Poland

Poland (Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Rzeczpospolita Polska), is a country located in Central Europe. ^[1]

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A1 autostrada (Poland)

The autostrada A1, officially named Amber Highway (pol. Autostrada Bursztynowa) in Poland is a north-south motorway, partly under construction, that runs through central Poland, from Gdańsk on the Baltic Sea through Łódź and the Upper Silesian Industry Area (to the west of Katowice) to the Polish-Czech border in Gorzyczki (Wodzisław County) /Věřňovice (Karviná District), where it is connected with the Czech motorway D1.

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A18 autostrada (Poland)

Autostrada A18 is a short, planned motorway in southwestern Poland which is to run from the Polish/German border at Olszyna/Forst-Bademeusel and the German Bundesautobahn 15 to the Polish Autostrada A4.

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A2 autostrada (Poland)

The autostrada A2 in Poland is a motorway which runs from west to east through central Poland, from the Polish-German border in Świecko/Frankfurt, where it connects to the German A12 autobahn, through Poznań and Łódź to Warsaw.

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A4 autostrada (Poland)

The autostrada A4 in Poland is a long east-west motorway that runs through southern Poland, along the north side the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains, from the Polish-German border at Zgorzelec-Görlitz (connecting to the German A4 autobahn), bypassing Wrocław, Opole, Strzelce Opolskie, Gliwice, Katowice, Kraków, Tarnów, Dębica and Rzeszów to the Polish-Ukrainian border at Korczowa-Krakovets.

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A6 autostrada (Poland)

The autostrada A6 in Poland is a long motorway that starts at the Polish/German border at Kołbaskowo/Pomellen connecting to the German A11 autobahn.

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A8 autostrada (Poland)

The A8 motorway (Autostradowa Obwodnica Wrocławia, abbreviated AOW) or Wrocław Motorway Bypass or Autostrada A8 is a motorway bypass of the city of Wrocław, Poland.

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ABC-CLIO

ABC-CLIO, LLC is a publishing company for academic reference works and periodicals primarily on topics such as history and social sciences for educational and public library settings.

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Abstraction

Abstraction in its main sense is a conceptual process where general rules and concepts are derived from the usage and classification of specific examples, literal ("real" or "concrete") signifiers, first principles, or other methods.

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Academic art

Academic art, or academicism or academism, is a style of painting, sculpture, and architecture produced under the influence of European academies of art.

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Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film

The Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film is one of the Academy Awards handed out annually by the U.S.-based Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS).

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Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw

Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw (Akademia Sztuk Pięknych w Warszawie) is a public university of visual arts and applied arts located in the Polish capital.

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Adam Jarzębski

Adam Jarzębski (c. 1590 in Warka – c. 1648 in Warsaw) was an early Baroque Polish composer, violinist, poet, and writer.

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Adam Mickiewicz

Adam Bernard Mickiewicz (24 December 179826 November 1855) was a Polish poet, dramatist, essayist, publicist, translator, professor of Slavic literature, and political activist.

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Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań

Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań (Uniwersytet im., Polish abbreviation UAM) is one of the major Polish universities, located in the city of Poznań, Greater Poland, in the west of the country.

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Adolf Hitler

Adolf Hitler (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was a German politician, demagogue, and revolutionary, who was the leader of the Nazi Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei; NSDAP), Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and Führer ("Leader") of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945.

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Adventism

Adventism is a branch of Protestant Christianity which was started in the United States during the Second Great Awakening when Baptist preacher William Miller first publicly shared his belief that the Second Coming of Jesus Christ would occur at some point between 1843 and 1844.

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Aero (Polish airline)

The Society of Air Transportation Aero SA was a Polish airline founded in Poznań in February 1925 by the members of the Association of Polish Pilots and based entirely on the Polish seed capital.

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Aerolot

Aerolot (until 1925 Aerolloyd) was a Polish airline.

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Aeroscope

Aeroscope was a type of compressed air camera for making films, constructed by Polish inventor Kazimierz Prószyński in 1909 (French patent from April 10, 1909) and built in England since 1911, at first by Newman & Sinclair, and from 1912 by Cherry Kearton Limited.

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Afghanistan

Afghanistan (Pashto/Dari:, Pashto: Afġānistān, Dari: Afġānestān), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia.

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Agnieszka Holland

Agnieszka Holland (born 28 November 1948) is a Polish film and television director and screenwriter.

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Agnieszka Radwańska

Agnieszka Roma Radwańska (nicknamed Aga, born 6 March 1989) is a Polish professional tennis player.

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Airmail

Airmail (or air mail) is a mail transport service branded and sold on the basis of at least one leg of its journey being by air.

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Albert Warner

Abraham "Albert" Warner (July 23, 1884Sperling, Millner, and Warner (1998), Warner Family Tree. – November 26, 1967) was an American film executive who was one of the founders of Warner Bros. Studios.

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Aleksander Ford

Aleksander Ford (born Mosze Lifszyc; 24 November 1908 in Kiev, Russian Empire – 4 April 1980 in Naples, Florida, United States) was a Polish Jewish film director; and head of the Polish People's Army Film Crew in the Soviet Union during World War II.

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Alexander Lukashenko

Aleksandr Grigoryevich Lukashenko (translit,; ɐlʲɪˈksandr ɡrʲɪˈɡorʲjɪvʲɪtɕ ɫʊkɐˈʂɛnkə; born 30 August 1954) is a Belarusian politician serving as President of Belarus since the office was created on 20 July 1994.

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Alexandre Tansman

Alexandre Tansman (12 June 1897 – 15 November 1986) was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianist of Jewish origin.

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Alfred Tarski

Alfred Tarski (January 14, 1901 – October 26, 1983), born Alfred Teitelbaum,School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews,, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews.

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Allies of World War I

The Allies of World War I, or Entente Powers, were the countries that opposed the Central Powers in the First World War.

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Almanach cracoviense ad annum 1474

Almanach cracoviense ad annum 1474 (Cracovian Almanac for the Year 1474) is a broadside astronomical wall calendar for the year 1474, and Poland's oldest known print.

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Alternative rock

Alternative rock (also called alternative music, alt-rock or simply alternative) is a style of rock music that emerged from the independent music underground of the 1980s and became widely popular in the 1990s.

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Amber

Amber is fossilized tree resin, which has been appreciated for its color and natural beauty since Neolithic times.

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American Revolutionary War

The American Revolutionary War (17751783), also known as the American War of Independence, was a global war that began as a conflict between Great Britain and its Thirteen Colonies which declared independence as the United States of America. After 1765, growing philosophical and political differences strained the relationship between Great Britain and its colonies. Patriot protests against taxation without representation followed the Stamp Act and escalated into boycotts, which culminated in 1773 with the Sons of Liberty destroying a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor. Britain responded by closing Boston Harbor and passing a series of punitive measures against Massachusetts Bay Colony. Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, and they established a shadow government which wrested control of the countryside from the Crown. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, establishing committees and conventions that effectively seized power. British attempts to disarm the Massachusetts militia at Concord, Massachusetts in April 1775 led to open combat. Militia forces then besieged Boston, forcing a British evacuation in March 1776, and Congress appointed George Washington to command the Continental Army. Concurrently, an American attempt to invade Quebec and raise rebellion against the British failed decisively. On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress voted for independence, issuing its declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe launched a British counter-offensive, capturing New York City and leaving American morale at a low ebb. However, victories at Trenton and Princeton restored American confidence. In 1777, the British launched an invasion from Quebec under John Burgoyne, intending to isolate the New England Colonies. Instead of assisting this effort, Howe took his army on a separate campaign against Philadelphia, and Burgoyne was decisively defeated at Saratoga in October 1777. Burgoyne's defeat had drastic consequences. France formally allied with the Americans and entered the war in 1778, and Spain joined the war the following year as an ally of France but not as an ally of the United States. In 1780, the Kingdom of Mysore attacked the British in India, and tensions between Great Britain and the Netherlands erupted into open war. In North America, the British mounted a "Southern strategy" led by Charles Cornwallis which hinged upon a Loyalist uprising, but too few came forward. Cornwallis suffered reversals at King's Mountain and Cowpens. He retreated to Yorktown, Virginia, intending an evacuation, but a decisive French naval victory deprived him of an escape. A Franco-American army led by the Comte de Rochambeau and Washington then besieged Cornwallis' army and, with no sign of relief, he surrendered in October 1781. Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tories in Parliament, and the surrender gave them the upper hand. In early 1782, Parliament voted to end all offensive operations in North America, but the war continued in Europe and India. Britain remained under siege in Gibraltar but scored a major victory over the French navy. On September 3, 1783, the belligerent parties signed the Treaty of Paris in which Great Britain agreed to recognize the sovereignty of the United States and formally end the war. French involvement had proven decisive,Brooks, Richard (editor). Atlas of World Military History. HarperCollins, 2000, p. 101 "Washington's success in keeping the army together deprived the British of victory, but French intervention won the war." but France made few gains and incurred crippling debts. Spain made some minor territorial gains but failed in its primary aim of recovering Gibraltar. The Dutch were defeated on all counts and were compelled to cede territory to Great Britain. In India, the war against Mysore and its allies concluded in 1784 without any territorial changes.

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Anabaptism

Anabaptism (from Neo-Latin anabaptista, from the Greek ἀναβαπτισμός: ἀνά- "re-" and βαπτισμός "baptism", Täufer, earlier also WiedertäuferSince the middle of the 20th century, the German-speaking world no longer uses the term "Wiedertäufer" (translation: "Re-baptizers"), considering it biased. The term Täufer (translation: "Baptizers") is now used, which is considered more impartial. From the perspective of their persecutors, the "Baptizers" baptized for the second time those "who as infants had already been baptized". The denigrative term Anabaptist signifies rebaptizing and is considered a polemical term, so it has been dropped from use in modern German. However, in the English-speaking world, it is still used to distinguish the Baptizers more clearly from the Baptists, a Protestant sect that developed later in England. Cf. their self-designation as "Brethren in Christ" or "Church of God":.) is a Christian movement which traces its origins to the Radical Reformation.

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Ancient woodland

In the United Kingdom, an ancient woodland is a woodland that has existed continuously since 1600 or before in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (or 1750 in Scotland).

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Andrzej Błasik

Andrzej Eugeniusz Błasik (11 October 1962 – 10 April 2010) was a Lieutenant General in the Polish Armed Forces and a Commander of the Polish Air Force.

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Andrzej Czok

Andrzej Czok (November 11, 1948 – January 11, 1986) was a Polish mountaineer best known for the first winter ascent of Dhaulagiri on January 21, 1985 with Jerzy Kukuczka and for the first ascent of Mount Everest through South Pillar in 1980 (new route also with Jerzy Kukuczka).

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Andrzej Duda

Andrzej Sebastian Duda (born 16 May 1972) is a Polish politician as well as the sixth and current President of Poland, holding the office since 6 August 2015.

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Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski

Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (Andreas Fricius Modrevius) (ca. September 20, 1503 – autumn, 1572) was a Polish Renaissance scholar, humanist and theologian, called "the father of Polish democracy".

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Andrzej Panufnik

Sir Andrzej Panufnik (24 September 1914 – 27 October 1991) was a Polish composer and conductor.

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Andrzej Wajda

Andrzej Witold Wajda (6 March 1926 – 9 October 2016) was a Polish film and theatre director.

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Andrzej Zawada

Andrzej Zawada, born: Maria Andrzej Zawada, (16 July 1928 in Olsztyn – 21 August 2000 in Warsaw) was a Polish Alpinist and Tatra Mountains climber, pioneer of winter Himalayism.

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Angrapa River

Angrapa is a river in northeastern Poland and Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast).

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Anti-communist resistance in Poland

Anti-communist resistance in Poland can be divided into two types: the armed partisan struggle, mostly led by former Armia Krajowa and Narodowe Siły Zbrojne soldiers, which ended in the late 1950s (see cursed soldiers), and the non-violent, civil resistance struggle that culminated in the creation and victory of the Solidarity trade union.

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Anti-ship missile

Anti-ship missiles are guided missiles that are designed for use against ships and large boats.

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Antoni Zygmund

Antoni Zygmund (December 25, 1900 – May 30, 1992) was a Polish mathematician.

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Apollo Korzeniowski

Apollo Korzeniowski (21 February 1820 – 23 May 1869) was a Polish poet, playwright, translator, clandestine political activist, and father of Polish-English novelist Joseph Conrad.

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Apple

An apple is a sweet, edible fruit produced by an apple tree (Malus pumila).

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Aptiv

Aptiv PLC (stylised as •APTIV•, formerly known as Delphi Automotive PLC) is a global technology company headquartered in Dublin, Ireland.

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Arcade (architecture)

An arcade is a succession of arches, each counter-thrusting the next, supported by columns, piers, or a covered walkway enclosed by a line of such arches on one or both sides.

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Armenia

Armenia (translit), officially the Republic of Armenia (translit), is a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia.

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Armenians in Poland

Armenians in Poland have an important and historical presence going back to the 14th century.

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Armistice of 11 November 1918

The Armistice of 11 November 1918 was the armistice that ended fighting on land, sea and air in World War I between the Allies and their last opponent, Germany.

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Armoured personnel carrier

An armoured personnel carrier (APC) is a type of armoured fighting vehicle (AFV) designed to transport infantry to the battlefield.

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Art Academy of Szczecin

The Szczecin Art Academy (Akademia Sztuki w Szczecinie) is a public university in Szczecin, Poland, founded on September 1, 2010.

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Art Deco

Art Deco, sometimes referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I. Art Deco influenced the design of buildings, furniture, jewelry, fashion, cars, movie theatres, trains, ocean liners, and everyday objects such as radios and vacuum cleaners.

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Arthur Bliss Lane

Arthur Bliss Lane (16 June 1894 – 12 August 1956) was a United States diplomat who served in Latin America and Europe.

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Arthur Rubinstein

Arthur Rubinstein (Artur Rubinstein; 28 January 188720 December 1982) was a Polish American classical pianist.

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Artur Grottger

Artur Grottger (11 November 1837 – 13 December 1867) was a Polish Romantic painter and graphic artist, one of the most prominent artists of the mid 19th century under the foreign partitions of Poland, despite a life cut short by incurable illness.

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Artur Hajzer

Artur Hajzer (28 June 1962 – 7 July 2013) was a Polish mountaineer best known for the first winter ascent of Annapurna on February 3, 1987 together with Jerzy Kukuczka.

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Asseco

Asseco Poland SA is the largest corporation in the technology sector quoted on the Warsaw Stock Exchange.

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Association football

Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players with a spherical ball.

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Attack helicopter

An attack helicopter is an armed helicopter with the primary role of an attack aircraft, with the capability of engaging targets on the ground, such as enemy infantry and armored fighting vehicles.

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Attack submarine

An attack submarine or hunter-killer submarine is a submarine specifically designed for the purpose of attacking and sinking other submarines, surface combatants and merchant vessels.

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Attic style

In classical architecture, the term attic refers to a story or low wall above the cornice of a classical façade.

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Auguste and Louis Lumière

The Lumière brothers, Auguste Marie Louis Nicolas; 19 October 1862 – 10 April 1954) and Louis Jean; 5 October 1864 – 7 June 1948), were among the first filmmakers in history. They patented an improved cinematograph, which in contrast to Thomas Edison's "peepshow" kinetoscope allowed simultaneous viewing by multiple parties.

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Augustus II the Strong

Augustus II the Strong (August II.; August II Mocny; Augustas II; 12 May 16701 February 1733) of the Albertine line of the House of Wettin was Elector of Saxony (as Frederick Augustus I), Imperial Vicar and elected King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania.

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Augustus III of Poland

Augustus III (August III Sas, Augustas III; 17 October 1696 5 October 1763) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1734 until 1763, as well as Elector of Saxony in the Holy Roman Empire from 1733 until 1763 where he was known as Frederick Augustus II (Friedrich August II).

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Aurochs

The aurochs (or; pl. aurochs, or rarely aurochsen, aurochses), also known as urus or ure (Bos primigenius), is an extinct species of large wild cattle that inhabited Europe, Asia, and North Africa.

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Auschwitz concentration camp

Auschwitz concentration camp was a network of concentration and extermination camps built and operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland during World War II.

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Austrian cuisine

Austrian cuisine is a style of cuisine native to Austria and composed of influences from throughout the former Austro-Hungarian Empire.

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Axis powers

The Axis powers (Achsenmächte; Potenze dell'Asse; 枢軸国 Sūjikukoku), also known as the Axis and the Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis, were the nations that fought in World War II against the Allied forces.

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Łazienki Palace

The Łazienki Palace (pałac Łazienkowski; in English, the Baths Palace; also called the Palace on the Water and the Palace on the Isle) is a classicist palace in Warsaw's Royal Baths Park, the city's largest park, occupying over 76 hectares of the city center.

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Łódź

Łódź (לאדזש, Lodzh; also written as Lodz) is the third-largest city in Poland and an industrial hub.

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Łódź Voivodeship

Łódź Voivodeship (also known as Łódź Province, or by its Polish name, województwo łódzkie) is a province (voivodeship) in central Poland.

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Łeba

Łeba (Kashubian/Pomeranian: Leba; Leba) is a town in the Pomeranian Voivodeship of Poland.

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Łebsko Lake

Łebsko Lake is a coastal lake in the Pomeranian Voivodeship of Poland.

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Łyna (river)

The Łyna (- Lava), is a river in northern Poland's Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship as well as in Russia's Kaliningrad Oblast.

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Łysa Góra

Łysa Góra (Bald Mountain; also known as Łysiec or Święty Krzyż) is a well-known hill in Świętokrzyskie Mountains, Poland.

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Łysica

Łysica is the highest mountain in Świętokrzyskie Mountains of Poland.

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Śniardwy

Śniardwy is a lake in the Masurian Lake District of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, Poland.

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Śnieżnik Mountains

The Śnieżnik Mountains (Masyw Śnieżnika, Králický Sněžník, Glatzer Schneegebirge) are a massif in the Eastern Sudetes on the border of the Czech Republic and Poland.

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Świętokrzyski National Park

Świętokrzyski National Park (Świętokrzyski Park Narodowy) is a National Park in Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship in central Poland.

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Świętokrzyskie Mountains

The Świętokrzyskie Mountains (Góry Świętokrzyskie,, Holy Cross Mountains) are a mountain range in central Poland, near the city of Kielce.

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Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship

Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, Świętokrzyskie Province, or Holy Cross Province (województwo świętokrzyskie) is one of the 16 voivodeships (provinces) into which Poland is divided.

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Świnoujście

Świnoujście (Swinemünde, both names meaning Świna mouth) is a city and seaport on the Baltic Sea and Szczecin Lagoon, located in the extreme north-west of Poland.

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Żupan

Żupan (župan, župan, polgármester, жупан, жупан) is a long garment, always lined, worn by almost all males of the noble social class in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, typical male attire from the beginning of the 16th to half of the 18th century, still surviving as a part of the Polish and Ukrainian national costume.

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Babia Góra

Babia Góra (in Polish), or Babia hora (in Slovak), literally Old Wives' or Witches' Mountain, is a massif situated on the border between Poland and Slovakia in the Western Beskidy Mountains.

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Baccalauréat

The baccalauréat, often known in France colloquially as bac, is an academic qualification that French students take after high school.

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Ballades (Chopin)

Frédéric Chopin's four ballades are one-movement pieces for solo piano, composed between 1831 and 1842.

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Baltic Air Policing

The Baltic air-policing mission is a NATO air defence Quick Reaction Alert (QRA) in order to guard the airspace over the three Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.

