Colonial Rule in India - A Chronology

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A large portion of the content on this website has been collaged from various Wikipedia websites on similar subject.

The Indian subcontinent was subject to imperial processes, such as those of the Mauryas (322–187 BCE), the Kushans (circa 30–230), the Guptas (320–550), and the Mughal (1526–1857), that largely hewed to its geographical boundaries and, in some measure at least, imposed or sought to impose integrating structures of rule across a population dramatically varied in languages, customs, and beliefs.

This is a tabular chronology of events during colonial India, starting from the onset of imperial entities in India. A few other events are chronicled as well for the purpose of an overall perspective of historical timelines. This listing is far from comprehensive, as is only to be expected when dealing with centuries old pre-independence history of a country as complex, diverse, large and mystical as India.

Table (Cat)egories :

(A)rts, Societies, (Ad)minsitration, (B)anks, (BC)Battle with Colonial Powers, (BE)British Empire, (BS)Battle among States, (Bu)siness Houses, (C)elebrities, (Co)lonial India, (D)imonds & Treasure, (Dy)nasties, (E)vent, (Ec)onomy, (Ed)ucation, (Em)perors/Empresses, (F)reedom Fighters, (Fl)ag, Patriotism, (G)overnor Generals & Viceroys, (H)SRA, (HM)HSRA Men, (J)allianwala, (N)ewspapers, (O)pposition to Partition, (P)olitical, (Pa)rtition, (Pr)incely States, Provinces, Zamindars, (R)eligion, (S)ports, (T)echnology, Engineering, Infrastructure, (Tr)ansport, (W)orld Events, (Wh)ite Man's Burden, (W)orld (W)ars

Sn	Year /Birth	Till Year /Place	Cat	Event Activity
	1	Imperial entities	Co	Imperial entities of India, (Colonial India): Entity Number Imperial Entity Era From To 1 Portuguese India 1505 1961 1 Casa da Índia 1434 1833 1 Portuguese East India Company 1628 1633 2 Croatian India 1530 1667 3 Dutch India 1605 1825 4 Danish India 1620 1869 5 British India 1612 1947 5 East India Company 1612 1757 5 Company rule in India 1757 1858 5 British Raj 1858 1947 5 British rule in Burma 1824 1948 5 Princely states 1721 1949 5 Partition of India 1947 6 French India 1668 1954
	1	Empires and their area		List of largest empires in India: This is a historical list of the largest empires in India with an area covering more than 1 million square kilometers. An empire involves the extension of a state's sovereignty over external territories. The values given here should generally be interpreted as being only indicative, and not as determining a precise ranking. The calculation of the land area of a particular empire is controversial. Empire Area in Km2 % area of Republic of India Year of maximum extent British Raj 4,574,000 139 % 1911 Mughal Empire 4,000,000 122 % 1690 Maurya Empire 3,400,000–5,000,000 103 % – 152 % 250 BC Republic of India (for comparison) 3,287,263 100 % Delhi Sultanate 3,200,000 97 % 1312 Maratha Empire 2,500,000 76 % 1760 Kushan Empire 2,000,000–2,500,000 61 % – 76 % 200 Gupta Empire 1,700,000–3,500,000 52 % – 106 % 400 Empire of Harsha 1,000,000 30 % 648
1	1206	1526	Dy	The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526). Five dynasties ruled over the Delhi Sultanate sequentially: The Mamluk dynasty (Delhi) / Slave dynasty (1206–1290), The Khalji dynasty (1290–1320), The Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414), The Sayyid dynasty (1414–1451), and The Lodi dynasty (1451–1526). It covered large swathes of territory in modern-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh as well as some parts of southern Nepal.
2	1226	1290	BS	List of battles of Rajasthan#During the Sultanates of Delhi, Gujarat and Malwa: Siege of Ranthambore (1226) – Iltutmish captured the fort in 1226 CE. Siege of Ranthambore (1236) – Vagbhata Chauhan recaptured Ranthambore during the reign of the Delhi ruler Razia Sultana. Siege of Ranthambore (1248) – Vagabhata Chauhan successfully defended the fort against Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah. Siege of Ranthambore (1253) – Vagbhata Chauhan repelled another invasion from the Mamluks. Siege of Ranthambore (1259) – Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah captured Ranthambore from Jaitrasingh Chauhan. Siege of Ranthambore (1283) – Shakti Dev Chauhan recaptured Ranthambore from the Mamluks. Battle of Ranthambore (1290) – Jalal-ud-din Khalji attacked Hammiradeva (Hammir deo) because of his rising power. Jalaludin's forces were defeated by Hammir.
3	1228	1826	Dy	Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826) was a kingdom and tribe which rose to prominence in present-day Assam early in the thirteenth century. They ruled much of Assam from the 13th century until the establishment of British rule in 1838. The Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826) was a late Medieval India kingdom in the Brahmaputra River Valley in Assam. It is well known for maintaining its sovereignty for nearly 600 years and successfully resisting Mughal Empire expansion in Northeast India. Established by Sukaphaa, a Tai prince from Mong Mao, it began as a mong (Mueang) in the upper reaches of the Brahmaputra based on wet rice agriculture. It expanded suddenly under Suhungmung in the 16th century and became multi-ethnic in character, casting a profound effect on the political and social life of the entire Brahmaputra valley. The kingdom became weaker with the rise of the Moamoria rebellion, and subsequently fell to repeated Burmese invasions of Assam. With the defeat of the Burmese after the First Anglo-Burmese War and the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, control of the kingdom passed into East India Company hands. The Ahoms brought with them a tribal religion and a language of their own, however they later merged with the Hindu religion. From thirteenth till seventeenth century, repeated attempts were made by the Muslim rulers of Delhi to invade and subdue Ahoms, however the Ahoms managed to maintain their independence and ruled themselves for nearly 600 years.
4	1294	1436	BS	List of battles of Rajasthan#During the Sultanates of Delhi, Gujarat and Malwa: Siege of Jaisalmer (1294–1295) – Alauddin Khalji commanded the Khilji army under Jalal-ud-din Khalji and plundered Jaisalmer after a siege that lasted for a year. For some years afterwards Jaisalmer remained abandoned before the surviving Bhatis reoccupied it. Siege of Ranthombore (Alauddin Khalji's conquest of Ranthambore) (1301) – Hammiradeva defeated Alauddin Khalji's generals Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan; later, Alauddin defeated Hammiradeva. Siege of Chittorgarh (1303) – Alauddin Khalji defeated Rawal Ratan Singh (Ratnasimha). Siege of Siwana (1308) – Malik Kamaluddin a general of Alauddin Khalji defeated Sheetal deo. Battle of Jalore (Alauddin Khalji's conquest of Jalore) (1310–11) – Alauddin Khalji defeated Kanhad deo (Kanhadadeva) after a long and bloody war. Battle of Chittorgarh (1321) – Rana Hammir Singh defeated Maldev Songara, a vassal of the Tughlaq dynasty and recovered Mewar. Battle of Singoli (1336) – Rana Hammir Singh defeated An Army led by one of Muhammad bin Tughluq General and annexed Ajmer, Ranthambhore, Nagor and Shivapuri. Battle of Sirohi (1434) – Rana Kumbha defeated Rao Sahasmal Deora and captured Basaritgarh, Bhula and areas of Abu. Siege of Mandalgarh (1435–6) – Rana Kumbha (Kumbha of Mewar) captured Mandalgarh fort from Rao Bairisal Hada.
5	1391	1583	Dy	Muzaffarids (Gujarat) dynasty Sultan Muzaffar Shah I, the Governor of Gujarat Sultanate, established the Muzaffarid dynasty in 1391. It expanded rapidly and peaked under Sultan Mahmud I (Mahmud Begada), who lost the Battle of Diu to the Portuguese in 1509.
6	1434	1833	Co	Portuguese Casa da India The Casa da Índia (Portuguese pronunciation: [ˈkazɐ dɐ ˈĩdiɐ], English: India House or House of India) was a Portuguese state-run commercial organization founded during the Age of Discovery, charged with the regulation of International trade and the administration of the Portuguese Empire's territories, colonies, and Factory (trading post)s across India, Africa, and the rest of Asia. Central to the Casa da Índia's objectives was the establishment and protection of a Portuguese Mare clausum (total control of the seas) in the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arabian sea, and the East Indies. It was founded by King Manuel I of Portugal in 1500 to direct Portugal's monopoly of the Spice trade and to manage royal policy for Portuguese India. Following 1503, it absorbed the Casa da Guiné e Mina, an organization founded by Prince Henry the Navigator in 1443, which operated under a similar mandate for Portuguese Africa, thus making the Casa da Índia responsible for the regulation of all Portuguese imperial trade, the administration of Portuguese trade posts and military bases in Asia and Africa, and protection of the Portuguese Crown's commercial interests. With the discovery of a sea route to India by Vasco da Gama in 1497–99, the spice trade became a new and important activity of the royal trading house, and the old Casa was reorganized into the Casa da India e da Guiné (the first written reference to a Casa da Índia was in a royal letter dated 1501).
7	1442	1455	BS	List of battles of Rajasthan#During the Sultanates of Delhi, Gujarat and Malwa: Battle of Mandalgarh and Banas (1442–1446) – A series of battles that took place between Mahmud Khalji of Malwa and Rana Kumbha of Mewar. bloodied by these engagements the Sultan did not attack Mewar for another ten years. Siege of Gagron (February 1444) – Sultan Mahmud besieged Gagron which belonged to Palhan Singh Khichi. Rana Kumbha had sent reinforcements under his commander Dahir, but Dahir died in battle and Palhan was killed by bhils while fleeing from the fort. Siege of Mandore (1454) – Rao Jodha recaptured Mandore from Rana Kumbha. Battle of Abu (1455) – Qutbuddin sent Imadul Mulk to invade Mewar through Abu, but Imadul suffered heavy losses against the Mewari soldiers posted on the hills and was immediately called back.
8	1456	1457	BS	List of battles of Rajasthan#During the Sultanates of Delhi, Gujarat and Malwa: Battle of Nagaur (1456) – Rana Kumbha of Mewar defeated the combined armies of Shams Khan (sultan of Nagaur) and Qutbuddin (Sultan of Gujarat) and captured Nagaur, Kasili, Khandela and Shakambhari. Battle of Mandalgarh (1456) – Sultan Mahmud attacked Mandalgarh, he sent 7 detachments to attack the Rana from multiple directions. The Malwa forces under Taj Khan and Ali Khan suffered heavy losses in battle against Rana Kumbha after which Mahmud retreated the next morning. Siege of Mandalgarh (December 1456 – October 1457) – In December Rana Kumbha was forced to move north to confront the sultan of Gujarat, Sultan Mahmud once again attacked Mandalgarh and captured it after a siege.
9	1458	1519	BS	List of battles of Rajasthan#During the Sultanates of Delhi, Gujarat and Malwa: Siege of Kumbalgarh (1458–9) – Sultan Mahmud besieged Kumbalgarh but finding the fort too strong he retreated back to Mandu. Battle of Mandalgarh (1467) – Sultan Mahmud invaded Mewar and fought a battle with Rana Kumbha, but retreated after taking heavy losses. This was the last battle fought between the two rivals. Battle of Peepar (1492) – Rao Satal defeated Gudhla Khan, an Afghan general and rescued 140 maidens that had been captured. Rao Satal himself died that night of the wounds received in the battle. Battle of Khatoli (1518) – Rana Sanga defeated Ibrahim Lodhi. Battle of Dholpur (1519) – Rana Sanga defeated Ibrahim Lodhi. Battle of Gagron (1519) – Rana Sanga defeated Mahmud Khalji of Malwa.
10	1490	1686	Dy	Bijapur Sultanate, Adil Shahi dynasty 1490–1686 The Adil Shahi or Adilshahi, was a Shia Muslim (Shia Islam), and later Sunni Muslim (Sunni Islam), dynasty founded by Yusuf Adil Shah, that ruled the Sultanate of Bijapur, centred on present-day Bijapur district, Karnataka in India, in the Western area of the Deccan Plateau region of Southern India from 1489 to 1686. Bijapur had been a province of the Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1518), before its political decline in the last quarter of the 15th century and eventual break-up in 1518. The Bijapur Sultanate was absorbed into the Mughal Empire on 12 September 1686, after its conquest by the Emperor Aurangzeb. The founder of the dynasty, Yusuf Adil Shah (1490–1510), was appointed Bahmani governor of the province, before creating a de facto independent Bijapur state.
11	1498		Co	Vasco da Gama's First Voyage, (Vasco da Gama#First voyage): Vasco da Gama, 1st Count of Vidigueira (1460s – 24 December 1524), was a Portuguese explorer and the first European to reach India by sea. His initial voyage to India (1497–1499) was the first to link Europe and Asia by an ocean route, connecting the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean and therefore, the Western world and the Orient (Eastern world). This is widely considered a milestone in world history, as it marked the beginning of a sea-based phase of global Multiculturalism. Da Gama's Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India opened the way for an age of global Imperialism and enabled the Portuguese to establish a long-lasting Colonial empire in Asia. The violence and hostage taking employed by da Gama and those who followed also assigned a brutal reputation to the Portuguese among India's indigenous kingdoms that would set the pattern for western colonialism in the Age of Exploration (Age of Discovery). Traveling the ocean route allowed the Portuguese to avoid sailing across the highly disputed Mediterranean Sea and traversing the dangerous Arabian Peninsula. On 8 July 1497 Vasco da Gama led a fleet of four ships with a crew of 170 men from Lisbon. The sum of the distances covered in the outward and return voyages made this expedition the longest ocean voyage ever made until then, far longer than a full voyage around the world by way of the Equator. After decades of sailors trying to reach the Indies, with thousands of lives and dozens of vessels lost in shipwrecks and attacks, da Gama landed in Calicut on 20 May 1498.
12	1502		Co	Vasco da Gama's Second Voyage, (Vasco da Gama#Second voyage): The follow-up expedition, the 2nd Portuguese India Armada (Cabral, 1500), launched in 1500 under the command of Pedro Álvares Cabral with the mission of making a treaty with the Zamorin of Calicut and setting up a Portuguese factory in the city. However, Pedro Cabral entered into a conflict with the local Arab merchant guilds, with the result that the Portuguese factory was overrun in a riot and up to 70 Portuguese were killed. Cabral blamed the Zamorin for the incident and bombarded the city. Thus war broke out between Portugal and Calicut (Kozhikode). Vasco da Gama invoked his royal letter to take command of the 4th Portuguese India Armada (Gama, 1502), scheduled to set out in 1502, with the explicit aim of taking revenge upon the Zamorin and force him to submit to Portuguese terms. The heavily armed fleet of fifteen ships and eight hundred men left Lisbon on 12 February 1502. On reaching India in October 1502, da Gama's fleet set about capturing any Arab vessel he came across in Indian waters, most notoriously the Miri, a pilgrim ship from Mecca, whose passengers he massacred in open water. He then appeared before Calicut, demanding redress for the treatment of Cabral. While the Zamorin was willing to sign a new treaty, da Gama made a call to the Hindu king to expel all Muslims from Calicut before beginning negotiations, which was turned down. The Portuguese fleet then bombarded the city for nearly two days from the sea shore, severely damaging the unfortified city. He also captured several rice vessels and cut off the crew's hands, ears and noses, dispatching them with an insulting note to the Zamorin.
13	1502		Co	Vasco da Gama's Second Voyage, (Vasco da Gama#Second voyage): The violent treatment meted out by da Gama quickly brought trade along the Malabar Coast of India, upon which Calicut (Kozhikode) depended, to a standstill. But the Zamorin nonetheless refused to submit to Portuguese terms, and even ventured to hire a fleet of strong warships to challenge da Gama's armada (which da Gama managed to defeat in a naval battle before Calicut harbor). Da Gama loaded up with spices at Cochin (Kochi) and Cannanore (Kannur), small nearby kingdoms, half-vassal and half-at-war with the Zamorin, whose alliances had been secured by prior Portuguese fleets. The 4th armada left India in early 1503.
14	1503		Co	Kingdom of Cochin is taken over by the Portuguese creating the first European settlement in India.:
15	1505		Co	Dom Francisco de Almeida, also known as the Great Dom Francisco (c. 1450 – 1 March 1510), was a Portuguese nobleman, soldier and explorer. He distinguished himself as a counsellor to King John II of Portugal and later in the wars against the Moors and in the conquest of Granada in 1492. On 25 March 1505, Francisco de Almeida was appointed as the first governor and viceroy of the Portuguese India (Estado da Índia), on the condition that he would set up four forts on the south western Indian coast: at Anjediva Island, Cannanore (Kannur), Cochin (Kochi) and Quilon (Kollam). Francisco de Almeida left Portugal with a fleet of 22 vessels with 1,500 men. Almeida is credited with establishing Portuguese hegemony in the Indian Ocean with his victory at the naval Battle of Diu in 1509. On 13 September, Francisco de Almeida reached Anjediva Island, where he immediately started the construction of Fort Anjediva. On 23 October, he started, with the permission of the friendly ruler Kōlattiri (Kolathunadu), the building of St. Angelo Fort in Cannanore, leaving Lourenço de Brito in charge with 150 men and two ships. Francisco de Almeida then reached Cochin (Kochi) on 31 October 1505, with only 8 vessels left. There he learnt that the Portuguese traders at Quilon had been killed. He decided to send his son Lourenço de Almeida with 6 ships, who wantonly destroyed 27 Calicut vessels in the harbour of Quilon. Almeida took up residence in Cochin. He strengthened the Portuguese fortifications of Fort Manuel on Cochin (Fort Kochi). Before Almeida returned to Portugal he lost his life in a conflict with indigenous people at the Cape of Good Hope in 1510. His only son Lourenço de Almeida had previously been killed in the Battle of Chaul.
16	1506		Co	The Battle of Cannanore (Kannur) took place in 1506 off the harbour of Cannanore in India, between the Indian fleet of the Zamorin of Calicut (Kozhikode) and a Portuguese fleet under Lourenço de Almeida, son of the Viceroy Dom Francisco de Almeida. The Indian fleet, consisting of about 200 ships equipped with cannons manufactured with the help of two Milanese (Duchy of Milan) Italians, was manned by Hindu, Arab, and Turkish crews. This encounter ended in a Portuguese victory. It was followed by another Portuguese success at the Siege of Cannanore (1507) in 1507, but then a Portuguese defeat at the Battle of Chaul in 1508.
17	1507		Co	The Siege of Cannanore (1507) was a four-month siege, from April to August 1507, when troops of the local ruler (the Kōlattiri Raja of Cannanore), supported by the Zamorin of Calicut (Kozhikode) and Arabs, besieged the Portuguese garrison at St. Angelo Fort in Cannanore, in what is now the Indian state of Kerala. It followed the Battle of Cannanore, in which the fleet of the Zamorin was defeated by the Portuguese.
18	1508		Co	The Battle of Chaul was a naval battle between the Portuguese and an Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) fleet in 1508 in the harbour of Chaul in India. The battle ended in a Mamluk victory. It followed the Siege of Cannanore (1507) in which a Portuguese garrison successfully resisted an attack by Southern Indian rulers. This was the first Portuguese defeat at sea in the Indian Ocean. Chaul is a former city of Portuguese India, now in ruins. It is located 60 km south of Mumbai, in Raigad district of Maharashtra state in western India.
19	1508	3 Feb	W	The Christian-Islamic power struggle in Europe and the Middle East. Spills over into the Indian Ocean as Battle of Chaul during the Portuguese-Mamluk War.
20	1509		Co	The Battle of Diu was a naval battle fought on 3 February 1509 in the Arabian Sea, in the port of Diu, India, between the Portuguese Empire and a joint fleet of Mahmud Begada the Sultan of Gujarat, the Mamlûk Burji Sultanate (Burji dynasty) of Egypt, and the Zamorin of Calicut (Kozhikode) with support of the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire. The Portuguese victory was critical: the great Muslim alliance was soundly defeated, easing the Portuguese strategy of controlling the Indian Ocean to route trade down the Cape of Good Hope, circumventing the traditional spice route controlled by the Arabs and the Venetians (Republic of Venice) through the Red Sea and Persian Gulf. After the battle, Portugal rapidly captured key ports in the Indian Ocean including Goa, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Malacca, and Ormuz (Ormus), crippling the Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) and the Gujarat Sultanate, greatly assisting the growth of the Portuguese Empire and establishing its trade dominance for more than a century. The Battle of Diu was a battle of annihilation like the Battle of Lepanto and the Battle of Trafalgar, and one of the most important of world naval history, for it marks the beginning of European dominance over Asian seas that would last until the World War II.
21	1510	20 May	Co	Portuguese India (to 1961). Portuguese Catholics conquer Goa to serve as capital of their Asian maritime empire, beginning conquest and exploitation of India by Europeans.
22	1518		BS	Kingdom of Mewar under Rana Sanga defeats Lodi Empire under Ibrahim Lodi in the Battle of Khatoli, gains control over north eastern Rajasthan.
23	1519		BS	Kingdom of Mewar under Rana Sanga defeats the Malwa Sultanate and the Gujarat Sultanate in the Battle of Gagron, obtains control of Malwa.
24	1519		BS	The Kingdom of Mewar under Rana Sanga again defeats Lodi Empire under Ibrahim Lodi in the Battle of Dholpur, extends control up to Agra.
25	1520		BS	Vijayanagar Empire under Krishnadevaraya defeats the Sultanate of Bijapur in the Battle of Raichur.
26	1520	1557	BS	List of battles of Rajasthan#During the Sultanates of Delhi, Gujarat and Malwa: Siege of Mandsaur (1520) – Sultan Muzaffar Shah II sent an army under Malik Ayaz but failed and retreated to Gujarat. Battle of Bayana (1527) – Babur sent an army to capture Bayana but the Mughals were defeated by Rana Sanga. The Mughals however plundered a temple built by Rana Sanga in the memory of his mother. Battle of Khanwa (1527) – Rana Sanga led the Rajput armies against Babur of Fergana, but was defeated due to treachery by Silhadi of Raisen. Battle of Sohaba (1542) – Rao Maldev Rathore killed Rao Jaitsi in battle and captured Bikaner. Battle of Sammel (1544) – Sher Shah Suri's costly victory against the army of Jaita and Kumpa. Battle of Jodhpur (July 1545) – Rao Maldev Rathore defeated the Afghan garrison in Marwar and reoccupied his lost territories. Battle of Harmada (1557) – Maldev Rathore defeated Udai Singh II and captured Merta City.
27	1520		E	Domingo Paes (sometimes spelt Pais; 16th century) was a Portuguese traveller who visited the Vijayanagara Empire, located in the Deccan Plateau in southern India, around 1520. He went there as part of a group of traders from the then colony of Goa. His visit took place during the rule of King Krishnadevaraya and Paes recorded his impressions of Vijayanagara state in his Chronica dos reis de Bisnaga ("Chronicle of the Vijayanagar kings"). His detailed account is one of the few known descriptions of that empire and of its capital, Vijayanagara (Hampi), by a traveller from abroad.
28	1522		Co	Portuguese land on the Coromandel Coast.
29	1524		Co	Vasco da Gama's Third Voyage, (Vasco da Gama#Third voyage and death): Setting out in April 1524, with a fleet of fourteen ships, Vasco da Gama took as his flagship the famous large carrack Santa Catarina do Monte Sinai on her last journey to India, along with two of his sons, Estêvão and Paulo. After a troubled journey (four or five of the ships were lost en route), he arrived in India in September. Vasco da Gama immediately invoked his high viceregent powers to impose a new order in Portuguese India, replacing all the old officials with his own appointments. But Gama contracted malaria not long after arriving, and died in the city of Cochin (Kochi) on Christmas Eve in 1524, three months after his arrival. As per royal instructions, da Gama was succeeded as governor of India by one of the captains who had come with him, Henrique de Menezes. Da Gama's sons Estêvão and Paulo immediately lost their posts and joined the returning fleet of early 1525. Vasco da Gama's body was first buried at Church of Saint Francis, Kochi, which was located at Fort Kochi in the city of Kochi, but his remains were returned to Portugal in 1539.
30	1526	21 Apr	BS	Mughal conqueror Babur (1483–1530) defeats the Sultan of Delhi and captures the Koh-i-noor diamond. Occupying Delhi, by 1529 he founds the Indian Mughal Empire (1526-1761), consolidated by his grandson Akbar. Sultan Ibrahim Lodi, of the Delhi Sultanate, angers local nobles, who respond by inviting Babur, the Mughal ruler of Kabul, to invade Delhi and Agra. The local population, plus the possession of artillery, assists Babur in killing the Sultan (whose soldiers desert him) at the Battle of Panipat. The First Battle of Panipat (21 April 1526), was fought between the invading forces of Babur and the Lodi dynasty. It marked the beginning of Mughal Empire and the end of Delhi Sultanate. This was the earliest battles involving gunpowder firearms and Field artillery in the Indian subcontinent which were introduced by the [Mughal Empire]].
