Miss Spain

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Miss España
Formation1929; 95 years ago (1929)
TypeBeauty pageant
HeadquartersLos Realejos, Tenerife, Canary Islands
Location
Membership
Official language
Spanish
National Directors
Cres del Olmo & Daniel Montesdeoca
WebsiteOfficial website
Miss Universe Spain

The Miss Spain (Spanish: Miss España) is a national beauty pageant in Spain that selects Spanish representatives to compete in three of the big four major international beauty pageants: the Miss Universe, Miss World, and Miss International competitions.

History


Number of Wins under Miss España Organization
(Miss Universe Spain & Miss World Spain)

Current franchises
Pageant Title Winning year(s)
Miss Universe 1 1974
Miss World 1 2015
Miss International 3 1977, 1990, 2008
Miss Europe 8 1935, 1936, 1962, 1967, 1970, 1974, 1985, 2019

Miss Spain: 1929–2011

The origins of Miss Spain date back to 1929, when early contests took place until the advent of civil war in 1936, followed by the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, which did not permit beauty pageants until 1961.

The winner of Miss Spain is sent to represent her country in Miss Universe. However, if Miss Spain is underage, a runner-up is sent to Miss Universe. Overall in these international pageants, Spain's success has been moderate with one Miss Universe title in 1974 and three Miss International titles in 1977, 1990 and 2008.

Miss Universe Spain and Miss World Spain: 2013–present

After the inactivity of Miss Spain contest, the company Be Beautiful Spain, S.L. was created by Guillermo Escobar García, former worker of Miss Spain and who founded the contests Miss Spain Universe and Miss Spain World. In 2013, the pageant is separated into several pageants - like Miss World Spain and Miss Universe Spain. In the year 2018, after seven years of inactivity, the contest Miss Spain returns with Pedro Quesada as president and with Juncal Rivero as general director. The national director for Spain at Miss Universe, in 2019, is Jorge Diez Vanila. The national directors for Spain at both Miss World and Miss International are Cres del Olmo and Daniel Montesdeoca.

In 2020, the Be Miss Org. dissociated itself from the Miss Universe Organization. Later on, Cres del Olmo and Daniel Montesdeoca from the Nuestra Belleza España Organization franchise the Miss Universe license, in addition to the licenses for both Miss World and Miss International.[1][2]