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Baltic Sea

The Baltic Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean, enclosed by Scandinavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Russia, Poland, Germany and the North and Central European Plain.

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Balts

The Balts or Baltic people (baltai, balti) are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group who speak the Baltic languages, a branch of the Indo-European language family, which was originally spoken by tribes living in the area east of Jutland peninsula in the west and in the Moscow, Oka and Volga rivers basins in the east.

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Bar Confederation

The Bar Confederation (Konfederacja barska; 1768–1772) was an association of Polish nobles (szlachta) formed at the fortress of Bar in Podolia in 1768 to defend the internal and external independence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth against Russian influence and against King Stanisław II Augustus with Polish reformers, who were attempting to limit the power of the Commonwealth's wealthy magnates.

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Barn

A barn is an agricultural building usually on farms and used for various purposes.

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Baroque

The Baroque is a highly ornate and often extravagant style of architecture, art and music that flourished in Europe from the early 17th until the late 18th century.

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Baroque in Poland

The Polish Baroque lasted from the early 17th to the mid-18th century.

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Bartłomiej Pękiel

Bartłomiej Pękiel (fl. from 1633; d. ca. 1670) was a notable Polish composer of classical music.

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Basalt

Basalt is a common extrusive igneous (volcanic) rock formed from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava exposed at or very near the surface of a planet or moon.

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Basilica of Our Lady of Licheń

The Basilica of Our Lady of Licheń is a Roman Catholic church located at the Shrine of Our Lady of Sorrows, Queen of Poland, in the village of Licheń Stary near Konin in the Greater Poland Voivodeship in Poland.

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Battle of Berlin

The Battle of Berlin, designated the Berlin Strategic Offensive Operation by the Soviet Union, and also known as the Fall of Berlin, was the final major offensive of the European theatre of World War II.

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Battle of Britain

The Battle of Britain (Luftschlacht um England, literally "The Air Battle for England") was a military campaign of the Second World War, in which the Royal Air Force (RAF) defended the United Kingdom (UK) against large-scale attacks by Nazi Germany's air force, the Luftwaffe.

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Battle of France

The Battle of France, also known as the Fall of France, was the German invasion of France and the Low Countries during the Second World War.

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Battle of Grunwald

The Battle of Grunwald, First Battle of Tannenberg or Battle of Žalgiris, was fought on 15 July 1410 during the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War.

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Battle of Hundsfeld

The Battle of Hundsfeld or Battle of Psie Pole was allegedly fought on 24 August 1109 near the Silesian capital Wrocław between the Holy Roman Empire in aid of the claims of the exiled Piast duke Zbigniew against his ruling half-brother, Bolesław III Wrymouth of Poland.

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Battle of Klushino

The Battle of Klushino, or the Battle of Kłuszyn, was fought on 4 July 1610, between forces of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Tsardom of Russia during the Polish–Muscovite War, part of Russia's Time of Troubles.

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Battle of Legnica

The Battle of Legnica (bitwa pod Legnicą), also known as the Battle of Liegnitz (Schlacht von Liegnitz) or Battle of Wahlstatt (Schlacht bei Wahlstatt), was a battle between the Mongol Empire and the combined defending forces of European fighters that took place at Legnickie Pole (Wahlstatt) near the city of Legnica in the Silesia province of the Kingdom of Poland on 9 April 1241.

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Battle of Monte Cassino

The Battle of Monte Cassino (also known as the Battle for Rome and the Battle for Cassino) was a costly series of four assaults by the Allies against the Winter Line in Italy held by Axis forces during the Italian Campaign of World War II.

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Battle of Racławice

The Battle of Racławice was one of the first battles of the Polish Kościuszko Uprising against Russia.

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Battle of Vienna

The Battle of Vienna (Schlacht am Kahlen Berge or Kahlenberg; bitwa pod Wiedniem or odsiecz wiedeńska (The Relief of Vienna); Modern Turkish: İkinci Viyana Kuşatması, Ottoman Turkish: Beç Ḳalʿası Muḥāṣarası) took place at Kahlenberg Mountain near Vienna on 1683 after the imperial city had been besieged by the Ottoman Empire for two months.

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Battle of Warsaw (1920)

The Battle of Warsaw refers to the decisive Polish victory in 1920 during the Polish–Soviet War.

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Bay of Pomerania

The Bay of Pomerania or Pomeranian Bay (Polish: Zatoka Pomorska; German: Pommersche Bucht; Kashubian: Pòmòrskô Hôwinga) is a basin in the southwestern Baltic Sea, off the shores of Poland and Germany.

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Bay of Puck

The Bay of Puck or Puck Bay (Putziger Wiek), is a shallow western branch of the Bay of Gdańsk in the southern Baltic Sea, off the shores of Gdańsk Pomerania, Poland.

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Błędów Desert

Błędów Desert (Pustynia Błędowska) is an area of sands between Błędów (part of Dąbrowa Górnicza in Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union) and the villages of Chechło and Klucze in Poland.

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BBC News

BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs.

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Beaver

The beaver (genus Castor) is a large, primarily nocturnal, semiaquatic rodent.

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Belarus

Belarus (Беларусь, Biełaruś,; Беларусь, Belarus'), officially the Republic of Belarus (Рэспубліка Беларусь; Республика Беларусь), formerly known by its Russian name Byelorussia or Belorussia (Белоруссия, Byelorussiya), is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe bordered by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest.

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Belarusian cuisine

Belarusian cuisine shares many similarities with cuisines of other Eastern, Central and Northeastern European countries, basing predominantly based on meat and various vegetables typical for the region.

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Belarusian language

Belarusian (беларуская мова) is an official language of Belarus, along with Russian, and is spoken abroad, mainly in Ukraine and Russia.

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Belarusian minority in Poland

The Belarusian minority in Poland is composed of 47,000 people according to the Polish census of 2011.

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Bergitka Roma

Bergitka Roma or Carpathian Roma (also "Polish Highlander Gypsies" in some works) are a Roma ethnic sub-group, living mostly in Poland.

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Beskids

The Beskids or Beskid Mountains (Beskidy, Czech and Beskydy, Rusyn: Бескиды (Beskidy), Бескиди (Beskydy)) is a traditional name for a series of mountain ranges in the Carpathians, stretching from the Czech Republic in the west along the border of Poland with Slovakia up to Ukraine in the east.

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Bette Davis

Ruth Elizabeth "Bette" Davis (April 5, 1908 – October 6, 1989) was an American actress of film, television, and theater.

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Białowieża

Białowieża (Белавежа Biełavieža, Bialovieža, Беловежская Belovezhskaya) is a village in Poland, in Podlaskie Voivodeship, in the middle of Białowieża Forest, of which it is a namesake.

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Białowieża Forest

Białowieża Forest (Белавежская пушча, Biełaviežskaja Pušča; Baltvyžio giria; Puszcza Białowieska) is one of the last and largest remaining parts of the immense primeval forest that once stretched across the European Plain.

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Białystok

Białystok (Bielastok, Balstogė, Belostok, Byalistok) is the largest city in northeastern Poland and the capital of the Podlaskie Voivodeship.

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Bible of Queen Sophia

The Bible of Queen Sophia (or Queen Sophia's Bible, Biblia królowej Zofii, also Sárospatak Bible, Biblia Szaroszp(a)otacka) is the oldest surviving translation of the Old Testament into the Polish language and the first complete translation of the Bible into Polish.

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Bicameralism

A bicameral legislature divides the legislators into two separate assemblies, chambers, or houses.

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Biebrza

Biebrza (Bebras, Bobra) is a river in north-eastern Poland, a tributary of the Narew river (near Wizna), with a length of 164 kilometres and a basin area of 7,092 km2 (7,067 in Poland).

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Biedronka

Biedronka is the largest discount supermarket chain in Poland with 2,823 stores in 2017 and 55,000 employees (2015).

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Bieszczady Mountains

Bieszczady is a mountain range that runs from the extreme south-east of Poland through Ukraine and Slovakia.

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Bigos

Bigos (бігас,, or бігус), often translated into English as hunter's stew, is a Polish dish of finely chopped meat of various kinds stewed with sauerkraut and shredded fresh cabbage.

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Bilingual communes in Poland

The bilingual status of gminas (communes) in Poland is regulated by the Act of 6 January 2005 on National and Ethnic Minorities and on the Regional Languages, which permits certain gminas with significant linguistic minorities to introduce a second, auxiliary language to be used in official contexts alongside Polish.

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Bird migration

Bird migration is the regular seasonal movement, often north and south along a flyway, between breeding and wintering grounds.

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Biskupin

The archaeological open-air museum Biskupin is an archaeological site and a life-size model of an Iron Age fortified settlement in Poland (Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship).

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Black Death

The Black Death, also known as the Great Plague, the Black Plague, or simply the Plague, was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, resulting in the deaths of an estimated people in Eurasia and peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351.

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Black Sea

The Black Sea is a body of water and marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean between Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Western Asia.

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Bogumiła Lisocka-Jaegermann

Bogumiła Lisocka-Jaegermann is a Polish social scientist and writer, specialising in the fields of history and development of the Third World and developing countries.

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Bogurodzica

Bogurodzica ("Mother of God/Theotokos") is the oldest Polish hymn.

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Bohemia

Bohemia (Čechy;; Czechy; Bohême; Bohemia; Boemia) is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech lands in the present-day Czech Republic.

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Bolesław Bierut

Bolesław Bierut (18 April 1892 – 12 March 1956) was a Polish Communist leader, NKVD agent, and a hard-line Stalinist who became President of Poland after the defeat of the Nazi forces in.

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Bolesław I the Brave

Bolesław I the Brave (Bolesław I Chrobry, Boleslav Chrabrý; 967 – 17 June 1025), less often known as Bolesław I the Great (Bolesław I Wielki), was Duke of Poland from 992 to 1025, and the first King of Poland in 1025.

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Bolesław III Wrymouth

Bolesław III Wrymouth (also known as Boleslaus III the Wry-mouthed, Bolesław III Krzywousty) (20 August 1086 – 28 October 1138), was a Duke of Lesser Poland, Silesia and Sandomierz between 1102 and 1107 and over the whole Poland between 1107 and 1138.

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Bolesławiec pottery

Bolesławiec pottery is the collective term for pottery produced in Bolesławiec, Poland.

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Bologna Process

The Bologna Process is a series of ministerial meetings and agreements between European countries to ensure comparability in the standards and quality of higher-education qualifications.

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Book of Henryków

The Book of Henryków (Księga henrykowska, Liber fundationis claustri Sancte Marie Virginis in Heinrichau) is a Latin chronicle of the Cistercian abbey in Henryków in Lower Silesia.

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Border Guard (Poland)

The Polish Border Guard (Polish Straż Graniczna, also abbreviated as SG) is a state security agency tasked with patrolling the Polish border.

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Borders of Poland

The Borders of Poland are 3511 or 3582 kilometers long.

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Boreal Kingdom

The Boreal Kingdom or Holarctic Kingdom (Holarctis) is a floristic kingdom identified by botanist Ronald Good (and later by Armen Takhtajan), which includes the temperate to Arctic portions of North America and Eurasia.

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Borscht

Borscht is a sour soup popular in several Eastern European cuisines, including Ukrainian, Russian, Polish, Lithuanian, Belarusian, Romanian, Ashkenazi Jewish and Armenian cuisines.

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Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie is a polysemous French term that can mean.

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Branicki Palace, Białystok

Branicki Palace (Pałac Branickich) is a historical edifice in Białystok, Poland.

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Branicki Palace, Warsaw

The Branicki Palace (Pałac Branickich) is an 18th-century magnate's mansion in Warsaw, Poland.

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Breaded cutlet

Breaded cutlet is a dish made from coating a cutlet of meat with breading or batter and either frying or baking it.

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Bribery

Bribery is the act of giving or receiving something of value in exchange for some kind of influence or action in return, that the recipient would otherwise not alter.

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Brick Gothic

Brick Gothic (Backsteingotik, Gotyk ceglany, Baksteengotiek) is a specific style of Gothic architecture common in Northwest and Central Europe especially in the regions in and around the Baltic Sea, which do not have resources of standing rock, but in many places a lot of glacial boulders.

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British Home Stores

British Home Stores, commonly abbreviated to BHS and latterly legally styled BHS Ltd, was a British department store chain, primarily selling clothing and household items.

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Bronze Age

The Bronze Age is a historical period characterized by the use of bronze, and in some areas proto-writing, and other early features of urban civilization.

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Brown bear

The brown bear (Ursus arctos) is a bear that is found across much of northern Eurasia and North America.

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Bug River

The Bug River (Bug or Western Bug; Західний Буг, Zakhidnyy Buh, Захо́дні Буг, Zakhodni Buh; Западный Буг, Zapadnyy Bug) is a major European river which flows through three countries with a total length of.

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Burgess (title)

Burgess originally meant a freeman of a borough (England, Wales, Ireland) or burgh (Scotland).

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Buttermilk

Buttermilk refers to a number of dairy drinks.

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Bydgoszcz

Bydgoszcz (Bromberg; Bydgostia) is a city in northern Poland, on the Brda and Vistula rivers.

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Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire and Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul, which had been founded as Byzantium).

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Cabbage

Cabbage or headed cabbage (comprising several cultivars of Brassica oleracea) is a leafy green, red (purple), or white (pale green) biennial plant grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads.

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Cabbage roll

A cabbage roll is a dish consisting of cooked cabbage leaves wrapped around a variety of fillings.

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California

California is a state in the Pacific Region of the United States.

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Carpathian Mountains

The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians are a mountain range system forming an arc roughly long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the second-longest mountain range in Europe (after the Scandinavian Mountains). They provide the habitat for the largest European populations of brown bears, wolves, chamois, and lynxes, with the highest concentration in Romania, as well as over one third of all European plant species.

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Carpathian Romani

Carpathian Romani, also known as Central Romani or Romungro Romani, is a group of dialects of the Romani language spoken from southern Poland to Hungary, and from eastern Austria to Ukraine.

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Casimir I the Restorer

Casimir I the Restorer (b. Kraków, 25 July 1016 – d. Poznań, 28 November 1058), was Duke of Poland of the Piast dynasty and the de jure monarch of the entire country from 1034 until his death.

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Casimir III the Great

Casimir III the Great (Kazimierz III Wielki; 30 April 1310 – 5 November 1370) reigned as the King of Poland from 1333 to 1370.

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Casimir IV Jagiellon

Casimir IV KG (Kazimierz IV Andrzej Jagiellończyk; Kazimieras Jogailaitis; 30 November 1427 – 7 June 1492) of the Jagiellonian dynasty was Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1440 and King of Poland from 1447, until his death.

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Catechism

A catechism (from κατηχέω, "to teach orally") is a summary or exposition of doctrine and serves as a learning introduction to the Sacraments traditionally used in catechesis, or Christian religious teaching of children and adult converts.

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Cathedral chapter

According to both Anglican and Catholic canon law, a cathedral chapter is a college of clerics (chapter) formed to advise a bishop and, in the case of a vacancy of the episcopal see in some countries, to govern the diocese during the vacancy.

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Catherine the Great

Catherine II (Russian: Екатерина Алексеевна Yekaterina Alekseyevna; –), also known as Catherine the Great (Екатери́на Вели́кая, Yekaterina Velikaya), born Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst, was Empress of Russia from 1762 until 1796, the country's longest-ruling female leader.

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Catholic Church

The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.299 billion members worldwide.

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Caziel

Caziel (born Kazimierz Józef Zielenkiewicz; 16 June 1906 – 25 August 1988) was a Polish artist who lived and worked in Paris during the inter-war period and who worked alongside a number of important figures of the School of Paris, including Pablo Picasso and the art dealer Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler.

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Celts

The Celts (see pronunciation of ''Celt'' for different usages) were an Indo-European people in Iron Age and Medieval Europe who spoke Celtic languages and had cultural similarities, although the relationship between ethnic, linguistic and cultural factors in the Celtic world remains uncertain and controversial.

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Central and Eastern Europe

Central and Eastern Europe, abbreviated CEE, is a term encompassing the countries in Central Europe (the Visegrád Group), the Baltic states, and Southeastern Europe, usually meaning former communist states from the Eastern bloc (Warsaw Pact) in Europe.

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Central Europe

Central Europe is the region comprising the central part of Europe.

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Central European Summer Time

Central European Summer Time (CEST), sometime referred also as Central European Daylight Time (CEDT), is the standard clock time observed during the period of summer daylight-saving in those European countries which observe Central European Time (UTC+1) during the other part of the year.

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Central European Time

Central European Time (CET), used in most parts of Europe and a few North African countries, is a standard time which is 1 hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).

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Central Statistical Office (Poland)

The Central Statistical Office (Główny Urząd Statystyczny; GUS) is Poland's chief government executive agency charged with collecting and publishing statistics related to the country's economy, population, and society, at the national and local levels.

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Centre for Public Opinion Research

Centrum Badania Opinii Społecznej (CBOS) (Centre for Public Opinion Research) is an opinion polling institute in Poland, based in Warsaw.

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Cereal

A cereal is any edible components of the grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis) of cultivated grass, composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran.

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Cheesecake

Cheesecake is a sweet dessert consisting of one or more layers.

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Christianity

ChristianityFrom Ancient Greek Χριστός Khristós (Latinized as Christus), translating Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ, Māšîăḥ, meaning "the anointed one", with the Latin suffixes -ian and -itas.

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Christianization of Poland

The Christianization of Poland (Polish: chrystianizacja Polski) refers to the introduction and subsequent spread of Christianity in Poland.

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Cinematography

Cinematography (also called Direction of Photography) is the science or art of motion-picture photography by recording light or other electromagnetic radiation, either electronically by means of an image sensor, or chemically by means of a light-sensitive material such as film stock.

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Circumboreal Region

The Circumboreal Region in phytogeography is a floristic region within the Holarctic Kingdom in Eurasia and North America, as delineated by such geobotanists as Josias Braun-Blanquet and Armen Takhtajan.

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Cistercians

A Cistercian is a member of the Cistercian Order (abbreviated as OCist, SOCist ((Sacer) Ordo Cisterciensis), or ‘’’OCSO’’’ (Ordo Cisterciensis Strictioris Observantiae), which are religious orders of monks and nuns. They are also known as “Trappists”; as Bernardines, after the highly influential St. Bernard of Clairvaux (though that term is also used of the Franciscan Order in Poland and Lithuania); or as White Monks, in reference to the colour of the "cuccula" or white choir robe worn by the Cistercians over their habits, as opposed to the black cuccula worn by Benedictine monks. The original emphasis of Cistercian life was on manual labour and self-sufficiency, and many abbeys have traditionally supported themselves through activities such as agriculture and brewing ales. Over the centuries, however, education and academic pursuits came to dominate the life of many monasteries. A reform movement seeking to restore the simpler lifestyle of the original Cistercians began in 17th-century France at La Trappe Abbey, leading eventually to the Holy See’s reorganization in 1892 of reformed houses into a single order Order of Cistercians of the Strict Observance (OCSO), commonly called the Trappists. Cistercians who did not observe these reforms became known as the Cistercians of the Original Observance. The term Cistercian (French Cistercien), derives from Cistercium, the Latin name for the village of Cîteaux, near Dijon in eastern France. It was in this village that a group of Benedictine monks from the monastery of Molesme founded Cîteaux Abbey in 1098, with the goal of following more closely the Rule of Saint Benedict. The best known of them were Robert of Molesme, Alberic of Cîteaux and the English monk Stephen Harding, who were the first three abbots. Bernard of Clairvaux entered the monastery in the early 1110s with 30 companions and helped the rapid proliferation of the order. By the end of the 12th century, the order had spread throughout France and into England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Eastern Europe. The keynote of Cistercian life was a return to literal observance of the Rule of St Benedict. Rejecting the developments the Benedictines had undergone, the monks tried to replicate monastic life exactly as it had been in Saint Benedict's time; indeed in various points they went beyond it in austerity. The most striking feature in the reform was the return to manual labour, especially agricultural work in the fields, a special characteristic of Cistercian life. Cistercian architecture is considered one of the most beautiful styles of medieval architecture. Additionally, in relation to fields such as agriculture, hydraulic engineering and metallurgy, the Cistercians became the main force of technological diffusion in medieval Europe. The Cistercians were adversely affected in England by the Protestant Reformation, the Dissolution of the Monasteries under King Henry VIII, the French Revolution in continental Europe, and the revolutions of the 18th century, but some survived and the order recovered in the 19th century.

