always to obtain strategic points and to secure
came about later, bein^ caused especially by the the passes over the Balkans. The Slavonic popula-
Turkish wars. The Servian settlements, which origi- tion also began to withdraw from the plains along the
nally followed only a south-eastern course, now Danube where naturally great battles were often
turned in an entirely opposite direction to the north- fought, and which were often traversed by the Turk-
east. The original home of the Serbs was abandoned isharmy. A part emigrated to Hungary, where a con-
largely to the Albanians and Turks; the Serbs emi- siderable number of Bulgarian settlements stiU exist;
grated to Bosnia and across Bosnia to Dalmatia and others journeyed to Brasarabia and South Russia,
even to Italy, where Slavonic settlements still exist After the liberation of Bulj^aria the emigrants b^gan
in Abruzzi. Others crossed the boundaries of the to return and the population moved again from the
Croat Kingdom and settled in large numbers in Servia mountains into the valleys, while laige numbers of
and Slavonia, also in Southern Hungary, where the Turks and Circassians went back fiom lib^iited
Austrian Government granted them religious and Bulgaria to Turkey.

national autonomy and a patriaroh of their own. On the other hand the emigration from Macedonia
Some of the Serbs settled here went to Southern is still large. Owing to these uncertun conditions,
Russia and founded there what is called the New and especially on account of the sli^t investigation
Servia in the Government of Kherson. Consequently, of the subject in Macedonia, it is difficult to ^ve the
the difference between the Croats and the Serbs size of the Bulgarian population even approximately,
consists not in the langua^^ but mainly in the re- In approximate figures tne Bulgarians number: in the
Ugion, also in the civilization, history, and in the Kingdom of Bulgaria, 2,864, 7&; Macedonia, 1,200,-
form of handwriting. But aU these characteristic 000; Asia Minor, 600,000; Russia, 180,000; Rumania,
differences are not very mariced^ and thus there are 90,000; in other countries, 50,000, hence there are
districts and sections of population which cannot be altogether perhaps over 5,000,000. In Bulgaria there
easily assinied to one or the other nation, and which are besides the Bulgarian population, 20.644 Pomak^
both peoples are justified in claiming. that is Mohammedans who speak Bulgarian, 1516

Taking Serbs and Croats together there are: in Serbs, 531,217 Turks, 9862 Gagauzi (Bulgarians who
Austria, 711,382; in Hungary and Croatia, 2,839,016; speak Turkish), 18,874 Tatars, 66,702 Greeks in
in Bosnia and Herzegovina, probably 1,700,000; in cities along the coast, 89,563 Gypsies, and 71,023
Montenegro, 350,000; in Servia, 2,298.551; Old Servia Rumanians. The kingdom, therefore, is not an
and Macedonia, 350,000; Albania ana the vilayet of absolutely homogeneous nationality. In religion the
Scutari, about 100.000; Italy, 5000; Russia, 2000; Bulgarians are Orthodox Greeks with exception of the
America and elsewnere, 300,000. In addition there Pomaks, already mentioned, and of the Paulicians who
are about 108,000 Schokzians, Bunjernans, and are Catholics. The Bulgariaoa are divided into a num-

8L4V8

9XJLV8

het of branohes aad dialects; it is often doubtful
whether some of these subdivisions should not be in-
cluded among the Serbs. This is especially the case
in Macedonia, consequently all enumerations of the
population differ extremely from one another.

If, on the basis of earlier results, the natural annual
iprowth of the Slavonic populations is taken as 1 . 4
per cent, it may be claimed that there were about
156-157 million Slavs in the year 1910. In 1900 all
Slavs taken together numbered approximately
136,500,000 persons, divided thus: Russians, 94,000,-
000; Poles, 17,500,000; Lusatian Serbs, 150,000;
Bohemians and Slovaks, 9,800,000; Sk>venes, 1,500,-
000; SerboOroats, 8,550,000; Bulgarians, 5,000,000.

Leopold L^abd.

SUrTB in Americ*. — ^The Slavic races have sent
large numbers of their people to the United States and
Canada, and this immigration is coming ev^ year
in increasing numbers. The earliest immig^tion
began before the war of the States, but within the
past thirty years it has become so great as quite to
overshadow the Irish and German immigration of
the earlier decades. For two-thirds of that period
no accurate figures of tongues and nationalities were
kept,' the immigrants being merely credited to the
political governments or countries from which they
came, but within the past twelve years more accurate
data have been preserved. During these years
(1899-1910) the total immigration into the United
States has been about 10,000,000 in round nimibers,
and of these the Slavs have formed about 22 per cent,
(actually 2,117,240), to say nothing of the increase
ol native-bom Slavs in tnis country during that
period, as well as the numbers of the earlier arrivals.
Keliable estimates compiled from the various racial
sources show that there are from five and a. half to
six millions of Slavs in the United States, including
the native-bom of Slavic parents. We are generMlly
unaware of these facts, because the Slavs are less
conspicuous among us than the Italians, Germans, or
Jews; their languages and their histoiy are unfainiliar
and remote, besides they are not so massed in the
great cities of this country.

I. Bohemians {Cech; adjective, ieski, Bohemian).
These people ought really be called Chekh (Czech),
but are named Bohemians after the aboriginal tribe
of the Boii, who dwelt in Bohemia in Roman times.
By a curious i>erver8ion of language, on account of
various gypsies who about two centuries ago travelled
westward across Bohemia and thereby came to be
known in France as '* Bohemians'', the word Bohe-
mian came into use to designate one who lived an
^isy, careless life, unhampered by serious responsibili-
ties. Such a meaning is, however, the very antithe-
sis of the serious conservative Chekh character. The
names of a few Bohemians are found in the early his-
toryof the United States. August^ Hefman (1692)
of Bohemia Manor, Maryland, and Bedf ich Filip
(Frederick Philipse, 1702) of Philipse Manor, Yonk-
ers, New York, are the earliest. In 1848 the revolu-
tionary uprisings in Austria sent many Bohemians to
this country. In the eighteenth century the Mora-
vian Bretmren (Bohemian Brethren) had come in
large numbers. The finding of gold in California
in 1849-50 attracted many more, especially as serfdom
and labour dues were abolished in Bohemia at the
end of 1848, which left the peasant and workman
free to travel. In 1869 and the succeeding years
immigration was stimulated by the labour strikes
in Bohemia, and on one occasion all the women work-
ers of sevend cisar factories came over and settled
in New York. About 60 per cent of the Bohemians
and Moravians who have settled here are Catholics^
and their churches have been fairly maintained.
Their immigration during the past ten years has been
08»100, and in 1910 the number of Bonemiaos in the

United States, immigrants and native bom, waa
reckoned at 55(1,000. They have some 140 Bohe>
mian Catholic churches and about 250 Bohemian
priests; their societies, schools, and general institu-
tions are active and flourishing.

II. Bulgarians (BiUgar; adjective b&lgarski,
Bulgarian) .-^This part of the Slavic race iimabits
the present Kingdom of Bulj^aria, and the Turkish

Srovmces of Eastern Rumelia, representing ancient
lacedonia. Thus it happens that the Bulgarians
are almost equaUy divided between Turkey and
Bulgaria. Their ancestors were the Bolgars or

tongue is in many respects the nearest to the Church
Slavonic, and it was the ancient Bulgarian which
Sts. Cynl and Methodius are said to have learned in
order to evangelise the pagan Slavs. The modem
Bulgarian lansua^, written with Russian characters
and a few additions^ differs from the other Slavic
languages in that it, like Engliah, has lost nearly every
inflexion, and, like Rumanian, has the peculiarity of
attaching the article to the end of the word, wnile
the other Slavic tongues have no article at all. The
Bulgarians who have gained their freedom from Turk-
ish supremacy in the present Kingdom of Bulgaria
are fau-ly contented; but those in Macedonia mafe
bitterly against Turkish rule and form a large portion
of those who emigrate to America. The Bulgarians
are nearly all of the Greek Orthodox Church; there
are some twenty thousand Greek Catholics, mostly
in Macedonia, and about 50,000 Roman Catholics.
The Greek Patriarch of Constantinople has always
claimed jurisdiction over the Bulgarian Orthodox
Church, and he enforced his jurisdiction until 1872,
when the Bulgarian exarch was appointed to exercise
supreme jurisdiction. Since that tune the Bulg^ans
have been in a state of schism to the patriarch.
They are ruled in Bulgaria by a Holy Synoa of their
own, whilst the Bulganan exarch, resident in (Constan-
tinople, is the head of the entire Bulgarian Church.
He is recognised by the Russian Church, but is
considered excommunicate by the Greek Patriarch,
who however retained his authority over the Gredc-
speaking churches of Macedonia and Bulgaria.

Bulgarians came to the United States as early as
1890; but there were then only a few of them as
students, mostly from Macedonia, brou^t hither by
mission bodies to studv for the Ftotestant ministiy.
The real immigration began in 1905, when it seems
that the Bulgarians discovered America as a land of
opportunity, stimulated probably by the Turkish
and Greek persecutions tnen raging in Macedonia
against them. The railroads and steel works in
the West needed men, and several enterprising steam*
ship agents brought over Macedonians anaBulii^
rians in large numbers. Before 1906 there were
scarcely 500 to 600 Bulgarians in the ooimtr^, and
th^se chiefly in St. Louis, Missouri. Since then
they have been coming at the rate of from 8000 to
10,000 a year, imtil now (1911) there are from
80,000 to 90,000 Bulgarians scattered throughout the
United States and Canada. The majority of them
are employed in factories, railroads, mines, and sugar
works. Granite City, Madison, and Cmcaco. Illi-
nois: St. Louis, Missouri; Indianapolis, Cidiana;
Steelton, Pennsylvania; Portland, Oregon, and New
York City all have a considerable Bulgarian popula-
tion. They also take to fanning and are scattered
throughout the north-west. They now (1911) have
three Greek Orthodox churches in the United States,
at Granite City and Madison, Illinois, and at Steelton,
Pennsylvania, as well as several mission stations.
Their dergv consist of one monk and two secular
priests; azid they also have a church at Toronto,
Canada. There ar9 ao Bulgarian Qatholios^ either

SLAVS

of the Greek or Ronuui Rite, saffioient to fonn a
church here. The Bulgarians, unlike the other
Slavs, have no chin-ch or benefit societies or brother-
hoods in America. Thev publish five Bulgarian
papers, of which the "Naroden Glas" of Granite
City is the most important.

III. Croatians (Hrvat; adjective, hriHitskiy Croa-
tian).— ^These are the inhabitants of the autonomous
or home-rule province of Croatia-Slavonia, in the
south-western part of the Kingdom of Hungary where
it reaches down to the Adriatic Sea. It includes not
onlv them but also the Slavic inhabitants of Istria and
Dalmatia, in Austria, and those of Bosnia and Herzo-
govina who are Catholic and use the Roman alphabet.
In blood and speech the Croatians and Servians are
practically one; but reli«on and politics divide them.
The former are Roman Catholics and use the Roman
letters; the latter are Greek Orthodox and use modi-
fied Russian letters. In many of the places on. the
border-line school-children have to learn both alpht^
bets. The English word "cravat " is derived from their
name, it being the Croatian neckpiece which the south
Austrian troops wore. Croatia-Slavonia itself has a
population of nearly 2,500,000 and is about one-third
the size of the State of New York. Croatia in the west
is mountainous and somewhat poor, while Slavonia in
the east is level, fertile, and productive. Many Dal-
matian Croats from seaport towns came herefrom 1850
to 1870. The original emigration from Croatia-Sla-
vonia began in 1873, upon the completion of the new
railway connexions to the seaport of Fiume, when
some of the more adventurous Croatians came to the
United States. From the earlv eighties the Lipa-
Krbava district furnished much of the emigration.
The first Croatian settlements were made in Calu-
met, Michigan, while many of them became lumber^
men in Michigan and stave-cutters along the Missis-
sippi. Around Agram (Zdgrdb, the Croatian capital)
the grape disease caused large destruction of vine-
yards and the conseouent emigration of thousands.
Later on emigration be^an from Varasdin and from
Slavonia also, and now immigrants arrive from every
coimty in Croatia-Slavonia. In 1899 the figures for
Croatia-Slavonia were 2923, and by 1907 the annual
immigration had risen to 22,828, the largest number
coming from Agram and Varasdin Counties. Since
then it has fallen off, and at the present time (1911)
it is not quite 20,000. Unfortunately the govern-
mental statistics do not separate the Sloveniaus
from the Croatians in giving the arrivals of Austro-
Hungarian immigrants, but the Hungarian figures
of departures serve as checks.

The number of Croatians in the United States at
present, including the native-born, is about 280,000,
divided according to their origin as follows: from
Croatia-Slavonia, 160,000; Dahnatia, 80,000; Bosnia,
20,000; Herzegovina, 15,000; and the remainder
from various parts of Hungary and Servia. The
largest group of them is in Pennsylvania, chiefly
in the neighbourhood of Pittsburg, and they number
probably from 80,000 to 100,000. Illinois has about
45^000, chiefly in Chicago. Ohio has about 35,000,
principally in Cleveland and the vicinity. Other
considerable colonies are in New York, »^an Fran-
cisco, St. Louis, Kansas City, and New Orleans.
They are also in Montana, Colorado, and Michigan.
The Dalmatians are chiefly engaged in business and
grape culture; the other Croatians are mostly labour-
ers employed in mining, railroad work, steel mills,
stockyards^ and stone quarries. Nearly all of these
are Catholics, and they now have one Greek Catholic
and 16 Roman Catholic churches in the United States.
The Greek Catholics are almost wholly from the
Diocese of Kriieva^ (Crisium), and iare chiefly settled
at Chicago and Cleveland. They have some 250
societies devoted to church and patriotic purposes,
and in some cases to Socialism, but as yet they have

no very hur|e central onanization, the Natioiial
Croatian Union with 29,247 members being the
largest. Tliey publish ten newspapers, among them
two dailies, of which "Zajednicar'' the organ of
Narodne Hrvatske Zajedmce (National Croatian
Union) is the best known.

IV. Poles (Polak, a Pole; adjective polski, Polish).
— ^The Poles came to the United States quite early
in its history. Aside from some few early settlers,
the American Revolution attracted such noted men
as Kosciuszko and Pulaski, together with many
of their fellow-countr3rmen. The Polish Revolution
of 1830 brought numbers of Poles to the United States.
In 1851 a Polish colony settled in Texas, and called
their settlement Panna Marya (Our Lady Mary).
In 1860 they settled at Parisville, Michigan, and
Polonia, Wisconsin. Many distinguished Poles served
in the (jivil War (1861-65) upon both sides. After
1873 the Polish immigration b^an to grow apace,
chiefly from Prussian Poland. Tnen the tide turned
and came from Austria, and later from Russian
Poland. In 1890 they began to come in the giBatest
numbers from Austnan and Russian Polana, until
the flow from German Poland has largely diminished.
The immigration within the past ten years has been
as follows: from Russia, 53 per cent; from Austria
about 43 per cent; and only a fraction over 4 per cent
from the Prussian or German portion. It is esti-
mated that there are at present about 3,000,000
Poles in the United States, counting the native-born.
It may be said that they are almost solidly Catholic;
the dissident and distiirbing elements among them
being but comparatively small, while there is no
purely Protestant element at all. They have one
Polish bishop, about 750 priests, and some 520
churches ana chapels, besides 335 schools. There
are large numbers, both men and women, who are
members of the various religious communities. The
Poles publish some 70 newspapers, amount them
nine dailies. 20 of which are purely Catholic publi-
cations. Tneir religious and national societies are
large and flourishing; and altogether the Polish ele-
ment is active and progressive.

V. Russians (Rossiyanin; adjective roswisAit, Rus-
sian).— ^The Russian Empire is the largest nation in
Europe, and its Slavic inhabitants (exclusive of Poles)
are composed of Great Russians or Northern Russians,
White Russians or Western Russians, and the Little
Russians (Ruthenians) or Southern Kussians. The
Great Russians dwell in the central and northern
parts of the empire around Moscow and St. Peters-
burg, and are so called in allusion to their stature and
peat predominance in number, government, and
language. The White Russians are so called from
the prevailing colour of the clothing of the peasantry,
and inhabit the provinces lying on the borders of
Poland — Vitebsk, Mohilefif, Minsk, Vilna, and Grodno.
Their lan|^age differs but slightly from Great Rus-
sian, inclining towards Polish and Old Slavonic.
The Little Russians (so called from their low stature)
differ considerably from the Great Russians in lan-
guage and customs, and they inhabit the Provinces of
Kieff, Kharkoff, Tchemigoff, Poltava, Podolia, and
Volhynia, and they are also found outside the Empire
of Russia in Galicia, Bukovina, and Hunjjary (see
below, VI. RuTHKNiANs). The Great Russians may
be regarded as the norm of the Russian people. Their
language became the language of the court and of
literature, just as High German and Tuscan Italian
did, and they form the overwhelming majority of the
inhabitants of the Russian Empire. They are prac-
tically all Greek Orthodox, the Catholics in Russia
being Poles or Germans where they are of the Roman
Rite, and Little Russians (Ruthenians) where they
are of the Greek Rite.

The Russians have long been settled in America,
for Alaska was Russian territory before it was pur-

8If*¥a 53 SLAVS

ohaaed by the United States in 1867. The Riuaian tvo Vsaimopomoehchi" (Eiudan Orthodox Mutual.
Greek Orthodox church has been on American soil AidSociety) for men, founded in 1S95, now (1911) hav-
for over a century. The immigration from Russia ing 199 councils and 7072 members, and the women's
is however composed of very lew Russians. * It is division of the same, founded in 1907, with 32 councils
principally made up bf Jews (Russian and Polish), and 690 members. They publish two church papers,
Pedes, and Lithuanians. Out of an average emigra- "American Orthodox liOessenger", and ''Svit'';
lion of from 250,000 to 260,000 annually from the although there are some nine other Russian papers
Russian Empire to the United States, 65 per cent have published by Jews and Socialists.
been Jews and only from three to five per cent actual VI. Rutegbmiaks (RuMn; adjective n4««iby, Ruthe-
Russians. Nevertheless the Russian peasant and nian). — ^These are the southern branch of Uie Rus-
working class are active emiflpnuits. ana the exodus sian family, extending from the middle of Austria*
from European Russia is reLatively large. But it Hungary across the southern part of Russia. The -use
18 djieoted eastward instead of to the west, for Russia of the adjective russky by both the Ruthenians and
is intent upon settling up her vast prairie lands in the Russians permits it to be translated into English
Siberia. Hindrances are placed in the way of those by the word ''Ruthenian'' or ''Russian". They
Russians (except the Jews) who would leave for are also called Little Russians {Malorossiam) in the
Amaica or the west of Europe, while inducements Empire of Russia, and sometimes Rusaniaki in Hun-
ukd advantages are offered for settlers in Siberia, ffary. The appellations "Little Russians'' and
For the past five years about 500,000 Russians have ^Ruthenians'' nave come to have almost a technicid
annuaUv migrated to Siberia, a number equal to meaning, the former indicating subjects of the Ru&-'
one-half the immigrants yearly received by the sian Empire who are of the Greek Orthodox Church.
United States from all sources. They ko in great and the latter those who are in Austria-Hungary ana
eolonies and are aided by the Russian (jrovemment are Catholics of the Greek Rite. Those who are
b;y grants of land, loans of money, and low transporta- active in the Panslavic movement and are Russo-
tion. New towns and cities have sprung up all over philes are very anxious to have them called "Rus-
Siberia, which are not even <m our maps, thus rivalling sians", no matter whence they come. The Ruthe-
theAmeriean settlement of the Dakotas and the North- nians are of the original Russo-Slavic race, and
Weet. Many Russian religious colonists, other than gave their name to the peoples making up the present
the Jews, have come to America; but often they are Russian Empire. They are spread alTover the south-
not wholly of Slavic blood or are Little Russians em part of Russia, in the provmces of Kieff , Kharkoff,
(Ruthenians). It therefore happens that there are Tchemigoff, Poltava, Podolia. and Volhynia (see
y&rv few Russians in the United States as compared above, V. Russians), but by force of governmental.
with other nationalities. There are, according to the pressure and restrictive laws are being slowly made
latest eeiimates, about 75,000, chiefly in Pennsylvania mto Great Russians. Only within the past five
and the Middle West. There has been a Kussian years has the use of their own form of language and
GQk>ny in San fVancisco for sixty years, and they are their own newspapers and press been allowed by law
numerous in and around New Ycn-k City. in Russia. Nearly ever^r Ruthenian author in the

The Russian Orthodox Church is well established empire has written his chief works in Great Russian,

here. About a third oC the Russians in the United because denied the use of his own language. They

States are opposed to it, being of the anti-govem- are also spread throughout the Provinces of Lubliji,

ment, semi-revolutionary type of immigrant. But in Poland; Galicia andf Bukovina, in Austria j and the

the others are en^usiastic in support of their Church (bounties of Szepes, Saros, Abauj, Zemplin, Ung.

andiheirnationalcustoms, yet their Church includes Marmos, and Bereg. in Hungarv. They have had

not only them but the Little Russians of Bukovina an opp<^unity to develop in Austria and also in

and a very large number of Greek Catholics of Gali- Hungar^r. In the latter country they are closely

eia and Hungary whom they have induced to leave allied with the Slovaks, and many of them speak

the Catholic and enter the Orthodox Church. The the Slovak language. They are all of the Greek

Russian Qiurch in the United States is endowed by Rite, and with the exception of those in Russia and

the tsar and the Holy Governing Synod, besides Bukovina are Catholics. They use the Russian

having the support of Russian missionary societies alphabet for their language, ana in Bukovina and a

at home, and is upon a flourishing financial basis portion of Galicia have a phonetic spelling, thus dif-

in the United States. It now (1911) has 83 churches tering largely from Great Kussian, even in words that

and chapels in the United States, 15 in Alaska, and are common to both.

18 in Canada, making a total of 126 places of wor- Their immigration to America commenced in 1880
ship, beside a ^eolofldcal seminary at Minneapolis as labourers in the coal mines of Pennsylvania and
ana a monastery at South Canaan, Pennsylvania. Ohio, and has steadily increased ever since. Although
Their present clergy is composed of cme archbishop, they were the poorest class of peasants and labourers,
one bishop^ 6 proto-priests, 89 secular priests, 2 illiterate for the most part and unable to grasp the
ardiimanantes, 2 hegumens, and 18 monastic priests, English language or American customs when they ar*
yn^lrmg a total of 119, while they also exercise iuri&- riv^, they have rapidly risen in the scale of prosperity
dicticm over t^e Servian and Syrian Orthodox clergy and are now rivalling the other nationalities in pro-
be^es. Lately they took over a Greek Catholic gress. Greek Ruthenian churches and institutions are
sisterhood, and now have four Basilian nuns. The being established upon a substantial basis, and their
United States is now divided up into the following clergy and schools are steadily advancing. They are
ax districts of the Russian Church, intended to be scattered all over the United States, and there are now
the toritory for future dioceses: New York and the (1911) between 480,000 and 500,000 of them, count-
New England States; Pennsylvania and the Atlantic ing immigrants and native bom. Their immigration
elates; Pittsburg and the Middle West; Western for the past five years has been as follows: 1907,
Pacific States; Canada; and Alaska. Their statis- 24,081; 1908, .12^61; 1909, 15,808; 1910, 27,907;
tic8 of church population have not been published 1911, 17,724; being an average of 20.000 a year.
hAety in their year-books, and much of their growth Th^ have chiefly settled in the State of Pennsylvania,
has been of late years by additions gained from the over half of them bein^ there: but Ohio, New York,
Gieek Catholic Ruthenians of Galicia and Hungary, New Jersey, and Illinois have large numbers of them^
snd is due largely to the active and energetic work The Greek Rite in the Slavonic language is firmly
and financial support of the Russian church authori- established through them in the United States, but
tlet at St. PeteKBDurg and Moscow. they suffer greatly from Russian Orthodox endeavours

Theyhia^«Uid"Bu8dfioy9PriivoBlavnoy«Ob6hdie»r to tead tfaem from the Catholic Church, as well aa

SLAVS

from frequent internal disaenuonfi (cbieflv of an old-
world political nature) among themselves. Thev
have 152 Greek Catholic churches, with a Greek
clergy consisting of a Greek Catholic bishop who has
his seat at Philsuielphia, but without diocesan powers
as yet, and 127 priests, of whom 9 are Basilian monks.
Diuing 1911 Ruthenian Greek Catholic nuns of the
Order of St. Basil were introduce. The Ruthenians
have flourishing relisious mutual benefit societies,
which also assist in me building of Greek churches.
The ''Soyedineniya Greko-Katolicheskikh Bratstv''
(Greek Catholic Union) in its senior division has 509
brotherhoods or councils and 30,255 members,
while the junior division has 226 brotherhoods ana
15,200 members; the ^'Russky Narodny Soyus''
(Ruthenian National Union) has 301 brotherhoods
and 15.200 members; while the "Obshchestvo Rus-
skikh Bratstv" (Societv of Russian Brotherhood) has
129 brotherhoods and. 7350 members. There are
also many Ruthenians who belong to Slovak organiza-
tions. The Ruthenians publish some ten papers,
of which the "Amerikanskv Russky Viestnik",
"Svoboda", and " Dushpastjrr" are the principal ones.
VII. Servians {Srhin; adjective srvski, Ser-
vian).— ^This designation applies not only to the
inhabitants of the Kingdom of Servia, but includes
the people of the following countries forming a geo-

gapnical althou^ not a political whole: southern
ungary, the Kmgdoms of Servia and Montenegro,
the Turkish Provinces of Kossovo, Western Mace-
donia and Novi-Bazar, and the annexed Austrian
provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The last
two provinces may be said to furnish the shadowy
boundary line between the Croatians and the Ser-
vians. The two peoples are ethnologically the same,
and the Servian ana Croatian languages are merely
two dialects of the same Slavic tongue. Servians are
sometimes called the Shtokcmski^ oecause the Ser-
vian word for "what" is shio, while the Croats use
the word cha for "what", and Croatians are called
Chakavski. The Croatians are Roman Catholics
and use the Roman alphabet (latinica), whilst the
Servians are Greek Orthodox and use the Cyrillo-
Russian alphabet (jcirilica)^ with additional signs to
express special sounds not foimd in the Russian.
Servians who happen to be Roman Catholics are
called Bunjevaci (disturbers, dissenters).

Servian unmigration to the United States did not
commence until about 1892, when several hundred
Montenegrins and Servians came with the Dalma-
tians and settled in California. It began to increase
largely in 1903 and was at its hi^est in 1907. Hiey
are largely settled in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois.
There are no governmental statistics showing how
many Servians come from Servia and how many
from the surrounding provinces. The Servian Gov-
ernment has establisned a special consular office in
New York City to look after Servian immigration.
There are now (1911) about 150,000 Servians in the
United States. They are located as follows: New
England States, 25,000: Middle Atlantic States.
50,000; Middle Western States, 25,000; Western and
Pacific States, 25,000; and the remainder throughout
the Southern States and Alaska. They have brought
with them their Orthodox clergy, and are at present
affiliated with the Russian Ortnodox Church here
although they expect shortly to have their own na-
tional Bishop. Iiiey now (1911) have in the United
States 20 churches (of which five are in Pennsylvania)
and 14 clerry. of whom 8 are monks and 6 seculars.
They publish eight newspapers in Servian, of which
"Amerikanski Srbobran" of Pittsburg, "Srbobran"
of New York, and "Srpski Glasnik" of San Francisco
are the most important. They have a lai^ number
of church and patriotic societies, of which the Serb
Federation "Sloga" (Concord) with 131 dnOtva or
councils and over 10,000 members and ''Prosvjeta"

(Progress), composed, of Servians from Bosnia and
Herz^ovina, are the most prominent.

VIII. Slovaks (Slovak; adjective dovenskjf, Slo>
vak).— These occupy the noi^h-westem portion of
the Kingdom of Hungary upon the southern slopes
of the Carpathian mountains, ranging over a territory
comprising the Counties of Possony, Nyitra, Bars,
Hont, Zolyom, Trencs^n, Turocz, An^a, Lipt6.
Szepes, S^B, Zcmplin, Ung, Abauj, Gomdr, and
N6^ad. A well-defined ethnical line is all that
divides the Slovaks from the Ruthenians and the
Magyars. Their language is almost the same as the
Bohemian, for they received their literature and their
mode of writing it from the Bohemians^ and even
now nearly all the Protestant Slovak kterature is
from Bohemian sources. It must be remembered
however that the Bohemians and Moravians dwell
on the northern side of the Carpathian mountains
in Austria, whilst the Slovaks are on the south of
the Carpatnians and are wholly in Hungary. Between
the Moravians and the Slovaks, dweUing so near to
one another, the relationship was especially dose.
The SlovfJc and Moravian people were among those
who first' heard the story of Cm'ist from the SUvonic
apQfitles Sts. Cyril and Methodius, and at one time
their tribes must have extended down to ^e Danube
and the southern Slavs. The Magyars (Hungarians)
came in from Asia and the East, and like a wedge
divided this group of northern Slavs from those on
the south.

The Slovaks have had no independent history and
have endured successively Polish rule, Magyar oon-
quest, Tatar invasions, German invading colonisa-
tion, Hussite raids from Bohemia, and the dynastic
wars of Hungary. In 1848-49, when revolution
and rebellion were in the air, the Hungarians began
their war against Austria; the Slovaks in turn rose
against the Himgarians for their language and national
customs, but on the conclusion of peace they were
again incorporated as part of Hungary without any
of their rights recognized . Later they were ruthlessly-
put down when the3r refused to carry out the Hunr-
garian decrees, particularly as they had rallied to
the support of the Austrian throne. In 1861 the
Slovaks presented their famous Memorandum to
the Imperial Throne of Austria, praying for a bill
of rights and for their autonomous nationality.
Stephen Moyses, the distinguished Slovak Cathouo
bishop, besought the emperor to grant national
and language rights to them. The whole movement
awoke popular enthusiasm, Catholics and Protectants
working together for the common good. In 1862
high scnools were opened for Slovaks; the famous
^'Slovenska Matica' , to publish Slovak books and
works of art and to foster the study of the Slovak
history and language, was founded; and in 1870 the
Catholics also founded the "Society of St. Voytech",
which became a powerful helper. Slovak newspapers
sprang into existence and 150 reading dura and
libraries were established. After the oefeat of the
Austrian arms at Sadowa in 1866, pressure was re-
sumed to split the empire into two parts, Austrian
and Hungarian, each of which was practically inde-
pendent. The Slovaks thenceforth came wholly
under Hungarian rule. Then the Law of Nationah-
ties was passed which recognized the predominant
position of the Magyars, but (^ave some small recog-
nition to the other minor nationalities, such as tfie
Slovaks, by allowing them to have churches and
schools conducted in their own languai^

In 1878 the active Magyarization of Hungary waa
undertaken. The doctrine was mooted that a native
of the Kingdom of Hungary could not be a patriot
unless he spoke, thought, and felt as a Magyar. A
Slovak of eaucation who remained true to his ancestry
(and it must be remembered that the Slovaks were
there long before the Hungarians came) was considered

SLAVS

deficit in patriotion. The most advanced political
view was tnat a compromise with the Slovaks was
impossible; that there was but one expedient, to wipe
th^ out as far as possible by assimilation with tne
Magyars. Slovak schools and institutions were
ordered to be closed, the charter of the ^^Matica"
was annulled, and itsjibrary and rich historical and
artistic collections, as well as its funds, were conJB»»
cated. Inequalities of every kind before the law
were devisea for the undoing of tJie Slovaks and turn-
ing them into Hungarians; so much so that one of
their authors likened them to the Irish in their
troubles. The Hungarian authorities in their en-
deavour to suppress the Slovak nationality went
even to the extent of taking awav Slovak children
to be brought up as Magyars, and forbade them to
use their language in school and church. The
2,00CM)00^ Catholic Slovaks climg to their language
and Slavic customs, but the cler^ were educate
in their seminaries through the medium of the Magyar
tongue and required in their parishes to conform to
the state idea. Among the 750,000 Protestant Slovaks
the Government went even further by taking control
df their synods and bishops. Even Slovak family
names were changed to Hungarian ones, and prefer-
ment was only through Hungarian channels. Natu-
rally, religion decayed under the stress and strain of
repressed nationahty. Slovak priests did not per-
form their duties with ardour or diligence, but con-
fined themselves to the mere routine of canonical
obligation. There are no monks or religious orders
among the Slovaks and no provision is made for any
kind of community life. Catechetical instruction
is at a minimum ana is required to be given whenever
possible through the medium of the Hungarian lan-
guage. There is no lack of priests in the Slovak
countrsr^ yet the practice of solemnizing the reception
of the nnt communion by the children is unknown
and many other forms of Catholic devotion are
omitted. Even the Holy Rosary Society was
dissolved, because its devotions and proceedings were
conducted in Slovak. The result of governmental
restriction of any national expression has been a
complete lack of mitiiative on tne part of the Slovak
priesthood, and it is needless to speak of the result
upon their flocks. In the eastern part of the Slovak
t^ritory where there were Slovak-speaking Greek
Catholics, they fared slightly better in regard to
the attempts to make them Hungarians. There the
liturgy was Slavonic and the clergy who used the
Magyar tongue still were in close touch with their
people through the offices of the Church. All this
pressure on the part of the authorities tended to
produce an active Slovak emigration to America,
while bad harvests and taxation also contributed.
A few immigrants came to America in 1864 and
their success brought others. In the late seventies
the Slovak exodus was well marked, and by 18S2 it
was sufficiently important to be investigated by the
Hungarian Minister of the Interior and directions
given to repress it. The American immigration
figures indicate the first important Slovak influx
in 1873 when 1300 immigrants came from Hungary,
which rose to 4000 in 1880 and to nearly 15,000 m
1^4, most of than settling in the mining and indus-
trial regions of Pennsylvania. At first they came
from the Counties of Zemplin, Saros, Szepes, and
Ung, where there were also many Ruthenians. They
were called "Huns" or "Hunkies", and were used
at first to fill the places left vacant by strikers. They
were very poor and willing to work for little when
they arrived, and were according^r hated by the
members of the various unions. Tlie Slovak girls,
like the Irish, mostly went into service, and because
they had ahnoet no expense for living managed to
aam more than the men. To-day the Slovaks of
Ammim are beginning to possess a national culture

and organization, which presents a strikinjs oontnrt
to the cramped development of their kinsmen in
Hungary. Their immigration of late years has ranged
annually from 52,368 in 1905 to 83,416 in 1910.
Altogether it is estimated that there are now some
560^000 Slovaks in the United States, includmg the
native bom. They are spread throughout the coun-
try, chiefly in the following states: Pennsylvania, 270,-
000; Ohio. 75,000; Illinois, 50,000; New Jersey, 50^000;
New York, 35,000; Connecticut, 20,000; Indiana,
15,000; Missouri, 10,000; whilst they range from 5000
to a few himdreds in the other states. About 450,000
of them are Roman Catholics, 10,000 Greek Catholics
and 95,000 Protestants.

The first Slovak Catholic church in the United
States was founded by Rev. Joseph Kossalko at
Streator, Illinois, and was dedicated 8 Dec, 1883.
Following this he also built St. Joseph's Church at
Hasleton, Pennenrlvania, in 1884. In 1889 Rev.
Stephen Furdek founded the Church of St. Ladislas
at Cleveland, Ohio, together with a fine parochial
school, both of which were dedicated by Bishop Gil-
mour. The American bishops were anxious to get
Slovak priests for the increasing immigration, and
Bishop Gilmour sent Father Furdek to Himgary for
that purpose. The Huiigarian bishops were unwilling
to send Slovak priests at first, but as immigration
increased they acceded to the request. At present
(1911) the Catholic Slovaks have a clergy consisting
of one bishop (Rt. Rev. J. M. Koudelka) and 104
priests, and nave 134 churches situated as follows:
m Pennsylvania, 81 (Dioceses of Altoona, 10; Erie, 4:
Harrisburg, 3; Philadelphia, 15; Pittsburg, 35; ana
Scranton, 14) ; in Ohio, 14 (in the Diocese of Cleveland,
12, and Columbus, 2); in Illinois, 10 (in the Arch-
diocese of Chicago, 7; and Peoria, 3); in New Jersey,
11 (in the Diocese of Newark, 7; and Trenton, 4);
in New York, 6; and in the States of Connecticut, 3;
Indiana, 2; Wisconsin, 2; and Minnesota, Michigan,
Missouri, Alabama, ana West Virginia, one each.
Some of the Slovak church buildings are very fine
specimens of church architecture. There are also
36 Slovak parochial schools, that of Our Lady Mary
in Cleveland having 750 pupils. They have also
introduced an American order of Slovak nuns, the
Sisters of Saints Cyril and Methodius, who are
established under the direction of Bishop Hoban in
the Diocese of Scranton, where they have four schools.

The Ptotestant Slovaks followed the example of
the Catholics and established their first church at
Streator, Illinois, in 1885, and later founded a church
at Minneapolis in 1888, and from 1890 to 1894 three
churches in Pennsylvania. They now have in the
United States 60 Slovak churches and congre{;ations
(of which 28 are in Pennsylvania), with 34 ministers
(not including some 5 Presbyterian clergymen), who
are organized under the name of ''The Slovak Evan-

felical Lutheran Sjrnod of America". The Slovaks
ave a large number of organizations. The principal
Catholic ones are: Prva KatoHcka Slovenskd Jednota
(First Slovak Catholic Union), for men, 33,000
members; Pennsylvdnska Slovendcd Rimeko a
Gr^cko KatoHcka Jednota (Pennsylvania Slovak
Roman and Greek Catholic Union), 7500 members;
Prva KatoHcka Slovcnskd ZemkA Jednota (First
Catholic Slovak Women's Union), 12,000 members;
Pennsylvdnska Slovenskd Zcnskd Jednota (Pennsyl-
vania Slovak Women's Union), 3500 members;
Zivena (Women's League), 6000 members. There
are also: Ndrodn;(' Slovensk^ Spolok (National
Slovak Society), which takes m all Slovaks except
Jews, 28,000 members; Evanjelicka Slovenskd Jed-
nota (Evangelical Lutheran Slovak Union), 8000
members: Kalvinskd Slovenskd Jednota (Presby-
terian Slovak Union), 1000 members; Neodvislj'
Ndrodny Slovenskd Spolok (Independent Nationu
Slovak Society), 2000 members. They also have a

8LAV8

aLAVS

large and euterprisin^ Press, publishing some four-
teen papers. Ine chief ones are: ''Slovens!^ Den«
nlk'' (Slovak Journal), a daily, of Pittabui^; ''Slovak
V Amerike" (Slovak in America), of New York:
''Narodne Noviny" (National News), a weekly^ of
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, with 38,000 circulation;
'^Jednota'' (The Union), also a weekly, of Middle-
town, Pennsylvania, with 35,000 circulation; and
'"Bratstvo" (Brotherhood) of Wilkes-Barre, Pennsyl^
vania. There are also Protestant and Socialistic
Slovak journals, whose circulation is small. Among
the distingubhed Slovaks in the United States may
be mentioned Hev. Joseph Murgas of Wilkes-Barre,
who, in addition to his work among his people, has
perfected several inventions in wireless telegraphy
and is favourably known in other scientific matters.

IX. Slovskes (Slovenec; adjective dovemkij Slove-
nian).— ^These come chiefly from south-western
Austria, from the Provinces of Camiola (Kranj$ko;
(jer,, Krain)^ Carinthia {Koroiko; Ger., Kdmten),
and Stvria (Stajerako; Ger., Sleiermark); as well as
from Kesia {Re$ja) and Udlne (Videm) in north-
eastern Italy, and the Coast Lands {Primorako)
of Austria-Hungary. Their neighbours on the south-
west are Italians; on the west and north, Germans;
on the east. Gerxnans and Ms^yars; and towards the
south, Italians and their Slavic neighbours the
Croatians. Most of them are bilingual, speaking
not only the Slovenian but also the German language.
For this reason they are not so readUv distinguishable
in America as the other Slavs, and have less trouble
in assimilatini; themselves. At home the main
centres of their language and literature have been
Laibach (Ljubljana), Rlagenfurt (Celovec)^ Graz
(Gradec)^ and Gdrz (Crorica)^ the latter city bemg also
largely Italian. In America they are sometimes
known as Austrians, but are more often known as
"Krainer'', that being the German adjective of
Krain (Camiola), from whence the lar^r number of
them come to the United States: sometimes the word
has even been mispronouncea and set down as
"Griner'\ The Slovenes became known somewhat
early in the history of the United States. Father
Frederic Baraga was amone the first of them to come
here in 1830, and began his missionary work as a
priest among the Indians of Michigan, Wisconsin,
and Minnesota, and finally became the first Bishop
of Marquette, Michigan. He studied the Indian
langua^ and wrote their grammars and history in
his vanous English, German, and Slovenian works.
He also published several catechisms and religious
works in Slovenian, and brought over several other
Slovenian priests.

In Calumet, Michigan, the Slovd[ies settled as
early as 18^; they first appeared in Chicago and in
Iowa about 1863, and in 1866 they founded their
chief farming colony in Brockway, Minnesota.
Here they stm preserve their own language and all
their minute local peculiarities. They came to
Omaha in 1868, and in 1873 their present large colony
in Joliet, Illinois, was founded. Their earliest
settlement in New York was towards the end of
1878, and graduidly their numbers have increased
until they have churches in Haverstraw and Rockland
Lake, where their language is used. They have also
established farm settlements in lowa^ South Dakota,
Idaho, Washington, and in additional places in
Minnesota. Their very active immigration began
in 1892, and has been (1000-1910) at the rate of
from 6000 to 9000 annually, but has lately fallen
off. The official government statistics class them
along with the Croatians. There are now (1911)
in the United States a little over 120,000 Slovenes;
practically all of them are Catholics, and with no
great differences or factions among them. There is
a leaning towards Socialism in the large mining and
manufaoturing osntret. In Peongylvania there art

about 30,000: in Ohio, 15,000; in Illinois, 12,000;
in Michinw, 8(XX); in Minnesota, 12,000; in Colorado*
10,000; m Washington, 10,000; in Montana. 5000;
in Califomia, 6000; and in fact there are Slovenes
reported in almost every state and territory except
Georgia. Their immigration was caused by the
poverty of the people at home, especially aa Cfuniola
is a rocky and mountainous district without much
fertility, and n^ected even from the times of the
Turkish wars. Latterly the institution of Ra£feisen
banks, debt-paying and mutual aid associaticMis,
introduced among the people by the Catholio party
(Slovenska Ljud^a Stranka), has diminished immi*
.gration and enabled them to live more comfortably
at home.

The Slovenes are noted for their adaptability,
and have given many prominent missionary leadens
to the Church in the United States. Among them
are Bishops Baraga, Mrak, and Vertin (of Marquette),
Stariha (of Lead), and Trobec (of St. Ck>ud); Mon*
signori Stibil, Buh, and Plut; Abbot Bernard Loc-
nika, O.S.B.; and many others. There are some 92
Slovenian priests in the United States, and twenty-
five Sloveman churches. Many of their churches are
quite fine, especially St. Joseph's, Joliet, Illinois:
St. Joseph's, (Jalumet, Michigan; and Sts. Cyril and
Methodius, Sheboygan, Wisconsin. There are also
mixed parishes where the Slovenes are \inited with
other nationalities, usually with Bohemians, Slovaks,
or Germans. There are no exclusively Slovenian
religious communities. At St. John's, Minnesotai
there are six Slovenian Benedictines, and at Rock-
land Lake, New York, three Slovenian Franciscans,
who are undertaking to establish a Slovenian ana
Croatian community. From them much of the
information herein has been obtained. The Francis-
can nuns at Joliet, Illinois, have many Slovenian
sisters; at Kansas City, Kansas, there are several
Slovenian sisters enga^d in school work; and there
are some Slovenians among the Notre Dame Sisters
of Cleveland, Ohio. Archbishop Ireland of St. Paul,
Minnesota, sent to Austria for Slovenian seminarians
to finish tJieir education here, and also i^Mpointed
three Slovenian priests as professors in his diooesaa
seminary, thus providing a Slovenian-American
dergy for their parishes in his province.