31	1526	1857	Dy	The Age of the Mughal Empire: The name Mughal or Moghul is a corruption of the Persian word for Mongol, the Central Asian tribe after whom Mongolia is named. The Mughals originated in Central Asia, and were descended from the Mongol Empire ruler Jenghiz Khan (Genghis Khan) and Timur (Tamburlaine), the great conqueror of Asia. They were immensely proud of their pedigree, and it was the memory of Timur's raids on India in the fourteenth century that spurred Babur on to invade. The great cities built by the Mughal emperors at Delhi, Agra and Lahore still retain something of the magnificence that was associated with the Mughal dynasty during the seventeenth century. The Major Mughal Emperors were: Babur (r. 1526–30) Humayun (r. 1530–56) Akbar (r. 1556–1605) Jahangir (r. 1605–27) Shah Jahan (r. 1627–58) Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707)
32	1526	1857	Dy	The Age of the Mughal Empire, Mughal emperors: Style  : His Imperial Majesty First monarch  : Babur Last monarch  : Bahadur Shah Zafar Formation  : 20 April 1526 Abolition  : 21 September 1857 Residence  : Agra Fort (1526–1639), Red Fort (1639–1857) Appointer  : Hereditary
33	1526	1857	Dy	The Age of the Mughal Empire, Mughal emperors: – Titular Name, Birth Name, Birth date, Reign, Death Babur (Zahir-ud-din-Muhammad) 14-Feb-1483, Andijan, Uzbeksitan, 20 April 1526 to 26 December 1530, 26 December 1530, aged 47, Agra Humayun (Nasir-ud-din-Muhammad Humayun) 6 March 1508, Kabul, Afghanistan, 26 December 1530 to 17 May 1540, 22 February 1555 to 27 January 1556, 27 January 1556, aged 47, Delhi Akbar-i-Azam (Jalal-ud-din Muhammad) 15 October 1542, Umerkot, Pakistan, 11 Feb-1556 to 27 October 1605, 27 October 1605, aged 63, Agra Jahangir (Nur-ud-din Muhammad Salim) 31 August 1569, Agra, 3 November 1605 to 28 October 1627, 28 October 1627, aged 58, Jammu and Kashmir (union territory) Shahryar Mirza (Salef-ud-din Mohammed Shahryar) 16 January 1605, Agra, 7 November 1627 to 19 January 1628, 23 January 1628, aged 23, Lahore, Pakistan Shah Jahan (Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram) 5 January 1592, Lahore, Pakistan, 19 January 1628 to 31 July 1658, 22 January 1666, aged 74, Agra Alamgir I (Muhy-ud-din Muhammad Aurangzeb) 4 November 1618, Gujarat, 31 July 1658 to 3 March 1707, aged 88, Ahmednagar Muhammad Azam Shah (Qutb-ud-Din Muhammad Azam) 28 June 1653, Burhanpur, India, 14 March 1707 to 8 June 1707, aged 53, Jajau, near Agra Bahadur Shah I (Qutb-ud-Din Muhammad Mu'azzam Shah Alam) 14 October 1643, Burhanpur, India, 19 June 1707 to 27 February 1712, 27 February 1712, aged 68, Lahore Jahandar Shah (Mu'izz-ud-Din Jahandar Shah Bahadur) 9 May 1661, Deccan, India, 27 February 1712 to 11 February 1713, 12 February 1713, aged 51, Delhi Farrukhsiyar (Farrukhsiyar) 20 August 1685, Aurangabad, 11 January 1713 to 28 February 1719, 19 April 1719, aged 33, Delhi
34	1526	1857	Dy	The Age of the Mughal Empire, Mughal emperors: – Titular Name, Birth Name, Birth date, Reign, Death Rafi ud-Darajat (Rafi ud-Darajat) 1 December 1699, 28 February 1719 to 6 June 1719, 6 June 1719, aged 19, Agra Shah Jahan II (Rafi ud-Daulah) Jun-1696, 6 June 1719 to 17 September 1719, 18 September 1719, aged 23, Agra Muhammad Shah (Roshan Akhtar Bahadur) 7 August 1702, Ghazni, Afghanistan, 27 September 1719 to 26 April 1748, 26 April 1748, aged 45, Delhi Ahmad Shah Bahadur (Ahmad Shah Bahadur) 23 December 1725, Delhi, 29 April 1748 to 2 June 1754, 1 January 1775, aged 49, Delhi Alamgir II (Aziz-ud-din) 6 June 1699, Burhanpur, India, 3 June 1754 to 29 November 1759, 29 November 1759, aged 60, Kotla Fateh Shah, India Shah Jahan III (Muhi-ul-millat) 1711, 10 December 1759 to 10 October 1760, 1772, aged 60–61 Shah Alam II (Ali Gauhar) 25 June 1728, Delhi, 10 October 1760 to 31 July 1788, 19 November 1806, aged 78, Delhi Mahmud Shah Bahadur Jahan IV (Bidar Bakht) 1749, Delhi, 31 July 1788 to 11 October 1788, 1790, aged 40–41, Delhi Shah Alam II (Ali Gauhar) 25 June 1728, Delhi, 16 October 1788 to 19 November 1806, 19 November 1806, aged 78, Delhi [second reign] Akbar Shah II (Mirza Akbar II) 22 April 1760, Mukundpur, India, 19 November 1806 to 28 September 1837, 28 September 1837, aged 77, Delhi [Titular figurehead under British protection] Bahadur Shah II (Abu Zafar Sirajuddin Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar) 24 October 1775, Delhi, 28 September 1837 to 21 September 1857, 7 November 1862, aged 87, Yangon, Myanmar
35	1526	1857	Dy	The Age of the Mughal Empire, Mughal emperors: During the reign of Aurangzeb, the empire, as the world's largest economy, worth over 25% of global GDP, controlled nearly all of the Indian subcontinent, extending from Chittagong in the east to Kabul and Balochistan in the west, Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri River basin in the south. The last Emperor, Bahadur Shah II (Bahadur Shah Zafar) was deposed by the British and was exiled to Burma (Myanmar) after the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
36	1526	1857	Dy	The Age of the Mughal Empire: Babur, the first Mughal emperor, was born in present-day Uzbekistan, and became ruler of Kabul in Afghanistan. From there, he invaded the kingdom of the Lodi Afghans (Lodi dynasty) in northern India in 1526 and established a dynasty that was to rule for three centuries. Babur was a modest and down-to-earth man whose memoirs, the Baburnama, make fascinating reading. Babur is not known to have patronised the arts, except for architecture. His son Humayun, however, is credited with bringing artists from Iran to set up the first Mughal painting studio. Humayun's successor, Akbar , was actively interested in painting, and enthusiastically set up studios which employed mostly local Hindu artists. Mughal painting soon began to evolve in a distinctive way that combined the sophisticated techniques of the Persian artists with the boldness and colour characteristic of the local Indian artists. Akbar was perhaps the greatest of the 'Great Mughals'. He vastly increased Mughal territory in all directions, capturing the Muslim kingdom of Bengal (Bengal Sultanate) in the East, and Gujarat and the Rajput kingdoms in the West, as well as much of present-day Afghanistan and important territories to the South. The defeat of the fiercely independent Hindu rajas, the kings of Rajasthan, was one of Akbar's main preoccupations.
37	1526	1857	Dy	The Age of the Mughal Empire: Akbar's son Jahangir was less interested in further extending Mughal territory, and instead gloried in the luxury and riches that the great empire provided. A true connoisseur of paintings and gems, and a great lover of nature, Jahangir commissioned many of the most beautiful miniatures and precious objects to have been produced in the royal workshops. Paintings no longer showed the glories of war and conquest that Akbar had revelled in, but instead focused on animals, birds and scenes of the leisurely life at court. Magnificent paintings and works of art were also made for the next emperor, Shah Jahan, who is perhaps best known for building the exquisite Taj Mahal at Agra – a jewelled white marble tomb for his wife, who had died giving birth to their fourteenth child. His love of jewels and jade is well known, and several pieces from his collection are on show, including his magnificent white jade wine cup carved with a goat's head. Shah Jahan was deposed and imprisoned by his ruthless son Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb was not interested in the arts but in further conquest, and he spent huge sums on military campaigns in the South. Painting and the decorative arts declined under his puritanical and impoverished regime, and many artists left the court and found work with provincial rulers instead. Emperors after Aurangzeb became more and more ineffectual, and the empire was weakened first by rebel Hindu princes and then by the British, who were becoming increasingly powerful. The Mughal Empire survived in name only until 1858, when the British formally abolished the title of Emperor.
38	1526	1857	Dy	The Mughal Empire, one of the states Age of the Islamic Gunpowder empires began in 1526 with the overthrow of Ibrahim Lodhi and encompassed most of South Asia by the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Allied with the local rulers, it extended from Bengal in the east to Kabul in the west, Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri basin in the south, a territory of over 4 million km2 (1.5 million sq mi) at its height. Its population at that time has been estimated at between 110 and 130 million. In the year 1540, then Mughal Emperor Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri, and forced to retreat to Kabul. Suris and their adviser, the Hindu Emperor Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, also called Hemu, ruled North India from 1540 to 1556. Hemu established a 'Hindu' Empire briefly from Delhi in 1556. The "classic period" of the Empire started in 1556 with the accession of Akbar the Great and ended with the death of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, although the dynasty continued for another 150 years. During this period, the Empire was marked by centralized administration and active culture. Following 1725 the empire declined rapidly, weakened by wars of succession; famine and local revolts fueled by it; the growth of religious intolerance; the rise of the Maratha Empire; and finally British colonialism. The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II (Bahadur Shah Zafar), whose rule was restricted to the city of Delhi, was imprisoned and exiled by the British after the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
39	1526		Pr	A zamindar, zomindar, zomidar, or jomidar, in the Indian subcontinent was an autonomous or semiautonomous ruler of a state who accepted the Suzerainty of the Emperor of Hindustan. The term means land owner in Persian language. Typically hereditary, zamindars held enormous tracts of land and control over their peasants, from whom they reserved the right to collect tax on behalf of imperial courts or for military purposes. In the 19th and 20th centuries, with the advent of British imperialism, many wealthy and influential zamindars were bestowed with princely and royal titles such as Maharaja (Great King), Raja/ Rai (King) and Nawab. During the Mughal Empire, zamindars belonged to the nobility and formed the ruling class. Emperor Akbar granted them mansabs (Mansabdar) and their ancestral domains were treated as Jagirs. Under British colonial rule in India (Presidencies and provinces of British India), the Permanent Settlement consolidated what became known as the zamindari system. The British rewarded supportive zamindars by recognising them as princes. Many of the region's Princely states were pre-colonial zamindar holdings elevated to a greater protocol. However, the British also reduced the land holdings of many pre-colonial princely states and chieftaincy, demoting their status to a zamindar from previously higher ranks of nobility. Historian Saiyid Nurul Hasan divided the zamindars into three categories: The Autonomous Rai/ Rajas or Chiefs, The intermediary zamindars and The primary zamindars. The system was abolished during Land reforms in East Pakistan (Bangladesh) in 1950, India in 1951 and West Pakistan in 1959.
40	1527	16 Mar	BS	The Battle of Khanwa was fought near the village of Khanwa, in Bharatpur district of Rajasthan, on March 16, 1527. It was fought between the invading forces of the first Mughal Emperor Babur and the Rajput forces led by Rana Sanga of Mewar, after the First Battle of Panipat (1526). The victory in the battle consolidated the new Mughal dynasty in India. On 30 January 1528 Rana Sanga died in Chittor, apparently poisoned by his own chiefs, who held his plans of renewing the fight with Babur to be suicidal. It is suggested that had it not been for the cannon of Babur, Rana Sanga might have achieved a Historic victory against Babur. Babur's cannon put an end to outdated trends in Indian warfare.
41	1529		BS	The Battle of Ghaghra, fought in 1529, was a major battle for the conquest of India by the Mughal Empire. It followed the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 and the Battle of Khanwa in 1527. The forces of now Emperor Zahir ud-Din Muhammad Babur of the emerging Mughal Empire were joined by Indian allies in battle against the Eastern Afghan Confederates under Sultan Mahmud Lodi (Lodi dynasty#Mahmud Lodi) and Bengal Sultanate under Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah.
42	1530		E	Babur completes his Baburnama, reflecting on society, politics, economics, history, geography, nature, flora and fauna, which to this day is a standard textbook in 25 countries. Babur dies, and is succeeded by his son Humayun.
43	1530	1903	T	List of dams and reservoirs in Maharashtra (pre-independence): 1530 Dhamapur Dam, Malvan River, Irrigation 1799 Powai, Mithi River, Bombay, Water Supply 1860 Vihar Dam, Vihar River, Bombay, Water Supply 1871 Ekrukh Dam, Adela River, Solapur, Irrigation, Water Supply 1879 Shirsufal Dam, Pune, Irrigation 1879 Tulshi Dam, Tulshi River, Bombay, Water Supply 1880 Khadakwasla Dam, Mautha River, Pune, Irrigation, Water Supply 1883 Ashti Dam, Mohol, Ashti River, Solapur, Irrigation 1887 Mhaswad Dam, Man River, Satara, Irrigation 1892 Tansa Dam, Tansa, Bombay, Water Supply 1901 Shetfal Dam, Shetfal Nalla, Pune, Irrigation 1903 Khairbandha Dam, Fattepur River, Gondia, Irrigation
44	1531		Co	The Siege of Diu (1531) occurred when a combined Ottoman Empire-Gujarat Sultanate force defeated a Portuguese Empire attempt to capture the city of Diu, India in 1531. The victory was partly the result of Ottoman firepower over the Portuguese besiegers deployed by Mustafa Bayram, an Ottoman expert. Although Diu was successfully defended, victory was short lived: the Portuguese armada was simply diverted towards more exposed Gujarati cities to the east. Ghogha, Surat, Mangrol, Somnath, Bassein, and many smaller settlements were assaulted and sacked, and some never recovered from the attacks. In 1534, Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat signed a peace treaty (Treaty of Bassein (1534)) with Governor Nuno da Cunha, granting the Portuguese the territory of Bassein (Vasai), including Bombay. In 1535, the Portuguese were allowed to construct a fortress at Diu.
45	1532		BS	Ahoms under king Suhungmung defeat Turbak Khan of the Bengal Sultanate in Battle of Hatbor.
46	1534	Bombay	Co	Bombay ceded to the Portuguese. (History of Bombay under Portuguese rule (1534–1661)#Accession of the islands to the Portuguese) Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat had grown apprehensive of the power of Humayun. He dispatched his chief officer Xacoes (Shah Khawjeh) to Nuno da Cunha with an offer to hand over the seven islands of Bombay together with Bassein, its dependencies, and revenues by sea and land. On 23 December 1534, the Treaty of Bassein (1534) was signed on board the galleon San Mateos (St. Matthew). Bassein and the seven islands of Bombay were surrendered later by a treaty of peace and commerce between Bahadur Shah and Nuno da Cunha on 25 October 1535, permanently ending the Islamic rule on the islands.
47	1538		Co	The Siege of Diu (1538) occurred when an army of the Sultanate of Gujarat under Khadjar Safar, aided by forces of the Ottoman Empire, attempted to capture the city of Diu in 1538, then held by the Portuguese. The Portuguese successfully resisted the four months long siege. It is part of The Ottoman-Portuguese War. The defeat of the combined Turkish and Gujarati forces at Diu represented a critical setback in Ottoman plans for expanding their influence into the Indian Ocean. Without a suitable base or allies, failure at Diu meant the Ottomans were unable to proceed with their campaign in India, leaving the Portuguese uncontested in the western Indian coast. Never again would the Ottoman Turks ever send so large an armada to India.
48	1539		BS	Battle of Chausa fought between Humayun and Sher Shah Suri in which Humayun defeated.
49	1539		R	Guru Angad Dev becomes second guru of Sikhs.
50	1540	18 Sep	BS	Battle of Kannauj fought between Humayun and Sher Shah Suri and Humayun was completely defeated. Humayun lost the Mughal empire to Afghans (Suri Dynasty), and passed 12 years in exile.
51	1540	9 May	E	Birth of Maharana Pratap Singh of Mewar ( son of Maharana Udai Singh II )
52	1540		R	Death of Shri Guru Ravidas
53	1542	15 Oct	E	Birth of Akbar at Umerkot.
54	1542		E	Portuguese Jesuit priest Francis Xavier (1506-1552), most successful Catholic missionary, lands in Goa. First to train and employ native clergy in conversion efforts, he brings Christianity to India, Malay Archipelago and Japan.
55	1545	1819	Dy	Arakkal kingdom (Kerala Sultanate, Kingdom of Cannanore, Sultanate of Laccadive and Cannanore) was a Muslim kingdom in Kannur town in Kannur district, in the state of Kerala, South India. The king was called Ali Raja ("the Sea Ruler") and the ruling queen was called Arakkal Beevi. Arakkal kingdom included little more than the Cannanore town and the southern Laccadive Islands (Agatti, Kavaratti, Androth and Kalpeni, as well as Minicoy), originally leased from the Kolattiri. The royal family is said to be originally a branch of the Kolattiri, descended from a princess of that family who converted to Islam. They owed allegiance to the Kolattiri rulers, whose ministers they had been at one time. • Established 1545, • Annexed to British India 1819. As the only Muslim rulers in Malabar, they saw the rise of Hyder Ali, de facto ruler of the Mysore Sultanate as the opportunity to increase their own power at the expense of Chirakkal, and invited him to invade Kerala. Ali Raja Kunhi Amsa II and his successor, Arakkal Bibi Junumabe II, were among Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan's staunchest allies during the Mysorean occupation of malabar. Afsal Ashraf (Arakkal Sultan) is a living descendant of the Arakkal dynasty at Konni in Pathanamthitta district.
56	1545	22 May	E	Death of Sher Shah Suri and succeeded by Islam Shah Suri.
57	1546		Co	The Second Siege of Diu (1546) was a siege of the Portuguese Indian city of Diu by the Gujarat Sultanate in 1546. It ended with a major Portuguese victory. At the beginning of the 16th century, the Muslim Sultanate of Gujarat was the principal seapower in India. Gujarat fought the Portuguese fleets in collaboration with the Mamluks. The Portuguese were defeated by a combined Mamluk-Gujarati fleet in 1508, which was in turn destroyed by a Portuguese fleet in the Battle of Diu (1509). By 1536, the Portuguese had gained complete control of Diu, while Gujarat was under attack from the Mughals. In 1538, the Ottomans, who had taken over Egypt (1517) and Aden (1538), joined hands with the Gujarat Sultanate to launch an anti-Portuguese offensive. They besieged Diu in 1538, but had to retreat. After the failed siege of 1538, the Gujarati General Khadjar Safar besieged Diu again in an attempt to recapture the island. The siege lasted seven months from 20 April 1546 to 10 November 1546, during which João de Mascarenhas defended Diu. The siege ended when a Portuguese fleet under Governor João de Castro arrived and routed the attackers. Khadjar Safar and his son Muharram Rumi Khan (who were probably of Albanian origin) were both killed during the siege.
58	1552	26 May	R	Guru Amar Das becomes third Guru of Sikhs.
59	1554	22 Nov	E	Death of Islam Shah Suri.
60	1555	22 May	BS	Humayun regained the throne of Delhi from the hands of weak successors of Sher Shah.
61	1556	5 Nov	BS	The Second Battle of Panipat (5 November 1556) was fought on 5 November 1556, between the Hindu emperor of north India, Hemu, and the forces of the Mughal emperor Akbar. Hemu had conquered the states of Delhi and Agra a few weeks earlier by defeating the Mughals led by Tardi Beg Khan at the Battle of Delhi and proclaimed himself Raja Vikramaditya at a coronation in Purana Quila in Delhi. Akbar and his guardian Bairam Khan who, after learning of the loss of Agra and Delhi, marched to Panipat to reclaim the lost territories. The two armies clashed at Panipat not far from the site of the First Battle of Panipat of 1526. Hemu and his forces held the numerical superiority. However, Hemu was wounded by an arrow in the middle of the battle and fell unconscious. Seeing their leader going down, his army panicked and dispersed. Unconscious and almost dead, Hemu was captured and subsequently beheaded by Bairam Khan. The battle ended in a decisive Mughal victory.
62	1556		E	Humayun converts from Sunni Islam to Shia Islam, to gain the alliance of the Shah of Persia. Humayun dies, and is succeeded by his son Akbar. Akbar (1542-1605), grandson of Babur, becomes third Mughal Emperor at age 13. Disestablishes Islam as state religion and declares himself impartial ruler of Hindus and Muslims; encourages art, culture, religious tolerance.
63	1559	1606	BS	List of battles of Rajasthan#During the Mughal Empire: Battle of Ajmer (1559) – Akbar's general Qasim Khan annexed Ajmer from Maldeo Rathore. Battle of Merta (1562) – Akbar with the help of Rajas from Bikaner and Amer defeated Rao Chandra Sen and captured Merta. First Mughal Invasion of Marwar (1562–1583) – Akbar invaded Marwar and occupied Jodhpur. The ruler Rao Chandra Sen continued his struggle until his death in 1581 after which Marwar submitted to Mughal rule in 1583. Siege of Chittorgarh (1567) – Akbar defeated Rao Jaimal and Patta (Rajasthan) (Udai Singh II escaped with his family to Udaipur) Siege of Ranthambore (1568) – A successful siege by Akbar causes the Rajput leader Rao Surjan Hada to surrender Ranthambore Fort. Siege of Siwana (1572) – In 1572 the powerful fort of Siwana which served as Rao Chandrasens capital was captured by the Mughals after a siege of 8 months. Battle of Haldighati (1576) – Maharana Pratap defeated by Akbar. Battle of Dewair (1582) – Maharana Pratap fought against Akbar's Mughals army and defeated them 36,000 mughals surrendered. Battle of Dewair (1606) – Fought in a valley 40 km from Kumbalgarh. Rana Amar Singh defeated and killed Sultan Khan, the Mughal prince Muhammad Parviz fled from the battlefield with his commander Asaf Khan.
64	1565	23 Jan	BS	The Battle of Talikota (23 January 1565) was a watershed battle fought between the Vijayanagara Empire and an alliance of the Deccan sultanates. The defeat of Aliya Rama Raya led to the eventual collapse of the polity and reconfigured Deccan politics. Rama Raya, after his installation of a patrimonial state and emerging as the ruler, adopted a political strategy of benefiting from the internecine warfare among the multiple successors of the Bahmani Sultanate, and it worked well for about twenty years of his reign. Kalyan was the capital of the Chalukyas. Rama Raya sought to control the territory in his bid to gain popular legitimacy by establishing himself as the true heir to Chalukya sovereignty and glory. Other examples included retrofitting of decayed Chalukya complexes and bringing back Chalukya festivals. However, after a series of aggressive efforts to maintain hold over Kalyan and diplomatic dealings with the Sultanates laden with insulting gestures, the four Muslim Sultanates – Hussain Nizam Shah I and Ali Adil Shah I of Ahmadnagar and Bijapur to the west, Ali Barid Shah I of Bidar in the center, and Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah Wali of Golkonda to the east – united in the wake of shrewd marital diplomacy and convened to attack Aliya Rama Raya, in late January 1565. The surviving Vijaynagar forces fled with a large treasury to re-establish their headquarters at Vellore Fort in Tamil Nadu and Chandragiri (Andhra Pradesh) near Tirupathi. It would be here that the British would seek a land grant to establish the English East India Company Fort St. George in Madras.
65	1568		R	Paradesi Synagogue, the first Jewish synagogue in India constructed by the Paradesi Jews.
66	1569		BS	Akbar captures fortress of Ranthambor, ending Rajput independence. Soon controls nearly all of Rajasthan.
67	1572		BS	Akbar annexes Gujarat, also shifts the Mughal capital to Fatehpur Sikri where a new township and citadel containing buildings of a unique all-India character—inspired by the architecture of Bengal, Gujarat, Malwa, Kashmir as well as the Timurid world—is born.
68	1574	1 Sep	R	Guru Ram Das becomes fourth Guru of Sikhs.
69	1574		BS	Akbar annexes Bengal.
70	1581	1 Sep	R	Guru Arjan Dev becomes fifth Guru of Sikhs.
71	1581		R	The Golden Temple: Groundbreaking – December 1581 Completed – 1589 (Temple), 1604 (with Adi Granth) The Golden Temple, also known as Harmandir Sahib, meaning "abode of God" or Darbār Sahib, meaning "exalted court", is a gurdwara located in the city of Amritsar, Punjab, India. It is the preeminent spiritual site of Sikhism. The gurdwara is built around a man-made pool (sarovar) that was completed by the fourth Sikh Guru, Guru Ram Das in 1577. Guru Arjan, the fifth Guru of Sikhism, requested Sai Mir Mian Mohammed, a Muslim Pir of Lahore, to lay its foundation stone in 1589. In 1604, Guru Arjan placed a copy of the Adi Granth in Harmandir Sahib. The Gurdwara was repeatedly rebuilt by the Sikhs after it became a target of persecution and was destroyed several times by the Mughal and invading Afghan armies. Maharaja Ranjit Singh after founding the Sikh Empire, rebuilt it in marble and copper in 1809, overlaid the sanctum with Gold foil in 1830. This has led to the name the Golden Temple.
72	1582		BS	Maharana Pratap defeats Mughal Forces of Akbar in Battle of Dewair in present-day Rajasthan
73	1586	6 Oct	BS	Akbar annexes Kashmir.
74	1588		BE	In 1588 the English fleet defeats the Spanish Armada and establishes the superiority of English ships and seamanship. England is now ready to enter the race for overseas trade and possessions.
75	1588		BE	Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean. Permission was granted and in 1591, three ships sailed from Torbay around the Cape of Good Hope to the Arabian Sea on one of the earliest English overseas Indian expeditions. In 1596, three more ships sailed east but were all lost at sea. In 1599, another group of merchants that eventually became known as the Adventurers stated their intention to sail to the East Indies and applied to the Queen for support of the project. Although their first attempt had not been completely successful, they nonetheless sought the Queen’s unofficial approval to continue, bought ships for their venture, and increased their capital. East India Company#Formation: The Adventurers convened again a year later. This time they succeeded and on December 31, 1600, the Queen granted a Royal charter to “George, Earl of Cumberland, and 215 Knights, Aldermen, and Burgesses” under the name "Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies". For 15 years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a license from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo (half of which went to the Crown and the other half to the Company), as well as imprisonment at the “royal pleasure.”
76	1589		E	Akbar rules half of India, shows tolerance for all faiths.
77	1595		R	Construction is begun on Chidambaram Temple's Hall of a Thousand Pillars in South India, completed in 1685.
78	1595		R	Sri Raghavendra Tirtha (1595 – 1671) was a Hindu scholar, theologian and saint. He was also known as Sudha Parimalacharya. His diverse oeuvre include commentaries on the works of Madhva, Jayatirtha and Vyasatirtha, interpretation of the Principal Upanishads from the standpoint of Dvaita and a treatise on Purva Mimamsa. He served as the pontiff of matha at Kumbakonam from 1624 to 1671. Sri Raghavendra swamy was also an accomplished player of the Veena and he composed several songs under the name of Venu Gopala. His shrine at Mantralayam attracts thousands of visitors every year.
79	1599		Co	The Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies, became much more widely known as the East India Company. The Company’s charter was a unique case in which colonial power was wielded entirely by a private corporation under license from the British government. It expanded from a few small settlements, eliminated its competitors, among them the Dutch and French, and gradually extended its control until it commanded the entire subcontinent. The company initially devoted its energy exclusively to expanding its trading influence, but over time it resorted more and more often to military force to achieve its objectives, sometimes, but by no means always, in an attempt to bring peace to the country. In the aftermath of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Company was dissolved and the British Indian Empire began. It was this period that became known as the British Raj, but over time the term has been more generally applied to the entire colonial period. Later, in 1876, Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India. This status remained until India won its independence in 1947, and was partitioned.
80	1600		E	"Persian wheel" to lift water by oxen is adopted, one of few farming innovations since Indus Valley civilization.