Titleholders

The winner of Miss España represents her country at Miss Universe. On occasion, when the winner does not qualify (due to age) for either contest, a runner-up is sent. Sometimes, the winner can also compete at Miss World and Miss Europe if the winner will be available to compete by the Miss España Organization. However, Miss España Organization was claimed to bankrupt in 2012, and separated into several independent contests choosing the representatives in the International beauty pageants like Miss World Spain (Miss España Mundo) and Miss Universe Spain (Miss España Universo).
Year Miss España / Miss Spain Autonomous Community Notes
1929 Pepita Samper † Valencia
1930 Elena Pla † Valencia
1931 Ermelina Carreño † Ciudad Real
1932 Teresita Daniel Barcelona
1933 Emilia Docet Pontevedra
1934 María Eugenia Henríquez Girón Madrid
1935 Alicia Navarro [3] Tenerife Miss Europe 1935
1959 Salud Rubio Perez-Grueso Toledo
1960 Teresa Del Rio Málaga
1961 Carmen Cervera[4] Barcelona
1962 Maruja García Nicolau Islas Baleares Miss Europe 1962
1963 María Rosa Pérez Tenerife
1964 María José Ulla Madrid
1965 Alicia Borrás Barcelona
1966 Paquita Torres Pérez Málaga Miss Europe 1967
1967 Paquita Delgado Sánchez Córdoba
1968 Amparo Rodrigo Valencia
1969 Noelia Afonso Tenerife Miss Europe 1970
1970 Josefina Román Cádiz
1971 Maria del Carmen Muñoz Madrid
1972 Rocío Martín Madrigal Sevilla
1973 Amparo Muñoz Málaga Miss Universe 1974
1974 Nelly Rodriguez Tenerife
1975 Olga Fernández Pérez Pontevedra
1976 Luz María Polegre Hernández Tenerife
1977 Guillermina Ruiz Doménech Islas Baleares
1978 Gloria María Valenciano Las Palmas
1979 María Dolores Forner Toro Madrid
1980 Francisca Ondiviela Las Palmas
1981 Cristina Pérez Cottrell Málaga
1982 Ana Isabel Herrero García Teruel
1983 Garbiñe Abasolo García Vizcaya
1984 Juncal Rivero Fadrique Castilla Valladolid Miss Europe 1985
1985 Amparo Martínez Cerdán Valencia
1986 Remedios Cervantes Montoya Málaga
1987 Sonsoles Artigas Mederos Las Palmas
1988 Eva María Pedraza López Córdoba
1989 Raquel Revuelta Armengou Sevilla
1990 Esther Arroyo Bermúdez Cádiz
1991 Sofía Mazagatos Gómez Madrid
1992 Eugenia Santana Alba Las Palmas
1993 Raquel Rodríguez Hidalgo Córdoba
1995 María Reyes Vázquez Soria
1996 María José Suárez Benítez Sevilla
1997 Inés Sáinz Esteban Vizcaya
1998 María José Besora Villanueva Murcia
1999 Lorena Bernal Pascual Guipúzcoa
2000 Helen Lindes Las Palmas
2001 Lorena Van Heerde Ayala[A] Alicante
2002 Vania Millán Miras Almería
2003 Eva María González Fernández Sevilla
2004 María Jesús Ruiz Garzón[5][6] Jaén
2005 Verónica Hidalgo Gerona
2006 Elisabeth Reyes Villegas Málaga
2007 Natalia Zabala Arroyo Guipúzcoa
2008 Patricia Yurena Rodríguez[7] Tenerife
2009 Estíbaliz Pereira Rábade A Coruña
2010 Paula Guilló Sempere[8] Teruel
2011 Andrea Huisgen Barcelona Last edition of Miss España
Year Miss Universo España Autonomous Community Notes
2013 Patricia Yurena Rodríguez Alonso Tenerife Be Miss Organization — Guillermo Escobar García Directorship · (Ex) Miss España 2008 — New format to other contestants who never competed at Miss Universe allows to register Miss Universo España competition
2014 Desirée Cordero Ferrer Seville
2015 Carla García Barber Las Palmas
2016 Noelia Freire Benito Ciudad Real
2017 Sofía del Prado Prieto Albacete
2018 Ángela Ponce Camacho Seville First transgender woman to win the Miss Universo España
2019 Natalie Ortega Tafjord Barcelona Be Miss Organization — Jorge Diez Vanila directorship · The 1st Miss Universo España who is of Spanish and Norwegian descents
2020 Andrea Martínez Fernandez León Nuestra Belleza España Organization — Cres del Olmo and Daniel Montesdeoca directorship
2021 Sarah Loinaz Marjaní Guipúzcoa
2022 Alicia Lisette Faubel de Correa Valencia
2023 Athenea Paulinha Pérez Nsué[9] Murcia
2024 TBA TBA

A Resigned
B Took over title
C Patricia Yurena Rodríguez originally won Miss Spain 2008 but due to age requirements was unable to compete at Miss Universe and was subsequently replaced by Claudia Moro. Rodríguez instead represented Spain at Miss World. Rodríguez later won Miss Universe Spain 2013 represented Spain at Miss Universe 2013.

Ranking

Miss España (1929-2011)

Title Autonomous Community Year
06 Málaga 1960, 1966, 1973, 1981, 1986, 2006
Tenerife 1935, 1963, 1969, 1974, 1976, 2008
05 Las Palmas 1978, 1980, 1987, 1992, 2000
Madrid 1934, 1964, 1971, 1979, 1991
04 Barcelona 1932, 1961, 1965, 2011
Sevilla 1972, 1989, 1996, 2003
Valencia 1929, 1930, 1968, 1985
03 Córdoba 1967, 1988, 1993
02 Guipúzcoa 1999, 2007
Vizcaya 1983, 1997
Islas Baleares 1962, 1977
Cádiz 1970, 1990
Pontevedra 1933, 1975
Teruel 1982, 2010
01 A Coruña 2009
Ciudad Real 1931
Jaén 2004
Almería 2002
Alicante 2001
Murcia 1998
Soria 1995
Valladolid 1984

Miss Universo España (2013-present)

