Timeline of the gunpowder age

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Further information: History of gunpowder

This is a timeline of the history of gunpowder and related topics such as weapons, warfare, and industrial applications. The timeline covers the history of gunpowder from the first hints of its origin as a Taoist alchemical product in China until its replacement by smokeless powder in the late 19th century (from 1884 to the present day).

Pre-gunpowder formula[edit]

Major developments: Earliest stage of gunpowder development. Mentions of gunpowder ingredients and their uses in conjunction with each other.

Year Date Region Event
142 China A Taoist text known as the Cantong qi, or the Book of the Kinship of Three, by Wei Boyang, who lived in the Eastern Han dynasty, mentions a combination of three powders that fly and dance violently.[1][2]
318 China The ingredients of gunpowder are recorded in the Baopuzi, also known as The Master Who Embraces Simplicity, by Taoist philosopher Ge Hong, who lived in the Jin dynasty (266–420). It describes experiments to create gold with heated saltpeter, pine resin, and charcoal among other carbon materials, resulting in a purple powder and arsenic vapours.[3][4]
492 China Tao Hongjing, a Taoist alchemist, notes that saltpeter burns with a purple flame.[5]
756 China The Taoist Mao Kua reports in his Pinglongren (Recognition of the Recumbent Dragon) that by heating saltpeter, the yin of the air can be obtained, which combines with sulphur, carbon, and metals other than gold.[6]

9th century[edit]

Major developments: Earliest definite references to a gunpowder formula and awareness of its danger.

Year Date Region Event
808 China The Taoist priest Qing Xuzi mentions the gunpowder formula in his Taishang Shengzu Jindan Mijue, describing six parts sulfur to six parts saltpeter to one part birthwort herb.[7]
858 China The Taoist text Zhenyuan miaodao yaolüe (Classified Essentials of the Mysterious Way of the True Origin of Things) contains a warning on the dangers of gunpowder: "Some have heated together sulfur, realgar (arsenic disulphide), and saltpeter with honey; smoke [and flames] result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house burned down."[7]

10th century[edit]

Major developments: Gunpowder is utilized in Chinese warfare and an assortment of gunpowder weapons appear. Fire arrows utilizing gunpowder as an incendiary appear in the early 900s and possibly rocket arrows as well by the end of the century. The gunpowder slow match is used for igniting flame throwers. The ancestor of firearms, the fire lance, also appears, but its usage in the 10th century is uncertain and no textual evidence for it exists during this period.

Year Date Region Event
904 China Fire arrows utilizing gunpowder are used by Southern Wu troops during the siege of Yuzhang.[8][9]
919 China The gunpowder slow match appears in China (for igniting flamethrowers).[10]
950 China Fire lances appear in China.[11]
969 China Gunpowder propelled fire arrows, rocket arrows, are invented by Yue Yifang and Feng Jisheng.[12]
975 China The state of Wuyue sends a group of soldiers skilled in the use of fire arrows to the Song dynasty, which uses fire arrows and incendiary bombs in the same year to destroy the fleet of Southern Tang.[13]
994 China The Liao dynasty attacks the Song dynasty and lays siege to Zitong with 100,000 troops, but fails due to the defenders' use of fire arrows.[13]
1000 China Tang Fu demonstrates gunpowder pots and caltrops to the Song court and is rewarded.[14]
  • A flamethrower from the Wujing Zongyao, supposedly used the gunpowder slow match
    A flamethrower from the Wujing Zongyao, supposedly used the gunpowder slow match
  • An arrow strapped with gunpowder ready to be shot from a bow. From the Huolongjing
    An arrow strapped with gunpowder ready to be shot from a bow. From the Huolongjing
  • A fire arrow from the Wubei Zhi
    A fire arrow from the Wubei Zhi
  • Rocket arrows from the Huolongjing.
    Rocket arrows from the Huolongjing.
  • Depiction of fire arrows known as "divine engine arrows" (shen ji jian 神機箭) from the Wubei Zhi.
    Depiction of fire arrows known as "divine engine arrows" (shen ji jian 神機箭) from the Wubei Zhi.
  • Earliest known representation of a bomb and fire lance (upper right), Dunhuang, 950 AD.[15]
    Earliest known representation of a bomb and fire lance (upper right), Dunhuang, 950 AD.[15]

11th century[edit]

Major developments: The chemical formula for gunpowder is recorded in the Wujing Zongyao by 1044. Bombs appear in the early 11th century. Gunpowder becomes more common in the Song dynasty and production of gunpowder weapons is systematized. The Song court restricts trade of gunpowder ingredients with the Liao and Western Xia dynasties.