81	1600	1947	Dy	Dynasties in India during the period 1600 ~ 1947, (List of Indian monarchs): Barid Shahi dynasty (1489–1619) Adil Shahi dynasty (1490–1686) Nizam Shahi dynasty (1490–1636) Qutb Shahi dynasty (1518–1687) Ahom dynasty of Assam (1228–1826) Manikya dynasty (c. 1400–1949) Baro-Bhuyan (1576–1632) Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646) Gatti Mudalis (15th–17th century) Mysore, Wodeyar dynasty (first rule, 1371–1761) Mysore, Hyder Ali's dynasty (1761–1799) Mysore, Wodeyar dynasty (second rule, 1799–1950) Maharajas of Cochin (1503–1964) Mughal Empire (1526–1857) Sisodia (728–1947) Chogyal rulers of Sikkim and Ladakh (1642–1975)
82	1600	1947	Dy	Dynasties in India during the period 1600 ~ 1947, (List of Indian monarchs): Maratha Empire (1674–1818) – Chattrapati Shivaji Maharaj era – Bhosale Chhatrapatis at Kolhapur (1700–1947) – Bhosale Chhatrapatis at Satara (1707–1839) – The Peshwas (1713–1858) – Bhosale Maharajas of Thanjavur (?–1799) – Bhosale Maharajas of Nagpur (1799–1881) – Holkar rulers of Indore (1731–1948) – Scindia of Gwalior (1731–1947) – Gaekwad dynasty of Baroda (1721–1947)
83	1600	1947	Dy	Dynasties in India during the period 1600 ~ 1947, (List of Indian monarchs): The Muslim vassals of the Mughal / British Paramountcy (1707–1856) – Nawabs of Bengal (1707–1770) – Nawabs of Oudh (1719–1858) – Nizams of Hyderabad (1720–1948)
84	1600	1947	Dy	Dynasties in India during the period 1600 ~ 1947, (List of Indian monarchs): Kingdom of Travancore (1729–1949) Sikh Empire (1801–1849)
85	1600	1947	Dy	Hindu Dynasties in India during the period 1600 ~ 1947, (List of Hindu empires and dynasties): (Note: Kingdoms that acted as princely states to the British Empire are not mentioned except for the time period when they exercised sovereign control.) Nagvanshi Dynasty (83–1952) Mallabhum Kingdom (694–1800) Limbuwan (7th century −1774) Chero dynasty (12–18 century) Sutiya Kingdom (1187–1673) Malla Dynasty (1200–1768) Ahom kingdom (1228–1826) Sena Dynasty (13–18 century) Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646) Kallala dynasty (1404–1789)
86	1600	1947	Dy	Hindu Dynasties in India during the period 1600 ~ 1947, (List of Hindu empires and dynasties): (Note: Kingdoms that acted as princely states to the British Empire are not mentioned except for the time period when they exercised sovereign control.) Koch dynasty (1515–1949) Madurai Nayak dynasty (1529–1736) Thanjavur Nayak kingdom (1532–1673) Gorkha Kingdom, Nepal (1559–1768) Raj Darbhanga (1577–1947) Maratha Empire (1674–1818) Pudukkottai Kingdom (1680–1800) Sivaganga Kingdom (1725–1733) Kingdom of Nepal (1768–2008) Dogra dynasty (1846–1952)
87	1600	1947	Dy	George VI, (Albert Frederick Arthur George; 14 December 1895 – 6 February 1952) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death in 1952. He was concurrently the last emperor of India until August 1947, when the British Raj was dissolved. He retained the title "Emperor of India" until 22 June 1948.
88	1600		BE	31 December 1600 British Royal charter forms East India Company, beginning the process that will lead to the subjugation of India under British rule. Queen Elizabeth I granted a charter to the East India Company establishing trading posts in cities across India.
89	1602	1664	Dy	Shahaji Bhosale (c. 1602–1664) was a military leader of 17th century India, who served the Ahmadnagar Sultanate, the Bijapur Sultanate, and the Mughal Empire at various points in his career. A member of the Bhonsle clan, Shahaji inherited the Pune and Supe jagirs (fiefs) from his father Maloji, who served Ahmadnagar. During the Mughal invasion of Deccan, he joined the Mughal forces and served Emperor Shah Jahan for a brief period. After being deprived of his jagirs, he defected to the Bijapur Sultanate in 1632 and regained control over Pune and Supe. In 1638, he also received the jagir of Bangalore, after Bijapur's invasion of Kempe Gowda III's territories. He eventually became the chief general of Bijapur and oversaw its expansion. His father died in a battle while fighting on the side of Nizamashah, hence he and his brother Sharifji were raised by Maloji's brother, Vithoji Raje. An early exponent of guerrilla warfare, he brought the house of Bhosale into prominence. He was father of Shivaji, the founder of Maratha Empire. The princely states of Tanjore, Kolhapur, and Satara are also Bhosale legacies.
90	1603	1607	BE	Elizabeth I’s successor is James VI and I, King of Scotland. After succeeding to the throne in 1603 he lays plans to colonize North America. The first permanent English settlement on the continent is Jamestown Colony, Virginia, founded in 1607.
91	1605	1825	Co	Dutch Colonization (Dutch India): Dutch India consisted of the settlements and trading posts of the Dutch East India Company on the Indian subcontinent. It is only used as a geographical definition, as there was never a political authority ruling all Dutch India. Instead, Dutch India was divided into the governorates Dutch Ceylon and Dutch Coromandel, the commandment Dutch Malabar, and the directorates Dutch Bengal and Dutch Suratte. The Dutch Indies, on the other hand, were the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia) and the Dutch West Indies (present-day Suriname and the former Netherlands Antilles).
92	1605	1825	Co	Dutch Colonization (Dutch India): In the second half of the eighteenth century the Dutch lost their influence more and more. The Kew Letters relinquished all Dutch colonies to the British, to prevent them from being overrun by the French. In the famous Battle of Colachel (1741), Travancore king Marthanda Varma's army defeated the Dutch East India Company, resulting in the complete eclipse of Dutch power in Malabar. Although Dutch Coromandel and Dutch Bengal were restored to Dutch rule by virtue of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, they returned to British rule owing to the provisions of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. Under the terms of the treaty, all transfers of property and establishments were to take place on 1 March 1825. By the middle of 1825, therefore, the Dutch had lost their last trading posts in India.
93	1605	27 Oct	E	Akbar dies, and is succeeded by his son Jahangir.
94	1606	25 May	R	Guru Hargobind becomes sixth guru of Sikhs.
95	1608		P	In 1608, Mughal authorities allowed the English East India Company to establish a small trading settlement at Surat (now in the state of Gujarat), and this became the company's first headquarters town.
96	1611		P	It was followed in 1611 by a permanent factory at Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast, and in 1612 the company joined other already established European trading companies in Bengal in trade. "Factory (trading post)" (from Latin facere, meaning "to do"; Portuguese: feitoria; Dutch: factorij; French: factorerie, comptoir) was the common name during the medieval and early modern eras for an entrepôt – which was essentially an early form of free-trade zone or transshipment point. At a factory, local inhabitants could interact with foreign merchants, often known as factors. First established in Europe, factories eventually spread to many other parts of the world. The factories established by European states in Africa, Asia and the Americas from the 15th century onward also tended to be official political dependencies of those states. These have been seen, in retrospect, as the precursors of colonial expansion.
97	1612	1757	Co	British East India Company: The East India Company (EIC) was an English and later British joint-stock company founded in 1600. It was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia), and later with Qing China. The company seized control of large parts of the Indian subcontinent, colonised parts of Southeast Asia and Hong Kong after the First Opium War, and maintained trading posts and colonies in the Persian Gulf Residencies. The company is also known as the Honourable East India Company (HEIC), East India Trading Company (EITC), the English East India Company or (after 1707) the British East India Company, and informally known as John Company, Company Bahadur, or simply The Company. Originally chartered as the "Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East-Indies", the company rose to account for half of the world's trade during the mid-1700s and early 1800s, particularly in basic commodities including cotton, silk, indigo dye, sugar, salt, spices, saltpetre, tea, and opium. The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India.
98	1612		P	Britain begins presence when East India Company began to open trading posts in the north. The British East India Company — the Company that Owned a Nation (or Two): The East India Company is, or rather was, an anomaly without a parallel in the history of the world. It originated from sub-scriptions, trifling in amount, of a few private individuals. It gradually became a commercial body with gigantic resources, and by the force of unforeseen circumstances assumed the form of a sovereign power, while those by whom its affairs were directed continued, in their individual capacities, to be without power or political influence. — Bentley's Miscellany 43 (1858). It is a cliché that the Company was a foreign force that imposed itself on Indians, and using its corporate power established an evil rule. The problem with that argument is that many wealthy and influential Indians wanted the Company’s rule. Most Bengalis of the time would not even have seen the British as any more foreign than was the Persian-speaking Nawab. Of course, corporate power helped the Company. But this organization was nothing without Indian help. Its trading operation could never have survived without the collaboration and partnership of thousands of Indian merchants, agents, artisans, bankers and transporters. The Company was the biggest business firm in the world of its time. Some of the most famous entrepreneurs and business families of nineteenth-century India made their money trading with the Company or with European merchants. The Indian merchants and intellectuals of the port cities almost unanimously welcomed company rule. That support — and not Robert Clive’s plunder — helped the British power survive in India. —Tirthankar Roy.
99	1612		P	The British East India Company — the Company that Owned a Nation (or Two): One of the strangest parts of the history of the British Empire involves that commercial venture generally known as the East India Company, though its original name when founded by royal charter on the very last day of 1600 was the Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies. As its name suggests, the company was the enterprise of London businessmen who banded together to make money importing spices from South Asia. For centuries the valuable spice trade with the East Indies (as they were long known) relied on land routes across Asia and the Middle East, but by the sixteenth century, the superior navigational technology and skills of the Portuguese for the first time permitted Europeans to cut out intermediaries and hence make themselves far greater profits. The Spanish and Portuguese had a monopoly of the East Indies spice trade until destruction of the Spanish Armada in 1588, which permitted the British and Dutch to seek their share of this wealthy import business. The company with the long name first entered the spice trade in the form of an old-fashioned or early capitalist venture, essentially conducting each voyage as a separate business venture with its own subsribers or stock-holders. This approach lasted for a dozen years, and then in 1612 the company switched to temporary joint stocks and finally to permanent joint stocks in 1657. Supposedly a monopoly, the company evenentually faced competition from another group of English investors and merchants, and the two merged in 1708 as the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the [[East Indies]. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, The company met with opposition from the Dutch in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) and the Portuguese. The Dutch virtually excluded company members from the East Indies after the Amboina Massacre in 1623 (an incident in which English, Japanese, and Portuguese traders were executed by Dutch authorities), but the company's defeat of the Portuguese in India (1612) won them trading concessions from the Mughal Empire. The company settled down to a trade in cotton and silk piece goods, indigo, and saltpetre, with spices from South India. It extended its activities to the Persian Gulf, Southeast Asia, and East Asia.
100	1612		P	The British East India Company — the Company that Owned a Nation (or Two): English traders frequently engaged in hostilities with their Dutch and Portuguese counterparts in the Indian Ocean. The Company decided to gain a territorial foothold in mainland India with official sanction from both Britain and the Mughal Empire. The requested diplomatic mission launched by James VI and I in 1612 arranged for a commercial treaty that would give the Company exclusive rights to reside and establish factories in Surat and other areas. While Portuguese and Spanish influences in the region were soon eliminated, competition against the Dutch resulted in the Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th and 18th centuries.
101	1612		P	The British East India Company — the Company that Owned a Nation (or Two): The company's encounters with foreign competitors eventually required it to assemble its own military and administrative departments, thereby becoming an imperial power in its own right, though the British government began to reign it in by the late eighteenth century. Before Parliament created a government-controlled policy-making body with the Regulating Act of 1773 and the India Act eleven years later, shareholders' meetings made decisions about Britain's de facto colonies in the East. The British government took away the Company's monopoly in 1813, and after 1834 it worked as the government's agency until the 1857 India Mutiny when the Colonial Office took full control. The East India Company went out of existence in 1873. During its heyday, the East India Company not only established trade through Asia and the Middle East but also effectively became of the ruler of territories vastly larger than the United Kingdom itself. In addition, it also created, rather than conquered, colonies. Singapore, for example, was an island with very few Malay inhabitants in 1819 when Sir Stamford Raffles purchased it for the Company from their ruler, the Sultan of Johor, and created what eventually became one of the world's greatest trans-shipment ports.
102	1612		Pr	Presidencies, Provinces, Princely States, (Presidencies and provinces of British India): The Provinces of India, earlier Presidencies of British India and still earlier, Presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in India. Collectively, they have been called British India. In one form or another, they existed between 1612 and 1947, conventionally divided into three historical periods – 1612 and 1757 – East India Company 1757 and 1858 – Company Rule 1858 and 1947 – British Raj In this sense, "British India" did not include the princely states directly ruled by Indian princes, though under a close eye from the British authorities.
103	1612	1757	Pr	Presidencies, Provinces, Princely States, (Presidencies and provinces of British India): Between 1612 and 1757 the East India Company set up "factories" (trading posts) in several locations, mostly in coastal India, with the consent of the Mughal emperors, Maratha empire or local rulers. Its rivals were the merchant trading companies of Portugal, Denmark, the Netherlands, and France. By the mid-18th century three Presidency towns: Madras, Bombay and Calcutta, had grown in size.
104	1613		P	1613 – 1614 Sir William Hawkins: British East India Company sets up factory in Masulipatnam and trading post in Surat under Willian Hawkins. William Hawkins (fl. c. 1600) was a representative of the English East India Company notable for being the commander of Hector, the first company ship to anchor at Surat in India on 24 August 1608. Hawkins travelled to Agra to negotiate consent for a factory from Emperor Jahangir in 1609. Thomas Roe#Ambassador to the Mughal Empire: Sir Thomas Roe presents his credentials as ambassador of King James I to the Mughal Emperor Jahangir. The East India Company persuaded King James I to send Roe as a royal envoy to the Agra court of the Great Mughal Emperor, Jahangir. Roe resided at Agra for three years, until 1619. At the Mughal court, Roe allegedly became a favourite of Jahangir and may have been his drinking partner; certainly he arrived with gifts of "many crates of red wine" and explained to him "What beere was? How made?". The immediate result of the mission was to obtain permission and protection for an East India Company factory at Surat. While no major trading privileges were conceded by Jahingir, "Roe's mission was the beginning of a Mughal-Company relationship that would develop into something approaching a partnership and see the EIC gradually drawn into the Mughal nexus". While Roe's detailed journals are a valuable source of information on Jahangir's reign, the Emperor did not return the favour, with no mention of Roe in his own voluminous diaries.
105	1615		Co	French India#History: The first French commercial venture to India is believed to have taken place in the first half of the 16th century, in the reign of King Francis I, when two ships were fitted out by some merchants of Rouen to trade in eastern seas; they sailed from Le Havre and were never heard of again. In 1604 a company was granted letters patent by King Henry IV, but the project failed. Fresh letters patent were issued in 1615, and two ships went to India, only one returning.
106	1615		P	1615 – 1618 Mughals grant Britain the right to trade and establish factories. The tenth year of the reign of Jahangir was rendered memorable by the arrival of Sir Thomas Roe, as ambassador from James, the king of England, to solicit privileges for the East India Company, then recently established. He landed at Surat, and proceeded by slow journeys to the court, then held at Ajmere, where he was received with greater distinction than had been conferred on any foreign envoy. Thomas Roe was fascinated by the oriental magnificence of the court, which so completely eclipsed the tinsel pomp of that of his own master. He was dazzled with the profusion of gold and jewels on every side, and, not least, with those which adorned the foreheads of the royal elephants. The emperor dispensed justice daily in person; but he retired in the evening to his cups, which he never left while there was any reason left in him. He was maudlin and easy, and his courtiers were universally corrupt and unprincipled. Military discipline had decayed after the death of Akbar, and the only good soldiers in the army were the Rajpoots and the Afghans. There was a large influx of Europeans at the capital, and so greatly was Christianity encouraged, that one of the emperor’s nephews had embraced it, and the Emperor himself had an image of Christ and the Virgin in his rosary.
107	1616		BS	Susenghphaa, ruler of the Ahom kingdom defeats Mughal forces in a land and naval battle at Bharali, Assam.
108	1619		E	Jaffna kingdom is annexed and Sri Lanka's ruling dynasty deposed by Portuguese Catholics who, between 1505 and 1658, destroy most of the island's Hindu temples.
109	1620	1869	Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India): Danish India was the name given to the colonies of Denmark (Denmark–Norway before 1814) in India, forming part of the Danish colonial empire. Denmark–Norway held colonial possessions in India for more than 200 years, including the town of Tharangambadi in present-day Tamil Nadu state, Serampore in present-day West Bengal, and the Nicobar Islands, currently part of India's union territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Danish and Norwegian presence in India was of little significance to the major European powers as they presented neither a military nor a mercantile threat. Dano-Norwegian ventures in India, as elsewhere, were typically undercapitalised and never able to dominate or monopolise trade routes in the same way that British, French, and Portuguese ventures could.
110	1620		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India): Danish trade director, Robert Crappe and 13 of his crew escaped a ship wreck, making it to shore where they were captured by Indians and taken to the Nayak of Tanjore (now Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu). The Nayak (Raghunatha Nayak) turned out to be interested in trading opportunities, and Crappe negotiated a treaty granting them the village of Tranquebar (or Tharangamabadi), the right to construct a "stone house" (Fort Dansborg), and permission to levy taxes. This was signed as treaty of 19 November 1620. In Tranquebar they established Dansborg and installed Captain Crappe as the first governor (opperhoved) of Danish India. The treaty was renewed on 30 July 1621, and afterwards renewed and confirmed on the 10 May 1676, by Shivaji the founder of the Maratha Empire.
111	1620		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India): Fort Dansborg (Danish: Dansborg), locally called Danish Fort (Tamil: டேனியக் கோட்டை, romanized: Ṭēṉiyak kōṭṭai), is a Danish fort located in the shores of Bay of Bengal in Tranquebar (Tharangambadi) in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Fort Dansborg was built in the land ceded by Thanjavur king Ragunatha Nayak in an agreement with Danish Admiral Ove Gjedde in 1620 and acted as the base for Danish settlement in the region during the early 17th century. The fort is the second largest Danish fort after Kronborg. The fort was sold to the British in 1845 and along with Tranquebar, the fort lost its significance as the town was not an active trading post for the British.
112	1625		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India): By 1625 a factory had been established at Masulipatnam (present-day Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh), the most important emporium in the region. Lesser trading offices were established at Pipli and Balasore. Despite this, by 1627 the colony was in such a poor financial state that it had just three ships left and was unable to pay the agreed-upon tribute to the Nayak, increasing local tensions. The Danish-Norwegian presence was also unwanted by English and Dutch traders who believed them to be operating under the protection of their navies without bearing any of the costs. Despite this, they could not crush Danish-Norwegian trade, due to diplomatic implications related to their respective nations' involvement in the European wars.
113	1627	28 Oct	E	Jahangir announces "Chain of Justice" outside his palace that anyone can ring the bell and get a personal hearing with the emperor. Jahangir's constitution was completely exhausted by a life of indulgence, and expired in Lahore on the 28th of October, 1627, in the sixtieth year of his age. He was contemporary with James I the First of England. Not only was their reign of the same duration, but there was a remarkable accordance in their characters. They were both equally weak and contemptible, both the slaves of favourites and of drink, and, by a singular coincidence, they both launched a royal decree against the use of tobacco, then recently introduced into England and India, and, in both cases, with the same degree of success.
114	1628	1633	Co	Portuguese East India Company: The Portuguese East India Company (Portuguese: Companhia do commércio da Índia or Companhia da Índia Oriental) was a short-lived ill-fated attempt by Philip III of Portugal to create a national chartered company to ensure the security of Portuguese interests in India in the face of increasing influence by the Dutch and English following the personal union of the Portuguese and Spanish Crowns.
115	1630		E	Over the next two years, millions starve to death as Shah Jahan (1592-1666), fifth Mughal Emperor, empties the royal treasury to buy jewels for his "Peacock Throne".
116	1630	6 Aug	E	Life of Sivaji, valiant general and tolerant founder of Hindu Maratha Empire (1674-1818). Emancipates large areas confiscated by Muslims, returning them to Hindu control. First Indian ruler to build a major naval force. Shivaji Bhonsale I (19 February 1630 – 3 April 1680), also referred to as Chhatrapati Shivaji, was an Indian ruler and a member of the Bhonsle Maratha clan. Shivaji carved out an enclave from the declining Adilshahi sultanate of Bijapur that formed the genesis of the Maratha Empire. In 1674, he was formally crowned the Chhatrapati (emperor) of his realm at Raigad. Over the course of his life, Shivaji engaged in both alliances and hostilities with the Mughal Empire, the Sultanate of Golkonda and the Sultanate of Bijapur, as well as with European colonial powers. Shivaji's military forces expanded the Maratha sphere of influence, capturing and building forts, and forming a Maratha navy. Shivaji established a competent and progressive civil rule with well-structured administrative organisations. He revived ancient Hindu political traditions and court conventions and promoted the usage of the Marathi language. Shivaji's legacy was to vary by observer and time, but nearly two centuries after his death, he began to take on increased importance with the emergence of the Indian independence movement, as many Indian nationalists elevated him as a proto-nationalist and hero of the Hindus.
117	1639		T	Fort St. George, India (or historically, White Town) is the first English (later British) fortress in India, founded in 1639 at the coastal city of Madras, the modern city of Chennai. The construction of the fort provided the impetus for further settlements and trading activity, in what was originally an uninhabited land. Thus, it is a feasible contention to say that the city evolved around the fortress. The East India Company (EIC), which had entered India around 1600 for trading activities, had begun licensed trading at Surat, which was its initial bastion. However, to secure its trade lines and commercial interests in the spice trade, it felt the necessity of a port closer to the Malaccan Straits, and succeeded in purchasing a piece of coastal land, originally called Chennirayarpattinam or Channapatnam, where the Company began the construction of a harbour and a fort. The fort was completed on 23 April 1644 at a cost of £3,000, coinciding with St George's Day, celebrated in honour of the patron saint of England. The fort, hence christened Fort St George, faced the sea and some fishing villages, and it soon became the hub of merchant activity. It gave birth to a new settlement area called George Town (historically referred to as Black Town), which grew to envelop the villages and led to the formation of the city of Madras. It also helped to establish English influence over the Carnatic and to keep the kings of Arcot and Srirangapatna, as well as the French forces based at Pondichéry, at bay. In 1665, after the EIC received word of the formation of the new French East India Company, the fort was strengthened and enlarged while its garrison was increased.
118	1640		BS	Rani Karnavati of the Garhwal Kingdom repels and defeats invasion attempt by Mughal army of Shah Jahan. Though King Mahipati Shah died young in 1631, after his death his Rani Karnavati, ruled the kingdom on the behalf of her very young seven-year-old son, Prithvipati Shah. She ruled over for many years to come, during which she successfully defend the kingdom against invaders and repelled an attack of Mughal army of Shah Jahan led by Najabat Khan in 1640, over the time she earned the nickname 'Nakti Rani' (Nak-Kati-Rani) as she had the habit of cutting the noses of the invaders, as the Mughal invaders of the period realised.
119	1640		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India#Dutch influence (1640-1649)): Denmark-Norway attempt to sell Fort Dansborg to the Dutch for a second time.
120	1640	1948	Pr	Arni Jagir was a Jagir and a permanently settled zamindari estate that existed in the North Arcot subdivision of the North Arcot district of the erstwhile Madras Presidency in British India from 1640 to 1948. Arni jagir was granted to Vedaji Bhaskar Rao Pant by the Shahaji in 1640. Shivaji having failed in his negotiation, Sultanate of Bijapur took Arni and various other forts, and forcibly occupied the whole of Shahji's jagir in the Mysore. The Jagir of Arni was again granted as a gift to Vedaji Bhaskar pant by the Sultanate of Bijapur. After the Battle of Arnee, a treaty was signed in 1762 between the Nawab of Arcot and Pratap Singh, Rajah of Tanjore. This was guaranteed by the Government of Fort St. George and confirmed by the East India Company. This once again restored and confirmed the Jagir to Thirumala I Rao Sahib under the 5th Article of the Treaty.
121	1642		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India#Dutch influence (1640-1649)): Danish-Norway colony declares war on Mughal Empire and commences raiding ships in the Bay of Bengal. Within a few months they had captured one of the Mogul emperor's vessels, incorporated it into their fleet (renamed Bengali Prize) and sold the goods in Tranquebar for a substantial profit.
122	1643		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India#Dutch influence (1640-1649)): Willem Leyel, designated the new leader of the colony by the company directors in Copenhagen arrives aboard the Christianshavn. Holland and Sweden declare war on Denmark-Norway.
123	1644		E	Shivaji takes oath of Independence at Raireshwar.
124	1644	8 Mar	R	Guru Har Rai becomes seventh guru of Sikhs.
125	1645		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India#Dutch influence (1640-1649)): Danish-Norway factory holdings fall increasingly under Dutch control. The Nayak of Tanjore sends small bands to raid Tranquebar.
126	1647		Co	British Colonization – Expansion: The Company, which benefited from the imperial patronage, soon expanded its commercial trading operations, eclipsing the Portuguese Estado da Índia, which had established bases in Goa, Chittagong, and Bombay. Portugal later ceded this land to England as part of the dowry of Catherine de Braganza, King Charles II’s wife. The East India Company (EIC) also launched a joint attack with the Dutch United East India Company on Portuguese and Spanish ships off the coast of China, which helped secure their ports in China. By 1647, the company had 23 factories and 90 employees in India. The major factories became the walled forts of Fort William in Bengal, Fort St George in Madras, and Bombay Castle. With reduced Portuguese and Spanish influence in the region, the EIC and Dutch East India Company entered a period of intense competition, resulting in the Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th and 18th centuries.
127	1647		E	Shah Jahan completes Taj Mahal in Agra beside Yamuna River. Its construction has taken 20,000 laborers 15 years, at a total cost equivalence of US$25 million.
128	1648		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India#Dutch influence (1640-1649)): Christian IV, patron of the colony, dies. Danish East India Company bankrupt.
129	1650		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India#Abandonment and isolation (1650–1669)): Although the company had been abolished, the colony was a royal property and still held by a garrison unaware of court developments back at home. As the number of Danes-Norwegians declined through desertions and illness, Portuguese and Portuguese-Indian natives were hired to garrison the fort until eventually, by 1655, Eskild Anderson Kongsbakke was the commander and sole remaining Dane in Tranquebar.
130	1650		R	Roberto de Nobili (1577-1656), Portuguese Jesuit missionary noted for fervor and intolerance, arrives in Madurai, declares himself a brahmin, dresses like a Hindu monk and composes Veda-like scripture extolling Jesus.
131	1651		BE	Navigation Acts#Navigation Act 1651: The great Navigation Act is passed. This and other Navigation Acts eventually create a closed economy between Britain and its colonies. All colonial exports have to be shipped on English ships to the British market, and all colonial imports have to come by way of England. The Navigation Act 1651, long titled An Act for increase of Shipping, and Encouragement of the Navigation of this Nation, was passed on 9 October 1651 by the Rump Parliament led by Oliver Cromwell. It authorized the Commonwealth to regulate England's international trade, as well as the trade with its colonies. It reinforced long-standing principles of national policy that English trade and fisheries should be carried in English vessels. The Act banned foreign ships from transporting goods from Asia, Africa or America to England or its colonies; only ships with an English owner, master and a majority English crew would be accepted. It allowed European ships to import their own products, but banned foreign ships from transporting goods to England from a third country elsewhere in the European sphere. The Act also prohibited the import and export of salted fish in foreign ships, and penalized foreign ships carrying fish and wares between English posts. Breaking the terms of the act would result in the forfeiture of the ship and its cargo. These rules specifically targeted the Dutch, who controlled much of Europe's international trade and even much of England's coastal shipping. It excluded the Dutch from essentially all direct trade with England, as the Dutch economy was competitive with, not complementary to the English, and the two countries, therefore, exchanged few commodities. This Anglo-Dutch trade, however, constituted only a small fraction of total Dutch trade flows.
132	1655		BE	Invasion of Jamaica: An expedition sent by Oliver Cromwell wrests control of Jamaica from Spain. English settlers bring in vast numbers of enslaved Africans to work the sugar estates on the island.