There are several church and benevolent organiza-
tions among the Slovenians in America. The princi-*
pal ones are: Kranjsko Slovenska KatoliSka Jednota
(Krainer Slovenian Catholic Union), organised in
April, 1894, now having 100 coimcils and a member-
ship of 12,000; Jugoslovenska Katoli&ka Jednota
(South Slovenian Catholic Union), organised in
Jan., 1901, having 90 councils and 8000 members;
besides these there are also Slovenska Zapadna
Zveza (Slovenian Weston Union), with 30 coimcils
and about 3000 members, Dru§tva Sv. Barbara
(St. Barbara Society), with 80 councils, chiefly
among miners, and tne semi-socialistic Delvaaka
Podpoma Zveza (Workingmen's Benevolent Union),
with 25 councils and a considerable member*
ship. There are also Sv. Rafaelova Drulba (St.
Raphael's Society), to assist Slovenian immigrants
founded by Father Kasimir, O.F.M., and the Society
of Sts. Cyril and Methodius to assistSlovexLian schools,
as well as numerous singing and gymnastic (H^anisfk
tions. The Slovenians publish ten newspapers in
the United States. The oldest is the Catholio weekly
^'Amerikanski Slovenec" (American Slovene), ea^
tablished in 1891 at Joliet, and it is the organ of ,the
Krainer Slovenian Catholic Union. '^Glaa Naroda"
(Voice of the People), established in .1892 in New
York City, is a daily paper somewhat liberal in its
views, but it is the official organ of the South Skrvonic
Catholic Union and the St. Barbara Society. ''Are
Maria" is a reUgious monthly published by tbe
Franoifoanfl d Rockkad Lake, New York. *^G)«^

fOMOMK 57 fSLOTB

nUc'' (The Herald) is a weekly of Calumet; Mldd* by great meo of other nations, and his kindnesB and

ttn; as are also ^'Bdinost" (Unity), of Pittsburg, taot eliminated all bitterness from the controvendes

Fennsylvania: "Clevelandska Amenka". of Cleve- in which he was forced to engage. Patriotism, the

land, Ohio; ''Narodni Vestnik'' (People's Messenger), education of his people, their temporal and spiritual

of Duluth, Minnesota; and ''Slovenski Narod" welfare, were his inspiring motives, as the non«

(Slovenian People), of Pueblo, Colorado. There are Catholic Makusev remarks: '* Education, based on

also two purely Socialistic weeklies in Chicago: religion and nationality, was his lofty aim". Hu«

"Proletarec" (Proletarian) and "Glas Svobode" mility and childlike simplicity marked his life. His

(Voice of Freedom). A very fine work. "Amerika priests, sincerely devoted to him, frequently heard him

in Amerikanci" (America and the Americans), repeat the words: ''When I was bom^ my mother

descriptive of all the United States and Slovenian laid me on a bed of straw, and I desire no better

life and development here, has been published by pallet when I die, asking only to be in the state of

Father J. M. Trunk at Klagenfurt, Austria. grace and worthy of salvation ''.

Balch, Our Slane Fdlof CUUent (New York, 1910); HouiT. GuAwmsAvrmR, HiM, of Shunian LiUnturt (18S2).

Amtriet^eh (St. Louia. 1890) ; Kohlbbck. The Catholic Bohemian* „, ^ _ *.>.>»*« ui-a«.

^ tkiUniUd StaUa in Champlain Sduoator. (New York. Jan.- SlotanUS (ScBLOTTANTTS, VAN DEB SlOOTIN),

M»r.. 1906) ;jav. 35-54; lUijw;. JCl"**^ (Madw 1911); Jqhn (John Gbfpen), polemical writer: b. at Geffen,

fS^\it.'lfJS:^''K^^ci^ Bmbantj.d. at GologS^ 9 July, 1666. He Joined

Kbumkjl, Hittorua Pohka vo Amttyce (Milwaukee, 1905-09); the Dommican order at Cologne about 1525. For

ij^t^lMdnoU Poutn w Amervif {UmhiafLiw^^^^ #*^r2S?» many years he ably defended the Faith against the

ThM PoUb in the Untted StaUe ol Amenoa (Philadelphia, 1907): u««»*;^ K,, .^.^Ai^kir^** ^r^A <»«.;«;».* T ^^JTIxm^ 4ciii»K4^

fraeodoMUf KaUndar (New York, 1900-12) : AmenkoMH neretics by preaching and writing. Ijater he taught

RusMki Mienateoeht (Homestead. 1907-12); Fubock, Zivoi sacred letters at Cologne, and m 1554 was made a

Sonhn9 Amerike in TatmruUtto, HI (Rawmbwok, 1890); doctor of theology. About this same time he became

^JT^cXic'^^SrtS^J^^ irnlj prior of his convent at (^loene and as suc^.exereis^

Capbk, The Slovake of Hungary (New York, 1906) ; Stead, the offices of censor of the faith and papal mqmsitor

SerM by the Serviane (London. 1W9); Dumam, 'T^rouqh the throughout the Archdioccse of Cologne and the Rhine

ft^;1iSlKt'^^^^£?^\^^^ 50unt^.^ In the discharge of these responsible

Rojakom Sloveneem (Joliet. 1903); Trunk, Amenka in Ameri- duties SlotanUS Came mto Conflict With the learned

band (Klapjirfurt. i9ii-i2)j««porto of the Commienoner of Justus Velsius, who in 1556, on account of heretical

/»mH^u» (Waahincton. i9«>-ii^ Shipman teachings, was obliged to leave Cologne. The vehe-

ANDREW J. OHiPMAN. ^^^^ writinm which Velsius afterwards published

81omiok| Anton Mabtin, Bishop of Lavant, in against the Cologne theologians moved Slotanus to

Maribor, Styria. Austria, noted Slovenian educator, write two works in which nearly all the heretical

b. 1800; d. 24 Sept., 1862. The dawn of the nine- doctrines of his time are discussed with admirable

teenth century foimd the Slovenian schools in a pre* skHl.

carious condition; their numb^ was pitifully small. Among his various works those most worthy of men«

and the courses they offered were inadequate and un- tion are: ''Disputationum ad versus hfiereUcos Uber

satisfactory. This deplorable state was due to the unus" (Cologne, 1558); '^De retinenda fide o>

fact that the Austrian officials endeavoured to sup- thodoxa et catholica adversus hsereses et sectas"

press the national language, and, to compass this (Cologne, 1560); "De barbaris nationibus eon*

end, introduced foreign teachers thoroughly dis- vertendis ad Christum" (Cologne, 1559). In the

tasteful to the people, whom in turn they despised, last-named work Slotanus witnesses to the ardent

Moreover, books, magazines, papers, and other missionary zeal which fired the religious men of his

edueational influences were lacking, not because they time,

would not have been gladly welcomed, but because , Ecbax>, Script. Chrd. Prod., n, iTj; HuiaiBR, Nommuiat«r:

thAv oroM frkfKifl/lAn Kv thA r^vommATif in ifji iaar nf Mbubbb, Zur Geeehtchte der KOlner Theoiogen m 10. Jahrh. in

tney were tWDlttOen py tne UOVemment m its lear Ot ^^^ ZnUchr. fikr Wieeenechaft und Kunst, U (Cologne. 1845),

Panslavism. This situation Bishop Slomsek was com- 79 sq.; PaClus. Kolner DominicanerachriftateUer a.d. 16. Jahrh.

petted to face. A man of initiative and discernment, in Kathoiik 11 (1897'> 238 sq.

the dianges he wrought in a short time were wonder- Chas. J. Callan.
fol. . In the O)nstitution of 1848, granting national Sloth, one of the seven capital sins. In general it
T^ts long denied, he found his instrument. Follow- means disinclination to labour or exertion. As a capi-
in^ this measure, thouf^ only after manv futile at- tal or deadly vice St. Thomas (II-H, Q. xxxv) calls it
tempts, he received official sanction to undertake the sadness in the face of some spiritual good which one
reform of the schools. The first fruits of his labours has to achieve {irialiiia de hmo spirituali). Father
were a series of excellent text-books, many from his Rickaby aptly translates its Latin equivalent acedia
own pen, which proved powerful factors in the growth (Gr. dicrjSta) by saying that it means the don't-care
and development of religious as well as national feeling. A man appr^ends the practice of virtue to
education. The founding of the weekly, "Drob- be beset with difficulties and chafes under the re-
tinice" (Crumbs), was his next step. Essays and straints imposed by the service of God. The narrow
books on a great variety of subjects, embracing prao- way stretches wearily before him and his soul grows
tically every question on which his countrymen stood sluggish and torpid at the thought of the painful life
in need ol enlightenment, were published in quick journey. The idea of right living inspires not joy
succession, and his vigorous and incbive style, well but disgust, because of its laboriousness. This is the
adapted to the intelligence of his readers, though not notion commonly obtaining, and in this sense sloth
lacking scholarly refinement, made his works ex- is not a specific vice accorc&ng to the teaching of St.
ceectingly popular. His pastorals and sermons con- Thomas, out rather a circumstance of all vices. Or-
stitute a literature of lasting value. In 1841 he sought dinarilv it will not have the malice of mortal sin im*
to reaiize a dream of veais — ^the establishment of a less, of course, we conceive it to be so utter that be-
society for the spread of Catholic literature. Un- cause of it one is willing to bid defiance to some serious
fortunatelv, the movement was branded as Pansla- obligation. St. Thomas completes his definition of
vistic, and failed at the time; but ten years later this sloth by saying that it is torpor in the presence of
organization was effected, and Druima sv. Mohora spiritual good which is Divine good. In other words.
began sending a few instructive books to Catholic a man is then formally distressed at the prospect of
homes. To-oay, a million educational volumes have what he must do for God to bring about or keep in-
been distributed among a million and a half of i>eople. tact his friendship with God. In this sense sloth is
Although, Slomfiek was ardent and active in the directly opposed to charity. It is then a mortal sin
interests of his own race, yet he was admired and loved unless the act be lacking in entire advertence er full

8LT1HUB8T

oonaent of the will. The trouble attached to main-
tenanoe of the inhabiting of God by charity arouses
tedium in such a person. He violates, therefore, ex-
pressly the first and the greatest of the command-
ments: ''Thou shalt love the Lord thv God with thy
whole heart, and with thy whole soul, and with thy
whole mind, and with thy whole strength. " (Mark,
zii, 30).

RiCKABT, Moral TMchinij of St. Thotiuu (U>ndoii, 1896);
Slatxb, Manual of Moral Theoloqy (New York, 1908); St.
Thomaa, Summa, II-II. Q. sxxv; Balubrxni, Ojnu thetAogieum
moraU (Prato, 1898).

Joseph F. Delany.

Slythunt, Thomas, English confessor, b. in Berk-
shire; d. in the Tower of London, 1560. He was
B.A. Oxon, 1530; M.A., 1534; B.D., 1543; and sup-
plicated for the degree of D.D., 1554-5, but never
took it. He was rector of Chalfont St. Peter, Bucks,
from 1545 to 1555, canon of Windsor. 1554, rector ot
Chalfont St. Giles, Bucks, 1555, ana first President
of Trinity College, Oxford. He was deprived of these
three preferments in 1559. On 11 Nov., 1556, he was
appointed with others by Convocation to regulate the
exercises in theology on the election of Cardinal Pole
to the chcmcellorship.

Wartok, Life of Sir Thomat Pope (London. 1772). 359; Cath-
olie Record SoeiHy Publieaiione, 1 (Lon-lon, 1905 — ), 118; Fox.
Acta and Monuments, VIII (London, 1813-9). 636.

John B. Wainewriqht.

Smalkaldio League, a politico-religious alliance
formally concluded on 27 Feb., 1531, at Smalkalden
in Hesse^Nassau, among German Protestant princes
and cities for their mutual defence. The compact
was entered into for six years, and stipulated that any
military attack made upon any one of the confede-
rates on account of religion or under uny other pretext
was to be considered as directed against them all and
resisted in common. The parties to it were : the Land-
grave Philip of Hesse; the Elector John of Saxony and
his son John Frederick ; the dukes Philip of Brunswick-
Grubenhagen and Otto, Ernest, and Francis of Bruns-
wick-LUn^urg: Prince Wolfgang of Anhalt; the
counts Gebhard and Albrecht of Mansfeld and the
towns of Strasburg, Ulm, Constance, Reutlingen,
Memmingen, Lindau, Biberach, Isn^, Magdeburg,
and Bremen. The city of LUbeck jomed the league
on 3 May, and Bavaria on 24 Oct., 1531. The acces-
sion of foreign powers, notably England and France,
was solicited, and the alliance of the latter nation se-
cured in 1532. The princes of Saxony and Hesse
were appointed military commanders of the confed-
eration, and its military strength fixed at lO.OCX) infan-
try and 2000 cavalry. At a meeting hela at Smal-
kalden in Dec., 1535, the alliance was renewed for ten
years, and the maintenance of the former military
strength decreed, with the stipulation that it sliould be
doubled in case of emergencv. In April, 1536, Dukes
Ulrich of Wiirtemberg and Barnim and Philip of
Pomerania, the cities of Frankfort, Augsburg, Ham-
burg, and Hanover joined the league with several
other new confederates. An alliance was concluded
with Denmark in 1538, while the usual accession
of the German Estates which accepted the Refor-
mation continued to strengthen the organization.
Confident of its support, the Protestant princes intro-
duced the new religion in numerous districts, sup-
p»res8ed bishoprics, confiscated church property, re-
sisted imperial ordinances to the extent of refusing
help against the Turks, and disregarded the decisions
of uie Imperial Court of Justice.

In self-aefence against the treasonable machinations
of the confederation, a Catholic League was formed
in 1538 at Nuremberg under the leadership of the
emperor. Both sides now actively prepared for an
armed conflict, which seemed imminent. But negotia-
tions carried on at the Diet of Frankfort in 1539 re-
sulted, partly owing to the illness of the Landgrave of

Hesse, in the patching up of a temporary peace. The
emperor during this respite renewed his earnest but
fruitless efforts to effect a religious settlement, while
the Smaikaldio confederates continued their violent
proceedings against the Catholics, particularly in the
territory of Brunswick- WolfenbUttel, where Duke
Henry was unjustly expelled, and the new religion in-
troduced (1542). It became more and more evident
as time went on that a conflict was unavoidable.
When, in 1546, the emperor adopted stem measures
against some of the confederates, the War of &nal-
kalden ensued. Althou^ it was mainly a religious
conflict between Cathohcs and Protestants, the de-
nominational lines were not sharply drawn. With
Pope Paul III, who promised financial and military
assistance, several Protestant princes, the principsJ
among whom was Duke Maurice of Saxony, aefenaed
the imperial and Catholic cause. The beginning of
hostilities was marked nevertheless by the success of
the Smalkaldic allies; but division and irresoluteness
soon weakened them and caused their ruin in South-
em Germany, where princes and cities submitted in
rapid succession. The battle of Miihlberg (24 April,
1547) decided the issue in favour of the emperor in
the north. The Elector John Frederick of Saxony
was captured, and shortly after the I^mdgrave Philip
of Ilesse was also forced to submit. The conditions
of peace included the transfer of the electoral dignity
from the former to his cousin Maurice, the reinstate-
ment of Duke Henry of Wolfenbiittel in his domin-
ions, the restoration of Bishop Julius von Pflug to his
See of Naumburg-Zeitz, and a promise demanded of
the vanquished to recognize and attend the Council
of Trent. The dissolution of the Smalkaldic League
followed; the imperial success was complete, but tem-
porary. A few years later another conflict broke out
and ended with the triumph of Protestantism.

WiNCKELMANN. Dcr Schmolkald. Bund {tSSO-Sf^ u. der iViBrn-
herger Rdigionafriede (Strasburg, 1892) ; HAaBNCixvBB. Die
Politik der Schmalkaldener vor Aushruch dee Sdimalkald. Krieget
(Berlin, 1901); Idkm, Die Polilik Kaiser Karle V u. Landgraf
Philippe von Heaeen vor Auebruch dee Schmolkald. Kriegte (Mar-
burg. 1903) ; Berentblq, Der Sehmalkald. Krieg in NorddetUeck'
land (Monster, 1908) ; Janbsen, Hiet, of the German People, tr.
Christie, V (St. Louis, 1903), passim; Pastob, Hietory of tke

Popes, tr. Kerb, X (St. Louis, 1

passu
910),

166

T?:a.

Webbb.

SmaragduB, Anno, hagiographer, d. at the Ben-
edictine monastery of Aniane, Herault, in Southern
France, March, 843. He entered this monastery
when still a boy and was brought up under the direc-
tion of Abbot St. Benedict of Aniane. On account of
his piety and talents he was ordidned and put at the
head of the school at his monastery. In 794 he ac-
companied his abbot to the Council of Frankfort and
in 814 was made abbot in place of Benedict, who on
the invitation of Louis-le-Debonnaire had taken up
his abode at the imperial Court at Aix-la-Chapelle.
Smaragdus was honoured as a saint in his monastery.
He is the author of a life of St. Benedict of Aniane
which he wrote at the reauest of the monks of Cor*
nelimdnster near Aix-la-Cnapelle, where Abbot Ben-
edict had died. It was written in 822,and is one of
the most reliable hagiolo^cal productions of that
period. Mabillon edited it in his ''Acta SS. of the
Benedictine Order" (sajculum IV, 1, 192-217), whence
it was reprinted in P. L., Clll, 353-84. It was
also edited by Waits in "Mon. Germ. Script.",
XV, I, 200-29.

Hisloire LU.dela Prance, V. 31-5; Cuujbr, Hittoire ghUraU
dee auteure eaer4s et eeclSsiastuiues, XII (Paris, 1862), 394; Ma-
BiLLOx, Ada SS. Ord. S. Ben. mm. IV, I. 589; Ebbrt, AUg^"
meine Geseh. der Literalur dee MiUOaUers, II (Leipsic, 1880).
345^.

Michael Ott.
Smithi Gborgb. See Abqtll and tbx IbxaBi

DiOCESK OF.

Smith, Jambs, journalist, b. at SkoUaad, ui the
Shetland Isles, about 1790; d. Jan., 1866. Ue spent

boyhood at SkoUaad, a small place belongioig to and in 1631 he withdrew to Paris, where he lived with

his mother f who was a member <k a branch of the Richelieu till the cardinal's death in 1642; then he

Bruoe family which had settled in Shetland in the retired to the convent of the Kngliah Augustinian

sixteenth century. He sUidied law in Edinburgh, nuns, where he died.

became a solicitor to the Supreme Court there, ana He wrote: "An answer to T. Bel's late Challenge"

married a Catholic lady (a cousin of Bii^op MlBcdon- (1605); ''The Prudentiall Ballance of Religion",

dl of the Glenmrv cW), the result being his own (1609): "Vita Domims Magdaleme Montis-Acuti"

conversion to Catholicism. Naturall>r hampered in i. e., viscountess Montagu (1609): "De auctore et

his career, at that period, by his profession of Catholi- essentia Protestanticffi Keli£^onis" (1619), English

cism, he turned his attention to hterature, and became translation, 1621; "Collatio doctrinse Catholicorum

the pioneer of CaUioUc journalism in Scotland. In et Protestantium" (1622), tr. (1631); "Of the dis-

1832 he originated and emted the " Ekiinburgh Catho- tinction of fundamental and not fundamental points

lie Maeasine", which appcf^ed somewhat inter- of faith" (1645); "Monita ^uiedam utilia pro Sacer-

mittentJ^ in Scotland until April, 1838, at which date dotibus, Seminaristis, Missionariis Anglise" (1647);

Mr. &mth went to reside in London, and the word "A Treatise of the best kinde of Confessors" (1651):

"Edinburgh" was dropped from the title of the "Of the all-sufficient Eternal Proposer of Matters of

magazine, the publication of which was continued for Faith" (1653) \ "Florum Historise EcclesiasticsB gentis

some yeara in London. Mr. Smith, on settling in Anglorum libn septem" (1654). Many unpublished

London, inaugurated the "Catholic Directory" for documents relating to his troubled episcopate (an

England, in succession to the old " Laity's Directory", impartial history of which 3ret remains to be written)

and edited it for many years: and he was also for a are preserved in the Westminster Diocesan Archives.

abort time editor of the "Dublin Review", in 1837. Dodd. Chtwch History, III (Brussels «er« Wolverhampton.

Possessed of considerable gifts both as a speaker and 1737-1742) the account from which moat sulwequcnt biographies

«- « »«:4.»« I,*. «raa Aiw.»<r«ao^«f> 4^ *>!«« 4kAm of fkA were derived. See also Tiemey s edition of Dodd for further

as a wnter, he waa always ready to put them at the dooumenU; Bbbinotok. Memoirt of Panmni (London, 1793):

service of the Cathohc cause: and during the years of CaUndar Stau Paper*: Dom., lete-iesi; Butlbr. Hutoriad

aidtation immediately preceding Catholic Emancipa- Memoirs ofBnqli^Ccuholics (London, 1819) ; Sbbokant, Ac-

*3r« «<. ^^u <>o tt4^ a \ai^C^T^wA,^A V,^ woo nna rJ ♦li*» mrurf- <o»*«* ofthe SnQUsk Chapter (London, 1853) ; Fullbbtom, Life of

tlOn, as well as at a later period, he was one of the most ^^ ^ CarZjal (Lon^. 1873) ; FolbV. Reeorde Bng. Proi,

active champions of the Church m England and s.J., VI (London. 1880); Bbadt. BpUoopal Succesnon, III

Scotland. He made a brilliant defence in public of (Rome, 1877), a confused and self-contradictory account with

CathoUc doctrine when it was violently, attacl^ by f- ^Ir^^^Coil^ai ^Si^SS; ^A^Zi/^*"'^

certain prominent membere of the EBtabushed Chiirch n>aiu, i89i) : TMrd Douay Diary, c. R. s. PMieatimw, X (Lon-

of Sootund, and pubUdied in this oonnenon, in 1831, aon, i9ii).

hia " Dialocuea on the Catholic and Protestant Rulee Edwin Bubtom

of Faith", Ween a member of the Protestiint Ref- g^^^ Richabd. b. in Worcesterehire, 1500; d. at

!!?^"?i^K!Sl-r'?^S.«MJ^2T^ n^t)w2 Douai, 9 July, 1663. He was educate<i at nkerton

?fe***^J^M?^ '^'**^^"«J5 fe^ln^ ^K CoUeiPs. Oxfold; and, having taken hia M.A. degree

"Papist Miarepresjaited and RepwBM^ witt j,^ j^ ^^ j^^^ re^trarSf the university in 1632.

«q«ou8note8. Mn Smi^was f ather rf tte Most j^ ^53^ g yjy ^^^^ y^, fi^ r^u, pro-

?S;jr*S!ri?iS^S!;t. wf^h- JS^^?.S«.lv ^ <«or of diviity, anef fc toolc hia docton^ in that

Andrews and Edinburgh m tiie rwtored hierarchy of ^. ^ ^^ j^ j^^^' j^ ^ ^^^ H^ subsequently

^ ^ 4 « « A ^ reader at Magdalen College. Under Edward VI he

Smith, James A. See Saint Andbews and Edin- jg ggid by his opponents to have abjured the pope's

BtJBQH, Aechdiocbsb OF. authority at St. Paul's Cross (15 May, 1547) and at

Bmithi Richard,
Viear Apostolic of Ei _ ,

5^. 7«'m^I. ^?MS^*H™^^15 T^l'i^ professorship, being succi^ed b^ Peter Martyr, with

1^^'}^^^At\^^.\S^J^,!cl^,. W^ whom he heid a pul)Uc disputatfon in 1549. Shortly

£?ii^^ l'« fe^lh^vSl^^m^ in ?5? afterwards he w5s arresteS, but was soon Uberatei

w. 2^,V r^ ™^iril^ rte^ S; rS^nr?h» »t the change of roUgion unlr Elizabeth, and after a

5^^L!lJtu^^^; *^^rX^S^L^ 8l»ort impriionment in Parker's house he escaped to

£ft^?S.n^ wt^?.^T^P^^XiSi Douai. where he was appointed by PhiUp II <fean of

he went to Rome, whM« he OTjposed Persons, who said st. Peter's church. There is no foundation for the

1^'Z Surto^S '^LW'" "Z %7Z n4-us story sp,^ by the Ref^e« to ac^

Sa'T^^o&^fal'^^iSaTht' S^Ste^^rro?nantetg2,h?^1S

^^t^W^^^ft ^p^ S^n-orks, .e ^^ J J ^: ^Assertiojia.d

Sf^^^^ Kll ?vi \l«^V JT^wUnTfl^ "Defence of the Sacrifice of the Mass" (1547)

5^1 !rfth« «™» ^; ^HwTn iJ^HM^d,,^ "Defensio coelibatus sacerdotum" (1550): "Diatriba

Dec^ 1027) that he was nqt an ordmwy. In 1^ voira^ AluUi Oxoni^i^, IV Toxford. 1891) ; Pm.. D« <ll«i-

tbe Govenunent issued a proclamation for his arrest, trUnu An^im SeHpiorHtue (Pacte. leio); umih Chmrck Bidtnh

SNOBBI

n CBmm6k wen WotrorhasBpton. l787Hint QAnbimB, UUtn
imaPapan of Bmry VIll; Coopbb, I>iet, Nat, Bio^ %. r.

Edwin Bxtbton.

Smithy Thomas Kilbt, b. at Boston, Mass., 23
Sept., 1820; d. at New York, 14 Deo., 1887; eldest son
of Captain George Smith and Eliza Bioker Walter.
Both his paternal and maternal forefathers were
active and prominent in the professional life and in
the government of New England. His parents moved
to Cincinnati in his early childhood, where he was
educated in a military school under O. M. Mitdiel,
the astronomer, and studied law in the office of Chief
Justice Salmon P. Chase. In 1853 he was appointed
special agent in the Post Office Department at
Washington, and later marshal for the Southern Dis-
trict of Ohio and deputy clerk of Hamilton County.
He entered the Union Army, 9 September, 1861,
as lieutenant-colonel, and was conspicuous in the
Battle of Shiloh, 6 and 7 April, 1862, assuming com-
mand of Stuart's Brigade, Sherman's Division, during
tlie second day. As commander of brigade in the
15th and 17th Army Corps, he participated in all the
campaigns of the Army of the Tennessee, being also
for some months on staff duty with General Grant.

Commissioned Brigadier-General of Volunteers, 11
August, 1863. he was assigned on 7 March, 1864, to
the command of the detached division of the 17th
Army Corps and rendered distinguished service during
the Red River Expedition, protecting Admiral
Porter's fleet after the disaster of the main army.
After the fall of Mobile, he assumed the command of
the Department of Southern Alabama and Florida,
and then of the Post and District of Maine. He was
brevetted Major-General for gallant and meritorious
service. In 1866 President Johnson appointed him
United States Consul at Panama. After the war
he removed to Toiresdale, Philadelphia. At the
time of his death he was engaged in joinnalism in
New York. On 2 May, 1848, he married Elizabeth
Budd, daughter of Dr. William Budd McCuUou^
and Arab& Sanders Piatt, of Cincinnati, Ohio.
She was a gifted and devout woman, and through her
influence and that of the venerEd>le Archbishop
Purcell he became a Catholic some years before his
death. He was remarkable for his facility of
expression, distinguished personal appearance, and
courtly bearing. He left five sons and three dau^ters.

Smxtb. Lif* and Lettert of Thamat Kilby Smith (New York.
1898).

Walter Gborqb Smith.

Smymai Latin Archdiocese of (Smtrnensis),
in Asia Minor. The city of Smyrna rises like an
amphitheatre on the gulf which bears its name. It
is tne capital of the vilayet of Aidin and the starting-
point of several railways; it has a population of at
least 300,000, of whom 150,000 are Gfreeks. There
are also numerous Jews and Armenians and almost
10,000 European Catholics. It was founded more
than 1000 years b. c. by colonists from Lesbos who
had expelled the Leleges, at a place now called
Boumaoat, about an hour's distance from the pres-
ent Smyrna. Shortly before 688 b. c. it was captured
by the lonians, under whose rule it became a very
nch and powerful city (Herodotus, I, 150). About
580 B. c. it was destroyed by Alyattes, King of Lydia.
Nearly 300 years afterwards Antigonus (323-301
B. c), and then Lysimachus, undertook to rebuild it
on its present site. Subsequently comprised in the
Kingdom of Pergamus, it was ceded in 133 b. c. to
the Romans. These built there a judiciary converUua
and a mint. Smyrna had a celebrated school of rhet-
oric, was one of the cities which had the title of metrop-
olis, and in which the cancUium festivum of Asia was
celebrated. Demolished by an earthquake in a. d.
178 and 180, it was rebuilt by Marcus Aurelius. In
673 it was captured by a fleet of Arab Muasulmana.

Under the faispiration of Clement VI the Latfas m^
tured it from the Mussulmans in 1344 and held it
until 1402^ when Tamerlane destroved it after slayinff
the inhabitants. In 1424 the Turks captured it and,
save for a brief occupation by the Venetians in 1472,
it has since belonged to them.

Christianity was preached to the inhabitants at an
early date. As earty as the year ^, there existed a
Christian community directed by a bishop for
whom St. John in the Apocalypse (i, 11; ii, 8-11) has
only words of praise, xhere are extant two letters
written early in the second century from Troas by St.
Ignatius of Antioch to those of Smyrna and to Poly-
carp, their bishop. Through these letters and those
of the Christians of Smvrna to the city of Philome-
lium, we know of two uuiies of high rank who be-
k>nged to the Church of Smyrna. There were other.
Chnstians in the vicinity of the dty and dependent on
it to whom St. Polycarp wrote letters (Eusebius,
"Hist, eccl.", V, xxiv). When Polycarp was mar-
tyred (23 Feb.), the Church of Smyrna sent an
encyclical concerning his death to the Church of Phi-
lomelium and others. The "Vita Polycarpi" attrib-
uted to St. Pionius, a priest of Smyrna martyred in
250, contains a list of the first bishops: Strataes;
Bucolus; Polycarpj Papirius; Camerius; Eudsemon
(250), who apostatised during the persecution of De-
cius; Thraseas of Eumenia. miartyr, who was buried at
Smjrrna. Noctos, a Mooalist heretic of the seeond
century, was a native of the city as were also Sts.
Pothinus and Irensus of Lyons. Mention should also
be made of another martyr, St. Dioscorides, vene-
rated on 21 May. Amon^ the Greek bishops, a list of
whom appears in Le Quien, (Oriens Christ., I, 737-
46), was Metrophanes, the great opponent of Photius,
who laboured in the reviaon of the "Oetoekos", a
Greek liturgical book.

The Latin See of Smyrna was created by Clement
VI in 13^ and had an uninterrupted succesaian
of titulars until the seventeenth century. This
was the beginning of the Vicariate Apostolic
of Asia Minor, or of Smyrna, of vast extent.
In 1818 Pius VII established the Archdiocese of
Smyrna^ at the same time retaining the vicariate
Apostohc, the jurisdiction of which was wider. Its
limits were those of the vicariates Apostolic of Meso-
potamia. S3n-ia, and Constantinople. The archdio-
cese had 17,000 Latin Catholics, some Greek Mel-
chites, calied Alepi, and Armenians under special
(H^anization. There are: 19 secular priests; 55 regu-
lar; 8 parishes, of which 4 are in Smyrna^* 14 churches
with resident priests and 12 without pnests; 25 pri-
mary schools with 2500 pupils, 8 colleges or academies
with 800 pupils; 2 hospitals; and 4 orphanages. The
religious men in the archdiocese or the vicanate A|)08-
tolic are Franciscans, Capuchins, Lazorists, Domini-
cans; Salesians of Don Bosco, Assumptionists (at
Komah), Brothers of the Christian Schools, and
MarLst brothers (at Metellin). Religious communi-
ties of women are the Carmelites, Sisters of Charity
(13 houses with more than 100 sisters), Sisters of Sion,
Dominicans of Ivr^, Sisters of St. Joseph, and Ob-
lates of the Assumption.

Smitb, Diet, of Qroek and Roman Qeogr., s. v.; Hauiltov. Ra-
•earchet in Asia Minor, I (London, 1842), 44-95; Tbxibr, AH€
Mineure (Paris, 1862), 802-08; Schebi*5b, Smyrna (Vienna,
1873) : Ramsay. Tk9 Uuera to the Seven Ohvrches of Aaia (Lon-
don, 1004), 251-57; Georgi Aots, iSmyme (Paris, 1885);Ronoov,
Smyme (Paris, 1892); Lb Camus, Le9 tept (gliaea de VAvoealvpte
(Paris, 1896); Filuow in Via., Did. de la BiMe, s. v.; Mietionet
Catkoliea (Rome, 1907), 155-^7; LAMPAKis. The Seten Sion of
the Apoealyvee (Athens, 1909), in Greek; Jban-Baptists db Sacvt-
LoRENEO, Saird Pohfcarpe et 9on iombeau ntr le Pague. Notice euT

U tiUe de Smyme ((>>n8tantinople, 1911).

S. VailhA.

Snoiri Sturluson. historian, b. at Hvammr,
1178; d. 1241. Snom, who was the son of Sturla
Tfaortsson (d. 1182); was the most important Ice-
landic historian of Un Middle Ages. In him were

bmir 61 BOBiEsti

united the experienced Btateeman and the many- visiting stations. The miHions Hhored the misfnr-

dded scholar. As a child he went to the school of tunefl attending those of the Pima and P&pago, but

Saonimd the Wise at Oddi, of which, at that time, oontinued to exist until a few years after tne eicpnl-

Saemund'sgrandsonJ^tnLoptssOn was the head. On sion of the Jesuits in 1767. Before the end of ihe

his father's side J6n was related to the moot dis- century the tribe itself had disappeared, and in later

tinguished families of Iceland, while by hia mother years San Xavier appears as a F&pago settlement.

Thora he was connected with the royal famiiy of According to tradition the tribe was destroyed about

Norway. Under this skilful teacher Snorri was thor- the year 1790 by the attacks of the wild Apaebe, by

oughly trained in many branches of knowledge, but whom a part were carried off, while the others were
he learned especially the old northern belief in the forced to incorporate with the Pipago and Pima

^AKCBon. Hitl. North i
Sui Frmciwo, lg8fl-9); In
[Sui FnuiciMo. 1889): Di^
CoiTia (2 vdI>., Nd» York 1'

_, the saga concerning Odin, and Scandinavian (q, v.).
history. By a rich altiaDceSnomobtainedthemoney <^*^™'^",'t^"''', "^f'w" ,*5^,^ 'J^ 'V
to take a leading part in politics, but his political 13^,^^'^"'" """ " """^ n„ ™ -

whom King Haakon of Sorway was the most power- in^iant, (3 part*. WmbinBion, i907-im-, bwo ™oi» .

fuJ, and he was finally murdered at the kiM's m- Augusline, 18631. ir. Gott*kw in ««. A<n. CoM. Hut. Sot

stigation. Snom s importance rests on his literary (PhUiHEiphia, laM).

works of which "Heimskringta" (the world) is the Jahesb Moonkt.

most important, since it is the chief authority for the

early hi^ry of Iceland and Scandinavia. However, Sobieskl, John, b. at Olesko in 1620; d. at Wil-

it does not contain reliable statements until the anow, 1696; son of James, Castellan of Cracow and

history, which extends to 1177, reaches a late period, descended by his mother from the heroic ZcJkiewski,

while the descriptions of the primitive era are largely who died in battle at Cecora. His elder brother Mark

va^uB narrations of sagas. The Sturlunza-Saga, was his com-

which shows more of the local colouring of Iceland, panion in arms

was probably only partly the work of Snorri. On the from the time of

other hand he is probably the author of the Younger the great Cossack

Edda called "Snorra-Edda", which was intended as rebellion {1648),

a textbook of the art of poetry. Its first part "Gyl- and fouriit at

faginning" relates the mythology of the North in an Zbaraf , Bereste-

interesting, pictorial manner, and is a compilation of cxko, and lastly

thesongsof the early scalds, the songs of the common at Batoh where,

people, ssgas, and probably his own poetic ideas. after being taken

StoBif, Snorra Slurlaiaoiu lliilarimtknming (Copenhigen, nriBoner. ne waS

1873); BAUiio*im..«, JVoi-di*:*. FahrUn. I (Freiburg. 188B>. in,,-!.,-^ hv the

302 Km.: SchOci, S«n»* LitenUvhulBria, I (Btoekhotm. 1890); muraefea DV uie

LnHDBOBa. Itlandt ilaaltrtclUlidf SIdlang Km drr FrealaiUiieit I atarS, JOhO,

W<invM«T*rafl«<Bn!in. 1908), 17-18; OBiut. Nardudia Oat- the last of all the

nied Czonueeki

Saaw, Pbtbh, Vbneeablb, English martyr, auf- ^*n5?!!^''^

fered at York, 15 June, 1598. ^ was born at or Jken u^ dcr

near Ripon and arrived at the EngUsh College, q ' J^^,^^^.

Reuse, 17 Aprd, 1689, receivmg the first tonsure _., iJt, („„Xt .iT-

and minor orders 18 August, 1690, the subdiaconate Muh co vltes at J Bo

at Leon on 22Sept., and the diaconate and priesthood ?J j „„ t,,»^ iwi™. ... „.,.i^^~,^'^^!fi.,>h.T.^_

atSoisson8on30Md31Man!h,1591. Hel^tforEng- Sr»J?.^^ Fn>« u. mu.piedportr.umto.Uu™,

landonthefollowingl5May. He was arrested about Pj^.^ f^fiuf,,, ,„ ,i,„ i„-„„ fi„i,„ r..i„M

1 May, 1598, when on his way to York witb Vonei- \f "T^^J^!Sl^ ^.iawI^JTLa^^'

LI b i_u <-■_:_ . _ t xT'ji D .u 1. .1 became successively rield netman, urana Mar-

't^*^^^T1?''^J^f dt=„^?i,^n^«^^i«^ shal, and-after ftevera Potocki's death-Gi*nd

after condemned Snow of tocason as being a priMt Hitman, or Commander-in-chief. Hia first ex-

nnd Gmnston of felony, for having aided and assisted „,„■, ' if ,„ „ ™,„ ,■„ d^lTiT l™. i, -^^

him, and, it is aaid, halw attempted to prevent his P'"'* "^ Hitman was in Podhajce, where beBie™J

annrehMsion """'^ itiwuiiiL™ «- ^ " by an army of Cossacks and Tatars, he at his

'eiuLLONm.. jfiwonorv Prtnc. I. no. 112: ICsox, Counir o'™ expense raised 8000 men and stored the phu*

Diariit (LoDdoo, 1878). with wheat, baffling the foe so completely that they

John B. Wainewbiobt. retired with p-eat loss. When, in 1672, under Michael

WiSniowiecki's reign, the Turks seized Kamicniec,

I important tribe Sobieski beat them again and again, till at the

_. .. _. ._. „_.kt Shoshonean hn- crowiiiii;^ victory of Chocim they lost 20,000 men and

miatio stock, occupying the territory (rf the Santa a great many guns. This gave Poland breathing-
Crtix and San Pedro Rivers, in south-eastern Arizona space, and Sobieski became the national hero, SO
and adjacent portion of Sonora, Mexico.' In dialect that, King Mi<!liael dying at that time, he was unan-
snd general custom they seem to have closely re- imouxly elected king in 167-1. Before liis coronation
sembted the PApago, by whom and by the closely he was forced to drive back the Turkish hordes, that
ot^Euate Pima most of them were finally alMorbed. hail once more invaded the country; he beat them at
Their principal centre was Bac or Vaaki, later San Lemberg in 1675, arriving in lime to raise the sif^ of
Xavier del Bac, on Santa Cruz River, nine miles south Trembowla, and to save Chrinnowski and his heroic
from the present Tucson, Arizona. Here they were wife, its defendem. Scarcely crowned, he hastened to
visited in 1692 by the pioneCT Jesuit explorer of the fight in the Rutlienjan provincpM. Having too few
■outh-west, Father Eusebio Kino, who in 1699 began soldiers (20,000) to attack the Turks, who were ten
the church from which the mission took its came, to one, he wore them out, entrenching himself at
Other Jesuit mission foundations in the same tribe Zurawno, letting the enemy hem him in for a fort-
were (Santa Maria de) Suamca, just inside the Sonora night, extricating himself with marvellous skill and
Une.establishedalsobyKinoaboutthesame time, and coiu-age, and fintdly jeguining by treaty a good part
San Mignel de Ouevavi, founded in 1732 near the of the Ukraine.

present NogaJes, Arizona, all three missions being For some time there was peace: the Turks had

upon tiieSi^ta Crui River. There were also aev^w ' "

learned to dread the "Unvanquished Noithem

S0CXAU8M

80CXAU8M

Lion "f and Poland, too, was exhausted. But soon the
Snltan turned his arms against Austria. Passing
through Hungary, a great part of which had for one
hundred and fifty years been in Tiu*kish hands, an
enormous army, reckoned at from 210.000 to 300,000
men (the latter figures are Sobieski's) marched for-
ward. The Emperor Leopold fled from Vienna, and
begged Sobieski s aid^ which the papal nuncio also
immored. Though dissuaded by Louis XIV. whose
poucv was always hostile to Austria, Sobieski hesi-
tated not an instant. Meanwhile (July^ 1683) the
Grand Vizier Kara Mustapha, had arrived before
Vienna, and laid siege to tne city, defended bjr the
valiant Imperial General Count Stahremberg, with a
garrison of only 15,000 men. exposed to the horrors
of disease and fire, as well as to hostile attacks.
Sobieski started to the rescue in August, taking his
son James with him; passing by Our I^ys sanctuary
nt Czenstochowa, the troops pra^^ed for a blessing
on their arms: and in the beginning of September,
having crossed the panube and joined forces with
the German armies under John George, Elector of
Saxony, and Prince Charles of Lorrame, they ap-

Eroached Vienna. On 11 Sept., Sobieski was on the
eights of Kahlenberg, near the city, and the next
day he gave battle in the plain below, with an army
of not more than 76^000 men, the Germans forming
the left wing and the roles under Hetmans Jahonowski
and Sieniawski, with General Katski in command of
the aj^illery, forming tiie right. The hussars charged
with their usual impetuosity, but the dense masses
of the foe were impenetrable. Hieir retreat was taken
for flight by the 'Turks, who^ rushed forward in pursuit;
the hussars turned upon them with reinforcements
and charged again, when their shouts made known
that the ''Noxlhem Lion" was on the field and the
Turks fled, panic-stricken, with Sobieski's horsemen
still in pursmt. Still the battle raged for a tibie along all
the line; both sides fought bravely, and the king was
everywhere commanding, fighting, encouraging his
men and urging them forward. He was the first to ^rm
the camp: Kara Mustapha had escaped with his life,
but he received the bow-«tring in 'Belg^rade some
' months later. The Turks were routed, Vienna and
Christendom saved, and the news sent to the pope
along with the Standard of the Prophet, taken oy
Sobieski, who himself had heard Mass in the
morning.

Prostrate with outstretched arms, he declared that
it was God's cause he was fighting for, and ascribed
the victory (Veni, vidi. Deus vicit—his letter to
Innocent Al) to nim alone. Next day he entered
Vienna, acclaimed by the people as their saviour.
'Leopold, displeased that the Polish king should have
all the glory, condescended to visit and thank him,
but treated his son James and the Polish hetmans
with extreme and haughty coldness. Sobieski, though
deeplv offended, pursuea the Turks into Hungary,
attacked and took Ostrzyhom after a second battle,
and returned to winter in Polan<Lwith immense spoils
taken in the Turkish camp. These and the glory
shed upon the nation were all the immediate ad-
vantages of the great victory. The Ottoman danger
had vanished forever. The war still went on: step
by step the foe was driven back, and sixteen years
later Kamieniec and the whole of Podolia were
restored to Poland. But Sobieski did not live to see
this triumph. In vain had he again and again at-
tempted to retake Kamieniec, and even had built a
Btronghold to destroy its strategic value; this fortress
enabled the Tatars to raid the Ruthenian provinces
upon several occasions, even to the gates of Lember^.
He was also forced by treaty to give up Kieff to Russia
in 1686; nor did he succeed in securing the crown for
his son James. His last days were spent in the bosom
of his family, at his castle of Wilanow, where he died
in 1096, broken down by political strife as much as

by illness. His wife, a Frenchwoman, the widow of
John Zamoyski, Marie-Casimire, though not worthy
of so great a hero, was tenderly beloved by him, aa
his letters show: she influenced him greatly and not
always wisely. His family is now extinct. Charles
Edward, the Young Pretender, was his g^:«at-grand-
son — ^his son James' daughter, Clementine, having
married James Stuart in 1719.

IdHy Jana III, Krdla poUlneoo, do kroloioa^Kanmieray (Sobie-
ski's letters to his wife), publiabed by A. L. Bblbel, 1857. Two
volumes of "Acta Hi9tonea*\ pubushed by the Academie der
Wissensohaften. Tatham, John 8ol»U»ki (Oxford. 1881); Dn-
roNT. MhnoirM pour aervirdVkittoire de Sohiuki (Warsaw. 1885);
RiBDBR, JoKann III, KOnig von Pcten (Vienna, 1883).