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Civic Platform

Civic Platform (Platforma Obywatelska, PO)The party is officially the Civic Platform of the Republic of Poland (Platforma Obywatelska Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej).

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Classical antiquity

Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or classical age) is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th or 6th century AD centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world.

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Claude Monet

Oscar-Claude Monet (14 November 1840 – 5 December 1926) was a founder of French Impressionist painting, and the most consistent and prolific practitioner of the movement's philosophy of expressing one's perceptions before nature, especially as applied to plein air landscape painting.

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Coal

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams.

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Cold front

A cold front is the leading edge of a cooler mass of air, replacing at ground level a warmer mass of air, which lies within a fairly sharp surface trough of low pressure.

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Cold War

The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its satellite states) and powers in the Western Bloc (the United States, its NATO allies and others).

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Collectivization in the Polish People's Republic

The Polish People's Republic pursued a policy of '''collectivization''' of agriculture during the Stalinist period, from 1948 until the liberalization during Gomułka's thaw of 1956.

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Commission of National Education

The Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, abbreviated KEN, Edukacinė komisija, Адукацыйная камісія) was the central educational authority in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, created by the Sejm and the King Stanisław August Poniatowski on October 14, 1773.

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Communist Party of Poland

The Communist Party of Poland (Komunistyczna Partia Polski, KPP) was a communist party in Poland.

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Communist state

A Communist state (sometimes referred to as workers' state) is a state that is administered and governed by a single party, guided by Marxist–Leninist philosophy, with the aim of achieving communism.

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Concerto

A concerto (plural concertos, or concerti from the Italian plural) is a musical composition usually composed in three movements, in which, usually, one solo instrument (for instance, a piano, violin, cello or flute) is accompanied by an orchestra or concert band.

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Concordat

A concordat is a convention between the Holy See and a sovereign state that defines the relationship between the Catholic Church and the state in matters that concern both,René Metz, "What is Canon Law?" (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1960), pg.

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Confederation (Poland)

A konfederacja ("confederation") was an ad hoc association formed by Polish-Lithuanian szlachta (nobility), clergy, cities, or military forces in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for the attainment of stated aims.

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Congress of Gniezno

The Congress of Gniezno (Zjazd gnieźnieński, Akt von Gnesen or Gnesener Übereinkunft) was an amical meeting between the Polish Duke Bolesław I the Brave and Emperor Otto III, which took place at Gniezno on March 11, 1000.

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Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna (Wiener Kongress) also called Vienna Congress, was a meeting of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815, though the delegates had arrived and were already negotiating by late September 1814.

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Congress Poland

The Kingdom of Poland, informally known as Congress Poland or Russian Poland, was created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna as a sovereign state of the Russian part of Poland connected by personal union with the Russian Empire under the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland until 1832.

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Conrad Celtes

Conrad Celtes (Konrad Celtes; Conradus Celtis (Protucius); 1 February 1459 – 4 February 1508) was a German Renaissance humanist scholar and Neo-Latin poet.

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Conscription

Conscription, sometimes called the draft, is the compulsory enlistment of people in a national service, most often a military service.

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Constitution of 3 May 1791

The Constitution of 3 May 1791 (Konstytucja 3 Maja, Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija) was adopted by the Great Sejm (parliament) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a dual monarchy comprising the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

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Constitution of Poland

The current Constitution of Poland was adopted on 2 April 1997.

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Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland

The Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland (Konstytucja Królestwa Polskiego) was granted to the 'Congress' Kingdom of Poland by the King of Poland, Alexander I of Russia, who was obliged to issue a constitution to the newly recreated Polish state under his domain as specified by the Congress of Vienna.

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Constitution of the Polish People's Republic

The Constitution of the Polish People's Republic (also known as July Constitution or Constitution of 1952) was passed on 22 July 1952.

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Constitutional monarchy

A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign exercises authority in accordance with a written or unwritten constitution.

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Constitutional Tribunal (Poland)

The Constitutional Tribunal (Trybunał Konstytucyjny) is the constitutional court of the Republic of Poland, a judicial body established to resolve disputes on the constitutionality of the activities of state institutions; its main task is to supervise the compliance of statutory law with the Constitution of the Republic of Poland.

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Consumer protection

In regulatory jurisdictions that provide for this (a list including most or all developed countries with free market economies) consumer protection is a group of laws and organizations designed to ensure the rights of consumers, as well as fair trade, competition, and accurate information in the marketplace.

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Continental climate

Continental climates are defined in the Köppen climate classification as having the coldest month with the temperature never rising above 0.0° C (32°F) all month long.

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Continental collision

Continental collision is a phenomenon of the plate tectonics of Earth that occurs at convergent boundaries.

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Contract Sejm

Contract Sejm (Sejm kontraktowy) is a term commonly applied to the "Sejm" (parliament) elected in the Polish parliamentary elections of 1989.

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Controlled-access highway

A controlled-access highway is a type of highway which has been designed for high-speed vehicular traffic, with all traffic flow and ingress/egress regulated.

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Copernican heliocentrism

Copernican heliocentrism is the name given to the astronomical model developed by Nicolaus Copernicus and published in 1543.

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Copernican Revolution

The Copernican Revolution was the paradigm shift from the Ptolemaic model of the heavens, which described the cosmos as having Earth stationary at the center of the universe, to the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar System.

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Copernicus Airport Wrocław

Copernicus Airport Wrocław (Port Lotniczy Wrocław im. is an international commercial airport in Wrocław in southwestern Poland. The airport is located southwest of the city centre. It has one runway, two passenger terminals and one cargo terminal.

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Copper

Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu (from cuprum) and atomic number 29.

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Coronations in Poland

Coronations in Poland officially began in 1025 and continued until 1764, when the final king of an independent Poland, Stanisław August Poniatowski, was crowned at St. John's Cathedral in Warsaw.

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Corps of Cadets (Warsaw)

Szkoła Rycerska (School of Chivalry) or Akademia Szlachecka Korpusu Kadetów Jego Królewskiej Mości i Rzeczypospolitej (English: Nobles' Academy of the Corps of Cadets of His Royal Majesty and the Commonwealth) was the first state school in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Cosmetics

Cosmetics are substances or products used to enhance or alter the appearance of the face or fragrance and texture of the body.

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Cossacks

Cossacks (козаки́, translit, kozaky, казакi, kozacy, Czecho-Slovak: kozáci, kozákok Pronunciations.

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Council of Europe

The Council of Europe (CoE; Conseil de l'Europe) is an international organisation whose stated aim is to uphold human rights, democracy and the rule of law in Europe.

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Council of Ministers (Poland)

The Council of Ministers of the Republic of Poland (Polish: Rada Ministrów w Polsce) is the collective executive decision-making body of the Polish government.

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Council of the Baltic Sea States

The Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS) is a regional intergovernmental organisation working on three priority areas: Regional Identity, Safe & Secure Region and Sustainable & Prosperous Region.

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Council of the European Union

The Council of the European Union, referred to in the treaties and other official documents simply as the Council is the third of the seven Institutions of the European Union (EU) as listed in the Treaty on European Union.

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Country

A country is a region that is identified as a distinct national entity in political geography.

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Cream of mushroom soup

Cream of mushroom soup is a simple type of soup where a basic roux is thinned with cream or milk and then mushrooms and/or mushroom broth are added.

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Crimean Khanate

The Crimean Khanate (Mongolian: Крымын ханлиг; Crimean Tatar / Ottoman Turkish: Къырым Ханлыгъы, Qırım Hanlığı, rtl or Къырым Юрту, Qırım Yurtu, rtl; Крымское ханство, Krymskoje hanstvo; Кримське ханство, Krymśke chanstvo; Chanat Krymski) was a Turkic vassal state of the Ottoman Empire from 1478 to 1774, the longest-lived of the Turkic khanates that succeeded the empire of the Golden Horde.

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Cross-country skiing

Cross-country skiing is a form of skiing where skiers rely on their own locomotion to move across snow-covered terrain, rather than using ski lifts or other forms of assistance.

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Cubism

Cubism is an early-20th-century art movement which brought European painting and sculpture historically forward toward 20th century Modern art.

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Cucumber soup

Cucumber soup is a traditional Polish and Lithuanian soup (Polish: (sometimes simply ogórkowa). It is made from sour, salted cucumbers and potato. Occasionally rice is substituted for the potatoes. A similar soup is also common in Russia and Ukraine, where it is known as rassolnik. Cucumber soup is also any soup using cucumbers as a primary ingredient, and is present in various cuisines. The two major varieties are fresh cucumber soup and pickled cucumber soup.

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Culture of Poland

The culture of Poland is the product of its geography and its distinct historical evolution which is closely connected to its intricate thousand-year history.

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Curie Institute, Warsaw

The Maria Skłodowska-Curie Institute of Oncology (Centrum Onkologii–Instytut im.) is a specialized research institute and hospital of the Polish Ministry of Health.

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Cursed soldiers

The "cursed soldiers" (also known as "doomed soldiers", "accursed soldiers" or "damned soldiers"; Żołnierze wyklęci) or "indomitable soldiers" is a term applied to a variety of Polish anti-Soviet or anti-communist Polish resistance movements formed in the later stages of World War II and its aftermath by some members of the Polish Underground State.

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Curzon Line

The history of the Curzon Line, with minor variations, goes back to the period following World War I. It was drawn for the first time by the Supreme War Council as the demarcation line between the newly emerging states, the Second Polish Republic, and the Soviet Union.

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Czarna Hańcza

The Czarna Hańcza, Chornaya Hancha is the largest river of the Suwałki Region of north-eastern Poland and the Sapockin region of north-western Belarus.

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Czarny Staw pod Rysami

Czarny Staw pod Rysami (Black Lake below Mount Rysy) is a mountain lake on the Polish side of Mount Rysy in the Tatra mountains.

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Czartoryski

Czartoryski (feminine form: Czartoryska, plural: Czartoryscy; Чарторийські, Chartoryisky; Чорторийські, Chortoryisky; Čartoriskiai) is a Polish princely family of Lithuanian-Ruthenian origin, also known as the Familia.

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Czartoryski Museum

The Czartoryski Museum and Library (Muzeum Książąt Czartoryskich w Krakowie) is a museum located in Kraków, Poland, founded in Puławy in 1796 by Princess Izabela Czartoryska.

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Częstochowa

Częstochowa,, is a city in southern Poland on the Warta River with 240,027 inhabitants as of June 2009.

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Czech language

Czech (čeština), historically also Bohemian (lingua Bohemica in Latin), is a West Slavic language of the Czech–Slovak group.

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Czech Republic

The Czech Republic (Česká republika), also known by its short-form name Czechia (Česko), is a landlocked country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west, Austria to the south, Slovakia to the east and Poland to the northeast.

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Czechoslovakia

Czechoslovakia, or Czecho-Slovakia (Czech and Československo, Česko-Slovensko), was a sovereign state in Central Europe that existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until its peaceful dissolution into the:Czech Republic and:Slovakia on 1 January 1993.

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Czechs

The Czechs (Češi,; singular masculine: Čech, singular feminine: Češka) or the Czech people (Český národ), are a West Slavic ethnic group and a nation native to the Czech Republic in Central Europe, who share a common ancestry, culture, history and Czech language.

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Czesław Miłosz

Czesław Miłosz (30 June 1911 – 14 August 2004) was a Polish poet, prose writer, translator and diplomat.

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D'Hondt method

The D'Hondt method or the Jefferson method is a highest averages method for allocating seats, and is thus a type of party-list proportional representation.

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Daniel Schultz

Jerzy (Georg) Daniel Schultz known also as Daniel Schultz the Younger (1615–1683) was a famous painter of the Baroque era, born and active in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Danube

The Danube or Donau (known by various names in other languages) is Europe's second longest river, after the Volga.

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Dąbrowa Basin

The Dąbrowa Basin (also, Dąbrowa Coal Basin) or Zagłębie Dąbrowskie is a geographical and historical region in southern Poland.

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Dąbrowa Górnicza

Dąbrowa Górnicza is a city in Zagłębie Dąbrowskie, southern Poland, near Katowice and Sosnowiec.

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De revolutionibus orbium coelestium

De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) is the seminal work on the heliocentric theory of the Renaissance astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543).

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Defence of the Polish Post Office in Danzig

The Defence of the Polish Post Office in Danzig (Gdańsk) was one of the first acts of World War II in Europe, as part of the Invasion of Poland.

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Delia

Delia is a feminine given name, either taken from an epithet of the Greek moon goddess Artemis or else representing a short form of Adelia, Bedelia, Cordelia or Odelia.

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Deluge (history)

The term Deluge (pоtор szwedzki, švedų tvanas) denotes a series of mid-17th-century campaigns in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Democracy

Democracy (δημοκρατία dēmokraa thetía, literally "rule by people"), in modern usage, has three senses all for a system of government where the citizens exercise power by voting.

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Deposition (geology)

Deposition is the geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are added to a landform or land mass.

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Developed country

A developed country, industrialized country, more developed country, or "more economically developed country" (MEDC), is a sovereign state that has a highly developed economy and advanced technological infrastructure relative to other less industrialized nations.

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Developed market

In investing, a developed market is a country that is most developed in terms of its economy and capital markets.

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Development Assistance Committee

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's (OECD) Development Assistance Committee (DAC) is a forum to discuss issues surrounding aid, development and poverty reduction in developing countries.

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Diocese

The word diocese is derived from the Greek term διοίκησις meaning "administration".

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Diomedes Cato

Diomedes Cato (1560 to 1565 – after 1618) was an Italian-born composer and lute player, who lived and worked entirely in Poland.

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Disco polo

Disco polo is a genre of popular dance music, created in Poland in the late 1980s, initially known as sidewalk musicAnna Kowalczyk „Wiedza i Życie”.

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Divine Mercy Sanctuary, Kraków

The Divine Mercy Sanctuary in Kraków, Poland is a Roman Catholic basilica dedicated to the Divine Mercy devotion, as the resting place of Saint Faustina Kowalska, canonized on April 30, 2000.

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Dniester

The Dniester or Dnister River is a river in Eastern Europe.

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Donald Tusk

Donald Franciszek Tusk (Polish:; born 22 April 1957) is a Polish politician who has been the President of the European Council since 2014.

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Drawsko Lake

Drawsko is a lake located nearby the town of Czaplinek in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland.

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Dubai

Dubai (دبي) is the largest and most populous city in the United Arab Emirates (UAE).

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Duchy of Prussia

The Duchy of Prussia (Herzogtum Preußen, Księstwo Pruskie) or Ducal Prussia (Herzogliches Preußen, Prusy Książęce) was a duchy in the region of Prussia established as a result of secularization of the State of the Teutonic Order during the Protestant Reformation in 1525.

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Duchy of Warsaw

The Duchy of Warsaw (Księstwo Warszawskie, Duché de Varsovie, Herzogtum Warschau) was a Polish state established by Napoleon I in 1807 from the Polish lands ceded by the Kingdom of Prussia under the terms of the Treaties of Tilsit.

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Dune

In physical geography, a dune is a hill of loose sand built by aeolian processes (wind) or the flow of water.

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E. Wedel

E.

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Early Slavs

The early Slavs were a diverse group of tribal societies who lived during the Migration Period and Early Middle Ages (approximately the 5th to the 10th centuries) in Eastern Europe and established the foundations for the Slavic nations through the Slavic states of the High Middle Ages.

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Easter

Easter,Traditional names for the feast in English are "Easter Day", as in the Book of Common Prayer, "Easter Sunday", used by James Ussher and Samuel Pepys and plain "Easter", as in books printed in,, also called Pascha (Greek, Latin) or Resurrection Sunday, is a festival and holiday celebrating the resurrection of Jesus from the dead, described in the New Testament as having occurred on the third day of his burial after his crucifixion by the Romans at Calvary 30 AD.

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Eastern Bloc

The Eastern Bloc was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact.

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Eastern Catholic Churches

The Eastern Catholic Churches or Oriental Catholic Churches, also called the Eastern-rite Catholic Churches, and in some historical cases Uniate Churches, are twenty-three Eastern Christian particular churches sui iuris in full communion with the Pope in Rome, as part of the worldwide Catholic Church.

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Eastern European anti-Communist insurgencies

The Central and Eastern European anti-Communist insurgencies fought on after the official end of the Second World War against the Soviet Union and the communist states formed under Soviet occupation and support.

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Eclecticism

Eclecticism is a conceptual approach that does not hold rigidly to a single paradigm or set of assumptions, but instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain complementary insights into a subject, or applies different theories in particular cases.

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Economic freedom

Economic freedom or economic liberty is the ability of people of a society to take economic actions.

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Economic system

An economic system is a system of production, resource allocation and distribution of goods and services within a society or a given geographic area.

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Economics

Economics is the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

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Economy of Poland

The economy of Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and the largest among the former Eastern Bloc members of the European Union.

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Economy of the European Union

The European Union is the second largest economy in the world in nominal terms and according to purchasing power parity (PPP).

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Ecoregions in Poland

Poland is part of two global ecoregions as defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), which is an international non-governmental organization (NGO) with a branch in Poland; working on issues regarding the conservation, research and protection of the environment.

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Edict of Wieluń

The Edict of Wieluń was a 1424 law issued in Wieluń by King of Poland Władysław II Jagiełło under pressure from the Catholic Church.

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Education

Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits.

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Education in Poland

Compulsory education in Poland starts at the age of six from the mandatory "0" reception class (Polish zerówka or klasa 0, literally Year 0).

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Education in Poland during World War II

World War II saw the cultivation of underground education in Poland (Tajne szkolnictwo, or tajne komplety).

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Edward Gierek

Edward Gierek (6 January 1913 – 29 July 2001) was a Polish communist politician.

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Edward VI of England

Edward VI (12 October 1537 – 6 July 1553) was King of England and Ireland from 28 January 1547 until his death.

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Egalitarianism

Egalitarianism – or equalitarianism – is a school of thought that prioritizes equality for all people.

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Eight-thousander

The eight-thousanders are the 14 independentIn making any "highest mountains" list, one needs to use a criterion to exclude subpeaks and only list independent mountains.

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Ekstraliga (speedway)

The Speedway Ekstraliga (Polish Extraleague, Ekstraliga żużlowa) is the top division of motorcycle speedway in Poland.

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El Greco

Doménikos Theotokópoulos (Δομήνικος Θεοτοκόπουλος; October 1541 7 April 1614), most widely known as El Greco ("The Greek"), was a painter, sculptor and architect of the Spanish Renaissance.

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Elbląg

Elbląg (Elbing; Old Prussian: Elbings) is a city in northern Poland on the eastern edge of the Żuławy region with 124,257 inhabitants (December 31, 2011).