133	1657		R	Dara Shikoh, also known as Dara Shukoh, (20 March 1615 – 30 August 1659) was the eldest son and heir-apparent of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. Dara was designated with the title Padshahzada-i-Buzurg Martaba ("Prince of High Rank") and was favoured as a successor by his father and his older sister, Princess Jahanara Begum. In the war of succession which ensued after Shah Jahan's illness in 1657, Dara was defeated by his younger brother Prince Muhiuddin (later, the Emperor Aurangzeb). He was executed in 1659 on Aurangzeb's orders in a bitter struggle for the imperial throne. Dara Shikoh#Intellectual pursuits: Dara Shikoh developed a friendship with the seventh Sikh Guru, Guru Har Rai. Dara Shikoh devoted much effort towards finding a common mystical language between Islam and Hinduism. Towards this goal he completed the translation of fifty Upanishads from their original Sanskrit into Persian in 1657 so that they could be studied by Muslim scholars. His translation is often called Sirr-e-Akbar ("The Greatest Mystery"), where he states boldly, in the introduction, his speculative hypothesis that the work referred to in the Qur'an as the "Kitab al-maknun" or the hidden book, is none other than the Upanishads. His most famous work, Majma-ul-Bahrain ("The Confluence of the Two Seas"), was also devoted to a revelation of the mystical and pluralistic affinities between Sufic and Vedantic speculation. The book was authored as a short treatise in Persian in 1654–55.
134	1658		E	Shah Jahan completes Taj Mahal, Jama Masjid, and Red Fort. Imperial treasuries drained by architectural and military overexpenditures. Shah Jahan put under house arrest, and is succeeded by his son Aurangzeb.
135	1658		E	Zealous Muslim Aurangzeb (1618-1707) becomes Mughal Emperor. His discriminatory policies toward Hindus, Marathas and the Deccan kingdoms contribute to the dissolution of the Mughal Empire by 1750.
136	1659	19 Feb	BS	Shivaji's ill-equipped and small Maratha army defeat numerically much larger Adilshahi troops at the Battle of Pratapgarh marking the first victory of the Maratha Empire. Shivaji personally kills Adilshahi commander Afzal Khan (general).
137	1660	13 Jul	BS	Maratha army of 600 defeats a much larger army of the Bijapur Sultanate of 10,000 in the Battle of Pavan Khind, near the city of Kolhapur.
138	1660		E	Frenchman Francois Bernier reports India's peasantry is living in misery under Mughal rule.
139	1661		BE	The first permanent British settlement on the African continent is made at James Island (later Kunta Kinteh Island) in the Gambia River, which becomes a key post in the transatlantic slave trade.
140	1661		Co	Portuguese Princess Catherine of Braganza brings Bom Bahia to King Charles II of England as part of her marriage dowry. Bombay transferred from Portuguese to British rule as part of Catherine of Braganza’s dowry to Charles II in 1661. It rose to become India's largest city, driven in large part by its status as a leading cotton trading market and shipping port. In spite of being relatively poor, Charles easily assumed the role of King of England and he left it to his new government to work through the intricacies of choosing a wife who would bring the greatest political and economic benefit to him and to England. Catherine of Braganza#Marriage: Negotiations for the marriage began during the reign of King Charles I, were renewed immediately after the Restoration, and on 23 June 1661, in spite of Spanish opposition, the marriage contract was signed. England secured Tangier (in North Africa) and the Seven Islands of Bombay (in India), trading privileges in Brazil and the East Indies, religious and commercial freedom in Portugal, and two million Portuguese crowns (about £300,000). In return Portugal obtained British military and naval support (which would prove to be decisive) in her fight against Spain and liberty of worship for Catherine. She arrived at Portsmouth on the evening of 13–14 May 1662, but was not visited there by Charles until 20 May. The following day the couple were married at Portsmouth in two ceremonies – a Catholic one conducted in secret, followed by a public Anglican service. Catherine also popularised tea-drinking in Britain.
141	1661	6 Oct	R	Guru Har Krishan becomes eight guru of Sikhs.
142	1664		BE	The Dutch trade New Amsterdam (New York City) for a British island in Southeast Asia.
143	1664		Co	French colonization (French India): French India, formally the Établissements français dans l'Inde (English: French Settlements in India), was a French colony comprising five geographically separated enclaves on the Indian Subcontinent that had initially been factories of the French East India Company. Beginning in the second half of the 17th century, they were de facto incorporated into the Republic of India in 1950 and 1954. The enclaves were Pondichéry, Karikal, Yanaon (Andhra Pradesh) on the Coromandel Coast, Mahé on the Malabar Coast and Chandernagor in Bengal. The French also possessed several loges ('lodges', tiny subsidiary trading stations) inside other towns, but after 1816, the British denied all French claims to these, which were not reoccupied. France was the last of the major European maritime powers of the 17th century to enter the East India trade. Six decades after the foundation of the English and Dutch East India companies (in 1600 and 1602 respectively), and at a time when both companies were multiplying factories (trading posts) on the shores of India, the French still did not have a viable trading company or a single permanent establishment in the East.
144	1665	11 Jun	BS	The Treaty of Purandar (1665) was signed on June 11, 1665, between the Jai Singh I, who was commander of the Mughal Empire, and Maratha Shivaji. Shivaji was forced to sign the agreement after Jai Singh besieged Purandar fort. When Shivaji realised that war with the Mughal Empire would only cause damage to the empire and that his men would suffer heavy losses, he chose to make a treaty instead of leaving his men under the Mughals. Following are the main points of the treaty: Shivaji kept twelve forts, along with an area worth an income of 100,000 (1 lakh) huns. Shivaji was required to help the Mughals whenever and wherever required. Shivaji's son Sambhaji was tasked with the command of a 5,000-strong force under the Mughals. If Shivaji wanted to claim the Konkan area under Bijapur's control, he would have to pay 4 million (40 lakh) hons to the Mughals. He had to give up his forts at Purandar, Rudramal, Kondana, Karnala, Lohagad, Isagad, Tung, Tikona, Rohida fort, Nardurga, Mahuli, Bhandardurga, Palaskhol, Rupgad, Bakhtgad, Morabkhan, Manikgad (Raigad), Saroopgad, Sagargad, Marakgad, Ankola, Songadh, and Mangad. Along with these requirements, Shivaji agreed to visit Agra to meet Aurangzeb for further political talks.
145	1665		P	Fort St. George, India#History: In 1665, after the East India Company (EIC) received word of the formation of the new French East India Company, the fort was strengthened and enlarged while its garrison was increased. The Fort is a stronghold with 6 metres (20 ft) high walls that withstood a number of assaults in the 18th century. It briefly passed into the possession of the French from 1746 to 1749, but was restored to Great Britain under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which ended the War of the Austrian Succession.
146	1665	20 Mar	R	Guru Tegh Bahadur becomes ninth Guru of Sikhs.
147	1668	1954	Co	French India: By 1950, the total area measured 510 km2 (200 sq mi), of which 293 km2 (113 sq mi) belonged to the territory of Pondichéry. In 1936, the population of the colony totalled 298,851 inhabitants, of which 63% (187,870) lived in the territory of Pondichéry.
148	1668	Bombay	Co	British East India Company leased the seven islands of Mumbai from Charles II. Mumbai was given to the British as part of Catherine of Braganza’s royal dowry when she married King Charles II of England. The original Seven Islands of Bombay handed over to England were as follows: Isle of Bombay Colaba Old Woman's Island (Little Colaba) Mahim Mazagaon Parel Worli The Anglo-Portuguese marriage treaty was dated 23rd June 1661, ratified on 28th August, 1661 and the marriage took place on 31st May, 1662. But none of these dates are quite as significant as 27th March, 1668. It was in this day, that King Charles II declared the East India Company (EIC) “the true and absolute Lords and Proprietors of the (Bombay) Port and Island …. At the yearly rental of 10 Pounds, payable to the Crown”, writes Samuel T Sheppard in his book “Bombay”. King Charles was happy to hand over the territory which has been the cause of much trouble and expense because of constant friction with the Portuguese over port dues. In return for Bombay, he received a loan of 50,000 Pounds at 6% interest from the EIC.
149	1668		Co	French colonization (French India#History): La Compagnie française des Indes orientales (French East India Company) was formed under the auspices of Cardinal Richelieu (1642) and reconstructed under Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1664), sending an expedition to Madagascar. In 1667 the French India Company sent out another expedition, under the command of François Caron (who was accompanied by a Persian named Marcara), which reached Surat in 1668 and established the first French factory in India.
150	1669	23 Nov	BS	Jats defeats the Mughal Empire in the Battle of Tilpat takes control of Mathura.
151	1669		Co	French colonization (French India): In 1669, Marcara succeeded in establishing another French factory at Masulipatam. In 1672, Fort Saint Thomas was taken but the French were driven out by the Dutch. Chandernagore (present-day Chandannagar) was established in 1692, with the permission of Nawab Shaista Khan, the Mughal governor of Bengal. In 1673, the French acquired the area of Pondicherry from the qiladar of Valikondapuram under the Sultan of Bijapur, and thus the foundation of Pondichéry was laid. By 1720, the French had lost their factories at Surat, Masulipatam and Bantam to the British East India Company.
152	1669		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India#Abandonment and isolation (1650–1669)): Kongsbakke's reports, sent to Denmark via other European vessels, finally convinced the Danish-Norwegian government to relieve him. The frigate Færø was dispatched to India, commanded by Capt Sivardt Adelaer, with an official confirmation of his appointment as colony leader. It arrived May 1669 — ending 19 years of isolation.
153	1670		BE	For the British, by this time there are British American colonies in New England, Virginia, and Maryland and settlements in the Bermudas, Honduras, Antigua, Barbados, and Nova Scotia, Canada.
154	1670		P	In an act aimed at strengthening the power of the East India Company (EIC), King Charles II granted the EIC (in a series of five acts around 1670) the rights to.... Autonomously acquire territory, Mint money, Command fortresses and troops and form alliances, Make war and peace, and Exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired areas. These decisions would eventually turn the EIC from a trading company into de facto an administrative agent with wide powers granted by the British government.
155	1670	Bombay	T	First printing press imported to Mumbai by Parsi businessman Bhimjee Parikh. Bhimji Parekh or Bhimji Parikh (1610–1680) was an Indian businessman. He was born in 1610 in Surat. He is remembered today primarily for having introduced the first printing press, to Bombay in 1674–75. Bhimji intended to use this printing press for "the common good" of printing "ancient manuscripts" that would be "useful or at least grateful to posterity".
156	1670		Tr	Bombay Dockyard (Royal Navy) or formally His Majesty's Indian Dockyard, Bombay was originally a naval facility developed by the East India Company beginning in 1670. It was formally established as a Royal Navy Dockyard in 1811 and base of the East Indies Station when the Department of Admiralty in London took over it. The yard was initially managed by the Navy Board through its Resident Commissioner, Bombay until 1832 when administration of the yard was taken over by the Board of Admiralty, it was closed in 1949.
157	1671		BS	Ahom kingdom defeats the Mughal Empire in the Battle of Saraighat, takes back control of Guwahati.
158	1672	February	BS	Maratha forces under Prataprao Gujar defeat a Mughal army twice its size in the Battle of Salher.
159	1672		Dy	Anwaruddin Khan (1672 – 3 August 1749), also known as Muhammad Anwaruddin, was the 1st Nawab of Arcot of the second Dynasty. He was a major figure during the first two Carnatic Wars. He was also Subedar of Thatta from 1721–1733.
160	1672	Bombay	R	In Bombay, Consecration of the first Tower of Silence and first Fire temple (Hirji Vachha Agiary, now defunct).
161	1673		Co	French colonization (French India): On 4 February 1673, Bellanger de l'Espinay, a French officer, took up residence in the Danish Lodge in Pondichéry, thereby commencing the French administration of Pondichéry. In 1674 François Martin, the first Governor, initiated ambitious projects to transform Pondichéry from a small fishing village into a flourishing port-town. The French, though, found themselves in continual conflict with the Dutch and the English. The case of France was upheld for many years at the court of the Sultan of Golconda, Qutb Shah, by a French Huguenot physician named Antoine d'Estremau.
162	1674	6 Jun	BS	Forces led by Shivaji defeat Aurangzeb's troops, and establishes Maratha Empire. Shivaji is crowned Chhatrapati.
163	1674	1818	Dy	The Peshwa was the appointed (and later hereditary) Prime Minister of the Maratha Empire of the Indian subcontinent. Originally, the Peshwas served as subordinates to the Chhatrapati (the Maratha king); later, under the Bhat family, they became the de facto leaders of the Maratha Confederacy with the Chhatrapati becoming a nominal ruler. During the last years of the Maratha Empire, the Peshwas themselves were reduced to titular leaders, and remained under the authority of the Maratha nobles and the British East India Company. Formation : 1674, Abolished: 3 June 1818 All the Peshwas during the rule of Chhatrapati Shivaji, Sambhaji and Rajaram belonged to Deshastha Brahmin community. The first Peshwa was Moropant Pingle, who was appointed as the head of the Ashta Pradhan (council of eight ministers) by Chhatrapati Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire. The initial Peshwas were all ministers who served as the chief executives to the king. The later Peshwas held the highest administrative office and also controlled the Maratha confederacy. Under the Chitpavan Brahmin Bhat family, the Peshwas became the de facto hereditary administrators of the Confederacy. The Peshwa's office was most powerful under Baji Rao I (r. 1720–1740). Under Peshwa administration and with the support of several key generals and diplomats, the Maratha Empire reached its zenith, ruling major areas of India. The subsequent Peshwas brought in autonomy and as a result later on many provinces were controlled and administered by the Maratha nobles such as Scindias and Gaekwads.
164	1674	1818	Dy	The Maratha Empire or the Maratha Confederacy was a power that dominated a large portion of the Indian subcontinent in the 18th century. The empire formally existed from 1674 with the coronation of Shivaji as the Chhatrapati and ended in 1818 with the defeat of Peshwa Bajirao II at the hands of the British East India Company. The Marathas are credited to a large extent for ending Mughal Rule over most of the Indian subcontinent.
165	1675	Bombay	R	The Bombay Devi temple built near the main landing site on the former Bori Bunder creek or inlet, against the north wall of the English Fort Saint George by a Hindu woman also named Mumba. The creek and fort are now deteriorated to a point at which they are but derelict reminders of the city's past. The temple, on the other hand, is still active..
166	1675		R	Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Guru of Sikhs is executed in Delhi by the order of Aurangzeb for his support for the Kashmiri Hindus to practice their religion.Guru Gobind Singh becomes tenth Guru of Sikhs.
167	1678		P	St. Mary's Church, Chennai is the oldest Anglican church in India. It was built between 1678 and 1680 on the orders of the then Agent of Madras Streynsham Master. It is located at Fort St George in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. It lies East of Suez and also the oldest British building in India. The church is popularly known as 'Westminster Abbey of the East'.
168	1679		E	Aurangzeb levies Jizya tax on non-believers, Hindus.
169	1679	1680	BS	List of battles of Rajasthan#During the Mughal Empire: Second Mughal Invasion of Marwar (1679–1707) – Aurangzeb took Marwar under his direct control after the death of Maharaja Jaswant Singh. The Rathore army under Durgadas Rathore carried out a relentless struggle against the occupying forces. In 1707 after the death of Aurangzeb, Durgadas defeated the local Mughal force and reoccupied Jodhpur and their lost territories. Battle of Udaipur (1680) – Aurangzeb attacked Mewar and plundered Udaipur, the citizens were safely escorted to the aravalli hills by Rana Raj Singh but 63 temples in and around Udaipur were plundered and many villages were burned down by Aurangzeb's general Taj Khan. The Mughal army was eventually starved out of Mewar because of the scorched earth techniques and guerrilla warfare used by the Rana. Aurangzeb after a failed campaign left Mewar to his son Akbar and retreated to Ajmer.
170	1680	1707	BS	List of battles of Rajasthan#During the Mughal Empire: Battle of Aravalli hills (1680) – In the second half of 1680, after several months of such setbacks, Aurangzeb decided on an all-out offensive. Niccolao Manucci, an Italian gunner in the Mughal army, says: "for this campaign, Aurangzeb put in pledge the whole of his kingdom." Three separate armies, under Aurangzeb's sons Akbar, Azam and Muazzam, penetrated the Aravalli hills from different directions. However, their artillery lost its effectiveness while being dragged around the rugged hills and both Azam and Muazzam were defeated by the Rajputs under Durgadas Rathore and Rana Raj Singh. Battle of Jodhpur (1707) – Durgadas Rathore took advantage of the disturbances following the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 to seize Jodhpur and eventually evict the occupying Mughal force out of Marwar.
171	1680	3 Apr	E	Shivaji dies of fever at Raigad.
172	1680	20 Jul	E	Sambhaji becomes 2nd Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire.
173	1681		BS	Aurangzeb invades the Deccan.
174	1682	August	BS	Ahom kingdom defeats the Mughal Empire in the Battle of Itakhuli, takes back control of Kamrup region.
175	1686	1690	BC	Child's War was a war between the English East India Company and the Mughal Empire of India, ruled by emperor Aurangzeb, which lasted from 1686 to 1690. Result: Mughal victory. English East India Company fined. The Anglo-Mughal War, also known as Child's War, was the first Anglo-Indian war on the Indian subcontinent. The English East India Company had been given a monopoly and numerous fortified bases on western and south-eastern coast of the Mughal India by the Crown, which was permitted by the local governors. In 1682, William Hedges was sent on the behalf of the Company to negotiate with the governor of the proto-industrialised Bengal Subah, Shaista Khan, and to obtain a firman, an imperial directive that would allow the English company regular trading privileges across the Mughal provinces. In 1685, after some breaking of negotiations by Sir Josiah Child, Bt, the Governor of Bengal reacted by increasing the tributaries of the trade with the north-east from 2% to 3.5%. The company refused the newly introduced taxes and began to try and get the province of Bengal to accept new terms. The East India Company navy blockaded several Mughal ports on the western coast of India and engaged the Mughal Army in battle. The blockade started to effect major cities like Chittagong, Madras and Mumbai, which resulted in the intervention of Emperor Aurangzeb, who seized all the factories of the company and arrested members of the East India Company Army, while the Company forces commanded by Sir Josiah Child, Bt captured further Mughal trading ships. Ultimately the Company was forced to concede by the armed forces of the Mughal Empire and the company was fined 150.000 rupees (roughly equivalent to today's $4.4 million). The company's apology was accepted and the trading privileges were reimposed by Emperor Aurangzeb. In 1682 the English East India Company sent William Hedges to Shaista Khan, the Mughal governor of Bengal Subah, in order to obtain a firman: an imperial directive that would grant the Company regular trading privileges throughout the proto-industrialised Mughal Empire, the world's largest economy of that time. After the intervention of the company's governor in London, Sir Josiah Child, with Hedges's mission, causing Emperor Aurangzeb to break off the negotiations. After that Child decided to go to war against the Mughals.
176	1686		BS	The Sikandara was plundered by Rajaram Jat. Even the skelaton of Akbar the great,was taken out and the bones were consumed to flames.
177	1686		BS	Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb demolishes all temples in Mathura, said to number 1,000. (During their reign, Muslim rulers destroy roughly 60,000 Hindu temples throughout India, constructing mosques on 3,000 sites.)
178	1688		P	The Anglo-Mughal War: In 1685 Admiral Nicholson was sent out with twelve ships of war, carrying 200 pieces of cannon and a body of 600 men, to be reinforced by 400 from Madras. His instructions were to capture and fortify Chittagong, for which purpose 200 additional guns were placed on board, to demand the cession of the encompassing territory, to conciliate the Zamindars and Taluqdars, to establish a mint, and to enter into a treaty with the ruler of Arakan. But the fleet was dispersed during the voyage, and several of the vessels, instead of steering for Chittagong, entered the Hooghly, and being joined by English troops from Madras, anchored off the Company's factory. The arrival of so formidable an expedition alarmed Shaista Khan, and he offered to compromise his differences with the English; but an unforeseen event brought the negotiation to an abrupt close. Three English soldiers, strolling through the marketplace of Hooghly, quarrelled with Mughal officials, and were severely beaten. After that Nicholson dispatched a force to capture the town. In 1686, new negotiations started in Chuttanutty which the Mughals intentionally prolonged till their troops could be assembled to attack the English encampment, and English commander Job Charnock retired with his soldiers and establishments to the island of Ingelee, at the mouth of the Hooghly River. It was a low and deadly swamp, covered with long grass, without any fresh water. In three months 50% of the English troops had died from disease. In 1688, an English fleet was dispatched to blockade the Mughal harbours in the Arabian Sea on the western coast of India. Merchantmen containing Muslim pilgrims to Mecca (as part of the hajj) were among those captured. Upon hearing of the blockade, Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir decided to resume negotiations with the English. However, the Company sent out reinforcements commanded by Captain Heath who on his arrival disallowed the treaty then pending and proceeded to Balasore which he bombarded unsuccessfully. He then sailed to Chittagong; but finding the fortifications stronger than he had anticipated, landed at Madras. After that Emperor Aurangzeb issued orders for the occupation of the East India Company possessions all over the subcontinent, and the confiscation of their property. As a result, possessions of East India Company were reduced to the fortified towns of Madras and Bombay.
179	1689		E	Sambhaji dies, Rajaram I becomes the third Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire.
180	1689		P	The Anglo-Mughal War: In 1689, the strong Mughal fleet from Janjira commanded by the Sidi Yaqub and manned by Mappila from Ethiopian Empire blockaded the East India Company fort in Bombay, Fort William. After a year of resistance, a famine broke out due to the blockade, the Company surrendered, and in 1690 the company sent envoys to Aurangzeb's court to plea for a pardon and to renew the trade firman. The company's envoys had to prostrate themselves before the emperor, pay a large imperial fine of 1,50,000 rupees, and promise better behavior in the future. Emperor Aurangzeb then ordered Sidi Yaqub to lift the Siege of Bombay and the company subsequently re-established itself in Bombay and set up a new base in Calcutta.
181	1693		Co	French colonization (French India): In 1693 the Dutch captured Pondichéry and augmented the fortifications. The French regained the town in 1699 through the Treaty of Ryswick, signed on 20 September 1697. The Peace of Ryswick, or Rijswijk, was a series of treaties signed in the Dutch city of Rijswijk between 20 September and 30 October 1697. They ended the 1688 to 1697 Nine Years' War between France, and the Grand Alliance, which included England, Spain, Austria, and the Dutch Republic.
182	1696		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India#The Second Danish East India Company (1670–1732)): Trade between Denmark-Norway and Tranquebar now resumed, a new Danish East India Company was formed, and several new commercial outposts were established, governed from Tranquebar: Oddeway Torre on the Malabar coast in 1696, and Dannemarksnagore at Gondalpara, southeast of Chandernagore in 1698. The settlement with the Nayak was confirmed and Tranquebar was permitted to expand to include three surrounding villages.
183	1696		R	Kashi Vishwanath Temple which was dedicated to Shiva; the presiding deity of the city of Varanasi, one of the holiest Hindu sites of pilgrimage, had been plundered, desecrated, demolished & converted into Gyanvapi Mosque on the orders of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1696.
184	1696	1720	T	Fort William, India is a fort in Hastings, Calcutta (Kolkata). It was built during the early years of the Bengal Presidency of British India. It sits on the eastern banks of the Hooghly River, the major distributary of the River Ganges. One of Kolkata's most enduring Raj-era edifices, it extends over an area of 70.9 hectares. The fort was named after King William III. In front of the Fort is the Maidan, the largest park in the city. An internal guard room became the Black Hole of Calcutta. Type: Fortress, garrisoned and armoured Army Headquarters. Controlled by: Bengal Subah (before 1757), British East India Company (1757–1858), British Raj (1858–1947), Indian Army (Current holding) Built: 1696–1702, In use: 1781 – present, Battles/wars: Battle of Plassey (1757)
185	1698		Co	East India Company#Trade monopoly: The prosperity that the officers of the company enjoyed allowed them to return to Britain and establish sprawling estates and businesses, and to obtain political power. The company developed a lobby in the English parliament. Under pressure from ambitious tradesmen and former associates of the company (pejoratively termed Interlopers by the company), who wanted to establish private trading firms in India, a deregulating act was passed in 1694. This allowed any English firm to trade with India, unless specifically prohibited by act of parliament, thereby annulling the charter that had been in force for almost 100 years. When the East India Company Act 1697 (9 Will. c. 44) was passed in 1697, a new "parallel" East India Company (officially titled the English Company Trading to the East Indies) was floated under a state-backed indemnity of £2 million. The powerful stockholders of the old company quickly subscribed a sum of £315,000 in the new concern, and dominated the new body. The two companies wrestled with each other for some time, both in England and in India, for a dominant share of the trade. It quickly became evident that, in practice, the original company faced scarcely any measurable competition. The companies merged in 1708, by a tripartite indenture involving both companies and the state, with the charter and agreement for the new United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies being awarded by Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin. Under this arrangement, the merged company lent to the Treasury a sum of £3,200,000, in return for exclusive privileges for the next three years, after which the situation was to be reviewed. The amalgamated company became the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, Britain surged ahead of its European rivals. Britain’s growing prosperity, demand, and production had a profound influence on overseas trade. The EIC became the single largest player on the British global market. Following the Seven Years’ War (1756–63) and the defeat of France, French ambitions on Indian territories were effectively laid to rest, thus eliminating a major source of economic competition for the EIC. The Company, with the backing of its own private well-disciplined and experienced army, was able to assert its interests in new regions in India without facing obstacles from other colonial powers, although it continued to experience resistance from local rulers.
186	1699	3 Oct	R	Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th Guru of Sikhs creates Khalsa, the saint-soldier at Anandpur Sahib, Punjab.
187	1700	3 Mar	E	Rajaram I dies, is succeeded by Shivaji II as Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire.
188	1700		Ec	Timeline of the economy of the Indian subcontinent#Mughal era: The Indian subcontinent, under Mughal Emperor's Aurangzeb policies based on Islamic economics, becomes the world's largest economy, and the most important center of manufacturing in International trade, ahead of Qing dynasty, China. Worth 25% of the world's industrial (Secondary sector of the economy) output, it signalled the Proto-industrialization.
189	1702		D	Thomas Pitt, President of Fort St George, Madras (in office 7 July 1698 – 18 September 1709), acquires the Pitt Diamond, later sold to the Regent of France, the Duc d'Orleans, for 135,000 Pounds. Now known as The Regent Diamond it is a 140.64-carat (28.128 g) diamond owned by the French state and on display in the Louvre, worth as of 2015 £48,000,000. It is widely considered the most beautiful and the purest diamond in the world. Thomas Pitt was the grandfather of William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham ("Pitt the Elder") and was great-grandfather of Pitt the Younger, both prime ministers of Great Britain.
190	1702		P	In the year 1702, Daud Khan Panni the Mughal Empire's local Subedar of the Carnatic, besieged and blockaded Fort St. George, India for more than three months. The governor of the fort Thomas Pitt was instructed by the British East India Company to vie for peace.
191	1706		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India): Frederick IV, king of Denmark-Norway sends two Danish missionaries to India, Heinrich Plütcshau and Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg – the first Protestant (Lutheran) missionaries in India. Previously priests had not attempted to convert, and Indians denied entry to European churches. Arriving in 1707, they were not welcomed by their countrymen who suspected them of being spies. Ziegenbalg gains converts among the Indians who, by royal decree, are freed to encourage further Christianisation amongst the Indians. Christianity becomes associated with lower caste people and rejected by upper caste Hindus.
