Highland Clearances

Highland Clearances, the forced eviction of inhabitants of the Highlands and western islands of Scotland, beginning in the mid-to-late 18th century and continuing intermittently into the mid-19th century. The removals cleared the land of people primarily to allow for the introduction of sheep pastoralism. The Highland Clearances resulted in the destruction of the traditional clan society and began a pattern of rural depopulation and emigration from Scotland.

Clans, collectives, and the Jacobite rebellion: the Highlands before the Clearances

By the early 18th century the people in the Lowlands of Scotland—which lie southeast of a line drawn from Dumbarton, near the head of the Firth of Clyde on the western coast, to Stonehaven—were primarily urbanized. They were also more aligned with England in terms of culture, language, and politics than with their fellow Scots of the Highlands. The people in the Highlands—which encompass the northern half of Scotland as well as, according to many categorizations, the western offshore islands of the Inner and Outer Hebrides and Arran and Bute—were mostly rural and trying to survive in a largely infertile land. Their culture and language were predominantly Scots Gaelic.

The Highlanders still followed the clan system, which had been in place for hundreds of years. The clan was ruled by one family, from which its chief was drawn. The kinsfolk and others who made up the clan lived together in agricultural townships that functioned like collectives or joint-tenancy farms. The land was controlled by the chief but leased from him by “tacksmen” who rented it to tenant farmers, who in turn employed cottars to help cultivate it. Tinged with feudal influences, the clan was also very much a martial system grounded on the obligation of its fighting men to provide military service for the chief to whom they owed personal allegiance. Those fighting men were partly dependent on plunder gained from raiding neighbouring clans to maintain their standard of living.

In 1745 Charles Edward, the Young Pretender (called “Bonnie Prince Charlie”), led the fifth Jacobite rebellion that the house of Stuart had undertaken in an attempt to reclaim the British throne. (Charles’s grandfather James II had been deposed as king in the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89.) Charles won support among the Scottish Highlanders to battle the English and many Scottish Lowlanders for the British crown. After some initial success, Charles and his troops were eventually defeated at the Battle of Culloden (April 16, 1746), during which thousands of Highlanders were killed. In the subsequent weeks and months, some 1,000 Highlanders were hunted and killed. In the process, whole Highland clans were destroyed or were forced to flee.

Even before the catastrophe at Culloden, the clan system had begun slowly deteriorating during the reign of James I, who distrusted the Highlanders so much that he ordered the chiefs away from their clans to attend prolonged court visits so that he could keep them from plotting against him. That deterioration accelerated, however, in the years following the Battle of Culloden, as the British government imposed restrictive laws that compromised the power of the clan chiefs and the Gaelic culture that underpinned it, including the banning of clan tartans (plaid textile designs) and bagpipe music. The government also cleared the way for outsiders to acquire much of the land in the Highlands. The new landlords were set on replicating capitalist agriculture models employed in the Lowlands,

Clearances, crofting, and consequences

The subsequent disruption of traditional life and dispossession of land that occurred over roughly the next century became known as the Highland Clearances. The Clearances are generally regarded as having come in a series of waves, whose nature and circumstances varied according to when they happened, where they happened, and who was involved. George Granville Leveson-Gower, later duke of Sutherland, for instance, was the catalyst for notorious evictions that took place from about 1810 to 1820. Advised that his interior lands were best suited for sheep raising and were little fit for human habitation, he evicted thousands of families, burning their cottages and establishing large sheep farms. The evicted tenants were resettled in coastal crofts (small tenant farms), frequently on only marginally cultivable land. They were forced to subsist by collecting and smelting kelp (a source of potash and iodine), something of a boom industry at the beginning of the 19th century, or by fishing, an occupation that was foreign to them. Other landowners in the Highlands followed that eviction model, though some focused on rearing cattle rather than sheep, whereas still others resettled the evicted farmers on crofts where highly labour-intensive cropping was the objective.

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The decline of the kelp industry, falling cattle prices, and, later, the potato famine in the Highlands that began in the mid-1840s were major blows to the subsistence economy of the crofters (who had no legal claim to the land on which they lived). When the potato blight hit, about 1846, the crofters were financially devastated. Disease and starvation spread. Mass migrations occurred, mainly to the Scottish Lowlands (where factory work could be found), Canada, the United States, or Australia. Often, Highlanders departed as indentured servants, hoping one day to own their own land. Some left on their own, The way of many others was paid for by landowners who preferred to finance their tenants’ emigration rather than provide prolonged monetary support to help them through the economically difficult years. In 1883, in response to growing sympathy for the plight of the crofters, the Napier Commission was established to investigate their condition. In the meantime the Highland Land Law Reform Association (better known as the Land League) was established. Finally, in 1886, the possibility of future evictions was legally eliminated with Parliament’s passage of the Crofters Holdings Act, which was grounded on the so-called three Fs: fair rent, free sale (the right to become an owner-occupier), and fixity of tenure.