Global Citizenship Education Education in Southern Africa A desktop review of understandings and applications of GCED in Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe Prepared by JET Education Services James Keevy and Raymond Matlala April 2016 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................................................................. 3 ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................................................................. 4 SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 6 SECTION 2: RESEARCH DESIGN ...................................................................................................................................... 8 SECTION 3: OVERVIEW OF THE DIFFERENT UNDERSTANDINGS OF GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION ........................................................................................................................................................................ 13 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 13 Global citizenship education within the context of UNESCO programme (2014-2017) ........................................ 13 Promoting global citizenship through education ................................................................................................................. 13 Global citizenship as a discipline ................................................................................................................................................. 14 Citizenship education and GCED .................................................................................................................................................. 17 Towards identifying the key learner abilities associated with GCED ............................................................................ 19 SECTION 4: REVIEW OF POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES RELATING TO GCED IN SOUTHERN AFRICA . 23 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 23 Overview of countries in the region ............................................................................................................................................ 23 Botswana ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 23 Lesotho ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 25 Malawi ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 26 Mozambique ................................................................................................................................................................................... 27 Namibia ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 28 South Africa .................................................................................................................................................................................... 29 Swaziland......................................................................................................................................................................................... 31 Zambia .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 32 Zimbabwe ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 33 SECTION 5: FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUDING COMMENTS ........................................... 36 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 36 Findings and cross-cutting observations .................................................................................................................................. 36 Recommendations for future research and specifically for the regional workshop ................................................ 38 Concluding comments ...................................................................................................................................................................... 40 REFERENCES AND ADDITIONAL SOURCES .............................................................................................................. 41 2 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa ABBREVIATIONS DoE Department of Education ESD Education for Sustainable Development GCED Global Citizenship Education GEFI Global Education First Initiative IEC Independent Electoral Commission JET JET Education Services NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations NID Namibian Institute for Democracy ROSA Regional Office for Southern Africa SADC Southern African Development Community SADC Southern African Development Community UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 3 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa ABSTRACT This report presents the key findings of a literature review conducted during December 2015 to provide an overview of the different understandings and applications of global citizenship education (GCED) among nine United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) member states in Southern Africa: Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The literature review was conducted by JET Education Services (JET) at the request of the UNESCO Regional Office for Southern Africa (ROSA). Due to the limited scope of the research, it only presents a first step towards an understanding of GCED in Southern Africa and as such it will be used to inform the planning of the sub-regional meeting on GCED in the first quarter of 2016. Additional research and engagement will be required following the meeting to ensure that a more comprehensive overview can be developed. The review is based on the work of UNESCO in GCED (UNESCO, 2014) which describes competencies related to GCED. The research design for this study draws on this focus on learners’ abilities associated with GCED to identify the key attributes envisaged to be gained by an individual as a result of GCED and that can be described in terms of learning outcomes. Drawing on another research initiative that focused on the use of learning outcomes and that was also overseen by UNESCO (Keevy and Chakroun, 2015), the research design proposes a refined understanding of the knowledge, skills and competences associated with GCED. This approach can be broadly described as focusing on the “receiver level” of GCED (see Skirbekk et al, 2013). Other definitions of GCED are also important to take into account. In the two examples below, the emphasis on knowledge, skills and values is also present, but the definitions are extended to include aspects of the functions and contributions of education in a global context: [GCED] highlights essential functions of education related to the formation of citizenship [in relation] with globalization. It is a concern with the relevance of knowledge, skills and values for the participation of citizens in, and their contribution to, dimensions of societal development which are linked at local and global levels. It is directly related to the civic, social and political socialization function of education, and ultimately to the contribution of education in preparing children and young people to deal with the challenges of today’s increasingly interconnected and interdependent world (UNESCO, 2014:15). Global citizenship education aims to be transformative, building the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that learners need to be able to contribute to a more inclusive, just and peaceful world. Global citizenship education takes ‘a multifaceted approach, employing concepts and methodologies already applied in other areas, including human rights education, peace education, education for 4 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa sustainable development and education for international understanding’ and aims to advance their common objectives. Global citizenship education applies a lifelong learning perspective, beginning from early childhood and continuing through all levels of education and into adulthood, requiring both ‘formal and informal approaches, curricular and extracurricular interventions, and conventional and unconventional pathways to participation (UNESO, 2015:15). Locating the review of GCED in Southern Africa within the specific competenceorientated research design, GCED is defined as follows (drawing on UNESCO, 2015 and Osler and Vincent, 2002): GCED is a pedagogical approach, based on human rights and a concern for social justice, which enables individuals to act collaboratively and responsibly to find global solutions to global challenges and to strive for the collective good. The complementarity of the UNESCO work on learners’ abilities associated with GCED (UNESCO, 2014) and on the recognition of learning outcomes (Keevy and Chakroun, 2015) provides an important conceptual framework within which the different understandings and applications of GCED among the nine member states in Southern Africa is reviewed. Substantial additional literature is included to avoid an unnecessary bias towards UNESCO-initiated research and is listed at the end of the report. The research shows that GCED is a growing area, but that it has gained limited traction in Southern Africa. While several activities underway in these countries can be broadly categorized as GCED, these are not explicitly described as GCED, nor is the broader international intention reflected in any explicit manner. In this regard, the proposed gathering of countries in the region will be an important opportunity to raise awareness and share best practices. This report comprises the following sections: Section 1 provides an introduction to the research and locates it in the context of the UNESCO agenda; Section 2 provides an overview of the research methodology; Section 3 provides an overview of GCED within the broader international context; Section 4 provides a review of the range of policies and programmes that are being undertaken by member states and that can be broadly classified as relating to GCED, including the modalities used to integrate GCED in education systems and monitor outcomes, as well as a range of formal and non-formal education programmes that contain an element of GCED or are explicitly referred to as GCED; and finally, Section 5 provides the key research findings and conclusions. 