192	1707	13 Feb	E	Birth of Suraj Mal son of Badan Singh Maharaja Suraj Mal (13 February 1707 – 25 December 1763) or Sujan Singh, was a Hindu Jat ruler of Bharatpur in Rajasthan, India. Under him, the Jat rule covered the present-day districts of Agra, Aligarh, Alwar, Bharatpur, Bulandshahr, Dholpur, Etah, Etawa, Faridabad, Firozabad, Ghaziabad, Gurgaon, Hathras, Jhajjar, Kanpur, Mainpuri, Mathura, Mewat, Meerut, Muzaffarnagar, Palwal, Rewari, and Rohtak. A contemporary historian had described him as "the Plato of the Jat tribe" and by a modern writer as the "Jat Odysseus", because of his "political sagacity, steady intellect and clear vision". The Jats, under Suraj Mal, overran the Mughal garrison at Agra. Suraj Mal was killed in an ambush by the Rohilla troops on the night of 25 December 1763 near Hindon River, Shahadra, Delhi. In addition to the troops stationed at his forts, he had an army of 25,000 infantry and 15,000 cavalry when he died.
193	1707	3 Mar	E	Death of Aurangzeb the mughal monarch.
194	1708	1710	BS	List of battles of Rajasthan#During the Mughal Empire: Annexation of Amer (January 1708) – Bahadur Shah I marched with a large army and annexed Amer without a war. Raja Jai Singh was forced to retreat with his army. Amber was named Mominabad by the Mughal emperor. Battle of Merta (February 1708) – Bahadur Shah I's general Mihrab Khan defeated Ajit Singh of Marwar. The Mughal emperor was advised to stay in Ajmer as the Mughals were wary of the guerrilla tactics of Durgadas. Ajit Singh however went against the advice of Durgadas Rathore and directly confronted the large Mughal army. The Mughals bombarded the Rathor horsemen with cannons and rockets and forced them to retreat after heavy losses. Jodhpur was once again occupied by the Mughals. Ajit Singh received "special robes of honour" and a jewelled scarf from the Emperor for his bravery shown in battle. Rajput Rebellion (September 1708–10) – The three Rajput Raja's of Amber, Udaipur and Jodhpur made a joint resistance to the Mughals. The Rajputs first expelled the commandants of Jodhpur and Bayana and recovered Amer by a night attack. They next killed Sayyid Hussain Khan Barha in the battle of Sambhar (1709). Raja Ajit Singh also attacked Ajmer and forced its governor to pay tribute. Sayyid Hidayatullah, the governor of Ranthambore was also defeated, bringing a danger to the Mughal capital itself. Bahadur Shah I, then in the Deccan was forced to patch up a truce with the Rajput Rajas (1710).
195	1708	1722	BS	List of battles of Rajasthan#During the Mughal Empire: Battle of Kama (1708) (October 4–7, 1708) – Ajit Singh Kachwaha, the Rajput zamindar of Kama defeated the combined armies of Mughals and Jats. The Mughal-Jat army numbered 18,000 while the Kachwahas had 10,000 horsemen. After a bitter fight the Mughal faujdar Raza Bahadur was killed and the Jat leader Churaman was forced to flee to Thun. Jai Singh II's campaign against the Jats (1718–1722) – The Jats under Churaman had been actively looting and plundering in the Agra district due to which the Mughals had to close the roads to Delhi and Agra for the safety of the traders. In 1718 Sawai Jai Singh II was appointed by the Mughal emperor to destroy the Jat stronghold of Thun. Jai Singh surrounded the fort and was about to breach it when the Sayyid brothers, who were rivals of the Jaipur raja, made a separate peace with the Jats on behalf of the emperor. Jai Singh was forced to withdraw in disgust. Two years later Churaman died and his son Mokham Singh succeeded him. Mokhams first step as a ruler was to imprison his cousin Badan Singh. Badan asked for help from Sawai Jai Singh II. Jai Singh readily set upon Thun and captured it after a six-month siege. Mokham was forced to flee and Badan Singh was made the Raja of Deeg on the condition that he pays tribute.
196	1708	7 Oct	R	Guru Granth Sahib becomes Guru of Sikhs.
197	1709	Bombay	R	Banaji Limji Agiary: In Bombay, First attested private Parsi Adaran (in the home of Banaji Limji). Continues to be the oldest continuously-burning Zoroastrian Fire temple in Mumbai (now in the Banaji Limji Agiary, Fort). Situated less than a kilometre away from the temple, Maneckji Seth Agiary (1733) is the second-oldest fire temple in Mumbai.
198	1710		BS	Sikh army under Banda Singh Bahadur defeats Mughal Empire in the Battle of Chappar Chiri and establishes Sikh rule from Lahore to Delhi.
199	1714	1727	Em	George I of Great Britain: George I (George Louis; German: Georg Ludwig; 28 May 1660 – 11 June 1727) was King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1 August 1714 and ruler of the Duchy and Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover) within the Holy Roman Empire from 23 January 1698 until his death in 1727. He was the first British monarch of the House of Hanover.
200	1715	1767	F	Puli Thevar was a Tamil Polygar who ruled Nerkattumseval, situated in the Sankarankoil taluk, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu. He is notable for leading a revolt against Company rule at 1757 in India. Ondiveeran and Venni Kaladi were the generals of Thevar's army, and he was the first Indian to fight against the British.
201	1719		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India#The Second Danish East India Company (1670–1732)): Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg attempts to learn as much as possible of the language of the inhabitants of Tranquebar, hiring tutors to learn Portuguese and Tamil, and buying Hindu texts. He finds ways to create rifts in the local society in collusion with a few new converts to Christianity. He eventually writes the first Tamil glossary, Tamil-German dictionary, and translations of Hindu books. He translates parts of the Bible into Tamil. He completes the New Testament in prison, and the Old Testament later. Receiving funds from Europe he sets up a printing press and prints Tamil Bibles and books. He becomes the first book printer in India and produces paper. He establishes a seminary for Indian priests in Tranquebar before his death in Tranquebar 1719. This mission leads to missionaries spreading outside the colony, despite opposition from the kings of Tranquebar. Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg#Death and legacy: Ziegenbalg was troubled by ill health his entire life, a condition aggravated by his work in the mission field. He died on 23 February 1719, at the age of thirty-six, in Tranquebar. His last 13 years were spent laying the foundations for German scholarship in Tamil that continues to this day. Ziegenbalg is buried at the New Jerusalem Church, which he helped establish in 1718 at Tranquebar.
202	1720		Co	Chaul: Chaul is a former city of Portuguese India, now in ruins. It is located 60 km south of Mumbai, in Raigad District of Maharashtra state in western India. During the later 17th and early 18th centuries Portuguese India declined economically and politically, and Chaul lost its former importance. As the power of the Mughal Empire declined in the early 18th century, the Marathas expanded their control of central and western India. The Portuguese colony of Kalyan was captured by the Marathas in 1720, and in 1737 the Maratha general Angria began a concerted campaign to capture the remaining Portuguese territories. Chaul and the Morro de Chaul came under siege in March 1739, but the siege was raised in October. After the capture of Baçaim in 1740, a peace treaty was concluded, and on 18 September 1740, Chaul was ceded by treaty to the Marathas. The city was subsequently abandoned and left in ruins. The village of Korlai, near the ruins of Chaul, is still home to speakers of Portuguese Creole.
203	1720	1782	Dy	Hyder Ali, Haidarālī (c. 1720 – 7 December 1782) was the Sultan and de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India. Born as Hyder Ali Khan, he distinguished himself militarily, eventually drawing the attention of Mysore's rulers. Rising to the post of Dalavayi (commander-in-chief) to Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, he came to dominate the titular monarch and the Mysore government. He became the de facto ruler of Mysore as Sarvadhikari (Chief Minister) by 1761. During intermittent conflicts against the East India Company during the First and Second Anglo–Mysore Wars, Hyder Ali distinguished himself in military tactics, being the innovator of military use of the iron-cased Mysorean rockets. He also significantly developed the Mysorean economy. Though illiterate, Hyder Ali earned an important place in the history of southern India for his administrative acumen and military skills. He concluded an alliance with the French, and used the services of French workmen in raising his artillery and arsenal. His rule of Mysore was characterised by frequent warfare with his neighbours and rebellion within his territories. This was not unusual for the time as much of the Indian subcontinent was then in turmoil. He left his eldest son, Tipu Sultan, an extensive kingdom bordered by the Krishna River in the north, the Eastern Ghats in the east and the Arabian Sea in the west.
204	1720		E	Bajirao I appointed by Shahu Maharaj as Peshwa (prime minister) who would later expand the Maratha empire to cover most of present-day India.
205	1721	1955	Ad	British Prime Ministers during Imperialism, (List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom#From 1721): The office of prime minister developed in Britain in the 18th century, when King George I ceased attending meetings of his ministers and it was left to powerful premiers to act as government chief executive. Sir Robert Walpole is generally considered to have been Britain’s first prime minister. This is a chronologically ordered list of the british prime ministers, from the earliest to 1950s .... Sir Robert Walpole (1721–42)
206	1721	1955	Ad	British Prime Ministers during Imperialism, (List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom#From 1721): Spencer Compton (1742–43) Henry Pelham (1743–54) Thomas Pelham-Holles (1754–56; 1st time) William Cavendish (1756–57) Thomas Pelham-Holles (1757–62; 2nd time) John Stuart (1762–63) George Grenville (1763–65) Charles Watson Wentworth (1765–66; 1st time) William Pitt, the Elder (1766–68) Augustus Henry Fitzroy (1768–70)
207	1721	1955	Ad	British Prime Ministers during Imperialism, (List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom#From 1721): Frederick North (1770–82) Charles Watson Wentworth (1782; 2nd time) William Petty-Fitzmaurice (1782–83) William Henry Cavendish-Bentinck (1783; 1st time) William Pitt, the Younger (1783–1801; 1st time) Henry Addington (1801–04) William Pitt, the Younger (1804–06; 2nd time) William Wyndham Grenville (1806–07) William Henry Cavendish-Bentinck (1807–09; 2nd time) Spencer Perceval (1809–12)
208	1721	1955	Ad	British Prime Ministers during Imperialism, (List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom#From 1721): Robert Banks Jenkinson (1812–27) George Canning (1827) Frederick John Robinson (1827–28) Arthur Wellesley (1828–30; 1st time) Charles Grey (1830–34) William Lamb (1834; 1st time) Arthur Wellesley (1834; 2nd time) Sir Robert Peel (1834–35; 1st time) William Lamb (1835–41; 2nd time) Sir Robert Peel (1841–46; 2nd time)
209	1721	1955	Ad	British Prime Ministers during Imperialism, (List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom#From 1721): John Russell (1846–52; 1st time) Edward Geoffrey Stanley (1852; 1st time) George Hamilton-Gordon (1852–55) Henry John Temple (1855–58; 1st time) Edward Geoffrey Stanley (1858–59; 2nd time) Henry John Temple (1859–65; 2nd time) John Russell (1865–66; 2nd time) Edward Geoffrey Stanley (1866–68; 3rd time) Benjamin Disraeli (1868; 1st time) William Ewart Gladstone (1868–74; 1st time)
210	1721	1955	Ad	British Prime Ministers during Imperialism, (List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom#From 1721): Benjamin Disraeli (1874–80; 2nd time) William Ewart Gladstone (1880–85; 2nd time) Robert Cecil (1885–86; 1st time) William Ewart Gladstone (1886; 3rd time) Robert Cecil (1886–92; 2nd time) William Ewart Gladstone (1892–94; 4th time) Archibald Philip Primrose (1894–95) Robert Cecil (1895–1902; 3rd time) Arthur James Balfour (1902–05) Henry Campbell-Bannerman (1905–08)
211	1721	1955	Ad	British Prime Ministers during Imperialism, (List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom#From 1721): H.H. Asquith (1908–16) David Lloyd George (1916–22) Bonar Law (1922–23) Stanley Baldwin (1923–24; 1st time) Ramsay Macdonald (1924; 1st time) Stanley Baldwin (1924–29; 2nd time) Ramsay Macdonald (1929–35; 2nd time) Stanley Baldwin (1935–37; 3rd time) Neville Chamberlain (1937–40) Winston Churchill (1940–45; 1st time) Clement Attlee (1945–51) Sir Winston Churchill (1951–55; 2nd time)
212	1721		BE	Attingal Outbreak: Attingal Outbreak (Anjengo Revolt; April–October 1721) refers to the massacre of 140 East India Company soldiers by native Indians and the following siege of Fort Anjengo. The Attingal Outbreak is often regarded as the first organized revolt against British authority in Malabar, Cochin and Travancore. The main reasons behind the resentment was large scale corruption and the manipulation of black pepper prices by the Company. The chief factor at the Anjengo factor, Gyfford refused to hand over the customary gifts meant for the Rani of Attingal to the agents of the local feudal lords (Pillamar) and tried to hand them directly to the Rani at the head of a force of 140 soldiers on 15 April 1721. This show of force had the opposite effect and the local people rebelled, attacked and destroyed the entire force and then laid siege to the fort. Gunnar Ince led the defence of the fort for six months till the arrival of the Company's troops from the English controlled Tellicherry. Following the turn of events, the Company and the Rani of Attingal entered into an agreement under which; the Company was compensated for all losses sustained during the attack on Anjengo was also given the sole monopoly of trade in pepper the right to erect factories in places of its choice
213	1721	1949	Pr	British India – Princely State: A princely state, also called native state, feudatory state or Indian state (for those states on the subcontinent), was a vassal state under a local or indigenous or regional ruler in a subsidiary alliance with the British Raj. Though the history of the princely states of the subcontinent dates from at least the classical period of Indian history, the predominant usage of the term princely state specifically refers to a semi-sovereign principality on the Indian subcontinent during the British Raj that was not directly governed by the British, but rather by a local ruler, subject to a form of indirect rule on some matters. The imprecise doctrine of paramountcy allowed the government of British India to interfere in the internal affairs of princely states individually or collectively and issue edicts that applied to all of India when it deemed it necessary. At the time of the British withdrawal, 565 princely states were officially recognised in the Indian subcontinent, apart from thousands of zamindari estates and jagirs. In 1947, princely states covered 40% of the area of pre-independence India and constituted 23% of its population. The most important states had their own British Political Residencies: Hyderabad of the Nizams, Mysore and Travancore in the South followed by Jammu and Kashmir, and Sikkim in the Himalayas, and Indore in Central India. The most prominent among those – roughly a quarter of the total – had the status of a salute state, one whose ruler was entitled to a set number of gun salutes on ceremonial occasions.
214	1721	1947	Dy	Gaekwad dynasty (Former Monarchy) 1721–1947 The Gaekwads of Baroda (also spelled as Gaikwads, Guicowars, Gaekwars) are Hindu Marathas who trace their origins to Dawadi village near Poona (modern Pune) to a Maratha clan by the name of Matre, which means Mantri meaning Minister. Gaekwad dynasty of the Maratha Empire are originally of Kunbi origin. A dynasty belonging to this clan ruled the princely state of Baroda in western India from the early 18th century until 1947. The ruling prince was known as the Maharaja Gaekwad of Baroda. With the city of Baroda (Vadodara) as its capital, during the British Raj its relations with the British were managed by the Baroda Residency. It was one of the largest and wealthiest princely states existing alongside British India, with wealth coming from the lucrative cotton business as well as rice, wheat and sugar production.
215	1721	1818	Dy	The Holkar dynasty was a Maratha clan of Dhangar origin in India. The Holkars were generals under Peshwa Baji Rao I, and later became Maharajas of Indore in Central India as an independent member of the Maratha Empire until 1818. Later, their kingdom became a princely state under the protectorate of British India. The dynasty was founded with Malhar Rao, who joined the service of the Peshwas of the Maratha Empire in 1721, and quickly rose to the rank of Subedar. The name of the dynasty was associated with the title of the ruler, who was known informally as Holkar Maharaja.
216	1721	13,14 Nov	E	Madras cyclone occurs.
217	1721		S	In 1721 AD, a bunch of British sailors decided to play a game of Cricket on India’s western seaboard, Cambay. Cricket became the first English sport introduced in India.
218	1723	1805	Dy	Travancore Kingdom: King Marthanda Varma inherited the small feudal state of Venad in 1723 and built it into Travancore, one of the most powerful kingdoms in southern India. Marthanda Varma led the Travancore forces during the Travancore-Dutch War of 1739–46, which culminated in the Battle of Colachel. The defeat of the Dutch by Travancore is considered the earliest example of an organised power from Asia overcoming European military technology and tactics. Marthanda Varma went on to conquer most of the petty principalities of the native rulers . Travancore#The_Mysore_invasion: Marthanda Varma's successor Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma (1758–1798), who was popularly known as Dharma Raja, shifted the capital in 1795 from Padmanabhapuram to Thiruvananthapuram. Dharma Raja's period is considered as a Golden Age in the history of Travancore. He not only retained the territorial gains of his predecessor Marthanda Varma, but also improved and encouraged social development. He was greatly assisted by a very efficient administrator, Raja Kesavadas, who was the Diwan of Travancore. Travancore often allied with the English East India Company in military conflicts. During Dharma Raja's reign, Tipu Sultan, the de facto ruler of Mysore and the son of Hyder Ali, attacked Travancore in 1789 as a part of the Mysore invasion of Kerala. Dharma Raja had earlier refused to hand over the Hindu political refugees from the Mysore occupation of Malabar, who had been given asylum in Travancore. The Mysore army entered the Cochin kingdom from Coimbatore in November 1789 and reached Trichur in December. On 28 December 1789 Tipu Sultan attacked the Nedunkotta (Northern Lines) from the north, causing the Battle of the Nedumkotta (1789), resulting in the defeat of Mysore army. Commander-in-chief Raja Kesavadas led Travancore to victory despite being outnumbered. This attack led to Travancore joining the British against Tipu in the Third Battle of Carnatic. Pazhassi Raja, Velu Thampi Dalawa (Velayudhan Chempakaraman Thampi) and Paliath Achan, later leaders of Travancore, fought the British East India Company but lost. Travancore became a British ally in 1805 following a treaty between British Resident Colonel (later General) Colin Macaulay and Diwan Velu Thampi Dalawa.
219	1724	1948	Pr	Hyderabad State, also known as Hyderabad Deccan, was a princely state located in the south-central region of India with its capital at the city of Hyderabad. It is now divided into the state of Telangana, the Hyderabad-Karnataka region of Karnataka, and the Marathwada region of Maharashtra, in present-day India. The state was ruled from 1724 to 1857 by the Nizam, who was initially a viceroy of the Mughal empire in the Deccan. Hyderabad gradually became the first princely state to come under British paramountcy signing a subsidiary alliance agreement. During British rule in 1901 the state had an average revenue of Rs.417,00,000, making it the wealthiest princely state in India. The native inhabitants of Hyderabad Deccan, regardless of ethnic origin, are called "Mulki" (countryman), a term still used today. The dynasty declared itself an independent monarchy during the final years of the British Raj. After the Partition of India, Hyderabad signed a standstill agreement with the new dominion of India, continuing all previous arrangements except for the stationing of Indian troops in the state. Hyderabad's location in the middle of the Indian union, as well as its diverse cultural heritage, was a driving force behind India's annexation of the state in 1948. Subsequently, Mir Osman Ali Khan, the 7th Nizam, signed an instrument of accession, joining India.
220	1724	1948	Pr	Nizam of Hyderabad: The Nizams were the 18th-through-20th-century rulers of Hyderabad. Nizam of Hyderabad (Niẓām ul-Mulk, also known as Asaf Jah) was the title of the monarch of the Hyderabad State (as of 2019 divided between the state of Telangana, Hyderabad-Karnataka region of Karnataka and the Marathwada region of Maharashtra). Nizam, shortened from Nizam-ul-Mulk, meaning Administrator of the Realm, was the title inherited by Asaf Jah I. He was the viceroy of the Great Mughal in the Deccan, the premier courtier in Mughal India in 1724, and the founding "Nizam of Hyderabad". The Asaf Jahi dynasty was founded by Mir Qamar-ud-Din Siddiqi (Asaf Jah I), who served as a viceroy of the Deccan under the Mughal Empire from 1713 to 1721. He intermittently governed the region after Emperor Aurangzeb's death in 1707. In 1724 Mughal control weakened, and Asaf Jah became virtually independent of the Mughal Empire; Hyderabad would then become a tributary of the Maratha Empire, losing a series of battles through the 18th century. When the East India Company achieved paramountcy over the Indian subcontinent, they allowed the Nizams to continue to rule their princely states as client kings. The Nizams retained internal power over Hyderabad State until 17 September 1948, when Hyderabad was integrated into the new Indian Union. The Asaf Jah dynasty had only seven rulers; however there was a period of 13 unstable years after the rule of the first Nizam when three of his sons (Nasir Jung, Muzafar Jung and Salabath Jung) ruled. They were never officially recognised as rulers. The seventh and last Nizam, Mir Osman Ali Khan, fell from power when India annexed Hyderabad in 1948 which is known as operation polo or police action
221	1724	1948	Pr	Nizam of Hyderabad: By the time of its annexation, Hyderabad was the largest and most prosperous one among all the princely states. It covered 82,698 square miles (214,190 km2) of fairly homogeneous territory and had a population of roughly 16.34 million people (as per the 1941 census), of which a majority (85%) was Hindu. Hyderabad State had its own army, airline, telecommunication system, railway network, postal system, currency and radio broadcasting service. Hindus were also given highest of the government posts; like 2-time Prime Minister of Hyderabad – Maharaja Sir Kishen Pershad, Maharaja Chandu Lal and Raja Sham Raj I. Raja Sham Raj II, a member of H. E. H Nizam's Executive Council. The position of Kotwal was also given to a Hindu, Raja Bahadur Venkatarama Reddy.
222	1724	1948	Pr	Nizam of Hyderabad: The Asaf Jahis were prolific builders. Their palaces are listed below: Chowmahalla Palace – Official residence of early Nizams Purani Haveli King Kothi Palace Mahboob Mansion Falaknuma Palace Bella Vista Hill Fort Palace Chiran Palace Saifabad Palace Hyderabad House, New Delhi Nizam Palace, Kolkata
223	1724	1948	Pr	Nizam of Hyderabad: List of Nizams of Hyderabad (1724–1948) Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I (Mir Qamar-ud-din Khan), 20 August 1671 to 1 June 1748 Nasir Jung (Mir Ahmed Ali Khan), 26 February 1712 to 16 December 1750 Muzaffar Jung (Mir Hidayat Muhi-ud-din Sa'adullah Khan), – to 13 February 1751 Salabat Jung (Mir Sa'id Muhammad Khan), 24 November 1718 to 16 September 1763 Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah II (Mir Nizam Ali Khan), 7 March 1734 to 6 August 1803 Sikander Jah, Asaf Jah III (Mir Akbar Ali Khan), 11 November 1768 to 21 March 1829 Nasir-ud-Daula, Asaf Jah IV (Mir Farqunda Ali Khan), 25 April 1794 to 16 May 1857 Afzal-ud-Daula, Asaf Jah V (Mir Tahniyath Ali Khan), 11 October 1827 to 26 February 1869 Asaf Jah VI (Mir Mahbub Ali Khan), 17 August 1866 to 29 August 1911 Asaf Jah VII (Mir Osman Ali Khan), 6 April 1886 to 24 February 1967
224	1725		E	Jesuit Father Hanxleden compiles first Sanskrit grammar in a European language.
225	1726	1947	Dy	Scindia dynasty (anglicized from Shinde and also spelled popularly as Shinde in Maharashtra), is a Hindu Maratha dynasty of Kunbi origin that ruled the erstwhile State of Gwalior. It had the patel-ship of Kumberkerrab in Wai. It was founded by Ranoji Scindia, who started as a "slipper-bearer" of the Peshwa Bajirao I. Ranoji and his descendents along with their rivals the Holkars, played a leading role during the Maratha ascendency in North india during the 18th century. The Gwalior state was a princely state under the British Raj during the 19th and the 20th centuries. After India's independence in 1947, several members of the Sindhia family went on to join Indian politics. Scindia#Maratha Period: The Scindia dynasty was founded by Ranoji Scindia, who was the son of Jankojirao Scindia, the Patil of Kanherkhed, a village in Satara District, Maharashtra. Peshwa Baji Rao's career saw the strengthening of the Maratha Empire. Ranoji was in charge of the Maratha conquests in Malwa in 1726. Ranoji established his capital at Ujjain in 1731. His successors included Jayajirao, Jyotibarao, Dattajirao, Jankojirao, Mahadji Shinde and Daulatrao Scindia.The Scindias became a major regional power in the latter half of the 18th century, and figured prominently in the three Anglo-Maratha Wars.They held sway over many of the Rajput states, and conquered north India. In 1818, after accepting the terms of a subsidiary alliance with the British, the family shifted their base from Ujjain to The Gwalior.
226	1727	1760	Em	George II of Great Britain (George Augustus; German: Georg August; 30 October / 9 November 1683 – 25 October 1760) was King of Great Britain and Ireland, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover) and a prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire from 11 June 1727 (O.S.) until his death in 1760.
227	1728	28 Feb	BS	Bajirao I defeats the combined forces of the Mughal Empire and the Nizam of Hyderabad in the Battle of Palkhed.
228	1728	1759	F	Maveeran Alagumuthu Kone Yadav (11 July 1710 – 19 July 1759), from Kattalankulam in Thoothukudi District, was an early Chieftain and freedom fighter against the British presence in Tamil Nadu. Born into a Konar family, he became a military leader in the town of Ettayapuram, and was defeated in battle there against the British and Maruthanayagam's forces. He was executed in 1759.
229	1729		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India#The Second Danish East India Company (1670–1732)): Danish-Norwegian King forces the Danish East India Company to loan him money. His failure to repay the loan and inconsistency of Indian trade forces the company into liquidation.
230	1730		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India#Trade stabilizes under Danish Asiatic Company (1732–1772)): 1730s : Denmark's Chinese and Indian trade stabilizes, with cargo from India dominated by cotton fabrics from the Coromandel Coast and Bengal.
231	1730	1796	F	Rani Velu Nachiyar (3 January 1730 – 25 December 1796) was a queen of Sivaganga estate from c. 1780–1790. She was the first Indian queen to wage war with the East India Company in India. She is known by Tamils as Veeramangai ("brave woman").
232	1731	1754	Co	Yanaon or Yanam was one of the five settlements of French India between 1731 and 1954. Yanaon was a Dutch colony prior to French takeover in the 1720s. Indigo wells (Neelikundilu) are still found in the west of Yanam. The Dutch built a fort, which they used to store their currency, minted at nearby Neelapalli. The location of the fort is today referred to by locals as the Saali Kota or Saalivandru, meaning "shawl-hut", since after the demise of the Dutch, the building was taken over by cloth weavers. The region was presented to a French General, the Marquess of Bussy, by the king of Vizianagaram, Pusapati Peda Vijaya Rama Raju (1670–1756) as a token of gratitude for Bussy's help in his fight against the rulers of Bobbili. There remains a street named after Bussy in Yanam. Actually, it was in 1750 when French leader de Bussy was staying with entire battalion near Hyderabad. Many soldiers have died due to some disease (Small pox). He was running with financial crisis. Vijaya Rama Raju of Vizianagaram helped him to overcome financial crisis and rebuild his battalion.
233	1732		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India#Trade stabilizes under Danish Asiatic Company (1732–1772)): King Christian VI signs charter of new Asiatic Company with 40-year monopoly on Asian trade with India and China. Both previous companies had failed due to the lack of continuity in trade. This time, the intention of the investors was "to place this Asiatic Trade in Our Realms and Territories on a more constant footing in time to come".