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Elective monarchy

An elective monarchy is a monarchy ruled by an elected monarch, in contrast to a hereditary monarchy in which the office is automatically passed down as a family inheritance.

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Electorate of Saxony

The Electorate of Saxony (Kurfürstentum Sachsen, also Kursachsen) was a state of the Holy Roman Empire established when Emperor Charles IV raised the Ascanian duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg to the status of an Electorate by the Golden Bull of 1356.

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Eligiusz Niewiadomski

Eligiusz Niewiadomski (December 1, 1869 in Warsaw – January 31, 1923 in Warsaw) was a Polish modernist painter and art critic who belonged to the right-wing National Democratic Party till 1904 and later continued supporting it.

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Emergency medical services in Poland

Emergency Medical Services (Państwowe Ratownictwo Medyczne, PRM) in Poland is a service of public pre-hospital emergency healthcare, including ambulance service, provided by individual Polish cities and counties.

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Encyklopedia Polski

Encyklopedia Polski (Encyclopedia of Poland) is a Polish-language encyclopedia of Polish history and culture.

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Enea SA

Enea is a Polish power industry company based in Poznań.

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England

England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom.

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English language

English is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now a global lingua franca.

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Enlargement of NATO

Enlargement of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is the process of including new member states in NATO.

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Enlightenment in Poland

The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment in Poland were developed later than in Western Europe, as the Polish bourgeoisie was weaker, and szlachta (nobility) culture (Sarmatism) together with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth political system (Golden Liberty) were in deep crisis.

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Epic poetry

An epic poem, epic, epos, or epopee is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily involving a time beyond living memory in which occurred the extraordinary doings of the extraordinary men and women who, in dealings with the gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the moral universe that their descendants, the poet and his audience, must understand to understand themselves as a people or nation.

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Erosion

In earth science, erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that remove soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust, and then transport it to another location (not to be confused with weathering which involves no movement).

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ESports

eSports (also known as electronic sports, esports, e-sports, competitive (video) gaming, professional (video) gaming, or pro gaming) are a form of competition using video games.

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Ethnic cleansing

Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of ethnic or racial groups from a given territory by a more powerful ethnic group, often with the intent of making it ethnically homogeneous.

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Ethnic minorities in Poland

The population of Post-World War II Poland became nearly completely ethnically homogeneous as a result of the German-Nazi Holocaust, the radically altered borders, and the deportations ordered by the Soviet authorities, who wished to remove the sizeable Polish minorities from the Baltics (Lithuania) and Eastern Europe (western Belarus and western Ukraine).

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Ethnography

Ethnography (from Greek ἔθνος ethnos "folk, people, nation" and γράφω grapho "I write") is the systematic study of people and cultures.

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Ethnologue

Ethnologue: Languages of the World is an annual reference publication in print and online that provides statistics and other information on the living languages of the world.

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Eugeniusz Geppert Academy of Fine Arts

The Eugeniusz Geppert Academy of Fine Arts in Wrocław (Akademia Sztuk Pięknych im.) is a public institution of higher learning established in 1946 originally as the College of Fine Arts.

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Eurasian lynx

The Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) is a medium-sized wild cat native to Siberia, Central, Eastern, and Southern Asia, Northern, Central and Eastern Europe.

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Europe

Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere.

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European bison

The European bison (Bison bonasus), also known as wisent or the European wood bison, is a Eurasian species of bison.

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European Economic Area

The European Economic Area (EEA) is the area in which the Agreement on the EEA provides for the free movement of persons, goods, services and capital within the European Single Market, including the freedom to choose residence in any country within this area.

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European Parliament

The European Parliament (EP) is the directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union (EU).

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European Space Agency

The European Space Agency (ESA; Agence spatiale européenne, ASE; Europäische Weltraumorganisation) is an intergovernmental organisation of 22 member states dedicated to the exploration of space.

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European Union

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of EUnum member states that are located primarily in Europe.

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Eurostat

Eurostat is a Directorate-General of the European Commission located in Luxembourg.

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Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Poland

The Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Poland (Kościół Ewangelicko-Augsburski w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej) is a Lutheran denomination and the largest Protestant body in Poland with about 62,000 members and 133 parishes.

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Evangelicalism

Evangelicalism, evangelical Christianity, or evangelical Protestantism, is a worldwide, crossdenominational movement within Protestant Christianity which maintains the belief that the essence of the Gospel consists of the doctrine of salvation by grace through faith in Jesus Christ's atonement.

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Extermination camp

Nazi Germany built extermination camps (also called death camps or killing centers) during the Holocaust in World War II, to systematically kill millions of Jews, Slavs, Communists, and others whom the Nazis considered "Untermenschen" ("subhumans").

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Eyelash extensions

Eyelash extensions are used to enhance the length, curliness, fullness, and thickness of natural eyelashes.

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Fakt

Fakt (Polish language for "fact") is a Polish tabloid-style daily newspaper and is one of the best-selling papers in the country.

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Farmhouse

A farmhouse is a building that serves as the primary residence in a rural or agricultural setting.

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Fashion

Fashion is a popular style, especially in clothing, footwear, lifestyle products, accessories, makeup, hairstyle and body.

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FB "Łucznik" Radom

Fabryka Broni "Łucznik" - Radom (Łucznik Arms Factory, also known as Fabryka Broni Radom or Zakłady Metalowe "Łucznik") is a Polish defence industry enterprise from Radom that produces firearms.

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Federation

A federation (also known as a federal state) is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a central (federal) government.

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Feminism in Poland

The history of feminism in Poland has traditionally been divided into seven periods, beginning with the 19th century first-wave feminism.

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Feudalism

Feudalism was a combination of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries.

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Filippo Buonaccorsi

Filippo Buonaccorsi, called "Callimachus" (Latin: Philippus Callimachus Experiens, Bonacursius;; 2 May 1437 – 1 November 1496) was an Italian humanist and writer.

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Film Polski

Film Polski (also Przedsiębiorstwo Państwowe Film Polski) was the state-run film production and distribution organization of Poland, founded in 1945.

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Financial market

A financial market is a market in which people trade financial securities and derivatives such as futures and options at low transaction costs.

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Financial Supervision Authority (Poland)

The Polish Financial Oversight Commission (PFOC) (Komisja Nadzoru Finansowego (KNF)) is the financial regulatory authority for Poland.

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Finland

Finland (Suomi; Finland), officially the Republic of Finland is a country in Northern Europe bordering the Baltic Sea, Gulf of Bothnia, and Gulf of Finland, between Norway to the north, Sweden to the northwest, and Russia to the east.

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First language

A first language, native language or mother/father/parent tongue (also known as arterial language or L1) is a language that a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period.

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First Mongol invasion of Poland

The Mongol Invasion of Poland from late 1240 to 1241 culminated in the battle of Legnica, where the Mongols defeated an alliance which included forces from fragmented Poland and their allies, led by Henry II the Pious, the Duke of Silesia.

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First Partition of Poland

The First Partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in 1772 as the first of three partitions that ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by 1795.

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First Polish Army (1944–1945)

The Polish First Army (Pierwsza Armia Wojska Polskiego, 1 AWP for short, also known as Berling's Army) was a Polish Army unit formed in the Soviet Union in 1944, from the previously existing Polish I Corps as part of the People's Army of Poland (LWP), a formation of the Polish Armed Forces in the East.

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First-past-the-post voting

A first-past-the-post (FPTP) voting method is one in which voters indicate on a ballot the candidate of their choice, and the candidate who receives the most votes wins.

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FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship

The FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship is an international volleyball competition contested by the senior men's national teams of the members of Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB), the sport's global governing body.

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FIVB World Rankings

The FIVB World Ranking is a ranking system for men's and women's national teams in volleyball.

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Folk dance

A folk dance is developed by people that reflect the life of the people of a certain country or region.

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Folk music

Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival.

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Football at the Summer Olympics

Association football has been included in every Summer Olympic Games as a men's competition sport, except 1896 and 1932.

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Football in Poland

Football is the most popular sport in Poland.

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Forests of Poland

Polish forests cover about 30% of Poland's territory, and are mostly owned by the state.

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Formula One

Formula One (also Formula 1 or F1) is the highest class of single-seater auto racing sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) and owned by the Formula One Group.

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Fortune Global 500

The Fortune Global 500, also known as Global 500, is an annual ranking of the top 500 corporations worldwide as measured by revenue and the list is compiled and published annually by Fortune magazine.

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Fossil fuel

A fossil fuel is a fuel formed by natural processes, such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms, containing energy originating in ancient photosynthesis.

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Fourteen Points

U.S. President Woodrow Wilson The Fourteen Points was a statement of principles for peace that was to be used for peace negotiations in order to end World War I. The principles were outlined in a January 8, 1918 speech on war aims and peace terms to the United States Congress by President Woodrow Wilson.

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France

France, officially the French Republic (République française), is a sovereign state whose territory consists of metropolitan France in Western Europe, as well as several overseas regions and territories.

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Franciszek Gągor

Franciszek Gągor (8 September 1951 – 10 April 2010) was a Polish general, Chief of the General Staff of the Polish Armed Forces between 2006 and 2010.

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Franklin D. Roosevelt

Franklin Delano Roosevelt Sr. (January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945), often referred to by his initials FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945.

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Frédéric Chopin

Frédéric François Chopin (1 March 181017 October 1849) was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianist of the Romantic era who wrote primarily for solo piano.

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Free City of Cracow

The Free, Independent, and Strictly Neutral City of CracowThe Polish variant of Kraków is occasionally retroactively applied in English to the historical Free City.

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Free City of Danzig

The Free City of Danzig (Freie Stadt Danzig; Wolne Miasto Gdańsk) was a semi-autonomous city-state that existed between 1920 and 1939, consisting of the Baltic Sea port of Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland) and nearly 200 towns and villages in the surrounding areas.

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Free market

In economics, a free market is an idealized system in which the prices for goods and services are determined by the open market and consumers, in which the laws and forces of supply and demand are free from any intervention by a government, price-setting monopoly, or other authority.

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Freedom House

Freedom House is a U.S.-based 501(c)(3) U.S. government-funded non-governmental organization (NGO) that conducts research and advocacy on democracy, political freedom, and human rights.

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Freedom of speech

Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or a community to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or sanction.

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French cuisine

French cuisine consists of the cooking traditions and practices from France.

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G6 (EU)

The G6 (Group of Six) in the European Union is an unofficial group of the interior ministers of the six European Union member states – France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Spain, and the United Kingdom – with the largest populations and thus with the majority of votes in the Council of the European Union.

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Gabriel Narutowicz

Gabriel Narutowicz (17 March 1865 – 16 December 1922) was a Polish professor of hydroelectric engineering and politician who served as the 1st President of Poland from 11 December 1922 until his assassination on 16 December, five days after assuming office.

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Galicia (Eastern Europe)

Galicia (Ukrainian and Галичина, Halyčyna; Galicja; Czech and Halič; Galizien; Galícia/Kaliz/Gácsország/Halics; Galiția/Halici; Галиция, Galicija; גאַליציע Galitsiye) is a historical and geographic region in Central Europe once a small Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia and later a crown land of Austria-Hungary, the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, that straddled the modern-day border between Poland and Ukraine.

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Gallus Anonymus

Gallus Anonymus (Polonized variant: Gall Anonim) is the name traditionally given to the anonymous author of Gesta principum Polonorum (Deeds of the Princes of the Poles), composed in Latin about 1115.

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Gazeta Polska

Gazeta Polska (literally: "Polish Newspaper") is a Polish language right-wing/conservative weekly news magazine published in Poland.

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Gazeta Polska Codziennie

Gazeta Polska Codziennie (Gazeta Polska Daily) is a Polish right-wing daily newspaper issued since September 9, 2011.

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Gazeta Wyborcza

Gazeta Wyborcza (meaning Electoral Newspaper in English) is a newspaper published in Warsaw, Poland.

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Głos (1991)

Głos (lit. from Polish: Voice) is a Polish socio-political weekly magazine.

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Gdańsk

Gdańsk (Danzig) is a Polish city on the Baltic coast.

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Gdańsk Bay

Gdansk Bay or the Bay of Gdansk Zatoka Gdańska; Gduńskô Hôwinga; Гданьская бухта, Gdan'skaja bukhta, and Danziger Bucht) is a southeastern bay of the Baltic Sea. It is named after the adjacent port city of Gdańsk in Poland and is sometimes referred to as the Gulf of Gdańsk.

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Gdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport

Gdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport (Port Lotniczy Gdańsk im., formerly Port Lotniczy Gdańsk-Rębiechowo) is an international airport located northwest of Gdańsk, Poland, not far from the city centres of the Tricity metropolitan area: Gdańsk, Sopot and Gdynia.

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Gdańsk Shipyard

Gdańsk Shipyard (Stocznia Gdańskа, formerly Lenin Shipyard) is a large Polish shipyard, located in the city of Gdańsk.

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Gdynia

Gdynia (Gdingen, Gdiniô) is a city in the Pomeranian Voivodeship of Poland and a seaport of Gdańsk Bay on the south coast of the Baltic Sea.

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General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon

The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a single-engine supersonic multirole fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics (now Lockheed Martin) for the United States Air Force (USAF).

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Generalplan Ost

The Generalplan Ost (Master Plan for the East), abbreviated GPO, was the German government's plan for the genocide and ethnic cleansing on a vast scale, and colonization of Central and Eastern Europe by Germans.

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Geographical midpoint of Europe

The location of the geographical centre of Europe depends on the definition of the borders of Europe, mainly whether remote islands are included to define the extreme points of Europe, and on the method of calculating the final result.

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George Washington

George Washington (February 22, 1732 –, 1799), known as the "Father of His Country," was an American soldier and statesman who served from 1789 to 1797 as the first President of the United States.

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German cuisine

The cuisine of Germany has evolved as a national cuisine through centuries of social and political change with variations from region to region.

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German Empire

The German Empire (Deutsches Kaiserreich, officially Deutsches Reich),Herbert Tuttle wrote in September 1881 that the term "Reich" does not literally connote an empire as has been commonly assumed by English-speaking people.

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German language

German (Deutsch) is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe.

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German minority in Poland

The registered German minority in Poland at the 2011 national census consisted of 148,000 people, of whom 64,000 declared both German and Polish ethnicities and 45,000 solely German ethnicity.

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German Sign Language

German Sign Language or Deutsche Gebärdensprache is the sign language of the deaf community in Germany and in the German-speaking community of Belgium.

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Germanic languages

The Germanic languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family spoken natively by a population of about 515 million people mainly in Europe, North America, Oceania, and Southern Africa.

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Germanic peoples

The Germanic peoples (also called Teutonic, Suebian, or Gothic in older literature) are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group of Northern European origin.

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Germany

Germany (Deutschland), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland), is a sovereign state in central-western Europe.

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Gesta principum Polonorum

The Gesta principum Polonorum (Deeds of the Princes of the Poles) is a medieval gesta, or deeds narrative, concerned with Duke Bolesław III Wrymouth, his ancestors, and the Polish principality during and before his reign.

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GlaxoSmithKline

GlaxoSmithKline plc (GSK) is a British pharmaceutical company headquartered in Brentford, London.

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Global Peace Index

Global Peace Index (GPI) measures the relative position of nations' and regions' peacefulness.

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Gloria Swanson

Gloria May Josephine Swanson (March 27, 1899 – April 4, 1983) was an American actress and producer best known for her role as Norma Desmond, a reclusive silent film star, in the critically acclaimed 1950 film Sunset Boulevard.

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Gmina

The gmina (Polish pronunciation, plural gminy) is the principal unit of the administrative division of Poland, similar to a municipality.

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Gniezno

Gniezno (Gnesen) is a city in central-western Poland, about east of Poznań, with about 70,000 inhabitants.

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Gołąbki

Gołąbki is the Polish name of a dish popular in cuisines of Central and Eastern Europe, made from boiled cabbage leaves wrapped around a filling of minced pork or beef, chopped onions, and rice or barley.

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Gość Niedzielny

Gość Niedzielny (lit. Sunday Guest) is a Polish weekly Catholic news magazine.

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God Is Born

"Bóg się rodzi" ("God Is Born") is a Polish Christmas carol (kolęda), with lyrics written by Franciszek Karpiński in 1792.

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Golden Liberty

Golden Liberty (Aurea Libertas; Złota Wolność, Auksinė laisvė), sometimes referred to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles' Democracy or Nobles' Commonwealth (Szlachecka or Złota wolność szlachecka, aureă lībertās) was a political system in the Kingdom of Poland and, after the Union of Lublin (1569), in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Google

Google LLC is an American multinational technology company that specializes in Internet-related services and products, which include online advertising technologies, search engine, cloud computing, software, and hardware.

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Gopło

Gopło is a lake in Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship, north-central Poland, near the city of Gniezno.

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Gorals

The Gorals (Górale; Gorali; Cieszyn Silesian: Gorole; literally "highlanders") are an ethnographic (or ethnic) group primarily found in their traditional area of southern Poland, northern Slovakia, and in the region of Cieszyn Silesia in the Czech Republic (Silesian Gorals).

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Gorce Mountains

The Gorce Mountains (Gorce) are part of the Western Beskids mountain range spreading across southernmost Poland.

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Gorce National Park

Gorce National Park (Gorczański Park Narodowy) is a national park in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, southern Poland.

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Gord (archaeology)

A gord is a medieval Slavic fortified wooden settlement, sometimes known as a burgwall after the German term for such sites.

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Gorzów Wielkopolski

Gorzów Wielkopolski (abbreviated Gorzów Wlkp.; Landsberg an der Warthe; Łącbarg) is a city in western Poland, on the Warta river.

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Gothic architecture

Gothic architecture is an architectural style that flourished in Europe during the High and Late Middle Ages.

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Gothic Revival architecture

Gothic Revival (also referred to as Victorian Gothic or neo-Gothic) is an architectural movement that began in the late 1740s in England.

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Grabarka-Klasztor

Grabarka-Klasztor is a settlement in the administrative district of Gmina Nurzec-Stacja, within Siemiatycze County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in north-eastern Poland, close to the border with Belarus.

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Granary

A granary is a storehouse or room in a barn for threshed grain or animal feed.

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Grand Duchy of Lithuania

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state that lasted from the 13th century up to 1795, when the territory was partitioned among the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and Austria.

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Grand Duchy of Moscow

The Grand Duchy or Grand Principality of Moscow (Великое Княжество Московское, Velikoye Knyazhestvo Moskovskoye), also known in English simply as Muscovy from the Moscovia, was a late medieval Russian principality centered on Moscow and the predecessor state of the early modern Tsardom of Russia.

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Grand Duchy of Posen

The Grand Duchy of Posen (Großherzogtum Posen; Wielkie Księstwo Poznańskie) was part of the Kingdom of Prussia, created from territories annexed by Prussia after the Partitions of Poland, and formally established following the Napoleonic Wars in 1815.

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Granite

Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture.

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Gray wolf

The gray wolf (Canis lupus), also known as the timber wolf,Paquet, P. & Carbyn, L. W. (2003).

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Great Northern War

The Great Northern War (1700–1721) was a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Northern, Central and Eastern Europe.

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Great Recession

The Great Recession was a period of general economic decline observed in world markets during the late 2000s and early 2010s.

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Great Sejm

The Great Sejm, also known as the Four-Year Sejm (Polish: respectively, Sejm Wielki or Sejm Czteroletni; Lithuanian: Didysis seimas or Ketverių metų seimas) was a Sejm (parliament) of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that was held in Warsaw between 1788 and 1792.