5 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION In a globalized world there is a growing emphasis on the importance of values, attitudes and communication skills as critical educational competencies required by individuals to be able to function effectively as global citizens. The education community is also paying increasing attention to the function of education in understanding and resolving social, political, cultural and global issues. This includes the role of education in supporting peace, human rights, equity, acceptance of diversity and sustainable development. Foundational work by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) on global citizenship education (GCED) has sought to clarify the conceptual foundations of GCED and provide policy and programmatic directions. The research presented in this report is a response to a growing need by UNESCO member states to develop learners’ ability to assume active roles as global citizens, both locally and globally, and to face and resolve common challenges and become responsible contributors to a more just, peaceful, inclusive, and sustainable world using global citizenship education as a mechanism. Today GCED is seen as an essential component in citizenship education across the globe. UNESCO, particularly through its education structures, seeks to enhance the quality, relevance and delivery of education by providing substantial support to its member states with the intention to integrate GCED within member state education systems. UNESCO has taken up the challenge of and has committed to promoting GCED in the current landscape of a fast growing, interconnected and increasingly globalized world. However, realizing the advancement of GCED, requires that educators are fully equipped, empowered and supported to be the necessary change agents. Furthermore, the creation of a more inclusive education system that promotes respect for human rights, gender equality, social justice and diversity is critical for developing citizens who possess the specific abilities, including the knowledge and skills, desirable values and competencies, to promote peaceful and sustainable societies. Subsequent to these initial efforts, a number of events to advance understanding and identify good practices in GCED have been organized by UNESCO and its partners in support of the Global Education First Initiative (GEFI). These events include: the Consultation on Global Citizenship Education meeting in Seoul in September 2013; the International UNESCO Forum on Global Citizenship Education in Bangkok in December 2013; the Asia-Pacific High-level Meeting on Global Citizenship Education in the Republic of Korea in July 2014; and the 2nd UNESCO Forum on Global Citizenship Education in Paris in January 2015. UNESCO also organized a series of sub-regional workshops, notably for Western African countries in Dakar, Senegal, in July 2015; for Latin American and Caribbean countries in Santiago, Chile, in September 2015; and for Central Asian countries in Almaty, Kazakhstan, in October 2015. UNESCO Beirut also 6 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa organized workshops on GCED in Khartoum, Sudan; and in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates, both in December 2015. The Asia-Pacific Centre for Education for International Understanding (APCEIU), as one of the partners, also conducted a subregional workshop on Teacher Preparation for GCED in Bangkok in December 2013 and in Myanmar in June 2014. Accordingly, the recent World Education Forum in Incheon, Republic of Korea, in May 2015 reaffirmed that education is essential for peace, tolerance, human fulfilment and sustainable development. GCED has emerged as a significant factor in the achievement of the post-2015 development goals because of its potential as transformative education that • • • • • encourages learners to analyze real-life issues critically and to identify possible solutions creatively and innovatively; supports learners to revisit assumptions, world views and power relations in mainstream discourses and consider people/groups systematically underrepresented/marginalized; respects differences and diversity; focuses on engagement to bring about desired changes; and involves multiple stakeholders, including those outside the learning environment in the community and in the larger circle of the society. (UNESCO, 2014:16): 7 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa SECTION 2: RESEARCH DESIGN The aim of this research in the form of a literature review is to provide an overview of the different understandings and applications of GCED among nine UNESCO Member States in Southern Africa: Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The literature review draws on the work by UNESCO to advance GCED and focuses specifically on the different understandings and applications of GCED among the nine UNESCO member states mentioned above. The review is of limited scope and was completed during December 2015, primarily to provide a basis for the sub-regional meeting to be arranged by UNESCO in the first quarter of 2016. The main objectives of this meeting, to be held in Malawi, are to: Examine the different understandings of citizenship education among the nine countries of coverage (Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe) and the practices of citizenship education (whether based on national, regional or global notions of citizenship); • Present the range of policies and programmes that are being undertaken in the name of citizenship education; and • Discuss the notion of GCED and explore areas of cooperation among the countries in the region. • The literature review is limited to a desktop analysis of publications available publically and from academic sources. The fact that GCED is an emerging concept required the inclusion of broadly related terms such as: democracy, human rights, “civics”, moral education, life skills and even “national studies”. A significant limitation in the research is the limited number of academic publications in the field. Furthermore, it is important to note that this initial review excludes some of the SADC Member States such as Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, Mauritius and Tanzania, which may have progressed further with the integration of GCED in their education systems. The main research question for the study was: What are the different understandings and applications of GCED in Southern Africa? The objectives of the research were to: • • • Provide an overview of GCED within the context of the UNESCO Education Programme (2014-2017); Provide a summary and critical review of the understandings of GCED; Provide a review of a range of available policies and programmes that are being undertaken and that can be classified as relating to GCED; 8 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa • • Identify modalities used to integrate GCED systems and monitor learning outcomes; Provide a range of formal and non-formal education programmes that contain elements of GCED. The research focuses specifically on learners’ abilities associated with GCED (UNESCO, 2014). In this regard, attempts are made to identify the key attributes envisaged to be gained by an individual as a result of GCED and that can be described in terms of learning outcomes. In order to do this, the review further draws on the emerging understanding of skills, knowledge and competencies in the international context arising from research initiated and overseen by UNESCO Keevy and Chakroun, 2015 following the 3rd International Congress on Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) held in Shanghai in 2012. (Keevy and Chakroun, 2015). The Congress recommended exploring the possibility of developing international guidelines on quality assurance for the recognition of qualifications based on learning outcomes. The UNESCO study1 reviewed the use of learning outcomes to describe learning and set the level of learning in a range of applications. The applications included qualifications frameworks (in particular) as well as others such as longitudinal studies, international competence assessments and diagnostic reviews. 1 Case studies included were: National qualifications frameworks: Africa: South Africa. Central and South America: Chile and Costa Rica. Europe: Poland, Germany and Scotland; Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia and South Korea; Arab States: United Arab Emirates; Australasia: Australia. All existing regional qualifications frameworks were also included: Southern African Development Community Regional Qualifications Framework (SADC RQF); Caribbean Community TVET Qualifications Framework (CARICOM TVET QF); Association of South East Asian Nations Regional Qualifications Framework (ASEAN RQF); European Qualification Framework (EQF); Qualifications Framework for the European Higher Education Area (QF-EHEA); and Pacific Qualifications Register (PQR); the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) and the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) conducted by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) and Literacy Assessment and Monitoring Programme (LAMP) overseen by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS); Skills Towards Employment and Productivity (STEP) overseen by the World Bank; World Skills International, a politically neutral forum that promotes excellence in TVET amongst the youth; Learning Metrics Task Force (LMTF) that involves the UNESCO Institute for Statistics and the Centre for Universal Education at the Brookings Institution; Occupational Information Network (O*NET) sponsored by the United States Department of Labour and developed by the National Centre for O*NET Development, North Carolina State University; the Tuning Project which started in Europe as a project linked to the Bologna process and the Lisbon Recognition Convention, but which has subsequently expanded to Latin America, the USA, Russia and Africa; and Transnational Skills Standards (TnSS) implemented by the International Skills Standards Organization (INSSO). 9 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa The UNESCO study provides a valuable basis for this research into GCED as it presents an emerging framework through which to interpret learning in the international context, specifically as described in terms of learning outcomes. The UNESCO research recognizes the increased mobility of both people and jobs, more so the fact that qualified people are increasingly mobile. Importantly, it also recognizes the emergence of transferable skills and competencies that are acknowledged on a global level (Ibid, p.14): Many jobs are also becoming more internationalized as the world trade and production are increasingly structured around “global value chains” (GVCs) (OECD 2012b) and as transferable skills and competences are identified and agreed on at regional, transnational and even global levels. The UNESCO research (Ibid.) found that there is a strong convergence in the international context of the categorization of leaning into the domains of “knowledge”, “skills” and “competences”. Furthermore, it found that all three of these domains can be described using learning outcomes or sets of learning outcomes. Critical to this research on GCED, it was also found that the notion of global citizenship is gaining traction and should be considered in international developments such as the proposed international guidelines on quality assurance for the recognition of qualifications and the set of world reference levels being considered by UNESCO. The following figure provides a diagrammatic overview of the emerging understandings of knowledge, skills and competences (UNESCO, 2015). 10 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa Main focus Main influences Main types Knowledge (K) Skills (S) Competences (C) Ability to recall and present information Ability to do Application of knowledge and skills in context Shift towards a knowledge-based society Work-based learning; linking of education and training systems with the labour market and employability Competency-based approach used in the vocational sector Empirical, Idealist, Rational, Constructivist Foundation, Transferable, Technical and vocational Affective, Core, Applied Learning outcomes Are used to describe knowledge, skills and competences Lifelong learning discourse Behaviourist formulations, Constructivist formulations Main focus Main influences Main types Figure 1: The manner in which learning outcomes are used to describe knowledge, skills and competences (UNESCO, 2015) The combination of the focus on learners’ abilities associated with GCED (UNESCO, 2014) and the refined understanding of knowledge, skills and competences (UNESCO, 2015), makes up the conceptual framework within which the different understandings and applications of GCED among the nine member states in Southern Africa is reviewed. Key learning outcomes across social, socio-emotional and behavioural domains (see UNESCO, 2015) are also important to consider in this regard. Here it must be noted that the approach, which can also be described as focusing on the “receiver level” of GCED (see Skirbekk, Potancokova, and Stonawski, 2013), provides a specific lens on the integration of GCED. It would be useful for ROSA to consider expanding this approach to include “society” and “supplier” levels as the process in Southern Africa unfolds: Figure 2: Areas specifying the components of the composite indicator for the measurement of GCED (Skirbekk et al 2013) The most appropriate research design for each of the areas is an important consideration. This point is revisited in the final sections of this report. 