Year Date Region Event
1002 China Shi Pu demonstrates fireballs utilizing gunpowder to the Song court and blueprints are created for promulgation throughout the realm.[14]
1044 China The chemical formula for gunpowder appears in the military manual Wujing Zongyao, also known as the Complete Essentials for the Military Classics.[16][17]
China "Thunderclap bombs" are mentioned in the Wujing Zongyao.[18]
China A "triple-bed-crossbow" firing fire arrows is mentioned in the Wujing Zongyao.[19]
1067 China Private trade of gunpowder ingredients is banned in the Song dynasty.[20]
1075 Sinosphere Vietnam's Lý dynasty used fire arrows and against the Song dynasty during the Lý–Song War (1075–1077).[21]
1076 China Trade of gunpowder ingredients with the Liao and Western Xia dynasties is outlawed by the Song court.[14]
1083 China Three hundred thousand fire arrows are produced by the Song court and delivered to two garrisons.[14]

12th century[edit]

Major developments: Gunpowder fireworks are mentioned. Ships are equipped with trebuchets for hurling bombs. Earliest recorded usage of gunpowder artillery in ship to ship combat, first mention of the fire lance in battle, and the earliest possible depiction of a cannon appears.

Year Date Region Event
1110 China The Song army puts on a firework display for the emperor including a spectacle which opened with "a noise like thunder" and explosives that light up the night. Considered by some to be the first mention of gunpowder fireworks.[22]
1126 February China Jingkang Incident: Thunderclap bomb as well as fire arrows and fire bombs are used by Song troops during the siege of Kaifeng by the Jin dynasty (1115–1234).[23]
1127 December China "Molten metal bombs", suspected to contain gunpowder, are employed by Song troops when the Jin army returns with fire arrows and gunpowder bombs made by captured Song artisans. Kaifeng is taken.[24]
1128 China The earliest extant depiction of a cannon appears among the Dazu Rock Carvings, one of which is a human figure holding a gourd shaped hand cannon.[25]
1129 China Gunpowder weapons are applied to naval warfare as Song warships are outfitted with trebuchets and supplies of gunpowder bombs.[26]
1132 China Siege of De'an: Fire lances are used by Song troops.[27][28][29]
China Gunpowder is referred to specifically for its military applications for the first time and is known as "fire bomb medicine" rather than "fire medicine".[26]
China Firecrackers using gunpowder are mentioned for the first time.[30]
1159 China Fire arrows are employed by a Song fleet in sinking a Jin fleet off the shore of Shandong peninsula.[31]
1161 26–27 November China Battle of Caishi: Thunderclap bombs are employed by Song treadmill boats in sinking a Jin fleet on the Yangtze.[31]
1163 China Fire lances are attached to war carts, known as "at-your-desire-war-carts", for defending Song mobile trebuchets.[26]
  • A fire lance from the Huolongjing.
    A fire lance from the Huolongjing.
  • A double barreled fire lance from the Huolongjing. Supposedly they fired in succession, and the second one is lit automatically after the first barrel finishes firing.
    A double barreled fire lance from the Huolongjing. Supposedly they fired in succession, and the second one is lit automatically after the first barrel finishes firing.

13th century[edit]

Major developments: Bomb shells gain an iron casing. Fire lances are equipped with projectiles and reusable iron barrels. Rockets are used in warfare. "Fire emitting tubes" are produced in the Song dynasty by the mid-13th century and hand cannons are recorded to have been used in battle by the Yuan dynasty in 1287. The earliest extant cannons appear in China. The Mongols spread gunpowder weaponry to Japan, Southeast Asia, and possibly the Middle East as well as Europe. Europe and India both acquire gunpowder by the end of the century, but only in the Middle East are gunpowder weapons mentioned in any detail.