S. Tarnowski.

Socialismi a svstem of social and economic organi-
zation that would substitute state monopoly for pri-
vate ownership of the sources of production and means
of distribution, and would concentrate under the con-
trol of the secular governing authority the chief
activities of human life. The term is often used
vaguely to indicate any increase of collective control
over individual action, or even any revolt of the dis-

e>ssessed against the rule of the possessing classes,
ut these are undue extensions of tne term, leading to
much confusion of thought. State control and even
state ownership are not necessarily Socialism: they
become so only when they result in or tend towards the
prohibition of private ownership not only of '* natural
monopolies", out also of all the sources of wealth.
Nor is mere revolt against economic inequality So-
cialism: it may be Anarchism (see Anarchy); it may
be mere Utopianism (see Communism); it may be a
just resistance to oppression. Nor is it merely a pro-
posal to make sucn economic changes in the social
structure as would bimish poverty. Socialism is this
(see Collectivism) and much more. It is also a
philosophy of social life and action, regarding all hu-
man activities from a definite economic standpoint.
Moreover modem Socialism is not a mere arbitrary
exercise at state-building, but a deliberate attempt to
relieve, on explicit principles, the existing social con-
ditions, which are regarded as intolerable. The great
inequalities of human life and opportunity, produced
bv the excessive concentration of wealth in tne hands
of a comparatively small section of the community,
have been the cause and still are the stimulus of what
is called the Socialistic movement. But, in order
to understand fully what Socialism is and what it
implies, it is necessary first to glance at the history of
the movement, then to examine its philosophical and
religious tendencies, and finally to consider how far
these mav be, and actually have proved to be, in-
compatible with Christian thought and life. The
first requirement is to understand the origin and
growth of the movement.

It has been customary among writers of the So-
cialist movement to begin with references to Utopian
theories of the classical and Renaissance periods, to
Plato's "Republic", Plutarch's "Life of Lycurgus",
More's "Utopia". Campanella's "City of the Sun",
Hall's ' * Munaus alter et idem ' ' , and the like. Thence
the line of thought is traced through the French
writers of the ei^teenth century, Meslier Montes-
quieu, d'Argenson, Morelly, Rousseau, M.ably, till,
with Linguet and Necker, the eve of the Revolution
is reached. In a sense, the modern movement has its
roots in the ideas of these creators of ideal common-
wealths. Yet there is~a gulf fixed between the mod-
em Socialists and the older Utopists. Their schemee
were mainly directed towards the establishment of
Communism, or rather. Communism was the idea
that gave life to their fancied states (see Communism).
But tne Collectivist idea, which is the economic basis
of modem Socialism (see Collectivism), really
emerges only with "Gracchus" Babeuf and hi;
paper, "The Tribune of the People ", in 1794. In the

SOCIALISM

manifesto issued by him and his feUow-oonspiratorS)
"Lea Egaux"j is to be fouxul a clear vision of the col-
lective organusatbn of society, such as would be
largely accepted by most modem Socialists. Babeuf
was guillotined by the Directory, and his party sup-
pressed. Meanwhile, in 1793, Uodwin in Enshmd
Iiad published his "Enauiry Concerning Political Jus-
tice , a work which, though inculcatmg Anarchist-
Communism (see Anabcht) rather than Collectivism.
had much influence on Robert Owen and the school of
Determinist Socialists who succeedorl him. But a
small group of English writers in the early vears of the
nineteenth century had really more to oo with the
development of Socialist thought than had either
Owen's attempts to found ideal communities, at
New Lanark and elsewhere, or the contemporary
theories and practice of Saint-Simon and Fourier in
France.

These English writers, the earliest of whom, Dr.
Charles Hall, first put forward that idea of a dominant
industrial and social ' ' system ", which is the pervadinjg
conception of modem Socialism, worked out the vari-
ous basic principles of Socialism, which Marx after-
wards appropriated and combined. Robert Thomp-
son, Qgirvie, Hodgkin, Gray, above all William
Caipenter, daborat^ the theories of '' surplus value'',
of "production for profit", of "clas&-war", of the ever-
increasing exploitation of the poor by the rich, which
are the stuff of Marx's "Das Kapital", that "old
dothes-ehop of ideas culled from Berlin, Paris, and
London". For indeed, this famous work is really
nothing more than a dexterous combination of Hege-
lian Evolutionism, of French Revolutionism, and of
the economic theories elaborated bv Ricardo, on the
one lumd, and this group of English theorists on the
other. Yet the services of Kfurl Marx and of his
friend and brother-Hebrew, Friedrich Engels, to the
cause of Socialism must not be underrated. These
two writers came upon the scene just when the So-
cialist movement was at its lowest ebb. In England
the work of Robert Owen had been overlaid bv the
Chartist movement and its apparent failure, while the
writings of the economists mentioned above had had
but little immediate influence. In France the Saint-
Simonians and the Fourierists had disgusted everyone
by the moral collapse of their svstems. In Germany
Lassalle had so far devoted his briUiant energies
merely to Republicanism and philosophy. But in
1848 Marx and Engeb published the "Communist
Manifesto", and, mere rnetoric as it was, this docu-
ment was the beginning of modem "scientific So-
cialism". The influence of Proudhon'and of the
Revolutionary spirit of the times pervades the whole
manifesto: the economic analysis of society was to be
grafted on later. But already there appear the ideas
of "the materialistic conception of history", of "the
bourgeoisie " and " the proletariat ", and of " class-war ".

After 1848, in his exile in London, Marx studied,
and wrote, and organized with two results: first, the
foundation of "The International Workingmen's As-
sociation", in 1864; second, the publication of the
first voluiie of "Das Kapital", in 1867. It is not
esmy to judge which has had the more lasting effect
upon the Socialist movement. "The Intematiomd"
gave to the movement its world-wide character;
"Daa Kapital" elaborated and systematized the
philosophic and economic doctrine which is still the
creed of the immense majority of Socialists. "Pro-
letarians of all lands, unite I" the sentence with which
the Communist Manifesto of 1848 concludes, became
a reality with the foundation of the International.
For the first time since the disruption of Christendom
an onsaniaation took shape which had for its object
the union of tfa» major portion of alt nations upon a
oommon basis. It was not so widely supported as
both its Qpholdera believed and the frightened mon-
tiytd interests imagined. Nor had this first organiza-

tion any promise of stabiUty. From the outset the
influence of Marx steadily ^w, but it was confronted
by the opposition of Bakunm ana the Anarchist school.
By 1876 the International was even formally at an
end. But it had done its work: the organized work-
ing classes of all Europe had realized the international
nature both of their own grievances and of capitalism,
and when, in 1889, the firat International Congress oi
Socialist and Trade-Union delegates met at Paris, a
"New International" came into being which exists
with unimpaired or, rather, with oihanced energy to
the present day. Since that first meeting seven
others have been held at intervals of three or four
years, at which there has been a steady growth in the
number of delegates present, the variety of nationali-
ties represented, and the extent of the Socialistic in-
fluence over its deliberations.

In 1900, an International Socialist Bureau was ea-
tablished at Brussels, with the purpose of solidifying
and strengthening the international character of the
movement. Since 1904, an Inter-Parliamentary So-
cialist Committee has given further support to liie
work of the bureau. To-day the international nature
of the Socialistic movement is an axiom both within
and without its ranks; an axiom that must n^t be for-
gotten in the estimation both of the strength and of
the trend of the movement. To the IntemationsA,
then, modem Socialism owes much of its present
power. To "Das Kapital" it owes such intellectual
coherence as it still possesses. The success of this
book was immediate and considerable. It has been
translated into many languages, epitomized by many
hands, criticized, cuscueBed, and eulogized. Thou-
sands who would style themselves Marxians and
would refer to "Das Kapital" as "the Bible of So-
cialism", and the irrefragable basis of their creed,
have very probabl^r never seen the original work, nor
have even read it in translation. Marx himself pub-
lished only the firet volume; the second was published
under Engels' editorship in 1885, two years after the
death of Marx; a third was elaborated by Engels from
Marx's notes in 1895; a fourth was projected but never
accomplished. But the influence of this torso has
been immense. With consununate skill Marx gath-
ered together and worked up the ideas and evidence
that had originated with others, or were the floating
notions of the movement; with tne result that the new
international organization had ready to hand a body
of doctrine to promulgate, the various national S^
cialist parties a conunon theory and programme for
which to work. And promulgated it was, with a do-
votion and at times a childlike faith that had no
slight resemblance to reUgious propaganda. It hap
been severely and destructively criticized by econo-
mists of many schools, many of its leading doctrinea
have been explicitly abandoned by the Socialist lead-
ers in different countries, some are now hardly de-
fended even by those leaders who label themsdvea
" Marxian " . Yet the influence of the book persists. The
main doctrines of Marxism are still the stuff of popular
Socialist belief in all countries, are still put forward
in scarcely modified form in the copious literature
produced for popular consumption, are still enun-
ciated or implied in popular addresses even by some
of the very leaders who have abandoned them in serious
controversy. In spite of the growth of Revisionism in
Germany, of S3mdicalism in France, and of Fabian
Expertism in England, it is still accurate to maintain
that the vast majority of Socialists, the rank and file of
the niovement in all countries, are adherents of the
Marxian doctrine, with alt its materialistic philosophy,
its evolutionarv immorality, its disruptive politieal
and social analysis, its daas-conscious economics.

In Socialism, to-day, as in most departments of
human thoudit, the leading writers display a marked
ehyness of fundamental uialysis: "Tne domain df
Socialiat thought", aayv LagardeUe, has become "an

J6C)XAUSM 64 SOOtAUSM

intellectual desert." Its protagonLits are largely pression, with the usual result of consolidating acd
occupied, either in elaborating schemes of social re- strengthening the movement. In 1875 was heki the
form, which not infrequently present no exclusively celebrated congress at Gotha, at which was drawn up
socialist characteristics, or else in apologizing for the programme that formed the basis of the party,
and disavowing inconvenient applications by earlier Three years later an attempt upon the emperor's me
leaders, of socialist philosophy to the domain of was made the excuse for renewed repression. But it
reUgion and ethics. Nevertheless, in so far as the was in vain. In spite of alternate persecution aaad
International movement remains definitelv Socialist essays in state Socialism, on the part of Bismarck, the
at all, the formulae of its propaganda and the creed of movement progressed steadUy. Bismarck fell from
its popular adherents are predominantly the reflection power in 1890 and since then the party has grown rap-
of those put forward in "Das Kapital'' in 1867. id]y,andisnowthestrongestpolit]calbodyinGermany.
Moreover, during all this period of growth of the In 1899 Edward Bernstein, who had come under the
modern Socialist movement, two other parallel move- influence of the Fabians in England since 1888,'started
ments in all countries have at once supplemented and the "Revisionist'' movement, which, while attempt-
counterpoised it. These are trade-umonism and co- ing to concentrate the energies of the party ooore
operation. There is no inherent reason why either ot definitely upon specific reforms and "revising" to
these movements should lead towards Socialism: extinction many of the most cherished doctrines of
properly conducted and developed, both should ren- Marxism, has yet been subordinated to the practical
der unnecessaiy anything that can correctlv be stvled exigencies of politics. To all appearance the Socialist
"SocifiJism". But, as a matter of fact, both these Party is stronger to-day than ever. The elections of
excellent movements, owing to unwise opposition by 1907 brought out 3,258,968 votes in its favour; those
the dominant capitalism, on the one hand, and in- of January, 1912, gave it 110 seats out of a total of 397
difference in the Churches on the other, are menaced in the Reichstag — ^a gain of more than 100 per cent
by Socialism, and may eventually be captured by the over its last previous representation (53 seats). The
more intelligent and energetic Socialists and turned . Marxian "Erfurt Programme", adopted in 1891, is
to serve the ends of Socialism. The training in still the official creed of the Party. But the "Re-
mutual aid and interdependence, as well as in self- visionist" policy is obviously gaining ground and, if
government and business habits, which the leaders the Stuttgart Congress of 1907 be any indication, is
Df the wage-earners have received in both trade- rapidly transforming the revolutionary Marxist party
unionism and the co-operative movements, while it into an opportunist body devoted to specific social
might be of incalculable benefit in the formation of reforms.

the needed Christian democracy, has so far been In France the progress of Socialism has.been upon
effective largely in demonstratmg the power that is different lines. After the collapse of Saint-Simonism
given by organization and numbers. And the leaders and Fourierism, came the agitation of Louis Blanc in
of Socialism have not been slow to emphasize the les- 1848, with his doctrine of "The Right to Work",
son and to extend the argument, with sufficient plausi- But this was side-tracked by the triumphant poli-
bility, towards state monopoly and the absolutism of ticians into the scandalous "National Workshops",
the majority. The logic of their argument has, it is which were probably deliberately established on
true, been challenged, in recent years, in Europe by wrong lines in order to bring ridicule upon the agita-
the rise of the great Catholic trade-union and co- tion. Blanc was driven into exile, and French So-
operative organizations. But in English-speaking cialism lay dormant till the ruin of Imperi^sm in
nations this is yet to come, and both co-operation and 1870 and the outbreak of the Commune in 1871. This
trade-unionism are allowed to drift into the grip of rising was suppressed with a ferocity that far sur-
the Socialist movement, with the result that what passed the wildest excesses of the Communards;
might become a most effective alternative for Col- 20,000 men are said to have been shot in cold blood,
lectivism remains to-day its nursery and its support, many of whom were certainly innocent, while not a
Parallel with the International movement has run few were thrown alive into the common burial jpits.
the local propaganda in various countries, in each of But this savagery, though it temporarily quelled the
which the movement has taken its colour from the revolution, did nothing to obviate the Socialist
national characteristics; a process which has con-^ movement. At first many of the scattered leaders
tinned, until to-day it is sometimes difficult to realize declared for Anarchism, but soon most of them
that the different bodies who are represented in the abandoned it as impracticable and threw their en-
International Congresses form part of the same agitar ergies into the propfi^gation of Marxian Socialism. In
tion. In Germany, the fatherland of dogmatic So- 1879 the amnesty permitted Jules Gucsde, Brousse,
cialism, the movement first took shape in 1862. In Malon, and other leaders to return. In 1881, after
that year Ferdinand Lassalle, the brilliant and the Anarchist-Communist group under Kropotkin
wealthy young Jewish lawyer, delivered a lecture to and R^lus had seceded, two parties came into exist-
an artisans' association at Berlin. Lassalle was fined ence, the opportunist Alliance Socialiste R^publi-
by the authorities for his temerity, but "The Work- caine, and the Marxian Parti Ouvrier Socialiste k4vo-
ing Men's Programme", as the lecture was styled, re- lutionaire de France. But these parties soon split up
suited in The Universal German Working Men's into others. Guesde led, and still leads, the Irre-
Association, which was founded at Leipzig under his concilables; Jaur^ and Millerand have been the
influence the following year. Lassalle commenced a leaders of the Parliamentarians; Brousse, Blanqui,
stormy progress throughout German>r, lecturing, oi^ and others have formed their several communistic
sanizing, writing. The movement did not prow at groups. In 1906, however, largely owing to the in-
first with the rapidity he had expected, and he him- fluence of Jaur^, the less extreme parties united
self was killed in a duel in 1864. But his tragic death again to form Le Parti Socialiste Unifi^. This body
aroused interest, and The Working Men's Association is but loosely formed of various irreconcilable groups
grew steadily till, in 1869, reinfor<^ by the adhesion and includes Anarchists like Herv6, Marxists ; like
of the various organizations which had fprown out of Guesde, Syndicalists like Lagardelle, Opportunists
Marx's propaganda, it became, at Eisenach, the Uke Millerand, all of whom Jaurds endeavours, with
Socialist Democratic Working Men's Party. Lieb- but slight success, to maintain in harmony. For
knecht, Bebel, and Singer, all Marxians, were its chief right across the Marxian doctrinairianism and the
leaders. The two former were imprisoned for treason opportunism of the parliamentary group has driven
in 1870; but in 1874 ten members of the party, includ- the recent Revolutionary Syndicalist movement,
ing the two leaders, were returned to the Reichstag This, which is really Anarchisl-Commuuiam workias
by 460,000 votes. The Government attempted re- through trade-union imn, is a mav^ment distrustfiil cff

SOCIALISM

SOCIAUSM

parliamentary syBtems, favourable to violence, tend-
ing towards destructive revolution. The Conf^dra-
tion G^ndrale du Travail is rapidly absorbing the So-
cialist movement in France, or at least robbing it of
the ardent element that gives it life.

In the British Isles the Socialist movement has had
a less stormy career. After the collapse of Owenism
and the Chartist movement, the practical genius of
the nation directed its chief reform 'tnergies towards
the consolidation of the trade unions and the building
up of the great co-operative enterprise. Steadily, for
some forty years, tne trade-union leaders worked at
the strengthening of their respective organizations,
which, with their dual character of friendly societies
and professional associations, had no small part in
trainmg the working classes in habits of combmation
for common ends. And this lesson was emphasized
and enlarged by the Co-operative movement, which,
springing from the tiny efforts of the Rochdale Pio-
neers, spread throughout the country, till it is now
one of the mightiest business organizations in the
world. In this movement many a labour leader
learnt habits of business and of successful committee
work that enabled him later on to de»al on equal^ or
even on advantageous, terms with the representatives
of the owning classes. But during all this period of
traming the Socialist movement proper lay dormant.
It was not until 18S4, with the foundation of the
strictly Marxian SocisJ Democratic Federation bv
H. M. Hyndman, that the Socialist propaganda took
active form in England. It did not achieve any great
immediate success, nor has it ever since shown signs
of appealing widely to the English temperament.
But it was a beginnin^j, and it was followed bv other,
more inclusive, organizations. A few months after
its foundation the Socialist League, led by William
Morris, seceded from it and had a brief and stormy
existence. In 1893, at Bradford, the ''Independent
Labour Party" was formed under the leadership of
J. Keir Hardie, with the direct purpose of carrying
Socialism into politics. Attached to it were two
weekly papers^ The Clarion" and "The Labour
Leader ; the former of which, by its sale of over a
million copies of an able little manual, ''Merrie
England", had no small part in the diffusion of

gopular Socialism. All these three bodies were
iarxian in doctrine and largely working class in
membership.

But, as early as 1883, a group of middle-class stu-
dents had joined together as The Fabian Society.
This body, while callmg itself Socialist, rejected the
Marxian in favour of jevonsian economics, and de-
voted itself to the social education of the public by
means of lectures, pamphlets and books, and to the
spread of Collectivist iaeas by the "permeation" of
public bodies and political parties. Immense as have
been its achievements in this direction, its constant
preoccupation with practical measures of reform and
Its contact with organized partv politics have led it
rather in the direction of the "Servile State" than of
the Socialist Commonwealth. But the united efforts
of the various Socialist bodies, in concert with trade
unionism, resulted, in 1899, in the formation of the
Labour Representation Committee which, seven years
later, had developed into the Labour Party, with
about thirty representatives in the House of Commons.
Already, however, a few years' practical acquaint-
ance with party colitics hais diminished the Socialist
orthodoxy of theXabour Part^r. and it shows signs of
becoming absorbed in the details of party contention.
Significant commentaries appeared m the summer of
1911 and in the spring of^l912; industrial disturb-
ances, singularly reseznbling French Syndicalimn, oc-
curred spontaneously in most commercial and min-
ing centres, and the whole Labour movement in the
British Isles has reverted to the Revolutionary type
that iMt appeared in 1880.

In every European nation the Socialist movement
has followed, more or less faithfully, one of the three
preceding types. In Belgium, Switzerland, Denmark,
and Italy it is predominantly parliamentary: in Rus-
sia, Spam, ana Portugal it displays a more bitterly
revolutionary character. But everywhere the two
tendencies, parliamentary and revolutionary, struggle
for the upper hand; now one, now the other becoming
predominant.' Nor is the movement in the United
States any exception to the rule. It began about
1849, purely as a movement among the German and
other immigrants and, in spite of the migration of the
old International to New York in 1872, had but little
effect upon the native population tiU the Henry Georg^
movement of 1886. jSven then jealousies and divi-
sions restricted its action, till the reorganization of
the Socialist Labour Party at Chicago in 1889.
Since then the movement has spread rapidly. In
1897 appeared the Social Democracy of America,
which, imiting with the majority of the Socialist La-
bour Party in 1901, formed the present rapidly grow-
ing Sociahst Party. In the Umted States the move-
ment is still strongly Marxian in character, though a
Revisionist school is growing up, somewhat on the
lines of the English Fabian movement, under the in-
fluence of writers like Edmond KeUv, Morris Hillquit,
and Professors Ely and Zueblin. ant the main body
is still crudely Revolutionary, and is likely to remain
so until the Dolitical democracy of the nation is more
perfectly renected in its economic conditions.

These main points in the history of Socialism lead
Up to an examination of its spirit and intention. The
best idealism of earlier times was fixed upon the
soul rather than upon the body: exactly the opposite
is the case with Socialism. Social questions are
almost entirely questions of the body — ^public health,
sanitation, housing, factory conditions, infant mor-
tality, employment of women, hours of work, rates of
wages, accidents, unemployment, pauperism, old-age
pensions, sickness, infirmity, lunacy, feeble-minded-
ness, intemperance, prostitution, physical deteriora-
tion. All these are excellent ends for activity in
themselves, but all of them are mainly concerned with
the care or cure of the body. To use a Catholic
phrase, they are opportunities for corporal works of
mercy, which may lack the spiritual mtention that
would make them Christian. The material may be
made a means to the spiritual^ but is not to be con-
sidered an end in itself. This world is a place of
probation, and the time is short. Man is here for a
definite purpose, a purpose which transcends the
limits of this mortal life, and his first business is to
realize this purpose and carry it out with whatever
help and guidance he may find. The purpose is a
spiritual one, but he is free to choose or refuse the end
for which he was created; he is free to neglect or to
co-operate with the Divine assistance, which will dve
his hf e the stability and perfection of a spiritual ratner
than of a material nature. This bein^ so, there must
be a certain order in the nature of his development.
He is not wholly spiritual nor wholly material; he has
a doul, a mind, and a body; but the interests of the
soul must be supreme, anci the interests of mind and
body must be brought into proper subservience to it.
His movement towards perfection is by way of ascent:
it is not easy; it requires continual exercise of the will,
continual discipline, continual training — ^it is a war-
fare and a pilgrimage, and in it are two elements, the
spiritual and the material, which are one in the unity
of his daily life. As St. Paul pointed out, there must
be a continual struggle between these two elements.
If the individual life is to be a success, the spiritual
desire must triumph, the material one must be sub-
ordinate, and when this is so the whole individual life
is lived with proper economy, spiritual thin^ being
sought after as an end, while material thmgs are
used merely as a means to that end.

80CXAU8M 66 SOCIALISM

The point, then, to be observed is that the spiritual rately and selfishly efficient; a member is cut off

life is really the economic life. From the Christian from its body only as a last resource to prevent or-

point of view material necessities are to be kept at a ganic poisoning. The business of the State is rather

minimum, and material superfluities as far as possible that of helping the Family to a healthy, co-operaiive,

to be dispensed with altogether. The Christian is a and productive unitv. The State was never meant to

soldier and a pilgrim who requires material things only appropriate to itself the main parental duties, it was

as a means to fitness and nothing more. In this he rather meant to provide the parents, especiallv poor

has the example of Christ Himself, Who came to earth parents, with a wider, freer, healthier family sphere in

with a minimum of material advantagea.and persisted which to be properl^r parental. Socialism, then, both

thus even to the Cross. The Christian, then, not in Church and Family^ is impersonal and determinis-

only from the individual but cdso from the social tic:it deprives the individual of both his religious and

standpoint, has chosen the better part. He does not his domestic freedom. And it is exactly the same with

despise this life, but, just because nis material desires the institution of private property.,
are subordinate to his spiritual ones, he lives it much The Christian doctrine of property can best be

more reasonabl^r, much more unselnshly, much more stated in the words of St. Thomas Aquinas: "In re-

beneficially to his neighbours. The point, too, which (;ard to an external thing man has two powers: one

he makes against the Socialist is this. The Socialist is the power of managing and controlling it, and as to

wishes to distribute material goods in such a way as this it is lawful for a man to possess private property,

tb establish a substantial equauty, and in order to do It is, moreover, necessary for human life for three rea-

this he requires the State to make and keep this dis- sons. First, because everyone is more zealous in

tribution compulsory. The Christian replies to him: looking after a thing that belongs to him than a thing

''You cannot maintain this widespread distribution, that is the common property of all or of many; be-

for the simple reason that you have no machinery for cause each person, trying to escape labour, leaves to

indudingi^g^ to desire it. On the contrary, you do another what is everybody's business, as happens

all you can to increase the selfish and accumulative where there are many servants. Secondly, because

desires of men: you centre and concentrate all their there is more order in the management of men's

interest on material accumulation, and then expect affairs if each has his own work of looking after defi-

them to distribute their goods." This ultimate dif- nite things; whereas there would be confusion if every-

ference between Christian and Socialist teaching must one managed everything indiscriminately. Thirdly,

be clearly understood. Socialism appropriates all hu- because in this way the relations of men are kept more

man desires and centres them on the here-and-now, peaceful, since everyone is satisfied with his own pos-

on material benefit and material prosperity. But session, whence we see that quarrels are commoner

material goods are so Umited in quality, in quantity, between those who jointly own a thing as a whole,

and in duration that they are incapable of satisfying The other power which man has over external things

human desires, which will ever covet more and more is the using of them; and as to this man must not hold

and never feel satisfaction. In this Socialism and external tmngs as his own property, but as everyone's;

Capitalism are at one. for their only quarrel is over the so as to make no difficulty, I mean, in sharing when

bone upon which is the meat that perisheth. Social- others are in need'' (Summa theologica, II-II, Q. Ixvi.

ism, of itself and by itself, can do nothing to diminish a. 2). If man, then, has the right to own, control, and

or discipline the immediate and materialistic lust of use private property, the State cannot give him this

men, because Socialism is itself the most exaggerated right or take it away; it can only protect it. Here, of

and universalized expression of this lust yet known to course, we are at issue with Socialism, for, according

history. Christianity, on the other liand, teaches to it; the State is the supreme power from which all

and practises unselfisn distribution of material ^oods, human rights are derived; it acknowledges no inde-

both according to the law of justice and accordmg to pendent spiritual, domestic, or individual power what-

the law of charity. ever. In nothing is the bad economy of Socialism

Again, ethically speakinjo;, Socialism is committed more evident than in its derogation or denial of all the

to the doctrine of determinism. Holding that society truly personal and self-directive powers of human

mcJces the individuals of which it is composed^ and not nature, and its misuse of such human qualities as it

vice versa, it has quite lost touch with the invigorating does not despise or deny is a plain confession of its

Christian doctrine of free will. This fact may be il- material ana deterministic limitations. It is true

lustrated by its attitude towards the three great insti- that the institutions of religion, of the family, and

tutions which have hitherto most strongly exemplified of private ownership are liable to great abuses,

and protected that doctrine — the Church, the Family, but the perfection of human effort and character de-

and private ownership. Socialism, with its essentially mands a freedom of choice between good and evil as

materialistic nature, can admit no raison d'etre for a their first necessary condition. This area of free

spiritual power, as complementary and superior to the choice is provided, on the material side, by private

secular power of the State. Man, as the creature of ownership; on the spiritual and material, by the

a material environment, and as the subject of a mate- Christian Family; and on the purely spiritual by re-

power which claims to appropriate and discipline his only of material but also of mtellectual vi

interior life, and which affords him sanctions that rather constitute itself as their defender,

transcend all evolutionary and scientific determinism, In apparent contradiction, however, to much of the

must necessarily incur Socialist opposition. So, too, foregoing argument are the considerations put for-

with the Family. According to the prevalent Socialist ward by numerous schools of "Christian Socialism**,

teaching, the child stands between two authorities, both Cfatholic and non-Catholic. It will be urged

that of its parents and that of the State, and of these that there cannot really be the opposition between

the State is certainly the higher. The State therefore Socialism and Christianity that is here suggested, for,

is endowed with the higher authority and with all as a matter of fact, many excellent and intelligent per-

powers of interference to be used at its own discretion, sons in all countries are at once convinced Christians

Contrast this with the Christian notion of the Family and ardent Socialists. Now, before it is poasible to

— an organic thing with an organic life of its own. estimate correctly how far this undoubtM fact can

The State, it is true, must ensure a proper basis for alter the conclusions arrived at above, certain premises

its economic life, but beyond that it snould not inter- must be noted. First, it is not practically possible to

fere: its business is not to detach the members of the consider Socialism solely as an economic or social doo-

f aznily from their body in order to make them sepa- trine. It has long passed the stage of pure theory and

lyynAf^Ti^ig

SOCIALISM

the proportions of a movement : it 10 to-day a
doetrine embooied in programmes, a system c^
thou^t and belief that is put forward as the vivifying
principle of an active propaganda, a thing organically
connected with the intellectual and moral activities
of the millions who are its adherents. Next, the views
of small and scattered bodies of men and women, who
profess to reconcile the two doctrines, must be allowed
no more thaa their due weight when contrasted with
the expressed beliefs of not only the majority of the
leading exiwnents of Socialism, past and present, but
idso of the immense majority ot the rank and file m all
nations. Thirdly, for Catholics, the declarations of
supremepontiffs, of the Catholic hierarchy, and of the
leading Catholic sociologists and economists have an
important bearins on the question, an evidential force
not to be tightly dismissed. Lastly, the real meaning
attached to the terms ''Christianity'' and ''Social-
ism", by those who profess to reconcile these doc-
trines, must alwavs be eUcited before it is possible to
estimate either what doctrines are being reconciled or
how far that reconciliation is of any pracbical ade-
quacy.

If it be found on examination that the general
trend of the Socialist movement, the predominant
opinion of the Socialists, the authoritative pronounce-
ments of ecclesiastical and expert Catholic authority
all tend to emphasize the philosophical cleavage indi-
cated above, it is probably safe to conclude that those
who profess to reconcile the two doctrines are mis-
taken: either their grasp of the doctrines of Christi-
anity or of Socialism will be found to be imperfect, or
else their mental habits will appear to be so lacking in
discipline that they are content with the profession of a
belief in incompatible principles. Now, if Socialism
be first considered as embodied in the Socialist move-
ment and Socialist activity, it is notorious that every-
where it is antagonistic to Christianity. This is above
all clear in Catholic eountrieSj where the Socialist or-
ganizations are markedly anti-Christian both in pn>
feasion and practice. It is true that of late years there
has appeared among Socialists some impatience of
remaimng mere catipaws of the powerful Masonic
anti-clerical societies, but this is rather because these
secret societies are largely engineered by the wealthy
in the interests of capitalism than from any affection
for Catholicism. The European Socialist remains
anti-clerical, even when he revolts against Masonic
manipulation. Nor is this really less true of non-
Catholic countries. In Germany, in Holland, in Den-
mark, in the United States, even in Great Britain,
organized Socialism is ever prompt to express (in its
practical programme, if not in its formulated creed) its
contempt for and inherent anta^nism to revealed
Christianity. What, in public, is not infrequently
deprecated is clearly enough implied in projects of
legislation, as well as in the mental attitude that is
usual in Socialist circles.

Nor are the published views of the Socialist leaders
and writers less explicit. ''Scientific Socitdism'' be-
g^ as an economic exposition of evolutionary mate-
rialism; it never lost that character. Its German
founders^ Marx, Enrols, Lassalle, were notoriouslv
anti-Christian both m temper and in acquired phil-
osophy. So have been its more modem exponents in
Gennany, Bebel, Liebknecht, Kautsky, Dietzgen,
Bemsteixi, Singer, as well as the popular papers — the
"Sozial Demokrat", the "Vorw&rts", the "Zim-
merer", the "Neue 25eit" — ^which reflect, while ex-
pounding, the view of the rank and file; and the
Uotha and Erfurt programmes, which express the
practical aims of the movement. In France and the
Netherlands the former and present leaders of the
various Sociah'st sections are at one on the ouestion
of Christianity — Lafargue, Herv6, Boudin, Guesde,
Jaurte, Viviam, Sorel, Briand, Griffuelhes, Lsurgardelle,
T^, Benard, Nieuweohuis, yaiidervekie^-«ll are

anti-ChriBtian, as are the popular newspapers, like
"La Guerre Sociale", "L'Humanit^", ^'Le Social-
iste", the "Petite R^publique". the "Recht voor
Allen'', "Le P^uple''. In Italy, Austria, Spain, Rus-
sia, and Switzerland it is the same: Socialism soes
hand in hand with the attack on Christianitv. Only
in the EngUsh-speaking countries is the rule appar-
ently void. Yet, even there, but slight acouaintance
with the leading personalities of the Socialist move^
ment and the habits of thought current among them,
is sufficient to dispel the illusion. In Great Britain
certain prominent names at once occur as plainly
anti-Christian — Aveling, Hyndman, Pearson, Blatch-
ford, Bax, Quelch, Leatham, Morris, Standring —
many of them pioneers and prophets of the movement
in England. The Fabians, Shaw, Pease, Webb,
Guest; independents, like Wells, or Orage, or Car-
penter; popular periodicals like "The Clarion",
"The Socialist Review", "Justice" are all markedly
non-Christian in spirit, thou^ some of them do pro-
tect against any necessary mcompatibility between
their doctrines and the Christian. It is true that the
political leaders, like Macdonald and Hardie, and a
fair proportion of the present Labour Party might
insist that "Socialism is only Christianity in terms of
modem economics", but the very measures they ad-
vocate or support not unfrequently are anti-Chnstian
in principle or tendencv. Aiid in the United States it
is the same. Those who have studied the writings or
speeches of well-known Socialists, such as Bellamy,
Gronlund. Spargo, Hunter, Debs, Herron, Abbott,
Brown, Del Mar, Hillquit, Kerr, or Sinmions, or
periodicals like the "New York Volkszeitunff", "The
People", "The Comrade", or "The Worker", are
aware 01 the bitterly anti-Christian tone that per-
vades them and is inherent in their propaganda.

The trend of the Socialist movement, then, and the
deliberate pronouncements and habitual thought of
leaders and followers alike, are almost universally
found to be antagonistic to Christianity. Moreover,
the other side of the question is but a confirmation
of this antagonism. For all three popes who have
come into contact with modem Socialism, Pius IX,
Leo XIII, and Pius X, have formally condemned it,
both as ajgeneral doctrine and with regard to specific
points. The bishops and clergy, the lay expd-ts on
social and economic questions, the philosophers, the
theologians, and practically the whole body of the
faithful are unanimous in their acceptance of the con-
demnation. It is of little purpose to point out that
the Socialism condenmed is Marxism, and not Fa-
bianism or its analogues in various countries. For, in
the first place^ the main principles common to all
schools of Socialism have been explicitly condemned
in Encyclicals like the "Rerum novarum" or the
"Graves de comnmni"; and, in addition, as haa been
shown above, the main current of Socialism is still
Marxist, and no adhesion to a movement professedly
international can be acquitted of the guilt of lending
support to the condenmed doctrines. The Church,
the Socialists, the very tendency of the movement do
but confirm the antagonism of principle, indicated
above, between Socialism and Christianity. The
"Christian Socialists" of all coimtries, indeed, fall
readily, upon examination, into one of three cate-
gories. Either they are very imperfectly Christian,
as the Lutheran followers of Stocker and Naumann in
Germany, or the Calvinist Socialists in France, or the
numerous vaguely-doctrinal "Free-Church" Social-
ists in England and America; or, secondly, they are
but very inaccurately styled "Socialist"; as were the
group led by Kingsley, Maurice and Hughes in Eng-
land, or "Catholic Democrats" like Ketteler, Man-
ning, Descurtins, the "Sillonists"; or, thirdly, where
there is an acceptance of the main Christian aoctrine,
side by side with th& advocacy of Revolutionary Sck
cialism, as is tl^e case with the English "Guild of St

80CULI8M

8O0IALX8M

Matthew" or the New York Church Association for
the Advancement of the Interests of Labour, it can
only be ascribed to that mental facility in holding at
the same time incompatible doctrines, which is every-
where the mark of the '^ Catholic but not Roman"
school. Christianity and Socialism are hopelessly in-
compatible, and the logic of events makes this ever
clearer. It is true that, before the publication of the
Encyclical "Rerum novarum", it was not unusual to
apply the term "Christian Socialism" to the social
reforms put forward throughout Europe by those
Catholics who are earnestly endeavouring to restore
the social philosophy of Catholicism to the position it
occupied in the ages of Faith. But, under the guid-
ance of Pope Leo XIII, that crusade against the social
and economic iniquities of the present ase is now more
correctly styled "Christian Democracy , and no really
instructed, loyal, and clear-thinking Catholic would
now claim or accept the stvle of Christian Socialist.

To sum up, in the words of a capable anonymous
writer in "Tlie Quarterly Review", Socialism has for
"its philosophical basis, pure materialism; its re-
ligious basis is pure negation | its ethical basis the
theory that society makes the mdividuals of which it
is composed, not the individuals society, and that
therefore the structure of society determines indi-
vidual conduct, which involves moral irresponsibility;
its economic basis is the theory that labour is the sole

Producer, and that capital is the surplus value over
are subsistence produced by labour and stolen by
capitalists; its juristic basis is the rig^t of labour to
the whole product; its historical basis is the industrial
revolution, that is the change from small and handi-
craft methods of production to large and mechanical
ones, and the wanare of classes; its political basis is
democracy. ... It may be noted that some of these
[bases] have already been abandoned and are in ruins,
others are beginning to shake; and as this process
advances the defenders are compelled to retreat and
take up fresh positions. Thus the form of the doc-
trine changes and undergoes modification, though
all cling still to the central principle, which is the
substitution of public for private ownership."

I. History of the SocUlist Movement: (1) General: — Cnrr, Lea
BocialUiet alUmand* (Paris, 1907); Ds Skilbac, Le* eongria
ouwriera en France (Reims, 1908) ; HiuxiniT, Hiatory of Socialiam
in the United StaUa (New York, 1902); Kibkup, Hiatory of So-
cialiam (London, 1909); Lscocq, La queation aocieUe au xviii
t»2ele (Paris, 190&); Loma, Hiatoire du motnement ayndical en
Prance (Paris, 1907) ; Pblloutxbb, Hiatoire dea Bouraea de Travail
CParis, 1902); Rae, Contemporary Socialiam (London, 1908);
BoMBiiitT, Socialiam and the Socialiat Movement (London, 1909);
Stoddakt. The New Socialiam (London, 1909); Tuoan-Babo-
NOwsKT, Modem SoeitUiam in ita Hialorical Devdopment (London,
1910); ViLUBBS, The aoeialiat Movement in England (London,
1910); WiNTEBBB, Le atfcialiame contemporain (Paris, 1895).
(2) Utopian and Revolutionanr Attempts. — 'BtJONABom, Baheufa
Conapiracy for EqttalUy (London, 1836) ; Ctrx.usN, Adven-
iurea in Socialiam (London. 1910); Hindb, American Cornmu-
nitiea (Chicago, 1902) ; LiasAOABAT. Hiatory of the Commune of
187 1 (London, 1886) ; Malix>ck, A Century of Socialiatic Bxperi-
menta in The Dublin Review (July, 1909) ; Mabch, Hiatory of the
Paria Commune (London, 1895); Nobohoff, Communiatie So-
cietiea in the United Statea (London, 1875); Notbs, Hiatory
of American Socialiama (Philadelphia, 1870). (3) Biographies
of Socialist Leaders. ^ Bbbnstsin, Ferdinand Laaaalle aa a
Social B^ormer (London, 1893) ; Booth, Saint'Simon and Saint-
Simoniam (London, 1871); Geobob, Life of Henry Oeorge (Lon*
don, 1900): GiBsms, Engliah Social Reformera (London, 1907);
Jackson, Bernard Shaw, a monograph (London, 1909); Jonbs,
The Life, Timea and Laboura of Robert OtomliLondoUt 1900); Mao-
Kail, Life of William Morria (2 vols., London, 1899) ; Spaboo,
Karl Marx, hia Life and Work (New York, 1910); Tatlob,
Leadera of Socialiam (London, 1908).

II. History of Movements Innuenoing Socialiam: (1) Co-
•operation. — Fay, Co-operation at Home and Abroad (London,

1908) ; HoLTOAKB, Hiatory of Co-operation (2 vols., London, 1008) ;
Lavbboxb, Le rigime eooptratif (Paris, 1910) ; Pottbb, Co-overa-
live movement in Oreat Britain Q^ondon, 1899). (2) Combina-
tions of Labour and Capital. — Db Sbilhac. Lea grhea (Paris,
1909) ; DiuoBifT. Lea ortentationa ayndicalea (Paris, 1909) ; Elt.
Monopoliea and Truata (New York, 1900); Hibst, Monopoliea,
Truata, and Kartella (London. 1905); Howell, Trade Unioniam
(Md and New (London, 1907) ; Kibkbbidb and SrsBBrrr, The
Modem Truat Comoany (New York, 1906) ; MACBoarr. The Truat
Movement in Brituh Induairy (London^ 1907); Wbbb, Hiatory
of Trade- Unioniam (London, 1001); Iobm, Induatrial Demoe*
racy (London, 1901). (8) Legislation.— Oukninobam amd Mao-

AMHUB. (htUinea of Sngliah rnduatriai Hittory (CambridM.
1804) : HuTCHiMa and Habrison. Hiatory of Factory LegiaUahon
(London, 1010) ; Niohollb and Maokat, Hiatory of the Kngliah
Poor Law (3 vols., London, 1910); Wbbb. Bn^iah Poor Law
Policy (London, 1909); Idbm, Oranta in Aid (London, 1011):
IDBM. The State and the Doctor (London, 1010). (4) Munieipal
and Administrative Aotivities. — Dabwin, Municipal Ownerwip
(London. 1907) ; Jolt, La Suiaae politique et aoeiale (Paris, 1909) :
iDUf, L Ilalie eontemporaine (Paris, 1911); Mbtbb. MunidwU
Owner^ip in Oreat Britain (London, 1906) ; Rbbvbs. StaU Bx"
perimenta in Auatralia and New Zealand (2 vols., London, 1902);
SHAW, Municipal Oovemment in Oreat Britain (London, 1895);
Idem, Municipal Oovemment in Continental Europe (London,
1896) : Wbbbbb, The Orowth of Citiea in the Nineteenth Century

?iOnaon, 1899) ; Zubbun, American Municipal Bnterpriae (New
ork, 1902).

III. Socialism as Expounded by Socialists. (1) Marxism.--
Bax. Eaaaya in Socialiam New emd Old (London, 1905); B latch*
TOBD, Merrie England (London, 1895); EnqblSj SocuUiam Uto*
pian and Scientific (London, 1892); Febbi, Socialiam and Poai-
tive Science (London, 1905); Gbonluicd. The Co-operative Com-
monweaUh (London, 1896): Hunteb. SoeiaUaU aJt Work (New
York, 1908): Htnduan, The Bconomica of Socialiam (London.,
1896); JAUBis, Studiea in Socialiam (London. 1906); Mabx,
CapUal (3 vols., London, 1888, 1907, 1909); Mobbib and Bax,
Socialiam iu Orowth and Outcome (London, 1897); Spabgo. So-
cuUiam, a Summary and Interpretation (New York, 1906): Idbm,
The Subatance of Socialiam (New York, 1910). (2) Revisionism,
Revolutionary Syndicalism, Fabian Expertism. — ^Bbbnstbin.
Evolutionary Sodaliam (London, 1909); Clat, Syndicaliam and
Labour (London, 1911) ; EsaoR, Modem Socialiam aa Set Forth by
Socialiata (New York. 1910); Fabian Eaaaya in Socialiam (Lon-
don, 1909); Fabian TraeU. Noa. 1-100 (London. 1884-1911);
Gbifpublhxb, L'action ayndicaliate (Paris, 1908) ; Idem, Voyagea
rivolutionairea (Paris, 1910); Hillquit, Socialiam in Theory
and Practice (New York, 1009); Kbllt, Twentieth Century
Socialiam (London, 1910); Laoaboblub. Le aocitUiame ouvrier
(Paris, 1911); MacdonaU). Socialiem and Society (London,
1905); Iobm, The SociaUat Movement (London, 1911); Meb-
MBix, Le aocialiame (Paris, 1907) ; Idem, Le ayndiealiame centre
le aocialiame (Paris, 1906) ; Pataud and Pougbt, Comment noua
ferona la rHelution (Pans, 1909); Pbbssolini, La teoria eindi-
caliata (Naples, 1909); Vandbbvelde. CoUeetiviam and Induatrial
Revolutton (London, 1907) ; Webb, The Prevention of Deatitution
(London, lOll); Wells, New Worlda for Old (London, 1006).