12 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa SECTION 3: OVERVIEW OF THE DIFFERENT UNDERSTANDINGS OF GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION Introduction This section of the report examines the extent to which GCED is understood and applied in the broader international context. It provides a critical review of the literature on GCED, starting with the concepts of global citizenship and global education. Global citizenship education within the context of UNESCO programme (2014-2017) UNESCO has promoted GCED since the launch of the UN Secretary-General’s Global Education First Initiative (GEFI) in 2012, which made fostering global citizenship one of its three education priorities. As such, global citizenship education became one of the strategic areas of work for UNESCO’s Education Programme (2014-2017) which came out of the General Conference Resolution in 2011. UNESCO considers that the fundamental objective of education is to build peace in the minds of men and women and education for peace and sustainable development is being proposed as the overarching goal of UNESCO’s education programme for the next eight years, with empowered global citizens as an objective. Through Strategic Objective 2: “Empowering learners to be creative and responsible global citizens”, UNESCO has committed to …support Member States to promote values, attitudes and behaviours that support responsible global citizenship through effective education responses to contemporary challenges, recognizing the role education plays in developing learners’ abilities to build a better future for themselves and the communities in which they live (UNESCO, 2013a:10). This includes a focus on three thematic areas: education for peace and human rights, education for sustainable development and health education (Ibid.). Promoting global citizenship through education In an increasingly interconnected world, inequality, poverty, poor health, human rights violations, conflict and sustainable development are not only local issues. Promoting global citizenship through education is central to dealing with these challenges and enabling children, young people and adults to understand and act on the major issues facing the world today and to link knowledge with action at a local, national and global level. Education that promotes international understanding, respect and active 13 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa responses to the challenges of the twenty-first century and the demand for increased freedom, tolerance and democracy, is critical. Education that promotes global citizenship is intrinsically linked to the idea of empowerment of all learners as proactive contributors to a more just, peaceful and sustainable society. Such education can be a vehicle for raising awareness, building knowledge, encouraging reflection and promoting universal values. Global citizens value cultural diversity and feels that they belong to a common humanity. They are able to take actions in their own communities and to contribute to global challenges such as peace building, respect for universal human rights, sustainable development, poverty eradication, good health and mutual respect among cultures and civilizations. Education that promotes global citizenship must be transformative, allowing learners to understand and reflect on injustice and inequality and to act on their reflections. This type of learning must open up democratic spaces within schools and make an active link from school to the community, to society and to the world. Global citizenship as a discipline Global citizenship as a discipline is still developing. As such, there exists a multiplicity of definitions of what exactly constitutes global citizenship (Bellamy, 2001; Falk, 1993; Medel-Añonuevo and Mitchell, 2003; UNESCO, 2013b). The literature espouses two schools of thought to define global citizenship. These are: cosmopolitan citizenship, which is based on rights; and communitarian citizenship, which argues that universal human rights exert only a limited claim on human attention (Bellamy, 2001). The reality of global citizenship is unavoidable but its form remains highly contested (Falk, 1993). According to UNESCO (2014), global citizenship refers to a sense of belonging to a broader community and common humanity. Global citizenship emphasizes political, economic, social and cultural interdependency and interconnectedness between the local, the national and the global. On the other hand, Noddings (2005) relates the idea of a global citizenship to peace, and to an individual who can live and work effectively anywhere in the world. Noddings further argues that peace education plays a vital role in promoting and supporting global citizenship. Weale (1991) describes the concept of global citizenship as “citizenship beyond borders”, or “citizenship beyond the nationstate”. Also, Bellamy (2001) has noted that “cosmopolitanism” as a term may be broader and more inclusive than global citizenship, while still others, for example, Andreotti (2006), opt for “planetary citizenship”, focusing on the global community’s responsibility to preserve the planet Earth. McIntosh (2005) refers to the global citizen as having habits of mind, heart, body, and soul that have to do with working for and preserving a network of relationships and connections across lines of difference and distinctness, while keeping and deepening a 14 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa sense of one’s own identity and integrity. Dunn (2002: 10) refers to “a citizenry that knows and cares about contemporary affairs in the whole world”. Global citizenship is expressive of the dynamics of economics, cultural and ecological integration that are carrying human experiences beyond its modernist phase of state/society relations. Davies (2006) argues that the concept of global citizenship is simply a metaphor, a “linguistic fancy” which deliberately transposes a national political reality to a wider world order. Despite differences in interpretation, there is a common understanding and consensus that global citizenship is an important component around the world: [Global citizenship] refers more to a sense of belonging to a broader community and common humanity, promoting a ‘global gaze’ that links the local to the global and the national to the international. It is also a way of understanding, acting and relating oneself to others and the environment in space and in time, based on universal values, through respect for diversity and pluralism. In this context, each individual’s life has implications in day-to-day decisions that connect the global with the local, and vice versa (UNESCO, 2014: 14). Armstrong (2006) argues that the global elements of global citizenship are much less common and transcendental. Consequently, he claims that the emerging global regime of citizenship should be treated with caution. Authors such as Dower (2003), Guadelli and Fernekes (2004:17), echo Armstrong’s views as they describe global citizenship as having a non-normative stance and point out the “complexity, transcendency and inchoate status of global citizenship”. According to Davies (2006) the following are key drivers of citizenship as a more active role in society: • Social justice; • Rights; • Culture, global links and global conflict; • Curriculum; and • Teachers’ practices. In agreement with Davis (2006) on some of the key drivers of citizenship, Held (1999) describes citizenship as primarily about the rights and obligations available to members of a state, but his description also includes the formal and informal relationships between individuals and the state. Linking human rights and global citizenship suggests that justice entails the equitable redistribution of both goods and burdens within society, engaging in processes of reciprocal recognition and the extension of authentic and inclusive processes of engagement. Also, as suggested by Abdi and Shultz (Shultz and Abdi, 2007 and Abdi and Shultz, 2008), any understanding of citizenship should 15 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa bring with it a concern about entitlements, exclusion, access and equity. Thus, it is argued, educating for global citizenship has its roots in justice (Medel-Añonuevo and Mitchell, 2003). It appears from the ongoing debates that global citizenship and social justice are linked with one another. In a call for transdisciplinarity, Baxi (2000) links global citizenship with human rights and citizenship accountability with new modes of knowledge, discourse and institutional frameworks. White and Openshaw (2005) highlight the difficulty of designing educational policy and practices around global citizenship and observe that rather than engage in the essential conflict inherent in citizenship education, educators and policymakers have tended to “soften citizenship” to make it into a politically neutral, if not banal, concept. Davies (2006) summarizes the problems for policymakers and educators when pointing out that an emphasis on rights is not a blueprint for action, but rather a means to address the issues that face the human community with justice as the end of such processes. Andreotti (2006) builds on Davis’ critique and locates current efforts to educate global citizens within the post-colonial predicament. While Andreotti prefers the term “planetary citizen” to global citizen, she shares an understanding with others that this citizenship, like many global issues, transcends national boundaries that can seem arbitrary in the light of issues such as climate change, food shortages, global health issues, forced migration, or increased trafficking of humans, guns and drugs. In order for global citizenship to be of service in improving the quality of life for all humans, Spivak (2004) proposes that the goals of education must be to learn to unlearn (for example, the colonial mentality), to learn to listen, to relearn with a global perspective and to learn to reach out and engage with those who we might consider “other”. Promoting global citizenship is a worthwhile goal of political science education for various reasons. Firstly, it places an emphasis on citizenship that articulates well with the outcomes-based learning models prevalent in higher education. Citizenship can be unpacked into a set of civic competencies and skills (such as the ability to locate empirically sound political information or to engage in a passionate yet informed conversation about a political issue). Secondly, emphasizing citizenship links political science education with a tradition of civic education that seeks ‘‘the cultivation of virtues, knowledge and skills necessary for political participation’’ (Gutmann, 1999: 287). Gutmann (1999) further identifies the following as the five barriers to global citizenship: • • • • Legacy of the current education system; Outmoded curricula and learning materials; Lack of teacher capacity; Inadequate focus on values; and 16 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa • Lack of leadership on global citizenship. Drawing from the various views presented above, global