Year Date Region Event
1207 China Thunderclap bombs are employed by Song forces in a sneak attack on a Jin camp, killing 2000 men and 800 horses.[18]
1221 China Iron casing bombs are employed by Jin troops in the siege of Qi Prefecture (Hubei).[32]
1227 China The Wuwei Bronze Cannon, excavated in 1980, is dated to the Western Xia (1038–1227) period. It is currently the oldest possible extant cannon, however like the Heilongjiang hand cannon it contains no inscription and dating is based on contextual evidence.[33]
1230 China Co-viative projectiles are added to fire lances.[34]
1231 China "Thunder crash bombs" are employed by Jin troops in destroying a Mongol warship.[35]
1232 China Reusable fire lance barrels made of durable paper are employed by Jin troops during the Mongol siege of Kaifeng.[35]
China "Flying fire-lances" with re-usable barrels are used in the defense of Bianjing against Mongols. Some interpret these to be rockets.[36]
1237 China Large bombs requiring several hundred men to hurl using trebuchets are employed by Mongols in the siege of Anfeng (modern Shouxian, Anhui).[37]
1240 Middle East The Middle East acquires knowledge of gunpowder.[38]
1245 China Rockets are used during a military exercise conducted by the Song navy.[39]
1257 China Three hundred thirty-three "fire emitting tubes" are produced in a Song arsenal in Jiankang Prefecture (Nanjing, Jiangsu).[40][41]
1258 India In India, gunpowder is used in pyrotechnics.[42]
1259 China The History of Song describes a "fire-emitting lance" employing a pellet wad projectile which occludes the barrel. Some consider this to be the first bullet.[40][41]
China The city of Qingzhou produces one to two thousand iron cased bomb shells a month and sends them in deliveries of ten to twenty thousand at a time to Xiangyang and Yingzhou.[43]
1264 China A display of miniature rockets frightens the Song empress.[44]
1267 West In Europe gunpowder in the form of a firecracker is mentioned in textual sources by Roger Bacon, in his Opus Majus.[45][46]
1272 China Battle of Xiangyang: Fire lances are used by a Song riverine relief force to repel boarders.[47]
1276 China Reusable fire lance barrels made of metal are employed by the Song army.[48]
China Fire lances are used by Song cavalry in combating Mongols.[47]
1277 China A suicide bombing occurs in China when Song garrisons set off a large bomb, killing themselves.[49][50]
1280 China "Eruptors," cannons firing co-viative projectiles, are employed in the Yuan dynasty.[51]
China A major accidental explosion occurs in China when a Yuan gunpowder storehouse at Weiyang, Yangzhou catches fire and explodes, killing 100 guards and hurling building materials over 5 km away.[52]
Middle East The Middle East acquires fire lances and rockets.[53] Hasan al-Rammah writes, in Arabic, recipes for gunpowder, instructions for the purification of saltpeter, and descriptions of gunpowder incendiaries.[38] He also provides a description and illustration of the world's first torpedo.[54]
West Europe acquires the gunpowder formula.[55]
1281 Sinosphere Bombs are employed by Mongols in the Mongol invasions of Japan.[56]
1287 China Hand cannons are employed by the troops of Yuan Jurchen commander Li Ting in putting down a rebellion by Mongol prince Nayan.[57]
1288 China The Heilongjiang hand cannon is dated to this year based on contextual evidence and its proximity to the rebellion by Mongol prince Nayan, although it contains no inscription.[58][59]
1293 Southeast Asia Mongol troops of Yuan dynasty carried Chinese cannons to Java in 1293.[60]
1298 China The Xanadu Gun, the oldest confirmed extant hand cannon, is dated to this year based on its inscription and contextual evidence.[61]
1299 Middle East Fire lances are used in battles between the Mongols and Muslims[62]
1300 India In India Mongol mercenaries deploy fire arrows during a siege.[63]
  • The 'phalanx-charging fire-gourd' forgoes the spearhead and relies solely on the force of gunpowder and projectiles. From the Huolongjing.
    The 'phalanx-charging fire-gourd' forgoes the spearhead and relies solely on the force of gunpowder and projectiles. From the Huolongjing.
  • An illustration of a 'flying-cloud thunderclap-eruptor,' a cannon firing thunderclap bombs, from the Huolongjing.
    An illustration of a 'flying-cloud thunderclap-eruptor,' a cannon firing thunderclap bombs, from the Huolongjing.
  • A 'poison fog divine smoke eruptor' (du wu shen yan pao) as depicted in the Huolongjing. Small shells emitting poisonous smoke are fired.
    A 'poison fog divine smoke eruptor' (du wu shen yan pao) as depicted in the Huolongjing. Small shells emitting poisonous smoke are fired.
  • Cannon with trunnions, Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368)
    Cannon with trunnions, Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368)
  • Stone cannon balls unearthed in Shangdu, Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368)
    Stone cannon balls unearthed in Shangdu, Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368)
  • Yuan dynasty bombs, known in Japanese as Tetsuhau (iron bomb), or in Chinese as Zhentianlei (thunder crash bomb), dated to the Mongol invasions of Japan (1271–1284).
    Yuan dynasty bombs, known in Japanese as Tetsuhau (iron bomb), or in Chinese as Zhentianlei (thunder crash bomb), dated to the Mongol invasions of Japan (1271–1284).

14th century[edit]

Major developments: Chinese gunpowder weaponry continues to advance with the development of one-piece cast iron cannons, accompanying carriages, and the addition of land mines, naval mines and rocket launchers. Earliest recorded instance of volley fire with gunpowder weaponry, by the Ming dynasty. The rest of the world catches up quickly and most of Eurasia acquires gunpowder weapons by the second half of the 14th century. Cannon development in Europe progresses rapidly and by 1374, cannons in Europe are able to breach a city wall for the first time. Breech loading cannons appear in Europe.