IV. Catholic Criticism of Socialism. — ^Amtoinb. Coura d'Seoni>'
mie aoeiale (Paris, 1988), 523-^: Abdant, Le aocialiame eontenk-
porain et la propriM (Paris, 1905) ; Brochurea jaunea de F Action
Populaire, Noa, $6, t8, 49, 07, 100, IBS. 174, 199 (Reims. 1904>
11); Cavfblbin, Le aocialiame et le droit de propriM (Bnusela);
Cathbbzn, Socialiem, ita theoretical baaia and practical applica-
tion (New York, 1904) ; Cocbin, Calichiame d'iconomie eoc, et p<dit.
(Paris, 1907); Db Sbilhac, Uutopie aocial. (Paris, 1907); Dbvab.
Political Economy (London, 1907), 514-26; Kbllbhxb, PrivaU
ownerahip: ite baaia and equitable conditiona (Dublin, 1911); Lb
bot-Bbauubu, CoUediviam, a Study of Some of the Leading i^uea-
Oona of the Day (London, 1908) ; Pbsch, Liberaliamua, Socialia-
muaChriaU. OeaeUachaJlaord. (Freiburg, 1896); PBaaaa, The Fun-
damental Fallacy of Socialiam (St. Louis. 1908) ; Savatxbb, Lee
variationa du aocialiame in Le mouvement eoc. (Paris, May, 1911);
Schbijvbbs, Handbook of PraOioal Econonomica (London, 1010),
25-48; ToaaBAiNT, Cotlectitieme et oommunisffu (Paris, 1907);
WiNTEBBB, Le aocialiame aUemand et aea dernih^ea ivalutione
(Paris. 1907).

V. Non-Catholic Criticism of SociaUsm.— Gutot. SoddUaiie
Fallaciea (London, 1910); Fxjnt, Socialiam (London, 1908);
HoBBON, The Induatrial Syatem (London, 1909); Idem, The
Science of xoealth (London, 1911); Kibkitp, An Efwuiry Into So-

- eialiam (London, 1908) ; Mallock, A Critical Examination of
Socialiam (London, 19(18); Nichozbon, Hietorical Progreaa and
Ideal Socialiam (London, 1894) ; Schabfflb, The Quinteaaenee of
Socialism (London, 1899) ; Skblton, Socialiam, a critical analyaie
U»ndon, 1911); Socialiam, Ita Meaning and Origin; ita Preaent
Poaition and Future Proaipeeta in Quarterly Review (April, July,
London. 1910) { TheCaae Againat Socialiam (London, 1909).

VI. 'Christian Socialism *'.--CaMolici«m and Socialiam in
Catholic Truth Society Pamphlete (2 vols., London. 1908, 1910);
Cdnninoham, Socialiem and Chriatianity (London, 1909); Qat*
baud, Un CathoUque peut^U Ure aocialiaUt jVanB, 1907); Qold-
btein, Socialiem, the Nation of Fatherleaa Children (New York,
1908); Headlam, Deabmbb. Cuffobd, and Woolman, SocuU-
iam and Religion in Fabian Sodali^ Seriea, no. 1 (London, 1006);
Lamt, Catholiquea et SociaUatea (Paris, 1010) ; MiNO, The Char-
acteriatica and the Religion of Modem Socialiam (New York, 1008) ;
Idem. The Morality of Modem Socialiam (New York, 1900);
Nrm, Catholic Soeialtem (London, 1895); Nobl, SociaUam %n
Churcii Hiatory (London, 1910); Sbbtillangbb, Sodaliame et
Chriatianiame (Paris, 1909) ; Sodebini, Socialiam and CathoHciam
(London, 1896); Stano, Socialiam and Chriatianity (New York,
1905); WoBOSWOBTB, Chietian Sodaliam in Eni^nd (London,
1903).

VII. C^hristian Democracy. — Annie aoeiale intemationale. It
III (Reims, 1910-12): Cauppb, Vattitude aoeiale dea eathoHmiee
Frangaia au XIX* aUtde (Paris, 1010) ; Idbm, Lea tendencea aoeuUea
dea catholiquea libiraux (Paris, 1011); Catholic Social Guild
Pamphleta (2 vols., London, 1010-12); Cbawpobd, SwiUerland
To-day (London, 1011); Dbvab, Social Que^iona and the Duty of
Cathdica (London, 1007); Idbm, The Key to the WorUTa Progreaa
(London, 1006): QABBiairBT, T*Ae Social Value of the Ooapel (Lon>
don, 1011); Ouute Social, I-VI (Reims, 1004-00); Logan, L*en-
aeignement aocial de Jiaua (Paris, 1007) ; Naudbt, Le chriatian-
iame Sodal (Parte, 1008); Pabsumon i^), DeeUhation and
Suggeafd Rem^diea (London, 1011) ; Platu, Cathelic Social Wgrk

80CIAU8TIC

SOCIALISTIC

in Germany (Bt. Louis, 1010} : Ryan, A Living Wage, tte Bthicalqnd
Semwmie Atp^ets (Sew York, 1910): The Catholie Chtirek and
Labour in CatKolie Truth Society PampkUU (London, 1006); The
Pope and the PeopU (New Yo^, 1900) ; Tubmanv, Le diveloppO'
ment du eathoiicteme social depuie VeneyeKque Rerwn Novarum
(Paris, 1909): Wright (ed.). Sweated Lahour and the Trade
Baarde Act (London, 1911).

Lbslis a. St. L. Tokb.
W. £. Campbell.

Socialiatic Coinmunities.— This title compre-
hends those societieB which maintain common owner-
ship of the means of production and distribution,
e. g., land, factories, ana stores, and also those which
furaier extend liie practice of common ownership
to consumable goods, e. g., houses and food. While
the majority of the groups treated in the present
article are, strictly speaking, communistic rather than
socialistic, they are frequently designated by the
latter term. The most impcnrtant of them have
already been described under Communism. Below
a more nearly complete list is given, together with
brief notices of those societies that have not been
discussed in the former articles. At the time of the
Protestant Reformation certain socialistic experi-
ments were made by several heretical sects, including
the Anabaptists, the Libertines, and the Fanulists;
but these sects did not convert their beliefs along this
line into practice with sufficient thoroughness or for
a sufficient length of time to give their attempts any
considerable value or interest (see Kautsky, "Com-
munism in Central Europe at the Time of the Ref-
ormation'', London, 1897).

The Labadists, a religious sect with conununistic
features, founded a community, in Westphalia, in
1672, under the leadership of Jean de la Badie, an
«4>O0tate priest. A few years later about one hundred
members of the sect established a colony in Northern
Maryland, but within half a century both communi-
ties ceased to exist.

The Ephrata (Pennsylvania) Community was
founded in 1732, and contained at one time 300 mem-
hm. but in 1900 numbered only 17.

Tne Shakers adopted a socialistic form of or-
ganization at Watervliet, New York, in 1776. At
their most prosperous period their various societies
comprised about 6000 persons; to-day (1911) they
do not exceed 1000.

The Harmonists, or Rapi>i8ts, were established in
Pouisylvania in 1805. Their maximum membership
was 1000; in 1900 th^ numbered 9. Connected with
this society is the Bethel Community, which was
founded (1844) in Missouri by a group which in-
cluded some seoeders from Harmony. In 1855 the
Bethel leader, Dr. Keil, ^anized another coimnunity
at Aurora, Oregon. The combined membership
of the two settlements never exceeded 1000 persons.
Bethel dissolved in 1880 and Aurora in 1881.

The Separatists of Zoar (Ohio) were organized
as a sociaustio community in 1818, and dissolved in
1898. At one time they had 500 members.

The New Harmony Community, the greatest at-
tempt ever made in this form of social organization,
was founded in Indiana in 1824 by Robert Owen.
Its maximum number of members was 900 and its
length of life two years. Eighteen other communi-
ties formed by seceders from the New Harmonv
society were ehoxst equally short-lived. Other social-
istic settlements that owed their foundation to the
teachings of Owen were set up at Yellow Springs,
Ohio; Nashoba, Tennessee (composed mostly of
negroes); Haverstraw, New York; and Kendal,
Oregon. None of them lasted more than two years.

The Hopedale (Massachusetts) Community was
organised m 1842 by the Rev. Adin BaUou; it never
had more than 175 memb^v, and it came to an end
in 1867.

The Brook Farm (Massachusetts) Community was
in 1842 by the Transcendentalist group

of scholars and writers. In 1844 it was converted
into a Fourierist phalanx; this, however, was dis-
solved in 1846.

Of the Fourieristic phalanges two had a very brief
existence in France, and dbout thirty were organized
in the United States between 1840 and 1850. Their
aggregate membership was about 4500, and their
longevity varied from a few months to twelve years.
Aside from the one at Brook Farm, the most note-
worthy were: the North American phalanx, founded
in 1843 in New Jersey under the direction of Greeley,
Brisbane, Channing, and other gifted men, and dis-
solved in 1855; the Wisconsin, or (>e6co, phalanx,
organized in 1844, and dispersed in 1850; and the
Sylvania Association of Pennsylvania, which has the
distinction of being the earliest Fourieristic experi-
ment in the Unit^ States, though it lasted only
eighteen months.

• The Oneida (New York) Community, the mem-
bers of which called themselves Perfectionists because
thev believed that all who followed their way of life
could become perfect, became a communistic or-
ganization in 1848, and was converted into a joint-
stock corporation in 1881. Its largest numlKar of
members was 300.

The first Icarian community was set up in Texas
in 1848, and the last came to an end in 1895 in Iowa.
Their most prosperous settlement, at Nauvoo, num-
bered more than 500 souls.

The Amana Community was organized on social-
istic lines in 1843 near Buffalo, New York, but moved
to Amana, Iowa, in 1845. It is the one communistic
settlement that has increased steadily, though not
rapidly, in wealth and numbers. Its members rightly
attribute this fact to its religious character and
motive. The community embraces about 1800
persons.

A unique community is the Woman's Common-
wealth, established about 1875 near Belton^ Texas,
and transferred to Mount Pleasant, D. C.^ m 1898.
It was organized by women who from motives of re-
ligion and conscience had separated themselves from
their husbands. As the members number less than
thirty and are mostly those who instituted the com-
munity more than thirty-five years ago, the experi-
ment cannot last many years longer.

The most important of recently founded com-
munities was the Ruskin Co-operative Colony, or-
ganized in 1894 in Tennessee by J. A. Wayland,
editor of the socialist paper, ''The Coming Nation".
While the capital of the community was collectively
owned, its products were distributed among the
members in the form of wages. Owing to dissen-
sions and withdrawals, the colony was reorganized
on a new site in 1896, but it also was soon dissolved.
About 250 of the colonists moved to Georgia, and set
up another community, but this in a few years
ceased to exist.

A number of other communities have been formed
within recent years, most of which permit private
ownership of consumption-goods and private family
life. As none of them has become strong either in
numbers or in wealth, and as all of them seem des-
tined to an early death, they will receive only the
briefest mention here. Those worthy of any notice
are: The Christian CJommon wealth of (xeorsia, or-
ganized in 1896, and dissolved in 1900; tne Co-
operative Brotherhood, of Burley, Washington; the
Straight Edge Industrial Settlement, of New York
City; the Home Colony in the State of Washington,
which has the distinction of being the only anarchist
colony; the Mutual Home Association, located in the
same state; the Topolambo Colony in Mexico, which
lasted but a few months; and the Fairhope (Alabama)
Single-Tax Corporation, which has had a fair measure
of success, but which is neither socialistic nor com-
munistic iu the proper sense.

SOCIETIES 70 SOCIETIES

Reviewing the history of socialistic experiments, tion of their corporate rights. Societies of this nature

we perceive that only those that were avowedly and have an existence independent of the individual mem^

strongly religious, ado[)ting a socialistic organization bers and can be dissolved onlv by ecclesiastical de-

as incidental to their religious purposes, have cree. Catholic societies which are not church cor-

achieved even temporary and partial success. Prac- porations may be founded and dissolved at the will of

tically speaking, only two of these religious com- their members. Sometimes they are approved, or

munities remain; of these the Shakers are growing technically praised, by ecclesiastical authority, but

steadily weaker, while the Amana Society is almost they are also frequently formed without any interven-

stationary, and, besides, is oblieed to carry on tion of the hierarchy. In general, it may be said that

some of its industries with the aid of outside hired Catholic societies of any description are very deeir-

labor. able.

8«e bibliography under Commtdwbm. Hixxjuij. Hilary of The Church has always Watched with singular care

Sockatam %n the Umted Statea (Now York, 1903); Kent in «„a« ♦!,/» •►«-:^,,o ««„««U„4.;yv-»« /«.«w.a^ *..► i.tL ^-.r^vr i

BuUeUn No. 36 of the Department of Lobar; Mallock, A Century over the vanous orgamzations formed -by the faithful

ofSoci<diat%cExj>eHmenuisLTheDvMinRenewjJ\AyA^'^\'^o\jrr, for the promotion of any good work, and the popes

SpcialuMe Communiaminthe United States in The American Ccuho- have enriched them With indulgences. No hard and

^ 2S5^1S gS' '^L^:^^'7d^!l: l^f,^:^ ""^ fast rules have been made, however, as to the method

John A. Ryan. ^' government. Some societies, e. g. the Propaga^

tion of the Faith and the Holy Childhood, are geii-
Societles, Catholic. — Catholic societies are very eral in their scope; others, e. g. the Church Extension
numerous throughout the world; some are inter- Society of the United States, are peculiar to one
national in scope, some are national; some diocesan country. It sometimes happens that an association
and others parochial. These are treated in particu- formecl for one country penetrates into another, e. g.
lar under their respective titles throughout the En- the Piusverein, the Society of Christian Mothers, etc.
cycloi>edia, or else under the countries or the dioceses There are also societies instituted to provide for some
in which they exist. This article is concerned only special need, as an altar or tabernacle society, or for
with Catholic societies in general. The right of asso- the furthering of some special devotion, as the Holy
ciation is one of the natural rights of man. It is not Name Society. For societies which are general in
surprising, therefore, that from earliest antiquity their scope, the Holy See frequently appoints a car-
societies of the most diverse kinds should have been dinal protector and reserves the choice of the presi-
formed. In pagan Rome the Church was able to dent to itself. This is likewise done as a mark of
carry on its work and elude the persecuting laws, special favour t-o some societies which are only na-
only imder the guise of a private corporation or so- tional, as the Church Extension Society of the United
ciety. When it became free it encouraged the associ- States (Brief of Pius'X, 9 June, 1910). In general, it
ation of its children in various guilds and fraternities, may be affirmed that it is the special duty of the
that they might more easily, while remaining subject bishop and the parish priest to found or promote such
to the general supervision of ecclesiastical authority, societies as the faithful of their districts may be in
obtain some special good for their souls or bodies or need of. Utility and necessity often vary with the
both simultaneously. By a society we imderstand circumstances of time and country. In scmie lands it
the voluntary and durable association of a number of has been found possible and advisable for the Church
persons who pledge themselves to work together to authorities to form Catholic societies of workingmen.
obtain some special end. Of such societies there is a These are trades-unions under ecclesiastical au[n>ioe8
great variety in the Church both for la3rmen and and recall the old Catholic guilds of the Middle AfgBB.
clerics, the most perfect species of the latter being tKe Zealous bishops and priests have made the promotion
regular orders and religious congregations bound by of such societies, as in Germany and BeJjnum, a
perpetual vows. As to societies of laymen, we may special work, in the hope of preventing Catholic
distinguish broadly three classes: (a) confraternities, workingmen irom bein^ allured by tempore gain into
which are associations of the faithful canonicaUy atheistic societies in which the foundations of civil and
erected by the proper ecclesiastical superior to pro- religious institutions are attacked. In these unions a
mote a Christian method of life by special works of priest appointed by the bishop gives religious instruo-
piety towards God, e. g. the splendour of divine wor- tions wnich are particularly directed against the im-
ship, or towards one's neighbour, e. g. the spiritual pious arguments of those who seek to destroy the
or corporal works of mercy (see Confraternity); morals and faith of the workingman. Methods are

(b) pious associations, whose objects are generally pointed out for regulating the family life according
the same as those of confraternities, but which are not to the laws of God: temperance, frugality, and submis-
canonically erected (see Associations, Pious); and sion to lawful autnority are urged, and frequentation

(c) societies whose members are Catholics, but of the sacraments insisted on. These unions also pro-
which are not in the strict sense of the word religious vide innocent amusements for their members, ^ch
societies. Some of these associations are ecclesiasti- societies at times add confraternity and sodality fear^
cal corporations in the strict acceptation of the term, tures to their organization.

while others are merely subordinate and dependent There are a number of societies formed by Catholics
parts of the parish or diocesan organization, or oidy which are not in a strict sense Catiiohc societies,
remotely connected with it. Church corporations. Nevertheless, as the individual faithful are subject
inasmuch as they are moral or legal persons, have the to the authority of the bishop they remain subject to
right, according to canon law, of making by-laws for the same authority even as members of an organizar
their association by the suffrage of the members, of tion. It is true that the bishop may not, in eonse-
electing their own officers, of controlling their prop- quence of his ecclesiastical jurisdiction, rule sudi
erty within the limits of the canons, and of making societies in the same sense as he does confraternities
provision, according to their own judgment, for their and pious associations, yet he retains the inidienable
preservation and growth. They have, consequently, right and even the obligation of preventing the faith-
certain defined rights, both original or those derived f ul from being led into spiritual ruin through societies
from their constitution, and adventitious or what of whatsoever name or purpose. He can, therefore,
they have acquired by privilege or concession, if convinced that an organization is hannful, forbid it
Among original rights of all ecclesiastical corporations to assist at church services in its regalia, and, when no
are the right of exclusion or the expelling of members; emendation results^ warn individuals against entering
of selection or the adoption of new members; of con- it or remaining members of it. Finally, there are so-
vention or meeting for debate and counsel; of assist- cieties which are entirely secular, whose sole purpose
ance or aiding their associates who suffer from a viola- is to promote or obtain some commercial, domestic,

SOCIETIES

or political advantage, such as the ordinary trades-
unions. In such organizations men of every variety
of religious belief combine together, and many Catho-
lics are found among the members. There can be no
objection to such societies as long as the end intended
and the means employed are licit and honourable.
It remains, however, the duty of the bishops to see
that members of their flock suffer no diminution of
faith or contamination of morals from such organisa-
tions. Experience has proved that secular societies,
while perfectly unobjectionable in their avowed ends,
may cause grave spu'itual danger to their members.

avowedly Catholic. If they
did otherwise, they would be false to their duty to-
wards their flock. It may be well to quote here the
weighty words of an Instruction of the Holv Office
(10 May, 1884): "Concerning artisans and laboiirers,
among whom various societies are esoecially desirous
of securing members that they may destroy the very
foundations of religion and society, let the bishops
place before their eyes the ancient guilds of working-
men, which, under the protection of some patron
saint, were an ornament of the commonwealth and an
aid to the higher and lower arts. They will again
found such societies for men of commercial and liter-
ary pursuits, in which the exercises of religion will go
hsoia in hand with the benevolent aims that seek to
assuage the ills of sickness, old age, or poverty. Those
who preside over such societies should see that the
members commend themselves by the probity of their
morals, the excellence of their work, tne docility and
assiduity of their labours, so that they mav more
securely provide for their sustenance. Let the bishops
themselves not refuse to watch over such societies, sug-
gest or approve by-laws, conciliate employers, and give
ev^ assistance and patronage that lie in their power."
There are many societies of Catholics or societies
of which Catholics are members that employ methods
which seem imitations derived from various organiza-
tions prohibited by the Church. It may be well,
therefore, to state that no Catholic is allowed, as a
member of any societv whatever, to take an oath of
blind and unlimited obedience; or promise secrecy of
such a nature that, if circumstances require it, he
may not revesd certain thing^ to the lawful ecclesiasti-
cal or civil authorities; or join in a ritual which would
be equivalent to sectarian worship (see Societies,
Secret). Even when a societv is founded by Cath-
lics or is constituted principally of Catholics, it is
possible for it to degenerate into a harmful organi-
zation and call for the intervention of the authority
of the Church. Such was the fate of the once bril-
liant and meritorious French society "Le Sillon",
which was condemned by Pius X (25 Aug., 1910).
It is often expedient for Catholic societies to be in-
corporate by the civil authority as private corpora^
tions. In fact, this is necessary u they wish to possess
property or receive bequests in their own name. In
some coimtries, as Russia, such incorporation is
almost impossible; in others, as Germany and France,
the Government makes many restrictions; but in
English-speaking countries there is no difficulty. In
England societies may be incorporated not only by
special legal act. but also by common law or by pre-
scription. In tne United States a body corporate
may be formed only by following the plan proposed
by a law of Congress or a statute of a state legisla-
ture. The procedure varies slij^tly in difrerent
states, but as a rule incorporation is effected by filing
a paper in the office of the secretary of state or with a
circuit judge, stating the object and methods of the
society. Toree incorporators are sufficient, and the
petition will always be granted if the purposes
of the association are not inconsistent with the laws of
thtt United States or of the particular state in question.

LAtntBNTitrB, InstilvHonet jurit eedenaatici (Frlbourg. 190^;
WKRNf , Jut deattaliumt III (Rcune, 1901) ; Azcbnsr, Compm'
dium jurit eccknaUici (Brizen, 1895); BKBXNaBR, Die ANdMi
(13th ed., Paderbom. 1911; French tr., 1905); Tatlob, The Law
of Brivate Corporatume (New York, 1902) ; Handbook of Catholic
CharilabU and Social Worke (London, 1912).

William H. W. Fanning.

Soeieties, Catholic, American Federation of.
an organization of the Catholic laity, parishes, ana
societies under the guidance of the tderarchy, to
protect and advance their religious, civil, and social
mterests. It does not destroy the autonomy of any
society or interfere with its activities, but seeks to
unite all of them for purposes of co-operation and
economy of forces. It is not a political organization,
neither does it ask any privileges or favours for Cath-
olics. The principal object of the Federation is to
encourage (1) the Christian education of youth; (2)
the correction of error and exposure of falsehood and
injustice; the destruction of bigotry; the placing of
Catholics and the Church in their true light, thus re-
moving the obstacles that have hitherto impeded their
progress; (3) the infusion of Christian principles into
public and socisd life, by combatting the errors threat-
ening to imdermine the foundations of civil society,
notably socialism, c^vorce, dishonesty in business, ana
corruption in pKolitics and positions of public trust.
TTie first organization to inaugurate the movement
for a conceited action of the societies of Catholic
laymen was the Knights of St. John. At their annual
meeting held at Cleveland in 1899 they resolved to
unite the efforts of their local commanderies. In 1900
at Philadelphia they discussed the question of a fed-
eration of all the Catholic societies. As a result a
convention was held on 10 Dec., 1901^ at Cincinnati,
under the presidency of Mr. H. J. Fries. Two hun-
dred and. fifty delegates were present under the guid*
ance of Bishop McFaul of Trenton^ Bishop Messmer of
Green Bay^ now Archbishop of Milwaukee, the princi-

Eal factors m the organization of the movement, Arch^
ishop Elder of Cincinnati, Bishop Horstmann of
Cleveland, and Bishop Maes of Covington. A char-
ter bond was framed and the Federation formally
established, with Mr. T. B. Minahan as ita first presi-
dent. Since then annual conventions have been
held. The Federation represents close to two million
Catholics. It has been approved by Popes Leo XIII
and Pius X, and practically all the hierarchy of the
country. The fruits of the labours of the organiza-
tion have been manifold; among other things it has
helped to obtain a fair settlement of the disputes con-
cerning the church property in the Philippines, per-
mission for the celebration m Mass in the navy-yards,
prisons, reform schools; assistance for the Catholic
Indian schools and negro missions; the withdrawal
and prohibition of indecent plays and post-cards. It
has prevented the enactment of laws inimical to
Catholic interests in several state legislatures. One
of its chief works has been the uniting of the Catholic^
of different nationalities, and luumonizing their
efforts for self-protection and improvement. It pub-
lishes a monthly Bulletin, whicn contains valuable
social studies. The national secretary is Mr. Anthony
Matr6, Victoria Building, St. Louis, Missouri.

MatriA, Hist, of (he Feder. of Cath. Soe. in The Catholic Colum*
Wan (Cdumbufl, Ohio, 18 Aug., 1911); McFaul, The Amer. Feder.
e/Cath. Soc. (C^noixmati. 1911).

A. A. MacEblean.

Societies, Secret, a designation of which the exact
meaning has varied at different times. 1. Defini-
tion.— B^ a secret society was formerly meant a
society which was known to exist, but whose members
and places of meetings were not publicly known.
To-day, we understand by a secret society, a society
with secrets, having a ritual demanding an oath of
allegiance and secrecy, prescribing ceremonies of a
religious character, sucn as the use of the Bible, either

80CIBTIE8

SOGBTIKS

by extracts therefrom, or by its bemg placed on an
altar within a lodge-room, by the use of prayers, of
hymns, of religious signs and symbols, special funeral
services, etc.'" (Rosen, ''The Catholic Church and
Secret Societies", p. 2). Raich gives a more elabo-
rate description: ''Secret societies are those organiza-
tions which completely conceal their rules, corporate
activity, the names of their membcors, their signs, pass-
vrords and usages from outsiders or the 'profane'.
As a rule, the membersxof these societies are bound to
the strictest secrecy concerning all the business of the
association by oath or promise or word of honour, and
often under the threat of severe punishment in case of
its violation. If such secret society has higher and
lower degrees, the members of the higher degree must
be equaUy cax-eful to conceal their secrets fiom their
brethren of a lower degree. In certain secret societies,
the members are not allowed to know even the names
of their highest officers. Secret societies were
founded to promote certain ideal aims, to be obtained
not by violent but by moral measures. By this, they
are (ustingushed from conspiracies and secret plots
which are formed to attain a particular object through
violent means. Secret societies may be religious,
scientific, political or social" (Kirchenlex., Y, p.
510). Narrowing the definition still more to the
technical meaninjg of secret societies (socieiates dan-
destiruB) in ecclesiastical documents. Archbishop Kat-
zer in a Pastoral (20 Jan., 1895) says: "The Catholic
Church has declared that she consiaers those societies
illicit and forbidden which (1) unite their members
for the purpose of conspiring against the State or
Church; (2) demand the observance of secrecy to such
an extent that it must be maintained even before the
rightful ecclesiastical authority; (3) exact an oath
from their members or a promise of blind and abso-
lute ob^ence; (4) make use of a ritual and cere-
monies that constitute them sects. "

II. Origin. — ^Though secret societies, in the mod-
em and technical sense, did not exist in antiquity, yet
there were various organizations which boasted an
esoteric doctrine known only to their members, and
carefully concealed from the ptofane. Some date
societies of this kind back to r3rthagoras (582-507
B.C.). The Eleusinian Mysteries, the secret teach-
ings of Egyptian and Druid hierarchies, the esoteric
doctrines of the Magian and Mithraic worshippers
furnished material for such secret organizations. In
Christian times, such heresies as the Gnostic and
Manichsan also claimed to possess a knowledge
known only to the illuminated and not to be shared
with the vulgar. Likewise, the enemies of the
religious order of Knights Templars maintained that
the brothers of the Temple, while externally professing
Christianity, were in reality pagans who veiled their
impiety under orthodox terms to which an entirely
different meaning was given by the initiated. Orig-
inally, the various guilds of the Middle Ages were m
no sense secret societies in the modern acceptation of
the term, though some have supposed that symbolic
Freemasonry was gradually develoi)ed in those or-
ganizations. The fantastic Rosicrucians are credited
with something of the nature of a modem secret so-
ciety, but the association, if such it was, can scarcely
be said to have emerged into the clear light of histoiy.

III. MoDBRN Organizations. — Secret societies in
the true sense began with symbolic Freemasonry
about the year 1717 in London (see Masonry). This
widespread oath-bound association soon became the
exemplar or the parent of numerous other fraternities,
nearly all of which have some connexion with Free-
masonry, and in almost every instance were founded
by Masons. Among these may be mentioned the
Ifiuminati, the Carbonari, the Odd-Fellows, the
Knights of Pythias, the Sons of Temperance and
aimilEU' societies whose number is legion. Based on
the same principles as the secret order to which they

are affiliated are the women-auxfiiary k)dge8, of
which almost every secret society has at least one.
These secret societies for women have also their
rituals, their oaths, and their d^rees. Institutions of
learning are also infected with the glamour of secret or-
ganizations and the "Eleusis" of Chi Omega (Fayette-
ville. Ark.) of 1 June, 1900, states that liiere are twenty-
four Greek letter societies with seven hundred and
sixty-eight branches for male students, and eight sim-
ilar societies with one hundred and twenty branches for
female students, and a total membership of 1^,456 in
the higher institutions of learning in the United states.

IV. ATTTrUDB OF ECCLESIASTICAL AUTHORITIES. —

The judgment of the Church on secret oath-bound
associations has been made abundantly clear by papal
documents. Freemasonry was condenmed by Clem-
ent XII in a Constitution, dated 28 April, 1738. The
pope insists on the objectionable character of societies
that commit men of all or no religion to a system of
mere natural righteousness, that seek their end by
binding their votaries to secret pacts by strict oaths,
often under penalties of the severest character, ana
that ^t against the tranquillity of the State. Ben-
edict AlV renewed the condemnation of his predeces-
sor on 18 May, 1751. The Carbonari were declared
a prohibited society by Pius VII in a Constitution
dated 13 Sept., 18^1, and he made it manifest that
organizations similar to Freemasonry involve an
equal condemnation. The Apost^olic Constitution
"Quo Graviora" of Leo XII (18 March, 1825) put
together the acts and decrees of former pontiffs on the
subject of secret societies and ratified and confinned
them. The dangerous character and tendencies of
secret organizations among students did not escape
the vigilance of the Holy S^, and Pius VIII (24 May,
1829) raised his warning voice concerning those m
colleges and academies, as his predecessor, Leo XII,
had done in the matter of universities. The suc-
ceeding popes, Gregory XVI (15 Aug., 1832) and
Pius IX (9 Nov., 1846; 20 Apr., 1849; 9 Dec, 1854;
8 Dec., 1864; 25 Sept., 1865), continued to warn the
faithful against secret societies and to renew the ban
of the Church on their designs and members. On
20 Apr., 1884. appeared the famous Encyclical of
Leo AlII, ''Mumanum Genus". In it the pontiff
says: ''As soon as the constitution and spirit of the
masonic sect were clearly discovered by manifest si^ns
of its action, by cases investigated, by the publication
of its laws and of its rites and commentaries, with the
addition often of the personal testimony of those who
were in the secret, tne Apostolic See denounced the
sect of the Freemasons and publicly declared its con-
stitution, as contrary to law and right, to be perni-
cious no less to Christendom than to the State; and it
forbade anyone to enter the society, under the penal-
ties which the Church is wont to inflict upon excep-
tionally guilty persons. The sectaries, indignant at
this, thinkine to elude or to weaken the force of these
decrees, partly by contempt of them and partly by
calumny, accused the Sovereign Pontiffs who had
uttered them, either of exceeding the bounds of mod-
eration or of decreeing what was not just. This was
the manner in which they endeavoured to dude the
authority and weight of the Apostolic Constitutions
of Clement XII and Benedict XIV, as well as of
Pius VIII and Pius IX. Yet in the very society itself,
there were found men who unwillingly acknowledged
that the Roman Pontiffs had acted within their ri^t,
according to the Catholic doctrine and discipline.
The pontiffs received the same assent, and in strong
terms, from many princes and heads of governments,
who made it their business either to delate the
masonic society to the Holy See, or of their own accord
by special enactments to brand it as pernicious, as for
example in Holland, Austria, Switzerland, Spain,
Bavaria, Savoy and other parts of Italy. But, what
is of the highest importance, the course of events has

SOCIETIES

demonstrated Ihe prudence of our predecessors''.
Leo XIII makes it clear that it is not only the society
explicitly caJled Masonic that is objectionable: ''There
are sever^ organised bodies which, though they differ
in name, in ceremonial, in form and ongm, are never-
theless so bound together by oommumty of purpose
and b^ the similarity of their main opinions as to
make in fact one thing with the sect of the FVee-
masons, which is a kind of centre whence thev all go
forth and whither they all return. Now, these no
lon^ show a desire to remain concealed; for they hold
their meetings in the daylight and before the public
eye, and publish their own newspaper organs; and yet,
when thoroughly understood, they are found still to
retain the nature and the habits of secret societies. ''
The pope is not unmindful of the professed benevo-
lent aims of these societies: ''They speak of their zeal
for a more cultured refinement ana of their love of
the poor; and they declare their one wish to be the
ameuoration of the condition of the masses, and to
diiare with the largest possible number all the benefits
of civil life. Even were these purposes aimed at in
real truth, vet they are by no means the whole of their
object. Moreover, to be enrolled, it is necessary that
candidates promise and undertake to be thencefor-
ward strictly obedient to their leaders and masters
with the utmost submission and fidelity, and to be in
readiness to do their bidding upon the slightest expres-
sion of their will." The pontiff then points out the
dire consequences which result from the fact that these
societies substitute Naturalism for the Church of
Christ and inculcate, at the very least, indiffercntism
in matters of religion. Other papal utterances on
secret societies are: "Ad Apostolici", 15 Oct., 1890;
"Praeclara", 20 June, 1894; "Annum Ingressi", 18
Mar., 1902.

V. The Societies Fobbidden. — The extension of
the decrees of the Apostolic See in regard to societies
hitherto forbidden under censure is summed up in
the well-known Constitution "Apostolic® Sedis^' of
Pius DC, where excommunication is pronounced
aeainst those "who give their names to the sect of the
Masons or C'U'bonari or any other sects of the same
nature, which conspire against the Church or lawfully
constituted Governments, either openly or covertly,
as well as those wll6 favor in any manner these sects
or who do not denounce their leaders and chiefs".
The condemnea societies here described are associa-
tions formed to antagonize the Church or the lawful
civil power. A society to be of the same kind as the
Masonic, must also be a secret organization. It is oif
no cons^uence whether the society demand an oath
to observe its secrets or not. It is plain also that pub-
lic and avowed attacks on Church or State are quite
compatible with a secret organization. It must not
be supposed, however, that only societies which fall
directly imder the formal censiire of the Church are
prohibited. The Congregation of the Holy Office
issued an instruction on 10 May, 1884, in which it
says: "That there may be no possibilitv of error when
there is question of judging which of these pernicious
societies fall under censure or mere prohibition, it is
certain, in the first place, that the Masonic and other
sects of the same nature are excommunicated, whether
t^ey exact or do not exact an oath from their mem-
t^ to observe secrecy. Besides these, there are
other prohibited societies, to be avoided under grave
sin, among which are e^cially to be noted those
which, under oath, communicate a secret to their
members to be concealed from everybody eke, and
which demand absolute obedience to unknown lead-
ers". To the secret societies condemned by name,
the Congregation of the Holy Office, on 20 Aug^ 1894.
in a Decree addressed to the hierarchy of the Ilnitea
States, added the Odd-Fellows, the Sons of Tem-
perance, and the Knights of Pythias.

VT. Recently CoypgaoigD SbuicwES.*-^^ otd^

of Odd-Fellows was formed in England in 1812 as a
completed orj^nization, though some lodges date back
to 1/45: and it was introducea into America in 1819.
In the ''Odd-Fellows' Improved Pocket Manual'' the
author writes: "Our institution has instinctively^ as it
were, copied after all secret associations of rehgious
and moral character". The "North-West Odd-Fel-
low Review" (May, 1895) declares: "No home can be
an ideal one unless the principles of our ^ood and
^orious Order are represented therein, and its teach-
mgs made the rule of life". In the "New Odd-Fel-
lows' Manual" (N. Y., 1895) the author says: "The
written as well as the unwritten secret work of the
Order^ I have sacredly kept unrevealed", though the
book IS dedicated "to all inquirers who desire to know
what Odd-Fellowship really is". This book tells us
"Odd-Fellowship was founded on great religious prin-
ciples" (p. 348); "we use forms of worship" (p. 364);
"Judaism, ChriBtianity, Mohammedanism recosxdse
the only living and true God" (p. 297). The Odd-
Fellows have chaplains, altars, nigh-priests, ritual,
order of worship, and funeral ceremonies. Tne order
of the Sons of Temperance was founded in New York
in 1842 and introduced into England in 1846. The
"Cyclopaedia of Fraternities" says (p. 409): "The
Sons of Temperance took the lead m England in
demonstrating the propriety and practicability of
both men and women mingling in secret society
lodges". That the object of this order and its kin*
dr^ societies is not confined to temperance "is evi-
denced by its mode of initiation, the torm of the obli-
gation and the manner of religious worship" (Rosen,
p. 162). The order of the Knights of I^thias was
founded in 1864 by prominent Freemasons (Cyclop,
of Fraternities, p. 263). In number, its membership
is second only to that of the Odd-Fellows. Rosen
(The Catholic Church and Secret Societies) says:
"The principal objectionable features, on accoimt of
which the Catholic Church has forbidaen its members
to join the Knights of Pythias, and demanded a with-
drawal of those who joined it, are: First, the oath of
secrecy by which the member binds himself to keep
secret whatever concerns the doings of the Order, even
from those in Church and State who have a right to
know, under certain conditions, what their subjects
are doing. Secondly, this oath binds the member to
blind obedience, which is symbolized by a test. Such
an obedience is against the law of man's nature, and
against all divine and human law. Thirdly, Chnst is
not the teacher and model in the rule of life, but the
pagan Pythagoras and the pagans Damon, Pythias
and Dionvsius" (p. 160). The "Ritual for the sub-
ordinate Lodges of the Knights of Pythias" (Chicago,
1906) shows tnat this organization has oaths, degrees,
prelates, and a ritual that contains religious worship.
The decree of the Holy Office concerning the Odd-
Fellows, Sons of Temperance, and Knights of Pythias,
though not declaring them to be condemned under
censure, says: "The bishops must endeavour by all
means to keep the faithful from joining all and each
of the three aforesaid societies; and warn the faithful
against them^ and if, after proper monition, thev still
determine to be members of these societies, or do not
effectualljr separate themselves from them, they are
to be forbidden the reception of the sacraments. A
decree of 18 Jan., 1896, allows a nominal membership in
these three societies, if in the judgment of the Apos-
tolic delegate, four conditions are fulfilled: that the
society was entered in good faith, that there be no
scandal, that grave temporal injury would result from
withdrawal, and that tnere be no danger of perver-
sion. The delegate^ in granting a dispensation, usu-
ally requires a promise that the person will not attend
any meetings or frequent the lodge-rooms, that the
dues be sent in by mail or by a third party, and that in
ease of death the Bodety will have nothing to do with
th'e fOfieraL

80GIBT7 74 60CIET7

VII. Orders of Woicen. — ^In regard to female bodies the historical concept as definiUsed by cogent
secret aocietieSy the Apostolic delegation at Washing- reasoning. Under such reasoning it has become the
ton, 2 Au^.y 1907, declared (Ans. no. 15,352-C): ''If e^ntial idea of society and remains so still, not-
these societies are affiliated to societies already withstanding the perversion of philosophical terms
nominally condemned by the Church, they fall under consequent upon later confusion of man with beast,
the same condenmation, for they form, as it were, a stock, and stone. It is a priori only as far as chas-
branch of such societies. As regards other female tened by restrictions put upon it by the necessities of
secret societies which may not be affiliated with socie- known truth, and is a departure from the inductive
ties condemned expressly bv the Church, the confessor method in vogue to-day only so far as to exclude
must, in cases of members belonging to such societies, rigidly the aberrations of uncivilized tribes and de-
apply the principles of moral theology which treat of gen^ate races from the requirements of reason and
secret societies in general. ** The document adds that basic truth. Historical induction taken alone, while
members of female secret societies affiliated to the investigating efficient causes of society, may yet miss
three societies condemned in 1894 will be dealt with its essential idea, and is in peril of including irrational
by the Apostolic delegate in the same manner as male abuse with rational action and development,
members when the necessary conditions are fulfillet'. The first obvious requisite in all society is authority.

VIII. Trades Unions. — ^The Third Council of Without this there can be no secure co-ordination of
Baltimore (no. 253) declares: " We see no reason why effort nor permanency of co-operation. No secure
the prohibition of the Church against the Masonic co-ordination, for men's judgment will differ on the
and other secret societies should be extended to organ- relative value of means for the common purpose, men's
usations of workingmen, which have no other object choice will vary on means of like value; and unless
in view than mutual protection and aid for their there is some headship, confusion will result. No
members in the practice oi their trades. Care must permanence of co-operation, for the best of men relax
be taken, however, that Dothine be admitted under m their initial resolutions, and to hold them at a co-
any pretext whicn favors condemned societies; or ordinate task, a tightxein and a steady spur is needed,
that the workingm^i who belong to these organiza- In fact, reluctant though man is to surrender the
tions be induced, by the cunning arts of wicked men, smallest tittle of independence and submit in the
to withhold, contrary to the laws of justice, the labor slightest his freedom to the bidding of another, there
due from them, or m any other manner violate the never has been in the history of the world a successful,
rights of their employers. Those associations are nor even a serious attempt at co-operative effort with-
also entirely illicit, in which the members are so out authoritative guidance (see Authority, Civil).
bound for mutual defense that danger of riots and Starting with this definition and requirement, philos-
murders is the outcome. " ^ ophy finds itself confronted with two kinds of society,

IX. Method of Condemnation. — ^Finally, in re- the artificial or conventional, and the natural; and on
gard to the condemnation of individual societies in pursuing the subject, finds the latter differentiating
the United States, the coimcil says (no. 255) : "To itself into domestic society, or the family, civil society,
avoid confusion of discipline which ensues^ to the or the State, and religious society, or the Chiirch.
great scandal of the faithful and the detrmiient of Each of these has a special treatment imder other
ecclesiastical authority, when the same society is headings (see Family; State and Church). Here,
condemned in one diocese and tolerated in another, however, we shall state the philosophic' basis of each,
we desire that no society be condemned by name as and add thereto the theories which have had a vogue
falling under one of the classes [of forbidden societies] for the last three centuries, though breaking down
before the Ordinary has brought the matter before a now under the strain of modem problems before the
commission which we now constitute for judging such bar of calm judgment.

cases, and which will consist of all the archbishops Conventional Societies. — ^The plurality of per-

of these provinces. If it be not plain to all that a sons, the community of aim, the stability of bond,

society is to be condemned, recourse must be had authority, and some co-operation of effort being ele-

to the Holy See in order that a definite judgment be ments common to every form of society, the difteren-

obtained and that uniform discipline may be pre- tiation must come from differences in the character

served in these provinces". of the purpose, in the nature of the bond. Qualifica-

STBV1BK8, The Ci/ciopadM of FraiemiHea (New YcM-k, 1907) ; tions of authority as well as modifications in details

Cook, Retiaed KnighU of Pythuu lUtutrated—RUual for Svbord*- _^ -omiJoi+o />/w^rCoi<af I'nn win fnllnw nn nhanawi in iht*

note Lodgea of the Knighta of Pyihiaa Adored bu the Supreme <>' requisite CO-operatlon JVlJl tOllOW on Changes in tftC

Lodge (Chicago, 1906) ; Idem. Retfiaed Odd-FeUowahtp lOuatraiad^ purpose and the extent of the bond. As many, then.