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Greater Poland

Greater Poland, often known by its Polish name Wielkopolska (Großpolen; Latin: Polonia Maior), is a historical region of west-central Poland.

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Greater Poland uprising (1806)

Greater Poland uprising of 1806 was a military insurrection by Poles in Wielkopolska (Greater Poland) against the occupying Prussian forces after the Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1772–1795).

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Greater Poland uprising (1848)

The Greater Poland uprising of 1848 or Poznań Uprising (powstanie wielkopolskie 1848 roku or powstanie poznańskie) was an unsuccessful military insurrection of Poles against Prussian forces, during the Spring of Nations period.

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Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)

The Greater Poland uprising of 1918–1919, or Wielkopolska uprising of 1918–1919 (Polish: powstanie wielkopolskie 1918–19 roku; Großpolnischer Aufstand) or Posnanian War was a military insurrection of Poles in the Greater Poland region (German: Grand Duchy of Poznań or Provinz Posen) against German rule.

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Greater Poland Voivodeship

Greater Poland Voivodeship (in Polish: Województwo Wielkopolskie), also known as Wielkopolska Voivodeship, Wielkopolska Province, or Greater Poland Province, is a voivodeship, or province, in west-central Poland.

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Greeks

The Greeks or Hellenes (Έλληνες, Éllines) are an ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus, southern Albania, Italy, Turkey, Egypt and, to a lesser extent, other countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world.. Greek colonies and communities have been historically established on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea, but the Greek people have always been centered on the Aegean and Ionian seas, where the Greek language has been spoken since the Bronze Age.. Until the early 20th century, Greeks were distributed between the Greek peninsula, the western coast of Asia Minor, the Black Sea coast, Cappadocia in central Anatolia, Egypt, the Balkans, Cyprus, and Constantinople. Many of these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of the Byzantine Empire of the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of ancient Greek colonization. The cultural centers of the Greeks have included Athens, Thessalonica, Alexandria, Smyrna, and Constantinople at various periods. Most ethnic Greeks live nowadays within the borders of the modern Greek state and Cyprus. The Greek genocide and population exchange between Greece and Turkey nearly ended the three millennia-old Greek presence in Asia Minor. Other longstanding Greek populations can be found from southern Italy to the Caucasus and southern Russia and Ukraine and in the Greek diaspora communities in a number of other countries. Today, most Greeks are officially registered as members of the Greek Orthodox Church.CIA World Factbook on Greece: Greek Orthodox 98%, Greek Muslim 1.3%, other 0.7%. Greeks have greatly influenced and contributed to culture, arts, exploration, literature, philosophy, politics, architecture, music, mathematics, science and technology, business, cuisine, and sports, both historically and contemporarily.

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Gristmill

A gristmill (also: grist mill, corn mill or flour mill) grinds cereal grain into flour and middlings.

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Grodzisk Mazowiecki–Zawiercie railway

The Central Rail Line (Centralna Magistrala Kolejowa, CMK, also known in Poland as the Rail Line No. 4, Polish: Linia kolejowa nr 4), was completed on 23 December 1977 could have been the first high speed railway line in Europe.

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Grupa Lotos

Grupa Lotos S.A. is a vertically integrated oil company based in Gdańsk, Poland.

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Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki

Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki (ca. 1665 to 1667 – 30 April 1734) was a Polish Baroque composer.

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Hańcza

Hańcza (Ančia) is a lake in Suwałki Region, Podlaskie Voivodeship, Poland.

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Handball

Handball (also known as team handball, fieldball, European handball or Olympic handball) is a team sport in which two teams of seven players each (six outfield players and a goalkeeper) pass a ball using their hands with the aim of throwing it into the goal of the other team.

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Hans Karl von Diebitsch

Count Hans Karl Friedrich Anton von Diebitsch und Narden or Graf Ivan Ivanovich Diebitsch-Zabalkansky (Ива́н Ива́нович Ди́бич-Забалка́нский) (13 May 1785 in Groß Leipe in Lower Silesia, Prussia10 June 1831 near Pułtusk) was a German-born soldier serving as Russian Field Marshal.

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Harbor

A harbor or harbour (see spelling differences; synonyms: wharves, haven) is a sheltered body of water where ships, boats, and barges can be docked.

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Harry Warner

Harry Morris Warner (born Hirsz Mojżesz Wonsal; December 12, 1881 – July 25, 1958) was an American studio executive, one of the founders of Warner Bros., and a major contributor to the development of the film industry.

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Head of state

A head of state (or chief of state) is the public persona that officially represents the national unity and legitimacy of a sovereign state.

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Health care in Poland

Health care in Poland is delivered through a publicly funded health care system called the National Health Fund (in Polish: Narodowy Fundusz Zdrowia), which is free for all the citizens of Poland provided they fall into the "insured" category (usually meaning that they have their health insurance paid for by their employer, or are the spouse or child of an insured person).

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Heart of Darkness

Heart of Darkness (1899) is a novella by Polish-English novelist Joseph Conrad, about a voyage up the Congo River into the Congo Free State, in the heart of Africa, by the story's narrator Charles Marlow.

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Hel Peninsula

Hel Peninsula (Mierzeja Helska, Półwysep Helski; Hélskô Sztremlëzna; Halbinsel Hela or Putziger Nehrung) is a 35-km-long sand bar peninsula in northern Poland separating the Bay of Puck from the open Baltic Sea.

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Helena Rubinstein

Helena Rubinstein (born Chaja Rubinstein; December 25, 1872 – April 1, 1965) was a Polish American businesswoman, art collector, and philanthropist.

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Heliocentrism

Heliocentrism is the astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun at the center of the Solar System.

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Henrician Articles

The Henrician Articles or King Henry's Articles (Polish: Artykuły henrykowskie, Latin: Articuli Henriciani) were a permanent contract between the "Polish nation" (i.e., the szlachta (nobility) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) and a newly elected king upon his election to the throne that stated the fundamental principles of governance and constitutional law in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Henry II the Pious

Henry II the Pious (Henryk II Pobożny) (1196 – 9 April 1241),*Cawley, Charles; Foundation for Medieval Genealogy, Medieval Lands Project; Silesia v3.0; Dukes of Breslau (Wrocław) and Lower Silesia 1163–1278 (Piast) (Chap 4); Heinrich II Duke of Lower Silesia; retrieved May 2015.

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Henry the Bearded

Henry the Bearded (Henryk Brodaty, Heinrich der Bärtige); c. 1165/70 – 19 March 1238), of the Silesian line of the Piast dynasty, was Duke of Silesia at Wrocław from 1201 and Duke of Kraków and thus High Duke of all Poland — internally divided — from 1232 until his death.

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Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor

Henry V (Heinrich V.; 11 August 1081/86 – 23 May 1125) was King of Germany (from 1099 to 1125) and Holy Roman Emperor (from 1111 to 1125), the fourth and last ruler of the Salian dynasty.

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Henryk Górecki

Henryk Mikołaj Górecki (English pronunciation Go-RET-ski; December 6, 1933 – November 12, 2010) was a Polish composer of contemporary classical music.

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Henryk Siemiradzki

Henryk Hektor Siemiradzki (24 October 1843 – 23 August 1902) was a Polish Rome-based painter, best remembered for his monumental Academic art.

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Henryk Sienkiewicz

Henryk Adam Aleksander Pius Sienkiewicz (also known by the pseudonym "Litwos"; 5 May 1846 – 15 November 1916) was a Polish journalist, novelist and Nobel Prize laureate.

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Henryk Wieniawski

Henryk Wieniawski (10 July 1835 – 31 March 1880) was a Polish violinist and composer.

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Henryków, Lower Silesian Voivodeship

Henryków (Heinrichau) is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Ziębice, within Ząbkowice Śląskie County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland.

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Hetman

reason (translit; hejtman; hatman) is a political title from Central and Eastern Europe, historically assigned to military commanders.

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Hewlett-Packard

The Hewlett-Packard Company (commonly referred to as HP) or shortened to Hewlett-Packard was an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Palo Alto, California.

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High Tatras

The High Tatras or High Tatra Mountains (Slovak: Vysoké Tatry, Tatry Wysokie), are a mountain range along the border of northern Slovakia in the Prešov Region, and southern Poland in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship.

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High-speed rail in Poland

High-speed rail service (Kolej dużych prędkości) commenced in Poland on 14 December 2014, with the introduction of 20 non-tilting Pendolino trainsets operating on 4 designated lines radiating out from Warsaw.

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Highways in Poland

Highways in Poland are public roads designed to carry large amounts of traffic.

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Himalayas

The Himalayas, or Himalaya, form a mountain range in Asia separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau.

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Hip hop music

Hip hop music, also called hip-hopMerriam-Webster Dictionary entry on hip-hop, retrieved from: A subculture especially of inner-city black youths who are typically devotees of rap music; the stylized rhythmic music that commonly accompanies rap; also rap together with this music.

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Hippocrene Books

Hippocrene Books is an independent US publishing press located at 171 Madison Avenue, New York City, NY 10016.

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History of democracy

A democracy is a political system, or a system of decision-making within an institution or organization or a country, in which all members have an equal share of power.

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History of Poland

The history of Poland has its roots in the migrations of Slavs, who established permanent settlements in the Polish lands during the Early Middle Ages.

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History of Poland (1918–1939)

The History of interwar Poland comprises the period from the re-recreation of the independent Polish state in 1918, until the joint Invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1939 at the onset of World War II.

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History of Poland (1989–present)

In 1989–1991, Poland engaged in a democratic transition which put an end to the Polish People's Republic and led to the foundation of a democratic government, known as the Third Polish Republic (following the First and Second Polish Republics).

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History of the Jews in Poland

The history of the Jews in Poland dates back over 1,000 years.

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Hollywood

Hollywood is a neighborhood in the central region of Los Angeles, California.

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Holocaust trains

Holocaust trains were railway transports run by the Deutsche Reichsbahn national railway system under the strict supervision of the German Nazis and their allies, for the purpose of forcible deportation of the Jews, as well as other victims of the Holocaust, to the German Nazi concentration, forced labour, and extermination camps.

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Holy Cross Sermons

The Holy Cross Sermons (Kazania świętokrzyskie) are the oldest extant prose text in the Polish language, dating probably from the late 13th, or from the early 14th century.

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Holy Father John Paul II Family Home in Wadowice

The Holy Father John Paul II Family Home in Wadowice, Poland was the family home and birthplace of Karol Józef Wojtyła, who was elected Pope John Paul II in 1978, and canonised after his death.

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Holy See

The Holy See (Santa Sede; Sancta Sedes), also called the See of Rome, is the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, the episcopal see of the Pope, and an independent sovereign entity.

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Home Army

The Home Army (Armia Krajowa;, abbreviated AK) was the dominant Polish resistance movement in Poland, occupied by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, during World War II.

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Hortex

Hortex is a company in Poland that produces frozen foods and branded fruit juices.

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House of Vasa

The House of Vasa (Vasaätten, Wazowie, Vaza) was an early modern royal house founded in 1523 in Sweden, ruling Sweden 1523–1654, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1587–1668, and the Tsardom of Russia 1610–1613 (titular until 1634).

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House of Wettin

The House of Wettin is a dynasty of German counts, dukes, prince-electors and kings that once ruled territories in the present-day German states of Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Thuringia.

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Howitzer

A howitzer is a type of artillery piece characterized by a relatively short barrel and the use of comparatively small propellant charges to propel projectiles over relatively high trajectories, with a steep angle of descent.

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Hugo Kołłątaj

Hugo Stumberg Kołłątaj, alt.

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Hugo Steinhaus

Władysław Hugo Dionizy Steinhaus (January 14, 1887 – February 25, 1972) was a Jewish-Polish mathematician and educator.

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Human Development Index

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite statistic (composite index) of life expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators, which are used to rank countries into four tiers of human development.

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Hungarian language

Hungarian is a Finno-Ugric language spoken in Hungary and several neighbouring countries. It is the official language of Hungary and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. Outside Hungary it is also spoken by communities of Hungarians in the countries that today make up Slovakia, western Ukraine, central and western Romania (Transylvania and Partium), northern Serbia (Vojvodina), northern Croatia, and northern Slovenia due to the effects of the Treaty of Trianon, which resulted in many ethnic Hungarians being displaced from their homes and communities in the former territories of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It is also spoken by Hungarian diaspora communities worldwide, especially in North America (particularly the United States). Like Finnish and Estonian, Hungarian belongs to the Uralic language family branch, its closest relatives being Mansi and Khanty.

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Hungary

Hungary (Magyarország) is a country in Central Europe that covers an area of in the Carpathian Basin, bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Austria to the northwest, Romania to the east, Serbia to the south, Croatia to the southwest, and Slovenia to the west.

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Hussites

The Hussites (Husité or Kališníci; "Chalice People") were a pre-Protestant Christian movement that followed the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus, who became the best known representative of the Bohemian Reformation.

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Hybrid warfare

Hybrid warfare is a military strategy that employs political warfare and blends conventional warfare, irregular warfare and cyberwarfare with other influencing methods, such as fake news, diplomacy and foreign electoral intervention.

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Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectricity is electricity produced from hydropower.

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I Saw Poland Betrayed

I saw Poland betrayed: An American ambassador reports to the American people (1948) is a book written by Arthur Bliss Lane, former United States ambassador to Poland, who observed what he considered to be the betrayal of Poland by the Western Allies at the end of World War II.

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IBM

The International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries.

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Ice hockey

Ice hockey is a contact team sport played on ice, usually in a rink, in which two teams of skaters use their sticks to shoot a vulcanized rubber puck into their opponent's net to score points.

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Ida (film)

Ida is a 2013 Polish drama film directed by Paweł Pawlikowski and written by Pawlikowski and Rebecca Lenkiewicz.

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Ignacy Feliks Dobrzyński

Ignacy Feliks Dobrzyński (15 February 1807 – 9 October 1867) was a Polish pianist and composer.

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Ignacy Jan Paderewski

Ignacy Jan Paderewski (– 29 June 1941) was a Polish pianist and composer, politician, statesman and spokesman for Polish independence.

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Ignacy Krasicki

Ignacy Krasicki (3 February 173514 March 1801), from 1766 Prince-Bishop of Warmia (in German, Ermland) and from 1795 Archbishop of Gniezno (thus, Primate of Poland), was Poland's leading Enlightenment poet"Ignacy Krasicki", Encyklopedia Polski (Encyclopedia of Poland), p. 325.

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Ignacy Potocki

Count Roman Ignacy Potocki, generally known as Ignacy Potocki, (1750–1809) was a Polish nobleman, member of the influential magnate Potocki family, owner of Klementowice and Olesin (near Kurów), a politician, writer, and office holder.

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Igor Mitoraj

Igor Mitoraj (26 March 1944 – 6 October 2014) was a Polish artist.

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Impressionism

Impressionism is a 19th-century art movement characterised by relatively small, thin, yet visible brush strokes, open composition, emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage of time), ordinary subject matter, inclusion of movement as a crucial element of human perception and experience, and unusual visual angles.

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Impromptu

An impromptu (loosely meaning "offhand") is a free-form musical composition with the character of an ex tempore improvisation as if prompted by the spirit of the moment, usually for a solo instrument, such as piano.

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Inglot Cosmetics

INGLOT Cosmetics is a Polish cosmetics company headquartered in Przemyśl, Subcarpathian Voivodeship, south-eastern Poland, specializing in the manufacturing of make-up products.

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Innogy

Innogy SE is an energy company based in Essen, Germany.

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Intel

Intel Corporation (stylized as intel) is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California, in the Silicon Valley.

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Intel Extreme Masters

The Intel Extreme Masters (IEM) are a series of international eSports tournaments held in countries around the world.

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International Atomic Energy Agency

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons.

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International Energy Agency

The International Energy Agency (IEA) (Agence internationale de l'énergie) is a Paris-based autonomous intergovernmental organization established in the framework of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1974 in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis.

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International Monetary Fund

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization headquartered in Washington, D.C., consisting of "189 countries working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world." Formed in 1945 at the Bretton Woods Conference primarily by the ideas of Harry Dexter White and John Maynard Keynes, it came into formal existence in 1945 with 29 member countries and the goal of reconstructing the international payment system.

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Internet censorship and surveillance by country

This list of Internet censorship and surveillance by country provides information on the types and levels of Internet censorship and surveillance that is occurring in countries around the world.

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Internetowa encyklopedia PWN

Internetowa encyklopedia PWN (Polish for Internet PWN Encyclopedia) is a free online Polish-language encyclopedia published by Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.

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Interwar period

In the context of the history of the 20th century, the interwar period was the period between the end of the First World War in November 1918 and the beginning of the Second World War in September 1939.

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Invasion of Poland

The Invasion of Poland, known in Poland as the September Campaign (Kampania wrześniowa) or the 1939 Defensive War (Wojna obronna 1939 roku), and in Germany as the Poland Campaign (Polenfeldzug) or Fall Weiss ("Case White"), was a joint invasion of Poland by Germany, the Soviet Union, the Free City of Danzig, and a small Slovak contingent that marked the beginning of World War II.

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Invasion of Yugoslavia

The invasion of Yugoslavia, also known as the April War or Operation 25, was a German-led attack on the Kingdom of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers which began on 6 April 1941 during World War II.

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Iran

Iran (ایران), also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (جمهوری اسلامی ایران), is a sovereign state in Western Asia. With over 81 million inhabitants, Iran is the world's 18th-most-populous country. Comprising a land area of, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East and the 17th-largest in the world. Iran is bordered to the northwest by Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan, to the north by the Caspian Sea, to the northeast by Turkmenistan, to the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, and to the west by Turkey and Iraq. The country's central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, give it geostrategic importance. Tehran is the country's capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations, beginning with the formation of the Elamite kingdoms in the fourth millennium BCE. It was first unified by the Iranian Medes in the seventh century BCE, reaching its greatest territorial size in the sixth century BCE, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire, which stretched from Eastern Europe to the Indus Valley, becoming one of the largest empires in history. The Iranian realm fell to Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE and was divided into several Hellenistic states. An Iranian rebellion culminated in the establishment of the Parthian Empire, which was succeeded in the third century CE by the Sasanian Empire, a leading world power for the next four centuries. Arab Muslims conquered the empire in the seventh century CE, displacing the indigenous faiths of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism with Islam. Iran made major contributions to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential figures in art and science. After two centuries, a period of various native Muslim dynasties began, which were later conquered by the Turks and the Mongols. The rise of the Safavids in the 15th century led to the reestablishment of a unified Iranian state and national identity, with the country's conversion to Shia Islam marking a turning point in Iranian and Muslim history. Under Nader Shah, Iran was one of the most powerful states in the 18th century, though by the 19th century, a series of conflicts with the Russian Empire led to significant territorial losses. Popular unrest led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the country's first legislature. A 1953 coup instigated by the United Kingdom and the United States resulted in greater autocracy and growing anti-Western resentment. Subsequent unrest against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution and the establishment of an Islamic republic, a political system that includes elements of a parliamentary democracy vetted and supervised by a theocracy governed by an autocratic "Supreme Leader". During the 1980s, the country was engaged in a war with Iraq, which lasted for almost nine years and resulted in a high number of casualties and economic losses for both sides. According to international reports, Iran's human rights record is exceptionally poor. The regime in Iran is undemocratic, and has frequently persecuted and arrested critics of the government and its Supreme Leader. Women's rights in Iran are described as seriously inadequate, and children's rights have been severely violated, with more child offenders being executed in Iran than in any other country in the world. Since the 2000s, Iran's controversial nuclear program has raised concerns, which is part of the basis of the international sanctions against the country. The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, an agreement reached between Iran and the P5+1, was created on 14 July 2015, aimed to loosen the nuclear sanctions in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing enriched uranium. Iran is a founding member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC, and OPEC. It is a major regional and middle power, and its large reserves of fossil fuels – which include the world's largest natural gas supply and the fourth-largest proven oil reserves – exert considerable influence in international energy security and the world economy. The country's rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 22 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and eleventh-largest in the world. Iran is a multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, the largest being Persians (61%), Azeris (16%), Kurds (10%), and Lurs (6%).