citizenship can thus be summarised to refer to: • • • • Individuals or groups (locally, regionally, nationally and globally) working together towards a common goal; A sense of belonging to a broader community and common humanity; Promoting a ‘global gaze’ that links the local to the global and the national to the international; An emphasis on political, economic, social and cultural interdependency and interconnectedness between the local, the national and the global. Importantly for this review of the understandings of GCED in Southern Africa, it is also appears possible for global citizenship to be described in terms of learning outcomes as a set of “civic competencies and skills”. Citizenship education and GCED In recent years the field of global education has had to adapt to a fast changing political, technological, academic and international landscape (Marshall, 2009). Davies, Evans and Reid (2005) suggest that citizenship education is directly linked to global education. According to Anderson (1979: Abstract) global education is defined as …consisting of efforts to bring about the changes in the content, in the methods, and in the social context of education in order to better prepare students for citizenship in a global age. Marshall (2009) further relates the idea of global education as an umbrella term covering a range of related educational traditions such as development education, world studies education and human rights education which advocate the greater integration of global issues and global social justice values into mainstream schooling. According to Osler and Vincent (2002: 2): Global [citizenship] education embraces the strategies, policies and plans that prepare young people and adults for living together in an interdependent world. It is based on the principles of co-operation, non-violence, respect for human rights and cultural diversity, democracy and tolerance. [Global education] is characterized by pedagogical approaches based on human rights and a concern for social justice which encourage critical thinking and responsible participation. Learners are encouraged to make links between local, regional and world-wide issues and to address inequality. 17 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa Whilst global citizenship remains highly contested and continues to elude precise definition, global citizenship education can be better understood by considering some key historical developments. The concept of global citizenship education has gained momentum in academic and various educational dialogues (Marshall, 2009; Rapoport, 2009; Schattle, 2008). However, considering that the concept of GCED is relatively new (Arthur, Davis and Hahn, 2008; Davies, 2006), citizenship education remains multifaceted, contested, dynamic and controversial, Consequently GCED can be placed within the broader framework of citizenship education due to the similarity of the rationale and variability of the models (Davis, Evans and Reid, 2005). Authors such as Abdi (2006), Baxi (2000), Klein (2004) and Abdi and Shultz ((Shultz and Abdi, 2007 and Abdi and Shultz, 2008), provide robust evidence that citizenship education can become neutralized and therefore weakened to the extent that it becomes not what people (individually and collectively) have a right to, but what is prescribed within the realm of the world system. Davies (2006) suggests that global citizenship education has developed out of the practice of global education which focused on international awareness through participatory learning and engaging in holistic learning activities. Furthermore, the latter argues that the inclusion of the concept of global citizenship education into citizenship reflects the shift towards a focus on human rights and responsibilities, implying a more active role that moves beyond an awareness of the issues. Authors such as Banks (2004), Davis, Evans and Reid (2005), Dunn (2002), Guadelli and Fernekes (2004) and Smith and Fairman (2005) all argue that GCED is usually conceptualized within the framework of international education, global education, multicultural education, peace education, human rights education and economic education. It therefore appears that any project of GCED should include a commitment to creating engaged civic and institutional platforms that are widely inclusive and include both structural and historical-cultural analysis. Citizenship education also has an element of civic knowledge, skills and values (Davies, Evans and Reid, 2005). Ahmad and Szpara (2005) argue that traditional citizenship education is inherently state centered because it over-emphasizes teaching and learning about government. However, out of the four levels of government (which include local, regional, national/federal and global/international), the major portion of the curriculum covers national/federal government. At the UNESCO General Conference of 2001 the members of the Conference unanimously passed a resolution (No. 39) affirming that: …the values of tolerance, universality, mutual understanding, respect for cultural diversity and the promotion of a culture of peace, which are central to UNESCO’s mission, have acquired new relevance for inspiring action by international organisations, States, civil society and individual citizens (Pigozzi 2006: 2). 18 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa According to Davies (2006) GCED is not an expanded version of local or national citizenship education. GCED is the logical development of a citizenship that is required for all citizens in the 21st century. It should help students to develop cultural, national, and global identifications; it also significantly contributes to civic democratic development (Banks, 2004). Towards identifying the key learner abilities associated with GCED The literature suggests that the ideology as well as the context in which GCED is conceived and defined varies across the globe. There are, however, some convergences, specifically with regard to the learner abilities associated with GCED. These abilities provide a useful reference point for the promotion and integration of GCED into education systems and, in the case of the current research, a useful point of departure for more work in this area in the Southern African region. The text below provides a summary of the key learner abilities identified to date. According to UNESCO (2014: 9) GCED promotes: attitudes based on an understanding of collective identity knowledge of global issues and universal values cognitive and non-cognitive skills, as well as behavioural capacities to find global solutions to global challenges. According to Tawil (2013, cited in UNESCO 2014: 15, emphasis added), GCED: …highlights essential functions of education related to the formation of citizenship [in relation] with globalization. It is a concern with the relevance of knowledge, skills and values for the participation of citizens in, and their contribution to, dimensions of societal development which are linked at local and global levels. It is directly related to the civic, social and political socialization function of education, and ultimately to the contribution of education in preparing children and young people to deal with the challenges of today’s increasingly interconnected and interdependent world. In the review on the use of level descriptors in the 21st century, Keevy and Chakroun (2015: 189, emphasis added) suggest a definition of GCED focusing specifically on competences: A distinct set of competences to act collaboratively and responsibly to find global solutions to global challenges, and to strive for the collective good. 19 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa Keevy and Chakroun (Ibid.) expand on this definition by suggesting that the following learner abilities be considered for GCED: Knowledge: a deep knowledge of global issues and universal values such as justice, equality, dignity and respect Competences: sense of belongingness to common humanity; respect for diversity; global empathy, sense of solidarity; and behavioural capacities to act collaboratively and responsibly to find global solutions to global challenges, and to strive for the collective good. Skirbekk et al (2013:8) further suggest the following learner abilities associated with GCED: Knowledge: knowledge about global challenges and problems; knowledge of languages; use of internet and modern ways of communications. Attitudes and values: global identity and openness; willingness to help others; acceptance of universal human rights, equality; sustainable development; antifatalistic attitudes Behaviours: involvement in civic activities; pro-environmental behaviours As a last example, UNESCO (www.unesco.org, accessed 10 December 2015) suggests that the following “skills” be developed through GCED: Cognitive, to acquire knowledge, understanding and critical thinking about global issues and the interconnectedness/interdependency of countries and different populations Socio-emotional, to have a sense of belonging to a common humanity, sharing values and responsibilities, demonstrating empathy, solidarity and respect for differences and diversity Behavioural, to act responsibly at local, national and global levels for a more peaceful and sustainable world Drawing on the literature presented in this section and locating this within the framework that focuses on learner abilities (such as those presented above), GCED can be defined as follows (drawing on Keevy and Chakroun, 2015 and Osler and Vincent, 2002): GCED is a pedagogical approach, based on human rights and a concern for social justice, which enables individuals to act collaboratively and responsibly to find global solutions to global challenges, and to strive for the collective good. 20 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa Re-categorizing the learner abilities associated with GCED according to the UNESCO (2015) approach suggests the delineation presented in the following table. This presentation will require further interrogation and empirical review, but is a useful point of departure before reviewing the country-specific approaches to GCED that is presented in the next section of this report. The categorization is open to further discussion and refinement. 