The Complete Reviaed RUw^ (ChicMo, 1906); c^rnahan, Pvth- ^s there are objects of human desh-e attainable by

^^i.WwiSTr'^iii'^^dZ-.'wh (Sith^^-^L^tt common effort (and their. name is l^on, trout the

(New Orleans, 1899); Dallman, Odd-Fdiowahip Weighed— makmg of money, which IS perhaps the commonest

Wanting (PittaburRh. 1906); Gerber, Der Odd-FeUow Orden, to-dav, tO the rendering of publlC Worship tO OUr

tt. Daa pecret vom 1894 (Berlin. 1896) ; MacDill and Blanchard, Motor vnhinh \a rupaIv f ho mnQf sflPTW^^ nn mn.nifn1H

Secret Soctetiea (ChicaKO. 1891); Dallmann, Opiniona on Secret ^0^^ WHICH 18 SUTCly tne mOSl Sacreo;, SO manuOlQ

Soeietiea (Pittoburgh. 1906); H. C. s., Ttoo Diacouraea Againat are the co-operative associations of men. Ihe char-

^et Oaih'Bound Soctetiea or Lodgea (Columbua. o., s. dO; acter, as wefl as the existence of most of them, is left

^^k^CK^'JrsJTs::S^'^.l^l' ^r^^l -^ ^l freedom to human choice. These may be de-

Idem, Reply to my Critica of the Calh. Church and Secret SoeieHea nommated conventional BOCietieS. Man 18 Under no

(Dubuque, 1903). See alao the extended bibliography appended precept tO establish th-^m, nor in universal need of

,0 .rude M*«o.v.T. fc_^f ^^n^'rjJ^*1.n!iT ^V^if.^fcfn

1 hey serve a pasemg purpose, and m settmg tnem up

Society implies fellowship, company, and has al- men give them the exact character which they judge

ways been conceived as signifying a human relation, at present suitable for their i)urpose, determining as

and not a herding of sheep, a hiving of bees, or a mat- they see fit the limits of authority, the choice of means,

ing of wild animals. The accepted definition of a the extent of the bond holding them together, as well

society is a stable union of a plurality of persons co- as their own individual reservations. Everything

^>erating for a common purpose of benefit to all. about such a society is of free election, barring the

The. fulness of co-operation involved naturally ex- fact that the essential requisites of a society must be

tends to all the activities of the mind, will, and there. We find this type exemplified in a reading

external faculties, commensurate with the common circle, a bMsiness partnership, or a private charitable

purpose and the bond of union: this alone presents organization. Of course, in establishing such a society

an adequate^ human working-together. men are under the Natural Law of right and wrong,

This definition is as old as the Schoolmen, and cm- and there can be no moral bond, for example, where

soonTY

80CIST7

the oommon ptiipoee is immoral. They also fall un-
der the restrictioDs of the civil law, when the existence
or action of such aa organization comes to have a
bearing, whether of promise or of menace, upon the
common weal. In such case the State lays aown its
eflsential requirements for the formation of such
bodiee, and so we come to have what is known as a
1^^ society, a society, namely, freely established
under the sanction and according to the requirements
of the civil law. Such are mercantile corporations
and beneficial organizations with civil charter. .

Natueal So^Bniis. — Standing apart from the
foregoing in a class by themselves tare the family, the
State, aiNi the Church. That these differ from all
other societies in purpose and means, is clear and
universally admitted. That they have a general ap-
plication to the whole human race, histoQr declares.
That there is a difference between the bond holding
them in existence and the bond of union in every other
society, has been disputed — with more enthusiasm
and imafpnation, however, than logical force. The
logical view of the matter orings us to the concept o£
a natural society, a society, that is to say, which men
are in general nadec a mandate of the natural law to
establish, a society bv consequence whose essential
requisites are finmy fixed by the same natural law
To get at this is simple enough, if the philosophical
poblems are taken up in due order. Ethics may not
be divided from psycholo^ and theodicy, any more
than from deductive logic. With the proper pro
misals then from one and the other here aasumecL we
say that the Creator could not have given man a fixed
nature, as He has^ without willing man to work out
the purpose for which that nature is framed. He can-
not act idly and without purpose, cannot form His
creature discordantly with the purpose of His will.
He cannot multiply men on the face of the earth with-
out a plan for working out the destiny of mankind
at large. This plan must contain all the elements
necessary to His purpose, and these necessary details
He must have wuled man freely to accomplish, that
is to say. He must have put upon man a strict obliga-
tion thereunto. Other details may be alternatives,
or helpful but not neoessarv, and these He has left
to man's free choice; though where one of these ele-
ments would of its* nature be far more helpful than
another, God's counsel to man will be in favour of the
former. God's will directing man through his nature
to his share in the full purpose of the cosmic plan, we
know as the natural law, containing precept, permis-
sion, and counsel, aocoitling to the necessity, help-
fulness, or extraordinary vSue of an action to the
achievement of the Divine purpose. We recognize
these in the concrete by a rational study of the essen-
tial characteristics of human nature and its relations
with the rest of the universe. If we find a natural
aptitude in man for an action, not at variance with
the general purpose of things, we recognize also the
lioaioe of the natural law to that action. If we find
a more urgent natural propensity to it, we recognize
further the counsel of the law. If we nnd the use of
a natiural faculty, the following ui) of a natural pro-
pensitjr, inseparahle from the rational fulfilment of
the ultimate destiny of the individual or of the human
race, we know that thereon Ues a mandate of the
natural law, obliging the conscience of man. We
must not, however, miss the difference, that if the
need of the action or effort is for the individual natural
destiny, the mandate lies on each human being sever-
ally: but if the need be for the natural destinv of the
raoc^ the precept does not descend to this or that par-
ticular individluaL so long as the necessary bull of
men accomplish tne detailso intended in the plan for
the natural destiny of the race. This Is abstract rea-
soning, but necessary for the understanding of a
natural society in the fulness of its idea.

A Soavrr Natural bt MAin)ATK. — A society,

then, is natural by mandate, when the law of nature
sets the precept upon mankind to estabUsh that
society. The precept is recognized by the natural
aptitude, propensity, and need in men for the estab-
lishment of such a union. IVom this point of view
the gift of speech alone is sufiicient to show man's
aptitude for fellowship with his kind. It is empha-
sized bv his manifold perfectibility through contact
with others and through their permanent companion-
ship. Furthermore hiiB normal shrinking from soli-
tude, from working out the problems oT life alone,
is evidence of a social propensity to which mankind
has always yielded. If again we consider his depen-
dence for existence and comfort on the multiplied
products of co-ordinate human effort; and his de-
pendence for the development of his physical, intel-
lectual, and moral perfectibility on complex intercourse
with others, we see a need, in view of man's ultimate
destiny, that makes the actualization of man's ca^
pacity of or^^ized social co-operation a stringent law
upon monkmd. Taking then the kinds of social
organization universally existent among men, it is
plain not only that they are the result of natural
propensities, but that, as analysis shows, they are a
human need and hence are prescribed in the code of
the Natural Law.

A Society Natural in Essbi^tials. — ^Further-
more, as we understand a legal contract to be one
which, because of its abutment on common interests,
the civil law hedges round with restrictions and reser-
vations for their protection, similarly on examination
we sluJl find that all agreements by which men enter
into stable social union are fenced m with limitations
set by the natural law guarding the essential interests
of the good of mankind. When, moreover, we come
to social unions prescribed for mankind by mandate
of that law. we expect to find the purpose of the union
set by the law (otherwise the law would not have pre-
scribed the union), all the details morally necessary
for the rational attainment of that purpose fixed by
the law, and all obstacles threatening sure defeat to
that purpose, proscribed by the same. A natural
society, then, besides being natural by mandate, will
also be natural in all its essentials, for as much as these
too shall be determined and ordained by the law.

The Family a Natural Society. — Working along
these lines upon the data given by ejmerience, per-
sonal as welt as through the proxy of history, the
philosopher finds in man's nature, considered physio-
logically and psychologically, the aptitude, propensity,
and, both as a general thing and for mankind at large,
the need of the matrimonial relation. Seeine the
natural and needful purpose to which this relation
shapes itself to be in full tne mutually perfecting com-
pensation of common life between man and woman,
as well as the procreation and education of the child,
and keeping in mind that Nature's Lawgiver has in
view the rational development of the race (or human
nature at large) as well as of the individual, we con-
clude not only to abiding rational love as its distin-
guishing characteristic, out to monogamy and a
stability that is exclusive of absolute divorce. This
gives ^us the essential requisites of domestic society,
a stable union of man and wife bound together to
work for a fixed common good to themsdves and
humanity. When this com])any is filled out with
children and its incidental complement of houschojvl
servants, we have domestic society in its fullness. It
is created under mandate of the natural law, for
thou^ this or that individual may safely eschew
matrunony for some good purpose, mankind may not.
The individual in exception need not be concerned
about the purpose of the Lawgiver, as human nature
is so constituted that mankind will not fail of its ful-
filment. The efficient cause of this domestic union
in the concrete instance is the free consent of the
initial couple, but the character of the juridical bond

SOCIETT

80CIKT7

which they thuH freely accept is dct-ermined for them
by the natural law according to Nature's full purpose.
Husband and wife may see to their personal benefit
in choosing to establish a domestic conmiunity, but
the interests of the child and of the future race are
safegucutled by the law. The essential purpose of
this society we have stated above. The essential
requisite of authority takes on a divided character
of partnership, because of the separate functions of
husband and wife requiring authority as well sua call-
ing for harmonious a^eement upon details of conunon
interest: but the headship of final decision is put by
the law, as a matter of ordinary course, in the man,
as is snown by his natural characteristics marking
him for the preference. The essential limitations
forbid plural marriage, race-suicide, Ghexual excess,
unnecessary separation, and absolute divorce.

The State a Natural Society. — On the same
principle of human aptitude, propensitv, and need for
"he individual and the race, we find the larger social
unit of civil society manifested to us as pivt of the
Divine set purpose with regard to human nature, and
«y) under i)rece])t of the natural law. Again, the ex-
«)eptional individual may take to solitude tor some
« ennobling purpose; but ne is an exception, and the
bulk of mankmd will not hesitate to fulfil Nature's
bidding and accomplish Nature's purpose. In the
(Concrete instance civil 80ciet}r, though morally in-
(3umbent on man to establish, still comes into existence
by the exercise of his free activity. We have seen
the same of domestic society, which begins by the
mutual free consent of man and woman to the accept-
ance of the bond involving all the natural rights and
duties of the permanent matrimonial relation. The
beginning of civil society as an historical fact has taken
on divers colours, far different at dififerent times and
places. It has arisen bv peaceful expansion oL a
family into a widespreaa kmdred eventually linked
togetner in a civil union. It has sprung mm the
multiplication of independent families in tne coloniz-
ing of undeveloped lands. It has come into being
under the strong hand of conquest enforcing law,
order, and civil organization, not always justly, upon
a people. There have been rare instances of its birth
through the tutoring efforts of the gentler type of
civilizers, who came to spread the Gospel. But the
juridical origin is not obviously identical with this.
History alone exhibits only the manifold confluent
causes which moved men into an organized civil unit.
The juridical cause is quite another matter. This is
the cause which of its character under the natural law
puts the actual moral bond of civil union upon the
many in the concrete, imposes the concrete obligation
involving all the rights, duties, and powers native to
a State, even as the mutual consent of the contracting
parties creates the mutual bond of initial domestic
society. This determinant has been under dispute
among Catholic teachers.

^The common view of Scholastic philosophy, so ably
developed by Francis Suarez, S.J., sets it in the con-
sent of the constituent members, whether given ex-
plicitly in the acceptance of a constitution, or tacitly
by submitting to an organization of another's making,
even if this consent be not given by immediate sur-
render, but by gradual process of slow and often reluc-
tant acquiescence in the stability of a common union
for the essential civil purpose. In the earlv fifties of
the nineteenth centuiy Luigi Taparelli, S. J., borrow-
ing an idea from C. de Haller of Berne, brilliantly
developed a theory of the juridical origin of civd
government, whicn has dominated in the Italian
Catholic schools even to the present day, as well as
in Catholic schools in Europe^ whose professors of
ethics have been of Italian training. In this theory
oivil society has grown into being from the natural
multiplication of cognate families, and the sraduoj
extension of parentalpower. The patriarohiu State

is the primitive form, the normal type, though by
accident of circumstance States may begin here or
there from occupation of the same wide territory un-
der feudal ownership; by organisation consequent
upon conquest; or in rarer instances by the common
consent ot independent colonial freebolderB. These
two Catholic views part company also in declaring
the primitive juridical determinant of the concrete
subject of supreme authority (see Axtthoritt, Civil).
To-day the Catholic schools are divided between these
two positions. We shall subjoin below other theories
of the juridical origin of the State, which have no
place in Catholic thought for the simple reason that
they exclude the naturad character of civil society and
throw to the winds the principles logically inseparable
from the existing natural law.

With regard to the essential elements in civil so-
ciety fixed by the natural law, it is first to be noted
that the normal unit is the family: for not only has
the family come historicidly before tiie common-
wealth, but the natural needs of man lead him first to
that social combination, in pursuit of a natural result
only to be obtained thereby; and it is logically only
subsequent that the purpose ci civil society oomes into
human life. Of course this does not mean that incli-
viduals actually outside of the surrounding of family
life cannot be constituent members of civil society
with full civic rights and duties, but they are not th6
primary unit; they are in the nature of things the ex-
ception, however numerous they may be. and beyond
the family limit of perfectibility it is in the interest of
comfAementary development that civil activity is
exercised. The State cannot eliminate the fanuly;
neither can it rob it of its inalienable rights, nor bar
the fulfilment of its inseparable duties, though it may
restrict the exercise of certain family activities so as to
co-ordinate them to the benefit of the body politic.

Secondly, the natural object pursued by man in his
ultimate social activity is perfect temporal happiness,
the satisfacton, to wit, of his natural faculties to the
full power of their development within his c«>acity,
on his way, of course, to eternal felicity beyond earth.
Man's happiness cannot be handed over to him, or
thrust upon him by another here on earth; for his na-
ture supposes that his possession of it, and so too in
large measure his achievement of it, shall be by the
exercise of his native faculties. Hence, civil society
is destined by the natural law to give him his opportu-
nity, i. e. to give it to all who share its citizenship.
This shows the proximate natural purpose of the
State to be: first, to establish and preserve sodal or-
der, a condition, namely, wherein every man, as far as
may be^ is secured in the possession and free exercise
of all his rights, natural and legal, and is held up to
the fulfilment of his duties as far as they bear upon
the common weal; secondly, to put within reasonable
reach of all citizens a fair allowance of the means of
temporal happiness. This is what is known as external
peace and prosperity, prosperity being also denomi-
nated the relatively perfect sufiioiency of life. There
are misconceptions enough about the generic purpose
native to all civil society. De Haller thought that
there is none such; that civil purposes are all specific,
peculiar to each specific State. Kant limited it to
external peace. Tne Manchester School did the same,
leaving tne citizen to work out his subsistence and de-
velopment as best he may. The Evolutionist con-
sistently makes it the survival of the fittest, on the
way to developing a better type. The modem peril is
to treat the citizen merely as an industrial unit^ mis-
taking national material progress for the goal ot civic
energy; or as a military unit, lookins to self-preserva-
tion as the nation's furst if not only aim. Neither
material progress nor martial power, nor merely in-
tellectual civilization, can fill tne requirements of ex-
isting and expanding human nature. The State,
while protecting a man's rights, must put him in the

SOCIBTy

SOCIETY

way of opportuziiiy for deveiopiog hi* •olm nAMiro,
phyaieal. mental, and moral.

Tliirdiy, the accomplishment of this calls for an
authority which the Lawgiver of Nature, because he
has ordained this society, has put within tiie compe-
tency of the State, and which, because of its reach, ex-
tendmg as it does to life and death, to reluctant sub-
jects and to the postaity of its citizenship, surpasses
the capacity of its citizenship to create out of any
mere conventional surrender of natural rip^ts. The
question of the origin of civil power and its concen-
tration in this or that subject is like the origin oi
society itself, a topic of debate. Catholic phikieophy
is agreed that it is conferred by Nature's Lawgiver
directly upon the social depositary thereof, as par-
ental supremacy is upon the father of a family. But
the determination of the depodtary is another matter.
The doctrine of Suaree makes the community itself
the depositaiv, immecfiately and naturally consequent
upon its establishment of civil society, to be disposed
oi then by their consent, overt or tacit, at once or by
degrees, according as th^ determine for themselves a
form of government. This is the only true philo-
8cq>hical sense of the dictum that '' governments de-
rive their just powers from the consent of the gov-
erned''. The Taparelli school makes the primitive
determinant out of an existing prior right ojf another
character, which passes naturally into this power.
Primitivdy this is parental supremacy grown to pa-
triarchal dimenHions and resulting at the last in su-
preme civil power. Secondarily, it may arise from
other rights, showing natural aptitude preferentially
in one subject or another, as that of feudal ownership
of the territory of the^community , capacity to extricate
order out of chaos in moments of civic confusion, mili-
tary ability and success in case of just conquest, and,
finally, in remote instances by uie consent of the
governed.

Finally, the means by which the commonwealth will
work toward its ideal condition of the largest measure
of peace and prosperity attainable are embraced in
the just exercise, imder direction of civil authority, of
the physieal, mental^ and moral activities of the mem-
bers of the commumty: and here the field of human
endeavour is wide and expansive. However, the calls
upon the individual by the governmental power are
necessarily limit^ by uie scope of the natural purpose
of the State and by the inalienable prior rights and
inseparable duties conferred or imposed upon the in-
dividual by the Natural Law.

REuoiotiB SocnBTY de facto a Supernatural So-
cnsTT. — ^If we analyse the moral development of man,
we find looming laifse his obligation to worship his
Creator, not on^ pnvately, but publicly, not only as
an individual, but m social union. This opens up an-
other kind ot sodety ordered by the natural law, to
wit, religbus society. An examination of this in the
natural order and by force of reason alone would seem
to show that man, though morally obhged to social
worship, was morally free to establish a parallel organ-
ization for such worship or to merge its functions
with those of the State, giving a (v>uble character
to the enlarged society, namely, civil andretimous.
Historically, among those who knew not Divine
revelation, men would seem to have been inclined
more to the latter; but not always so. Of course, the
purpose and means of this relnpous social duty are so
related to those of a merely civu society that consider-
able care would have to be exercised m adjusting the
balance of intersecting ri|^ts and duties, to define the
rdative domains of rdigious and civil authority, and,
finally, to adjudicate supremacy in case of direct ap-
parent conflict. The development of all this has
been givoi an entirely different turn through the in-
tervention of the Creator in His creation by positive
law revealed to man, changing the natural status into a
higher one, eliminating natural religious society, and

at the last esliablishing through the mission of our
Lord Jesus Cnrlst an universal and unfailing relispous
society in the Church. This is a supematunu re-
ligious society. (See Church.)

Non-Cathoug Theories. — ^Thomas Hobbes, start-
ing from the assumption which Calvin had propagated
that human nature is itself perverse and man essen-
tially inept for consorting with his fellows, made
the natural state of man to be one of universal and
continuous warfare. This, of course, excludes the
Maker of man from having destined him originally to
society, since he would in Hobbes's view have ^ven
him a nature exactly the reverse of a proportioned
means. Hobbes thought that he found m man such
selfish rivaliy, weak cowardice, and greed of self-

gorification as to make him naturally prey upon his
llows and subdue them, if he coula, to bis wants,
making might to be the only source of right. How-
ever, fiid^ Ufe intolerable (if not impossible) under
such conditions, he resorted to a social pact with other
men for the establi^ment of peace, and, as that was a
prudent thing to do, man, adds Hobbes, was thus fol-
lowing the dictates of reason and in that sense the law
of nature. On this basis Hobbes could and did make
civil authority consist in nothing more than the sum
of the physical might of the people massed in a
chosen centre of force. This theory was developed
in the ^'Leviathan'' of Hobbes to account for the ex-
istence of civil authority and civil society, but its
author left bis reader to apply the sam^ perversity of
nature and exercise of physical force for the taking of a
wife or wives and establishing domestic society.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, though borrowing largely
from Hobbes cmd fearlessly carrying some of nis prin-
ciples to their most extreme issue, had a view in part
his own. As for the family, he was content to leave it
as>a natural institution, with a stability, however,
commensurate only with the need of putting the off-
spring within reach of self-preservation. Not so for
the State. Man naturally, he contended, was sylvan
and solitary, a fine tj^pe of indolent animal, mating
with his like and Uving in the pleasant ease of shady
retreats by running waters. Me was virtuous, sum-
cient to himself for his own needs, essentially free,
leaving others alone in their freedom, and desirous of
beingieft s^one in his. His life was not to be dis-
turbed by the fever of ambitious desires, the burden of
ideas, or the restriction of moral laws. Unfortu-
natdy, he had a capacity and an itch for self-improve-
ment, and his inventive genius, creating new conveni-
ences, staji^ new deeds, ana, to meet these more
readily, he entered into transitory agreements with
other men. Then came differences, fraud, and quar-
rels, and so ended the tranquil ease and innocence of
his native condition. Throudi sheer necessity of
self-defence, as in the theory of Hobbes, he took to the
establishment of civil society. To do so without loss
of personal freedom, there was but one way, namely,
that all the members should ajpree to merge all their
rights, wills, and personalities m a unit moral person
and will, leaving the subject member the satisfaction
that he was obeying but ms own will thus merged, and
so in possession stiU of full Uberty in every act. Thus
civil authority was but the merger of all rights and
wills in the one supreme right and will of the com-
munity. The merging agreement was Rousseau's
" Social Contract ". Unfortunately for its author, aa
he himself confessed, the condition of perfect, sielf-
sufficient, lawless man was never seen on land or sea;
and his social contract had no precedent in ail the
centuries of the history of man. His dream ignored
man's inalienable rights, took no account of ooercinff
wills that would not agree, nor of the unauthorized
merdng of the wills of posterity, and drained all the
vitauty as well out of authority as out of obedience.
He left authority a power shorn of the requisites es-
sential for the purpose of civil security.

S0CXET7

soonnr

The evolutionist, who has left the twisted turn of all
his theories in much of the common language of the
day, even after the theories themselves have died to all
serious scientific acceptance, wished to make ethics a
department of materialistic oiology . and have the ag-
gregate of human entities assemble oy the same physi-
cal laws that mass cells into a living being. Man's
native tendency to persist, pure egoism, made him
shrink from the danger of destruction or injury at the
hands of other individuals, and this timidity became a
moving force driving him to compoimd witn his peers
into a unit source ofstrength without which he could
not persist. From common life in this unit man's ego-
ism began to take on a bit of altruism, and men ac-
quired at the last a sense of the common good, which
replaced their original timidity as the spring of merg-
ing activity. Later mutual sympathy put forth its
tendrils, a sense of unity sprang up, and man had a
civil society. Herein was latent the capacity for ex-
pressing the general will, which when developed be-
came civil authority. This evolutionary process is
still in motion towairl the last stand foreseen by the
theorist, a universal democracy clad in a federation
of the world. All this has been seriously and solemnly
presented to our consideration with a naive absence of
all sense of humour, with no suspicion that the human
mind naturally refuses to confound the unchanging
action of material attraction and repulsion with hu-
man choice; or to mistake the fruit of intellectual
Elanning and. execution for the fortuitous results of
hnd force. We are not cowards all, and have not
fled to society from the sole promptings of fear, but
from the natural desire we have of human develop-
ment. Authority for mankind is not viewed as the
necessary resultant of the necessary influx of all men's
wills to one goal, but is recognized to be a power to
loose and to bind in a moral sense the wiUs of in-
numerable freemen!

The neo-pagan theory, renewing the error of Plato
and in a measure of Anstotle also, has made the in-
dividual and the family mere creatures and chattels oi
the State, and, pushing the error further, wishes to
orientate all moral good and evil, all right and duty
from the authority of the State^ whose good as a na-
tional unit is paramount. This theory sets up the
State as an idol for human worship and eventually, if
the theory were acted upon, though its authors
dream it not, for human destruction.

The historical school, mistaking what men have
done for what men should do and, while often missing
the full induction of the past, scornfully rejecting as
empty apriorism deductive reasoning from the naS^ire
of man, presents a materialistic, evolutionary, and
positivistic view of human society, which in no way
appeals to sane reason. No more does the theory of
Kant, as applied to society in the Hegelian develop-
ment of it; though, owing to its intellectual character
and appearance of ultimate analysis, it has found
favour with those who seek philosophic principles from
sources of so-called pure metaphysics. It would be
idle to present here with Kant an analysis of the as-
sumption of the development of all human right from
the conditions of the use of liberty consistent with the
general law of universal liberty, and the creation of
civil government as an embiodiment of universal
liberty in the unified will of all the constituents of the
State.

SuABEE, De Opere Sex Dierum, V, vii; Idem, Defmaio Fidti,
III, ii, Ui: Idem, De Legibus, III, ii, iii, iv; Costa-Rosbtti, Phil-
owphia Moralis (Inzusbruck, 1886); de Haller. RMlauralion de la
Science Politique; TapaRBlu, DriUo Naiurale (Rome, 1865);
Mbteb, InaOtutionee Juris Natnralia (Frnburg, 1900); Hobbbs,
Z«0vwtfftan (Cambridge Uoivenuty Preas) ; Rocjssbau, Du Contrat
Social (Paris, 1896>. The Social Conirad.tT. Tozer (London,
1909) ; Spencer. The Study of Soeioloov (London) ; Comtb, Let
Principe* du Poeiiitisme; ScfiAPFLS, Strudum etta Viedu Corpe
Social; Bluntochu, The Theory of the State (Oxford translation,
Clarendon Press, 1901) ; Stbrbbtt, The Bthice of Hegel (Boston,
1893) ; Woodbow Wzlbon, The StaU (Boston. 1909).

Cbabxas Mackbbt.

8oei«t7, The Catholic Chttrob Extbnsion. —
In the United States. — ^The first active agitation
for a church extension or home mission society for the
Catholic Church in North America was begun in 1004
by an article of the,pres^it writer, published in the
'^ American Ecclesiastical Review" (Philadelphia).
This article was followed by a discussion in the same
review, participated in by several priests, and then by
a second article of the writer's. On 18 October, 1905,
the discussion which these articles aroused took form,
and, under the leadership of the Most Reverend James
Edward Quigley, Archbishop of Chicago, a new so-
cietv, called The Catholic Church Extension Society
of the United States of America, was organised at a
meeting held in the archbishop's residence at Chicago.
The fouowing were present at that meeting and bo-
came the first board of governors of the society : The
Archbishoos of Chicago and Santa Fe, the Bishop of
Wichita, tne present Bishop of Rodrford, Reverends
Francis C. Kelley, G. P. Jennings, E. P. Graham, E.
A. Kelhr, J. T. Roche, B. X. O'Rially, F. J. Van Ant-
werp, F. A. O'Brien: Messrs. M. A. Fanning, Anthony
A. Hirst, William r. Breen, C. A. Plamondon, J. A.
Roc, and S. A. Baldus. All these are still (1911) con-
nected with the church extension movement, except
Archbishop Bouivade of Santa F6, who has since died,
Reverends E. P. Graham and F, A. O'Brien, and Mr.
C. A. Plamondon, who for one reason or another have
found it impossible to continue in the work. The
Archbishop of Chica^ was made chairman of the
board, the present writer was elected president, and
Mr. William P. Breen, tL.D., of Fort Wayne, Indi-
ana, treasurer. Temporary headquarters were estab-
lished at Lapeer, Michigan. The seoond meeting waa
held in December of the same year, when the consti-
tution was adopted and the work formally launched.
A charter was granted on 25 December, 1905, by the
State of Michigan to the new society, whose objects
were set forth as follows: '*To develop the mission-
ary spirit in the clergy and people of the Catholic
Church in the United States. To assist in the erec-
tion of parish buildings for poor and needy places.
To support priests for neglected or proverty-stricken
districts. To send the comfort of religion to pioneer
localities. In a word, to preserve the faith of Jesus
Christ to thousands of scattered Catholics in every
portion of our own land, especially in the country dis-
tricts and among immigrants." In January, 1907,
tile headquarters of the society were moved to Chi-
cago, and the president was transferred to that ardi-
diocese. In April, 1906, the society began the publi-
cation of a quarterly bulletin caUed "Extension".
In May, 1907, this quarterly was enlarged and
changed into a monthly; its circulation has steadily
increased, and at the present time (1911) it has over
one hundred thousand paid subscribers. On 7 June,
1907, the society received its first papal approval by
an Apostolic Letter of Pius X addressed to the Ardir
bishop of Chicago. In this letter His Holiness gave
imqnalified praise to the young organisation and be-
stowed on its supporters and members many spiritual
favours. On 9 June, 1910, the pope issued a spedal
Brief by which the society was raised to the dignity
of a canonical institution, directly under his own
guidance and protection. . By the terms of this Brief,
the Archbishop of Chicago is always to be dianoeUor
of the Society. The president must be appointed by
the Holy Father himself. His term of office is not
more than five years." The board of governors has the
right to propose three names to the Holy See for this
office, and to elect, according to th^ laws^ all other
officers of the society. The Brief also provided for a
cardinal protector, living in Rome. His Holiness
named Cardinal Sebastian Martinelli for this office,
and later on appointed the present writer the first
president under the new regulations. The Brief
nmits the society's aotivitiea to the United States

S0CIET7

S0CIBT7

4tua tt8 possessions. A similiar Brief was issued to
the Qiurch Extension Society in Canada.

Since the organization of the church extension
movement, the American society has expended over
half a minion dollars in missionary work. It has
made about seven hundred gifts and loans to poor mis-
sions, and has had about five hundred and fifty
chapels built in places where no Catholic Church or
chapel exist(;d previously and the scattered people
could attend Mass only with great difficulty. Both
societies have been educating many students for the
missions, and both have circulated much good Catho-
lic literature. The American society operates a
"chapel car" (donated by one of its members, Am-
brose Petry, K. C. S. G.)i which carries a missionary
into the remote districts along railroad lines, preach-
ing missions and encouraging scattered Catholics to
form centres with their own little chapels as be^nlngs
of future parishes. The Holy Father has particularly
blessed tnis chapel car work, and has pven a gold
medal to the donor of the car and to the society in
recognition of its usefulness. Another chapel car,
muchl^er and better equipped, is now about to be
built. T^e society has interested itself very greatly
in the missionary work of Porto Rico and the Philip-
pine Islands, and has achieved substantial results.
The Canadian society has been very active in saving
the Ruthenian Catholics of the Canadian North-West
to the Faith^ against which an active war has been
waged, especially by the Presbyterians. It was prin-
cipally through the publicity given to this activity by
the Canadian Society that the situation was brought
to the attention of the bishops in Canada, who at the
ftret Plenary Coimcil decided to raise $100,000 for this
work. The American society's first quinquennial re-
port shows splendid progress, and the present situsr
tion of both societies gives promise of great things to
come. A remarksJ>le thing about the church exten-
sion movement is the ready response of the wealthier
class of Catholics in the Unitea States to its appeals,
^me very large donations have been given. The
Ancient Order of Hibernians is raising a fund of
150,000 for chapel building, and the Women's
Catholic Order of Foresters $26,000. The directors
intend to erect a college for the American mission.

The church extension movement, as it exists in the
United States and Canada, has no close parallels in
other countries, but is not unlike the Boniface Associa-
tion in Germany or the CEuvre of St. Francis de Sales hi
France. Membership is divided into founders ($5000).
life members ($1000), fifteen-year members ($100), and
Annual Members ($10) . There is a Women's Auxiliary
in both societies which now begins to flourish. The
American society has also a branch for children called
the * 'Child Apostles' ' . From the pennies of the children,
chapels are to be built and each one called the "Holy
Innocents"; the children have just completed (1911)
the amoimt needed for their first chapel. ^ The present
officers of the American society are: His Eminence,
Sebastian Cardinal Martinelli, Cardinal Protector;
Most Rev. James E. Quigley, D.D., Chancellor;
Most Rev. S. G. M(^mcr, D.D., Vice-Chancellor;
Very Rev. Francis C. Kelley, D.D., LL.D., Presi-
dent; Rev. E. B. Ledvina, Vice-President and General
Secretary; Rev. E. L. Roe, Director of the Women's
Auxiliary and Vice-President; Rev. W. D. O'Brien,
Director of the (IJhild Apostles and Vice-President;
Mr. Leo Doyle, General Counsel and Vice-President;
Mr. John A. Lynch, Treasurer. 'The members of the
executive committee are: Most Rev. James E. Quig-
ley, D.D.; Very Rev. Francis C. Kelley, D.D., LL.D.,
Rev. Edward A. Kelly, LL.D.; Messrs. Ambrose
Petry, K. C. S. G^ Richmond Dean, Warren A. Cart-
ier, and Edward F. Carry. On the board of govern-
ors are the Archbishops of Chicago, San Francisco,
Milwaukee, Boston, New Orleans, Santa F<5, Oregon
City, with the bishops of Covington, Detroit, Wichita,

Duluth, Brooklyn, Trenton, Mobile, Rockford, Kan-
sas City, Pittsburgh and Helena, and distingiuished
priests and laymen.

In Canada. — The church extension movement was
organized in Canada as an independent society (bear-
ing the name of "The Catholic Church Extension
Society of Canada") by the Most Reverend Donatus
Sbarretti, Delegate Apostolic of that country. Most
Rev. Fergus Patrick McEvay, D.D., Archbisnop of
Toronto, Rev. Dr. A. E. Burke of the Diocese of
Charlottetown, Very Rev. Monsignor A. A. Sinnott,
secretaiy of the Apostolic Delegation, the Rev. Dr.
J. T. Kidd, chancellor of Toronto, the Right Honour-
able Sir CJharles Fitzpatrick, K. C. M. G., Chief Jus-
tice of Canada, and the present writer. The Canct-
dian society at once purchased the ''Catholic Regis-
ter", a weekly paper, enlarged it, and tmned it into
the official organ of the work. The drculation of this
paper has increased marvellously. The new society in
Canada received a Brief, similar to that granted the
American society, establishing it canonically. The
same cardinal protector waa appointed for both organ-
izations. The Archbishop of Toronto was made
chancellor of the Canadian society, and Very Rev.
Dr. A. E. Burke was appointed president for the full
term of five years. The officers of the Canadian
society are: His Eminence Cardinal Martinelli, Pro-
tector; The Archbishop of Toronto (see vacant),
Chancellor; Very Rev. A. E. Burke, D.D., LL.D.,
President; Rev. J. T. Kidd, D.D., Secretstfy : Rev.
Hugh J. Canning, Diocesan ^Director; The Archbishop
of Toronto; Right Hon. Sir Charles Fitzpatrick,
K. C. M. G., and the President, Executive Com-
mittee.

Francis C. Kellet.

Sodetj for Promoting Christian Knowiedlge.

See Chbsstiak Knowledob, Socebtt fob Pbomoiv

Society of Foreign Missions of Paris.— The So-
ciety of Foreign Missions was established 1658^-63, its
chief founders being Mgr Pallu, Bishop of Heliopolis,
Vicar Apostolic of Tonkins, and Mgr Lambert de la
Motte, Bishop of Bertyus, Vicar ApostoUc of Cochin-
China. Both bishops left France (1660-62) to go to
their respective missions and as true travellers of
Christ they crossed Persia and India on foot. The
object of the new society was and still is the evangeli-
zation of infidel countnes, by founding churches and
training up a native clergy under the jurisdiction of
the bishops. In order that the society might recruit
members and administer its property, a house was es-
tablished in 1663 by the priests whom the vicars
Apostolic had appomted their agents. This house,
wnose directors were to form young priests to the
apostolic Ufe and transmit to the bishops the offer-
ings made by charity, was and is still situated at Paris
in the Rue du Bac. Known from the beginning as the
Seminary of Foreign Missions, it secured the approval
of Alexander VII, and the legal recognition, still in
force, of the French Government.

The nature and organization of the society deserve
special mention. It is not a religious order but a con-
gregation, a society of secular priests, united aa
members of the same body, not by vows but by
the rule approved by the Holy See, by community
of object, and the Seminary of Foreign Missions,
which is the centre of the society and the common
basis which sustains the other parts. On enter-
ing the society the missionaries promise to devote
themselves until death to the service of the missions,
while the society assures them in return, besides the
means of sanctification and perseverance, all neces-
sary temporal support and assistance. There is no
superior peneral; the bishops, vicars Apostolic, su-
periors of missions, and board of directors of the sem-
mary are the superiors of the society. The directow

80CaT7

80CIKTT

of the seminary are choeen from among the missbn-
aries and each group of missions is represented by
a director. The biwops and vicars Apostolic are
appointed by the pope^ after nomination by the mis-
sionaries, and presentation by the directors of the semi-
nary. In their missions they depend only on Propa-
ganda and through it on the pope. No subject aged
more than thirty-five may be admitted to the semi-
nary nor may anyone become a member of the society
before having spent three years in the mission field.
Several points of this rule were determined from the
earliest years of the society's existence, others were
established by degrees and as experience pointed
out their usefulness. By this rule the society has
lived and according to it its history has been out-
lined.

This history is difficult, for owing to the length of
the journeys, the infrequent communications, and the
poverty of resources the missions have developed with
difficulty. The chief events of the first period (1658-
1700) are: the publication of the book '^ Institutions
apostoliques'', which contains the germ of the prin-
ciples of the rule, the foundation of the general sem-
inanr at Juthia (Siam), the evanpelization of Tonking,
Cochin China^ Cambodia, and Siam, where more than
40,000 Christians were baptized, the creation of an
institute of Annamite nuns -known as *^ Lovers of the
Cross'', the establishment of rules amone catechists,
the ormnation of thirty native priests. Beside these
events of purely rehgious interest there were others in
the poUtical order which emphasized the patriotism
of these evuigelical labourers: through their initiative
a more active trade was establish^ between Indo-
China, ihe Indies, and France; embassies were sent
from place to place; treaties were signed; a French ex-
I>e)dition to Siam took possession of Baz^kok, Mer-
gin, and Jonselang, and France was on l£e verge of
poflseasing an Indo-Chinese empire when the blun-
dering of subalterns ruined an undertaking the failure
of wMch had an unfortunate influence on the mis-
sions. But the most important work of the vicars
Apostolic and the society is the application of the
fruitful principle of the organization of churches by
native priests and bishops. Thenceforth the aposto-
late in its progress has followed this plan in eveiy part
of the world with scrupulous fidelity and increasing
success. In the'second half of the eighteenth century
it was charged ^th the missions which the Jesuits had
possessed in India prior to their suppression in Portu-
gal. Many of the Jesuits remains there. The mis-
sions thereupon assumed new life, especially at Se-
tchoan, where remarkable bishops, Mgr Pettier and
Mgr Dufresse, gave a strong impulse to evangelical
work) and in Cochin China, where Mgr Pigneau de
Behame performed signal service for the king of that
coimtry as his agent m making with France a treaty,
which was the firet step towards the present splendia
situation of France in Indo-China. At the end of the
eighteenth century the French Revolution halted the
growUi of the society, which had previously been very
rapid. At that time it had six bishops, a score of
missionaries, assisted by 135 native priests; in the
various missions there were nine seminaries with 250
students, and 300,000 Christians. Each year the
number of adult baptisms rose on an average of 3000
to 3500; that of infant baptisms in artiado nwrtis was
more Uian 100,000.

In the nineteenth century the development of the
society and its missions was rapid and considerable.
Several causes contributed to this; chie^ the charity
of the Propagation of the Faith and the Society of the
Holy Childhood; each bishop receives annually 1200
francs, each missionary 600 francs, each mission has
its general needs and works allowance, which varies
according to its importance and may amount to from
10,000 to 30,000 francs. The second cause was per-
secution. Fifteen missionaries died in prison or were

breaded during t^e seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies and the beginning of the ninete^th century,
but after that the mari^rrs among the missionaries
were very numerous. The best known are Mgr Du-
fresse, Vicar ApostoUc of Se-tchoan, beheaded in 1815;
Gagelin, Marchand, Jaccard, Comay, and Dumouhn-
Borie from 1833 to 1838; and from 1850 to 1862
Schoeffler. V^nard, BonnarcL, N^ron, Chapdelaine, N^,
Cuenot, Vicar Apostolic of Eastern Cochin China. If,
besides these, mention were made of the native priests,
catechists, and nuns, in short of all who died for
Christ, we should have a record of one of the bloodiest
holocausts in history. These persecutions were de-
scribed in Europe by books, pamphlets, annals, and
journals, arousing the pity of some and the anger of
others and inspinng numerous young men either with
the desire of martyrdom or that of evangeUzation.
They moved European nations, especially France and
England, to intervene in Indo-China and China and
open up in these countries an era of liberty and pro-
tection till then unknown. Another cause of the
progress of the missionaries was the ease and fre-
quency of communication in consequence of the in-
vention of steam and the opening; of the Suez Canal.
A voyage could be made safely m one month which
had formerly required from eight to ten months amid
many dangers.

The following statistics of the missions confided to
the Society wiU show this development at a glance:
Missions of Japan and Korea. — Tokio, Nagasaki,
Osaka, Hakodate, Korea, total number of Catholics,
138,624; churches or chapels, 238; bishops and mis-
sionaries, 166; native priests, 48; catechists, 517; sem-
inaries, 4; seminarists, 81; communities of men and
women, 44, containing 399 persons; schools, 161, with
9024 pupils; orphanages and work-rooms 38, with 988
children; pharmacies, dispensaries, and ho^itals, 19.
Missions of China and Tthet, — Western, Eastern, and
Southern Se-tchoan, Yun-nan, Kouy-tcheou, Kou-
ang-ton, Kouang-si, Southern Manchuria, Northern
Manchuria.— Catholics, 272, 792; churches or chapels,
1392; bishops and missionaries, 408; native priests,
191; catechists, 998; seminaries, 19; seminarists, 661;
communities of men and women, 23, with 222 members;
schools, 1879, with 31,971 pupils; orphanages and
work-rooms, 132, with 4134 children; pharmacies, dis-
pensaries, and hospitals, 364. Missions of Eastern
Indo-China. — ^Tongking, Cochin China, Cambodia.^
Catholic population, 632,830; churches or chapels,
2609; bishops and missionaries, 365; native priests,
491; catechists, 1153; seminaries, 14; seminarists,
1271; communities of men and women^ 91, with 2583
persons; schools, 1859, with 58,434 pupils; orphanages
and work-rooms, 106, with 7217 children; pharmacies,
dispensaries, hospitals. 107. Missions of Western
IncUhChina. — Siam, Malacca, Laos, Southern Bur-
ma, Northern Burma. — Catholics, 132,226; churches
or chapels, 451; bishops and missionaries, 199; na-
tive priests, 42; catechiste, 242; seminaries, 3; semi-
narists, 81 ; communities of men and women, 47, with
629 members; schools, 320, with 21,306 pupils: or-
phanages and work-rooms, 132, with 3757 cniloren;
pharmacies, dispensaries, hospitals, 86. Missions of
India. — Pondicherry, Mysore, Coimbatore, Kumbako-
nam. — Catholics^ 324,050; churches or chapels, 1048;
bishops and missionaries, 207; native priests, 67; cate-
chists, 274; seminaries, 4; seminarists, 80; conununi-
ties of men and women, 64, with 787 members:
schools, 315, with 18,693 pupils; orphanagres and
work-rooms, 57, with 2046 children; pharmacies, dis-
pensaries, and hospitals, 41.

In addition to these missionaries actively engaged
in mission work, there are some occupied in the es-
tablishments called common, because they are used
by the whole society. Indeed the development of the
society necessitated undertakings which were not
needed in the past. Hence a sanatorium for sick

800IET7

SOCXETT

miflBionaries has been establisbed at HoDg^Kong on
the coast of China; another in India among the
Nilgiri mountains, of radiant appearanoe and in-
vigorating cHmate, and a third in Franee. In think-
ing <^ the welfare of the body, that of the soul was
not lost sight of, and a house of spiritual retreat was
founded at Hong-Kong, whither all the priests of the
society may repair to renew their priestly and apos-
tolic fervour. To this house was added a printing
establishment, whence issue the most beautiful works
of the Far East, dictionaries, g^rammars, books of
theology, piety, Christian doctrine, and pedagogy.
Houses of correspondence, or agencies, were estab-
lished in the Far East at Shan^ai, Hong-Kong,
Saigon, Singapore, and one at Mmeilles, France.
The Seminary of the Foreign Missions wnich long
had only one section, has for twenty years had two.

Btrar^iru (Paris. 1842) ; Launat, Hitt, giniraU de la SociM dm
MiMumt-BtranghreB (Paris, 1894) : Docum. hiaL aurlaSoci. daaMia-
aiona-Etranohaa (Paris. 1904); Htat, daa miaaiona da VInda (Paris,
1898): Hiat. de la miaaion du Thibat (Paris. 1903); HiaL dea mia-
awna da China 8 (Paris, 1903-8); LovvsT, La Cochinchine tdi-
Qieuaa fPftris, 1885); Dallbt. Hiat, da VSglise da CorSa (Paris.
1874) ; Marnas, La religion da JUua raaauaeiU au Japan (Paris.
1896).