Title Autonomous Community Year
02 Sevilla 2014, 2018
01 Murcia 2023
Valencia 2022
Guipúzcoa 2021
León 2020
Barcelona 2019
Albacete 2017
Ciudad Real 2016
Las Palmas 2015
Tenerife 2013

Winners' gallery

Titleholders under Miss España

Miss Universo España

  •   : Declared as Winner
  •   : Ended as runner-up or top 5/6 qualification
  •   : Ended as one of the finalists or semifinalists
  •   : Ended as special awards winner
From 1960-2012, the winner of Miss Spain represents her country at the Miss Universe. On occasion, when the winner does not qualify (due to age) for either contest, a runner-up is sent. In 2013, the BE MISS ORG. took over the franchise of Miss Universe and the winner of Be Miss Universo España participates at Miss Universe competition. Since 2020, the Nuestra Belleza España Organization handles the Miss Universe license.
Year Autonomous Community Miss Universo España Placement at Miss Universe Special Awards
2024 TBA
2023 Murcia Athenea Paulinha Pérez Nsué Top 10
  • Miss Congeniality
2022 Valencia Alicia Lisette Faubel de Correa Top 16
2021 Guipúzcoa Sarah Loinaz Marjaní Unplaced
2020 León Andrea Martínez Fernandez Unplaced
Be Miss Universo España / Be Miss Universe Spain
2019 Barcelona Natalie Ortega Tafjord Unplaced
2018 Seville Ángela Ponce Camacho Unplaced
2017 Albacete Sofía del Prado Prieto Top 10
2016 Ciudad Real Noelia Freire Benito Unplaced
2015 Las Palmas Carla García Barber Unplaced
2014 Seville Desirée Cordero Ferrer Top 10
2013 Tenerife Patricia Yurena Rodríguez Alonso 1st Runner-up
Miss España / Miss Spain
2012 Barcelona Andrea Huisgen Serrano Unplaced
2011 Teruel Paula Guilló Sempere Unplaced
Miss Universe España — Casting by Miss España, after the Miss España 2010 postponed
2010 Tenerife Adriana Reverón Moreno Unplaced
Spanish Representatives from Miss España/Miss Spain
2009 A Coruña Estíbaliz Pereira Rábade Unplaced
2008 Madrid Claudia Moro Fernández Top 10
2007 Guipúzcoa Natalia Zabala Arroyo Unplaced
2006 Málaga Elisabeth Reyes Villegas Unplaced
2005 Gerona Verónica Hidalgo Unplaced
2004 Jaén María Jesús Ruiz Garzón Unplaced
2003 Seville Eva María González Fernández Unplaced
2002 Almería Vania Millán Miras Unplaced
2001 Lleida Eva Sisó Casals[B] Top 10
2000 Las Palmas Helen Lindes Griffiths 2nd Runner-up
  • Miss Photogenic
1999 Pontevedra Diana Nogueira González 2nd Runner-up
1998 Murcia María José Besora Villanueva Unplaced
1997 Vizcaya Inés Sáinz Esteban Unplaced
1996 Seville María José Suárez Benítez Unplaced
1995 Soria María Reyes Vázquez Unplaced
1994 Córdoba Raquel Rodríguez Hidalgo Unplaced
1993 Las Palmas Eugenia Santana Alba Top 10
  • Miss Photogenic
1992 Valladolid Virginia García Alvarez Unplaced
1991 Cádiz Esther Arroyo Bermúdez Unplaced
1990 Seville Raquel Revuelta Armengou Unplaced
1989 Córdoba Eva María Pedraza López Unplaced
1988 Las Palmas Sonsoles Artigas Mederos Unplaced
1987 Málaga Remedios Cervantes Montoya Unplaced
1986 Málaga Isabel Tur Espinosa Unplaced
1985 Seville Maria Teresa Sánchez López 1st Runner-up
1984 Vizcaya Garbiñe Abasolo García Unplaced
  • Miss Photogenic
1983 Teruel Ana Isabel Herrero García Top 12
1982 Málaga Cristina Pérez Cottrell Unplaced
1981 Las Palmas Francisca Ondiviela Unplaced
1980 Asturias Yolanda María Hoyos Vega Unplaced
1979 Las Palmas Gloria María Valenciano Unplaced
1978 Islas Baleares Guillermina Ruiz Doménech 2nd Runner-up
1977 Tenerife Luz María Polegre Hernández Top 12
1976 Pontevedra Olga Fernández Pérez Unplaced
1975 Tenerife Consuelo Martín López Unplaced
1974 Málaga Amparo Muñoz Quesada Miss Universe 1974
1973 Seville Rocío Martín Madrigal 3rd Runner-up
  • Best National Costume
1972 Madrid Maria del Carmen Muñoz Unplaced
1971 Cádiz Josefina Román Gutiérrez Top 12
1970 Tenerife Noelia Afonso Cabrera Unplaced
1969 Valencia María Amparo Rodrigo Lorenzo Unplaced
1968 País Vasco Yolanda Legarreta Urquijo Unplaced
1967 Córdoba Paquita Delgado Sánchez Top 15
1966 Málaga Paquita Torres Pérez Top 15
  • Miss Congeniality
1965 Barcelona Alicia Borrás Unplaced
1964 Madrid María José Ulla Madronero Unplaced
1963 Tenerife María Rosa Pérez Gómez Unplaced
1962 Barcelona Conchita Roig Urpi Unplaced
1961 Madrid Pilar Gil Ramos Unplaced
1960 Málaga María Teresa del Río 4th Runner-up