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Irena Szewińska

Irena Szewińska, née Kirszenstein (Polish pronunciation:; 24 May 1946 – 29 June 2018) was a Polish sprinter who was one of the world's foremost athletes for nearly two decades, in multiple events.

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Iron Age

The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age system, preceded by the Stone Age (Neolithic) and the Bronze Age.

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Irreligion

Irreligion (adjective form: non-religious or irreligious) is the absence, indifference, rejection of, or hostility towards religion.

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Isaac Bashevis Singer

Isaac Bashevis Singer (יצחק באַשעװיס זינגער; November 21, 1902 – July 24, 1991) was a Polish-born Jewish writer in Yiddish, awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1978.

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Islam in Poland

A continuous presence of Islam in Poland began in the 14th century.

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Italian Campaign (World War II)

The Italian Campaign of World War II consisted of the Allied operations in and around Italy, from 1943 to the end of the war in Europe.

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Italian cuisine

Italian cuisine is food typical from Italy.

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Italy

Italy (Italia), officially the Italian Republic (Repubblica Italiana), is a sovereign state in Europe.

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Ivan Paskevich

Prince (1831) Ivan Fyodorovich Paskevich (Ива́н Фёдорович Паске́вич; &ndash) was an imperial Russian military leader.

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Izabela Czartoryska

Princess Izabela Dorota Czartoryska (née Fleming; 3 March 1746 – 15 July 1835) was a Polish noblewoman, writer, and art collector who is widely regarded as a very prominent figure of the Enlightenment in Poland.

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Izrael Poznański Palace

Izrael Poznański's Palace is a 19th-century palace in Łódź, Poland.

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Jacek Malczewski

Jacek Malczewski (15 July 1854 – 8 October 1929) is one of the most revered painters of Poland, associated with the patriotic Young Poland movement following the century of Partitions.

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Jack L. Warner

Jack Leonard "J.

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Jagiellonian dynasty

The Jagiellonian dynasty was a royal dynasty, founded by Jogaila (the Grand Duke of Lithuania, who in 1386 was baptized as Władysław, married Queen regnant (also styled "King") Jadwiga of Poland, and was crowned King of Poland as Władysław II Jagiełło. The dynasty reigned in several Central European countries between the 14th and 16th centuries. Members of the dynasty were Kings of Poland (1386–1572), Grand Dukes of Lithuania (1377–1392 and 1440–1572), Kings of Hungary (1440–1444 and 1490–1526), and Kings of Bohemia (1471–1526). The personal union between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (converted in 1569 with the Treaty of Lublin into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) is the reason for the common appellation "Poland–Lithuania" in discussions about the area from the Late Middle Ages onward. One Jagiellonian briefly ruled both Poland and Hungary (1440–44), and two others ruled both Bohemia and Hungary (1490–1526) and then continued in the distaff line as a branch of the House of Habsburg. The Polish "Golden Age", the period of the reigns of Sigismund I and Sigismund II, the last two Jagiellonian kings, or more generally the 16th century, is most often identified with the rise of the culture of Polish Renaissance. The cultural flowering had its material base in the prosperity of the elites, both the landed nobility and urban patriciate at such centers as Kraków and Gdańsk.

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Jagiellonian University

The Jagiellonian University (Polish: Uniwersytet Jagielloński; Latin: Universitas Iagellonica Cracoviensis, also known as the University of Kraków) is a research university in Kraków, Poland.

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Jaktorów

Jaktorów is a village in Grodzisk Mazowiecki County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

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Jakub Polak (musician)

Jakub Polak (c. 1545 - c. 1605), also known as Jakub Reys (Reis, de Rais, de Reiz, de Restz, de Retz, du Retz) and Jacques le Polonois, was a Polish lutenist and composer.

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Jamno (lake)

Jamno is a lake in northern Poland (in West Pomeranian Voivodeship), close to the Baltic Sea.

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Jan Andrzej Morsztyn

Jan Andrzej Morsztyn (1621–93) was a Polish poet, member of the landed nobility, and official in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Jan Łaski

Jan Łaski or Johannes Alasco (1499 – 8 January 1560) was a Polish Reformed reformer.

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Jan Chryzostom Pasek

Jan Chryzostom Pasek (c. 1636–1701) was a Polish nobleman and writer during the times of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Jan Długosz

Jan Długosz (1 December 1415 – 19 May 1480), also known as Ioannes, Joannes, or Johannes Longinus or Dlugossius, was a Polish priest, chronicler, diplomat, soldier, and secretary to Bishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki of Kraków.

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Jan Kochanowski

Jan Kochanowski (1530 – 22 August 1584) was a Polish Renaissance poet who established poetic patterns that would become integral to the Polish literary language.

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Jan Matejko

Jan Alojzy Matejko (also known as Jan Mateyko; June 24, 1838 – November 1, 1893) was a Polish painter known for paintings of notable historical Polish political and military events.

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Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts

The Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts, or the Kraków Academy of Fine Arts (Akademia Sztuk Pięknych w Krakowie im., usually abbreviated to ASP), is a public institution of higher learning located in downtown Kraków, Poland.

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Jan Szczepanik

Jan Szczepanik (June 13, 1872 – April 18, 1926) was a Polish inventor, with several hundred patents and over 50 discoveries to his name, many of which are still applied today, especially in the motion picture industry, as well as in photography and television.

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Janissaries

The Janissaries (يڭيچرى, meaning "new soldier") were elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops, bodyguards and the first modern standing army in Europe.

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January Uprising

The January Uprising (Polish: powstanie styczniowe, Lithuanian: 1863 m. sukilimas, Belarusian: Паўстанне 1863-1864 гадоў, Польське повстання) was an insurrection instigated principally in the Russian Partition of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against its occupation by the Russian Empire.

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Jasna Góra Monastery

The Jasna Góra Monastery (Jasna Góra, Luminous Mount, Fényes Hegy, Clarus Mons) in Częstochowa, Poland, is a famous Polish shrine to the Virgin Mary and one of the country's places of pilgrimage.

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Jastrzębska Spółka Węglowa

Jastrzębska Spółka Węglowa S.A. is a large coal mining company in Poland producing around 12 million tonnes of coal every year.

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Józef Andrzej Gierowski

Józef Andrzej Gierowski (1922-2006) was a Polish historian, professor and rector of the Jagiellonian University.

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Józef Chełmoński

Józef Marian Chełmoński (November 7, 1849 – April 6, 1914) was a Polish painter of the realist school with roots in the historical and social context of the late Romantic period in partitioned Poland.

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Józef Elsner

Józef Antoni Franciszek Elsner (sometimes Józef Ksawery Elsner; baptismal name, Joseph Anton Franz Elsner; 1 June 176918 April 1854) was a composer, music teacher, and music theoretician, active mainly in Warsaw.

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Józef Mehoffer

Józef Mehoffer (19 March 1869 – 8 July 1946) was a Polish painter and decorative artist, one of the leading artists of the Young Poland movement and one of the most revered Polish artists of his time.

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Józef Piłsudski

Józef Klemens Piłsudski (5 December 1867 – 12 May 1935) was a Polish statesman; he was Chief of State (1918–22), "First Marshal of Poland" (from 1920), and de facto leader (1926–35) of the Second Polish Republic as the Minister of Military Affairs.

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Jean Lambert-Rucki

Jean Lambert-Rucki (1888–1967), a Polish avant-garde artist, sculptor, and graphic artist, was best known for his participation in the Cubist, Surrealist and Art Deco movements.

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Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses is a millenarian restorationist Christian denomination with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity.

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Jerzy Jan Lerski

Jerzy Jan Lerski (nom de guerre: Jur; also known as George Jan Lerski; was a Polish lawyer, soldier, historian, political scientist and politician. After World War II he emigrated to the United States, where he became a full professor at the University of San Francisco.

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Jerzy Kukuczka

Jerzy Kukuczka (24 March 1948 in Katowice, Poland – 24 October 1989 Lhotse, Nepal) was a Polish alpine and high-altitude climber.

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Jewish cuisine

Jewish cuisine is a diverse collection of cooking traditions of the Jewish people worldwide.

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Jews

Jews (יְהוּדִים ISO 259-3, Israeli pronunciation) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and a nation, originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The people of the Kingdom of Israel and the ethnic and religious group known as the Jewish people that descended from them have been subjected to a number of forced migrations in their history" and Hebrews of the Ancient Near East.

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Joan Crawford

Joan Crawford (born Lucille Fay LeSueur; March 23, c. 1904 – May 10, 1977) was an American film and television actress who began her career as a dancer and stage showgirl. In 1999, the American Film Institute ranked Crawford tenth on its list of the greatest female stars of Classic Hollywood Cinema. Beginning her career as a dancer in traveling theatrical companies, before debuting as a chorus girl on Broadway, Crawford signed a motion picture contract with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1925. In the 1930s, Crawford's fame rivaled, and later outlasted, MGM colleagues Norma Shearer and Greta Garbo. Crawford often played hard-working young women who find romance and success. These stories were well received by Depression-era audiences, and were popular with women. Crawford became one of Hollywood's most prominent movie stars, and one of the highest-paid women in the United States, but her films began losing money, and, by the end of the 1930s, she was labelled "box office poison". But her career gradually improved in the early 1940s, and she made a major comeback in 1945 by starring in Mildred Pierce, for which she won the Academy Award for Best Actress. She would go on to receive Best Actress nominations for Possessed (1947) and Sudden Fear (1952). She continued to act in film and television throughout the 1950s and 1960s; she achieved box office success with the highly successful horror film Whatever Happened To Baby Jane? (1962), in which she starred alongside Bette Davis, her long-time rival. In 1955, Crawford became involved with the Pepsi-Cola Company through her marriage to company Chairman Alfred Steele. After his death in 1959, Crawford was elected to fill his vacancy on the board of directors, serving until she was forcibly retired in 1973. After the release of the British horror film Trog in 1970, Crawford retired from the screen. Following a public appearance in 1974, after which unflattering photographs were published, Crawford withdrew from public life and became increasingly reclusive until her death in 1977. Crawford married four times. Her first three marriages ended in divorce; the last ended with the death of husband Alfred Steele. She adopted five children, one of whom was reclaimed by his birth mother. Crawford's relationships with her two elder children, Christina and Christopher, were acrimonious. Crawford disinherited the two, and, after Crawford's death, Christina wrote a well-known "tell-all" memoir titled Mommie Dearest (1978).

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Joanna Jędrzejczyk

Joanna Jędrzejczyk (born August 18, 1987) is a Polish mixed martial artist and former Muay Thai kickboxer who competes in the women's strawweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship.

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Johann Haller

Johann Haller or Jan HallerNorman Davies, (1463–1525) is considered one of the first commercial printers in Poland.

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Johannes Dantiscus

Johannes Dantiscus, (Johann(es) von Höfen-Flachsbinder, Jan Dantyszek; 1 October 1485 – 27 October 1548) was prince-bishop of Warmia and Bishop of Chełmno (Culm).

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John II Casimir Vasa

John II Casimir (Jan II Kazimierz Waza; Johann II.; Jonas Kazimieras Vaza; 22 March 1609 – 16 December 1672) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania during the era of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Duke of Opole in Upper Silesia, and titular King of Sweden 1648–1660.

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John III Sobieski

John III Sobieski (Jan III Sobieski; Jonas III Sobieskis; Ioannes III Sobiscius; 17 August 1629 – 17 June 1696), was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1674 until his death, and one of the most notable monarchs of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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John Paul II International Airport Kraków–Balice

John Paul II International Airport Kraków–Balice (Kraków Airport im. since 4 September 2007; earlier in Międzynarodowy Port Lotniczy im.) is an international airport located near Kraków, in the village of Balice, west of the city centre, in southern Poland.

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Joint venture

A joint venture (JV) is a business entity created by two or more parties, generally characterized by shared ownership, shared returns and risks, and shared governance.

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Joseph Conrad

Joseph Conrad (born Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski; 3 December 1857 – 3 August 1924) was a Polish-British writer regarded as one of the greatest novelists to write in the English language.

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Joseph Stalin

Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (18 December 1878 – 5 March 1953) was a Soviet revolutionary and politician of Georgian nationality.

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Judiciary

The judiciary (also known as the judicial system or court system) is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state.

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Judy Garland

Judy Garland (born Frances Ethel Gumm; June 10, 1922 – June 22, 1969) was an American singer, actress, and vaudevillian.

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Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz

Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz (6 February 1758, Skoki, near Brest – 21 May 1841, Paris) was a Polish poet, playwright and statesman.

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Juliusz Słowacki

Juliusz Słowacki (23 August 1809 – 3 April 1849) was a Polish Romantic poet.

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Juliusz Zarębski

Juliusz Zarębski (3 March 185415 September 1885) was a Polish composer and pianist.

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Kamil Stoch

Kamil Wiktor Stoch (born 25 May 1987) is a Polish ski jumper.

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Kara Mustafa Pasha

Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha (مرزيفونلى قره مصطفى پاشا, Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Paşa; "Mustafa Pasha the Courageous of Merzifon"; 1634/1635 – 25 December 1683) was an Ottoman military commander and Grand Vizier, who was a central character in the Ottoman Empire's last attempts at expansion into both Central and Eastern Europe.

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Karabela

A karabela was a type of Polish sabre (szabla) popular in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Karaim language

The Karaim language (Crimean dialect: къарай тили, Trakai dialect: karaj tili, Turkish dialect: karay dili, traditional Hebrew name lashon kedar לשון קדר "language of the nomads") is a Turkic language with Hebrew influences, in a similar manner to Yiddish or Judaeo-Spanish. It is spoken by only a few dozen Crimean Karaites (Qrimqaraylar) in Lithuania, Poland and Crimea and Galicia in Ukraine. The three main dialects are those of Crimea, Trakai-Vilnius and Lutsk-Halych all of which are critically endangered. The Lithuanian dialect of Karaim is spoken mainly in the town of Trakai (also known as Troki) by a small community living there since the 14th century. There is a chance the language will survive in Trakai as a result of official support and because of its appeal to tourists coming to the Trakai Island Castle, where Crimean Karaites are presented as the castle's ancient defenders.

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Karol Kurpiński

Karol Kazimierz Kurpiński (March 6, 1785, WłoszakowiceSeptember 18, 1857, Warsaw) was a Polish composer, conductor and pedagogue.

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Karol Szymanowski

Karol Maciej Szymanowski (3 October 188229 March 1937) was a Polish composer and pianist, the most celebrated Polish composer of the early 20th century.

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Kasha

In the English language, kasha is a term for the pseudocereal buckwheat.

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Kashubia

Kashubia or Cassubia (Kaszëbë, Kaszuby, Kaschubei, Kaschubien) is a language area in the historic Eastern Pomerania (Pomerelia) region of northwestern Poland.

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Kashubian language

Kashubian or Cassubian (Kashubian: kaszëbsczi jãzëk, pòmòrsczi jãzëk, kaszëbskò-słowińskô mòwa; język kaszubski, język pomorski, język kaszubsko-słowiński) is a West Slavic language belonging to the Lechitic subgroup along with Polish and Silesian.

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Kashubians

The Kashubs (Kaszëbi; Kaszubi; Kaschuben; also spelled Kaszubians, Kassubians, Cassubians, Cashubes, and Kashubians, and formerly known as Kashubes) are a West Slavic ethnic group in Pomerelia, north-central Poland.

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Kasper Straube

Kasper Straube (also Kaspar or Caspar, also known as The Printer of the Turrecrematas) was a German 15th century printer from Bavaria.

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Katowice

Katowice (Katowicy; Kattowitz; officially Miasto Katowice) is a city in southern Poland, with a population of 297,197 and the center of the Silesian Metropolis, with a population of 2.2 million.

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Katyn massacre

The Katyn massacre (zbrodnia katyńska, "Katyń massacre" or "Katyn crime"; Катынская резня or Катынский расстрел Katynskij reznya, "Katyn massacre") was a series of mass executions of Polish intelligentsia carried out by the NKVD ("People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs", the Soviet secret police) in April and May 1940.

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Kazimierz Łyszczyński

Coat of Arms of Kazimierz Łyszczyński Kazimierz Łyszczyński (Born on March 4, 1634 in Łyszczyce (today Belarus) – March 30, 1689 in Warsaw, Poland), also known in English as Casimir Liszinski, was a Polish-Lithuanian nobleman, landowner in Brest Litovsk Voivodeship of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, philosopher, and soldier in the ranks of the Sapieha family, who was accused, tried, and executed for atheism in 1689.

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Kazimierz Dolny

Kazimierz Dolny (קוזמיר Kuzmir) is a small town in central eastern Poland, on the right (eastern) bank of the Vistula river in Puławy County, Lublin Voivodeship.

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Kazimierz Kuratowski

Kazimierz Kuratowski (Polish pronunciation:, 2 February 1896 – 18 June 1980) was a Polish mathematician and logician.

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Kazimierz Prószyński

Kazimierz Prószyński (4 April 1875 – 13 March 1945), born in Warsaw, Poland, was a Polish inventor active in the field of cinema.

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Kefir

Kefir or kephir, alternatively milk kefir or búlgaros, is a fermented milk drink that originated in the Caucasus Mountains made with kefir "grains", a yeast/bacterial fermentation starter.

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KGHM Polska Miedź

KGHM Polska Miedź S.A., commonly known as KGHM, is a Polish multinational corporation that employs near 34,000 people around the world and has been a leader in copper and silver production for more than 50 years.

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Khmelnytsky Uprising

The Khmelnytsky Uprising (Powstanie Chmielnickiego; Chmelnickio sukilimas; повстання Богдана Хмельницького; восстание Богдана Хмельницкого; also known as the Cossack-Polish War, Chmielnicki Uprising, or the Khmelnytsky insurrection) was a Cossack rebellion within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1648–1657, which led to the creation of a Cossack Hetmanate in Ukrainian lands.

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Kielbasa

Kielbasa or Kiełbasa is a type of sausage originating from Poland.

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Kielce

Kielce is a city in south central Poland with 199,475 inhabitants.

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Kinga Baranowska

Kinga Baranowska (born 17 November 1975 in Wejherowo) is a Polish mountaineer.

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Kingdom of Bohemia

The Kingdom of Bohemia, sometimes in English literature referred to as the Czech Kingdom (České království; Königreich Böhmen; Regnum Bohemiae, sometimes Regnum Czechorum), was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Central Europe, the predecessor of the modern Czech Republic.

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Kingdom of Hungary

The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed from the Middle Ages into the twentieth century (1000–1946 with the exception of 1918–1920).

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Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)

The Kingdom of Poland (Polish: Królestwo Polskie; Latin: Regnum Poloniae) was the Polish state from the coronation of the first King Bolesław I the Brave in 1025 to the union with Lithuania and the rule of the Jagiellon dynasty in 1385.

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Klemens Janicki

Klemens Janicki (Janiciusz, Januszkowski, from Januszkowo) ('Clemens Ianicius') (1516–1543) was one of the most outstanding Latin poets of the 16th century.