234	1735	Bombay	T	In Bombay, Start of shipbuilding industry (Wadia docks, Duncan docks).
235	1735		Tr	The Bombay ShipYard (Bombay Dockyard) was established in 1735 by the East India Company, which brought in shipwrights from their base at Surat in order to construct vessels using Malabar teak. One of their number, Lovji Nusserwanjee Wadia, was (along with several generations of his descendants) a key figure in the success of the Yard, as indicated in The New Cambridge History of India: Science, Technology and Medicine in Colonial India: Between the seventeenth and early nineteenth centuries Indian shipyards produced a series of vessels incorporating these hybrid features. A large proportion of them were built in Bombay, where the Company had established a small shipyard. In 1736 Parsi carpenters were brought in from Surat to work there and, when their European supervisor died, one of the carpenters, Lowji Nuserwanji Wadia, was appointed Master Builder in his place. Wadia oversaw the construction of thirty-five ships, twenty-one of them for the Company. Following his death in 1774, his sons took charge of the shipyard and between them built a further thirty ships over the next sixteen years. The Britannia, a ship of 749 tons launched in 1778, so impressed the Court of Directors when it reached Britain that several new ships were commissioned from Bombay, some of which later passed into the hands of the Royal Navy. In all, between 1736 and 1821, 159 ships of over 100 tons were built at Bombay, including 15 of over 1,000 tons. Ships constructed at Bombay in its heyday were said to be ‘vastly superior to anything built anywhere else in the world’.
236	1736		BS	Maratha Empire under Bajirao defeats Mughal Empire, in response for an appeal for help from Chhatrasal, ruler of Bundelkhand in the Battle of Malwa.
237	1737	16 Mar	BS	Marathas under Bajirao I defeat the Mughal Empire in the Battle of Delhi (1737).
238	1737	24 Dec	BS	Marathas defeat a combined army of the Mughal Empire, Nizam of Hyderabad, Nawab of Awadh and Nawabs of Bhopal in the Battle of Bhopal.
239	1737		S	Originating in England, cricket came to India with the East India Company – an English company formed to develop trade in Asia. According to British sailor Clement Downing’s “A History of the Indian Wars,” written in 1737, the first cricket match in India was played between sailors like him in 1721 in Khambhat, near India’s western seaboard.
240	1739	1746	BC	The Travancore–Dutch War was a war between the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the Indian kingdom of Travancore, culminating in the Battle of Colachel in 1741. In the early 18th century, the Malabar Coast region of present-day Kerala was divided among several small chiefdoms. In the 1730s, Marthanda Varma, the ruler of Travancore, adopted an expansionist policy, and conquered several territories from these small states. This threatened the interests of the Dutch East India Company's command at Malabar, whose spice trade depended on procurement of spices from these states. The ruler of Deshinganad (present-day Kollam) requested the Dutch support against an impending attack from Travancore, stating that he would surrender to Marthanda Varma if the Dutch refused to help him.
241	1739		BC	Marathas under Bajirao I defeat the Portuguese in the Battle of Vasai, Portuguese army and administration pulled out of Baçaim (Vasai) (17 February – 16 May).
242	1739	1806	F	Jayakrushna Rajaguru Mohapatra (29 October 1739 – 6 December 1806) popularly known as Jayi Rajaguru was a prominent figure of the Indian independence movement in the state of Odisha. A princely-priest by profession at the court of the Khurda kingdom, Rajaguru revolted against the British Raj in the province. Whilst collaborating with the Marathas to recapture the British-occupied province, a Maratha messenger was caught by the British army and Rajaguru's secret strategies got exposed. Upon failure of his removal from the king's court, the British force attacked the fort of Khurda and captured Rajaguru. He was later sentenced to death by tying his legs to the branches of a banyan tree in Baghitota, Midnapore. He is supposedly known, in written history, as first martyr of India against the British. However, this is disputed because he was mainly fighting against the threat imposed by the British towards the seizure of his feudal lands, rather than for the independence of either Odisha or India. However, later, the Paika Rebellion, under Bakshi Jagabandhu, is thought to be the first rebellion among Odias against the British. In September 1804 the King of Khurda was deprived of the traditional rights of Jagannatha Temple which was a serious shock to the King and the people of Odisha. Consequently, in October 1804 a group of armed Paikas attacked the British at Pipili. This event alarmed the British force. In the meantime, Rajaguru requested all the Kings of the State to join hands for a common cause against the British. The Kings of Kujanga, Kanika, Harishapura, Marichipura and others made an alliance with the King of Khurda and prepared themselves for the battle. Finally, the historical fight occurred between the military of Khurda and the British. Fight continued for a long period and Rajaguru was arrested from the Khurdha fort and was taken to Barabati fort. He made his all out effort to keep his king safe but finally, Mukunda Deva-II was arrested on 3 January 1805. Then Rajaguru and the King were sent to Midnapore Jail from Cuttack, fearing further violence in the State.
243	1739		D	Sacking of Delhi by the Persian Nadir Shah and the loot of all is treasures (Nader Shah's invasion of India): Emperor Nader Shah, the Shah of Persia (1736–47) and the founder of the Afsharid dynasty of Persia, invaded Northern India, eventually attacking Delhi in March 1739. His army had easily defeated the Mughals at the Battle of Karnal and would eventually capture the Mughal capital in the aftermath of the battle. The city was sacked for several days. An enormous fine of 20 million rupees was levied on the people of Delhi. Muhammad Shah handed over the keys to the royal treasury, and lost the Peacock Throne, to Nader Shah, which thereafter served as a symbol of Persian imperial might. Amongst a treasure trove of other fabulous jewels, Nader also gained the Koh-i-Noor and Darya-i-Noor ("Mountain of Light" and "Sea of Light", respectively) diamonds; they are now part of the British and Iranian Crown Jewels, respectively. Nader and his Afsharid troops left Delhi in the beginning of May 1739, but before they left, he ceded back all territories to the east of the Indus, which he had overrun, to Muhammad Shah. The sack of the city and defeat of the Moghuls was made easier since both parties were originally from Persian cultures. Nader's army took roughly 120 billion US dollars in purchasing power today from Delhi back to Persia. It took 20,000 mules and 20,000 camels to carry off the treasure. When Nader was traveling back to Iran, bandits descended on his huge caravan at night to steal animals carrying jewels and gold. In response, Nader burned down villages suspected of harboring the criminals. Till date, these are the only jewels that could have been conclusively traced back to Nadir Shah’s sack of Delhi in 1739: Koh-i-Noor (Mountain of Light); current location : British Crown Jewels, London Orlov or Orloff (also referred as one of the eyes of the idol at Srirangam Temple, Tamil Nadu.); current location : Diamond Fund, Moscow Golconda d' or diamond; current location : Dunklings Jewellers, Melbourne, Australia Daria-i-Noor (Sea of Light); current location : Iranian Crown Jewels, Central Bank of Iran, Tehran or Sonali Bank, Dhaka Noor-ul-Amin (Light of the Eye); current location : Iranian Crown Jewels, Central Bank of Iran, Tehran Taj-e-Mah (Crown of the Moon); current location : Iranian Crown Jewels, Central Bank of Iran, Tehran Shah Diamond; current location : Diamond Fund, Moscow Shah Jahan Diamond; current location : H.H. Sheikh Naseer Al-Sabah, Kuwait Akbar Shah Diamond (Also called Shepherd's Stone); current location : H.H. Samarjitsinh Gaekwad of Vadodara Royal Family Timur's Ruby; current location : British Crown Jewels, London An unknown vast majority of the precious stones that Nadir Shah took with him is simply untraceable and most are probably lost in the passage of time.
244	1740		Ad	A Subsidiary alliance, in South Asian history, was a tributary alliance between an Indian state and a European East India Company. The system of subsidiary alliances was pioneered by the French East India Company governor Joseph François Dupleix, who in the late 1740s established treaties with the Nizam of Hyderabad and other Indian princes in the Carnatic region. The method was subsequently adopted by the British East India Company, with Robert Clive negotiating a series of conditions with Mir Jafar following his victory in the 1757 Battle of Plassey, and subsequently those in the 1765 Treaty of Allahabad, as a result of the Company's success in the 1764 Battle of Buxar. A successor of Clive, Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley initially took a non-interventionist policy towards the various Indian states which were allied to the British East India Company, but later adopted, and refined the policy of forming subsidiary alliances.
245	1740	May	BS	Raghoji I Bhonsle of the Maratha Empire defeats and kills Dost Ali Khan the Mughal Nawab of Arcot in the Battle of Damalcherry.
246	1741		BC	The Battle of Colachel (or Battle of Kulachal) was fought on 10 August 1741 [O.S. 31 July 1741] between the Indian kingdom of Travancore and the Dutch East India Company, during the Travancore-Dutch War. King Marthanda Varma's (1729–1758) forces defeated the Dutch East India Company's forces led by Admiral Eustachius De Lannoy on 10 August 1741. It was the first time in Indian history that an Asian country defeated a European naval force. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.
247	1741		BS	Siege of Trichinopoly (1741): The Siege of Trichinopoly took place in early 1741 during an extended series of conflicts between the Nawab of Arcot and the Maratha Empire for control over parts of what is now southern India. Raghuji Bhonsle's Maratha army successfully starved out the town, compelling the surrender of Chanda Sahib on 26 March 1741.
248	1741	1759	BS	List of battles of Rajasthan#Post-Mughal rule: Battle of Gangwana (1741) – 1,000 Rathor cavaliers of Bhakt Singh fought a combined army of a 100,000 men consisting of Mughals, Kachwahas, Chauhans, Jadauns, Sisodias and Jats. In this battle Bhakt Singh was defeated but his cavalry charge killed and injured thousands of his foes. Sir Jadunath Sarkar quotes that – "the battle front was like tigers upon a flock of sheep". According to Harcharandas more than 12,000 men were slain in the battlefield. Battle of Rajmahal (1747) – Ishvari Singh of Jaipur defeated a coalition of armies led by Jagat Singh of Mewar. Battle of Bagru (1748) – Madho Singh I defeated Ishvari Singh. Battle of Raona (1750) – The Mughal Empire invaded Marwar but were repelled by the armies of Raja Ram singh Rathore and Ishwari Singh Kachwaha. Battle of Luniawas (1750) – Bhakt Singh challenged his nephew Ram Singh for the throne of Marwar. Ram Singh hired a large contingent of Afghan and Baloch Musketeers from Sindh to defeat his uncle, he further formed a powerful army in Jodhpur and appointed Sher Singh Rathor, a veteran general of Marwar to defeat the usurper. At first Ram Singhs general Sher Singh Rathor pushed Bhakt Singh 4 miles back and almost forced him to retreat, 2000 Rathors of Bhakt Singh fell in the battle with 9 Rathor nobles and Bhakt Singh was severely injured by spear and bullet wounds, but Bhakt Singh made a fierce counterattack which killed Sher Singh and most of Ram Singhs commanders making the battle a costly victory for Bhakt Singh. Battle of Ajmer (1752) – On May 1752 Jayapa Sindhia and Ram Singh attacked Ajmer, sacked it and massacred the populace. Upon learning of the invasion, Bhakt Singh marched with his army and camped 8 miles away from Ajmer. He waited till July and then attacked Jayappa. Bhakt Singh blocked the surrounding paths and placed his guns on a hill, he then bombarded the Marathas, upon receiving heavy casualties, the Marathas fled along with the army of Ram Singh. Battle of Kumher (1754) – Suraj Mal Jat ruler of Bharatpur defeated the combined armies of Marathas and Mughals. Siege of forts of Barwara and Tonk (1757) – Peshwa Raghunath Rao and Malhar Rao Holkar laid siege on the forts of Barwara and Tonk. They were defeated by the Rajput garrison of these forts under Maharaja Sawai Madho Singh. Battle of Kakor (1759) – The Rajput forces of Madho Singh of Jaipur defeated and repulsed the Holkar forces of Malhar Rao Holkar led by the veteran Gangadhar Tantiya in present day Kakor, Uniara, Tonk district, Rajasthan.
249	1741		Co	French colonization (French India): From their arrival until 1741, the objectives of the French, like those of the British, were purely commercial. During this period, the French East India Company peacefully acquired Yanam (about 840 kilometres or 520 miles north-east of Pondichéry on Andhra Coast) in 1723, Mahe on Malabar Coast in 1725 and Karaikal (about 150 kilometres or 93 miles south of Pondichéry) in 1739. In the early 18th century, the town of Pondichéry was laid out on a grid pattern and grew considerably. Able governors like Pierre Christophe Le Noir (1726–1735) and Pierre Benoît Dumas (1735–1741) expanded the Pondichéry area and made it a large and rich town.
250	1743		BS	Siege of Trichinopoly (1743): The Siege of Trichinopoly (March 1743 – August 1743) was part of an extended series of conflicts between the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Maratha Empire for control of the Carnatic region. On 29 August 1743, after a six-month siege, Murari Rao surrendered, giving Nizam ul Mulk (Nizam) the suzerainty of Trichinopoly. By the end of 1743, the Nizam had regained full control of Deccan. This stopped the Maratha interference in the region and ended their hegemony over the Carnatic. The Nizam resolved the internal conflicts among the regional hereditary nobles (Nawabs) for the seat of governor (Subedar) of Arcot State, and monitored the activities of the British East India company and French East India Company by limiting their access to ports and trading.
251	1744	1763	BC	The Carnatic Wars were a series of military conflicts in the middle of the 18th century in India's coastal Carnatic region, a dependency of Hyderabad State, India. Three Carnatic Wars were fought between 1746 and 1763. The conflicts involved numerous nominally independent rulers and their vassals, struggles for succession and territory; and included a diplomatic and military struggle between the French East India Company and the British East India Company. They were mainly fought within the territories of Mughal India with the assistance of various fragmented polities loyal to the "Great Moghul". As a result of these military contests, the British East India Company established its dominance among the European trading companies within India. The French company was pushed to a corner and was confined primarily to Pondichéry. The East India Company's dominance eventually led to control by the British Company over most of India and eventually to the establishment of the British Raj.
252	1744	1763	BC	The Carnatic Wars: The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb died in 1707. He was succeeded by Bahadur Shah I, but there was a general decline in central control over the empire during the tenure of Jahandar Shah and later emperors. Nizam-ul-Mulk established Hyderabad as an independent kingdom. A power struggle ensued after his death between his son, Nasir Jung, and his grandson, Muzaffar Jung, which soon involved foreign powers eager to expand their influence. France aided Muzaffar Jung while Britain aided Nasir Jung. Several erstwhile Mughal territories were autonomous such as the Carnatic, ruled by Nawab Dost Ali Khan, despite being under the legal purview of the Nizam of Hyderabad. French and British support soon became intertwined with the affairs of the Nawab. Dost Ali's death sparked a power struggle between his son-in-law Chanda Sahib, supported by the French, and Muhammad Ali, supported by the British. One major instigator of the Carnatic Wars was the Frenchman Joseph François Dupleix, who arrived in India in 1715, rising to become the French East India Company's governor in 1742. Dupleix sought to expand French influence in India, which was limited to a few trading outposts, the chief one being Pondicherry on the Coromandel Coast. Immediately upon his arrival in India, he organized Indian recruits under French officers for the first time, and engaged in intrigues with local rulers to expand French influence. However, he was met by the equally challenging and determined young officer from the British Army, Robert Clive. "The Austrian War of Succession in 1740 and later the war in 1756 automatically led to a conflict in India ... and British reverses during the American War of Independence (1775–1783) in the 1770s had an impact on events in India."
253	1746	1748	BC	First Carnatic War (1746–1748): The First Carnatic War (1746–1748) was the Indian theatre of the War of the Austrian Succession and the first of a series of Carnatic Wars that established early British dominance on the east coast of the Indian subcontinent. In this conflict the British and French East India Companies vied with each other on land for control of their respective trading posts at Madras, Pondicherry, and Cuddalore, while naval forces of France and Britain engaged each other off the coast. The war set the stage for the rapid growth of French hegemony in southern India under the command of French Governor-General Joseph François Dupleix in the Second Carnatic War. Carnatic Wars#First Carnatic War (1746–1748): In 1740 the War of the Austrian Succession broke out in Europe. Great Britain was drawn into the war in 1744, opposed to France and its allies. The trading companies of both countries maintained cordial relations in India while their parent countries were bitter enemies on the European continent. Dodwell writes, "Such were the friendly relations between the English and the French that the French sent their goods and merchandise from Pondicherry to Madras for safe custody." Although French company officials were ordered to avoid conflict, British officials were not, and were furthermore notified that a Royal Navy fleet was en route. After the British initially captured a few French merchant ships, the French called for backup from as far afield as Isle de France (now Mauritius), beginning an escalation in naval forces in the area. In July 1746 French commander La Bourdonnais and British Admiral Edward Peyton fought an indecisive action off Negapatam, after which the British fleet withdrew to Bengal. On 21 September 1746, the French captured the British outpost at Madras. La Bourdonnais had promised to return Madras to the British, but Dupleix withdrew that promise, and wanted to give Madras to Anwar-ud-din after the capture. The Nawab then sent a 10,000-man army to take Madras from the French but was decisively repulsed by a small French force in the Battle of Adyar. The French then made several attempts to capture the British Fort St. David at Cuddalore, but the timely arrivals of reinforcements halted these and eventually turned the tables on the French. British Admiral Edward Boscawen besieged Pondicherry in the later months of 1748, but lifted the siege with the advent of the monsoon rains in October. With the termination of the War of Austrian Succession in Europe, the First Carnatic War also came to an end. In the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), Madras was given back to the British in exchange for the French fortress of Louisbourg in North America, which the British had captured. The war was principally notable in India as the first military experience of Robert Clive, who was taken prisoner at Madras but managed to escape, and who then participated in the defence of Cuddalore and the siege of Pondicherry.The French still retained their position as the protectors of Nizams of Hyderabad
254	1746		BC	The Battle of Madras or Fall of Madras took place in September 1746 during the War of the Austrian Succession when a French force attacked and captured the city of Madras from its British garrison. French forces occupied Madras until the end of hostilities when it was exchanged for the British conquest of Louisbourg in North America as part of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. One of the British defenders, Robert Clive made his name by escaping from the French captors and carrying news of the city's fall to his superiors at Fort St David. The French occupied the town for the duration of the war. Despite Dupleix's promise earlier to hand the territory over to the Nawab of the Carnatic, Dupleix refused to do so. A force of 10,000 sent by the Nawab to enforce the agreement was routed by a small French force led by Captain Louis Paradis at the battle of Adyar on 24 October 1746. The French subsequently tried to take Fort St David but found the resistance much tougher, and were ultimately forced to withdraw. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle that ended the war made provision for Madras to be returned to the British in exchange for Louisbourg in Acadia which had been captured by British forces in 1745. The French besieged Madras again in 1759, this time without success.
255	1746		BC	The Battle of Adyar (also the Battle of Adyar River) took place on 24 October 1746. The battle was between the French East India Company men and Nawab of Arcot forces over the St. George Fort, which was held by the French. It was part of the First Carnatic War between the English and the French. Mahfuz Khan's troops fled and the Battle of the Adyar River, which began on the morning of 24 October 1746, ended that evening with the French retaining control over Fort St. George. The humiliating defeat made the Nawab realize the impotency of Indian armoury against European techniques of warfare. According to William Dalrymple (historian), it was immediately clear that nothing in the Mughal armoury could match the techniques of 18th century European warfare, particularly the “invention of screws for elevating the guns gave the artillery greater precision and increased the fire power of the foot soldier, giving them an edge in the battle against the cavalry.” It showed that a small body of infantry armed with the new flintlock muskets and bayonets and supported by quick-firing mobile artillery, could now scatter a whole army just as easily as they could in Europe. This battle is a turning point in Indian history because for the first time, techniques of 18th century European warfare, developed in Prussia and tested on the battlefields of France and Flanders, had been tried out in India.
256	1746		BS	Chhota Ghallughara ("Smaller Massacre") was a massacre of a significant proportion of the Sikh population by the Mughal Empire. Jaspat Rai's brother Lakhpat Rai with Mughal army killed an estimated 7,000 Sikhs in these attacks. Chhōtā Ghallūghārā is distinguished from the Vaddā Ghallūghārā, the greater massacre of 1762.
257	1748	1801	F	The Marudhu Pandiyars (Periya Marudhu and Chinna Marudhu) were chieftains of Sivagangai, Tamil Nadu, India, towards the end of the 18th century. They were known for fighting against the East India Company. They were finally executed by the EIC after being captured by them. Maruthu Brothers were good in aerodynamics and invented many variants of spears and Valari, a variant of the boomerang.
258	1748		W	In 1740 India appeared to be relatively tranquil. In the north the Persian Nader Shah’s invasion (1739) had proved to be only a large-scale raid. In the Deccan the Niẓām al-Mulk provided some measure of stability. In Western India the Marathas were dominant. However, there was competition between Marathas, Mughals, and local rulers for political supremacy in the Deccan. There was a sense of impending change in the air; the Mughal emperor was sickly, the nizam was aged, and the Marathas were active and ambitious. It was on this scene that events in Europe precipitated an Anglo-French struggle in India. The War of the Austrian Succession began with Frederick II of Prussia’s seizure of Silesia in 1740; France supported Prussia, and from 1742 England supported Austria. The stage thus set, the English decided that the French Indian trade was too powerful to be left alone; the neutrality of previous years was therefore abandoned. Both sides depended on sea power for success, but it was the French who moved first—with an improvised fleet from Mauritius, Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais, drove the British in alarm to Bengal and captured Madras after a week’s siege in September 1746. Quarrels between La Bourdonnais and the governor of Pondicherry, Joseph François Dupleix, marred this unexpected success, but an English attack on Pondicherry was repelled. Then the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), which ended the war, returned Madras to the British in exchange for Cape Breton Island in North America. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), sometimes called the Treaty of Aachen, ended the War of the Austrian Succession, following a congress assembled on 24 April 1748 at the Free Imperial City of Aachen. The two main protagonists in the war, Britain and France, opened peace talks in the Dutch city of Breda in 1746. Agreement was delayed by British hopes of improving their position; when this failed to occur, a draft treaty was agreed on 30 April 1748. A final version was signed on 18 October 1748 by Britain, France, and the Dutch Republic.
259	1749	1754	BC	Second Carnatic War (1749–1754) (Carnatic Wars): Though a state of war did not exist in Europe, the proxy war continued in India. On one side was Nasir Jung, the Nizam and his protege Muhammad Ali, supported by the British, and on the other was Chanda Sahib and Muzaffar Jung, supported by the French, vying to become the Nawab of Arcot. Muzaffar Jung and Chanda Sahib were able to capture Arcot while Nasir Jung's subsequent death allowed Muzaffar Jung to take control of Hyderabad. Muzaffar's reign was short as he was soon killed, and Salabat Jung became Nizam. In 1751, however, Robert Clive led British troops to capture Arcot, and successfully defend it. The war ended with the Treaty of Pondicherry, signed in 1754, which recognised Muhammad Ali Khan Walajah as the Nawab of the Carnatic. Charles Godeheu replaced Dupleix, who died in poverty back in France.
260	1749		BS	The Battle of Ambur (3 August 1749) was the first major battle of the Second Carnatic War. The battle was initiated by Muzaffar Jung and supported by Joseph François Dupleix and led by Chanda Sahib, who sought to overthrow Anwaruddin Muhammed Khan, the Nawab of the Carnatic, for supporting Nasir Jung's claim to be Nizam of Hyderabad. French forces were decisive in giving the allies victory; Anwaruddin Muhammed Khan was killed in the battle and Chanda Sahib seized control of the Carnatic.
261	1750	1784	F	Tilka Manjhi (11 February 1750 – 1784) Tilka Majhi was an Indian freedom fighter the first Adivasi leader from Manjhi Community. He was considered as second fighter after Maharana Pratap. He took up arms against the British in the 1784, around 70 years before Mangal Pandey. He organized the Adivasis to form an armed group to fight against the resource grabbing and exploitation of British.
262	1750	Bombay	T	Asia's first dry dock built by Lovji Nusserwanjee Wadia in Bombay.
263	1750		Tr	The Wadia Group is one of the oldest conglomerates of India. The group was founded by Parsi Lovji Nusserwanjee Wadia in 1736. Lovji Wadia secured contracts with the British East India Company to build ships and docks in Bombay in 1736. This, and subsequent efforts, would result in Bombay becoming a strategic port for the British colonial undertakings in Asia. The Bombay dry-dock, the first dry-dock in Asia, was built by Lovji and his brother Sorabji in 1750.
264	1751		BC	The Battle of Arnee (or Battle of Arni) took place at Arnee (now Arani, India) on 3 December 1751 during the Second Carnatic War. A British-led force under the command of Robert Clive defeated and routed a much larger Franco-Indian force under the command of Raza Sahib. The French troops were guarding a convoy of treasure. Clive took up a position in swampy ground, crossed by a causeway in which the convoy was forced to pass. The French were thrown into disorder and forced to retreat, but night saved them from total destruction. The treasure, however, was captured.
265	1751		BS	The Siege of Trichinopoly (1751–52) was conducted by Chanda Sahib, who had been recognized as the Nawab of the Carnatic by representatives of the French East India Company, against the fortress town of Trichinopoly, held by Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah. In March 1751 Chanda again began moving south from the Carnatic capital of Arcot, again with French support. The size of his force prompted the British at Madras to send additional troops toward Trichinopoly to intercept Chanda. After a brief encounter near Valikondapuram in July, the outnumbered British retreated to Trichinopoly. Chanda followed with his main army, and began besieging the fortress town. Siege operations were principally conducted by the French contingent, first under D'Auteuil, and the later under Law. In an attempt to relieve the siege, the British in Madras sent Captain Robert Clive with a small force to occupy Arcot, which Chanda had left inadequately defended. Chanda detached 4,000 of his siege force in an attempt to recover Arcot; this attempt famously failed, propelling Clive into a more prominent role in India. The siege was eventually lifted, and the tables turned, in April 1752 with the arrival of British reinforcements led by Stringer Lawrence and including Clive. On 9 April Lawrence made a junction with troops sent out of Trichinopoly and made it inside the lines. Two days later he led a sortie against the besiegers, prompting Law to lift the siege and retreat to the isle of Srirangam. The British then seized the opportunity to act against an indecisive opponent, and besieged and the French on the island. Chanda eventually negotiated a surrender to Tanjorean forces that had arrived to assist the British, believing this to be preferable to surrendering to the British. The Tanjoreans violated their promises to assist in his escape and beheaded him on 14 June. Law surrendered the French troops on the same day.
266	1751		P	Robert Clive (1725–74), aged 26, seizes Arcot in modern day Tamil Nadu as French and British fight for control of South India. The Siege of Arcot (23 September – 14 November 1751) took place at Arcot, India between forces of the British East India Company led by Robert Clive and forces of Nawab of the Carnatic, Chanda Sahib, assisted by a small number of troops from the French East India Company. It was part of the Second Carnatic War.