Miss Mundo España

  •   : Declared as Winner
  •   : Ended as runner-up or top 5/6 qualification
  •   : Ended as one of the finalists or semifinalists
  •   : Ended as special awards winner
Before 2012 either the winner or the First Runner-up of Miss Spain represented her country at the Miss World. Due to economic problems in Spain in 2011, the Miss España went bankrupt. From 2013-2016, the official candidate was selected by "Miss World Spain / Miss Mundo España" pageant, by the BE MISS ORG. Since 2017, the Nuestra Belleza España Organization handles the Miss World license.
Year Autonomous Community Miss Mundo España Placement at Miss World Special Awards
2025 Tenerife Corina Mrazek González[10] TBA
2024 No competition held
2023 Castellón Paula Pérez[11] Top 12
2022 Miss World 2021 was rescheduled to 16 March 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak in Puerto Rico, no edition started in 2022
2021 Almería Ana García Unplaced
2020 Due to the impact of COVID-19 pandemic, no competition held
2019 Córdoba María Del Mar Aguilera Top 40
2018 Navarre Amaia Izar Unplaced
2017 Balearic Islands Elisa Tulian Unplaced
Be Miss Mundo España / Be Miss World Spain
2016 Zaragoza Raquel Tejedor Unplaced
2015 Barcelona Mireia Lalaguna Miss World 2015
2014 Castilla-La Mancha Lourdes Fernández Unplaced
2013 Basque Elena Ibarbia Jiménez Top 6
Spanish Representatives from Miss España/Miss Spain
2012 Las Palmas Aránzazu Estévez Godoy Top 15
2011 Las Palmas Carla García Barber Top 15
2010 Seville Fátima Jiménez Unplaced
2009 Granada Carmen Laura García Unplaced
2008 Tenerife Patricia Yurena Rodríguez Top 15
2007 País Vasco Natalia Zabala Arroyo Unplaced
2006 Alicante Inmaculada Torres Del Rey Unplaced
2005 Catalonia Mireia Verdú Tremosa Top 15
2004 Catalonia Maite Medina Cerrato Unplaced
2003 Málaga Maria Teresa Martín Unplaced
2002 Seville Lola Alcocer Unplaced
2001 Seville Macarena García Naranjo Top 10
2000 Catalonia Verónica García Benito Unplaced
1999 País Vasco Lorena Bernal Pascual Top 10
1998 Cádiz Rocío Jiménez Fernández Unplaced
1997 Balearic Islands Nuria Avellaneda Gallego Unplaced
1996 Cantabria Patricia Ruiz Fernández Unplaced
1995 Tenerife Candelaria Rodríguez Unplaced
1994 Catalonia Virginia Pareja Garófano Unplaced
1993 Madrid Araceli García Eugenio Unplaced
1992 Balearic Islands Samantha Torres Unplaced
1991 Tenerife Maria Candelaria Moreno Unplaced
1990 Málaga Maria del Carmen Carrasco Unplaced
1989 Córdoba Eva Maria Pedraza Unplaced
1988 Catalonia Susana de la Llave Varón Top 5
1987 Las Palmas Sonsoles Artigas Medero Unplaced
1986 Málaga Remedios Cervantes Unplaced
1985 Valencia Maria Amparo Martínez Unplaced
1984 Castilla-León Juncal Rivero Fadrique Unplaced
1983 Las Palmas Milagros Pérez Castro Unplaced
1982 Zaragoza Ana Isabel Herrero García Unplaced
1981 Málaga Cristina Pérez Cottrell Unplaced
1980 Las Palmas Francisca Otero Unplaced
1979 Madrid Maria Dolores Lola Forner Toro Top 15
1978 Las Palmas Gloria María Valenciano Top 7
1977 Balearic Islands Guillermina Ruiz Doménech Top 15
1976 Tenerife Luz Maria Polegre Hernández Top 15
1975 Did not compete
1974 Tenerife Natividad Rodríguez Top 15
1973 Catalonia Mariona Rosell Unplaced
1972 Madrid Maria del Carmen Muñoz Unplaced
1971 Madrid María Margarita García Top 15
1970 Cádiz Josefina Román Gutiérrez Unplaced
Did not compete between 1965—1969
1964 Madrid Maria José Ulla Madronero Top 16
1963 Málaga Encarnación Zalabardo Unplaced
1962 Catalonia Conchita Roig Urpi Unplaced
1961 Cataluña Maria del Carmen Fernández 2nd Runner-up
1960 Barcelona Concepción Molinera Palacios Unplaced