Year Date Region Event
1307 West The Armenian monk Hetoum writes about a powerful weapon having been invented in China.[64]
1325 China Bronze "thousand-ball thunder-cannons" on four wheeled carriages appear in the Yuan dynasty.[65]
1326 West In Europe the depiction of a cannon appears.[66][67]
1330 West In Andalusia cannons are mentioned in textual sources.[68]
West Europe's oldest extant firearm, the Loshult gun, is dated to this year.[69]
1331 Iberia The Nasrid army besieging Elche makes use of "iron pellets shot with fire."[70]
1333 West Earliest extant cannon arrow projectile is dated to this year. Now kept in the Eltz Castle.[71]
1338 West An organ gun and three pounds of gunpowder are recorded to have been in the possession of a raiding party that sacked Southampton.[66]
1339 West The word "cannon", derived from the Greek kanun and Latin canna, meaning "tube," is used for the first time in Europe.[72]
West The word "gun" is used to describe a firearm in English for the first time.[72]
1340 China A "watermelon bomb" containing miniature rockets known as "ground rats" is employed by Liu Bowen against rebels and pirates in Zhejiang.[73]
1344 West Wooden cannons appear in Europe.[74]
1346 26 August West Battle of Crécy: Organ guns are used.[75]
West The term "bombard" is used to refer to guns of any kind.[76]
1350 China Cast iron technology becomes reliable enough to make one-piece iron cannons in China.[77]
China Flint and wheel mechanisms are employed in igniting land mines and naval mines in China.[78]
China In China organ guns appear.[79]
China Two wheeled gun carriages appear in China.[80]
India India acquires rockets.[81]
1352 Southeast Asia Cannons are mentioned to have been used by the Ayutthaya Kingdom in their invasion of the Khmer Empire[82]
1358 China Defending garrisons fire cannons en masse at the siege of Shaoxing and defeat a Ming army.[83]
1360 Middle East In the middle east metal-barrel guns start appearing in textual sources.[68]
Southeast Asia Gunpowder barrels aboard a Khmer ship explode.[82]
1363 30 August – 4 October China Battle of Lake Poyang: Cannons are used in ship combat and a new weapon called the "No Alternative" also appears. It consists of a reed mat bundled together with gunpowder and iron pellets hung on a pole from the foremast of a ship. When an enemy ship is within range, the fuse is lit, and the bundle falls onto the enemy ship spitting iron pellets and burning their men and sails.[84]
1364 West Breech loading cannons start appearing in Europe.[85]
1366 China Two thousand four hundred large and small cannons are deployed by the Ming army at the siege of Suzhou.[83]
India The Vijayanagara Empire acquires firearms.[86]
1368 China Crouching-tiger cannons are employed by the Ming army.[87]
1370 China Gunpowder is corned to strengthen the explosive power of land mines in the Ming dynasty.[88]
China Cannon projectiles transition from stone to iron ammunition in the Ming dynasty.[89]
1372 China Cannons made specifically for naval usage appear in the Ming dynasty.[90]
1373 West The term "hand gun", also known as handgonne, gunnies, vasam scolpi, pot, capita, and testes, appears in European texts for the first time.[91]
1374 Sinosphere Goryeo starts producing gunpowder.[92]
West Cannons breach a city wall for the first time in Europe.[64]
1375 West "Basilisk" cannons appear.[93]
West A 900 kg large-calibre gun is produced in Europe.[94]
Worldwide Flash pans are added to hand cannons.[95]
West European gunsmiths begin testing barrels for structural integrity, improving quality.[96]
1377 Sinosphere Goryeo starts producing cannons and rockets.[97][98]
1380 China "Wasp nest" rocket launchers are manufactured for the Ming army.[73]
24 June West Battle of Chioggia: In Europe rockets are used in battle.[99]
West Europeans develop the means to produce saltpeter for themselves.[74]
1382 West European sailing ships are equipped with cannons.[100]
3 May West Battle of Beverhoutsveld: The first military conflict in Europe where cannons play a decisive role.[101]
1388 China Ming–Mong Mao War: Volley fire is implemented with cannons by the Ming artillery corps in the anti-insurrection war waged against the Mong Mao.[102]
West Saltpeter plantations start appearing in Europe.[103]
1390 Southeast Asia Đại Việt soldiers kill the king of Champa, Che Bong Nga, using hand cannons.[104]
1396 West In Europe mounted knights start employing fire lances.[105]
1398 17 December India Delhi Sultanate uses bombs against Tamerlane.[106]
1399 West Germany's oldest extant firearm is dated to this year.[107]
  • A "nest of bees" (yi wo feng 一窩蜂) arrow rocket launcher as depicted in the Wubei Zhi.
    A "nest of bees" (yi wo feng 一窩蜂) arrow rocket launcher as depicted in the Wubei Zhi.
  • A 'divine bone dissolving fire oil bomb' (lan gu huo you shen pao) from the Huolongjing.
    A 'divine bone dissolving fire oil bomb' (lan gu huo you shen pao) from the Huolongjing.
  • A bronze "thousand ball thunder cannon" from the Huolongjing.
    A bronze "thousand ball thunder cannon" from the Huolongjing.
  • The 'self-tripped trespass land mine' (zi fan pao) from the Huolongjing.
    The 'self-tripped trespass land mine' (zi fan pao) from the Huolongjing.
  • Naval mine system known as the 'marine dragon-king' (shui di long wang pao) from the Huolongjing.
    Naval mine system known as the 'marine dragon-king' (shui di long wang pao) from the Huolongjing.
  • Oldest known European depiction of a firearm from De Nobilitatibus Sapientii Et Prudentiis Regum by Walter de Milemete (1326).
    Oldest known European depiction of a firearm from De Nobilitatibus Sapientii Et Prudentiis Regum by Walter de Milemete (1326).
  • Battle of Nicopolis 1398
    Battle of Nicopolis 1398