A. Laxjnat.

Sociaty of Jasui (Company of Jesus, Jesxhts),
a religious order founded by Saint Ignatius Loyola
(q. V.) . D^gnated by him " The Company of Jesus"
to indicate its true leader and its soldier spirit, the
title was latinised into ''Societas Jesu" in the Bull of
Paul III aiiproving Its formation and the first formula
of its Institute C'Regimini militantis ecdesiffi'', 27
Sept., 1540). The term "Jesuit" (of fifteenth-cen-
tury origin, meaning one who used too freely or appro-
priated the name of Jesus), was first applied to the
Society in reproach (1644-52), and was never, em-
ployed by its founder, though members and friends
of the Society in time accepted the name in its good
sense. Th& Society ranks among religious institutes
as a mendicant order of clerks re^lar, that is, a body
of priests organized for apostohc work, following a
religious rule, and reljring on ahns for their support
[BuUs of Pius V, "Dum indefess»", 7 July, 1671;
Gregory XIII, "Ascendente Domino" (q. v.), 26
May, 15841.

Aj9 has been explained under the title "Ignatius
Loyola", the founder began his self-reform, and the
enustment of followers, entirely prepossessed with the
idea of the imitation of Christ, and without any plan
for a religious order or purpose of attending to the
needs of the days. Unesmeotedly prevented from
carrying out this original idea, he offered his services
and those df his followers to the pope, "Christ upon
E^arth", who at once employed them in such works
as were most pressing at the moment. It was only
after this and just before the first companions broke
up to go at the pope's command to vanous countries,
that the resolution to found an order was taken, ana
that Ignatius was commissioned to draw up Constitu-
tions. This he did slowly and methodically; first
introducing rules and customs, and seeins how they
worked. He did not codify them for tne first six

£»rs. Then three years were given to formulating
ws, the wisdom of which had been proved by experi-
ment. In the last six years of the samt's life the Con-
stitutions so composed were finally revised and put
into practice everywhere. This sequence of events
explams at once how the Society, though devoted to
the following of Christ, as thou^ there were nothing
else in the world to care fpr, is also so excellently
adapted to the needs of the day. It began to attend
to them before it bef^an to le^slate; and its legisla-
tion was the codification of those measures which had
been proved by experience to be apt to preserve
its preliminary religious principle among men actu-
ally devoted to the requirements of the Church in
days not unlike our own.

XIVrT-6

The Society was not foimded with the avowed
intention of opposing Protestantism. Neither the
papal letters of approbation, nor the Constitutions of
the order mention this as the object of the new founda-
tion. When Ignatius began to devote himself to the
service of the (Jnurch, he had probably not heard even
the names of the Protestant Reformers. His early
plan was rather the conversion of Mohammedans, an
idea which^ a few decades after the final triumpn of
the Christians over the Moors in Spain, must have
strongly appealed to the chivalrous Spaniard. Th6
name ' Societas Jesu" had been borne by a military
order approved and recommended by Pius II in 1459,
the purpose of which was to fi^t against the Turks
and aid in spreading the Christian taith. The early
Jesuits were sent by Ignatius first to pa^an lands or to
Catholic countries: to Protestant countries only at the
special reauest of the pope, and to Germany, the
cradle-lana of the Reformation, at the urgent solici-
tation of the imperial ambassador. From the very
beginning the missionary labours of Jesuits amons the

gagans of India, Japan, China, Canada, Centrafand
outh America were as important as their activity
in Christian countries. As the object of the Society
was the propagation and strengthening of the Catholfo
Faith everywhere, the Jesuits naturally endeavoured
to counteract the spread of Protestantism.' They
became the main instruments of the Counter-Refor-
mation; the reconquest of southern and western
Germany and Austna for the Church, and the pres-
ervation of the Catholic faith in France and other
countries were due chiefly to their exertions.

Institute, Constitutions, Legislation. — ^The
official publication which comprises all the regula-
tions of the Society^ its codex legum, is entitled ''Insti-
tutum Societatis Jesu", of which the latest edition
was issued at Rome and Florence, 186^91 (for full
bibliography see Sommervogel, V, 75-116; IX, 609-
611 ; for commentators see X, 705-710) . The Institute
contains: (1) The special Bulls and other pontifical
documents approving the Society and canonically
determining or regulating its various works, and
its ecclesiastical standing and relations. — Besides
those already mentioned^ other important BuUs are
those of; Paul III, "Injunctum nobis", 14 March,
1643; Julius III, "Exposcit debitum", 21 July, 1560;
Pius y, "iEiquum reputamus", 17 January, 1666;
Pius Vll, ''Sollicitudo omnium ecclesianim", 7 Au-
gust, 1814; Leo XIII, "Dolemus inter alia", 13 July,
1880. (2) The Examen Generale and Ck)nstitu-
tions. — ^The Examen contains subjects to be ex-
phumed to^postulants and points on which thev are
to be exammed. The Constitutions are divided into
ten parts: (a) admission; (b) dismissal; (c) novitiate;
(d) scholastic training; (e) profession and other grades
of membership; (f) religious vows and other obliga-
tions as observed in the Society; (g) missions and
other ministries; (h) congregations, local and general
assemblies ss a means of union and uniformity:
(i) the general and chief superiors; (j) preservation of
tile spirit of the Society. Thus lar in the Institute
aU is oy St. I^piatius, who h^s also added "Declara-
tions" of vanous obscure parts. Then come; (3)
Decrees of General Congregations, which have equal
authoritv with the Constitutions; (4) Rules, gen-
eral ana particular, etc.j (6) Formula or order of
business for the congregations; (6) Ordinations of gen-
erals; which have the same authority as the rules;

(7) Instructions, some for superiors, others for those
engaged in the missions or other works of the Society;

(8) nidustri®, or special counsels for superiors; (9)
llie Book ctf the Spiritual Exercises; and (10) the Ratio
Studiorum (q[. v.), which have directive force only.

The Constitutions as drafted by Ignatius and
adopted finally by the first congregation of the Society,
166§, have never been altered. Ill-informed writers
have stated that Lainez, the second general, made

SOCIETY 82 80CXETT

oonsiderable changes in the saint's conception of the tionate relations of members with superiors and with

orderj but Ignatius's own last recension of the Con- one another, by the manifestation of conscience, moro

stitutions, lately reproduced in facsimile (Rome, or less practised in every religious order, and by mutual

1908), exactly agrees with the text of the Constitu- correction when this may be necessary. It also applies

tions now in force, and contains no word by Lainez, to the methods employed to ascertain the qualifica-

not even in the Declarations, or glosses adcfed to the tions of members for various offices or ministries,
text, which are all the work of Ignatius. The text iif The chief authority is vested in the general oongre-

use in the Sodetv is a Latin version prepared imder gation, which elects the general, and coUld, for certain

the direction of the third congregation, and subjected grave causes, depose him. This body could also

to a minute comparison with the Spanish original (though there has never yet been an occasion for so

preserved in the Society's archives, during the fourth doing) add new Constitutions, and abrogate old

conflp'egation (1581). ones. Usually this congregation is convened on the

These Constitutions were written after lon^ delib- occasion of the death of a general, in order to elect

eration between Ignatius and his compamons in has successor, and to make provisions for the govem-

founding the Society ^ as at first it seemed to them ment and welfare of the Society. It may also be

that they might contmue their work without the aid called at other times for grave reasons. It consists

of a special llule. They were the fruit of long expe- of the general, when alive, and his assistants, the

rienceandofseriousmeditation and prayer. Through- provincials, and two deputies from each province or

out they are inspired bv an exaltea spirit of charity territorial oivision of the societv elected by the supe-

and of zeal for souls. They contain nothing unreason- riors and older professed memoerB. Thus authority

able. To appreciate them, however, requires a knowl- in the Society eventually rests on a democratic basis,

"^dge of canon law as applied to monastic life and But as there is no definite time for calling the general

..v-bOUCBD FaCSOIIUB OF SpAMIBH MS. OF THli CONBTITUTIONfl WTTR AVTOOSAPR GOBBBCTIONS BY cT. IgN TIIIUS

also of their history in the light of the times for congregation, which in fact rarely oocurs except to

which they were framed. Usually those who find elect a new general, the exercise of authority is

fault with them either have never read them or else usually in the hands of the general, in whom is vested

have misinterpreted them. Monod, for instance, the fullness of administrative power, and of spiritual

in his introduction to Bohmer's essay on the Jesuits authority. He can do anything within the scooe of

pear that they require obedience even to the comm&- number at present, one each for Italy, France, Spain

sion of sin. as if the text were ohligatio ad peccandunif and countries of Spanish origin, one for Germany,

whej^as the obvious meaning and purpose of the Austria, Poland, Belgium, Hungary, Holland, and one

text is precisely to show that the transgression of the for Englishnspeaking coimtries — ^England. Ireland,

rules is not in itself sinful. Monod enumerates such United States, Canada, and British colonies {except

men as Amauld, Wolf, Lange, Ranke in the first India). These usually hold office until the death of

edition of his "History", Hausser and Droysen, the general. Should the general through a«e or

Philippson and CharbonneL as having repeated the infirmity become incapacitated for governing the

same error, although it had been refuted frequently Society, a vicar is chosen by a general congregation to

since 1824^ particularly by Gieseler, and corrected act for him. At his death he names one so to

by Ranke m nis second edition. Whenever the Con- act until the congregation can meet and elect his

stitutions enjoin what is already a serious moral successor.

obhgation, or superiors, by virtue of their authority. Next to him in order of authority come the pro-
impose a grave obligation, transgression is sinful; vincials, the heads of the Society, whether for an
but this is true of such transgressions not only in the entire country, as England, Ireland, Canada, Bel-
Society but out of it. Moreover such commands gium, Mexico, or, where these units are too large or
are rarely given by the superiors and only when the too small to make convenient provinces, they may
good <rf the individual member or the common good be subdivided or jomed together. Thus there are
imperatively demands it. The rule throughout is now four provinces in the Ihiited States: California,
one of love inspired by wisdom, and it must be inter- Maryland-New York, Missouri, New Orleans. In
preted in the spirit of charity which animates it. all there are now twenty-seven provinces. The
This is especially true of its provisions for the aflFec- provincial is appointed by the geneJal with ample

BOCIETT 83 SOCIETT

administrative faculties. He too has a coundl of rienoed fathers. They question him about the age,

'^consultors" and an ''admonitor", appointed by healthy position, occupation of his parents, their rdi-

the general. Under the provincial come the local gion and good character, their dependence on his

superiors. Of these, rectors- of colleges, provosts services; about his own healthy obhgation& such as

of professed houses, and masters of novices are debts, or other contractual relations; his 8tu<iie8,quali-

appointed bv the general; the rest by the provincial, fications, moral character, personal motives as well as

To enable the general to make and control so many the external influences that may have led him to seek

appointments, a free and ample correspondence is admission. The results of their questioning and of

kept up, and everyone has the right of private com- their^ own observation they report severally to the

munication with him. No superior, except the proyinciid^ who wei^ their opinions carefully before

genend, is named for Hfe. Usually provincials and deciding for or against the applicant. Any notable

rectors of colleges hold office for three years. bodily or mental defect in the candidate, serious

Members of the Society fall into four classes: indebtedness or other obligation, previous member-

(1) Novices (whether received as lav brothers for the ship in another religious order even for a day, indi-

aomestic and temporal services of the order, or as catmg instability of vocation, unqualifies for admi»-

aspirants to the priesthood), who are trained in the sion. Undue influence, particularly if exercised by

spmt and disciplme of the order, prior to making the members of the order, would occasion stricter scrutiny

reli^ous vows. (2) At the end of two years the than usual into the personal motives of the applicant,

novices make simple but perpetual vows, and, if Candidates mav enter at any time, but usually

aspirants to the priesthood, become Jcrmed seholas- there is a fixed day each year for their admission,

Hcs; they remain m this grade as a rule from two to towards the close of the summer holidays, in order

fifteen ^ears, in which time they will have completed that all may begin their training, or probation, to^

all their studies, pass (generally) a certain penod in gether. They spend the first ten days considering

teaching, receive the priesthood, and go through a the manner of life they are to adopt and its difliculties,

third year of novitiate or probation (the tertian^op).' the rules of the order, the obedience required of its

According to the degree of discipline and virtue, and members. They then make a brief retreat, meditat-

to the talents they display (the latter are normally ing on what they have learned about the Society and

tested by the examination for the Degree of Doctor examining closely their own motives and hopes of per-

of Theofof^), they may now become formed coadju- severance in the new mode of life. I£ all be satisfac-

tors or professed members of the order. (3) Formed tory to them and the superior or director who has

eoadjiUors, whether formed lay brotJiers or priests, charge of them, they are aomitted as novices, wear the

make .vows, which,^ though not solemn^ are perpetual clerical costume (as there is no special Jesuit habit),

on their part ; while the Society, on its side, bmds itself and be^ in earnest the life of members of the Society,

to them, unless they should commit some grave They rise early, make a brief visit to the chapel, a

offence. (4) The professed are all priests, who meditation on some subject selected the night before,

make, besides the three usual solenm vows of religion, assist at Mass, review their meditation, breakfast,

a fourth, of special obedience to the pope in the matter and then prepare for the day's routine. This con-

of missions, undertaking to go wherever they are sists of manual labour, in or out of doors, reading

sent, without even requiring money for the journey, books on spiritual topics, ecclesiastical histoiy, biog-

They also make certain additionid, but non-essential, raphy, particularly of men or women distinguish^

simple vows, in the matter of poverty, and the refusal for seal and enterprise in missionarv or educational

of external honours. The professed of the four vows fields. There is a daily conference by the master of

constitute the kernel of the Society; the other grades novices on some detiul of the Institute, notes of

are r^;arded as preparatory or as subsidiary to this, which all are required to make, so as to be ready,

The chief offices can be held by the professed alone; when asked, to repeat the salient points,

and Uiough they may be dismiased, yet they must be Wherever it is possible some are submitted to

received back, if willing to comply with the conditions certain tests of their vocation and usefulness: to

that may be prescribed. Otherwise they enjoy no teaching catechism in the village churches; to att^id-

privfleges, ana many posts of importance, such as ance on the sick in hospitals; to going about on a

the government of colleges, may be held by members pilgrimage or missionary journey without money

of other grades. For special reasons some are or other provision. As soon as possible all make the

occamonally professed of three vows and they have spiritual exercises for thirty days. This is really the

certain but not all the privileges of the other pro- chief test of a vocation, as it is also in epitome the

fessed. All live in community alike as remrds food, main work of the two years of the novitiate and for

apparel, lodging, recreation, and all are luike boima that matter of the entire life of a Jesuit. On these

by the rules of the Society. exercises the Constitutions, the life, and activity

There are no secret Jesuits. Like other orders the <^ the Society are bttsed, so that they are really

Society can, if it will, make its friends participators the chief factor in forming the character of a Jesuit.

in its prayers and in the merits of its good works; In accordance with the ideals set forth in these

but it cannot make them members of the order, un- exercises, of disinterested conformity with God's

they live the life of the order. There is indeed the will, and of personal love of Jesus Chnst, the novice

case of St. Francis Borna, who made some of the is trained aili^ently in a meditative study of the

probations in an unusual way, outside the houRcs of truths of religion, in the habit of self-knowledge,

the order. But this was in order that he might be in a constant scrutiny of his motives and of the

free to conclude certain business matters and other actions inspired by them^ in the correction of every

affairs of state, and thus appear the sooner in public as form of self-deceit, iUusion, plausible pretext, and

a Jesuit, not that he might remain permanently out- in the education of his will, particularly in making

side the common life. choice of what seems best after careful deliberation

Novitiate and Training. — Candidates for admission and without self-seeking. Deeds, not words, are

come not only from the colleges conducted by the insisted upon as proof of genuine service, and a me-

Sodety, but from other schools. Freouently post- chanical, emotional, or fanciful piety is not tolerated,

graduate or professional students, ana those who As the novice gradually thus becomes master of his

have already begun their career in business or profes- judgment and will, he grows more and more capable

Bjonal life, or even in the priesthood, apply for admis- of (mering to God the reasonable service enjoined by

■ion. Usually the candidate applies in person to the St. Paul, and seeks to follow the Divine will, as mani-

provincial, and if he considers him a likely subject he fested b^ Jesus Christ, by His vicar on earth, by the

tefen him for examination to four of the more expe- bishops appointed to rule His Church, by his more

80CXET7 84 80CIBT7

immediate or religious superiora, and by tji^ civil hftnayw h^ mjut inteiiuet and determine ita applica-

powers rightfull}^ exercising authority. This is what tion. In this fact and in its consequences, the Society

IS meant by Jesuit obedience, the characteristic virtue differs from every religious order antecendent to its

of the order, such a sincere respect for authority as foundation; to this iirincipally it owes its life, activity,

to accept its decisions and comply with them, not and power to adapt its Institute to modem conditions

merely by outward performance but in all sincerity without need of change in that instrument or of

with the conviction that compliance is best^ and that reform in the body itself.

the command expresses for the time the will of God, The storjr of the foimdation of the Society is told

as nearly as it can be ascertained. in the article Ignatius Loyola. Briefly, after

The noviceship lasts two years. On its completion haying inspired his companions Peter Faber, Francis

the novice makes the usual vows of religion, the Xiivier, James Lainez, Alonso Salmer6n, Nicolas

simple vow of chastity in the Society having the Bobadiila, Simon Rodriguez, Claude Le Jay, Jean

force of a diriment impediment to matrimony. Codure, and Paschase Brouet with a desire to dwell

During the noviceship but a brief time daily is devoted in the Holy Land imitating the life of Christ, they

to reviewing previous studies. The noviceship over, first made vows of poverty and chastity at Mont-

the scholastic members, i. e. those who are to become martre. Paris, on 15 August, 1534, adding a vow to

priests in the Society^ follow a special course in go to tne Holy Land after two years. When this was

classics and mathematics lasting two years, usually found to be impracticable, after waiting another

in the same house with the novices. Then, in another year, they offered their services to the pope, Paul III.

house and neighbourhood, three years are given to Fully another year was passed by some m university

the study of philosophy, about five years to teadiing towns in Italy, by the others at Rome, where, after

•in one or other of tne public colleges of the Society, encountering much opposition and slander, au met

four years to the study of theology, priestly orders tc^ether to agree on a mode of life by which they

being conferred after the third, and, finally, one year mig^t advance in evangelical perfection and help

more to another probation or noviceship, mtendd to others in the same task. The first formula of the

help the young priest to renew his spirit of piety and Institute was submitted to the pope and approved of

to leam how to utilize to the best of hb ability all viva voce, 3 September, 1539, and formally, 27 Sep-

the learning and experience he has acquired. In tember, 1540.

exceptional ci^es, as in that of a priest who has CoNsrmmoNs.— Corpu* vutUutorum SocUtatU Jen (Ani-

finished his studies before entering the order,. allow- werp. Pra^e. R^me, 16W. I7ce. 1706, 1707. 1709,. 1869-70;

AnnP is maAi^ unH thp trAininir nprirvl TipeH not Ijwt. P*™» partial edition, 1827-38) ; Gaguardi, De eognUiorM trutt-

ance is maae, ana ine u-ammg penoa neea noi lasi, ^^. (ig^i). lancicixtb, De prcuumiia tnetit. Soe. Jem <1W4);

over ten years, a good part of which is spent m active Nadal. Scholia in coMtOuHonee (1883); Suarbs. Tract, de reii-

ministry. 0*<»^ Soc. Jeeu (1625): Humphrbt, The Rdtgiotu State (Londoiit

The object of the o«ler is not limited to practising i^-i^rll^^^^^ttfe'^iSSSilibSS^

any one class of good works, however laudable (as the Society of Jetue (Washington, 1839; London, 1863).

preaching, chanting office, doing penance, etc.) but

to study, in the manner of the Spiritual Exercises, Generals Pbior to the Suppression of the

what Christ would have done, if He were living in our Society. — (1) St. Ignatius Loyola (q. v.), 19 April,

circumstances, and to carry out that ideal. Hence 1541-^1 July, 1556. The Society spread rapidly

elevation and largeness of aim. Hence the motto and at the time of St. I^atius's death had twelve

of the Society: "AdMajoremDeiGloriam". Hence provinces: Italy, Sicily, rortugaJ, Aragon, Castile,

the selection of the virtue of obedience as the charao- Andalusia, Upper German3r. Lower Germany, France,

teristic of the order, to be ready for any call and to India (including Japan), Brazil, and Ethiopia, the

keep unity in every variety of work. Hence, by last-mentioned province lasting but a short time,

easy sequence^ the omission of office in choir, of a It met with opposition at the university of Paris;

specially distinctive habit, of unusual penances, while in Spain it was severely attacked by Melchior

Where the Protestant Reformers aimed at reor^aniz- Cano.

ing the Church at large according to their particular (2) James Lainez (q. v.), 2 July, 1558^-19 January,
conceptions, Ignatius began with mterior self-reform; 1565. Lainez servea two years as vicar-general,
and alter that had been thoroughly established, then and was chosen general in the first general con^rega-
the earnest preaching of self-retorm to others. That tion, retiutled till 1558 (19 June-10 Sept.), owing to
done, the (Jhurch would not, and did not, fail to the unfortunate war between Paul IV and Philip II.
reform herself. Manv religious distinguished them- Paul IV gave orders that the Divine Office should be
selves as educators before the Jesuits; but the Society recited in choir, and also that the generalate should
was the first order which enjoined by its very Consti- only last for three years. The pope died on 18 Au-
tutions devotion to the cause of education. It was, gust, 1559, and his orders were not renewed by his sue-
in this sense, the first ''teaching order''. cessor^ Pius IV; indeed he refused Father Lainez leave
The ministry of the Society consists chiefly in to resign when his first triennium closed. Through
preaching; teaching catechism, especially to children; Pius's nephew, St. Charles Borromeo, the Society
administering the sacraments, ^ipecially penance nowreceivedmany privilege and openings, and prog-
and the Eucharist: conducting missions m parishes rees was rapid. Father Lainez himself was sent to
on the lines of the Spiritual Exercises; directing those the ''C!olloquy of Poissy'', and to the Council of
who wish to follow tnese exercises in houses of retreat, Trent (156^), Saint Francis Borgia being left in
seminaries, or convents; taking care of parishes or Rome as his vicar-general. At the death of Lainez
of collegiate churches; organizing picas confraternities, the Society numbered 35(X) members in 18 provinces
sodalities, unions of orayer, Bona Mors associations and 130 houses.

in their own and in otner parishes; teaching in schools (3) St. Francis Borgia (q. v.), 2 July, 1565-1 Octo-

of every grade — academic, seminary, university; ber, 1572. One of the most delicate tasks of his

writing books, pamphlets, periodical u*tic]es; going government was to negotiate with Po[)e St. Pius V,

on foreign missions among imcivilized peoples. In who desired to reintroduce the singing of Office,

liturgicalf unctions the Roman Rite is followed. The This was in fact begun in May, 1569, out only in

E roper exercise of all these fimctions is provided for professed houses, and it was not to interfere with
y rules carefully framed by the general congregations other work. Pius also ordained (Christmas, 1566)
or the generals. All these regumtions command the that no candidate of any religious order for the priest-
greatest respect on the part of every member. In hood should be ordained until after his profession;
practice the superior for the time being is the living and this indirectly caused much trouble to the Society,
rule — ^not that ne can alter or iU>rogate any rule, but with its distinct grades of professed and non-pro-

SOCIETY

fessed priests. AH had therefore to be professed of
three vows, until Gregory XIII (Deoember, 1572)
allowed the original practice to be restored. Under
his administration the foreign missionary work of the
order greatly increased and prospered. New mis-
sions were opened by the Society in Florida, Mexico,
and Peru.

(4) Everetrd Mercvrian^ Belgian, 23 April, 1573-1
August, 1580. Fr. Mercurian was bom in 1514 in the
vilmge of Marcour (Luxemburg), whence his name,
which he signed Everard de Marcour. He became
the first non-Spanish general of the Society. Pope
Gregor^r XIII, without conunandine, had expressed
his desire for this change. This, however, caused
great dissatisfaction and opposition among a number
of Spanish and Portuguese members, which came to
a crisis durine the generalate of Father Mercurian's
successor, Father Claudius Acquaviva. Father Tolet
was entrusted with the task of obtaining the submis-
sion of Michael Baius to the decision of the Holy See;
he succeeded, but his success served later to draw on
the Society the hatred of the Jansenists. Father Mer-
curian, when general, brought the Rules to their final
form, compiling the "SimMnary of the Constitutions"
from the manuscripts of St. Ignatius, and drawing up
the "Common Rules" of the Society, and the particu-
lar rules for each office. He was greatly interested in
the foreign missions and establishai the Maronite and
English missions, and sent to the latter Blessed Ed-
mund Campion and Father Robert Persons. Father
Everard Mercurian passed thirty-two years- in the
Society, and died at the age of sixtvHsix. At that
time the Society numbered 5000 members in eighteen
provinces.

(5) Claudius Acauavivaf or Aquaviva (q. v.),
Neapolitan, 19 February, 1581-31 January, 1615
(for the disputations on ^ce, see Congregatio
D£ AuxiLiis). After Ignatius, Acquaviva was per-
haps the ablest ruler of the Society. As a legislator
he reduced to its present form the final parts of the
Institute, and the Ratio Studiorum (q. v.). He had
also to contend with extraordinary obstacles both
from without and within. The Society was banished
from France and from Venicej there were grave differ-
ences with the King of Spam, with Sixtus Y, with
the Dominican theologians j and within the Society
the rivalry between Spaniard and Italian led to
unusual complications and to the calling of two
extraordinary general congregations (fifth and sixth).
The origin of these troubles is perhaps eventuallv
to be sought in the long wars of religion, which grad,-
ually died down after the canonical absolution of
Henry IV, 1595 (in which Fathers Georges/Toledo,
and rossevinus played important parts). The fifth
congregation in 1593 supported Acquaviva steadily
against the opposing parties, and the sixth, in 16()8.
completed the union of opinions. Paul V had in 1606
re-confirmed the Institute, which from now onwards
may be considered to have won a stable position in
the Church at large, until the epoch of the Suppres-
sion and the Revolution. Missions were established
in Canada, dThile, Paraguay, the Philippine Islands, and
China. At Father Acquaviva's death the Society num-
bered 13^112 members in 32 provinces and 559 houses.

(6) Muiius VUeUeschi (q. v.), Roman, 15 Novem-
ber, 1615-9 February^ 1645. His generalate was
one of the most pacific and progressive, especially
in France and Spain; but the Thirty Years' War
worked havoc in Germany. The canonization of Sts.
Ignatius and Francis Xavier (1622) and the first
centenary of the Society (1640) were celebrated with
Kreat rejoicings. The great mission of Paraguay
began, that of Jiman was stamped out in bkod.
England was raised in 1619 to the rank of a province
of the order, haying been a mission until then. Mis-
dons were established in TIbot (1024); Tonkin (10SI7);
and the Maranhflo (1640).

(7) Vincent Caraffa (q. v.), Neapolitan, 7 January,
1646-8 June, 1649. A few days before Father Car
raffa's election as general^ Pope innocent X published
a brief "Prospero felicique statui", in which he
ordered a general congregation of the Society to be
held every nine years; it was ordained also that no
office in the Society except the position of master of
novices should be held for more than three years.
The latter regulation was revoked by Innocent^ suo-
cesBor, Alexander VII, on 1 January, 1658; and the
former by Benedict XIV in 1746 by the Bull "Devo-
tam", many dispensations having been granted in
the meantime.

(8) Francis Piccolominif of Siena, 21 December,
1649-17 June, 1651 ; before his election as general he
had been professor of philosophy at the Roman
College: he died at the age of sixty-nine, having
passed nfty-three years in the Society.

(9) Aloysiua GoUifredif Roman, 21 Januaxy, 1652-
12 March, 1652; Father Gottifredi died at the house
of the professed Fathers, Rome, within two months
after his election, and before the Fathers assembled
for the election and congregation had concluded their
labour. He had been a professor of theology and
rector of the Roman 'College, and later secretary of
the Society under Father Mutius Vitelleschi.

(10) Gosurin Nickel, German, b. at Jiilich in 1582;
17 March, 1652-31 July, 1664. During; these years
the struggle with Jansenism was growing more and
more heated. The great controvert on the Chinese
Rites (1645) was continued (see Ricci, Matteo).
Owing to his great age Father Nickel obtained from
the eleventh congregation the appointment of Father
John Paul Oliva as vicar-general (on 7 June, 1661),
with the approval of Alexander VII.

(11) John Paul Oliva, Genoese (elected vicar cum
jure succeseionis on 7 June, 1661), 31 July, 1664-26
November. 1681. During his generalate the Society
established a mission in Persia, which at first met with
great success, four hundred thousand converts being
made within twenty-five years; in 1736, however, the
mission was destroyed by violent persecution.
Father Oliva's genersuate occurred during one of the
most difficult periods in the history of the Society,
as the controversies on Jansenism, tne droit de rigcie,
and moral theology were being carried on by the
opponents of the Society with the greatest acrimony
and violence. Father John Paul OUva laboured
earnestly to keep up the Society's high reputation for
learning, and in a circular letter sent to all the houses
of study urged the cultivation of the oriental lan-
guages.

a2) Charles de NoyeUe, Beleian, 5 July, 1682-12
December, 1686. Father de Noyelle was bom at
Brussels on 28 July, 1615; so great was his reputation
for virtue and prudence that at his election he received
unanimous vote of the congregation. He had been
assistant for the Germanic provinces during more
than twenty years; he died at the age of seventy, after
fifty years spent in the Society. Just about the time
of nis election, the dispute between Louis XIV of
France and Pope Innocent XI had culminated in the
publication of the "Declaration du clerg4 de France"
(19 March, 1682). This placed the Society in a diffi-
cidt position in France, as its spirit of devotion to the
p^acy was not in harmony with the spirit of the
"Declaration". It required all the ingenuity and
ability of Pdre La Chaise and Father de Noyelle to
avert a disaster. Innocent XI was dissatisfied with
the position the Society adopted, and threatened to
suppress the order, proceeding even so far as to for-
bid the reception of novices.

(13) Thyrsus Gomdlez (q. v.), Spaniard, 6 July,
1687-27 (5ct., 1705. He interfered in the contro-
versy between Probabilism (q. v.) and Probabilior-
ism. attacking the former doctrine with energy in a
book published at Dillingen in 1691. As Probabilism

80CZET7

aOCZETT

was on the whole in iavour m the Societyj this
caused discussions, which were not quieted until the
fourteenth congregation, 1696, when, with the pope's
approval, liberty was left to both sides. Father
uonzdlez in his earlier days had laboured witii great
fruit as a missionary, and after his election as general
encouraged the work of popular home missions. His
treatise '^De infaUibilitate Romani pontificis in defi-
niendis fidei et morum controversiis" which was a
vigorous attack on the doctrines laid down in the
''D<5claration du clerg^ de France'', was published at
Rome in 1689 by order of Pope Innocent XI; how-
ever. Innocent's successor, Alexander VII, caused the
work to be withdrawn, as its effect had been to ren-
der the relations between France and the Holy See
more difficult. Father Gonzdlez laboured earnestly
to spread devotion to the saints of the Societ^r; he
died at the age of eighty-four, having passed sixty-
three years in the order, during nineteen of which he
was gener^.

(14) Michelangelo Tamburinif of Modena, 31 Jan-
uarjr, 1706-28 February, 1730. The long reign of
Louis XIV, so favourable to the Jesuits in many re-
spects, saw the beginning of those hostile movements
which were to lead to the Suppression. The king's
autocratic powers, his Gallicamsm, his insistence on
the repression of the Jansenists by force, the way he
compelled the Society to take his part in the quarrel
with Rome about the rigale (168l~8), led to a false
situation in which the parts might be reversed, when
the all-powerful sovereign might turn against them,
ur by standing neutral leave them the prey of others.
This was seen at his death, 1715, when tne regent
banished the once influential father confessor Le
Tellier, while the gallicanizing Archbishop of Paris,
Cardinal de Noailles, laid them imder an interdict
(1716-29). Father Tamburini before his election
as general had taught philosophy and theology for
twelve years and had been chosen by Cardinal
Renaud d'Este as his theologian; he had also been
provincial of Venice, secretary-general of the Society,
and vicar-gencral. During the disputes concerning
the Chinese Rites (q. v.), tne Society was accused at
resisting the orders of the Holy See. Father Tam-
burini protested energetically against this calumny,
and when in 1711 the prociurators of all the provinces
of the Society were assembled at Rome, he nad them
sim a protest which he dedicated to Pope Clement
XI. Tne destruction of Port-Royal and the con-
demnation of the errors of Quesnel by the Bull
"Unigenitus" (1711) testified to the accuracy of
the opinions adopted by the Society in these disputes.
Father Tamburini procured the canonization of
Saints Aloysius (jonzaga and Stanislaus Kosfka,
and the beatification of St. John Francis R^gis.
During his generalate the mission of Paraguay
reached its highest degree of success; in one year no
fewer than seventy-seven missionaries left for it;
the missionary labours of St. Francis de Geronimo
and Blessed Anthony Baldinucci in Italy, and Vener-
able Manuel Padial m Spain, enhanced the reputation
of the Society. Father Tamburini died at the age
of eighty-two, having spent sixty-five years in religion.
At the time of his death the Society contained 37
provinces, 24 houses of professed Fathers, 612 colleges,
59 novitiates, 340 residences, 200 mission stations;
in addition one hundred and fifty-seven seminaries
were directed by the Jesuits.

(15) Francis RetZf Austrian (bom At Prague, in
1673), 7 March, 1730-19 November, 1750. [Father
Retz was elected general unanimously, his able
administration contributed much to the welfare of
the Society^ he obtained the canonization of St.
John Francis R6gis. Father Retz's generalate was
perhaps the quietest in the history of the order. At
the time of his death the Society contained 39 prov-
inces, 24 houses of professed Fathers, 669 colleges^

61 novitiates, 335 residences, 273 mission stations.
176 seminaries, and 22,589 members, of whom 11,293
were priests.

(16) Ignatius Visconti, Milanese, 4 July, 1751-
4 May, 1755. It was during this generalate that the
accusations of trading were first made agamst Father
Antoine de La Valette, who was recalled from Mar-
tinique in 1753 to justily his conduct. Shortly before
djrin^, Father Visconti allowed him to return to his
mission, where the failure of his commercial opera-
tions, somewhat later, gave an opportunity to the
enemies of the Society in France to begin a warfare
that ended only with the Suppression (see below).
Trouble with Pombal also began at this time. Father
Visconti died at the age of seventy-three.

(17) Ahysiiis Centurionif Genoese, 30 November,
1755--2 October, 1757. During his brief generalate
the most noteworthy facts were the persecution by
Pombal of the Portuguese Jesuits and the troubles
caused by Father de La Valette's commercial activities
and disasters. Father dkmturioni died at Castel
Gandolfo, at the age of seventy-two.

(18) Lorenzo Ricci (q. v.), Florentine, 21 May»
1758, till the Suppression in 1773. In 1759 the Soci-
ety contained 41 provinces, 270 mission posts, and
171 seminaries. Father Ricci founded the Bavarian
province of the order in 1770. His generalate saw
the slow death a^ny of the Society; within two years
the Portuguese, Brazilian, and East Indian provinces
and missions were destroyed by Pombal; close to^ two
thousand members of the Socict>[ were cast destitute
on the shores of Italy and imprisoned in fetid dun-
geons in Portugal France, Spain, and the Two
Sicilies followed in the footsteps of PombaL The
Bull "Apostolicum" of, Clement XIII in favour of
the Society produced no fruit. Clement XIV at
last yielded to the demand for the extinction of the
Society. Father Ricci was seized, and cast a prisoner
into the Castel San Angelo, where he was treated as
a criminal till death ended his sufferings on 24 Novem-
ber, 1775. In 1770 the Society contained 42 prov-
inces, 24 houses of professed Fathers, 669 colleges,
61 novitiates, 335 residences, 273 mission stations,
and about 23,000 members.

HisTOBY. Italy, — ^The history of the Jesuits in
Italy was in general very peaceful. The only serious
disturbances were those arising from the occasional
quarrels of the civil governments with the ecclesiaj»-
tical powers. Ignatius's first followers were imme-
diately in great request to instruct the faithful, and
to reform the clergy, monasteries, and convents.
Though there was little organized or deep-seated mis-
chief, the amount of lesser evils was immense; the
possibility here and there of a catastrophe was evi-
dent. While the preachers and missionaries evange-
lized the country, colleges were established at Padua,
Venice, Naples, Bologna, Florence, Parma, and other
cities. On 20 April, 1555, the University of Ferrara
addressed to the Sorbonne a most remarkable testi-
mony in favour of the order. St. Charles Borromeo
was, after the popes, perhaps the most generous of
all their patrons, and they freely put their Lest talents
at his disposal. (For the difficulties about his semi-
nary and with Fr. Guilio Mazarino, see Sylvain, "Hist,
de S. Charles'*, iii, 53.) Juan de Vega, ambassador of
Charles V at Kome, had learnt to Know and esteem
I^atius' there, and when he was appointed Viceroy of
Sicily he brought Jesuits with him. A college was
opened at Messina; success was marked, and its rules
and methods were afterwards copied in other colleges.
After fifty years the Society counted in Italy 86
houses and 2550 members. The chief trouble in
Italy occurred at Venice in 1606, when Paul V laid
the city imder interdict for serious breaches of eccle-
siastical immunities. The Jesuits and some other
religious retired from the city, and the Senate, in-
spired by Paolo Sarpi, the disaffected friar, passed

80CIKT7 S7 SOCIETT

a decree of perpetual banishmeat agiuDHt them. In 500 vocationB to religiotu orders tA Salamitnca la

effect, though peace was made ere long with the pope, the year 1564, about fifty of them to the Society,

it was fifty years before the Society could return. There were 300 Spanish Jesuits at the death of Igna-

Italy during tho first two centuries of the Society tiua in 1556; and 1200 at the close of Borgia's genei^

was still the most cultured country of Europe, and the alate in 1572. Under the non-Spanish generals who

Italian Jesuits enjoyed a. high reputation for Icam- fdlowed there was an unpleasant recrudescence o£

ing and letters. The elder Segneri is considered the the national iatic spirit. CoDsiderine the quarrels

first of Italian preachera, and there are a number of which daily aroae t>etwe«n Spain ana other nations,

others of the first class. Maffei, Torsellino, Strada, there can be no wonder at such ebullitions. As has

Panaviciito,Midfiartoli(q.v.) have left historical works been explained under Acquaviva, Philip of Spain lent

which are siill highly prized. Between BellArmine bis aid to the discontented parties, of whom the vir-

(d- 1621) and Zaccharia (d. 1705) Italian Jesuits of tuous Joa^ de Acoata was the spokesman, Fathers

note in theolosy, controversy, and subsidiary sciences Hem&ndei, DioDvsiua Vdaquez, Henriquea, and Mari-

&re reckoned Fv the score. They also elaitn a lar^e ana the reid leaders. Their ulterior object was to

proportion of tne saints/martyrs, generals, and mis- ^ocure a separate conunissaiy-gencral for Spain.

eionariee. (See also Bbllecids; Bologni; Qosco- This trouble was not quieted till the fifth congrega-

ticb: Pobbevinus; Scabawelli; Viva.) Italy was tion, 1593, after which ensued the great debates de

divided into Eve provinces, with the following hgures auxiliis with the Dominicans, the protagonists on

for the year 1749 (shortly before the beginning of (he both sides being Spaniards, (See Congrzoatio de

morement for the Suppression of the Society): Rome, Auxiuis; Gsace, Contboversies ok.)

848; Naples, 667; Sicily, 775; Venice. 707; Milan, Serious as these troubles were in their own sphere,

625; total, 3622 memb^, about one-naif of whom they must not be allowed to obscure the fact ttat in

woe priests, with 178 houses. the Societ}', as in all Catholic organizations of that

Spain. — Though the majority of Ignatius'H com- day, Spaniards played the greate^ rAlea. When we

pamons were Span- enumerate their

lards, he did not great men and their

^tberthemtt^ether great works, they

inSfmiD, and tM first defy all comparison.

Jesuits paid only This consideration

paaedng visita there. gains further force

Id 1544, however, when we remember

Father Araox, cousin that the success oi

of St. Ignatius and the Jesuits in Flan-

a very eloquent ders and in the parts

preacher, came with of Italy then united

with the

ompanions, and with the Spanisb

then their succeffi crown was laraely

was rapid. On 1 due to Spanish Jes-

Septemoer, 1647,Ig- uits; and the same

Spi
the

wgelj

■sinr^icuiud, lu-if , Ag- uih, nuu utD Same

natius established is true of the Jesuits

the province of Spain in Portu^, which

with seven houses country with its far-

&nd about forty re- stretching colonies

bgious; St, Francis was also under the

BMipa joined in Spanish Crown from

1548; in 1650 Lainei 1581 to 1640, though

accompanied the neithertheorganiza-

ih troops in tion of the Fortu-

African cam- The Gzet. Rout gueseJesuitanorthe

paign. With rapid civil government of
successcame unexpected opposition. Melchoir Cano, thecoimtryitselfwasamalgamatedwiththoseofSpain.
O.P., a theologian of European reputation, attacked But it was in the more abstract sciences that the
the young order, which could make no elective reply, Spanish genius shone with its greatest lustre; Toledo
nor could anyone get the professor to keep the peace, (d. 1506), Molina (1000). de Valentia (1603), V^quez
But, very unpleasant as the trial was, it evenluaU^ (1604) SuArea (I617),Ripalda (1648), de Lugo (1G60)
brou^t advantage to the order, as it advertized it (qq.v.) — these form a group of uniurpassed brilliance,
well m university circles, and moreover drew out de- and there are quite anumber of others almost equally
fenders of unexpected efficiency, as Juan de la PeQa of remarkable. In moral theology, Sinchei (1610), Azor
the Dominicans, and even their geneml, Fra Fran- (1603), Balas (1612), Castro Palao (1633), Torxea
Cisco Romeo. The Jesuits continued to prosper, (Tumanus, 1635), Escobar y Mendoza (1669), In
and Ignatius subdivided (29 September, 1554) the Scripture, Maldonado (1583), Salmer6n (15S5), Fran-
existing province into three, containing twelve houses Cisco Ribera (1591). Prado (1595), Perciro (1610),
and 139 religious. Yet there were internal troubles Sancio (1628), Pineda (1637). In secular literature
both here and in Portugal under Simon Rodriguez, mention may be made especial^ of de Isla (q. v.),
which gave the founder anxieties. In both countries and Baltasar Gracidn (15S4-105S), author of the
the first houses had been eatabliahed before the Con- "Art of Worldly Wisdom" (El orficulo) and "El
stitutions and rules were committed to writing. It criticon", which seema to have suggested the idea
waa inevitable therefore that the discipline intro- of "Robinson Crusoe" to Defoe,
duced by Araoz and Rodriguei should have differed Following the almost universal custom of the later
somewhat from that which was being introduced by sevenieenth century, the kin^ of Spain generally
Ignatius at Rome. In Spain, the good offices of had Jesuit confessors; but their altempla at reform
Bo^ia and the visits of Father Nadal did mueb to were loo often rendered ineffective by court in-
effect a gradual unificatiou of system, thouEth not trigues. This was especially the case with the
without difficulty. These troubles, however, Mccted Austrian, Father, later Cardinal, Everard Nidhard
the higher officials of the order rather than the rank (confeeaor of Maria Anna of Austria), and P^
and file, who were animated by the hi^est motives. Daubentoa, confessor of Philip V. After the era of
The great preacher Ramirez is caid to have attracted Uie great writers, the chief glory of the Spanish

80CIBTT 88 80CIITT

JeeuitH in to h<^ found in their large and flourishing Parkment ot Paria and the Sorbonno reaiat«d vehe-
foreign miaaiuns in Peru, Chile, New Granada, the mentlv the lef)«ns pat«Tii, which Henry II and, after

Philippines, Paracuay, QuitOjWhich will be noticed him, FranciB II and Charles IX, had granted with

under "Missions, beiow. Th^ were served by Mtlle difficulty. Meantime the eame Bishop ot Cler-

2171 Jetntita at the time of the Suppression. Scam mont had founded a second college at Billom in his

itself in 1749 was divided into five provinces: Toledo own dioeeae, which waa opened on 26 July, 1556, be-

with 659 memberB, Castile, 718; Aragon, 604; Seville, fore the first generaJ cone^regation. Colleges at Mau-

662; Sardinia, 300; total, 2943 members (1342 priests) riao and Pamiers soon followed, and between 1565

in 158 houses. and 1575 others at Avi^on, Cnanib^ry, Toulouse,

Portugal. — At the time when Ignatius founded his Rodei. Verdun, Nevera, Bordeaux, Pont-A-Mousson;

order Portugal was in her heroic a^. Her rulers while Fathers Coudret, Auger, Roger, and Pelletier

were men afenterpriBe, her univemltiea were full of distinguished themselves by their apostolic labours,

life, her trade routes extended over the then known The utility of the order waa aJao shown in the Collo-

world. The Jesuits were welcomed wiih enthual- quies at Poissy (1561) and 8t-Gennain-en-L^e by

nam and made good use of their opport unit lea. Fathers Lainei and Possevinus, and again by Father

St. Francis Xavier, traversing Portuguese colonies Brouet, who, with two companiooa, gave his life in the

and settlements, proceeded to mnke hLi aplendid service of the plague-atricken at Paris in 1562; while

miiiaionary conquests. These were continued by his Father Maldonudo lectured with striking effect both

confr^resmauchdistant landaas Aby!>sinia,theQ>ngo, at Paris and Bourges.