21 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa Domain Description of domain Examples Knowledge Ability to recall and present information • global issues and universal values such as justice, equality, dignity and respect • global challenges and problems • languages • use of internet and modern ways of communication Learner abilities associated with Global Citizenship Education Skills Competences Ability to do Application of knowledge and skills in context • demonstrate knowledge, • actively contribute to civic activities understanding and critical thinking about global issues and • actively contribute to prothe interconnectedness and environmental behaviours interdependency of countries and different populations • understanding of collective identity • act collaboratively and responsibly to find global solutions to global challenges, and to strive for the collective good • act responsibly at local, national and global levels for a more peaceful and sustainable world Values Principles or standards of behaviour • • • • • • • • global identity and openness willingness to help others acceptance of universal human rights and equality commitment to sustainable development anti-fatalistic attitudes respect for diversity global empathy sense of solidarity (belongingness to common humanity) Table 1: Learner abilities associated with GCED (proposed framework for further discussion and elaboration) 22 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa SECTION 4: REVIEW OF POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES RELATING TO GCED IN SOUTHERN AFRICA Introduction This section of the report provides an overview of the available policies and programmes relating to GCED in nine countries located in Southern Africa. The information is drawn exclusively from a literature review that was conducted in December 2015. As might be expected, the available country-specific literature on GCED was found to be very limited and it is strongly recommended that this initial study, prepared as a basis for the regional meeting in early 2016, be supplemented from the direct engagement with the countries concerned. It must also be kept in mind that this literature review focuses strongly on the receiver level of GCED (Skirbekk et al, 2013), which broadly encapsulates learner abilities categorized according to different domains. For the purposes of this study, and drawing on UNESCO (2015) (see the previous section), these domains are: knowledge; skills; competences; and values. The need for more extensive research to cover the supplier and societal levels will be required as the process in Southern Africa unfolds. The particular research methodologies associated with each level will also have to be carefully chosen, as the limitations of the literature review were evident in this initial study. A brief overview of each country is presented, followed by an overview of the policies and programmes in the country that can be broadly related to GCED. Where available, the modalities used to integrate GCED in the education systems, as well as the monitoring of learning outcomes, are discussed. Likewise, the range of formal and nonformal programmes that contain elements of GCED, where available, have been included. The learner abilities associated with GCED, as identified in each of the countries, are also discussed. Overview of countries in the region The Southern African Development Community (SADC) is a Regional Economic Community comprising 15 Member States: Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The SADC was established in 1992 as the successor to Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC) which existed from 1982 (Southern African Development Community). For the purpose of this research, only nine member states are covered. Botswana Botswana is situated in the heart of Southern Africa and is bordered by South Africa to the South, Namibia to the South-West, Zambia to the North and Zimbabwe to the North23 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa East. Citizenship education in Botswana is influenced by national educational policies such as the Report on National Commission on Education (RNCE) and the Revised National Policy on Education (RNPE) (1994). The implementation of the policy Education for Kagisano brought a shift in the stance of the country’s educational system. Citizenship education was rolled out to colleges of education and schools through subjects such as Social Studies. In Botswana citizenship education is not taught as a separate curriculum subject but it is embedded within the social studies curriculum at primary level. However, since its introduction into the primary school curriculum in 1969, there have been doubts as to whether the subject is achieving its major goal of developing good citizens (Mhlauli 2011:166). According to the Botswana Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation (1990) education in Botswana, and with it citizenship education, has gone through three distinct phases. These are briefly explained below. i. During the first phase citizenship education was transmitted through traditional Tswana society. Elements of Tswana history, culture, values and beliefs were integrated into and embedded in the curriculum. ii. The second phase was the colonial period during which a Western education system was introduced, resulting in a significant change in the approach to citizenship education previously practiced by Tswana societies. In this regard Adeyemi (2000) points out that the key change was that the point of reference in formal education became “twisted towards Western values” which included individualism and Eurocentric interpretations of the world. Traditional Botswana history and culture were replaced with subjects such as Geography and the History of Western Civilization and Religion (Ibid.). iii. The third phase was brought about by Botswana’s gaining of independence which had a considerable impact on the education system. During this phase the Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation incorporated citizenship education into the formal education system in the subject Social Studies. The curriculum developed is relevant to the Botswana context and is also inclusive, covering experiences of traditional Tswana family, the nation at large, differing ethnic groups and cultures of other nations. It is evident that the new citizenship education in Botswana focuses on and aims to engage students in meaningful discussions. Importantly, it must be recognized that the citizenship education curriculum in Botswana now makes explicit reference to cross-cutting learner abilities at the receiver level of GCED, albeit with a more national focus: 24 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa Social Studies education transmits a set of knowledge, skills, values and attitudes necessary for effective citizenship. The body of knowledge, skills, values and attitudes which learners acquire through Social Studies promote their critical thinking, problem solving ability and effective decision making (Homana, Barber and Torney-Purta, 2006:8, cited in Oats, 2014: 5). In a 2007 study by Ajiboye, Dube, Mhlauli and Silo cited in Oats (2014) on the development of a civic education programme for Botswana primary schools, it was found that the current efforts towards citizenship education are not producing the desired results. Ajiboye et al (2007) suggest that a new approach be considered in line with Botswana’s long-term vision (Vision 2016) which aims to have effective and functional citizens by 2016. The authors recommend that citizenship education should be facilitated by an informal approach which makes use of civic clubs in schools. A study by Oats (2014) reviewed the responsiveness of Botswana’s Social Studies teacher training curriculum to citizenship education. This study argues that in order to effectively integrate citizenship education into the curriculum it is important to start with teachers as critical stakeholders in education. This study argues for an innovative curriculum which culminates in the production of well informed, responsible and active citizens in the affairs of their country propagated by a well-informed Social Studies teaching force. It is evident from the literature that the government of Botswana embraces the concept and practice of citizenship education within its education system, particularly in formal education. However, aspects of broader and international focused GCED were not evident from these sources. Although Social Studies featured strongly as one vehicle used to disseminate citizenship education in Botswana, the literature was too limited to identify the full range of formal and non-formal programmes that might contain elements of GCED. The learner abilities associated with GCED (in this case limited to citizenship education) receive some attention in Botswana. Lesotho Lesotho is a small, landlocked, mountainous country surrounded by the Republic of South Africa. It has an estimated population of about 2 million people, of which three quarters (76%) live in the rural areas and are poor (Government of Lesotho, 2008). As a developing nation, education is of national importance in Lesotho. Providing equitable basic education for all the people of Lesotho is one of the government’s key development goals (Government of Lesotho, 2004). of citizenship education evident in Lesotho is civic education. Gutmann (1987) suggests that although civic education is commonly provided in schools through formal settings, it can also occur in informal settings such as families, communities, libraries, churches, workplaces, civic 25 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa organisations, unions, sports teams, election campaigns and through the mass media. The literature suggests that in Lesotho civic education through informal learning takes place at public gatherings (pitso) which may be held in the chief’s courtyard (khotla) and, as is the case in several other African countries, the Lesotho government uses voter education in preparing for elections. Voter education is provided by the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC) which was established by the Constitution of Lesotho, Section 66, amended in 1997. The ICE derives its powers and functions from the Constitution and the National Assembly Electoral Act of 2011 (Government of Lesotho, 2011). Voter education is conducted by IEC voter educators at schools or by youth leaders around the country. There are different learning opportunities which the citizens of Lesotho are exposed to. This consists of either informal, non-formal or formal options, in order to learn about citizenship and democracy. One particular example of these learning opportunities is the work of IEC which prove training and learning opportunities to the people of Lesotho. This informal training is provided through different kinds of methods such as interactions during campaigns held by politicians in public gatherings; through question and answer sessions and the debates that are facilitated by IEC voter educators. This training is conducted at different schools or by youth leaders around the country. In summary, the available literature identified citizenship education in Lesotho as being non-formal civic education relating specifically to elections and voter education. As in the case of Botswana, aspects of broader and international focused GCED were not evident from the available sources. While no specific evidence of the integration of GCED into the education system was found in the literature, it is likely that aspects of GCED are integrated into the formal education system, but this would have to be verified through other methods. Learner abilities associated with GCED are not explicitly noted in the literature related to Lesotho, but are probably present and this should be further investigated. Malawi Malawi is located in southeast Africa and is surrounded by Zambia, Tanzania and Mozambique. Malawi, formerly known as Nyasaland, gained political independence from British rule in 1964. The nation lived under the British protectorate of Northern and Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland from about 1953. Nyasaland (now Malawi) was mainly a labour reserve that served the economic activities of mining in Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) and farming in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) (Divala, 2007: 33) Similarly to Lesotho, citizenship education in Malawi is described as “civic education” or “civics”. (Kasambara, 1998: 239). Education for citizenship is offered in primary schools known through Civics courses which are officially controlled and structured. 