15th century[edit]

Major developments: Large-calibre artillery weighing several thousand kg are produced in Europe during the early 15th century and spread to the Ottoman Empire. Modifiable two wheeled gun carts known as limbers and caissons appear, greatly improving the mobility of artillery. The matchlock arquebus, the first firearm with a trigger mechanism, appears in Europe by 1475. Rifled barrels also appear in the late 15th century. The term musket is used for the first time in 1499. Rocket launchers are used in battle by the Ming dynasty and the Korean kingdom of Joseon develops a mobile rocket launcher vehicle called the hwacha. Chinese style bombs are used in Japan by 1468 at the latest.

Year Date Region Event
1400 West In Europe the gunpowder slow match appears.[108]
China Li Jinglong uses rocket launchers against the army of the Yongle Emperor.[73]
West Springalds are entirely replaced by gunpowder weapons[109]
1405 West Europe acquires bombs.[51]
1407 China Ironwood wadding is added to Ming cannons, increasing their effectiveness.[110]
1409 Sinosphere Battle carts armed with cannons firing iron fletched darts are produced in Joseon.[111]
1410 Sinosphere Joseon ships are equipped with cannons.[112]
West "Culverins" are mentioned for the first time.[93]
West "Saker" cannons appear.[93]
1411 West A "serpentine" lever is added to the stocks of hand cannons in Europe to hold matches. The resulting firearm, the hook gun, becomes known as the arquebus.[113]
1412 China Shells are used as ammunition in the Ming dynasty.[114]
1413 Sinosphere Joseon mortars capable of firing 500 meter iron shots and 600 meter stone shots are mentioned.[115]
Southeast Asia The customs of firing cannons and pole gun is mentioned as part of Javanese marriage ceremony.[116][117]: 245 
1415 Sinosphere 10,000 guns are deployed throughout Joseon[115]
1419 China During the Lantern Festival, the Ming imperial palace puts on a display of pyrotechnics involving rockets running along wires which light up lanterns, illuminating the palace.[99]
1420 West In Europe war wagons are used as mobile firearm platforms during the Hussite Wars.[31]
1420 Sinosphere Iron shot replaces stone as the standard ammunition in Joseon[115]
1421 Southeast Asia A Chinese pole cannon found in Java is dated from this year, bearing the name of Yongle Emperor.[118][119]
1425 West In Europe gunpowder corning is practiced.[120]
1429 China Mounted infantry carrying hand cannons are employed by the Ming army.[121]
1431 West A 12,000 kg wrought iron large-calibre gun capable of firing 300 kg projectiles, called Dulle Griet, is produced in Europe.[122]
West European cannon projectiles transition from stone to iron ammunition.[123]
1437 West In Europe shells are used as ammunition.[124]
West A master gunner in Europe is forced to make a pilgrimage to Rome after scaring his fellow soldiers, who accused him of satanic devilry, with an astounding rate of fire of three rounds in one day.[125]
1447 Sinosphere Sejong the Great of Joseon decrees that all fire-squads should carry standardized firearms.[126]
1450 West European walls become lower and thicker in response to cannons.[127]
West Trunnions appear in Europe.[128]
15 April West Battle of Formigny: Marks the rapid decline of the English longbow as they prove to be inferior to cannons in both range and rate of fire.[129]
1451 Sinosphere A type of multiple arrow rocket launcher known as the "Munjong Hwacha" is produced in Joseon.[130]
1453 West Modifiable two wheeled gun carts known as limbers appear, greatly improving cannon maneuverability and mobility.[131][128]
1456 India Malwa Sultanate uses cannons as siege weapons to demolish ramparts: In India cannons become widespread.[132][133]
1460 3 August West James II of Scotland is killed by one of his own guns, which exploded while he was standing close to it.[96]
West "Mortars" are mentioned for the first time.[93]
1464 Middle East A 16,800 kg cast bronze large-calibre gun known as the Great Turkish Bombard is created in the Ottoman Empire.[134]
1468 Sinosphere A Chinese "thunderbomb" made of paper and bamboo wrapping two pounds of gunpowder and iron filings is mentioned to have been in use in Japan; Chinese style bombs are used as trebuchet shots until at least 1500[132]
1470 West A shoulder stock is added to hand cannons in Europe.[91]
1471 Southeast Asia Cham–Annamese War: Lê dynasty troops use cannons to blast a breach in Vijaya's fortifications prior to capturing the city[135]
1472 India In India land mines appear; Bahmani Sultanate utilizes them in siege warfare.[136]
1475 West The matchlock mechanism is added to the arquebus, making it the first firearm with a trigger.[137]
1479 West A four layer artillery tower is built at Querfurth in Saxony.[138]
1480 West Guns reach their classic form in Europe.[139]
West "Falconets" are mentioned for the first time.[140]
West "Minion" cannons appear.[140]
1486 West European oar ships start carrying cannons.[141]
1488 West Henry VII of England's ships, the Regent and Sovereign, are among the first to carry enough cannons to deliver a 'ship killing' blow at a distance.[142]
1498 West Specialized hunting firearms with rifled barrels appear in Europe.[143]
1499 25 August West Battle of Zonchio: Breech-loading iron cannons are used in naval warfare.[144]
West The term musket or moschetto is used for the first time in Europe.[91]