South Africa, China, and Japan, by Fathers Nunhes, Meantime serious trouble waa growing up with
Silveira, Aeoata, Fcmandes, and others. At Coim- the Univeraity of Paris due to a number of petty
bra, and afterwards at Evora, the Society made the causes. Jealousy of ^e new teachers, rivalry with

moat surprising progress under such professors as Spain, Gallican resentment at the enthusiastic devo-
Pedro de Fonacea (d. 1509), Luis Molina (d. 1600), tion of the Jeauits to Rome, with perhaps a spice of
ChristovSo Gil, Se- Calvinism. A law-
baati&o de Abreu, suit for the closing
etc., and from here of Clermont College
also comee the firat was inatitutedhefore
comprehensive series the Parltment, and
of pnilosophical and Estienne Pasquier,
theological text- counsel for the uni-
books for students veraity, deUvered a
(see CoNiuBRi- celebrated ptaidoj/er
cENSEa). With the against the Jesuits.
advent of Spanish The Parlement,
monarchy, 1581, the though then favour-
Portuguese Jeauits able to the order,
sulTered no less than was anxious not to
the rest of their irritate the univer-
country. Luis Car- aity, and came to an
valho joined the indeciaive aettle-
Spaniah opponents ment (5 April, 1565).
"' Father Acqua- The Jcsuita, m spite
viva, and when the of the royal license,
Apoatolic collector, were not to be in-
Ottavio Accoram- corporated in the
boni^ launched an in' univeraity, but the^
terdict agalnat the might continue their
Government of Lis- FAf*DK or thb Rohah Collkob lectures. Unsatisfied
bon, the Jesuits, es- with this, the uni-
peciaJly Diego de Areda, became involved in the versity retaliated by preventing the Jesuit scholars
undignified strife. On the other band ihey played from obtaining degrees; and later (1573-6), a feud waa
an honourable part in the restoration of Portu^l's maintained against Father Maldonado (q, v.), which
liberty in 1640; and on ita auccess the difficulty was eventually closed by the intervention of Gregory
was to restrain King Jo6o IV from giving Father XIII, who had also in 1572 raised the College of
Manuel Femandea a seat in the Cortea, and employ- Pont-i-Mousaon to the dignity of a university.
ing othera in diplomatic missions. Amongst these But meantime the more or leaa incessant wars of
Fathers was Antonio Vieira, one of Portugal's moat religion were devastating the land, and from time to
eloquent orators. Up to the Suppression Portugal time several Jesuits, especially Auger and Manare,
and her colonists supported the following missions, of were acting as army chaplains. T^ey had no eon-
which further notices will be found elsewhere, Goa nexion with the Massacre of St. Barlholomew (1572);
(originally India), Malabar, Japan, China, Brazil, but Maldonado was afterwards deputed to receive
MoranhBo. The Portugueae province in 1749 num- Henry of Navarre (afterwords Henry IV) into the
bered 861 members (384 priesta) in 49 houses. Church, and in many places the Fathers were able
(See also Vieira. Antonio; Malagrida, Ga- U> shelter fugitives in their houses; and by remon-
BRiEL.) strance and intercession they aa\'ed many lives.

Prance. — The first Jeauits, though almost all Span- Immediately after his coronation (1575) Henry III

iards, were trained and made their first vows in ehose Father Auger for his confessor, and for exactly

France, and the fortunes of the Society in France two hundred years the Jesuit court confessor became

have always been of exceptional importance for the an inatitution in France; and, aa French fashions were

body at laife. In early years its young men were then influential, every Catholic Court in time fol-

sent to Paris to he educated there as Ignatius had lowed the precedent. Considering; the difficulty of

been. They were hospitably received by Guillaume any sort of control over autocratic sovereigns, the

du Prat, Bishop of Clermonl, whose h6lel ktcw into institution of a court confessor was well adapted to

the Coll^ de Clermont (1550), afterwards Known as the circumstances. The occasional abuses of the

Louis-le-Grand. Padre Viola was the firat rector, office which ooouired ar« chiefly to be attributed

but the public classes did not begin till 1504. Tha to th* wrorblfnt pow»rs vested in the autocrat.

80CIITT SO 80CIITT

which no human guidanoe oould >ava from peripcbi g^t CaUe» of La Fteche, enoouraged its misaions
of decline and degradation. But this was more at home, in Normandy and B^am, and the commence-
clearly seen later on, A crieis for French Catholi- mentoftheforeignmtasionsinCaiiadaandthelievant.
ciam was near when, after the death of Franjois, The Society immediately b^jan to increase rapidly,
Duke of Aniou, 1584, Henri de Navarre, now an apos- and counted thirty-nine coileges, besides other housM,
tate, stood heir to the throne, which the feeble Henry and 1135 religious before the kmg fell under Ravail-
III could not possibly retain for long. Sides were lac'a dagger (1610). This was made the occasion
taken with enthusiaflm, and La sairtU lime was formed for new aasaulta by the Parlenent, who availed them-
for the defence of the Church (see League, The; selves of Mariana's book "De rege" to attack the
GuiBB, HoDEE or; France). It was hardly to be ex- Society as d^enders of tyrannicide. Suaroi's "De-
pected that the fensio fidei" was burnt m 1614. The young king,
Jesuits to a man Louib XIII, was too weak to curb the parUmen-
should have re- laires, but both he and the people of France favoured
mained cool, when the Society ao effectively that at the time of his
the whole popu- death in 1643 their numbers had trebled. They now
lace was in a ler- had five provinces, and that at Paris alone counted
ment of eStcite- over 13,000 scholars in its colleges. The confessors
ment. It was during this reign were changed not unfrequently by
morally impos- the manceuvrcs of Richelieu, and include Pftrea
sible^ to keep tlic AraouK de SIguiron, Suffren, Caussin (q. v.), Sirmond,
Jesuit friends of Dinet. RicheUeu'a policy of supporting the Ger-
theexaiUsonboth man Protestants against Cathohc Austria (which
sides from partic- Cauaain resisted) proved the occasion for angry po-
ipating in their lemics. TheGerman Jesuit JacobKellerwas believed'
extreme measures, (though proof of authorship is altogether wanting)
Auger and Claude to have written two strong pamphlets, "Mystena
Matthieuwere pohtica" and "Admonitio ad Ludovicum XIII",
respectively in against France. The books were burned by the
the confidence of hangman, as in 1626 was a work of Father Santarelli,
the two contend- which touched awkwardly on the pope's power to
ing parties, the pronounce against princes.

Court and the The politioo-religioua history of the Society under

'Jonf PiblOut KimnTK Okhoull I**?"^- Father Louis XIV centres round Jansenism (see Janbbnitib

' n?^. ai-iirt'o. i».™ iT iRHi Acouaviva sue- and Jansenism) and the lives of the king's confeaaoiB,

OF T«. swciOTT OF ju<7«. o. iBsi ^^^ ^ ^.^^ Especially Pfa-ea Annat (1646-60). Ferrier (1660-74),

drawingbothfromFrancc, though with great difficulty La Chwse (q. v.) (1674-1709), and Michel Le TeUier,

and conaidernble loss of favour on either side, Oneor (q. v.), (1709-15).

twohecouldnotcontrolfor some time, andofthesetbe On 24 May. 1656,

most remarkable was Henri Samerie, who had been BlaiaeFaBcal(q.v.)

chaplain to Mary Stuart, and became later army published the first

chaplain in Flanders. For a year he passed as diplo- of his "Provin-

matic agent from one prince of the League to another, dales". The five

evading, by their means and the favour of Sixtua V, propositions of

all Acquaviva's efforta to get him back to regular life. Jansenius having

But in the end discipline prevailed; and Acquaviva's been condemned

orders to respect the consciences of both sides by papal author-

■ enabled the Society to keep friends with all. ity, Pascal could

Henry IV made much use of the Jesuits (especially no longer defend

Toledo, Fossevinus, and Commolet), although they them openly, and

had favoured the League, to obtain canonical absolu- found the most

tion and the conclusion of peacej and in time (1604) effective method of

took PSre Coton (q. v.) as his confessor. This, retaliation was sat-

howevcr, is an anticipation. After the attempt on ire, raillery, and

Henry's life by Jean Chastel (27 December, 1594), countercharge

the ParUtnenl of Paris tcok the opportunity of attack- against the Society,

ini^ the Society with fury, perhaps in order to dis- He concluded with

guii^e the fact that they had been among the most the usual evasion

extreme of the leaguers, while the Society was among that Jansenius did

the more moderate. It was pretended that the not write in the

Society was responsible for Chastel's crime, because sense attributed to

he had once been their student; though in truth he hicn by the pope,

was then at the university. "The librarian of the Thc"Provii>ciale«"

Jesuit College, Jean Guignard, was hanged, 7 Janu- were the first not»-

ary, 1595, because an old book against tne king was worthy example in

foimd in a cupboard of his room. Antoine Amauld, the French Ian- j,

Uie elder, brought into his piotdoaer before the Parle- guage of satire

ment every possible calumny against the Society, and written in studiously polite and moderate terms; and

the Jesuits were ordered to leave Paris in three days their great literary merit appealed powerfully to the

and France in a fortnight. TTie decree was executed French love of cleverness. Too light to be effectively

in the districts subject to the PorUment of Paris, answered by refutation, they were at the same time

but not elsewhere. The king, not being yet canoni- sufficiently envenomed to do great and lasting hum;

tally absolved, did not then interfere. But the pope, although they have frequently been proved to mis-

and many others, pleaded earnestly for the revocation represent the teaching of the Jesuits by omissions,

of the cfecree against the order. The matter was alterations, interpolations, and false contexts, notably

warmly debated, and eventually Henry himself gave by Dr, KarlWeiss, of Gratz, "P. Antonio de Escobar

the pcrmissian for its readmission, on 1 Sept., llMB, y Mendosui als Moral theologe in r;vf!i]s Bekuehtung

Henowmadegreat usc<^thcSodety,foundedtorit the und iiii Lichic dcr Wahrhiil",

Cuimiua Accvk

. Fifth G

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80CXETT

SOCIlBTT

The cause of the Jesuits was also compromised bv
the various quarrels of Louis XIV with Innocent XI,
especially oonoeming the regale and the Gallican articles
of 1682. (See Louis XIV and Innocent XI, The
different standpoints of these articles may help to
illustrate the differences of view prevalent within
the order on this subject.) At first there was a
tendency on both sides to spare the French Jesuits.
They were not at that time asked to subscribe to
the Gallican articles^ while Innocent overlooked their
adherence to the kmg, in hopes that their modera-
tion might bring about peace. But it was hardly
possible that they should escape all troubles under a
domination so pressing. Louis conceived the idea
of uniting all the French Jesuits under a vicar, inde-
pendent of the general in Rome. Before making
this known, he recalled all his Jesuit subjects, and all,
even the assistant, P^re Fontaine, returned to
France. Then he proposed the separation, which
TTiyrsus Gonzdlez nrnuy refused. The provincials
of the five French Jesuit provinces implored the king
to desist, which he eventuaUv did. It has been
Alleged that a papal decree forbidding the reception
of novices between 1684-6 was issued in punishment
of the French Jesuits giving support to Louis (Crd-
tineau^oly). The matter is alluded to in the Brief
of Suppression; but it is still obscure, and would
seem rather to be connected with the Chinese rites
than with the difficulties in France. Except for the
interdict on their schools in Paris, 1716-29, by Car-
dinal de Noailles, the fortunes of the order were
ver>r calm and prosperous during the ensuini^ gen-
eration. In 1749 the French Jesuits were divided
into five provinces with members as follows: France,
891; Aquitaine, 437; Lyons, 773; Toulouse, 655;
Champagne, 594; total, 3350 (1763 priests) in 158
houses.

Oermany. — ^The first Jesuit to labour here was Bl.
Peter Faber (q. v.), who won to their ranks Bl. Peter
Canisius (q. v.), to whose lifelong diligence and emi-
nent holiness the rise and prosperity of the German
provinces are especially due. In 1556 there were two
provinces, South Germanv (Germania Superior^ up to
and including Mainz) and North Germany {Rhenanaf
or Germania Inferior^ including Flanders). The first
residence of the Society was at Cologne (1544), the
first college at Vienna (1552). The Jesuit colleges
were soon so popular that they were demanded on
every side, faster than they could be supplied, and the

? 'eater groups of these became fredii provinces,
ustria branched off in 1563, Bohemia in 1623,
Flanders had become two separate provinces by 1612,
and Rhineland also two provinces in 1626. At that
time the five German-speaking provinces numbered
over 100 colleges and academies. But meanwhile
all Germany was in turmoil with the Thirty Years
War, which had so far gone, generally, in favour of
the Catholicpowers. In 1629 came the Restitutions^
edikt (see douNTBB-RBPORMATioN), by which the
emperor redistributed with papal sanction the old
clMirch property, which had been recovered from the
usurpation of the Protestants. The Society received
large grants, but was not much benefited thereby.
Some bitter controversies ensued with the ancient
holders of the properties, who were often Benedic-
tines; and many of the acquisitions were lost again
during the next period of the war.

The sufferings of the order during the second period
were grievous. Even before the war they had been
systematically persecuted and driven into exile by
the Protestant princes, whenever these had the oppor-
tunity. In 1618 they were banished from Bohemia,
Moravia, and Silesia; and after the advent of Gus-
tavus Adolphus the violence to which they were
liable was increased. The fanatical proposal of
banishing them for evor from Germany was made by
him in 1031, and again at Frankfort in 1033; and

this counsel of hatred acquired a hold which it still
exercises over the German Protestant mind. The
initial successes of the Catholics of course excited
further antipathies, especially as the great generals
Tilly, Wallenstein, ana Piccolomini had been Jesuit
pupils. During the siege of Prague, 1648. Father
Plachy successfully trained a corps of stuaents for
the defence of the town, and was awarded the mural
crown for his services. The province of Upper
Rhine alone lost seventy-seven Fathers in the nSd-
hospitals or during the fighting. After the Peace
of Westphalia, 1648, the tide of the Counter-Refor-
mation had more or less spent itself. The foundation
period had passed, and there are few external events
to chronicle. The last notable conversion was that
of Prince Frederick Augustus of Saxony (1697).
afterwards King of Poland. Fathers Vota ana
Salerno (afterwards a cardinal) were intimately con-
nected with his conversion. Within the walls of Uieir
colleges and in the churches throughout the country
the work of teaching, writing, and preaching contin-
ued unabated, while the storms of controversy rose
and fell, and the distant missions, especially China and
the Spanish missions of South America, claimed
scores of the noblest and most high-spirited. To this
period belong Philipp Jenigen (d. 1704) and Frans
Hunolt (d. 1740), perhaps the greatest German
Jesuit preachers; Tschupick, Joseph Schneller, and
Ignatius Wurz acquired an almost equally great
reputation in Austria. In 1749 the German prov-
inces counted as follows: Germania Superior,
1060; Lower Rhine, 772; Upper Rhine, 497; Austria,
1772; Bohemia. 1239; total, 5340 members (2558
priests) in 307 nouses. (See also the Index volume
under title "Society of Jesus", and such names as
Becan, Byasen, Brouwer, Drechsel, Lohner. etc.)

Hungry was included in the province or Austria.
The chief patron of the order was Cardinal PAz-
mdny (q. v.). The conversion of Sweden was several
times attempted by German Jesuits, but they were
not allowed to stay In the country. Kin^ John III,
however, who had married a Po.hsh pnncess, was
actually converted (1578) through various missions
by Fathers Warsiewicz and Poesevinus. the latter
accompanied by the English Father William Good;
but the kin^ had not the courage to persevere.
Queen Christina (q. v.) in 1654 was Drought into the
Church, largely through the ministration of Fathers
Macedo and Casati, having given up her throne for
this purpose. The Austrian Fathers maintained
a small residence at Moscow from 1684 to 1718,
which had been opened by Father Vota. (See

POSSEVINUS.)

Poland. — Bl. Peter Canisius, who visited Poland in
the train of the legate Mantuato in 1558, succeeded
in animating King Sigismund to energetic defence of
Catholicism, and Bishop Hosius of Ermland founded
the college of Braunsberg in 1584, which with that
of Vilna tl569) became centres of Catholic activity
in north-eastern Europe. King Stephen Bathory, an
earnest patron of the order, rounded a Ruthenian
College at Vilna in 1575. Prom 1588 Father Peter
Skarga (d. 1612) made a great impression by his
preaching. Tliere were violent attacks against the
Society in the revolution of 1607, but after the vic-
tory oiF Sigismund III the Jesuits more than recovered
tho ground lost; and in 1608 the province could be
subdivided into Lithuania and Poland. The animus
against the Jesuits however vented itself at Cracow
in 1612, through the scurrilous satire entitled "Mo-
nita socreta" (q. v.). King Casimir, who had once
boon a Jesuit, favoured the Society not a little; so too
did Sobieski, and his campaign to relieve Vienna from
the Turks (1683) was due in part to the exhortations
of Father Vota, his confes.<?or. Among the great
Polifih missionaries are numbered Benedict Herbst
(<i. ir)03) and Bl. Andrew Bobola (q. v.). In 1766

80CJITT 01 80GIBTT

the Polish provinces were readjusted into four:— in 30 houaeB: Gallo-Belgian, 471 (266 priests) in 25

Greato' Poland; Lesser Poland; Lithuania; Massovia, houses.

counting in all 2359 religious. The Polish Jesuits, Engtand. — Founded at Rome after the English

besides their own nussions, had others in Stockholm, Schism had commenced, the Society had great diffi-

RussiaL the Crimea, Constantinople, and Persia, cultj in finding an entrance into England, though

(See Cracow, Unitbrsitt of.) Ignatius and Ribadeneira visited the country in

Bei^/iian. — The first settlement was at Louvain in 1531 and 1558, and prayers for its conversion have

1542, whither the students in Paris retired on the been recited throughout the order from 1553 to the

declaration of war between France and Spain. In present day (now under the common designation

1556 Ribadeneira obtained legal authorization for the of "Northern Nations"). Other early Jesuits exert«d

Society from Philip II, and in 1564 Flanders became themselves on behalf of the English seminary at

& separate province. Tta beginnings, however, were Douai and of the refugees at Louvain. The «Sect

Pacification of Ghent (1576) the Jesuits were offered
an oath against the rulers of the Netherlands, which
they firmly refused, and were driven from their nouses.
But this at last won for them Philip's favour, and
under Alexander Famese fortune turned completely
in their favour. Father Oliver Manare became a
leader fitted for the occasion, whom Acquiviva him-
self greeted as "Pater Provincite". In a few years
A number of wdl-established colleges had been
founded, and in 1612 the province bad to be sub-
divided. The FlandTO-Bdgica counted .sixteen coUegea
and the Galh-Bel^fica eighteen. All but two were day-
schools, with no preparatory classes for small boys.
They were worked with comparatively small staifs
of five or six, sometimes only three profpssors, though
their scholars might comit as many hundreds. Teach-
ing was gratuitous, but a sufiicient foundat ion for the
support of the teachers was a noccwiiry preliminary.
Though preparatory and elementary edu cat ion was not
yet in fashion, the care taken in teaching catechism
was most elaborate. The classes were regular, and
at intervalsenlivened with muaic, ceremonies, mystery-
plays, and processions. These were often attended * ^^^E.*^"^^^^" ^"^i- "***

Ijy tie whole magistracy in robes of state, whUe ' From « <»nMmiK>r«y prmt

(be bishop himself would attend at the distribution scores of young men entered the Society, several of
of honours. A special congregation was formed at these volunteered for foreign missions, and thus it
Antwerp in 1628, to organize ladies and gentlemen, came about that the forerunner of those legions of
nobles and bourgeois, into Sunday-school teachers, Engli^men who go into India to e^rve out careers
and in that year their classes counted in all 3000 was the English Jesuit missionary, Thomas Stephens.
children. Similar organizations existed all over the John Yate (oJHU Vincent, b. 1550; d. after 1603)
country. The first communion classes formed an and John Meade (see Auieida) were pioneers of the
extension of the catechisms. In Bruges, Brussels, mission to Brazil. The most noteworthy of the first
and Antwerp between 600 and 1600 attended the recruits were Thomas Dorbishire and William Good,
communion classes. followed in time by Blessed Edmund Campion (q.v.)
Jesuit congregations of the Blessed Virgin were and Robert Persons. The latter was the first to con-
first instituted at Rome by a Belgian Jesuit, Jean ccive and elaborate the idea of the English mission,
Leunis, in 1563. His native country soon look them which, at I^. Allen's request, was undertaken in
Up with enthusiasm. Each college had normally December, 1578.

four; — (I) for scholars (more often two, one for older. Before this the Society had undertaken the care of

one for younger); (2) tor young men on leaving; (3) the English College, Rome (see English Collbo^,

for grown-up men (more often several) — forworiting- by the pope's command, 19 March, 1578. But diffi-

men, for tradesmen, professional classes, nobles, cuhies ensued, owing to the miseries inherent in the

Eriests, doctors, etc., etc. ; (4) for small boys. In days estate of the religious refugees. Many came ^1 the

efore hospitals, workhouses, and elementary educa- way to Rome eitpecting pensions, or scliolarahips from

tion were regularly organized, and supported by the the rector, who at first cicame, in spite of himself, the

~ ' ■■ "iBpenser of Pope Gregory's alms. But the alms

)on failed, and several scnolars had to be dismissed
I unworthy. Hence disappointments and storms

tions, in Comely lasnion oernaps, Dut gratuitously, of grumbling, the records of which read sadly by

bringing together all ranks for the relief of indi- the side of the consoling accounts of the martyr-

gence. Some of theae congregations were exceedingly doms of men like Campion, Cottam, SouthweU,

popular, and their roisters still show the names M Walpole, Page, and others, and the labours of a

the first artists and savants of the time (Teniera, Van Heywood, Weston, or Gerard. Persons and Crichton

Dyck, Rubens, Lipsius, etc.). Archdukes and kings too, falling in with the idea, so common abroad, that

and even four emperors are found among the sodalists a counter-revolution in favour of Mary Stuart would

of Iiouvain. Pr<rt)ably the first permanent corps of not be difficult, made two or three politick missions

army chaplains was that established by Famese in to Rome and Madrid (1582-84) before reafizing that

1687. It consisted of ten to twenty-five chaplains their schemes were not feasible (see Persons).

and was styled the "Missio castrensis," and lasted After the Armada (q. v.). Persons induced Philip to

as an institution till 1660. 'The "Missio navalis" establish more seminaries, and hence the foundations

WBR a kindred institution for the navy. TheFlandro- at Valladolid, St-Omer, and Seville (1589, 1592,

Bdgian province numbered 543 in 1749 (232 priests) 1593), all put in chiirci- of the English Jesuits. On the

S0CIBT7

80CIBT7

other hand they suffered a setbaok in the ao-oftUed
Appellant controversy (1598-1602), which French
diplomacy in Rome eventually made into an oppor-
tunity for operating against Spain. (See Blackwell;
Garnet.) The assistance of France and the influence
of the French Counter-Reformation were now on the
whole hi^y beneficial. But many who took refuge
at Paris became accustomed to a Gallican atmosphere,
and hence perhaps some of the regalist views about
the Oath of Allegiance and some of the excite-
ment in the debate over the jurisdiction of the Bish-
ops of Chalcedon, of which more below. The feeling
ot tension continued until the missions of Pazam,
Conn, and Rosetti, 1635-41. Though the first of
these was somewhat hostile, he was recalled in 1637,
and his successors brought about a peace, too soon
to be interrupted by the Civil War, 1641-60.

Before 1606 the English Jesuits had founded houses
for others, but neither they nor any other Engjish
order had yet erected houses for themselves. But
during the so-caUed "Foundation Movement", due
to many causes but especially perhaps to the stimu-
lus of the Counter-Reformation (q. v.) in France,
a full equipment of institutions was established in
Flanders. The novitiate, begun at Louvain in 1606,
was moved to Lidge in 1614, and in 1622 to Watten.
The house at Li^ge was continued as the scholasticate,
and the house of third probation was at Ghent 1620.
The "mission" was made in 1619 a vice-province,
and on 21 January, 1623, a province, with Fr. Rich-
ard Bloimt as first provincial) and in 1634 it was able
to undertake the foreign mission of Maryland (see
below) in the old Society. The English Jesuits at
this period also reached their greatest numbers. In
1621 they were 211, in 1636, 374. In the latter year
their total revenue amounted to 45,086 acudi (almost
£11,000). After the Civil War both members and
revenue fell off very considerably. In 1649 there were
only 264 members, and 23,055 scudi revenue (about
£5760); in 1645 the revenue was only 17,405 scudi
(about £4350).

Since Elizabeth's time the martyrs had been few —
one only, the Yen. Edmund Arrowsmith (q. v.),
in the reign of Charles I. On 26 October, 1623,
had occurred "the Doleful Even-flong". A congre-
gation had gathered for venders in the garrets of
the French embassy in Blackfriars. when the floor
gave way. Fathers Drury and Kediate with 61
(perhaps 100) of the congregation were killed. On
14 March, 1628, seven Jesuits were seized at St.
John's, Clerkenwell, with a laree number of papers.
These troubles, however, were Tight, compared with
the sufferings during the Commonwealth, when the
list of martyrs and confessors went up to ten. As the
Jesuits depended so much on the country families,
they were sure to suffer severely by the war, and the
college at Stumer was nearly beggared. The old
trouble about the Oath of AUegiance was revived
by the Oath of Abjuration, and "the three questions"
proposed by Fairfax, 1 August, 1647 (see White.
Thomas). The representatives of the secular ana
regular clergy, amongst them Father Henry More,
were called upon at short notice to subscribe to them.
They did so, More thinking he mi^t, "considering
the reasons of the preamble", which qualified the
words of the oath considerably. But the provin-
cial, Fr. Silesdon, recalled him from England, and
he was kept out of office for over a year; a punish-
ment which, even if drastic for his offence, cannot be
regretted, as it providentially led to his writing the
history oi the English Jesuits down to the year 1635
("Hist, missionis angUcante Soc. Jesu, ab anno salutis
MDLXXX", St-Omer, 1660).

With the Restoration, 1660, came a period of
fireater calm, followed by the worst tempest of all,
Oates's plot (a. v.), when the Jesuits lost eight on
the scaffold ana thirteen in prison in five years, 1678-

88. Th^ ikm period of gireatest prosperity under
King James II (1685-8). He gave them a college,
and a public chi^l in Somerset House, made Father
Petre nis almoner, and on 11 November, 1687. a
member of his Privy Coimcil. He also chose Father
Warner as his confessor, and encouraged the preach-
ing and controversies which were carried on with no
little fruit. But this spell of prosperity lasted only a
few months; with the Revolution of 1688 the Fathers
regained their patrimony of persecution. The last
Jesuits to die m prison were Fathers Poulton and
Aylworth (1690-1692). William Ill's repressive
legislation did not have the intended effect of exter-
mmating the CathoUcs, but it did reduce them to a
proscribed and ostracized body. Thenceforward
the annals of the English Jesuits show httle that
is new or striking, though their number and works
of charity were well maintained. Most of the Fathers
in England were chaplains to gentlemen's families,
of which posts they held nearly a hundred during the
eighteenth century.

The church law under which the English Jesuits
worked was to some extent special. At first indeed
all was undefined, seculars ana regulars living in true
happy-family style. As, however, organization devel-
oped, friction between parts could not always be
avoided^ and legislation became necessary. By
the institution of the archpriest (7 March, 1598), and
by the subsequent modifications of that institution
(6 April, 1599; 17 August, 1601; and 5 October, 1602),
various occasions for friction were removed, and prin-
ciples of stable government were introciuced. As
soon as Queen Henrietta Maria seemed able to pro-
tect a bishop in England, bishops of Chalcedon in
partibus infidelium were sent, m 1623 and 1625.
The second of these, Dr. Richard Smith, endeavoured,
without having the necessary faculty from Rome, to
introduce the episcopal approbation of confessors.
This led to the Brief ''^Britannia", 9 May, 1631, which
left the faculties of regular missionaries in their pre-
vious immediate dependence on the Holy See. But
after the institution of vicars Apostolic in 1685, by
a Decree of 9 October. 1695, regulars were obliged
to obtain approbation from the bishop. There were
of course many other matters that needed settlement,
but the difficulties of the position in England and the
distance from Rome made legislation slow and dififi-
cult. In 1745 and 1748 Decrees were obtained,
against which appeals were lodged; and it was not
tm 31 May, 1753, that the '* Repulse missionis" were
laid down by Benedict XIV in the Constitution
"ApostoUcum ministerium " . which regulated eccle-
siastical administration until the issue of the Consti-
tution ^'Romanos Pontifices" in 1881. In the year
of the Suppression, 1773, the English Jesuits num-
bered 274. (See Coffin, Edward; Creswbll; Eng-
lish Confessors and Martyrs; More, Henrt;
Penal Laws; Persons, Robert; Petre, Sir Ed-
ward; Pi>owdbn: Sabran, Louis db; SounrwELL;
Spenser, John; Stephens, Thomas; Redford.)

Ireland.—One of the first commissions which the
popes entrusted to the Society was that of acting as
envoys to Ireland. Fathers Salmer6n and Brouet
managed to reach Ulster during the Lent of 1542;
but the immense difficulties of the situation after
Henry VIIFs successes of 1541 made it impossible
for them to live there in safety, much less to discharge
the functions or to commence the reforms which the

Sope had entrusted to them. Under Queen Mary the
esuits would have returned had there been men ready.
There were indeed fdready a few Irish novices, and of
these David Woulfe returned to Ireland on 20 Janu-
uary, 1561. with ample Apostolic faculties. He pro-
cured candidates for the sees emptied by Elizabeth,
kept open a grammar school for some years^ and sent
several novices to the order; but he was finally im-
prisoned, and bad to withdraw to the Continent. A

SOCIBTT 93 SOCIETY

little later the "Iriab mission" was re^arjy ot^Aniied SooSand. — Father Nidiolas dc Gouda was seat to

under Irish superiors, beginning with Ft. Richard visit Mary Queen of Scots in 1562 to invite her to

Fleming (d. 1590), professor at Clermont College, aend bishops to the Council of Trent. The power of

and then Chancellor of the University of Pont-&- the Protestants made it impossible to achieve this

MouBson, In 1609 the mission numbered seventy- object, but de Gouda conferred with the queen and

two, forty of whom were priests, and eighteen were brought back with him six young Scots, who were to

at work in Ireland. By 1617 this latter number had prove the founders of the mission. Of these Edmund

increased to thirty-eight; the rest were for the most Hay soon rose txt prominence and was rector of Cler-

part in training among their French and Spanish moot College, Paris. In 15S4 Crichton returned

confreres. The foundation of collides abroad, at witli Father James Gordon, uncle to the Earl of

Salamanca, Santiago, Seville, and Lisbon, for the Huntly, to Scotland; the former was captured, but

education of the clergy, was chiefly due t>o Father the latter was extraordinarilv successful, and the

Thomas White (d. 1K2). They were consolidated Scottish mission proper may be said to have begun

and long managed by Fr. James Archer of Kilkenny, with bim, and Father Edmund Hay and John Driuy,

afterwanls missionary in Ulster and chaplain to who came in 1585.

Hugh O'Neill. The Irish College at Poitiers was also The Earl of Huntly

under Irish Jesuit direction, as was that of Rome became the Catho-

for some time (see Irish Cou^GB, in Roue). lie leader, and the

The greatest extension in Ireland was naturally fortunes of his
during the dominance of the Confederation (J642-54), party passed
with which Father Matthew O'Hartigan was in great through many a
favour. Jesuit colleges, schools, and residences then strange turn. But
amounted to thirteen, with a novitiate at Kilkonn_y. the Catholic vie-
During the Puritan domination the number of Jesuits tory of Glenlivet,
felt again to eighteen; but in 1685, under James II, in 1594, arouHed
there were twenty-eight with seven residences. After the temper of the
the Revolution their numbers fell again to six, then Kirktosuchapitch
rose to seventeen in 1717, and to twenty-eight in that James, though
1755. The Fathera sprang mostly from the old averse to severity,
Anglo-Norman families, but almost all the mission- was forced to ad-
aries spoke Irish, and missionary labour was the chief vance against the
occupation of the Irish Jesuits. Fr. Robert Roch- Catholic lords and
ford set up a school at Youghal as early as 1575; eventually Huntly
university education was given in Dublin in the reign was constrained to
of Charles I, until the buildings were seized and leave the country
handed over to Trinity College; and Father John and, then return-
Austin kept a flourishing school in Dublin for twenty- ing, he submitted ^A»ua o» MoriLLK.TwtLrra
two yeara before the Suppression. to the Kirkin 1597. °'»^'' "' '^■,^'" "' '"""^

Some account of the work of Jesuits in Ireland will This put a term to

be found in the articles on Fathers Christopher the spread of Catholicism: Father James Gordon had

Holywood and Heniy Fitisimon; but it was abroad, to leave in 1595, but Father Abercromby succeeded

from the nature of t£e case, that Irish genius of that in reconciling Anne of Denmark, who, however,

day found its widest recognition. Stephen White, did not prove a very courageous convert. Meantime

Liike Wadding, cousin of his famous Franciscan name- the Jesuits had been given the management of the

sake, at Madrid; Ambrose and Peter Wadding at Scots College foundea by Mary Stuart in Paris,

Dillingen and Gratz respectively; J. B. Duiggin and which was successively removed to Pont-Jt-Mousson

John Lombard at Ypres and Antwerp; Thomas Com- and to Douai. In 1600 another college was founded

erford at Compostella; Paul SherlocK at Salamanca; at Rome and put under them, and tEere was also a

Richard Lynch (1611-76) at ValtadoUd and Sala- small one at Madrid.

manes; James Kelly at Poitiers and Paris; Peter After reaching the English tlirone James was bent

Plunkett at Le^om. Among the distinguished on introducing episcopacy into Scotland, and to

writers were WiUJam Bathe, whose "Janua lingua- reconcile the Presbyterians to this he allowed them

rum" (Salamanca, 1611) was the basis of the work of to persecute the Catholics to their hearts' content.

ConuneniuB. Bernard Routh (b. at Kilkenny, 1695) By their barfjaroue "excommunication", the suffer-

was a writer in the "Mimoires de Tr6voux (1734- ing they inflicted was incredible. The soul of the

43), and assisted Montesquieu on his death-bed. In resistance to this cruelty was Father James Anderson,

the field of forpign missiona O'Fihily was one of the who, however, becoming the object of special searches,

first apostles of Paraguay, and Thomas Lynch was had to be withdrawn in 1611. In 1614 Fathers

provinciaiof Brazil at the time of the Suppression. At John Ogilvie (q.v.) and James Mofi'at were sent in,

this time also Roger Magloire was working in Marti- the former suffering martyrdom at Gla^ow,10Mareh,

ni(]ue, and Philip O'Reilly in Guiana. But it was the 1615. In 1620 Father Patrick Anderson (q.v.) was

mission-field in Ireland it«elf of which the Irif^ Jesuits tried, but eventually banished. After this, a short

thought most, to which all else in one way or other led period of peace, 1625-7, ensued, followed by another

up. Theirlabourswcreprincipallyspentin thewalled persecution 1629-30, and another period of peace

cities of the old English Pale. Here they kept the before the rising of the Covenanters and the civil

faith vigorous, in spite of persecutions, which, if wars, 1638-45. There were about six Fathers in the

sometimes intermitted, were nevertheless long tfnd mission at this time, some chaplains with the Catho-

severe. The first Irish Jesuit martyr was Edmund lie gentry, some living the then wild lite of the

O'Donnell, who suffered at Cork in 1575. Others on Hignlanders. especially during Montrose's campaigns,

that list of honour are: Dominic Collins, a lay brother. But after Philiphaugh (1645) the fortunes of the

You^ial, 1602; William Boyton, Cashcl, 1647; royalists and the Catholics undtTwcnl a sad change.

Fathers Netterville and Bathe, at the fall of Dro- Among those who fell into the hands of the enemy

gheda, 1649. Fr. David Galway worked among the was Father Andrew l/cslic, who has left a lively

scattered and persecuted Gaels of the Scottish leles account of his prolonged sufTeringB in various prisons.

and Highlands, until his death in 1643. (See also After the Restoration (1660) there was a new period

FnzaiuoN; Malonk; O'Donnell; Talbot, Pbtxr; of peace in which the Jesuit missionaries reaped a

Ibisb Conitosors and Marttrb.) considerable harvest, but during the disturbances

S0CIET7 94 80GI1TT

caused by the Covenanters (q.v.) the persecution of of St. 'Francis Xavier (q. v.), so far as its geographical

Catholics was renewed. James II favoured them as direction and limits were concerned, was laraely

far as he could, appointing Fathers James Forbes determined bv the Portuffuese settlements in the East

and Thomas Patterson chaplains at Holyrood, where and the traoe routes followed by Portuguese mer-

a school was also opened. After the Revolution the chants. Arriving at Groa in 1542, he evaneelised

Fathers were scattered, but returned, though with first the western coast and Ceylon, in 1545 he was

diminishing numbers. in Malacca, in 1549 in Japan. At the same time he

HmoBT.— A. General.-- Jfon. hi$tonea 3oe. Jmu. ed. Rodsum pushed forward his few assistants and catechists into

(Madrid, 1894. in progressj ; Obi^ndini (continufid in turn other centres; and in 1552 set out for China, but died

%l^^^. '^r^ie^a^'^SSi^: /S\tf^)flSd1tJ: at the year's end on an island off the cojT Xavier's

pUmeru (Rome. 1859); Babtou. DeU^ iHoria delta camp, di work was Carried on, With Goa as headquarters,

OuU (6 vols. foj. Rome. 1663-73) ; Cb<tineau-Joi.t. J^iaj. dela and Father BaTMBUs as successor. Father Antonio

r/^>^,;SSJn^a^^i^°a^^^ P"^.^n^' ^¥^A°^7" ^ ^^? Society, had suffered

6e$ch, der QeteOtchafi Jetu (MOnster, 1876); Cabbbe, aOcu geo- m 1549, and Father Mendez followed m 1552. In

graphicus Soe. Jmu (Paris. 1900) ; Hbimbuchbb. i>ie Ordenund 1579 Blessed Rudolph Acquaviva visited the Court

^^^n'SSstne^SSiaTbb^o^^^^^^ of Akbar the Great, but without permanent effect.

reiigieux de la comp. dt jisua (Utrecht, 1741). Non-Catholic:— The great impulse of conversions came after Yen.

STKIZ-Z6CKLBB mReaUncyd. fUr prot. Tfuol.,fi. v. Jetuiunorden; Robert de Nobili (q. V.) declared himself a Brahmin

Si?S?s^^5. .?:?iiJ:'(zScS:r6?9)^'^"^°^' '''^^'' ^°" ^fanj^-^, and hVed the life of the Brahmins (1606).

' B. Particular Ck>untrie6.— italy.—TAccHi-VaMTUBi, Storia At lanjore and elsewhere he now made immense

delta comp. di O, in itaiia (Rome, 1910, in progress); ScHiNoaz numbers of converts, who were allowed to keep the

r^!^*(N^ifm6!^:TS^?£f'l2r1plte distinctions of their castes, with many religious cus-

1702); Aquilbba. Provincia Sictda Soc. Jeeu re* geata (Palermo* toms; which, however, were eventually (after much

1737-40); CKFnLLxrm. I aeeuitie^ r«nena (Ven- controversy) condemned by Benedict XIV in 1744.

1877). • "*"' ^^ ' '^^' ^ ""' This condemnation produced a depressing effect on

Spain.— AftTRAiN, Hitt. de la comp, de J, en la atietenda de the mission, though at the very time Fathers Lopez

EepafUi (Madrid. 1902, 3 vols., in proip^Bs) ; Ai^aiab Cfro»o- and Acosta with singular heroism devoted them-

^ri?^^r/f-J*ii^^^Fa3^ sdvesforlifetothese^ceofthePaxiahs. The Sup-

Portuffil.— Tellbz. GArontoa de la comp, de J. na prtnineia de pression of the Society, whlch followed SOOn after,

Portugal (Cpimbra, 1645-7); Fbanco, Synop. annai. Soe. Jeeu in completed the desolation of a once prolific missionary

LuiUanta ah anno 1640 ad 1785 (Augsburg, 1726); Tbxxeiba. c^ij /a„^ TV/Tat *«»« T>.mn« ^ T?»tv^ n^o ♦^v^ «t^.V>

Docum. para a hiH. doe Jeeuitae em PolZgal(Coimhk, 1899). h^ld- . (See MALABAR KITES.) From Goa toO were

France. — Fouqubbay, Hiei. de la comp. de J. en France (Paris. Organized missions on the east coast of Africa. The

l^^9^''pJ^I2^\^^^^r^^*^'?^^'7^?^^^"'P:^J'^^\'SiS^* Abyssinian mission under Fathers Nunhes, Oviedo,

^Tt: Xi^'Sl^r'frlSST^. "bI^*^. te '^Si ana Paes lasted with varied fortunes for over a cen-

Hecherchee kiet. aur la ^mp. de J. en Prance du tempe du P. CoUm, tury, 1555-1690 (see AbtSBINIA, I, 76). The miS-

iWri6^e (Lyons. 1876); iDfiu^MoMonatetVunivfreUf de Parte gion on the Zambesi under Fathers Silveira, Acosta,

{^T P?f2iir.''^'r*JS?^'^S^1^S^J2 ^niSnSj^;^ and Fernandez was but short-Uved; «^ to? was the

(Leaden. 1893) ; C^oasAT. Lee jieuUee et leure mivree d Axignon work of Father Govea m Angola. In the seventeenth

(Avignon. 1896). , .. j ^ «. v^ x century the missionaries penetrated into Tibet,

nSf^^'s^^l^i oi^ii'^JS^ "Zm^i) (s"^: Father Desideri and Fre;^ reaching Lhasa Others

Augsburg and Munich, 1727-54); Hansbn, Rhein. Akim twr pushed out m the Persian mission from Ormus as

ge»cA. rfM JeeuttenordeiM i545-j»* (I896)j^^^ far as Ispahan. About 1700 the Persian missions

r^^t* Sn'iSSr: &"^ counted 400,000 Catholics The southern and

KBOEas, Gesch. der b6hmiechen prov, der Q, J. (Vienna. 1910); eastern coasts of India, With Ceylon, Were oompnsed

Medzbeb, Ann^ Ir^lauuiienaie aeadem. (ingoUtadt, 1782); after 1610 in the separate province of Malabar, with

REirrBNBBBO, Htst. Soc. Jesu ad Rhenum tnfertorem (Cologne, „„ :*^a^^^^a^^4^ 'C\.«.««»k ^:««;^«« «♦ r>^.«^;»U«..^r

1764); Abobnto. De rdfue Soe. Jeeu in regno PoUmia (Cra«>w. ^n indepen<lent French mission at PondichOTy.

1620) ; PoLLABn, The Jeeuite in Poland (Oxford, 1882) ; Zalenskz, Malabar numbered fortyHseven missionaries (Por-

Hiet.oftheSoc^f Jenie in Poland imPoii^ tuguese) before the Suppression, while the French

The JeeuUe %n Wh%U Rue9%a (m Polish, 1874; Fr. tr., Pans, 1886); J^„:^' «^,,.^#«^ oo /^^ xi . ™t «^,.«t \

PiEBUNa.AntonuPoMmm>»M»omo»c(m<i(»(i883):BoflTow8H. nuasions Counted 22. (bee Hanxleden.)

