Africa is the most diverse continent in the world. It is home to the highest level of genetic diversity amongst humans in the world. With so many different cultures, communities and ethnic groups, there are estimated to be 1500-2000 languages in Africa. Many are native, developed over thousands of years on African soil; others are the result of historical contact with nations from outside the continent – such as Portugal.
Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão
Diogo Cão arrived at Africa’s west coast in 1482, starting a long history of Portuguese colonial rule and expansion in Africa. The west coast was slowly colonised, enabling Portugal to control the trade of commodities and eventually, slaves. A number of African countries were colonised; those countries are called the PALOP countries (abbreviated from Países Africanos de Língua Oficial Portuguesa).
The countries that make up the PALOP
Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, São Tomé and Príncipe are the six PALOP countries. In 2011, Equitorial Guinea was also added to this list.
Here is some history 101 for each of these countries and their involvement with Portugal.
Angola
Before Diego Cão arrived in the 15th century, Angola was part of the Kongo Kingdom. The Kongo Kingdom was home to many African tribes and communities. The Portuguese quickly became friendly acquaintances with the rulers and nobles of the Kongo Kingdom for trade purposes. They set out ‘Europeanising’ the Kongo Kingdom over the coming years.
In 1575, the Portuguese founded Luanda (today’s capital of Angola). As Luanda expanded, more Africans now found themselves within a Europeanised colony where they were converted to Christianity and taught Portuguese. The language became a lingua franca, offering Africans of different dialects a way to communicate. Portuguese-speaking Africans would now serve in the colony or be enslaved to take up labour.
By the early 20th century, Portuguese-Angola was now an African country, based on European ideals, with a Portuguese-speaking demographic.
Fast-forward to today…
Portugal reigned over Angola for almost 500 years until liberation during the Portuguese Colonial War (1975). The conflict lasted 10 years, but in 1974 the Carnation Revolution in Lisbon sparked the beginning of the end of Portuguese rule in Africa. Other European countries had already withdrawn from their own African colonies, putting more pressure on Portugal to do the same. The Carnation Revolution overthrew the authoritarian Estado Novo regime, thus paving the way for reform. Portuguese-Angola finally became liberated as the People’s Republic of Angola. But this did not spell the end of Portuguese culture in Angola.
Portuguese remains the official language today and its use is embedded in Angolan society. It is used in both formal and informal settings and is widely accepted for its benefits. For example, Angolan parents are likely to use Portuguese at home because it is the language used in schools. To resist Portuguese would hinder their child’s education. Similarly, Angolan politicians use Portuguese and see it as a language that better connects them to the world. The language has morphed from the language of the oppressive colonisers to a language of value for Angolans.
But Portuguese is also used in more informal settings too. Not only is it used in the home, it is present on most TV shows, radio stations and news reports. It is unlikely that this will change in the near future.
Although their historical relationship is steeped in oppression and slavery, feelings towards Portugal in Angola are mixed. In 2011, there were almost 22,000 Angolans living in Portugal. Lucia Kula, a proud Angolan living in Portugal says, “Whenever someone finds out I’m Angolan they say ‘You guys are doing really well, right?’” Others have indicated that the roles have reversed; the colonisers have been colonised. For example, in Cascais on the Portuguese coast where Portuguese royalty once frequented, a new 14-story condominium stands proudly by the sea. Many of its apartments belong to the Angolan ruling-class, leading to the nickname the ‘Angolans’ building.’
Cape Verde
The island group that makes up Cape Verde today was uninhabited until the 15th century. In 1456,
Prince Henry the Navigator sent Portuguese explorers to Africa’s west coast in search of undiscovered land. By 1462, they had founded the first permanent European settlement in the tropics, Ribeira Grande (now Cidade Velha). The Portuguese expanded their colony into the surrounding islands and regions over the years to make what is now Cape Verde. Similar to the rest of Portugal’s colonies in Africa, Cape Verde offered an advantageous location during the Atlantic Slave Trade.
In this new Portuguese colony, African culture became entwined with Portuguese culture. However, it was Portuguese that became the lingua franca, connecting locals from different backgrounds as they found themselves working and living together.
Fast-forward to today…
Cape Verde was liberated from Portugal’s rule at the end of the colonial war in 1975 following on from the Carnation Revolution a year before. By this point, however, Portuguese culture was already a central part of Cape Verdean life.
Portuguese was the official language of Cape Verde before liberation, and has remained so since. Portuguese is used today in most formal settings, including education, politics and the news. But it is actually a fusion of Portuguese and West African languages that is used in day-to-day life. Also known as Kriolu, this Creole is the oldest still spoken today. The vocabulary of Cape Verdean Creole is around 90% Portuguese and 10% African dialects. Creole was vital for enabling those who had become slaves to communicate via a common language, but today it serves as a symbol. A symbol of African identity and heritage which refused to be completely lost. Today, Cape Verdeans have a unique sense of belonging- part African, part European, immensely proud and always themselves.
Guinea-Bissau
The origins of Guinea-Bissau stretch beyond Portuguese rule. It was once part of the Kaabu Empire and a smaller part of the Mali Empire. These were great African empires with centuries of history and diverse cultures and languages. Portugal arrived in the late 15th century in search of natural resources such as gold and ivory, and to strengthen their position in the Atlantic Slave Trade. Over the coming years, the Portuguese spearheaded several campaigns to suppress local African rule until they had full control of what became known as Portuguese-Guinea. The Portuguese language was enforced on the local African population in order to create a new colony of workers who could follow instruction and communicate with other slaves.