16th century[edit]

Major developments: Matchlock firearms spread throughout Eurasia, reaching China and Japan by the mid-16th century. The volley fire technique is implemented using matchlock firearms by the Ottomans, Ming dynasty, and Dutch Republic by the end of the century. The arquebus is replaced by its heavier variant called the musket to combat heavily armoured troops. "Musket" becomes the dominant term for all shoulder arms fireweapons until the mid-19th century. The wheellock and flintlock trigger mechanisms are invented. Pistols and revolvers both appear during this period. Ottoman troops attach bayonets to their firearms. Both Europe and China develop handheld breech loading firearms. The star fort spreads across Europe in response to increasing effectiveness of siege artillery. The Ming dynasty uses gunpowder for hydraulic engineering.

Year Date Region Event
1500 India India acquires matchlocks.[145]
West The term "artillery" solidifies as a general term for cannons, their ammunition, support equipment, and operating personnel.[72]
1503 28 April West Battle of Cerignola: Marks the first military conflict where arquebusiers played a decisive role.[146]
1505 West The wheellock appears in Europe as an expensive alternative to the matchlock.[91]
1508 India India acquires Portuguese cannons.[147]
West The earliest extant rifles are dated to this year.[91]
1510 Sinosphere Japan acquires cannons.[148]
China Portuguese "Frankish" cannons are used on Guangdong's coastline by Chinese pirates.[149]
1515 West A man in (Germany) accidentally shoots a prostitute in the chin with a pistol. Considered to be the earliest recorded firearm accident.[150]
1516 Southeast Asia Đại Việt and Lê dynasty produce matchlocks.[151]
1521 West A larger arquebus capable of penetrating plate armor known as the musket appears in Europe.[152]
1523 China The Ming dynasty produces breech-loading swivel guns based on Portuguese designs.[149]
1526 21 April India Mughal Emperor Babur use firearms against Sultan Ibrahim Lodi, therefore winning the First Battle of Panipat.
29 August West Battle of Mohács: Volley fire is implemented with matchlocks by Ottoman Janissaries.[153]
1527 West "Ordnance" is used to describe artillery for the first time.[154]
1530 West The star fort becomes the dominant type of defensive structure in Italy.[155]
West Earliest dated "carbine" made in Augsburg.[91]
1533 China Composite metal cannons are produced in the Ming dynasty.[156][157][158]
1537 West Handheld breech-loading firearms start appearing in Europe.[159]
West Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia applies mathematical applications to artillery trajectories in his Nova Scientia.[160]
1540 West Cast iron cannons in Europe become reliable enough to arm sailing ships with two full broadsides.[161]
Southeast Asia In Southeast Asia matchlocks start seeing widespread use.[162]
West Cavalry in Europe start abandoning the lance and adopt the wheellock pistol.[163]
1541 China Gunpowder is used for hydraulic engineering in the Ming dynasty.[164]
1543 Sinosphere Japan acquires knowledge of matchlocks.[162]
1544 27 January Sinosphere In Japan Tanegashima Tokitaka employs matchlocks in the invasion of Yakushima.[165]
West Wooden cannons are used for the last time in Europe.[166]
West Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor attempts to standardize gun types.[167]
1545 India Gujarat experiments with composite metal cannons.[158]
West Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia invents the gunner's quadrant, an instrument which calculates trajectory.[160]
1548 China The Ming army starts fielding matchlocks.[168]
1550 West The large arquebus known as the musket becomes obsolete due to lack of armor, but continues as the most widely used term for similar firearms in Europe.[169]
West The snaphance flintlock mechanism appears in Europe.[170]
West The 'flask trail' carriage replaces solid stock trail carriages in Europe.[171]
1560 China Qi Jiguang publishes his Jixiao Xinshu describing the musket volley fire technique and his experience training the Ming army in its use.[172]
1561 China The Ming dynasty starts producing handheld breech-loading firearms.[173][174]
1563 Sinosphere Joseon starts producing breech-loading swivel guns.[175]
1568 West Calivers are mentioned for the first time in Europe.[91]
1573 West In Europe explosive mines are implemented by Samuel Zimmermann of Augsburg.[176]
1574 West In Europe designs for naval mines are completed.[177]
1575 28 June Sinosphere Battle of Nagashino: In Japan Oda Nobunaga's tanegashima troops employ volley fire.[162]
West Trigger guards start appearing on European firearms.[169]
1580 West Revolvers appear in Europe.[178]
1594 8 December West William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg describes the countermarch volley fire technique in a letter to his cousin Maurice, Prince of Orange, and starts training the Dutch army in volley fire.[179]
1598 China Ming cavalry experiments with firing a three-barreled matchlock before using it as a shield while they attack with a saber using their other hand.[180]
Middle East The first mention of a bayonet occurs in the Shenqipu describing a knife attached to an Ottoman musket.[181]
1600 Middle East Ottoman cavalry starts carrying pistols.[182]
West The term "howitzer" comes to refer to the weapon.[183]