Hist. Soc Jeeu Lithuanicarum vrovindaUum (Wilna, 1766); Japan, — ^The Japanese miSSlOn (see JAPAN, YlII,

?S?^¥n^ ^^- ^' J^ ^^' A^^*^^^^^7^^^^Jl!^f^^ 306) gradually developed into a province, but the

1747-59); Sochbb, Htei. prov, AuetncB Soc. Jeeu, 1640-1690 ««^:„t1,, „«j „««i. «* „i,,^^«,««i. «™«:««j Ix TUf«««^

(Vienna, 1740) ; Stbinhubbb, Qeech. dee CoiL Germanieum-Hun' semmaxy and seat of government remamed at Macao.

garieum (Freiburg, 1895). By 1582 the number of Christians was estimated at

Belgium.— MANABE,De r^ See. ^^ ^^^"^^^f^ 200,000 with 250 churches and 59 missionaries, of

Delplacb (Florence, 1886); Waloack, Htei. prot. Flandro-bda^ 1.00 • x j no t 1. j u j

ca Soc. Jeeii anni 16S8 (Ghent. 1867). ^^ whom 23 were pnests, and 26 Japanese had been ad-
England, Ireland. Scotland. — Foley. Recorde of the EngUeh mitted to the Society. But 15S7 saw the beginnings
,^'; ''Q^ ^^•yj'^^''!^.'*S!i"^w. ^^^^ p??^fcwife''?2?i of persecution, and about the same period began the

lB^l);^vi\AMKSV,DveenglxechenMariyrerunterEltxab€thbtet68S •„„! -^ ^t ««*;««« ««^ ^t ««.«««+i«« ««^««r T"!.,*

(Freiburg. 1888); Fobbbb-Lbith. Narr. of Seouieh Cathoiice "valries ol nations and of competmg orders, liie

(Edinburgh. 1885); Idem. Mem. of Scot. Cath, (London, 1909): Portuguese crown had been assumed by Spam, and

HoGAN. Ibarnia matiana (Dublin. 1880) ; Idem. DieHr^iehed Spanish merchants introduced Spanish Dominicans

Iriehmm of the XVI cenhiry (London, 1894); Mbtbb, England *^t^"^ J^y^^*^^'^^''^^^^)^ ^'^^'^tr— /VV^T^vT^

und die kath. Kirche unter Elieabeth (Rome. 1910); Mobb, Hiai. ^^d Franciscans. Gregory XIII at first forbade this

prov. Anglioana (St-Omer, 1660); Pbb80N8, Memoire, ed. Poi^ (28 Jan., 1585), but Clement VIII and Paul V (12

^JiiS.%.''^^X^iSr^l£^TAl,'M=^SSS: December 1600; llJune, 1608) re}axed and repealed

1902-^); Taunton. The Jeniile in England (London, 1901). ^^ prohibition; and the persecution Of lalco-sama

quenched in blood whatever discontent might have

Missions.— No sphere of religious activity is held arisen in consequence. The first great slaujghter of
in greater esteem among the Jesuits than that of 26 missionaries at Nagasaki took place on 5 Feb.,
the foreign missions; and from the beginning men of 1597. Then came fifteen years of comparative peace,
the highest gifts, like St. Francis Xavier^ have been and gradually the number of Christians rose to about
devoted to this work. Hence perhaps it is that a 1,800,000 and the Jesuit missionaries to 140 (63
better idea may be formed of the Jesuit missions by priests). In 1612 the persecution broke out again,
reading the lives of its great missionaries, which will mcreasing in severity till 1622, when over 120 mar-
be found under their respective names (see Index tyrs suffered. The "great martyrdom" took place
vol.), than from the foUowmg notice, in which atten- on 20 September, when Bless^ Charles Spmola
tion has to be confined to general topics. . (q. v.) suffered with representatives of the Dominicans

iTidia. — ^When the Societv began, the great colon- and the Franciscans. For the twenty ensuing years

izing powers were Portugal ana Spain. 'Pie career the maaaacre continued without mercyi all JeiuiU

SCKIIBTT 95 SOCUTT

who landed being at once executed. In 1G44 Father 1692 succeeded iii Beixing the government, and in
Gantar de Amual was (bowned in attempting to enacting penal lows against the Catholics, and par-
land, and his death brought to a close the century of ticularly against their Jesuit priests, which kept
miteionary efTorts which the Jesuits had made to growing more and more intolerable until the colony
bring the Faith to Jap&n. The name at the Japan- Eecame the State of Maryland in November, 1776.
ese province was retamed, and it counted 57 subjects During the 140 years between their arrival in
in 1760; but themissionwasreally confined to Tonkin Maryland and the Suppression of the Society, the
and Cochin-China, whence stations were established mission arics, averaging four in number the firttt forty
in Annam, Siam, etc. (see iNno-CaiHA, VII, 774-5; years and then gradually increasing to twelve and
Mabttbs, Jafanese). nnoUy to about twenty, continued to work among the

China. — A detailed account of this mission from Indians and the settlers in spit* of every vexation

1552 to 1773 will be found under China (IU, G72-4) snd dLsability, though prevented from increasing in

and MAaTTRB IN China, and in lives of the missionariea number and extending their labours during the dis-

Bouvet, Brancati, Cameiro, Cibot, Fridelli, Gaubil, pute tt-jth Cecil Calvert over retaining the tract of

Gerbillon, Herdtrich, Hindcrer, Mailla, Martini, land, Matlapany, given to them by the Indians, ralief

Matteo Ricci, Schall von Bell.and Verbiest (qq.v.). from taxation on

From 15S1, when tlie mission woe organized, it con- lands devo1«d to

sisted erf Portuguese Fathers. They eetabliahed four religioufl or cbari-

coll^^es, one semmary, and some forty stations tabic purposes.

under a vice-pro vinciJ, who resided frequently in and the usual

Pekin; at the supfH^saion there were 54 Fathers, ecclesiastical im-

From 1687 there was a special mission of the French munity for thein-

Jesuita to Pekin, imder their own superior; at the selves and their

Suppression they numbered 23. houatholds. The

Central and South Ameriea.— The missions of controversy ended
Central and Southern America were divided between "^ I he cession ct
Portugal and Spain (see America, I, 414). In 1649 we Mattapany
Father Nombrega and five companions, Portuguese, tract, the mission-
went to Brazil. Progress was slow at first, but when fies ri-taminH the
the lanpiagea had been learnt, and the confidence of ^^." '^'^y had ac-
the natives acquired, progress became rapid. Blessed quirw by tnccon-
Ignacio de Aievedo and his thirty-nine companions ditions of planta-
were mart,vred on their way thither in 1570. The "<">■ Prior to the
miflajons, nowever, prospered steadily under such Suppression they
le«ders as JosiS Anchieta and John Almeida (qq. v.) "^li estabrished
(Meade). In 1630 there were 70,000 converts, miasiona m Mwy-
Before the Suppression the whole country had been J^ " " • * ^—P.* ■
divided into missions, served by 445 Jesuits in Brazil, ii'°'^' „ ^^^'l*
and 146 in the vice-province of MaranhAo. Uarsh St. Ini- ^^ ^ ^^^ ^^^^ p«„n.M

Paraifuay. — Of the Spanish missions, the most B*''^°i ^^, f.njnv the Collaie of PRqaj^nil*

noteworthy is Paraguay (see GuAHAtd Indians; ^°'^> ^J: ('3")

AniTONia; AaoENTiNE Repdbuc: Reductions oi^ HP<*?r the care of Jesuits and also at Deer Creek,

Paraodat). The province contained 564 members Frederick, and St. Josephs Bohemia Manor, brides

(of whom 386 were priests) before the Suppression, *•«■■ i^any less permwient slationa among the Indians

with 113,716 Indians under their charge. ^ Pennsylvania, Phdadelphia, Con ewago, Lancaster,

M«t«..— Even larger than Paraguay was the Goshenhoppen, and excursion BtatiOM (« tar ^ New

missionary province of Mexico, (Siicl. included ^ wk where two of Uiwr number. Fathers Harvey

California, ^th 572 Jesuits an<f 122,000 Indians. ^""^ Harrison, assisted for a time by Father Gage.

(See also California MisstONs; Mexico, pp. 258, had under Gox-ernorDongan mmister^ as ehaplams

266, etc; ARAEix); CLATiQEno; DtAz; DucAtli^; etc. '^/'^.^'** ""'' T^^ "'", Kr^ ««'^'«i *i"<'

The 001^ as U. jurisdiction (1641?) with jJan de fiI^P,*^^«a'"T'*^H^''' *° '^f"'*'^,* ^rxl ^^

Palafox y Mendosa (q.v.), Bishop of I^ Puebta, led tweenl 68^^89, when they were forced to ret u* by an

to an appeal to Rome wkich wks decided byTnno- "^t^attobc adnnnistration ,._,.. i-».

cent X ml648, but afterwards became ^ eaU OR. ,/^ Suppr^on of the Soeie y altered but little

fcrs. The oth.i- Danish missions. New Gmnada the status of the Jesuits mMayhmd As they were

(Colombia), Chile, Pera, Quito F^ador), were the only priests u the miss on, they .Idlremamed at

administered by 193, 242, 526^ and 309 Jesuiterespeo their post^ most of Ihem, the nine English members,

tiveiy (se« AlLkb ARiuCAkiANs; AaAWAKsrSL^ Tt^ f'^'f'' *" contmumg to labour ""dcr Fath^

= .-,.- M-.^^ T.^,.L,\ J™n Lewis, who after the Suppreiwion had received

'^^'.r?^.^^/- . , ™... , , J the powers ot vicar-general from Bishop Challoner

(/nKrf State^.-Father Andrew White (q.v.) and of thVLondon District. Only two of them smrived

four other Jcsiuta from the English mission arrived untiltherestorationof the Society— Robert Molyncux

in territory now comprised m the State of Maryland, and John Bolton. Many of those who were abroad,

25 March, 1634, with the erpedition of Cecil Calvert InbouringinEnglandor studying in Belgium, returned

(g.v.) For tenyearsthey miniateredto theCatholics, to work in the mission. As a corporate boilv they

of the colony, converted many of its Protestant pio- still retained the properties from which they (ferived

neers, and conducted missions among the Indians support for their religious niinisi rations. As their

along Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac Ri^er, the numbers decreased some of the missions were aban-

Patuxents, Anacootans, and Piscataways, which lu^t doncd, or sen'ed for a time by other priests but miun-

were especially friendly. In 1644 the colony was tained by the revenues ot the Jesuit pronerlics even

invaded by the Puritans from the neighbouring settle- after the Restoration of the Society. Tuoiigh these

mcnt of Virginia, and Father White was sent in properties were regarded as reverting to it through

chains to England, tried for being a Catholic, and on its former members organized as the Corporation of

his release took refuge in Belgium. Although the Roman Catholic Clergymen, a yeiu-ly allowanee from

Catholic colonists soon refrained control, they were the revenues made over to Archbishop Carroll becan<e

constantly menaced by their Puritan neiKhbours and during Bishop Man''ehal's adminL-stratian (1817-31)

by malcontents in the colony itself, who finally in tbe b^is of u claim for such a payment in perpetuity

80CI8TT 96 80CI8TT

and the disputr thu» occasioned was not settled until "Litfrnc anniue Societatis Jesu ad patres et fratres

1838, under ArchbiBhop Eccleston. ejusdem Societatis". The rule forbade the communi-

French Missiofu. — ^The French missions had as cation of these letters to persons not members of the

bases the French colonies in Canada, the Antilles^ order, as is indicated by the title. The publication of

Guiana, and India; while French influence in the the annual letters began in 1581, was interrupted from

Mediterranean led to the missions of the Levant, in 1614 to 1649, and came to an end in 1654, though the

Syria, amon|; the Maronites (q. v.), etc. (See also provinces and missions continued to send such let-

Guiana; Haiti; Martiniqxte; China. Ill, 673.) ters to the father-general. The third class of letters,

The Canadian mission is described under Canada, or "Relations" properlv so called^ were written for

and Missions, Cathouc Indian, of Canada. (See the public and intended for printmg. Gf this class

also the accounts of the mission given in the articles were the famous "Relations ae la Nouvelle-Franoe",

on Indian tribes like the Abeiuuds. Apaches, Cree, b^gun in 1616 by Father Biard. The series for 1626

Hurons, Iroquois, Gttawas; and in tne biographies of was written by Father Charles Lalemant. Forty-one

the missionaries BaiUoquet, Br^beuf, Casot, Cha- volumes constitute the series of 1632-72, thirty-nine

banel, Chastellain, Chaumonot, Cholonec, C^pieul, of which bear the title "Relations", and two (1645-55

Dablon, Druillettes, Gamier, Cioupil, Jogues, La£tau, and 1658-59) "Lettres de la Nouvelle-France".

Lagren^, Jacques- P. Lallemant, LamberviUe, Lauzon. The cessation of these publications was the indirect

Le Moyne, RSAe, etc.) In 1611 Fathers Biard ana outcome of the controversy concerning Chinese Rites,

Mass^ arrived as missionaries at Port Royal, Acadia, as Clement X forbade (16 April, 1673) missionaries to

Taken prisoners by the English from Virginia, they publish books or writings concerning the missionE

were sent back to France in 1614. In 1625 Fathers without the written consent of Propaganda.

Mass6. Brdbeuf, and Charles Lalemant came to work Letters from the mlainona were instituted by Saint Ignatius,

in ana about Quebec, until 1629, when they were At first they ctreuUted in MS. and contained home as well as

forced to return to. France i^ter the EngUah captured {^^ jg^ti^ '^ tS^^SS^nL:'^^^^}^^ SSl^

Quebec. Back agam in 1632 they began the most he- annua, in yeariy or triennial volumes (1581 to 1614) at Rome,

roic missionary period in the annals of America. They Fkxeoce, ete., index with last vol. Second Series (1650-54)

opened a coUe«e at Quebec m Ift^, with a staff of '^^^^^^fS^., ^.i^-^^L^r'^^'^SS^

most accompbshed professors from France. For forty was to leave home news in Ma for the future historian, and to

years men quite as accomplished, labouring under publish the more interesting reports from abroad. Hence numy

inrrAHihlf> fifirHfifiirM nnpn^H mifisinnH jminnfr fli*» early issues of Awiw and Litt«ra, etc., from India, China, Japan,

mCTeaiDie narosmps, open^ missions among ine ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ celebrated ReUUums of the French Canadian

Xnaians on tne coast, along tne ot. Lawrence and the missions (Paris, 1634 — ). From these ever-growing printed

Saguenay, and on Hudson Bay; among the Iroquois, »nd MS. sources were drawn up the collections — Lettret *«-

NpiitrA.1 KfLtinn Ppfnna TTnrnna Off aurfls anrl lat^r Mntea ti curieu$eM icriiea par qudque* miuionairet de Ui eomjh

Weutrai r^aUOn, reiuns^ nurons, Utiawas, ana laier ^^ j^^^ (p^^s, 1702; frequently reprinted with different matter.

among the MiamiS^ lUmOlS, and amone^the tribes in 4 to 34 volumes. The original title was L^Urea de queique9

east of the Mississippi as far south as the Gulf of mianonairee); Der New-WeUbcU mUaUerkand NaehridtUn dtren

?^?iss- .J^*" •^'^* ''^r"^ f ^"^^ poe«»ion ^^sqr- o^./t?^; tssjois: ^^^^^ "A

in 1763, these missions could no longer be SUStamed. aionOre (Freiburg, 1809). For literature of particular missions

though many of them, especially those that formed see those Utles. LwjiJBiwQu^/Vmisrdo^i^^

part of parochial ««ttiement8,!fead gradually b^ 5iT'feS:S"i^'oV'Z)JAS^''(l5X^^

taken over by secular pnestS. The college at Quebec Bourns, Spain in America (New York, 1904); PAUEMAif, The

was closed in 1768. At the time of the Suppression /««*»*• »». North Anmxi (Boston.* 1868); RocMiioinra. Let

there were but twenty^ne Jesuite in. CMiada, the {'^Btt'',^t:^'Z!^i:^:iri^i7t^}^i,Sfii:&^^

last of whom. Rev. John J. Casot^ died m 1800. The Siog. Sketch of Father Andrew White and hie CommMnione, the

mission has become famous for its martyrs, eight of fi^'t Mieeionariea of Maridand in the Metropolitan CaUidie Alma-

whom, BhSbeuf, Gabriel Lalemant, Dank Garnier T-iSSl^arS; '^'iiSf Sfe^ (tlS^lS^^^

Chabanel, Jogues and his lay companions Goupil and 8 Jan.. 1846); Johnson, The Foundation of Maryland in Mary

Lalande, were declared venerable on 27 Feb., 1912. ^^ ^««'- Soe., Fund Pubiicatione, no. 18; Kip, Early JeauU Mie-

It haa ak, become noted for ita.Uterary.remaU, es- S?^" JS2Sl?!SJSUTi5:;''^;l'!ll'^^

pecially for the works of the missionanes m the Indian ed. THWAma (73 vols., Cleveland. 1895-1901) ; Shba. Jeeuite,

tongues, for their explorations, especially that of RecolUcU, and Indiane in Winsor, Narrative and critical Hiat. c/

Marquette and for ite "Relation8'»r i}^A,^ST<iJ^Si'a^rj:fIiPi<>ii\^^^

Jesuit Relations, — ^The collections known as the Hiet. of the Calh, Chur<Ji within the HmiU of the United atatea

'' Jesuit Relations'' consist of letters written from (New York, 1886-92); Schall. Hiet. relatio de ortu et proffTtseu

membera of the Society in the foreign mission fields to ^-^^l T^SJSS l^i^d^^ifT^- ""^^ ^"^'
their superiors and brethren m Europe, and contam

accounts of the development of the missions, the Soppression. 1750-73. — We now approach the
labours of the missionanes, and the obstacles which most difficult part of the history of the Society,
they encoimtered in their work. In March, 1549, Having enjoyed very high favour among Cathohc
when St. Francis Xavier confided the mission of Or- peoples, kmgs, prelates, and popes for two and a
mus to Father Caspar Barzseus, he included among his nau centuries, it suddenly becomes an object of
instructions the commission to write from time to time frenzied hostility, is overwhelmed with obloquy, and
to the college at Goa, giving; an account of what was overthrown with dramatic rapidity. Every work
being done in Ormus. His letter to Joam Bcira of the Jesuits — their vast missions, their noble ool-
(Malacca, 20 June, 1540) recommends similar accounts leges, their churches— all is taken from them or de-
being sent to' St. Ignatius at Rome and to Father stroyed. They are banished, and their order sup-
Simon Rodriguez at Lisbon and is very explicit con- pressed, with harsh and denunciatory words even from
ceming both the contents and the tone of these the pope. What makes the contrast more striking
accounts. These instructions were the guide for the is that their protectors for the moment are former
future "Relations" sent from all the foreign missions enemies — the Russians and Frederick of Prussia,
of the order. The "Relations" were of three kinds: Like many intricate problems^ its solution is best
Intimate and personal accounts sent to the father- found by beginning with what is easy to understand,
general, to a relative, a friend, or a superior, which We look forward a generation and we see tliat every
were not meant for publication at that time, if ever, one of the thrones, the pope's not excluded, which
There were also annual letters, intended only for had been active in the Suppression, is overwhelmed,
members of the order, manuscript copies of which France, Spain, Portugal, and Italy become, indeed
were sent from house to house. Extracts and analy- still are, a prey to the extravagances of the Revolu-
of thess letters were compiled in a volume entitled : tionaiy movement. The Suppression of the Society

BOOUTT 97 80QIITT

was due to the same causee which in further develop- and oould not trade, that is, buy cheap to sell dear,

ment brought about the French Revolution. These any more than any other rdigious. But they dia

causes vaned somewhat in different coimtries. In sell the products of their great mission farms, in

fVanoe many influences combined, as we shall see, which many natives were employed, and this was

from Jansenism and Free-thought to the then prev- allowed, partly to provide for the current expenses

aknt impatience with the dd order of things (see of the mission, partly in order to protect the simple,

Francs, VI, 172). Some have thought that the childlike natives from the common league of dishonest

Suppression was primarily due to these curroits of intermediaries. Pdre Antoine La Valette, superior of

thoui^t. Others attribute it chiefly to the absolu- the Martinique mission, managed these transactions

tism of the Bourbons. For, though in France the king with no little success, and success encoiva^^ed hhn to

was averse to the Suppression, the destructive forcesao" go too far. He began to borrow money m order to

quired their power because he was too indolent to exer^ work the large undeveloped resources of the colony,

eisecontrol, which at that time he alone possessed. Out- and a strong; letter from the governor of the islana

side France it is plain that autocracy, acting through dated 1753 is extant in praise of his enterprise. But

high-handed ministers, was the determining cause. on the outbreak of war, ships conveying goods of

Portugal, — ^In 1750 Joseph I of Portugal appointed the estimated value of 2,000,000 livre8 were captured

Sebastian Joseph Carvalho, afterwards Marquis of and he suddenly became a bankrupt for a very large

Pombal(q.v.)^ as his first minister. Carvalho's quarrel sum.' His creaitors were egged on to demand pay-

with the Jesuits began over an exchange of territory ment from the procurator en the Paris province: but

with Spain. San Sacramento was exchanged for the he, relying on what certainly was the letter oi the

seven Keductions of Paraguav, which were under law, refused responsibility for the debts of an inde-

Spain. The Society's wonderml missions there were pendent mission, though offering to negotiate for a

coveted by the Portuguese, who believed that the settlemoit, of which he held out assured nopes. The

Jesuits were mining gold. So the Indians were creditors went to the courts, and an order was made

CMrdered to quit their ooimtry, and the Jesuits endeav- (1760) obli|png the Society to pay, and giving leave

oured to leauH them quietlv to the distant land allotted to distrain in case of non-payment,
to them. Butowingtotbeharsh conditions imposed, The Fathers, on the advice of their lawyers,

the Indians rose in arms against the transfer, and the appealed to the Ohmd'chemibre of the ParlemerU of

so-called war of Paraguay ensued, which, of course, Paris. This turned out to be an imprudent step. For

was disastrous to the Indians. Then step by step not only did the ParlemefU support the lower court^ 8

the quarrel with the Jesuits was pushed to extremi- May, 1761, but, having once got the case into its

ties. The weak king was persuaded to remove them hands, the Society's enemies in that assembly deter-

from (Dourt; a war of pamphlets a«^unst him was mined to strike a great blow at ihe order. £nemies

commenced; the Fathers were first forbidden to under- of every sort combined. The Jansenists were nu-

take the temporal administration of the missions, and merous among the geru^-^robef and at that moment

then they were deported from America. were especially keen to be revenged on the orthodox

(}n 1 April, 1758, a Brief was obtained from the partv. The Soifoonnists, too, the university rivals

aged pope, Benedict XIV (q. v.), i4>ix>inting Cardinal of the great teaching order, ioined in the attack.

Saldsjiha to investigate the idlegations against the So did the Gallicans, the Philo8ophe8f and Encydo*

Jesuits, which had been raised in the King of Portu- pSdistes, Louis XV was weak^ and the influence

sal's name. But it does not follow that the pope had of his Court divided; while his wife and childr^i were

lorejudxed the case against the order. On the con* earnestly in favour of the Jesuits, his able first minis-

trary, if we take into view all the letters and instruc- ter, the Due de Choiseui (q. v.)i played into the hands

tions sent to the cardinal, we see that the pope was of the Parlementf and the royal mistress, Madame de

distinctly sceptical as to the ^vity of the alleged Pompadour, to whom the Jesuits had refused absolu-

abuaes. He ordered a minute inquiry, but one con^ tion, was a bitter opponent. The determination of

ducted so as to safeguard the reputation of the Soci- the ParUmerU of Pans in time bore down all oppo-

ety. All matters of serious importance were to be sitmn. The attack on the Jesuits, as such, was opened

rdfened bade to himself. The pope died five weeks by the Jansenistic Abb^ Chauvelin, 17 April, 1762,

later on 3 May. On 15 May, Saldanha, having mio denounced the Constitutions of the Jesuits as

received the Brief only a fortni^t before, omittins the cause of the alleged defalcations of the order,

the. thorough, house-to-house visitation which had This was followed by the compte^endu on the Consti*^

been ordered, and pronouncing on the issues which tutions, ^7 July, 1762, fuU of misconceptions, but

the pope haa reserved to himself, declared that the not yet extravagant in hostility. Next day Chauve-^

Jesuits were guilty of having exercised illicit, public, lin oescended to a vulgar but efficacious means of

aud scandalous commerce both in Portugal and in its exciting odium by denouncing the Jesuits' teaching

colonies. Three weeks later, at Pombal's instigja* and morals, especially on the matter of tyrannicide.
tion, all faculties were withdrawn from the Jesuits In the ParlemerU the Jesuits' case was now deepe-

thnMighout the Patriarchate of LiaboD. Before Cle- rate. After a long conflict with the Crown, in which

ment XIII (q v.) had become pope (6 July, 1758) the the indolent minister-ridden sovereign failed to

woric of the Society had been destroyed, and in 1759 assert his will to any purpose, the PariemeTit issued

it was civilly suppressed. The last step was taken its well-known **Exirait8 dks asseriiona*^ a bliie4>ook,

in consequence of a plot against the chamberlain as we mi|(ht say. containing a congeries of passages

Texoras, but suspected to have been aimed at the from Jesuit theologians and canonists, in which they

J, and of this the Jesuits were supposed to have were alleged to teach every sort of immorality and

appitived. But the grounds of suspicion were never error, from tyrannicide, magic, and Arianism to

cfearly stated, mucn less proved. The height of treason, Socinianism. and Lutheranism. On 0

Pombal's persecution was reached with the buminjs August, 1762, the final arr^ was issued condemning

(1761) of the saintly Father Malagrida (q. v.) ostensi- the Society to extinction, but the king's intervention

bly for heresy; while the other Fathers, who had been brought eight months' delay. In favour of the Jes-

crowded into prisons, were left to perish by the score, uits there had been some striking testimonies, espe-

Interoouise between the Qiurch of Portugal and cially from the French clergy in the two convocations

Rome was broken off till 1770. summoned on 30 November, 1761, and 1 May, 1762.

France, — ^The suppression in France was occasioned But the series of letters and addresses published

bv the injuries inflicted by the En^li^ navy on by Clement XIII afford a truly irrefragable attests*

F^ioh commerce in 1755. The Jesuit missionaries tion in favour of the order. Nothing, however;

held a heavy stake in Martinique. They did not availed to stay the ParlgmerU, The king's counter-

80CZXTT

80CIETT

edict delayed indeed the execution of its arrU, and
meantime a compromise was suggested by the Court.
If the French Jesuits would stand apart from the
order, under a French vicar, with French customs,
the Crown would still protect them. In spite of the
dangers of refusal, the Jesuits woidd not consent:
and upon considting the pope, he (not lUcci) used
the since famous phrase, Sitd vJL vunt^ %tU rum tsini
(de Ravignan, ''CldmentXlII'', I. 105, ./he ivordsiure
attributed to Ricci alao) . Louis s intervention hin-
dered the execution of the arrit against the Jesuits
until 1 April, 1763. The colleges were then closed,
and by a further arrit of 9 March, 1764, the Jesuits
were required to renounce their vows under pain of
banishment. Only three priests and a few scholastics
accepted the conditions. At the end of November,
1764, the king unwillingly signed an edict dissolving
the Society tfu'oughout his dominions, for they were
still protected by some provincial parlements. as
Franche-Ck>mt^, Alsace, and Artois. But in the draft
of the edict he cancelled numerous clauses, which
implied that the Society was guilty; and, writing to
Choiseul, he concluded with the weak but significant
words: '*If I adopt the advice of others for the peace
of my realm, you must make the changes I propose,
or I will do nothing. I say no more, lest I should say
too much''.

iSfpatn, Naples, and Parma. — ^Ilie Suppression in
Spam and its quasi-dependencies, Naples and Parma,
and in the Spanish colonies was carried through by
autocratic kinms and ministers. Their deliberations
were conducted in secrecy, and they purposely kept
their reasons to themselves. It is omy of late years
that a clue has been traced back to Bernardo Tan-
ucci, the anti-<;lerical minister of Naples, who acquired
a great influence over Charles III betore that king
passed from the throne of Naples to that of Spain.
In this minister's correspondence are found all the
ideas which from time to time guided the Spanish
policy. Charles, a man of good moral character, had
entrusted his Government to the Count Aranda and
other followers of Voltaire; and he had brought from
Itfidy a finance minister, whose nationality made the
government unpopular, while his exactions led in
1766 to rioting and to the publication of various
squflM, lampoons, and attacks upon the adminis-
tration. An extraordinary council was appointed
to investigate the matter, as it was declared that
people BO simple as the rioters could never have pro-
duced the political pamphlets. They proceeded to
take secret informations, the tenor of which is no
longer known; but records remain to show that in
September the council had resolved to incriminate
the Society, and that by 29 January, 1767, its ex-
pulsion was settled. Secret orders^ which were to
be opened at midnight between the first and second
of April, 1767, were sent to the magistrates of every
town where a Jesuit resided. The plan worked
smoothly. That morning 6000 Jesuits were march-
ing like convicts to the coast, where they were deported
first to the Papal States, and ultimately to Corsica.

Tanucci pursued a similar policy in Naples. On
3 November the religious, again without trial,
and this time without even an accusation, were
marched across the frontier into the Papal States.
and threatened with death if they returned. It will
be noticed that in these expulsions the smaller the
state the greater the contempt of the ministers for
any forms of law. The Duchy of Parma was the
smallest of the so-called Bourbon Courts, and so
affgressive in its anti-clericalism that Clement XIII
aodressed to it (30 January, 1768) a monitorium,
or warning, that its excesses were punishable with
ecclesiastical censures. At this all parties to the
Bourbon '^ Family Compact" turned m fury against
the Holy See, and demanded the entire destruction
of the Society. As a preliminary Parma at once

drove the Jesuits out of its territories, confiscating
as usual all their possessions.

ClemerU XIV.— From this time till his death (2
February, 1769) Clement XIII was harassed with
the utmost rudeness and violence. Portions of his
States were seized by force, he was insulted to his
face by the Bourbon r^resentatives, and it was made
clear that, unless he gave way, a great schism would
ensue, such as Portugal had already commenced.
The conclave which followed lasted from 15 Feb. to
May, 1769. The Bourbon Courts, through the so-
called ''crown caidmals", succeeded in excluding any
of the party, nicknamed ZeUmti, who would have
taken a firm position in defence of the order, and fi-
nally elected Lorenzo Ganganelli, who took thename of
Clement XIV. It has been stat>ed by Cr^tineau-Joly
(Clement XIV. p. 260) that Ganganelli, before his elec-
tion, engaged mmself to the crown cardinals by some
sort of stipulation that he would suppress the »3ciety,
which would have involved an infraction of the con-
clave oath. This is now disproved by the statement
of the Spanish acent Azpuru, who was specially
deputed to act with the crown cardinals. He wrote
on 18 May, just before the election, ''None of the
cardinals has gone so far as to propose to anyone that
the Suppression should be secured by a written or
epoken promise"; and just after 25 May he wrote,
'Ganganelli neither made a promise, nor refused it".
On the other hand it seems he did write words, whi(*h
were taken by the crown cardinals as an indication
that the Bourbons would get their way with him
(de Bemis's letters of 28 July and 20 November,
1769).

No sooner was Clement on the throne than the
Spanish Court, backed by the other members of
the "Family Compact", renewed their overpower-
ing pressure. On 2 August, 1769, Choiseul wrote a
strong letter demanding the Suppression within two
months; and the pope now made his first written
promise that he would grant the n^easure, but he
declared that he must have more time. Then began
a series of transactions, which some have not unnatu-
rally interpreted as devices to escape bv delays from
the terrible act of destruction, towards which Cle-
ment was being pushed. He passed more than two
years in treating with the Courts of Turin, Tuscanv,
Milan, Genoa, Bavana, etc., which would not easily
consent to the Bourbon projects. The same ulterior
object may perhaps be detected in some of the minor
annoyances now inflicted on the Society. From
several colleges, as those of Frascati, Ferrara, Bologna,
and the Irish Colle^ at Rome, the Jesuits were, after
a prolonged examination, ejected with much show
of hostility. And there were moments, as for in-
stance after the fall of Choiseul, when it really seemed
as though the Society misht have escaped; but event-
ually the obstinacy of Charles III always prevailed.

In the middle of 1772 Charles sent a ncfw ambassa-
dor to Rome, Don Joseph Mofiino, afterwards Count
Florida Blanca. a strong^ hard man, "full of artifice,
sagacity, and dissimulation, and no one more set on
the suppression of the Jesuits". Heretofore the
negotiations had been in the hands of the clever, diplo-
matic Cardinal de Bemis, French ambassador to the
popew Mofiino now took the lead, de Bemis coming
m afterwards as a friend to urge the acceptance (h
his advice. At last^ on 6 Sept., Mofiino gave in a

gaper suggesting a hue for the pope to follow, which
e did in part adopt, in drawing up the Brief of Sup-
pression. By November the end was coming in
sight, and in December Clement put Mofiino into
communication with a secretary; and they drafted
the instrument together, the minut« being ready by 4
January, 1773. By 6 February Mofiino had got it
back from the pope in a form to be conveyed to the
Bourbon Courts, and by 8 June, their modifioationB
having been taken account of, the minute was thrown

80CI1TY 09 800XBTT

into its final form and signed. Still the pope delayed, Bishop Massalski in White Russia, 19 September,

until Mofiino constrained him to get copies printed: 1773, therefore ordered the Jesuit superiors to con-

and as these were dated, no delay was possible beyond tinue to exercise jurisdiction till further notice. On

that date, which was 16 August, 1773. A second 2 February, 1780, with the approbation of Bishop

Brief was issued to determine tne manner in which the Siestrzencewics's Apostolic visitor^ a novitiate was

Suppression was to be carried out. To secure secrecy opened. To obtain higher sanction for what had

one rei^ulation was introduced which led, in forei^ been done, the envoy Benislaski was sent by Cathe-

countries, to some unexpected results. The Brief rine to Rome. But it must be remembered that the

was not to be published Vrbi el Orbi, but only to animus of the Bourbon Courts against the Society

each college or place by the local bishop. At Rome, was still unchecked; and in some countries, as in

the father-general was confined first in the English Austria under Joseph II, the situation was worse than

College, then in Castel S. Angelo, with his assistants, before. There were many in the Roman Curia who

The papers of the Society were handed over to a had worked their way up by their activity against

special commission, together with its title deeds and the order, or held pensions created out of former

store of money, 40,000 acudi (about $50,000), which Jesuit property. Pius VI declined to meet Cathe-

belonged almost entirely to definite charitiee. An rine's requests. AH he could do was to express an

investigation of the papers was b^gui^y hut never indefinite assent by word of mouth, without issuing

brought to any issue. any written documents, or observing the usual for-

In the Bridf of Suppression the most striking fea- malities; and he ordered that strict secrecy should be

ture is the long list of allegations against the Society, observed about the whole 'mission. Benislaski

with no mention of what is favourable; the tone received these messages on 12 March, 1783, and later

of the Brief is very adverse. On the other hand save the Russian Jesuits an attestation of them (24

the charges are recited categorically; th^ are not Juhr, 1785).

definitely stated to have been proved. The object On the other hand, it can cause no wonder that
is to represent the order as having occasioned per- the enemies of the Jesuits should from the first have
petual strife, contradiction, and trouble. For watched the survival in White Russia with jealousy,
the sake of peace the Society must be suppressed, and have brought pressure to bear upon the pope to
A full explanation of these and other anomalous ensure their suppression. He was constraincMd to
features cannot yet be given with certainty. The declare that he had not revoked the Brief of Sup-
chief reason for them no (&ubt is that the Suppression pression, and that he regarded as an abuse anything
was an administrative measure, not a judicial sen- done against it, but that the Empress Catherine
tenoe based on judicial inquiry. We see that the would not allow him to act freely (29 June, 1783).
course chosen avoided many difficulties, especially These utterances were not in real conflict with the
the open contradiction of preceding popes, who had answer given to Benislaski, which only amounted to
so often praised or confirmed the Society. Again, the assertion that the escape from the Brief by the
such statements were less liable to be controverted; Jesuits in Russia was not schismatical, and that
and there were different ways of interpreting the Brief, the pope approved of their continuing as they were
which commended themselves to Zelanti and Boi^ doing. Their existence therefore was legitimate.
bwiici respectively. The last word on the subject or at least not illegitimate, though positive approval
is doubtless that of St. Alphonsus di liguori — "Poor in legal form did not come till Pius Vll's Bri^ ''^Cath-
Pope! What could he do in the circumstances in olic® Fidei" (7 March, 1801). Meantime the same
which he was placed, with all the sovereigns oonspir- or similar causes to those which brought about the
ing to demand this Suppression? As for ourselves. Suppression of the Society were leading to the dis-
we must keep silence, respect the secret judgment of ruption of the whole civil order. The Jrench Revo-
God, and hoW ourselves in peace''. lution (1789) was overthrowmg every throne that

CBinifXAu-JoLT. Clement XIV el lu jUuitei (Paria, 1847); had combined against the Jesuits, and in the anguish

Dakvilla y Collado. Reinado de Cariot IT/ (Ma&id. 1893J: of that trial many were the cries for the re-establish-

Dblplacb, La tuppret&um det jisuties m Studet (Pans, 5-20 ^^„x ^f xu« ^«J1« -d,,* «^;j ♦!»«> 4^,,«,»»:i ^f ♦l*^

July. 1908); Fbbbbb dbl Rxo. Hiat^d^ ninado de Carioe III nient oi the Order. But amid the tunnoa of the

(Madrid, 1856); db Rayionan, cumetu XIII et cUmeru XIV Napoleonio wars, durmg the prolonged captivities

(Paris 1854); RoaanAXT, Ri^ne de Charlee III d'BspagneJPBi^ of Pius VI (1798-1800) and of PiusVII (1809-14),

don.i903-3);TMWEB,Oe**.d«aP(m/iiAau*ci«iMn<X/F(Paria. Buch a consummation was impossible. The i^^ish

1853; Freneh tr., Bruwela, 1853); Koblbr, Dm Aufhebwig der Jesmts, however (whose academy at Liege, driven

GeeeUechaft /gm (Lin*. 1873); W.l^ Suvpreu^of Oie Socof over to England by the French invasion of 1794,

fe"/SJ2; SrS5ri22£"1S' Wris^irk, ^t?.:TS: had}^^l?^yed\ a Brief in 1796) succe^eyi

1886); Caratom, Le pkre Ricci et la, euppreeeion de la eomn, de m obtaining onJ permission from FlUS VII for their

f^.^^NiP^^^^JLIiSJ^^' .«w''w^^j^"± apregation to the Russian Jesuits, 27 May, 1803.

(^iliSl^867). ^^^ ir»ed«rAer.<*«t.ny ^ permission was to be kept secret, and was not

even communicated by the pope to Propaganda.
The Interim (1773-1814),— The execution of the Next winter, its i)refect. Cardinal Borgia, wrote a
Brief of Suppression having been largely left to the hostile letter, not indeed cancelling the vows taken,
]ocal bishops, there was room for a good deal of variety or blaming what had been done, but forbidding the
in the treatment which the Jesuits might receive in bish<»>8 "to recognize the Jesuits , or ''to admit their
different places. In Austria and Germany they were privileges''^ until they obtained permission from the
generally allowed to teach (but with secular clergy Congre^tion of Propaganda,
as superiors); often they became men of mark as Considering the extreme difficulties of the times,
preachers, Iflce Beauregard, Muzzarelli, and Alexan- we cannot wonder at orders being given from Rome
dre Lanfant (b. at Lyons, 6 Sept., 1726, and massacred which were not always quite consistent. Broadly
in Paris, 3 Sept., 1793) and writers like Fran^ois-X. speaking, however, we see that the popes worked
de FeUer (q. v.), Zaccharia, Ximenes. The first tneir way towards a restoration of the order bv
to receive open official approbation of their new works degrees. First, by approving communi^ life, which
were probably the English Jesuits, who in 1778 iiad been specifically forbidden by the Brief of Sup-
obtained a Bnef approving their well-known Academy pression (this was done for England in 1778) . Second,
of U^ (now at Stonyhurst). But in Russia, and oy permitting vows (for England in 1803). Third, by
until 1780 in Prussia, the Empress Catherine and restoring the full privileges of a religious order (these
King Frederick II desired to maintain the Society were not recognised in England until 1829). TheSoci-
as a teaching body. They forbade the local bishops <ety was extended by Brief from Russia to the Kingdom
to promulgate the JBriedT until their p2<ice< was obtained, of Naples^ 30 July, 1804; but on the invasion of th^

800ZBTT

100

800IBTT

French in ld06| all houBes were dissolved, except
those in Sicily. The superior in Italy duri^ these
changes was the Venerable Giuseppe M. Pignatelli
(q. v.). In their zeal for the re-establishment of the
Society some of the ex-Jesuits united themselves into
congregations, which might, while avoiding the now
unpopular name of Jesuits, preserve some of its
essential features. Thus arose the Fathers of the
Faith (Plo^s de la Foi), founded with papal sanction
by Nicolas Paccanari in 1797. A somewhat similar
congregation, called the ''Fathers of the Saored
Heart , had been commenced in 1794 in Belgium,
under P^re Charles de Broglie, who was succeeded by
P^re Joseph Varin as superior. By wish of Pius VI,
the two congregations amal^unated. and were gen-
erally known as the Paccanarists. They soon spread
into many lands; Paccanari, however, did not prove a
good superior, and seemed to be working aipunst a
reunion with the Jesuits still existing in Russia; this
caused P^re Varin and others to leave him. Some of
them entered the Society in Russia at once; and at
the Restoration the others joined en maue. (See
Sacred Heart of Jesus, Society of the.)

The Restored Societt. — Pius VII had resolved
to i^store the Society during his captivity in France;
and after his return to Rome did so with little delay,
7 August, 1814, by the Bull "Sollicitudo omnium
ecclesiarum," and therewith the general in Russia,
Thaddfleus Brzozowski, a<^uired universal jurisdic-
tion. After the permission to continue given by
Pius VI, the first Russian congregation had elected
as vicar-general Stanislaus Csemiewicz (17 Oct..
1782-7 July, 1785), who was succeeded by Gabriel
Lenkiewics (27 Sept., 1785-10 Nov., 1798) and
Francis Kareu (1 Feb., 1799-20 July, 1802). On
the receipt of the Brief "(Datholics Fidei'\ of 7
March, 1801, his title was changed from vicar-general
to general. Gabriel Gruber succeeded (10 Oct.,
1802-26 March, 1805), and was followed by Thad-
dseus Brzozowski (2 Sept.. 1805). Almost simul-
taneously with the death ot the latter, 5 Feb., 1820,
the Russians, who had banished the Jesuits from St.
Petersburg in 1815, expelled them from the whole
country. It seems a remarkable providence that
Russia, contrary to all precedent, snould have pro-
tected the Jesuits just at the time when all other
nations turned against them, and reverted to her
normal hostility when the Jesuits began to find toler-
ation elsewhere. Upon the decease of Brzozowski,
Father Petrucci, the vicar, fell under the influence
of the stiU powerful anti-Jesuit party at Rome, and
proposed to alter some points in the Institute. The
twentieth general congregation took a severe view
of his proposals, expellea him from the order, and
elected Father Aloysius Fortis (18 Oct., 1820-27
Jan., 1829) (q. v.); John Roothaan succeeded (9 July,
1829-8 May, 1853); and was followed by Peter
Beckx (q.v.) (2 July, 1853-^ March, 1887). Anton
Maria Anderledy, vicar-general on 11 May. 1884.
became general on Fr. Beckx's death and died on 18
Jan., 1892; Luis Martin (2 Oct., 1892-18 Ajjr., 1906).
Father Martin commenced a new series of histmies of
the Society, to be based on the increased materials
now available, and to deal with many problems about
which older annalists, Orlandini and his successors,
were not curious. Volumes by Astrain, Duhr, Fou-
querav, Hughes, Kroess, Tacchi-Venturi have ap-
pearea. The present general, Francis Xavier Wotiz,
was elected on 8 Sept., 1906.

Though the Jesuits of the nineteenth century can-
not show a mart3rr-roll as brilliant as that of their pre-
decessors, the persecuting laws passed against them
surpass in number, extent, ana continuance those
endured by previous generations. The practical
exclusion from university teaching, the obligation of
military service in many countries, the wholesde
confiscations of religious property, and the dispersion

of twelve of its oldest and once most flourishing prov-
inces are very serious hindrances to religious voca-
tions. On a teaching order such blows fall very
heavily. The cause of trouble has generally been
due to that propaganda of irreligion which was
developed during the Revolution and is still active
througn Freemasonry in those lands in which the
Revolution took root.

France, — ^This is plainly seen in ¥Vance. In that
oountnr the Society began after 1815 with the direo-
tion of some 'fetUs Bhrvinaires and oongrc«ations, and
by giving mis

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