26 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa The four national pillars of Malawi provide the central themes of the Civics courses (Ibid.). Civics promotes knowledge of the national constitution, the responsibilities of a good citizen in relation to the party dictates and of the structural differences between local and central government. Civics is considered an ordinary subject in the national curriculum for primary schools in Malawi (Ibid.). According to Divala (2005: 85) the emphasis on citizenship education came to the fore in 1992 and is directly related to democratisation. The need for a new democratic citizenship and citizenship education in Malawi arose in 1992 when the system was changing from a single party system of government to a multi-party system. New forms of citizenship education erupted as a result of the campaign for democracy and a multiparty system of government. Divala (2007: 35) comments further that The multiparty general elections that were held in 1994 were preceded by a political wave that advocated a renewed sense of citizenship and democratic rights and freedom. In summary, the advent of citizenship education in Malawi relates specifically to the process of democratisation. As in the cases of both Botswana and Lesotho, aspects of broader and international focused GCED were not evident from the available sources. While the literature review did not uncover evidence of formal and non-formal programmes that contain elements of GCED, it is anticipated that such programmes may be revealed by other research methods. Learner abilities associated with GCED are also not explicitly noted in the literature related to Malawi. Mozambique Mozambique was a Portuguese colony for almost 500 years until gaining its political independence in 1975. The country is situated in the South-East of Africa and shares borders with Tanzania to the North, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe to the East, and Swaziland and South Africa to the South. It has about 800 000 km2 of territorial area. It is divided into eleven administrative regions called provinces, distributed across three main geographic regions (da Maia, 2014: 4). Da Maia (2014) argues that deliberative democratic citizenship education in schools is an ideal method of instruction to bring democratic values to Mozambican society. These values include deliberation, equality, freedom, inclusion, collaboration, reason, compassion, independence, respect and trust among citizens. According to da Maia, it is through democratic citizenship education that citizens learn to interact with all members of the community and to cooperate with each other and listen to and respect the ideas and opinions of others, even when they do not agree with them. However, 27 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa according to da Maia (2014), Mozambican education policies lack sufficient emphasis on and integration of democratic citizenship education into the curriculum. da Maia analysed education policies in Mozambique across three distinct periods: postindependence, post-civil war and the period of the Millennium Development Goals (da Maia, 2104: ii) and concluded that the policies are inadequate to cultivate democratic citizens in Mozambican society, particularly because they do not respond to the need to encourage deliberative democratic citizenship education in schools. For example, in the first period, citizens did not have an opportunity to deliberate and be autonomous citizens in the educative process. Everything was done by the government. In the second period, the government allowed the participation of other organisations, communities and institutions in the educative process, but there is no specification of how those citizens participated in the process of decision making. In the third period, the government became concerned about important aspects and values of democratic citizenship education that should be taught directly in schools. In this context, the government introduced Civic and Moral Education and themes to be discussed in the classroom, which potentially will enable citizens to be critical. In a similar manner to the countries described thus far, the prevalence of citizenship education in Mozambique is tied directly to key periods within the country. In the case of Mozambique the impact of the extended civil war is an important factor to consider. As with the other Southern African countries, the international focus associated with GCED was not evident from the available sources. The literature was also too limited to identify the full range of formal and non-formal programmes that contain elements of GCED, although Civic and Moral Education featured. The learner abilities associated with GCED were not explicitly found in the literature. The integration of democratic citizenship education into education policies is noted by at least one researcher as being too limited in Mozambique. Namibia The Republic of Namibia, formerly South-West Africa, is a country in Southern Africa that borders the Atlantic Ocean. Namibia shares borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south. Although Namibia does not share a border with Zimbabwe, the two countries are separated by a small stretch of the Zambezi River at their closest points. Namibia gained independence from South Africa in 1990, following the Namibian War of Independence. (Wikipedia contributors, "Namibia.") The Namibian Institute for Democracy (NID) takes the lead in providing civic education and training programmes which are based on the multiparty democracy principles enshrined in the Namibian constitution. Civic education is done in two ways: First, national mass media information programmes consult and involve traditional and 28 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa community leaders to produce materials using different indigenous languages. These materials are distributed through partnerships with civil society groups, government agencies and other interest groups. The programme is also broadcast nationally on radio and television. Secondly, personal contact programmes are provided that use the indigenous languages that are spoken in Namibia. The content covered includes good governance, human rights, labour issues, gender, and government and voter education (NID, 2015). Available literature related to forms of GCED in Namibia was limited to the summary above. As before, the international focus associated with GCED was not evident from the available sources. The literature, although limited, suggests ample non-formal programmes related to civic education. While not identified here, it is likely that aspects are also integrated into the school curriculum. Learner abilities associated with GCED were not explicitly found in the literature. South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded on the south by 2,798 kilometres of coastline stretching along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans, on the north by the neighbouring countries of Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe and on the east by Mozambique and Swaziland. South Africa surrounds the landlocked Kingdom of Lesotho. South Africa is the 25thlargest country in the world by land area and has a population of 53 million people. “The South African concept of “Ubuntu” (meaning humanity, we are human) and the closely related “Ubunye” (oneness, together as one) are embodied in the everyday language of South Africans and also in the Constitution of the country” (Ukpokodu, 2008: 15). Since the establishment of a democratic South Africa in 1994, all South African national education policies make explicit reference to democratic values enunciated in the country’s Constitution and Bill of Rights of 1996 (Waghid, 2004). Prior to 1994, citizenship education was “indirectly taught through History and programmes such as Youth Preparedness, Inkatha Studies and Right Living” (Schoeman, 2006: 130). The content of such programmes dealt with the structure of government, the electoral process and emblems of nationalism such as national holidays and leaders and historical figures (De Lange, Engelbrecht and Taunyane, 1989; Schoeman, 2006, South African Department of Education (DoE), 2001; Trümpelmann 1986). Post-1994, the new democratic society placed increased reliance on the knowledge, skills and virtues of its citizens. There was also an emphasis on the need for those elected to serve in public office to uphold the notion of free and democratic society (Institute for Democracy in Africa, 1999). The South African ruling party, the African Nation Congress (ANC), realised the importance of democratic citizenship to securing the newfound democracy and that education for democratic citizenship had to be taught to every future generation 29 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa (Schoeman, 2006). For this reason, citizenship education was included as an important issue in all national education policy documents such as Curriculum 2005 and the Revised National Curriculum Statement (DoE, 2002; DoE, 1997). The South African Department of Education (DoE) released a document entitled Values in Education: Programme of Action in 2002 (DoE, 2002b). The aim of this document was to secure commitment among teachers and learners to the values derived from the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Waghid, 2009). In his State of the Nation address to Parliament on 25 June 1999, the President of the Republic of South Africa identified education and training as a critical priority for meeting the broader challenge of creating a democratic and prosperous society (DoE, 1999). The South African government, through the DoE, initiated the Tirisano Project (Tirisano means ‘working together’) in 1999 as one of the driving force for fostering citizenship education in South Arica (Waghid, 2004). The purpose of Tirisano was to ensure that South Africa’s new outcomes-based education system would be successfully implemented in keeping with a spirit of democracy, respect for human rights, justice, equality, freedom, nation-building and reconciliation. In South Africa, the meaning of citizenship education has many nuances: Different uses of the term ‘citizenship’ have become embedded in educational discourses through the introduction of notions such as ‘‘democratic citizenship’’ (Gutmann and Thompson 1996; White 1999; Glass 2000), ‘‘active citizenship’’ (Walters 1999), ‘‘critical citizenship’’ (Ouane in Medel-An ̃onuevo and Mitchell 2003), and ‘‘reflexive and participative citizenship’’ (Keogh 2003). South African educational discourse has tended to fuse many of these aspects of citizenship in what has become known as its ‘‘Values, Education and Democracy’’ initiative. (Ibid.: 528). This initiative had three principal aspects (Ibid: 533): 1) promoting anti-racism through the teaching of a new history curriculum which requires that teachers be re-trained appropriately 2) integrating the performing arts and African languages into the curricula 3) incorporating civic education into the curricula with an emphasis on pupils’ engaging critically in inter-subjective discourse Hammett and Staeheli (2009) conducted a study in 12 schools in South Africa in which they examined the role of citizenship education in post-apartheid South Africa. Their research found that: …government officials, policy documents, and other educators and NGOs argued that citizenship education is an integrative subject that promotes important skills, values and knowledge (Ibid.: 5). 