17th century[edit]

Major developments: Bayonets spread across Eurasia. A paper cartridge is introduced by Gustavus Adolphus. Rifles are used for war by Denmark. A ship of the line carrying 60 to 120 cannons appears in Europe. Samuel Pepys' diary mentions a machine gun like pistol. The "true" flintlock replaces the snaphance flintlock in Europe by the end of the 17th century. Both China and Japan reject the flintlock and the Mughal Empire only uses it in limited quantities. Gunpowder is used for mining in Europe.

Year Date Region Event
1606 China Ming muskets are attached with plug bayonets.[184]
1607 Sinosphere Joseon musketeers are trained in the volley fire technique.[185]
1611 West Paper cartridges are introduced by Gustavus Adolphus.[186]
West Rifles are used in warfare by Denmark.[91]
1613 Sinosphere In Japan Date Masamune orders the construction of the Date Maru, a ship built in the style of a Spanish galleon, capable of carrying large cannons.[187]
1619 14–18 April Sinosphere Battle of Sarhu: Later Jin cavalry defeats Ming and Joseon musketeers.[188]
1620 China Ming foundries start producing Hongyipao.[156]
1627 West Gunpowder is used for mining in Europe.[189]
1629 West Holland experiments with composite metal cannons.[158]
1632 China Ming defensive planners build some star forts but they don't catch on in China.[190]
1633 China Ming dockyards start construction of multidecked broadside sailing ships capable of holding large cannons under the supervision of Zheng Zhilong.[191]
1635 China Telescopes are used for aiming artillery in the Ming dynasty.[192]
1636 Sinosphere The Dutch attempt to trade flintlock firearms with the Japanese but the new firing mechanism doesn't catch on in Japan.[78]
1637 Sinosphere Shimabara Rebellion: In Japan the last major military engagement involving muskets, before firearm suppression policies are enacted, is conducted against an uprising of peasant-farmers and landless samurai.[193]
1642 20 January China Li Zicheng's rebels manage to create a two zhang breach in Ming fortifications using cannons.[194]
1643 26 July West Storming of Bristol: In Europe fire lances are used for the last time.[195]
1650 West Ship of the line carrying 60 to 120 cannons in broadside batteries appear in Europe.[196]
1662 3 July West Samuel Pepys' diary mentions a mechanic who claimed to be able to make a machine-gun like pistol.[197][198]
1671 West European forces attach bayonets to their firearms.[181]
1680 West The snaphance goes out of fashion in favor of the "true" flintlock in Europe.[169]
1694 India India acquires flintlocks; Mughal Empire uses them in limited quantities.[199]

18th century[edit]

Major developments: Flintlocks completely displace matchlock firearms in Europe both on land and at sea. Sir William Congreve, 1st Baronet discovers "cylinder powder", gunpowder produced using charcoal in iron cylinders, which is twice as powerful as traditional gunpowder and less likely to spoil. He also invents block trail carriages, the most advanced artillery transport of the time. James Puckle invents a breechloader flintlock capable of firing 63 shots in seven minutes. The Kingdom of Mysore deploys iron cased rockets known as Mysorean rockets.

Year Date Region Event
1702 West In Europe telescopes are used to aid in the aiming of artillery.[200]
1715 West Jean Maritz introduces the horizontal drilling technique for casting cannons, increasing their reliability and accuracy while reducing the amount of metal needed for the barrel.[201]
1718 West James Puckle invents the Puckle gun, a breech loading flintlock with a revolving set of chambers capable of firing 63 shots in seven minutes.[198]
1720 West France establishes Europe's first national artillery school.[202]
1725 West Flintlock firearms completely displace matchlocks in Europe.[170]
1742 West Benjamin Robins invents the ballistic pendulum, which provides the first way to accurately measure the velocity of a bullet.[203]
1750 Worldwide Firearms overtake the composite bow in cost, ease of use, range, and rate of fire, making mounted horse archers completely obsolete.[204]
West A detent is added to flintlocks to prevent the sear from catching in the half-cock notch.[91]
1755 West Naval guns are outfitted with flintlocks[205]
1759 West "Carronades" appear.[206]
1770 West A roller bearing is added to flintlocks to reduce friction and produce more sparks.[91]
1780 West A waterproof pan is added to flintlocks.[91]
1783 West Sir William Congreve, 1st Baronet improves gunpowder production by constructing dedicated testing ranges, new saltpeter refineries, and special proving houses. He also discovers "cylinder powder", gunpowder produced using charcoal sealed in iron cylinders, which is twice as powerful as traditional gunpowder and less likely to spoil, giving British gunpowder a reputation as best in the world.[207]
1790 West England begins fielding block trail carriages, invented by Sir William Congreve, 1st Baronet, the most advanced artillery transport of the time.[208]
1799 22 April India Iron-cased Mysorean rockets are deployed by the Kingdom of Mysore against the East India Company.[209]