Fast-forward to today…
The Portuguese would remain until 1975 when Portuguese-Guinea was liberated. Following the events of the Carnation Revolution and colonial war, the country became Guinea-Bissau. Although Guinea-Bissau is one of the African countries which use Portuguese officially, its use is less widespread than in other former Portuguese colonies in Africa. Only 2% of Guinea-Bissauans speak Portuguese as their first language. In fact, only 33% speak it as a second language. Similar to Cape Verde, the lingua franca is a Creole. A study in 2012 found that 54% of the population speak a Creole as a first language, whilst 40% speak it as a second.
Although Guinea-Bissau has in many ways been in decline since liberation from Portugal, there is a strong sense of unity amongst its diverse demographic. The refusal to adopt Portuguese as their day-to-day language is a symbol of solidarity amongst a society who want to preserve their African roots. It is Creole, not Portuguese which is the language of patriotic anthems, entertainment and informal literature.
Mozambique
Between the first and fifth centuries AD, the land that makes up today’s Mozambique was inhabited by Bantu-speaking communities. Between the seventh and eleventh centuries, Swahili communities arrived and a distinct Swahili culture and language emerged. It was not until the 1498 expedition of Vasco da Gama that the Portuguese arrived. They brought with them their own language and an oppressive rule which forced Portuguese culture onto the local African communities. Their intention here was the same as their other colonies, to gain strength over their European counterparts in the Slave Trade and through trading commodities.
Fast-forward to today…
Mozambique was liberated in 1975 along with the other Portuguese colonies. Portuguese remained the official language but its use is less widespread than in other ex-colonies. Whilst Portuguese is used in formal settings and education, it is only used day-to-day by about 50% of the population.
There remains a strong Bantu cultural identity in Mozambique with over 60 Bantu languages in use. Some of the more common are Makhuwa, Sena and Swahili. The high number of Bantu speakers in Mozambique has prevented Portuguese from completely displacing the native culture. A proud African identity has prevailed at the heart of the nation.
General feelings towards Portugal in Mozambique are ambivalent. On one hand, Portugal were the oppressors. Hundreds of thousands tragically lost their lives through war and slavery, and poverty pervaded in Mozambique well into liberation. On the other hand, there is hope that past ties with Portugal may actually help Mozambique’s future prospects. On a trip to Portugal in 2019, Mozambique president Filipe Nyusi called the historical relationship between the two nations a ‘major asset.’
São Tomé and Príncipe
The islands that make up São Tomé and Príncipe were uninhabited until the 15th century. Portuguese explorers João de Santarém and Pêro Escobar’s expedition concluded the islands would be good for trading slaves and for cultivating sugar and cocoa in its rich soil. Over the next century, they slowly colonised the surrounding islands and settled there. Portuguese became the main language for its inhabitants.
Fast-forward to today…
The legacy of Portuguese rule is clear in São Tomé and Príncipe. Portuguese is still the official language and is spoken as a first language by nearly all the population (98.4%). São Tomé and Príncipe are a founding member state of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries. The rest of the languages are mostly Portuguese-based creoles with African dialects.
The culture, customs and music of the islands are also a fusion of Africa and Europe. The music is a stunning amalgamation of African rhythms and Portuguese styles. West African beat styles such as ussua and socope which rely heavily on drums and percussion are ever-present. That said, Portuguese ballroom dancing has remained very popular, with national competitions a frequent occurrence. São Toméan cuisine is based equally on African tradition and influences from Portugal. Many ingredients are African and earthly; roots like plantain, cassava and bananas. But on the seafood side, Portugal’s heritage is evident. One common dish is a spicier version of the Portuguese paella.
Relations between São Tomé and Príncipe and Portugal have remained mostly amicable since liberation, with Portugal offering aid in education, the military and financially.
Equitorial Guinea
Today, Equitorial Guinea is made up of two parts. One part is sandwiched between Gabon and Cameroon on the mid-west coast of Africa, whilst the other is a small tropical island named Bioko which is about 30 miles off the shore. The area was conquered by the Portuguese in 1472 when Fernando Pó founded Bioko. The Portuguese were quick to set up factories to take advantage of the volcanic soil and disease-resistant highlands. European settlers found it hard to settle though with extreme weather and hostility from the locals. Eventually, the Portuguese would hand the land over to the Spanish who would have more success with the area.
Fast-forward to today…
Although Equitorial Guineans speak Spanish today, Portuguese was added to the list in 2010 as an official language. Ever since the arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century, the cultural influence of Portugal never disappeared completely. It was decided that by gaining membership to the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), Equitorial guinea could benefit from better communication, trade and bilateral relations with Portugal.
The recent discovery of oil in the Gulf of Guinea is likely to have a significant impact on the country’s economy and Portugal’s technological assistance might be a useful asset.
A final thought
The PALOP countries provide interesting yet similar stories into how Portuguese became widely used in Africa. For better or for worse, Portuguese went beyond being the language of the oppressors to help Africans unite and communicate in times of hardship. Today, echoes of Portuguese influence remain and these historical ties to Europe are benefitting those African countries who are now rapidly developing in their own right with their own unique identities.