30 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa Specific findings cited by Hammett and Staeheli include that citizenship education is integrated into the curriculum to develop skills in critical thinking, communication, and reasoning and citizenship education …helps learners understand what democracy is, how international issues affect their communities, how to exercise their democratic rights, how to hold leaders accountable, and to overcome a sense of powerlessness in the face of global and local inequalities” (Ibid.). Several other important findings from Hammett and Staeheli’s study are presented in the cross-cutting observations at the end of this section as they are relevant to all the countries in this literature review. South Africa presents the widest range of relevant literature on citizenship education amongst the nine countries included in the current literature review. Due to time constraints, the summary presented here is limited to only the key findings. Citizenship education existed during the apartheid era, but was specifically aimed at promoting the racist agenda of the time. Post-apartheid, citizenship education reemerged as integral to all national education policy documents and schooling curricula and is broadly characterised by an emphasis on “values, education and democracy’’. Aspects of GCED, looking beyond the national imperatives, were found, but more research will be needed to unpack this in greater detail. Evidence of formal and nonformal programmes that contain elements of GCED could not be identified, but, as with the other case studies, GCED may very well be present. Learner abilities associated with citizenship education are reasonably well described, including the notion of critical cross-field outcomes (South African Qualifications Authority, 2008) developed to promote lifelong learning and critical thinkers. Swaziland Swaziland, officially the Kingdom of Swaziland, is a sovereign state in Southern Africa. It is neighboured by Mozambique to its east and by South Africa to its north, west and south. The country and its people take their names from Mswati II, the 19th-century king under whose rule Swazi territory was expanded and unified. At no more than 200 kilometres (120 mi) north to south and 130 kilometres (81 mi) east to west, Swaziland is one of the smallest countries in Africa. Despite its size, however, its climate and topography is diverse, ranging from a cool and mountainous high veld to a hot and dry low veld. The population is primarily ethnic Swazis whose language is siSwati. (International Business Publications, 2015: 12) The Imbokodvo National Movement advocated that throughout the primary and secondary school: 31 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa …civic education and history relating to Swaziland should be given emphasis and at higher levels of the education system, emphasis should be given to development studies relating to Swaziland. (Mazibuko, 2008: 138). However, not much has been done to promote civic education and Development Studies in Swaziland. What does feature strongly in current Swazi education policies is Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) (Swaziland Ministry of Education and Training, 2011: xi): Education for sustainable development (ESD) requires that nations and their peoples learn their way out of current social and environmental problems and learn to live sustainably. ESD aims to help people to develop the attitudes, skills and knowledge to make informed decisions for the benefit of themselves and others, now and in the future, and to act upon these decisions. The primary goal of ESD is to develop norms and values and change practices and lifestyles to ensure sustainable living. Thus ESD is an essential link in the poverty reduction, health, and environment protection chain. The notion of citizenship education in Swaziland, as in most of the other nations in Southern African, is still in its infancy. The limited literature on this topic to some extent supports this statement. Although citizenship education appears not to exist as in the form of formal education/learning, it is seen in civic education activities as is the case with other nations such as Malawi, Lesotho, Namibia and Zambia. Swaziland is, however, distinguished by the emphasis it places on ESD. While evidence of ESD was not found in the other countries as part of this literature review, a more targeted search may very well reveal more examples. Aspects of GCED looking beyond the national imperatives were not found, but it must be emphasised that the literature on Swaziland was very limited. Evidence of formal and non-formal programmes that contain elements of GCED could not be identified, but as with the other case studies, may be present. Learner abilities associated with citizenship education could not be identified. Zambia The Republic of Zambia is a landlocked country in Southern Africa, neighbouring the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Tanzania to the northeast, Malawi to the east, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia to the south, and Angola to the west. The capital city is Lusaka, in the south-central part of Zambia. The population is concentrated mainly around Lusaka in the south and the Copperbelt Province to the northwest. (Wikipedia contributors, "Zambia"). 32 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa In 1964 Zambia became independent of the United Kingdom. According to Abdi, Ellis and Shizha (2010) citizenship education in Zambia has an important role to play in elevating peoples’ understanding of their rights and responsibilities vis-à-vis government institutions, structures and functions. Eiseman (2004) asserts that in Zambia civic education is offered by non-governmental organisations (NGOs) with the aim of improving citizen participation in governance. From a Zambian perspective, this role of civil society is important to provide more reliable forms of democratic governance (Abdi et al, 2010: 456): Thus, in order to gain a more balanced perspective on the issues and problems faced by African states and civil societies in the quest for reliable platforms of development and, possibly, horizontally concretisable regimes of democratic governance, one may have to look beyond the borders of individual states, and focus on the transnational workings of global state economic governance institutions. According to Abdi, Ellis and Shiza (2005: 463), Zambian democracy does not currently meet the needs of its citizens. The authors propose more intensified projects of citizenship education that contribute to open and more inclusive discourses and practices of democracy that might lessen the prevailing political apathy: Zambia’s problems of political and continuing economic underdevelopment should be contextualised within the core of the expansively discussed and still prevailing institutional and related livelihood weaknesses that contemporary Sub-Saharan Africa has become well-known for. Literature relating to forms of GCED in Zambia was limited as can be seen from this summary. The existing literature was also found to be overly critical of the current regime in Zambia, and as such, should be balanced with a wider range of sources. Some signs of the desire for an increased international focus associated with GCED were evident. However, the literature was too limited to make any observations related to non-formal or formal programmes related to GCED and learner abilities associated with GCED were not explicitly found in the literature. Zimbabwe The Republic of Zimbabwe is a landlocked country located in southern Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers. It borders South Africa to the south, Botswana to the west, Zambia to the northwest, and Mozambique to the east. The capital and largest city is Harare. Since independence there have been efforts to introduce citizenship education into the school curriculum in Zimbabwe. However, it appears that these efforts have not een 33 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa successful. The first major attempt to advance citizenship education in Zimbabwe involved introducing the subject titled Political Economy of Zimbabwe into the secondary school curriculum at the Zimbabwe Junior Certificate (ZJC) level around 1985. However, the project attracted criticism from various stakeholders, particularly the church and opposition political parties (Mavhunga, Moyo and Chinyani, 2012). In 1998 the government of Zimbabwe established a Commission whose task was to inquire into and report on education and training in Zimbabwe (Nziramasanga, 1999). This report included a section (Chapter 17) on citizenship education and a discussion on the possibilities of underlying motives for the proposed introduction of citizenship education in Zimbabwe. The report also identified challenges prevalent in the Zimbabwean society, especially among young people: vandalism, lawlessness, violence, indiscipline, anti-social behaviour and lack of respect for authority. It was argued that citizenship education could address many of these challenges. The report described citizenship education in the Zimbabwean curriculum as being inadequate’ to foster citizenship in the country’ (Ibid: 350). It further proposed a citizenship education programme that is not explicit in the curriculum but included at the primary school level in subjects such as History and Geography and in Education for Living (a non-compulsory subject) at the secondary school level, covering topics such as rules and laws and wealth and money. The report argues, however, that citizenship education in Zimbabwe is marginalised and to a large extent is never taught (Ibid.). Subsequently, after inclusive public consultations, the recommendations made by the commission included, amongst others: Citizenship education should be compulsory and embedded in the curriculum at all levels primary, secondary and tertiary as a matter of urgency. Citizenship education be part of the non-formal education provided through media platforms such as radio and television All teachers to be trained on the notion and concept of citizenship education Citizenship education to be compulsory in all training and development programmes of educators in the education sector. (Ibid.: 354) In 2002, citizenship education in Zimbabwe appeared in the form of a compulsory subject called National and Strategic Studies offered at some tertiary education institutions, specifically polytechnics and teachers' colleges (Nyakudya, 2007). In 2007, eight years after the release of the commission’s report, a Civics Education syllabus was designed for implementation at the junior and middle secondary school levels. However, by 2011 this syllabus was still to be implemented (Sigauke, 2011). 34 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa There is no doubt that the Nziramasanga Report represents a key milestone in the integration of citizenship education in Zimbabwe. Within the limitations of this literature review it could not be confirmed to what extent the recommendations have been implemented, although there are some indications (see Sigauke 2011) that implementation has been less than favourable. The economic collapse of Zimbabwe in the 1990s and 2000s would also have had a very direct impact on the ability of the government to push ahead with such plans. The further withdrawal and/or expulsion of Zimbabwe from key international groupings such as the Commonwealth would undoubtedly also have impacted on the extent to which global considerations would have been integrated into the Zimbabwean education system as the need for the protection of the national identity was prioritised. As asserted in the report: There is a very serious and imminent danger of producing a disenchanted generation who are not loyal to our own nation but who favour foreign influences. The need for a national identity, image and patriotism is greater now than before. Without being xenophobic we need to encourage national pride and self-confidence in our people (Nziramasanga, 1999: 354). In conclusion, the literature on Zimbabwe suggests that citizenship education be strongly integrated into both non-formal and formal programmes, but, as indicated, it is not clear to what extent this has been occurred. Learner abilities associated with GCED were not explicitly found in the Zimbabwean literature, but considering the strong emphasis on integration it is anticipated learner abilities in relation to GCED could be revealed through further research. 