267	1752		BS	Chanda Sahib (died 12 June 1752) Nawab of the Carnatic between 1749 and 1752. Initially he was supported by the French during the Carnatic Wars. After his defeat at Arcot in 1751, he was captured by the Marathas of Thanjavur and executed. He was the son-in-law of the Nawab of Carnatic Dost Ali Khan, under whom he worked as a Dewan. Chanda Sahib, an ally of the French, annexed the Madurai Nayaks and was declared the "Nawab", bringing Tanjore and Tinnevelly into the dominions of the Mughal Empire. He was weakened by constant Maratha attacks and was defeated by Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah. After his forces were defeated by Robert Clive and the Maratha Empire, he attempted to recoup his losses but was beheaded in a mutiny by Hindu subjects in the Tanjore army.
268	1752		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India): 1752 – 1791 – Pepper procurement lodge established at Calicut.
269	1753	10 May	BS	Jats under Suraj Mal defeat the Mughal Empire in the Capture of Delhi (1753).
270	1753	1805	F	Pazhassi Raja (3 January 1753 – 30 November 1805) was born as Kerala Varma and was also known as Cotiote Rajah and Pychy Rajah. He was a warrior Hindu prince and de facto head of the kingdom of Kottayam, otherwise known as Cotiote, in Malabar, India, between 1774 and 1805. His struggles with the East India Company is known as the Cotiote War. He is popularly known as Kerala Simham (Lion of Kerala) on account of his martial exploits. He used guerrilla warfare to fight British in Cotiote War (Kottayathu war) across a span of thirteen years from 1793 to 1806 to preserve the independence and unity of his kingdom and was killed in 1805 in a gun-fight at Mavila Thodu in the present-day Kerala-Karnataka border.
271	1754		BS	The Treaty of Pondicherry was signed in 1754 bringing an end to the Second Carnatic War. It was agreed and signed in the French settlement of Puducherry in French India. The favoured British candidate Mohamed Ali Khan Walajan was recognized as the Nawab of the Carnatic. Despite intending to be a lasting solution, a Third Carnatic War broke out just two years later in 1756.
272	1754		BS	Bharatpur State defeat the Marathas in Battle of Kumher (20 January – 18 May).
273	1754		Co	French colonization (French India): Soon after his arrival in 1741, the most famous governor of French India, Joseph François Dupleix, began to cherish the ambition of a French territorial empire in India in spite of the pronounced uninterested attitude of his distant superiors and of the French government, which didn't want to provoke the British. Dupleix's ambition clashed with British interests in India and a period of military skirmishes and political intrigues began and continued even in rare periods when France and Great Britain were officially at peace. Under the command of the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau, Dupleix's army successfully controlled the area between Hyderabad and Cape Comorin. But then Robert Clive arrived in India in 1744, a British officer who dashed the hopes of Dupleix to create a French empire in India. After a defeat and failed peace talks, Dupleix was summarily dismissed and recalled to France in 1754.
274	1754		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India): November 1754 – A meeting of Danish-Norwegian officials is held in Tranquebar. A decision is made to colonise the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to plant pepper, cinnamon, sugarcane, coffee and cotton.
275	1755		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India): December 1755 – Danish-Norwegian settlers arrive on Andaman Islands. The colony experiences outbreaks of malaria that saw the settlement abandoned periodically until 1848, when it was abandoned for good. This sporadic occupation led to encroachments of other colonial powers onto the islands including Austria and Britain.
276	1756		BC	The Black Hole of Calcutta was a dungeon in Fort William, Calcutta measuring 4.30 × 5.50 ⁠metres (14 × 18 ⁠⁠feet), in which troops of Siraj ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, held British prisoners of war on the night of 20 June 1756. John Zephaniah Holwell, one of the British prisoners and an employee of the East India Company, said that, after the fall of Fort William, the surviving British soldiers, Indian sepoys, and Indian civilians were imprisoned overnight in conditions so cramped that many people died from suffocation and heat exhaustion, and that 123 of 146 prisoners of war imprisoned there died. Modern historians believe that 64 prisoners were sent into the Hole, and that 43 died there. According to Hong-Yee Chiu, an astrophysicist at NASA, the Black Hole of Calcutta was the inspiration for the term black hole referring to objects resulting from the gravitational collapse of very heavy stars. He recalled hearing physicist Robert Dicke in the early 1960s compare such gravitationally collapsed objects to the prison.
277	1756	1763	BC	Third Carnatic War (1756–1763) (Carnatic Wars#Third Carnatic War (1756–1763)): The outbreak of the Seven Years' War in Europe in 1756 resulted in renewed conflict between French and British forces in India. In this time the Fench were facing many financial problems. The Third Carnatic War spread beyond southern India and into Bengal where British forces captured the French settlement of Chandernagore (now Chandannagar) in 1757. However, the war was decided in the south, where the British successfully defended Madras, and Sir Eyre Coote decisively defeated the French, commanded by the comte de Lally at the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760. After Wandiwash, the French capital of Pondicherry fell to the British in 1761. The war concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, which returned Chandernagore and Pondichéry to France, and allowed the French to have "factories" (trading posts) in India but forbade French traders from administering them. The French agreed to support British client governments, thus ending French ambitions of an Indian empire and making the British the dominant foreign power in India.
278	1756		Co	French colonization (French India): In spite of a treaty between the British and French agreeing not to interfere in regional Indian affairs, their colonial intrigues continued. The French expanded their influence at the court of the Nawab of Bengal and increased their trading activity in Bengal. In 1756, the French encouraged the Nawab (Siraj ud-Daulah) to attack and take the British Fort William in Calcutta. This led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, where the British decisively defeated the Nawab and his French allies, resulting in the extension of British power over the entire province of Bengal.
279	1756		Co	Danish Colonization (Danish India): 1 January 1756 – The Nicobar Islands are declared Danish-Norwegian property under the name Frederiksøerne (Frederick's Islands). 1756–1760 – All colonisation efforts on the islands fail with settlers wiped out by malaria. Danish-Norwegian claims to the islands were later sold to the British.
280	1756	1805	F	Dheeran Chinnamalai (17 April 1756 – 31 July 1805) was a Palayakkarar Pattakarar of Kongu Nadu, now in western Tamil Nadu, who fought against the British East India Company. Chinnamalai engaged in guerrilla warfare and defeated the British in battles at Cauvery in 1801, Odanilai kangeyam in 1802 and Arachalur in 1804. Dheeran Chinnamalai Gounderwas betrayed by his cook Nallapan and was captured by the British in 1805. Nallappan usurped the title of Nallasenapthi Sarkarai Manradiar with British support. Some sources say he was hanged at Sankagiri Fort on 2 August 1805, as also were his two brothers; other sources give the date as 31 July on the day of Aadi Perukku.
281	1756	1763	W	The Seven Years' War was a global conflict that involved all 5 European great powers of the time – Kingdoms of Great Britain, Prussia and France, Habsburg Monarchy of Austria and Russian Empire – plus many of Europe's middle powers and spanned 5 continents, affecting Europe, Americas, West Africa, India, and Philippines. The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) began as a conflict between Great Britain and France in 1754, when the British sought to expand into territory claimed by the French in North America. The war came to be known as the French and Indian War, with both the British and the French and their respective Native American allies fighting for control of territory. Hostilities were heightened when a British unit led by a 22-year-old Lt. Colonel George Washington ambushed a small French force at the Battle of Jumonville Glen on 28 May 1754. The conflict exploded across the colonial boundaries and extended to Britain's seizure of hundreds of French merchant ships at sea. The colonial conflict mainly between France and Britain took place in India, North America, Europe, the Caribbean isles, the Philippines, and coastal Africa. Over the course of the war, Great Britain gained enormous areas of land and influence at the expense of the French. Seven Years' War#India: In India, the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in Europe renewed the long running conflict between the French and the British trading companies for influence on the subcontinent. The French allied themselves with the Mughal Empire to resist British expansion. The war began in Southern India but spread into Bengal, where British forces under Robert Clive recaptured Calcutta from the Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah, a French ally, and ousted him from his throne at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. In the same year, the British also captured Chandernagar, the French settlement in Bengal. In the south, although the French captured Cuddalore, their siege of Madras failed, while the British commander Sir Eyre Coote decisively defeated the Comte de Lally at the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760 and overran the French territory of the Northern Circars. The French capital in India, Pondicherry, fell to the British in 1761; together with the fall of the lesser French settlements of Karikal and Mahé this effectively eliminated French power in India. Seven Years' War#Outcomes: The war ended with two separate treaties dealing with the two different theaters of war. The Treaty of Paris between France, Spain and Great Britain ended the war in North America and for overseas territories taken in the conflict. The 1763 Treaty of Hubertusburg ended the war between Saxony, Austria and Prussia. The Anglo-French hostilities were ended in 1763 by the Treaty of Paris, which involved a complex series of land exchanges across the globe. In India, the British retained the Northern Circars, but returned all the French trading ports. The treaty, however, required that the fortifications of these settlements be destroyed and never rebuilt, while only minimal garrisons could be maintained there, thus rendering them worthless as military bases. Combined with the loss of France's ally in Bengal and the defection of Hyderabad to the British as a result of the war, this effectively brought French power in India to an end, making way for British hegemony and eventual control of the subcontinent. France's navy was crippled by the war. Only after an ambitious rebuilding program in combination with Spain was France again able to challenge Britain's command of the sea.
282	1757	16 Jan	BS	Maratha Empire defeats Durrani Empire, in the Battle of Narela.
283	1757	23 Jun	BE	British colonial administrator Robert Clive overthrows the nawab, or ruler, of Bengal in the Battle of Plassey on June 23. This victory makes Clive the virtual master of Bengal.
284	1757		BS	Battle of Bobbili: (Part of the Military transactions of the French East India Company) On January 24, 1757, Bussy with his army and the army of Pusapati Vijayarama Gajapati Raju I in tow marched towards the Bobbili fort. The army of Gopalakrishna Ranga Rao was no match for the combined armies of Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau and Pusapati Vijayarama Gajapati Raju I. Gopalakrishna Rayudu was led by his Army General Tandra Paparayudu and his army, who put up a brave fight till the end. The French General knew that it would be impossible to reach Bobbili via Rajam as Paparayudu was camping there and took a different route to reach the fort. Rani Mallamma Devi, wife of Ranga Rao and sister of Paparayudu, sent a message to him on coming to know of the enemy's advance towards the fort. However, the enemy intercepted the courier and the message did not reach Paparayudu. Meanwhile, Ranga Rao and his men after defending the fort for several hours realised that the enemy could not be contained for long. Ranga Rao did not want the women and children in the fort to be at the mercy of the enemy. He ordered them to be sacrificed. Rani Mallamma Devi committed suicide. When the news reached him, Tandra Paparayudu rushed to the demolished fort and saw his sister and the entire family lying on the ground in a pool of blood. Seething with vengeance he took an oath to kill Pusapati Vijayarama Gajapati Raju I.
285	1757	12 Feb	BS	Jats defeats Durrani Empire, in the Battle of Bharatpur (1757).
286	1757	11 Aug	BS	Maratha Empire defeats Rohilla Afghans in the Battle of Delhi (1757), captures Delhi.
287	1757	1858	Co	British Company rule in India: Company rule in India (sometimes, Company Raj, "raj", lit. "rule" in Hindi) refers to the rule or dominion of the British East India Company on the Indian subcontinent. This is variously taken to have commenced in 1757, after the Battle of Plassey, when the Nawab of Bengal surrendered his dominions to the Company, in 1765, when the Company was granted the diwani, or the right to collect revenue, in Bengal and Bihar, or in 1773, when the Company established a capital in Calcutta, appointed its first Governor-General, Warren Hastings, and became directly involved in governance. The rule lasted until 1858, when, after the Indian rebellion of 1857 and consequent of the Government of India Act 1858, the British government assumed the task of directly administering India in the new British Raj.
288	1757	1858	Co	British Company rule in India: Chronology 1757: 24 Parganas of the Sundarbans annexed to Clive after the Battle of Plassey. 1760: Northern Circars annexed. 1765: After defeat of Nawab Wazir of Oudh at the Battle of Buxar, Major Hector Munro "obtained from the emperor" Shah Alam II the diwani, or right of revenue collection, of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. 1773: "New territories acquired" from the Raja of Banares. 1775: Nawab of Ghazipur defeated. 1795: Asaf Jah II the Nizam of Hyderabad was defeated at the Battle of Kharda, after the Maratha-Mysore War. 1799: Fall of Mysore after Siege of Seringapatam (1799); Nawab of Kadapa and Nawab of Kurnool annexed. 1801: Nawab of the Carnatic (of Arcot and Nellore), Nawab of Junagarh, and Rohilkhand of Lower Doab annexed. 1803: Rohilkhand of Upper Doab annexed; nonresistance from the Emperor; Nawab of Bhawalpur accepts borders with British India.
289	1757	1813	Ec	Three phases of British exploitation of India: The 1st Phase or Mercantile Phase from 1757 up to 1813– This phase was marked by direct plunder. The East India Company used it monopoly of trade which functioned through ‘investments’ of Indian revenues to buy Indian products at low rates. These goods were then exported to Europe and England. So in essence, the East India Company bought Indian products from the revenues they collected mainly from Bengal and then exported them. Taking advantage of the political power the British now could dictate the prices of the goods that they needed to export. The servants of the Company amassed enormous fortunes by engaging in the illegal trade till the time this was banned by Lord Cornwallis. The revenues of Bengal were exploited till the introduction of the Permanent Settlement in 1793. Also see Sn: 315, 426 and 1558
290	1757		P	The Battle of Plassey 23 June 1757. Bengal annexed by the British East India Company. British under Robert Clive defeat Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah to become rulers of Bengal, the richest province in India. The Battle of Plassey was a decisive victory of the British East India Company over a much larger force of the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies on 23 June 1757, under the leadership of Robert Clive. The battle helped the Company seize control of Bengal. Over the next hundred years, they seized control of most of the Indian subcontinent, Myanmar, and Afghanistan. The battle took place at Palashi (Anglicised version: Plassey) on the banks of the Hooghly River, about 150 kilometres (93 mi) north of Calcutta and south of Murshidabad, then capital of Bengal (now in Nadia district in West Bengal). The belligerents were the Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, and the British East India Company. He succeeded Alivardi Khan (his maternal grandfather). Siraj-ud-Daulah had become the Nawab of Bengal the year before, and he had ordered the English to stop the extension of their fortification. Robert Clive bribed Mir Jafar, the commander-in-chief of the Nawab's army, and also promised to make him Nawab of Bengal. Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah at Plassey in 1757 and captured Calcutta.
291	1757		P	The control of rich Bengal gained in the aftermath of the Battle of Plassey brought India into the public spotlight in Britain, and Parliament established regulations to manage the affairs of the East India Company. Although some wanted the Company’s territories to be taken over by the British state, the eventual compromise asserted that the Company could act as a sovereign power on behalf of the Crown while subject to oversight and regulation by the British government and parliament.
292	1757	1857	P	In the hundred years from the Battle of Plassey in 1757 to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the EIC began to function more as an administrator and less as a trading concern. The proliferation of the Company’s power chiefly took two forms: The outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions, or Asserting power through treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the Company’s hegemony in return for limited internal autonomy.
293	1757	1858	Pr	Presidencies, Provinces, Princely States, (Presidencies and provinces of British India): During the period of Company rule in India, 1757–1858, the Company gradually acquired sovereignty over large parts of India, now called "Presidencies". However, it also increasingly came under British government oversight, in effect sharing sovereignty with the Crown. At the same time, it gradually lost its mercantile privileges.
294	1758	28 Apr	BS	Maratha Empire led by Raghunathrao and Mahadaji Shinde defeats Durrani Empire in the Battle of Attock (1758), captures Attock.
295	1758	8 May	BS	Maratha Empire led by Raghunathrao, Malhar Rao Holkar and Tukoji Rao Holkar defeats Durrani Empire in the Battle of Peshawar (1758), captures Peshawar.
296	1758		Co	French colonization (French India): Subsequently, France sent Lally-Tollendal to recover the lost French possessions and drive the British out of India. Lally arrived in Pondichéry in 1758, had some initial success and razed Fort St. David in Cuddalore District to the ground in 1758, but strategic mistakes by Lally led to the loss of the Hyderabad region, the Battle of Wandiwash, and the siege of Pondicherry in 1760. In 1761, the British razed Pondichéry to the ground in revenge for the French depredations; it lay in ruins for four years. The French had lost their hold now in South India too.
297	1759		BE	Britain’s capture of Quebec during the French and Indian War virtually ends France’s power in North America.
298	1759		BS	Maratha Empire supported by Sikh Sukerchakia Misl defeats Durrani Empire in the Battle of Lahore (1759).
299	1760		BC	The Battle of Wandiwash was a battle in India between the French and the British in 1760. The battle was part of the Third Carnatic War fought between the French and British colonial empires, which itself was a part of the global Seven Years' War. It took place it Vandavasi in Tamil Nadu. Having made substantial gains in Bengal and Hyderabad, the British, after collecting a large amount of revenue, were fully equipped to face the French in Wandiwash, whom they defeated. The French, commanded by the Comte de Lally, were burdened by a lack of naval support and funds, and therefore attempted to regain the fort of Vandavasi, now in Tamil Nadu. While attempting to do so, they were attacked by British forces commanded by Sir Eyre Coote, and in the ensuing battle, the French were decisively defeated. (Wandiwash is the Anglicised pronunciation of Vandavasi.) The Battle of Wandiwash resulted in the British capture of Chetpattu (Chetpet), Tirunomalai (Thiruvannaamalai), Tindivanam and Perumukkal. As a consequence of the engagement, the French in South India, under the command of general Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau, were then restricted to Pondichéry, where they surrendered on 22 January 1761. The collapse of the French position in India was one of the events that compelled France to sign the Treaty of Paris, reducing the French to little more than traders in India, and effectively ending further French imperial ambitions in that country. Britain, on the other hand, established its supremacy in India over other European powers after this battle.
300	1760		BS	Marathas comprehensively defeat the Nizam. Maratha Empire reaches its zenith.
301	1760	1820	Em	George III (George William Frederick; 4 June 1738 – 29 January 1820) was King of Great Britain and Ireland from 25 October 1760 until the union of the two kingdoms on 1 January 1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death in 1820.
302	1760	1799	F	Veerapandiya Kattabomman was an 18th-century Tamil Palayakarrar and chieftain in Tamil Nadu, India. He refused to accept the sovereignty of the British East India Company and waged a war against them. He was captured by the British with the help of the ruler of the kingdom of Pudukottai, Vijaya Raghunatha Tondaiman, and at the age of 39 he was hanged at Kayathar on 16 October 1799.
303	1761		BS	The Third Battle of Panipat took place on 14 January 1761 at Panipat, about 97 km (60 miles) north of Delhi, between the Maratha Empire and the invading Afghan army (of Ahmad Shah Durrani), supported by four Indian allies, the Rohillas under the command of Najib-ud-daulah, Afghans of the Doab region, and the Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-Daula. This began 40 years of anarchy in northwestern India and cleared the way for British supremacy. It was the last major battle between South Asian-headed military powers until the creation of Pakistan and India in 1947. To save their kingdom, the Mughals once again changed sides and welcomed the Afghans to Delhi. The Mughals remained in nominal control over small areas of India but were never a force again. The empire officially ended in 1857 when its last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, was accused of being involved in the Indian Rebellion and exiled. The Marathas' expansion was delayed due to the battle, and the damage done to the Maratha morale from the initial defeat caused infighting to break out within the empire. They recovered their position under the next Peshwa Madhavrao I and were back in control of the north, finally occupying Delhi by 1771. However, after the death of Madhavrao, due to infighting and external conflicts with the East India Company, their political status as an empire only officially ended in 1818 after three wars against the forces of the East India Company. Meanwhile, the Sikhs—whose rebellion was the original reason Ahmad invaded—were left largely untouched by the battle. They soon retook Lahore. When Ahmad Shah returned in March 1764 he was forced to break off his siege after only two weeks due to a rebellion in Afghanistan. He returned again in 1767 but was unable to win any decisive battle. With his own troops complaining about not being paid, he eventually lost the region to the Sikh Khalsa Raj, who remained in control until 1849 when it was annexed by the East India Company. Ref: The First Battle of Panipat on 21 April 1526, was fought between the invading forces of Babur and the Lodi dynasty. It took place in north India and marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire and the end of the Delhi Sultanate. This was one of the earliest battles involving gunpowder firearms and field artillery in the Indian subcontinent which were introduced by Mughals in this battle. Ref: The Second Battle of Panipat was fought on 5 November 1556, between the Hindu emperor of north India, Hemu, and the forces of the Mughal emperor Akbar. Hemu had conquered the states of Delhi and Agra a few weeks earlier by defeating the Mughals led by Tardi Beg Khan at the Battle of Delhi and proclaimed himself Raja Vikramaditya at a coronation in Purana Quila in Delhi. Akbar and his guardian Bairam Khan who, after learning of the loss of Agra and Delhi, marched to Panipat to reclaim the lost territories. The two armies clashed at Panipat not far from the site of the First Battle of Panipat of 1526. Hemu and his forces held the numerical superiority. However, Hemu was wounded by an arrow in the middle of the battle and fell unconscious. Seeing their leader going down, his army panicked and dispersed. Unconscious and almost dead, Hemu was captured and subsequently beheaded by Bairam Khan. The battle ended in a decisive Mughal victory.
304	1761		BS	The Battle of Sialkot (1761) was fought between Durrani Empire and Sukerchakia Misl of Dal Khalsa in 1761. Timur Shah Durrani advanced with his troops to punish the Sikhs but he was repulsed in the battle fought at Chenab River. Following repulsion, Timur Shah Durrani withdrew under siege to Sialkot, northeast of Punjab capital of Lahore. He was further attacked by the Sikhs at Sialkot. The attack was so ferocious that Timur Shah Durrani lost most of his men in the attack. But he, along with his remaining army, continued to battle the Sikhs. The Sikhs were very effective in the battle as they were using guerilla warfare hit-and-run tactics on the Afghan army. Soon, the Sikhs surrounded Sialkot and started a blockade from supplies coming from Kabul to Sialkot. The blockade was very effective as it started to starve the Afghan army who were running low on food. The food shortage made the Durranis desperate to escape from Sialkot. Soon, Timur Shah Durrani found an opening and led his army out of Sialkot. His tired and weary army was starved into surrendering and they quickly withdrew. However the Sikhs did not chase them. Instead, they captured Sialkot. The Afghans along with Timur Shah Durrani had ran off to Kabul therefore the battle was a clear victory for the Sikhs. After defeat at Sialkot, the Afghans were defeated by the Sikhs at the Battle of Gujranwala (1761) in the same year.
305	1761		BS	The Battle of Gujranwala (1761) was fought between the Durrani Empire and the Sikh Confederacy on September 1761. Ahmad Shah Durrani raided India in 1761 and defeated the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat in January 1761. He then returned to Kabul and appointed Khawaja Abid Khan the Afghan Governor of Lahore. He wished to defeat the Sikhs in order to secure Afghan positions in the entire Punjab region but was defeated by a Sikh army under Charat Singh in the Battle of Sialkot (1761). As soon as Nur-ud-din arrived on the banks of the Chenab, he came into conflict with Sardar Charat Singh of the Sukerchakia Misl. Charat Singh, anticipating the trouble, had ready moved from his headquarters at Gujranwala to arrest the further progress of the Afghan general. He was assisted by the other Sikh Misldars who had made a common cause with him. Thus assuming the defensive with his army of trained men, Charat Singh awaited the onslaught of the Afghans whom after a battle of considerable duration he repulsed. He followed up his victory by maintaining a vigorous pursuit of the fugitives. The Afghans, about 12,000 in number, fleeing pellmell, took refuge in the stronghold of Sialkot. The town was immediately besieged and the strictness of the watch was such as supplies gave out and the garrison was brought to the verge of starvation. Nur-ud-din, finding his men demoralized and starving, abandoned them to their fate and disguised as a beggar sought refuge in flight. The garrison immediately surrendered, and were allowed to depart in peace. This victory over the well-trained troops of the greatest soldier of the day placed Charat Singh in the front rank of the Sikh leaders, while the booty of Sialkot brought him a quantity of artillery and baggage. He had also brought a handful of Punjabi Muslim women with him as war booty in which many of these women were to be sold into the Heera Mandi. When all was over, Charat Singh made a triumphant entry into his capital, Gujranwala.
306	1761		BS	Hyder Ali became dalwai Dalavayi of Mysore by force in 1761 displacing the Wadiyar dynasty which had previously ruled the Kingdom.
307	1761	1787	BS	List of battles of Rajasthan#Post-Mughal rule: Battle of Mangrol (1761) – Madho Singh of Jaipur fought Malhar Rao Holkar. The Jaipur army had 10,000 men while the Holkar army had 6,000 men from Indore and 3,000 men supplied by the Rao of Kota. After a 2-day battle the Jaipur army was completely destroyed. However Malhar Rao was not able to plunder Dhundhar for long as he was recalled to Bundelkhand because of rebellions and threats of invasion by Shuja-Ud-Daula of Awadh. Battle of Maonda and Mandholi (1767) – Jaipur forces defeat the forces of Bharatpur. Battle of Kama (1768) – Madho Singh I invaded Bharatpur at the head of 16,000 men where he defeated jat leader Jawahar Singh again on 29 February 1768. Battle of Tunga or Battle of Lalsot (1787) – Combined forces of Jaipur and Jodhpur Vs Maratha forces of Mahadaji Shinde. The bloody three-day battle at Tunga ended in a stale-mate.
308	1762		BS	Vadda Ghalughara: Vadda Ghalughara (The Great Massacre}} ) was the mass-murder of the unarmed Sikhs by the Afghan forces of the Durrani Empire during the years of Afghan influence in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent owing to the repeated incursions of Ahmad Shah Durrani in February 1762. It is distinguished from the Chhota Ghalughara (the Smaller Massacre). Mostly non-combatants, were killed in the event, and an estimated that 10,000 to 20,000 Sikhs were killed on 5 February 1762. The Vadda Ghalūghārā was a dramatic and bloody massacre during the campaign of Afghanistan's (Durrani Empire) provincial government based at Lahore to wipe out the Sikhs, an offensive that had begun with the Mughals and lasted several decades.
309	1763		BC	The Patna massacre of 1763 was the killing of 45 members of the East India Company, mainly English, on 6 October 1763, in Patna, India, on the order of Nawab Mir Qasim. These men had been imprisoned by Mir Qasim since William Ellis' failed attempt to seize Patna for the East India Company on 25 June and in its aftermath. Following Mir Qasim's defeat, a pillar was erected over the site of the well into which their bodies were thrown and over the houses where the massacre was committed, but nowadays a hospital stands over where the monument was 200 sepoys, previously in the pay of the East India Company, and also imprisoned after the failed seizure of Patna and its aftermath, were also killed for refusing to join the ranks of Mir Qasim, though they are not traditionally included in the massacre narrative. Doctor William Fullerton, a Scottish surgeon in the East India Company, survived the Patna Massacre due to the intercession of Ghulam Hussain Khan, and may have been the only survivor of the massacre.
310	1763		BE	The Treaty of Paris (1763), also known as the Treaty of 1763, was signed on 10 February 1763 by the kingdoms of Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement, after Great Britain and Prussia's victory over France and Spain during the Seven Years' War. The signing of the treaty formally ended conflict between France and Great Britain over control of North America (the Seven Years' War, known as the French and Indian War in the United States), and marked the beginning of an era of British dominance outside Europe. Great Britain and France each returned much of the territory that they had captured during the war, but Great Britain gained much of France's possessions in North America. Additionally, Great Britain agreed to protect Roman Catholicism in the New World. The treaty did not involve Prussia and Austria as they signed a separate agreement, the Treaty of Hubertusburg, five days later.