Miss Internacional España

  •   : Declared as Winner
  •   : Ended as runner-up or top 5/6 qualification
  •   : Ended as one of the finalists or semifinalists
  •   : Ended as special awards winner
Before 2012 the Second Runner-up of Miss Spain represented her country at the Miss International. Since 2013 the official Miss Internacional España set the independent pageant to crown new winner to Miss International after the organization of Miss España bankruptcy.
Year Autonomous Community Miss Internacional España Placement at Miss International Special Awards
2024 TBA TBA TBA
2023 Agüimes Claudia González[12] Unplaced
2022 Seville Julianna Ro Top 8
  • Miss Visit Japan Tourism
Due to the impact of COVID-19 pandemic, no competition held between 2020―2021
2019 Balearic Islands Claudia Cruz[13] Unplaced
2018 Huelva Susana Sanchez Top 8
2017 Tenerife Elizabeth Victoria Laker Unplaced
2016 Madrid Anabel Delgado Torres Unplaced
2015 Seville Cristina Silva Cano Unplaced
2014 Barcelona Rocío Tormo Unplaced
2013 Albacete Araceli Carrilero Martínez Top 15
Spanish Representatives from Miss España/Miss Spain
2012 Valencia Ana Amparo Martínez Unplaced
2011 A Coruña Sarah Lopez Unplaced
2010 Cádiz Desirée Panal Muñoz Top 15
2009 Málaga Melania Santiago Top 15
2008 Zaragoza Alejandra Andreu Miss International 2008
  • Miss Photogenic
2007 Vizcaya Nerea Arce Alea Top 15
2006 Soria Sara Sánchez Torres Top 12
2005 Seville Maria del Pilar Domínquez Unplaced
2004 Seville Cristina Gómez Domínguez Top 15
2003 Cordoba Maria Carrillo Reyes Unplaced
2002 Cordoba Laura Espinosa Huertas Top 15
2001 Castellón Ayola Molina Carrasco Top 15
2000 Barcelona Raquel Gonzales Rovira Unplaced
1999 Seville Carmen Fernández Ruiz 1st Runner-up
1998 Alicante Vanessa Romero Torres Top 10
1997 Murcia Isabel Gil Gambín Top 10
1996 Gerona Rosa Maria Casado Teixidor Top 10
1995 Madrid Jimena Garay Top 10
1994 Carmen Maria Vicente Abellam 2nd Runner-up
1993 Badajoz Ana Piedad Galván Unplaced
1992 Balearic Islands Samantha Torres Waldrón Top 10
1991 Cataluña Elodie Chantal Jordá de Quay Top 10
1990 Tenerife Silvia de Esteban Miss International 1990
1989 Vizcaya Mercedes Martín Mier Top 10
1988 Maria Carmen Aragall Casadellá Top 10
1987 Vizcaya Ana García Bonilla Top 10
1986 Barcelona Irán Pont Gil Top 10
1985 Aragón Beatriz Molero Beltrán Top 10
1984 Seville Soledad Marisol Pila Balanza Top 10
1983 Las Palmas Milagros Pérez Castro Top 10
1982 Alicante María del Carmen Arqués 1st Runner-up
1981 Las Palmas Francisca Ondiviela Unplaced
1980 Barcelona María Agustina García 2nd Runner-up
1979 Asturias Yolanda Maria Hoyos Unplaced
1978 Andalusia Maria Inmaculada Arencibia Unplaced
1977 Madrid Pilar Medina Miss International 1977
  • Best National Costume
1976 Tenerife Victoria Martín González Unplaced
1975 Cataluña Maria Teresa Maldonado Unplaced
1974 Balearic Islands Consuelo Martín López Top 15
1973 Las Palmas Maria Isabel Lorenzo 2nd Runner-up
  • Miss Photogenic
1972 Málaga Gloria Puyol Toledo Unplaced
1971 Consuelo Varela Costales Unplaced
1970 Madrid María Margarita García Unplaced
1969 Las Palmas Mery de Lara Caballero Top 15
1968 Pais Vasco Yolanda Legarreta Urquijo Unplaced
1967 Valencia Amparo Ruiz Unplaced
1966 No contest
1965 Las Palmas Rafaela Roque Sánchez Top 15
1964 Tenerife Lucia Pilar Herrera Unplaced
1963 Andalusia Encarnación Zalabardo Unplaced
1961 Cataluña Maria Del Carmen Fernández 2nd Runner-up
1960 Pais Vasco Elena Herrera Dávila-Núñez Unplaced