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Kluski

Kluski (singular: klusek or kluska) is a generic Polish name for all kinds of soft, mushy dumplings, usually without a filling.

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Knights of the Teutonic Order (film)

--> Knights of the Teutonic Order (Polish: Krzyżacy) is a 1960 Polish film directed by Aleksander Ford based on the novel of the same name by Henryk Sienkiewicz.

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Kołobrzeg

Kołobrzeg (Kolberg) is a city in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in north-western Poland with about 47,000 inhabitants.

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Kościuszko Uprising

The Kościuszko Uprising was an uprising against Imperial Russia and the Kingdom of Prussia led by Tadeusz Kościuszko in the Commonwealth of Poland and the Prussian partition in 1794.

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Kompania Węglowa

Kompania Węglowa is the largest coal mining company in Poland and Europe producing around 48 million tonnes of coal every year, from 23 mines.

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Konrad I of Masovia

Konrad I of Masovia (Konrad I Mazowiecki) (ca. 1187/88 – 31 August 1247), from the Polish Piast dynasty, was the sixth Duke of Masovia and Kujawy from 1194 until his death as well as High Duke of Poland from 1229 to 1232 and again from 1241 to 1243.

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Kontusz

Kontusz (from Polish language; plural kontusze; also spelled in English language as Kontush or Kuntush from Кунтуш) (originally Hungarian Köntös - robe) - a type of outer garment worn by the Hungarian and Polish-Lithuanian male nobility (szlachta).

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Kotlet schabowy

Kotlet schabowy is a Polish variety of pork breaded cutlet coated with breadcrumbs similar to Viennese schnitzel,Mieczysław Czuma, Leszek Mazan.

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Kraków

Kraków, also spelled Cracow or Krakow, is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland.

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Kraków Schools of Art and Fashion Design

The Kraków Schools of Art and Fashion Design group (Krakowskie Szkoły Artystyczne, KSA) is an umbrella group of postsecondary art and fashion design schools in Kraków, Poland.

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Kraków-Częstochowa Upland

The Kraków-Częstochowa Upland, also known as the Polish Jurassic Highland or Polish Jura (Jura Krakowsko-Częstochowska), is part of the Jurassic System of south–central Poland, stretching between the cities of Kraków, Częstochowa and Wieluń.

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Krakowiacy

The Krakowiacy are a subethnic group of the Polish nation, who reside in the historic province of Lesser Poland, in the area of the city of Kraków.

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Králický Sněžník

Králický Sněžník or Śnieżnik Kłodzki (Polish) is a mountain in the Eastern Bohemia, located on the border between the Czech Republic and Poland.

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Kresy

Kresy Wschodnie or Kresy (Eastern Borderlands, or Borderlands) was the Eastern part of the Second Polish Republic during the interwar period constituting nearly half of the territory of the state.

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Krkonoše

The Krkonoše (Czech), Karkonosze (Polish), Riesengebirge (German), Riesageberge (Silesian German) or Giant Mountains, are a mountain range located in the north of the Czech Republic and the south-west of Poland, part of the Sudetes mountain system (part of the Bohemian Massif).

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Kruszwica

Kruszwica (Kruschwitz) is a town in central Poland and is situated in the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship (since 1999), previously in Bydgoszcz Voivodeship (1975–1998).

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Krynica Morska

Krynica Morska (Kahlberg) is a town and coextensive municipality (gmina) on the Vistula Spit in northern Poland with 1,364 inhabitants (2006).

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Krzysztof Kieślowski

Krzysztof Kieślowski (27 June 1941 – 13 March 1996) was a Polish film director and screenwriter.

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Krzysztof Komeda

Krzysztof Komeda (born Krzysztof Trzciński; 27 April 1931 – 23 April 1969) was a Polish film music composer and jazz pianist.

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Krzysztof Penderecki

Krzysztof Eugeniusz Penderecki (born 23 November 1933) is a Polish composer and conductor.

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Krzysztof Wielicki

Krzysztof Wielicki (born January 5, 1950 in Szklarka Przygodzicka, municipality Ostrzeszów, Poland) is a Polish alpine and high-altitude climber, regarded as one of the greatest Polish climbers in history.

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Kurpie

Kurpie is one of a number of ethnic regions in Poland, noted for its unique traditional customs, such as its own types of traditional costume, traditional dance and distinctive type of architecture and livelihoods.

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Kuyavia

Kuyavia (Kujawy, Kujawien, Cuiavia), also referred to as Cuyavia, is a historical region in north-central Poland, situated on the left bank of Vistula, as well as east from Noteć River and Lake Gopło.

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Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship

Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship, also known as Cuiavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship or simply Kujawsko-Pomorskie, or Kujawy-Pomerania Province (in Polish, województwo kujawsko-pomorskie.

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Lachy Sądeckie

Lachy Sądeckie are a group of ethnic Poles who live in southern Lesser Poland.

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Lady with an Ermine

Lady with an Ermine (Dama con l'ermellino; Dama z gronostajem) is a painting by Leonardo da Vinci from around 1489–1490 and one of Poland's national treasures.

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Lake Mamry

Mamry is a lake in the Masurian Lake District of Poland's Warmia-Mazury Province.

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Landed nobility

Landed nobility or landed aristocracy is a category of nobility in various countries over the history, for which landownership was part of their noble privileges.

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Landscape park (protected area)

A landscape park (chráněná krajinná oblast, abbreviated as CHKO; Chránená krajinná oblasť, abbreviated as CHKO; Park Krajobrazowy; krajinski park; регіона́льний ландша́фтний (пейзажний) па́рк, abbreviated as РЛП; tájvédelmi körzet, abbreviated as TVK) is a type of protected area in Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, Ukraine, Hungary and Slovenia.

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Languages of Poland

The main language spoken in Poland is Polish.

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Languages of the European Union

The languages of the European Union are languages used by people within the member states of the European Union (EU).

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Las Vegas

Las Vegas (Spanish for "The Meadows"), officially the City of Las Vegas and often known simply as Vegas, is the 28th-most populated city in the United States, the most populated city in the state of Nevada, and the county seat of Clark County.

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Latin

Latin (Latin: lingua latīna) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages.

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Latin script

Latin or Roman script is a set of graphic signs (script) based on the letters of the classical Latin alphabet, which is derived from a form of the Cumaean Greek version of the Greek alphabet, used by the Etruscans.

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Laurentius Corvinus

Laurentius Corvinus (Laurentius Rabe; Wawrzyniec Korwin; 1465–1527) was a Silesian scholar who lectured as an "extraordinary" (i.e. untenured) professor at the University of Krakow when Nicolaus Copernicus began to study there.

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Law and Justice

Law and Justice (Polish), abbreviated to PiS, is a national-conservative, and Christian democratic political party in Poland.

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Lech Kaczyński

Lech Aleksander Kaczyński (18 June 194910 April 2010) was a Polish lawyer and politician who served as the Mayor of Warsaw from 2002 until 2005 and as the President of Poland from 2005 until his death in 2010.

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Lech Wałęsa

Lech Wałęsa (born 29 September 1943) is a retired Polish politician and labour activist.

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Lech, Czech, and Rus

Lech, Czech and Rus refers to a founding myth of three Slavic peoples: the Poles (or Lechites), the Czechs, and the Rus' people.

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Lechites

Lechites, or Lekhites, is a name given to certain West Slavic peoples, including the ancestors of modern Poles and the historical Pomeranians and Polabians, speakers of the Lechitic languages.

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Lechitic languages

The Lechitic (or Lekhitic) languages are a language subgroup consisting of Polish and several other languages and dialects that originally were spoken in the area.

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Lee Strasberg

Lee Strasberg (born Israel Strasberg; November 17, 1901February 17, 1982) was a Polish-born American actor, director, and theatre practitioner.

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Legislature

A legislature is a deliberative assembly with the authority to make laws for a political entity such as a country or city.

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Lemkos

Lemkos (Лeмки, Łemkowie, Lemko: Лeмкы, translit. Lemkŷ; sing. Лeмкo, Lemko) are an ethnic sub-group inhabiting a stretch of the Carpathian Mountains known as Lemkivshchyna.

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Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 14522 May 1519), more commonly Leonardo da Vinci or simply Leonardo, was an Italian polymath of the Renaissance, whose areas of interest included invention, painting, sculpting, architecture, science, music, mathematics, engineering, literature, anatomy, geology, astronomy, botany, writing, history, and cartography.

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Lesser Poland Voivodeship

Lesser Poland Voivodeship or Lesser Poland Province (in Polish, województwo małopolskie), also known as Małopolska Voivodeship or Małopolska Province, is a voivodeship (province), in southern Poland.

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Leszek Balcerowicz

Leszek Balcerowicz (pronounced; born January 19, 1947) is a Polish economist who is currently a professor of economics at the Warsaw School of Economics.

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LG Electronics

LG Electronics Inc. (LG전자) is a South Korean multinational electronics company headquartered in Yeouido-dong, Seoul, South Korea, and is part of the LG Group, employing 82,000 people working in 119 local subsidiaries worldwide.

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Liberum veto

The liberum veto (Latin for "free veto") was a parliamentary device in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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Licentiate (degree)

A licentiate is a degree below that of a PhD given by universities in some countries.

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Limestone

Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs.

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Limited-access road

A limited-access road, known by various terms worldwide, including limited-access highway, dual-carriageway, expressway, and partial controlled access highway, is a highway or arterial road for high-speed traffic which has many or most characteristics of a controlled-access highway (freeway or motorway), including limited or no access to adjacent property, some degree of separation of opposing traffic flow, use of grade separated interchanges to some extent, prohibition of some modes of transport such as bicycles or horses, and very few or no intersecting cross-streets.

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Lipka Tatars

The Lipka Tatars (also known as Lithuanian Tatars, Polish Tatars, Lipkowie, Lipcani or Muślimi) are a group of Tatars who originally settled in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the beginning of the 14th century.

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List of airlines by foundation date

This is a list of airlines by foundation date, founded by December 31, 1929.

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List of airports in Poland

This is a list of airports in Poland, sorted by location, IATA and ICAO airport codes, passenger traffic and runway surface.

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List of castles in Poland

Below is the list of castles in Poland in alphabetical order, based on similar lists compiled by various sight-seeing societies.

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List of cities and towns in Poland

This page contains a list of cities and towns in Poland, preceded by a table of major Polish cities.

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List of compositions by Frédéric Chopin by genre

Most of Chopin's compositions were for solo piano, although he did compose two piano concertos (his concertos No. 1 and No. 2 are two of the romantic piano concerto repertoire's most often-performed pieces) as well as some other music for ensembles.

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List of European countries by population

List of European countries by population present the list of countries, territories and dependencies located in Europe.

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List of Historic Monuments (Poland)

Historic Monument (pomnik historii) is one of several categories of objects of cultural heritage (in the singular, zabytek) in Poland.

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List of largest airlines in Europe

The following is a list of the largest airlines in Europe by total scheduled and chartered passengers, carried in millions.

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List of oldest universities in continuous operation

This article contains a list of the oldest existing universities in continuous operation in the world.

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List of Polish monarchs

Poland was ruled at various times either by dukes (the 10th–14th century) or by kings (the 11th-18th century).

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List of Polish people

This is a partial list of notable Polish or Polish-speaking or -writing persons.

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List of political parties in Poland

This article lists current political parties in Poland, as well as former parties dating back as far as 1918.

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List of rulers of Lithuania

The following is a list of rulers over Lithuania—grand dukes, kings, and presidents—the heads of authority over historical Lithuanian territory.

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List of universities in Poland

This is a list of universities in Poland.

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List of wars involving Poland

This is a chronological list of military conflicts in which Polish armed forces won or took place on Polish territory from the reign of Mieszko I (960–992) to the ongoing military operations.

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List of World Heritage Sites of Poland

A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place that is listed as site of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of humanity.

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Lithuania

Lithuania (Lietuva), officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika), is a country in the Baltic region of northern-eastern Europe.

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Lithuanian language

Lithuanian (lietuvių kalba) is a Baltic language spoken in the Baltic region.

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Lithuanian minority in Poland

The Lithuanian minority in Poland consists of 8,000 people (according to the Polish census of 2011) living chiefly in the Podlaskie Voivodeship in the north-eastern part of Poland.

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Lithuanian–Polish–Ukrainian Brigade

Lithuanian–Polish–Ukrainian Brigade (abbr. LITPOLUKRBRIG; Lietuvos-Lenkijos-Ukrainos brigada, LITPOLUKRBRIG; Литовсько-Польсько-Українська Бригада, ЛИТПОЛУКРБРИГ; Brygada litewsko-polsko-ukraińska) is a multinational brigade consisting of units from the Lithuanian, Polish and Ukrainian armies.

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Lithuanians

Lithuanians (lietuviai, singular lietuvis/lietuvė) are a Baltic ethnic group, native to Lithuania, where they number around 2,561,300 people.

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Liturgical music

Liturgical music originated as a part of religious ceremony, and includes a number of traditions, both ancient and modern.

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Livonia

Livonia (Līvõmō, Liivimaa, German and Scandinavian languages: Livland, Latvian and Livonija, Inflanty, archaic English Livland, Liwlandia; Liflyandiya) is a historical region on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea.

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Loam

Loam is soil composed mostly of sand (particle size > 63 µm), silt (particle size > 2 µm), and a smaller amount of clay (particle size These proportions can vary to a degree, however, and result in different types of loam soils: sandy loam, silty loam, clay loam, sandy clay loam, silty clay loam, and loam. In the USDA textural classification triangle, the only soil that is not predominantly sand, silt, or clay is called "loam". Loam soils generally contain more nutrients, moisture, and humus than sandy soils, have better drainage and infiltration of water and air than silt and clay-rich soils, and are easier to till than clay soils. The different types of loam soils each have slightly different characteristics, with some draining liquids more efficiently than others. The soil's texture, especially its ability to retain nutrients and water are crucial. Loam soil is suitable for growing most plant varieties. Bricks made of loam, mud, sand, and water, with an added binding material such as rice husks or straw, have been used in construction since ancient times.

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Loess

Loess (from German Löss) is a clastic, predominantly silt-sized sediment that is formed by the accumulation of wind-blown dust.

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Log house

A log house, or log building, is a structure built with horizontal logs interlocked at the corners by notching.

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Loggia

A loggia is an architectural feature which is a covered exterior gallery or corridor usually on an upper level, or sometimes ground level.

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London

London is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom.

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Lonely Planet

Lonely Planet is the largest travel guide book publisher in the world.

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Longship

Longships were a type of ship invented and used by the Norsemen (commonly known as the Vikings) for commerce, exploration, and warfare during the Viking Age.

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LOT Polish Airlines

Polskie Linie Lotnicze LOT S.A. (flight), doing business as LOT Polish Airlines, is the flag carrier of Poland.

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Lower Silesia

Lower Silesia (Dolny Śląsk; Dolní Slezsko; Silesia Inferior; Niederschlesien; Silesian German: Niederschläsing; Dolny Ślůnsk) is the northwestern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia; Upper Silesia is to the southeast.

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Lower Silesian Voivodeship

Lower Silesian Voivodeship, or Lower Silesia Province (''Polish'': województwo dolnośląskie), in southwestern Poland, is one of the 16 voivodeships (provinces) into which Poland is divided.

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Lower Silesian Wilderness

Lower Silesian Wilderness (Polish: Bory Dolnośląskie German: Niederschlesische Heide) is the largest continuous forest of Poland, with total area of 1650 square kilometers.

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LPP (company)

LPP S. A. (Lubianiec Piechocki and Partnerzy) is a large Polish retailing company based in Gdańsk whose brands include: Reserved, Reserved Kids, Cropp, House, Mohito and Sinsay.

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Lubin

Lubin, (Lüben) is a town in Lower Silesian Voivodeship in south-western Poland.

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Lublin

Lublin (Lublinum) is the ninth largest city in Poland and the second largest city of Lesser Poland.

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Lublin Castle

The Lublin Castle (Zamek Lubelski) is a medieval castle in Lublin, Poland, adjacent to the Old Town district and close to the city center.

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Lublin Voivodeship

Lublin Voivodeship, or Lublin Province (in Polish, województwo lubelskie), is a voivodeship, or province, located in southeastern Poland.

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Lubliniacy

The Lubliniacy are a subethnic group of the Polish nation, who reside in the historic province of Lesser Poland, in the area of the city of Lublin.

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Lubomirski's rebellion

Lubomirski's rebellion or Lubomirski's rokosz (rokosz Lubomirskiego), was a rebellion against Polish King John II Casimir, initiated by the Polish nobleman Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski.

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Lubusz Land

Lubusz Land (Ziemia Lubuska, Lubusz; Land Lebus) is a historical region and cultural landscape in Poland and Germany on both sides of the Oder river.

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Lubusz Voivodeship

Lubusz Voivodeship, or Lubusz Province (in Polish, województwo lubuskie), is a voivodeship (province) in western Poland.

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Lukas Podolski

Lukas Josef Podolski (born Łukasz Józef Podolski on 4 June 1985) is a professional footballer who plays as a forward for Japanese side Vissel Kobe.

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Lusatia

Lusatia (Lausitz, Łužica, Łužyca, Łużyce, Lužice) is a region in Central Europe.

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Lusatian culture

The Lusatian culture existed in the later Bronze Age and early Iron Age (1300 BC – 500 BC) in most of today's Poland and parts of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, eastern Germany, and western Ukraine.

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Lutheranism

Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther (1483–1546), a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian.

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Lviv

Lviv (Львів; Львов; Lwów; Lemberg; Leopolis; see also other names) is the largest city in western Ukraine and the seventh-largest city in the country overall, with a population of around 728,350 as of 2016.

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Lwów School of Mathematics

The Lwów school of mathematics (lwowska szkoła matematyczna) was a group of Polish mathematicians who worked between the two World Wars in Lwów, Poland (since 1945 Lviv, Ukraine).

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Lynne Olson

Lynne Olson (born August 19, 1949) is an American author, historian and journalist.

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Maciej Berbeka

Maciej Berbeka (17 October 1954, Zakopane, Poland – 6 March 2013, Broad Peak, Baltistan) was a Polish mountaineer, mountain guide UIAGM and member of TOPR.

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Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski

Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski (in Latin, Matthias Casimirus Sarbievius; Lithuanian: Motiejus Kazimieras Sarbievijus; Sarbiewo, Poland, 24 February 1595 Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski's biography by Mirosław Korolko in: – 2 April 1640, Warsaw, Poland), was Europe's most prominent Latin poet of the 17th century, and a renowned theoretician of poetics.

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Magdalena Abakanowicz

Magdalena Abakanowicz (20 June 1930 – 20 April 2017) was a Polish sculptor and fiber artist.

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Magister degree

A magister degree (also magistar, female form: magistra; from magister, "teacher") is an academic degree used in various systems of higher education.

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Magnate

Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man, itself from Latin magnus, 'great', designates a noble or other man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or other qualities.

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Magnates of Poland and Lithuania

The magnates of Poland and Lithuania were an aristocracy of nobility (szlachta) that existed in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and, from the 1569 Union of Lublin, in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, until the Third Partition of Poland in 1795.

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Main battle tank

A main battle tank (MBT), also known as a battle tank or universal tank, is a tank that fills the armor-protected direct fire and maneuver role of many modern armies.

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Majdanek concentration camp

Majdanek, or KL Lublin, was a German concentration and extermination camp built and operated by the SS on the outskirts of the city of Lublin during the German occupation of Poland in World War II.