311	1763	10 Aug	BS	Maratha Empire led by Madhavrao I defeats the Nizam of Hyderabad in the Battle of Rakshasbhuvan and gains territory.
312	1763	25 Dec	E	Suraj Mal dies.
313	1764		BC	The Battle of Buxar was fought on 22/23 October 1764, between the forces under the command of the British East India Company, led by Hector Munro, and the combined armies of Mir Qasim, Nawab of Bengal till 1764; the Nawab of Awadh Shuja-ud-Daula; and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II accompanied by Raja Balwant Singh of Kashi. The battle was fought at Buxar, a "small fortified town" within the territory of Bihar, located on the banks of the Ganga river about 130 kilometres (81 mi) west of Patna; it was a decisive victory for the British East India Company. The war had been brought to an end by the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765.
314	1765		Ad	Panchayati raj: In the time of the Rigveda (1700 BC), evidences suggest that self-governing village bodies called 'sabhas' existed. With the passage of time, these bodies became panchayats (council of five persons). Panchayat were functional institutions of grassroots governance in almost every village. The Village Panchayat or elected council had large powers, both executive and judicial. The British were not generally concerned with local administration, but left that to the local rulers, and thus didn't interfere with existing panchayati systems, nor induce the rulers to consider more democratic institutions at the local level. The rulers were interested in the creation of 'controlled' local bodies, which could help them in their trading interests by collecting taxes for them.
315	1765		Ad	Panchayati raj: The panchayat was destroyed by the East India Company when it was granted the office of Diwan in 1765 in Bengal by the Mughal Emperor as part of reparation after his defeat at Buxar. As Diwan the Company took two decisions. The first was that it abolished the village land record office and created a company official called Patwari. The Patwari became the official record keeper for a number of villages. The second was the creation of the office of magistrate and the abolition of village police. The magistrate carried out policing functions through the Darogha who had always been a state functionary under the Faujdar. The primary purpose of these measures was the collection of land revenue by fiat. The depredations of the Patwari and the Darogha are part of our folklore and it led to the worst famine in Bengal. The effects of the famine lingered right to the end of the 18th century. These two measures completely disempowered the village community and destroyed the panchayat. After 1857 the British tried to restore the panchayat by giving it powers to try minor offences and to resolve village disputes. But these measures never restored the lost powers of the village community."
316	1765		Co	French colonization (French India): In 1765 Pondichéry was returned to France in accordance with a 1763 peace treaty with Britain. Governor Jean Law de Lauriston set to rebuild the town on its former layout and after five months 200 European and 2000 Tamil houses had been erected. In 1769 the French East India Company, unable to support itself financially, was abolished by the French Crown, which assumed administration of the French possessions in India. During the next 50 years, Pondichéry changed hands between France and Britain with the regularity of their wars and peace treaties.
317	1765	1809	F	Velu Thampi Dalawa (6 May 1765 – 1809) Thampi Chempakaraman Velayudhan of Thalakulam (1765–1809) was the Dalawa or Prime Minister of the Indian kingdom of Travancore between 1802 and 1809 during the reign of Bala Rama Varma Kulasekhara Perumal. He is best known for being one of the earliest individuals to rebel against the British East India Company's supremacy in India. He is simply referred as Velu Thampi. In the famous Battle of Quilon, Velu Thampi led a battalion of 30,000 soldiers and attacked a local garrison of the British.
318	1765		P	The Treaty of Allahabad was signed on 12 August 1765, between the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, son of the late Emperor Alamgir II, and Robert Clive, of the East India Company, in the aftermath of the Battle of Buxar of 22 October 1764. The treaty was handwritten by I'tisam-ud-Din, a Bengali Muslim scribe and diplomat to the Mughal Empire. The Treaty marked the political and constitutional involvement and the beginning of British rule in India. Based on the terms of the agreement, Alam granted the East India Company Diwani rights, or the right to collect taxes on behalf of the Emperor from the eastern province of Bengal-Bihar-Orissa. These rights allowed the Company to collect revenue directly from the people of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. In return, the Company paid an annual tribute of twenty-six lakhs of rupees (equal to 260,000 pounds sterling) while securing for Shah Alam II the districts of Kora and Allahabad. The tribute money paid to the emperor was for the maintenance of the Emperor's court in Allahabad. The accord also dictated that Shah Alam be restored to the province of Varanasi as long as he continued to pay a certain amount of revenue to the Company. Awadh was returned to Shuja-ud-Daulah, but Allahabad and Kora were taken from him. The Nawab of Awadh Shuja ud Daulah also had to pay fifty lakhs of rupees as war indemnity to the East India Company. Moreover, the two signed an alliance by which the Company promised to support the Nawab against outside attacks provided he paid for services of the troops sent to his aid. This alliance made the Nawab dependent on the Company. This was a turning point in Indian history. After the 1765 Treaty of Allahabad, the British built their garrison at the Allahabad Fort which became their military headquarters after they took over the city in 1801.
319	1765		P	Weakened Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II issues a diwani that replaces his own revenue officials in the provinces of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa with the East India Company's.
320	1767		BC	First Anglo-Mysore War begins, in which Hyder Ali of Mysore defeats the combined armies of the East India Company, the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad. The First Anglo–Mysore War (1766–1769) was a conflict in India between the Sultanate of Mysore and the East India Company. The war was instigated in part by the machinations of Asaf Jah II, the Nizam of Hyderabad, who sought to divert the company's resources from attempts to gain control of the Northern Circars. Hyder Ali, apparently emboldened by the agreement with the British, engaged in war with the Marathas in 1770, and asked the British support them if and when the Marathas penetrated Mysorean territory. The British refused to assist him, even though they were also drawn into conflict with the Marathas in the 1770s. Hyder's battles did not fully end until 1779, when the Marathas negotiated an alliance with him and the Nizam for united action against the British. This led to the beginning of the Second Anglo-Mysore War in 1780. This conflict devastated much of the Carnatic, and also failed to decisively resolve differences between Mysore and the British. Resolution occurred in 1799 with the defeat and killing of Hyder's son Tipu Sultan, and the restoration of the Wodeyars as British clients.
321	1767		BC	Victory and occupation of the Kathmandu Valley by Gorkha king, Prithvi Narayan Shah, starting with the Battle of Kirtipur, resulted in the shift of the capital of his kingdom from Gorkha to Kathmandu, and subsequently the empire that he and his descendants built came to be known as Nepal (Battle of Kathmandu). Also, the invasion of the wealthy Kathmandu Valley provided the Gorkha army with economic support for furthering their martial ambitions throughout the region.
322	1767		T	The Survey of India is India's central engineering agency in charge of mapping and surveying. Set up in 1767 to help consolidate the territories of the British East India Company, it is one of the oldest Engineering Departments of the Government of India. Its members are from Survey of India Service cadre of Civil Services of India and Army Officers from the Indian Army Corps of Engineers. It is headed by the Surveyor General of India. The history of the Survey of India dates back to the 18th Century. "First modern scientific survey of India" was undertaken by W. Mather in 1793–96 on instructions of Superintendent of Salem and Baramahal, Col. Alexander Read. The present Dharmapuri district, Krishnagiri district and North Arcot in western Tamil Nadu were then called Baramahal.
323	1769		BS	Prithvi Narayan Shah, ruler of Gorkha principality, conquers Nepal Valley; moves capital to Kathmandu, establishing present-day Hindu nation of Nepal.
324	1769		BC	In 1766 war with the British broke out and Hyder Ali's forces came close to capturing Madras, before his attacks began to falter. The war ended three years later with the Treaty of Madras in April 1769. This provided the mutual restoration of all conquests and for mutual aid and alliance in a defensive war.
325	1770	1832	B	Bank of Hindostan (1770–1832), a now defunct bank, is considered as among the first modern banks in Colonial India. It was established by the agency house of Alexander and Co.. In India, the paper currency was first issued during British East India Company rule. The first paper notes were issued by the private banks such as Bank of Hindustan and the presidency banks during late 18th century. Via the Paper Currency Act of 1861, the British Government of India was conferred the monopoly to issue paper notes in India. The first bank of India was the “Bank of Hindostan”, established in 1770 and located in the then, Indian capital, Calcutta. However, this bank failed to work and ceased operations in 1832. It was liquidated in 1830–32.
326	1770		E	Great Bengal famine of 1770, estimated to have caused the deaths of about 10 million people. Warren Hastings's 1772 report estimated that a third of the population in the affected region starved to death. The famine is attributed to failed monsoon and exploitative policies of the East India Company.
327	1771		P	Marathas recapture Delhi: Capture of Delhi (1771) is the battle where the forces of Mahadji Shinde captured Delhi and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II was restored to the throne. Marathas capture Delhi by defeating Afghans under Najib ad-Dawlah (Najib Khan). With this battle they regained their lost supremacy (Maratha Resurrection) in North India after the Third Battle of Panipat and conquered much of the lost territories which they lost after the Third Battle of Panipat. In the Third Battle of Panipat, the Maratha Empire suffered a serious blow at the hands of the Muslim axis of the Durrani Empire, Nawab of Awadh, and Rohillas under Najib ad-Dawlah. After the death of Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao Bhat, Madhavrao I became Peshwa under the regency of Raghunathrao Bhat. Mahadji's victory over Jats of Mathura, Rajputs of Rajasthan and Pashtun-Rohillas of Rohilkhand (in the western part of present-day Uttar Pradesh state) re-established the Marathas in the northern India.
328	1772	1947	Ad	List of capitals of India#Modern period: From 1772 to 1911, Calcutta was the capital of British India. The East India Company (EIC), formally (1600–1708) Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies, or (1709–1873) United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies, landed in Surat in 1608 to open their first ‘factory’, and by 1623 had established factories at Broach, Agra, and Masulipatam (Machilipatnam). The Company was soon attracted to Bengal given the flourishing prosperity and agricultural riches of the region. Also, The Company needed a port to conduct their trade out of, so Calcutta emerged as the best choice. Calcutta (Kolkata) eventually became the capital of British India and remained the capital till 1911. Lahore was the capital of the Sikh Empire. In 1858, Allahbad (now Prayagraj) became the capital of India for a day when it also served as the capital of North-Western Provinces. On this day, the East India Company handed over the nation's administration to the British monarchy in the city.
329	1772	1947	Ad	List of capitals of India#Modern period: Between 1864 and 1939, Shimla also served as the summer capital of the British Raj. The British authorities preferred to administer the nation from the cool confines of this beautiful hill station during the summer months when the Gangetic plains become unbearably hot. On 12 December 1911, King George V and Queen Mary visited Delhi. It is during this Delhi Durbar that the British monarch announced that the Raj intended to move its capital from Calcutta to Delhi and that the latter would be remodelled. On February 13, 1931, Delhi was formally inaugurated as the capital of India by Lord Irwin, Viceroy of British India. Apart from the fact that Calcutta represented the eastern extreme of a sprawling country making it difficult to administer, the growing resistance to the British in Bengal made the move an imperative one. Not only was Delhi’s location central, it also held a great cultural significance having been the capital of the Pandavas themselves (as the ancient city of Indraprastha).
330	1772	1833	F	Birth of Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Raja Ram Mohan Roy (22 May 1772 – 27 September 1833) was one of the founders of the Brahmo Sabha, the precursor of the Brahmo Samaj, a social-religious Reform movement in the Indian subcontinent. He was given the title of Raja by Akbar II, the Mughal emperor. His influence was apparent in the fields of Politics, Public administration, Education reforms and religion. He was known for his efforts to abolish the practices of Sati (practice) and Child marriage in India. Raja Ram Mohan Roy is considered to be the "Father of the Bengal Renaissance" by many historians. In 2004, Roy was ranked number 10 in BBC's poll of the Greatest Bengali of all time. The List includes .... Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (Politicain) Rabindranath Tagore (Author) Kazi Nazrul Islam (author) A. K. Fazlul Huq (Politician) Subhas Chandra Bose (Politician) Begum Rokeya (Social Reformer) Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose (Scientist) Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani (Politician) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (Social Reformer) Raja Ram Mohan Roy (Social Reformer) Syed Mir Nisar Ali Titumir (Rebel Activist) Lalon Shah (Philosopher) Satyajit Ray (Filmmaker) Amartya Sen (Economist) Bengali language movement Martyrs (University Students) Muhammad Shahidullah (Educationist) Swami Vivekananda (Religious Leader) Atiśa Dipankara (Religious Preacher) Ziaur Rahman (Military Personnel) Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy (Politician)
331	1772	1785	G	Warren Hastings – Governor Was the first Governor of Bengal (Presidency of Fort William, India). In 1750 he joined the British East India Company as a clerk and sailed out to India, reaching Calcutta in August 1750. In 1814 he made a Privy Counsellor. Following occured during his tenure as Governor .... Zamindars were given judicial powers; establishment of civil and criminal courts in each district. In 1781, he founded the Calcutta Madrasa, for promotion of Islamic studies. The Aliah University (AU) is one of the oldest modern-style educational institutes in Asia, and first in India. It was set up in October 1780 by Warren Hastings, the British Governor general of East India Company near Sealdah in Calcutta. A number of titles were used for it, such as Islamic College of Calcutta, Calcutta Madrasah, Calcutta Mohammedan College and Madrasah-e-Aliah. Of these, Calcutta Mohammedan College was that used by Warren Hastings He founded The Asiatic Society of Bengal with William Jones (philologist) in 1784. Warren Hastings was known for his expansionist policy. His administration witnessed the Rohilla War, the First Anglo-Maratha War and the Second Anglo-Mysore War. The First Rohilla War (1774) : Rohilkand was a small kingdom situated in between Oudh and the Marathas. Its ruler was Hafiz Rahmat Khan. He concluded a defensive treaty in 1772 with the Nawab of Oudh fearing an attack by the Marathas. But no such attack took place. But, the Nawab demanded money. When Rahmat Khan evaded, the Nawab with the help of the British invaded Rohilkand. Warren Hastings, who sent the British troops against Rohilkhand, was severely criticized for his policy on the Rohilla affair.
332	1772		P	British establish their capital in Calcutta.
333	1773		Ad	Regulating Act of 1773 The Regulating Act of 1773 (formally, the East India Company Act 1772) was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain intended to overhaul the management of the East India Company's rule in India. The Act did not prove to be a long-term solution to concerns over the company's affairs; Pitt's India Act was therefore subsequently enacted in 1784 as a more radical reform. It marked the first step towards parliamentary control over the company and centralised administration in India.
334	1773		E	Narayanrao Peshwa is murdered by his uncle Raghunathrao's wife in front of Raghunathrao.
335	1773		P	British East India Company obtains monopoly on the production and sale of Opium in Bengal. Lord North's Regulating Act of 1773 passed in Parliament. Warren Hastings appointed as first Governor-General of India.
336	1774		Ad	Supreme Council of Bengal was the highest level of executive government in British India from 1774 until 1833: the period in which the East India Company, a private company, exercised political control of British colonies in India. It was formally subordinate to both the East India Company's Court of Directors (board) and to the British Crown. The Supreme Council was established by the British government, under Regulating Act of 1773. It was to consist of five members, including the Governor General, and was appointed by the Court of Directors (board) of the East India Company. At times it also included the British military Commander-in-Chief of India (although this post was usually held concurrently by the Governor General). Hence the council was also known as Governor-General-in-Council. The Saint Helena Act 1833 (Charter Act of 1833) formally separated the East India Company from political control, and established the new Council of India.
337	1774		E	Chief Justice of the Maratha Empire, Ram Shastri passes death sentence against the ruling Peshwa Raghunathrao for murdering his nephew.
338	1775	1782	BC	The First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782) was the first of three Anglo-Maratha Wars fought between the British East India Company and Maratha Empire in India. The war began with the Treaty of Surat and ended with the Treaty of Salbai. The Treaty of Salbai, was signed on 17 May 1782, and was ratified by The British Governor-General in Bengal, Warren Hastings in June 1782 and by Nana Phadnavis in February 1783. The treaty ended the First Anglo-Maratha War, restored the status quo, and established peace between the two parties for 20 years.
339	1775	1783	BE	The American Revolution takes place. The American colonists prevail in the war, and Britain recognizes the United States as an independent nation.
340	1775	1783	W	The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or the American War of Independence, was initiated by delegates from thirteen American colonies of British America in Congress against Great Britain over their objection to Parliament's taxation policies and lack of colonial representation. From their founding in the 1600s, the colonies were largely left to govern themselves. The cost of victory in the 1754 to 1763 French and Indian War and the 1756 to 1763 Seven Years' War left the British government deeply in debt; the colonies, where the war was fought, equipped and populated the British forces there at the cost of millions of their own funds. Washington expressed astonishment that the Americans had won a war against a leading world power, referring to the American victory as "little short of a standing miracle". The conflict between British subjects with the Crown against those with the Congress had lasted over eight years from 1775 to 1783. The last uniformed British troops departed their last east coast port cities in Savannah, Charleston, and New York City, by November 25, 1783. That marked the end of British occupation in the new United States.
341	1776		P	Thanjavur (Tanjore, in south India) was taken by Lord Wellesley (Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley) in 1776
342	1777		Ad	Indian Army Corps of Engineers: The Indian Army Corps of Engineers provides combat engineering support, develops infrastructure for armed forces and other defence organisations and maintains connectivity along the borders, besides helping the civil authorities during natural disasters. College of Military Engineering, Pune (CME) is the premier technical and tactical training institution of the Indian Army Corps of Engineers. The Corps consists of three groups of combat engineers, namely .... The Madras Sappers, The Bengal Sappers and The Bombay Sappers. It has a long history dating back to the mid-18th century. The earliest existing subunit of the Corps (18 Field Company) dates back to 1777 while the Corps officially recognises its birth as 1780 when the senior-most group of the Corps, the Madras Sappers were raised. A group is roughly analogous to a regiment of the Indian infantry, each group consisting of a number of engineer regiments. The engineer regiment is the basic combat engineer unit, analogous to an infantry battalion. Besides the combat engineers, the Corps mans and operates major engineering organisations such as the Military Engineer Services, the Border Roads Organisation (BRO), the Married Accommodation Project and the Survey of India.
343	1777	1858	F	Kunwar Singh (13 November 1777– 26 April 1858; also known as Babu Kunwar Singh and Kuer Singh) was a leader during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. He belonged to a family of the Ujjainiya clan of the Parmar Rajputs of Jagdispur, currently a part of Bhojpur district, Bihar, India. At the age of 80, he led a selected band of armed soldiers against the troops under the command of the British East India Company. He was the chief organiser of the fight against the British in Bihar. He is popularly known as Veer Kunwar Singh.
344	1777		N	First newspaper published in Bombay by Rustom Kersaspjere.
345	1778	1829	F	Kittur Chennamma (23 October 1778 – 2 February 1829) was the Indian queen (rani) of Kittur, a princely state in present-day Karnataka. She led an armed rebellion against the British East India Company in 1824 in defiance of the doctrine of lapse in an attempt to maintain Indian control over the region, but was defeated and died imprisoned. One of the first female rulers to rebel against British rule, she has become a folk hero in Karnataka and symbol of the independence movement in India. Along with her lieutenant Sangolli Rayanna, Chennamma employed the guerrilla warfare technique and fought fiercely, taking many British soldiers by surprise. She led an armed force against the British East India Company in 1824 in defiance of the doctrine of lapse in an attempt to maintain Indian control over the region, but was defeated in the third war and died imprisoned.
346	1779		BC	Maratha sardar Mahadji Shinde routs the East India Company army at the Battle of Wadgaon. War ends with the restoration of status quo as per Treaty of Salbai.
347	1780	1784	BC	Second Anglo-Mysore War begins. The Second Anglo–Mysore War was a conflict between the Kingdom of Mysore and the British East India Company from 1780 to 1784. At the time, Mysore was a key French ally in India, and the conflict between Britain against the French and Dutch in the American Revolutionary War sparked Anglo–Mysorean hostilities in India. The great majority of soldiers on the company side were raised, trained, paid and commanded by the company, not the British government. However, the company's operations were bolstered by Crown troops sent from Britain, and by troops sent from Hanover, which was also ruled by Britain's King George III. Following the British seizure of the French port of Mahé in 1779, Mysorean ruler Hyder Ali opened hostilities against the British in 1780, with significant success in early campaigns. As the war progressed, the British recovered some territorial losses. Both France and Britain sent troops and naval squadrons from Europe to assist in the war effort, which widened later in 1780 when Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic. In 1783 news of a preliminary peace between France and Britain reached India, resulting in the withdrawal of French support from the Mysorean war effort. The British consequently also sought to end the conflict, and the British government ordered the Company to secure peace with Mysore. This resulted in the 1784 Treaty of Mangalore, restoring the status quo ante bellum under terms that company officials, such as Warren Hastings, found extremely unfavourable.
348	1780	29 Jan	N	Hicky's Bengal Gazette or the Original Calcutta General Advertiser, English, Weekly Hicky's Bengal Gazette or the Original Calcutta General Advertiser was an English-language weekly newspaper published in Kolkata (then Calcutta), the capital of British India. It was the first newspaper printed in Asia, and was published for two years, between 1780 and 1782, before the East India Company seized the newspaper's types and printing press. Founded by James Augustus Hicky, a highly eccentric Irishman who had previously spent two years in jail for debt, the newspaper was a strong critic of the administration of Governor General Warren Hastings. The newspaper was important for its provocative journalism and its fight for free expression in India. Hicky began publication of Hicky's Bengal Gazette on 29 January 1780, having first printed a prospectus announcing that he would begin printing a newspaper. The idea of printing a newspaper in India had been floated twelve years earlier by the Dutch Adventurer William Bolts, but Hicky was the first to execute the concept. Hicky's newspaper was printed once a week on Saturday, and retailed for Re 1. Its circulation was estimated to be around four hundred copies per week, although possibly more. Hicky's Bengal Gazette ceased publication on 30 March 1782 when its types were seized by an order of the Supreme Court. The next week, its types and printing press were publicly auctioned and sold to The India Gazette. The newspaper became famous not only among the British soldiers posted in India at that time but also inspired Indians to write newspapers of their own.
349	1780	18 Nov	N	The India Gazette; or, Calcutta Public Advertiser, English, Weekly Published in Calcutta, the capital of British India. It was the second newspaper printed in India. Founded by Bernard Messink and Peter Reed, two East India Company employees, the paper was a strong supporter of the administration of the Governor General Warren Hastings, and a rival to India's first newspaper Hicky's Bengal Gazette. It was founded on 18 November 1780.
350	1780		T	Mysorean rockets were an Indian military weapon, the first iron-cased rockets successfully deployed for military use. The Mysorean army, under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan, used the rockets effectively against the British East India Company during the 1780s and 1790s. Their conflicts with the company exposed the British to this technology, which was then used to advance European rocketry with the development of the Congreve rocket in 1805. The Mysoreans successfully used these iron-cased rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars.
351	1781		BC	Hyder Ali's son, Tipu Sultan, defeats British forcses.
352	1781		BC	Maratha Empire defeats forces of the British East India Company in the Battle of Bhorghat.
353	1782	1831	F	Syed Mir Nisar Ali (27 January 1782 – 19 November 1831), better known as Titumir, was a Bengali peasant-leader, who developed a strand of Muslim nationalism coupled with agrarian and political consciousness. He is famed for having built a large bamboo fort (Basher Kella in Bengali) in Narikelberia village, to resist the British, which passed onto Bengali folk legend. Although originating in West Bengal (present-day India), he is a celebrated figure in Bangladesh. He led a campaign against the British-rule in India, during the 19th century. After the storming of the fort by British soldiers, Titumir died of his wounds on 19 November 1831.
354	1782		P	In 1782 Hyder Ali suddenly died and Tipu Sultan became king of Mysore.
355	1782	Bombay	T	The Hornby Vellard was a project to build a causeway uniting all seven islands of Bombay into a single island with a deep natural harbour. The project was started by the governor William Hornby in 1782 and all islands were linked by 1838. The word vellard appears to be a local corruption of the Portuguese word vallado meaning fence or embankment. The purpose of this causeway was to block the Worli creek and prevent the low-lying areas of Bombay from being flooded at high tide. The cost was estimated at about ₹100,000. It was completed in 1784 and was one of the first major civil engineering projects that transformed the original seven islands of Bombay into one island. According to some accounts, Hornby ordered the work to be started after the East India Company turned down his proposal; and continued as Governor till the end of his term in 1785, ignoring the suspension notice sent to him.
356	1783	1785	G	Charles Joseph Patissier, Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau (8 February 1718 or 8 February 1720 – 7 January 1785) or Charles Joseph Patissier de Bussy was the Governor General of the French colony of Pondicherry from 1783 to 1785. He served with distinction under Joseph François Dupleix in the East Indies, receiving the Order of Saint Louis. He contributed to the recovery from Britain of Pondicherry in 1748, and was named in 1782 to lead all French military forces beyond the Cape of Good Hope. He coordinated his operations with Pierre André de Suffren and fought against the British during the Indian campaigns of the American War of Independence.
357	1784	Calcutta	A	The Asiatic Society is an organisation founded during the British Raj in India to enhance and further the cause of "Oriental research", in this case, research into India and the surrounding regions. It was founded by the philologist William Jones on 15 January 1784 in a meeting presided over by Justice Robert Chambers in Calcutta, the then capital of the British Raj. At the time of its foundation, this Society was named as Asiatick Society. In 1825, the society was renamed as "The Asiatic Society". In 1832 the name was changed to The Asiatic Society of Bengal and again in 1936 it was renamed as The Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal. Finally, on 1 July 1951, the name of the society was changed to its present one. The Society is housed in a building at Park Street in Kolkata (Calcutta). The Society moved into this building during 1808. In 1823, the Medical and Physical Society of Calcutta was formed and all the meetings of this society were held in the Asiatic Society.
358	1784		BC	The Treaty of Mangalore was signed between Tipu Sultan and the British East India Company on 11 March 1784. It was signed in Mangalore and brought an end to the Second Anglo-Mysore War. The Second Anglo-Mysore War broke out for a number reasons, primarily though it was because Hyder Ali the de facto ruler of Mysore considered the British (since they provided no aid in Mysore’s defensive war with the Maratha’s) in breach of the treaty of April 1769. The great advantage of the treaty to Tipu Sultan (which allowed him to claim victory) was the psychological impact of the actual treaty on the British. The Commissioner for the British East India Company in Madras had to go to Mangalore, a recent reconquest of Tipu's, on the opposite coast of India, to sign the treaty. The humiliation of the Treaty (coupled with the recent loss of the Thirteen Colonies, in America) made the British determined to defeat and humble Tipu Sultan. The Treaty of Mangalore in Britain was seen by many as the beginning of the end of the British East India Company. As a result, stock prices in the Company dived and the British East India Company began to fail. This was of great concern to the British government since its trade represented a sixth of the British national income. It was decided to fix the problems through what is now called Pitt's India Act. This act solved the issues of corruption and it invested powers in the Governor-general to act in the interest of King and Country to stop an issue like the Treaty of Mangalore from happening again.
359	1784	4 Mar	N	The Calcutta Gazette, English Calcutta Gazette was an English newspaper in Bengal founded by a colonial officer Francis Gladwin in 1784. It was one of the first newspapers in India.