19th century[edit]

Major developments: Sir William Congreve, 2nd Baronet develops the Congreve rockets based on Mysorean rockets and British forces successfully deploy them against Copenhagen. Joshua Shaw invents percussion caps which replace the flintlock trigger mechanism. Claude-Étienne Minié invents the Minié ball, making rifles a viable military firearm, ending the era of smoothbore muskets. Subsequently rifles are deployed in the Crimean War with resounding success. Benjamin Tyler Henry invents the Henry rifle, the first reliable repeating rifle. Richard Jordan Gatling invents the Gatling gun, capable of firing 200 cartridges in a minute. Hiram Maxim invents the Maxim gun, the first single-barreled machine gun. Both China and Europe start using cast iron molds for casting cannons. Alfred Nobel invents dynamite, the first stable explosive stronger than gunpowder. Smokeless powder is invented and replaces the traditional "black powder" in Europe by the end of the century.

Year Date Region Event
1803 West England starts producing shrapnel shells.[210]
1804 West Sir William Congreve, 2nd Baronet starts experimenting extensively with rockets based on Mysorean rockets.[209]
1805 West Congreve rockets are produced in Britain.[211]
1807 West British forces successfully deploy 40,000 rockets and ignite devastating fires in Copenhagen[212]
1812 West Jean Samuel Pauly invents a cartridge containing a primer, making it the first self-contained cartridge.[213]
West Joseph Manton patents the gravitating lock, which prevents muzzle loaders from accidentally firing while the muzzle is held upward.[91]
1815 West Joshua Shaw invents percussion caps.[214]
1820 West British guns are manufactured with bouched vents.[215]
1825 West The percussion cap mechanism starts replacing flintlocks in Europe.[216]
1829 West Rocket programs in continental Europe fizzle out as poor performance lead to their rejection until the 20th century.[217]
1830 West The percussion cap becomes the most widely accepted firing mechanism in Europe.[214]
1831 West William Bickford invents the safety fuse.[218]
1835 West Casimir Lefaucheux invents the first practical breech loading firearm with a cartridge.[219]
1836 West Johann Nicolaus von Dreyse invents the Dreyse needle gun, a breech loading rifle, increasing the rate of fire to six times that of muzzle loading weapons.[219]
1837 West Edward Alfred Cowper uses gunpowder explosions as railway fog-signals to alert the locomotive crew of danger.[220]
1841 China Wei Yuan recommends the incorporation of flintlock firearms into the Qing army but matchlocks continue to be used.[216]
1845 China Gong Zhenlin invents cast iron molds for the casting of iron cannons.[192]
1849 West Claude-Étienne Minié invents the Minié ball and makes the rifle a viable military firearm, ending the smoothbore musket era.[221]
1854 West Rifles are deployed during the Crimean War with resounding success, proving to be vastly superior to smoothbore muskets.[221]
West Volcanic Repeating Arms produces a rifle with a self-contained cartridge.[213]
1855 West The Elswick Ordnance Company starts producing the Armstrong Gun.[157]
West Edward Boxer uses rockets for throwing life-lines to shipwrecked sailors.[220]
1860 West Benjamin Tyler Henry invents the Henry rifle, the first reliable repeating rifle.[222]
1861 West Richard Jordan Gatling invents the Gatling gun, capable of firing 200 gunpowder cartridges in a minute.[223]
1862 China The Qing dynasty starts production of percussion caps for rifles.[224]
China Li Xiucheng of the Taiping army equips his army with foreign rifles.[78]
1863 West Alfred Nobel invents dynamite, the first stable explosive stronger than gunpowder.[218]
1864 China Li Hongzhang of the Qing dynasty equips his army with 15,000 foreign rifles.[78]
1873 West Winchester Repeating Arms Company introduces the Model 1873 Winchester rifle.[222]
West In Europe cast iron molds are utilized in casting cannons.[192]
1877 20 July – 10 December West Siege of Plevna: The first time metallic cartridge repeating rifles have a large impact in battle.[222]
1880 West Smokeless powder is invented and starts replacing gunpowder, also known as black powder.[225]
1884 West Hiram Maxim invents the Maxim gun, the first single-barreled machine gun.[223]
1886 West A safer and more stable form of smokeless powder is invented in France.[223]
1890 West European countries transition to smokeless powder, which is referred to as "gunpowder", whereas the old mixture is known as "black powder".[226]

20th century[edit]

Major developments: Smokeless powder replaces traditional "black powder" across the globe, ending the gunpowder age.

Year Date Region Event
1902 Worldwide Smokeless powder is adopted nearly everywhere in the world and "black powder" is relegated to hobbyist usage. So ends the Gunpowder Age.[225]

See also[edit]

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