See also

References

  1. ^ "MISS UNIVERVERSE SPAIN on Instagram: "La organización @nuestrabellezaespana será quien se encargue de elegir a la representante española para el @missuniverse a partir de…"". Instagram (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2021-12-23. Retrieved 2020-05-23.
  2. ^ "Miss Universe Spain 2020 lo dirige Nuestra Belleza España | Miss Spain". Auge Internacional (in Spanish). 2020-05-25. Retrieved 2020-08-04.
  3. ^ Payne, S.G. (1993). Spain's First Democracy: The Second Republic, 1931-1936. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 256. ISBN 978-0-299-13674-1.
  4. ^ Gayesky, F.; Gorman, E.; Luna, K.; Legaspi, A. (2007). MTV Spain. MTV Guides. Wiley. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-7645-8772-6.
  5. ^ "Miss Universe (2004) -- National Costumes". seattlepi.com. May 26, 2004. Retrieved April 1, 2016.
  6. ^ "Miss Spain 2004. Maria Jesus Garzon, Miss Jaen ..." Getty Images. March 28, 2004. Retrieved April 1, 2016.
  7. ^ "Miss Tenerife is crowned Miss Spain". Canarias7. EFE. March 2, 2010. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
  8. ^ "Paula Guilló, Miss Teruel, is crowned Miss Spain 2010". ¡Hola!. September 26, 2010. Retrieved 2010-10-10.
  9. ^ "La murciana Athenea Pérez se proclama ganadora de Miss Universo España". Semana (in Spanish). 2023-07-01. Retrieved 2023-07-01.
  10. ^ "Corina Mrazek, Miss Tenerife, se corona como la mujer más guapa de España: "Soy súper fanática de la lectura"". El Mundo (in Spanish).
  11. ^ Serna, Esmeralda (29 June 2022). "Paula Pérez, Miss World Spain 2022: 'Es un certamen que valora muchas virtudes de una persona, no solo la belleza física'" [Paula Pérez, Miss World Spain 2022: "It is a contest that values many virtues of a person, not just the physical beauty"] (in Spanish). El Periódico de Catalunya. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
  12. ^ "Corina Mrazek fue elegida este sábado como la nueva Miss World Spain 2023 y Claudia González, de Agüimes, obtuvo el título de Miss Internacional España". www.laprovincia.es. 2023-05-06. Retrieved 2023-05-07.
  13. ^ "Claudia Cruz is Miss International Spain 2019". Instagram. Retrieved 30 June 2019.

External links