35 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa SECTION 5: FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUDING COMMENTS Introduction The purpose of this research has been to provide UNESCO ROSA with a desktop review of existing applications, both explicit and implicit, and different understandings of GCED among nine UNESCO member states in Southern Africa ahead of the planning of the subregional meeting on GCED in the first quarter of 2016. The research design has been based on the complementarity between a focus on the competencies related to GCED (UNESCO, 2014) and a focus on learners’ abilities associated with GCED that can be described in terms of learning outcomes (UNESCO, 2015). This approach is broadly described as focusing on the “receiver” level of GCED (Skirbekk et al, 2013) and is therefore limited in its scope. The inclusion of case studies broadens the research to include aspects of the “supplier” and “societal” levels, but will require more expansive work to provide a more nuanced picture of the understandings and applications of GCED. More varied research methodologies will also be required. Findings and cross-cutting observations From the overview of different understandings of GCED and drawing on international literature, GCED is defined as: …a pedagogical approach, based on human rights and a concern for social justice, which enables individuals to act collaboratively and responsibly to find global solutions to global challenges, and to strive for the collective good. The learner abilities associated with the receiver level of GCED are categorized into four broad domains: Figure 3: Domains of learner abilities associated with GCED Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa 36 An initial attempt at listing the specific learner abilities according to the four domains is provided in Section 3 of this report. This table should be further developed as more information on the understandings of GCED in the nine countries is gathered. The regional workshop will provide a unique opportunity for countries to be involved in such a process. The overview of the available policies and programmes relating to GCED in the nine countries located in Southern Africa presented in this section provides a number of important cross-cutting observations that will be useful to further work in this area. These are recorded below. The first observation is that citizenship education is seen and understood in different ways across the countries and therefore its manifestation differs from nation to nation (also see Reinsenburg, 1992 in Heater, 2004). Examples include civic education, social studies, government and education for citizenship and even aspects of education for sustainable development (ESD). A more comprehensive literature review that targets these variations will provide a deeper understanding of the applications of GCED in the nine countries. Voter education and pro-democracy interventions feature very strongly as examples of non-formal education programmes through which citizenship education is implemented. Examples are found in Lesotho, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe and Namibia. The school curriculum is the most favoured formal programme through which citizenship education is integrated. Focused research into GCED in school curricula would reveal more details on the scope and nature of the inclusion. A related observation from the literature is that the majority of the countries included in this study have a national focus on citizenship education, with some global elements. The broader international focus associated with GCED was not evident, perhaps with the exception of South Africa. Here also, further work, including alternative methodologies, should be undertaken to confirm this observation. Importantly, it is observed that cross-cutting learner abilities contained in the receiver level of GCED, albeit more nationally focused, do appear in the countries, most notably in Botswana and South Africa. This notion of transversal competencies warrants further investigation as it provides an important “common currency” that is not limited to specific disciplines or geographical areas. Another strong observation is the important role of teachers as “critical stakeholders in education”. The literature widely recognises that the inclusion of teachers, through initial teacher education and continuing professional development, is necessary to integrate GCED in education systems and learning outcomes. 37 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa Two of the findings of the study by Hammett and Staeheli (2009), while limited to South African schools, are worthwhile to note here as these observations were also made in other studies reviewed for this literature study of GCED in the nine Southern African countries. The first finding is that citizenship is usually defined in abstract terms in policy documents and is generally focused on the qualities of a good citizen (2009: 5): Citizens are expected to take on the core values of the Constitution, with emphasis placed upon: ideals of tolerance, respect, and diversity; the promotion of human rights; and active citizens who work to address community problems, to overcome inequalities, and to promote anti-racism. Secondly, the key challenges in teaching citizenship education are important to consider and are common to many of the Southern African countries (Ibid.): • • • • • • • • • Some learners struggle to get to school every day Some learners are underfed In some schools, the majority of learners are believed to be HIV positive Material and resource constraints hinder all forms of teaching, particularly the outcomes based education approach Overcrowding of classrooms Shortages of teaching staff High costs of maintenance and upkeep of school property Lack of access to additional learning resources (computer facilities, school libraries, community libraries, media resources, safe study spaces outside of school hours) Shortages of textbooks and teaching materials. Hammett and Staeheli (2009) also found that teachers feel they lack the training and support to deliver citizenship education lessons. Teaching complex ideas (such as citizenship education) in a second language, more so in poor areas, is noted as a key challenge. The fact that teachers become ‘bound up in the life of their school and were unaware of what the conditions were like and what teaching practices were being used elsewhere’ (2009: 8) is also an important finding. Recommendations for future research and specifically for the regional workshop This literature review provides a useful point of departure for further research in the region and also internationally. It represents initial work in a relatively unexplored area in Southern Africa and does not claim to be representative of all understandings and applications of GCED. It is hoped that the research design, drawing on the complementarity between two recent UNESCO publications (UNESCO, 2014 and 2015), 38 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa is an important contribution to the field of GCED not only in Southern Africa, but also for wider international consumption. Some key areas that will require further research include the following (drawing in part on Hammett and Staeheli, 2009): • • • • • A review of government policies related to global citizenship and GCED. This source was included in the current literature review, but many such documents are not necessarily accessible through public and academic search engines and were therefore only partially included. A more dedicated process working directly with key government officials identified by UNESCO will be much more effective. A review of school textbooks and curriculum materials in key related subjects, such as history, life orientation and civic education will further provide important insights into the integration of GCED in policies and programmes. Interviews with key role players, including policy makers, organized labor, NGOs, education departments, schools, teachers and providers of higher education will add further depth to the analysis. The role of the teacher to facilitate the integration of GCED in the classroom requires a specific focus. A glossary of the key terms associated with GCED will be of value. This should be developed from numerous existing publications and terms available in the public domain. An important point to note here is that a literature review should be supplemented by a range of research approaches that are better suited to a context wherein academic publications are sparser and where many government documents are not necessarily available online. Key considerations specific to the regional workshop include the following: • • • Focused sessions to discuss each of the three Skirbekk levels would provide structure to the workshop. In this regard a specific session focusing on learner abilities could be very beneficial. This would provide a more concrete point of reference for participants and could also be assigned as preparatory work before the workshop is held. Depending on the number of participants, country-specific parallel working sessions during which the country representatives interrogate the findings of this report and suggest improvements could be beneficial. A cloud-based resource folder should be made available before, during and after the workshop. In this regard, JET is willing to contribute all the sources gathered during the literature review as a basis for this shared folder. 39 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa • • • Country representatives should be guided to bring exemplars of citizenship education to the workshop and/or upload these exemplars to the shared folder. An infographic that summarizes the main aspects of this research report will be helpful to participants to identify the range of exemplars that would be relevant. The glossary (proposed above) could be refined at the workshop and used as a reference for participants when they return to their countries. Concluding comments There is no doubt that GCED in its various guises is fast becoming an important and necessary component of education systems across the world. Southern African countries are no exception. The learner abilities (knowledge, skills, competences and values) required from country citizens to function in an increasingly globalized context have to be considered in both formal and non-formal programmes. Failure to do this will leave such countries isolated and their citizens disadvantaged. These learner abilities are not unique to Southern Africa, but should be contextualized to take the unique and diverse environment into account. This research represents a first step by UNESCO towards a more coordinated approach to support member states in Southern Africa to not only implement GCED, but to also contribute to the understanding of GCED on a global level. 40 Global Citizenship Education in Southern Africa REFERENCES AND ADDITIONAL SOURCES Abdi, A.A. 2006. African education and globalization: an introduction. In Abdi, A.A., Puplampu, K. & Dei. G. (Eds.) African education and globalization: critical perspectives. 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