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Mannerism

Mannerism, also known as Late Renaissance, is a style in European art that emerged in the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520 and lasted until about the end of the 16th century in Italy, when the Baroque style began to replace it.

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Manor houses of Polish nobility

A manor house of Polish nobility is called dwór or dworek in Polish.

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Marcello Bacciarelli

Marcello Bacciarelli (16 February 1731 – 5 January 1818) was a Polish-Italian painter of the late-baroque and Neoclassic periods.

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Marcin Gortat

Marcin Gortat (born February 17, 1984) is a Polish professional basketball player for the Los Angeles Clippers of the National Basketball Association (NBA).

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Marcin Leopolita

Marcin Leopolita (also Marcin z Lwowa; Lwów, now Lviv, Ukraine, 1537 – ca. 1584) was one of the most eminent Polish composers of the sixteenth century.

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Marcin Mielczewski

Marcin Mielczewski (c. 1600 – September 1651) was, together with his tutor Franciszek Lilius and Bartłomiej Pękiel, among the most notable Polish composers in the 17th century.

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Marian Kamil Dziewanowski

Marian Kamil Dziewanowski (May 1913, Zhytomyr – 18 February 2005, Milwaukee, Wisconsin) was a historian of Poland, Russia and modern Europe.

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Mariavite Church

The Mariavite Church was an independent Christian church that emerged from the Catholic Church of Poland at the turn of the 20th century.

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Marie Curie

Marie Skłodowska Curie (born Maria Salomea Skłodowska; 7 November 18674 July 1934) was a Polish and naturalized-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity.

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Marie Walewska

Maria Countess Walewska (née Łączyńska; 7 December 1786 – 11 December 1817) was a Polish noblewoman and a mistress of Emperor Napoleon I. In her later years she married count Philippe Antoine d'Ornano, an influential Napoleonic officer.

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Marinism

Marinism (Italian: marinismo, or secentismo, "17th century") is the name now given to an ornate, witty style of poetry and verse drama written in imitation of Giambattista Marino (1569–1625), following in particular La Lira and L'Adone.

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Mariusz Pudzianowski

Mariusz Zbigniew Pudzianowski (born 7 February 1977), known in Poland as "Pudzian" and "Dominator" is a Polish former strongman competitor and current mixed martial artist.

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Market economy

A market economy is an economic system in which the decisions regarding investment, production, and distribution are guided by the price signals created by the forces of supply and demand.

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Martial law in Poland

Martial law in Poland (Stan wojenny w Polsce) refers to the period of time from December 13, 1981 to July 22, 1983, when the authoritarian communist government of the Polish People's Republic drastically restricted normal life by introducing martial law in an attempt to crush political opposition.

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Masovian Voivodeship

Mazovian Voivodeship or Mazovia Province (województwo mazowieckie) is the largest and most populous of the 16 Polish provinces, or voivodeships, created in 1999.

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Masovians

The Masovians or Mazovians (Polish: Mazowszanie; Masovian: Masovsany) are a Lechitic tribe or an ethnic group associated with the region of Mazovia.

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Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia

The massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia (rzeź wołyńska, literally: Volhynian slaughter; Волинська трагедія., Volyn tragedy), were part of an ethnic cleansing operation carried out in Nazi German-occupied Poland by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) against Poles in the area of Volhynia, Polesia, Lublin region and Eastern Galicia beginning in 1943 and lasting up to 1945.

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Masuria

Masuria (Masuren, Masurian: Mazurÿ) is a region in northern Poland famous for its 2,000 lakes.

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Masurian Lake District

The Masurian Lake District or Masurian Lakeland (Pojezierze Mazurskie; Masurische Seenplatte) is a lake district in northeastern Poland within the geographical region of Masuria, in past inhabited by Masurians whose spoke the Masurian dialect.

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Masurians

The Masurians or Mazurs (Mazurzy, Masuren, Masurian: Mazurÿ) are a small 5,000-15,000 strong Lechitic sub-ethnic group traditionally present in what is now the present-day Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, Poland.

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Mateusz Morawiecki

Mateusz Jakub Morawiecki (born 20 June 1968) is a Polish politician, manager, banker, economist, lawyer, historian who is currently the Prime Minister of Poland.

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Matura

Matura or its translated terms (Mature, Matur, Maturita, Maturità, Maturität, Maturité, Mатура) is a Latin name for the secondary school exit exam or "maturity diploma" in various countries, including Albania, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Kosovo, Liechtenstein, Macedonia, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Ukraine.

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Max Factor

Max Factor is a line of cosmetics from Coty, Inc..

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Max Factor Sr.

Maksymilian Faktorowicz (15 September 1872 – 30 August 1938), also known as Max Factor Sr., was a Polish-Jewish businessman, entrepreneur and inventor.

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Max Fleischer

Max Fleischer (born Majer Fleischer;; July 19, 1883 – September 25, 1972) was a Polish-American animator, inventor, film director and producer.

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May Coup (Poland)

The May Coup d'État (Przewrót majowy or zamach majowy) was a coup d'état carried out in Poland by Marshal Józef Piłsudski between 12 and 14 May 1926.

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Mazovia

Mazovia (Mazowsze) is a historical region (dzielnica) in mid-north-eastern Poland.

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Mazurka

The mazurka (in Polish mazurek, plural mazurki) is a Polish folk dance in triple meter, usually at a lively tempo, and with "strong accents unsystematically placed on the second or third beat".

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Mead

Mead (archaic and dialectal meath or meathe, from Old English medu) is an alcoholic beverage created by fermenting honey with water, sometimes with various fruits, spices, grains, or hops.

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Member state of the European Union

The European Union (EU) consists of 28 member states.

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Memory of the World Programme

UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme is an international initiative launched to safeguard the documentary heritage of humanity against collective amnesia, neglect, the ravages of time and climatic conditions, and willful and deliberate destruction.

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Metres above sea level

Metres above mean sea level (MAMSL) or simply metres above sea level (MASL or m a.s.l.) is a standard metric measurement in metres of the elevation or altitude of a location in reference to a historic mean sea level.

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Metropolis (religious jurisdiction)

A metropolis or metropolitan archdiocese is a see or city whose bishop is the metropolitan of a province.

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Międzyzdroje

Międzyzdroje, (Misdroy), is a town and a seaside resort in northwestern Poland on the island of Wolin on the Baltic coast.

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Microsoft

Microsoft Corporation (abbreviated as MS) is an American multinational technology company with headquarters in Redmond, Washington.

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Middle Ages

In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages (or Medieval Period) lasted from the 5th to the 15th century.

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Middle East

The Middle Easttranslit-std; translit; Orta Şərq; Central Kurdish: ڕۆژھەڵاتی ناوین, Rojhelatî Nawîn; Moyen-Orient; translit; translit; translit; Rojhilata Navîn; translit; Bariga Dhexe; Orta Doğu; translit is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia, Turkey (both Asian and European), and Egypt (which is mostly in North Africa).

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Mieczysław Karłowicz

Mieczysław Karłowicz (11 December 18768 February 1909) was a Polish composer and conductor.

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Mieszko I of Poland

Mieszko I (– 25 May 992) was the ruler of the Polans from about 960 until his death.

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Migrations from Poland since EU accession

Since the fall of Communism in 1989, the nature of migration to and from Poland has been in flux.

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Mikołaj Gomółka

Mikołaj Gomółka (c. 1535 – after 30 April 1591, most probably 5 March 1609) was a Polish Renaissance composer, member of the royal court of Sigismund II Augustus, where he was a singer, flutist and trumpeter.

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Mikołaj Rej

Mikołaj Rej or Mikołaj Rey of Nagłowice (4 February 1505 – between 8 September/5 October 1569) was a Polish poet and prose writer of the emerging Renaissance in Poland as it succeeded the Middle Ages, as well as a politician and musician.

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Mikołaj z Radomia

Mikołaj Radomski, also called Mikołaj z Radomia and Nicholas of Radom, was an early 15th-century Polish composer.

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Mikołaj Zieleński

Mikołaj Zieleński (Zelenscius, fl. 1611) was a Polish composer, organist and Kapellmeister to the primate Baranowski, Archbishop of Gniezno.

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Milan

Milan (Milano; Milan) is a city in northern Italy, capital of Lombardy, and the second-most populous city in Italy after Rome, with the city proper having a population of 1,380,873 while its province-level municipality has a population of 3,235,000.

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Minehunter

A minehunter is a naval vessel that seeks, detects, and destroys individual naval mines.

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Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Poland)

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych) is the Polish government department tasked with maintaining Poland's international relations and coordinating its participation in international and regional supra-national political organisations such as the European Union and United Nations.

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Ministry of Health (Poland)

Ministry of Health of the Republic of Poland (Ministerstwo Zdrowia Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej) is one of the Ministries of the Republic of Poland.

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Ministry of National Defence (Poland)

Ministry of National Defense (Polish: Ministerstwo Obrony Narodowej) is the office of government in Poland under the Minister of National Defense.

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Mixed martial arts

Mixed martial arts (MMA) is a full-contact combat sport that allows striking and grappling, both standing and on the ground, using techniques from other combat sports and martial arts.

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Modern history

Modern history, the modern period or the modern era, is the linear, global, historiographical approach to the time frame after post-classical history.

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Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact

The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, also known as the Nazi–Soviet Pact,Charles Peters (2005), Five Days in Philadelphia: The Amazing "We Want Willkie!" Convention of 1940 and How It Freed FDR to Save the Western World, New York: PublicAffairs, Ch.

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Monk

A monk (from μοναχός, monachos, "single, solitary" via Latin monachus) is a person who practices religious asceticism by monastic living, either alone or with any number of other monks.

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Montane ecosystems

Montane ecosystems refers to any ecosystem found in mountains.

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Moose

The moose (North America) or elk (Eurasia), Alces alces, is the largest extant species in the deer family.

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Moraine

A moraine is any glacially formed accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris (regolith and rock) that occurs in both currently and formerly glaciated regions on Earth (i.e. a past glacial maximum), through geomorphological processes.

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Moraine-dammed lake

A moraine-dammed lake occurs when the terminal moraine has prevented some meltwater from leaving the valley.

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Morskie Oko

Morskie Oko (literally "Sea Eye" or "Eye of the Sea"; Morské oko, "Sea Eye"; Halas-tó, "Fish Lake") is the largest and fourth-deepest lake in the Tatra Mountains.

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Motorcycle speedway

Motorcycle speedway, usually referred to as speedway, is a motorcycle sport involving four and sometimes up to six riders competing over four anti-clockwise laps of an oval circuit.

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Motorola

Motorola, Inc. was an American multinational telecommunications company founded on September 25, 1928, based in Schaumburg, Illinois.

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Multi-National Force – Iraq

The Multi-National Force – Iraq (MNF–I), often referred to as the coalition forces, was a military command during the 2003 invasion of Iraq and much of the ensuing Iraq War, led by the United States of America (Operation Iraqi Freedom), United Kingdom (Operation TELIC), Australia, Spain and Poland, responsible for conducting and handling military operations.

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Munich Agreement

The Munich Agreement was a settlement permitting Nazi Germany's annexation of portions of Czechoslovakia along the country's borders mainly inhabited by German speakers, for which a new territorial designation, the "Sudetenland", was coined.

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Municipal police

Municipal police are law enforcement agencies that are under the control of local government.

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Musical form

The term musical form (or musical architecture) refers to the overall structure or plan of a piece of music; it describes the layout of a composition as divided into sections.

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Napoleon

Napoléon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a French statesman and military leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars.

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Napoleonic Wars

The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions, financed and usually led by the United Kingdom.

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Narcyza Żmichowska

Narcyza Żmichowska (Warsaw, 4 March 1819 – 24 December 1876, Warsaw), also known under her popular nom de plume Gabryella, was a Polish novelist and poet.

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Narew

The Narew River (Нараў Naraŭ; Lithuanian: Narvė, Narevas, Naruva, Naura; Нарва Narva), in western Belarus and north-eastern Poland, is a right tributary of the Vistula river.

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National Bank of Poland

Narodowy Bank Polski (National Bank of Poland, NBP) is the central bank of Poland.

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National Festival of Polish Song in Opole

The National Festival of Polish Song in Opole (Krajowy Festiwal Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu, KFPP) is an annual music festival in Opole, Poland.

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National Parks of Poland

There are 23 national parks in Poland.

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National poet

A national poet or national bard is a poet held by tradition and popular acclaim to represent the identity, beliefs and principles of a particular national culture.

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Native Polish Church

Native Polish Church, Rodzimy Kościół Polski (RKP) – a West Slavic pagan religious association that refers to ethnic, pre-Christian beliefs of the Slavic people.

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NATO

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO; Organisation du Traité de l'Atlantique Nord; OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 29 North American and European countries.

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Natura 2000

Natura 2000 is a network of nature protection areas in the territory of the European Union.

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Nature reserve

A nature reserve (also called a natural reserve, bioreserve, (natural/nature) preserve, or (national/nature) conserve) is a protected area of importance for wildlife, flora, fauna or features of geological or other special interest, which is reserved and managed for conservation and to provide special opportunities for study or research.

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Nazi Germany

Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler through the Nazi Party (NSDAP).

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Neman

The Neman, Nemunas, Nyoman, Niemen or Memel, a major Eastern European river.

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Neoclassical architecture

Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century.

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Neoliberalism

Neoliberalism or neo-liberalism refers primarily to the 20th-century resurgence of 19th-century ideas associated with laissez-faire economic liberalism.

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New Pendolino

The New Pendolino is a class of high-speed tilting trains built by Alstom Ferroviaria for Trenitalia, SBB, Renfe, and PKP, known as the ETR 600 / 610, RABe 503, Avant S-114 and ED250 respectively.

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New York City

The City of New York, often called New York City (NYC) or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States.

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Newsweek Polska

Newsweek Polska is a Polish language weekly news magazine published in Poland as the Polish edition of Newsweek.

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Nicolaus Copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus (Mikołaj Kopernik; Nikolaus Kopernikus; Niklas Koppernigk; 19 February 1473 – 24 May 1543) was a Renaissance-era mathematician and astronomer who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe, likely independently of Aristarchus of Samos, who had formulated such a model some eighteen centuries earlier.

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Nicolaus Cracoviensis

Nicolaus Cracoviensis (or Mikołaj z Krakowa) was a 16th-century Polish composer.

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Niebieskie Źródła Nature Reserve

Niebieskie Źródła Nature Reserve (lit. Blue Springs) is a nature reserve in Poland just outside the town of Tomaszów Mazowiecki.

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Nihil novi

Nihil novi nisi commune consensu ("Nothing new without the common consent") is the original Latin title of a 1505 act or constitution adopted by the Polish Sejm (parliament), meeting in the royal castle at Radom.

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NKVD

The People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (Народный комиссариат внутренних дел, Narodnyy Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del), abbreviated NKVD (НКВД), was the interior ministry of the Soviet Union.

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No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron

No.

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Nobel Prize in Literature

The Nobel Prize in Literature (Nobelpriset i litteratur) is a Swedish literature prize that has been awarded annually, since 1901, to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Swedish industrialist Alfred Nobel, produced "in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction" (original Swedish: "den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning").

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Nobility

Nobility is a social class in aristocracy, normally ranked immediately under royalty, that possesses more acknowledged privileges and higher social status than most other classes in a society and with membership thereof typically being hereditary.

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Nocturne

A nocturne (from the French which meant nocturnal, from Latin nocturnus) is usually a musical composition that is inspired by, or evocative of, the night.

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Non-commissioned officer

A non-commissioned officer (NCO) is a military officer who has not earned a commission.

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Noodle

Noodles are a staple food in many cultures.

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Norman Davies

Ivor Norman Richard Davies (born 8 June 1939) is a British-Polish historian noted for his publications on the history of Europe, Poland and the United Kingdom.

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North African Campaign

The North African Campaign of the Second World War took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943.

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North European Plain

The North European Plain (Norddeutsches Tiefland or Norddeutsche Tiefebene, North German Plain; Nizina Środkowoeuropejska, Middle European Plain) is a geomorphological region in Europe, mostly in Poland, Denmark, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands (Low Countries), and a small part of northern France and Czech republic.

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North Sea

The North Sea (Mare Germanicum) is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean located between Great Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France.

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Northern Europe

Northern Europe is the general term for the geographical region in Europe that is approximately north of the southern coast of the Baltic Sea.

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Nostromo

Nostromo: A Tale of the Seaboard is a 1904 novel by Joseph Conrad, set in the fictitious South American republic of "Costaguana".

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Notre Dame school

The Notre Dame school or the Notre Dame school of polyphony refers to the group of composers working at or near the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris from about 1160 to 1250, along with the music they produced.

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Novel

A novel is a relatively long work of narrative fiction, normally in prose, which is typically published as a book.

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Novelist

A novelist is an author or writer of novels, though often novelists also write in other genres of both fiction and non-fiction.

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November Uprising

The November Uprising (1830–31), also known as the Polish–Russian War 1830–31 or the Cadet Revolution, was an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire.

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Oath of office

An oath of office is an oath or affirmation a person takes before undertaking the duties of an office, usually a position in government or within a religious body, although such oaths are sometimes required of officers of other organizations.

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Oświęcim

Oświęcim (Auschwitz; אָשפּיצין Oshpitzin) is a town in the Lesser Poland (Małopolska) province of southern Poland, situated west of Cracow, near the confluence of the Vistula (Wisła) and Soła rivers.

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Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)

The occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union during the Second World War (1939–1945) began with the German-Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939, and it was formally concluded with the defeat of Germany by the Allies in May 1945.

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Oceanic climate

An oceanic or highland climate, also known as a marine or maritime climate, is the Köppen classification of climate typical of west coasts in higher middle latitudes of continents, and generally features cool summers (relative to their latitude) and cool winters, with a relatively narrow annual temperature range and few extremes of temperature, with the exception for transitional areas to continental, subarctic and highland climates.

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Oder

The Oder (Czech, Lower Sorbian and Odra, Oder, Upper Sorbian: Wódra) is a river in Central Europe.

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Oder–Neisse line

The Oder–Neisse line (granica na Odrze i Nysie Łużyckiej, Oder-Neiße-Grenze) is the international border between Germany and Poland.

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OECD

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD; Organisation de coopération et de développement économiques, OCDE) is an intergovernmental economic organisation with 35 member countries, founded in 1961 to stimulate economic progress and world trade.

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Official language

An official language is a language that is given a special legal status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction.

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Old Polish language

Old Polish language (język staropolski) is the period in the history of the Polish language between the 9th and the 16th centuries, followed by the Middle Polish language.

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Old Prussians

Old Prussians or Baltic Prussians (Old Prussian: Prūsai; Pruzzen or Prußen; Pruteni; Prūši; Prūsai; Prusowie; Prësowié) refers to the indigenous peoples from a cluster of Baltic tribes that inhabited the region of Prussia.

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Olsztyn

Olsztyn (Allenstein; Old Polish: Holstin; Old Prussian: Alnāsteini or Alnestabs; Alnaštynas, Alnštynas, Alštynas (historical) and Olštynas (modern)) is a city on the Łyna River in northeastern Poland.

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Olympic weightlifting

Weightlifting, also called '''Olympic-style weightlifting''', or Olympic weightlifting, is an athletic discipline in the modern Olympic programme in which the athlete attempts a maximum-weight single lift of a barbell loaded with weight plates.

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Open'er Festival

The Open'er Festival is a music festival which takes place on the North coast of Poland, in Gdynia.

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Opera

Opera (English plural: operas; Italian plural: opere) is a form of theatre in which music has a leading role and the parts are taken by singers.

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Operation Barbarossa